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[ [ "Microeconomics" ], [ "Introduction", "Microeconomics analyzes the market mechanisms that enable buyers and sellers to establish relative prices among goods and services.", "Shown is a marketplace in Delhi.", "'''Microeconomics''' is a branch of economics that studies the behavior of individuals and firms in making decisions regarding the allocation of scarce resources and the interactions among these individuals and firms.", "Microeconomics focuses on the study of individual markets, sectors, or industries as opposed to the national economy as a whole, which is studied in macroeconomics.One goal of microeconomics is to analyze the market mechanisms that establish relative prices among goods and services and allocate limited resources among alternative uses.", "Microeconomics shows conditions under which free markets lead to desirable allocations.", "It also analyzes market failure, where markets fail to produce efficient results.While microeconomics focuses on firms and individuals, macroeconomics focuses on the sum total of economic activity, dealing with the issues of growth, inflation, and unemployment—and with national policies relating to these issues.", "Microeconomics also deals with the effects of economic policies (such as changing taxation levels) on microeconomic behavior and thus on the aforementioned aspects of the economy.", "Particularly in the wake of the Lucas critique, much of modern macroeconomic theories has been built upon microfoundations—i.e., based upon basic assumptions about micro-level behavior." ], [ "Assumptions and definitions", "Microeconomic study historically has been performed according to general equilibrium theory, developed by Léon Walras in ''Elements of Pure Economics'' (1874) and partial equilibrium theory, introduced by Alfred Marshall in ''Principles of Economics'' (1890).Microeconomic theory typically begins with the study of a single rational and utility maximizing individual.", "To economists, rationality means an individual possesses stable preferences that are both complete and transitive.", "The technical assumption that preference relations are continuous is needed to ensure the existence of a utility function.", "Although microeconomic theory can continue without this assumption, it would make comparative statics impossible since there is no guarantee that the resulting utility function would be differentiable.Microeconomic theory progresses by defining a competitive budget set which is a subset of the consumption set.", "It is at this point that economists make the technical assumption that preferences are locally non-satiated.", "Without the assumption of LNS (local non-satiation) there is no 100% guarantee but there would be a rational rise in individual utility.", "With the necessary tools and assumptions in place the utility maximization problem (UMP) is developed.The utility maximization problem is the heart of consumer theory.", "The utility maximization problem attempts to explain the action axiom by imposing rationality axioms on consumer preferences and then mathematically modeling and analyzing the consequences.", "The utility maximization problem serves not only as the mathematical foundation of consumer theory but as a metaphysical explanation of it as well.", "That is, the utility maximization problem is used by economists to not only explain ''what'' or ''how'' individuals make choices but ''why'' individuals make choices as well.The utility maximization problem is a constrained optimization problem in which an individual seeks to maximize utility subject to a budget constraint.", "Economists use the extreme value theorem to guarantee that a solution to the utility maximization problem exists.", "That is, since the budget constraint is both bounded and closed, a solution to the utility maximization problem exists.", "Economists call the solution to the utility maximization problem a Walrasian demand function or correspondence.", "The utility maximization problem has so far been developed by taking consumer tastes (i.e.", "consumer utility) as the primitive.", "However, an alternative way to develop microeconomic theory is by taking consumer choice as the primitive.", "This model of microeconomic theory is referred to as revealed preference theory.The supply and demand model describes how prices vary as a result of a balance between product availability at each price (supply) and the desires of those with purchasing power at each price (demand).", "The graph depicts a right-shift in demand from D1 to D2 along with the consequent increase in price and quantity required to reach a new market-clearing equilibrium point on the supply curve (S).The theory of supply and demand usually assumes that markets are perfectly competitive.", "This implies that there are many buyers and sellers in the market and none of them have the capacity to significantly influence prices of goods and services.", "In many real-life transactions, the assumption fails because some individual buyers or sellers have the ability to influence prices.", "Quite often, a sophisticated analysis is required to understand the demand-supply equation of a good model.", "However, the theory works well in situations meeting these assumptions.Mainstream economics does not assume ''a priori'' that markets are preferable to other forms of social organization.", "In fact, much analysis is devoted to cases where market failures lead to resource allocation that is suboptimal and creates deadweight loss.", "A classic example of suboptimal resource allocation is that of a public good.", "In such cases, economists may attempt to find policies that avoid waste, either directly by government control, indirectly by regulation that induces market participants to act in a manner consistent with optimal welfare, or by creating \"missing markets\" to enable efficient trading where none had previously existed.This is studied in the field of collective action and public choice theory.", "\"Optimal welfare\" usually takes on a Paretian norm, which is a mathematical application of the Kaldor–Hicks method.", "This can diverge from the Utilitarian goal of maximizing utility because it does not consider the distribution of goods between people.", "Market failure in positive economics (microeconomics) is limited in implications without mixing the belief of the economist and their theory.The demand for various commodities by individuals is generally thought of as the outcome of a utility-maximizing process, with each individual trying to maximize their own utility under a budget constraint and a given consumption set.=== Allocation of scarce resources ===Individuals and firms need to allocate limited resources to ensure all '''agents''' in the economy are well off.", "Firms decide which goods and services to produce considering low costs involving labour, materials and capital as well as potential profit margins.", "Consumers choose the good and services they want that will maximize their happiness taking into account their limited wealth.The government can make these allocation decisions or they can be independently made by the consumers and firms.", "For example, in the former Soviet Union, the government played a part in informing car manufacturers which cars to produce and which consumers will gain access to a car." ], [ "History", "Economists commonly consider themselves microeconomists or macroeconomists.", "The difference between microeconomics and macroeconomics likely was introduced in 1933 by the Norwegian economist Ragnar Frisch, the co-recipient of the first Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 1969.However, Frisch did not actually use the word \"microeconomics\", instead drawing distinctions between \"micro-dynamic\" and \"macro-dynamic\" analysis in a way similar to how the words \"microeconomics\" and \"macroeconomics\" are used today.", "The first known use of the term \"microeconomics\" in a published article was from Pieter de Wolff in 1941, who broadened the term \"micro-dynamics\" into \"microeconomics\"." ], [ "Microeconomic theory", "=== Consumer demand theory ===Consumer demand theory relates preferences for the consumption of both goods and services to the consumption expenditures; ultimately, this relationship between preferences and consumption expenditures is used to relate preferences to consumer demand curves.", "The link between personal preferences, consumption and the demand curve is one of the most closely studied relations in economics.", "It is a way of analyzing how consumers may achieve equilibrium between preferences and expenditures by maximizing utility subject to consumer budget constraints.=== Production theory ===Production theory is the study of production, or the economic process of converting inputs into outputs.", "Production uses resources to create a good or service that is suitable for use, gift-giving in a gift economy, or exchange in a market economy.", "This can include manufacturing, storing, shipping, and packaging.", "Some economists define production broadly as all economic activity other than consumption.", "They see every commercial activity other than the final purchase as some form of production.=== Cost-of-production theory of value ===The cost-of-production theory of value states that the price of an object or condition is determined by the sum of the cost of the resources that went into making it.", "The cost can comprise any of the factors of production (including labor, capital, or land) and taxation.", "Technology can be viewed either as a form of fixed capital (e.g.", "an industrial plant) or circulating capital (e.g.", "intermediate goods).In the mathematical model for the cost of production, the short-run total cost is equal to fixed cost plus total variable cost.", "The fixed cost refers to the cost that is incurred regardless of how much the firm produces.", "The variable cost is a function of the quantity of an object being produced.", "The cost function can be used to characterize production through the duality theory in economics, developed mainly by Ronald Shephard (1953, 1970) and other scholars (Sickles & Zelenyuk, 2019, ch.", "2).=== Fixed and variable costs ===* Fixed cost (FC) – This cost does not change with output.", "It includes business expenses such as rent, salaries and utility bills.", "* Variable cost (VC) – This cost changes as output changes.", "This includes raw materials, delivery costs and production supplies.", "Over a short time period (few months), most costs are fixed costs as the firm will have to pay for salaries, contracted shipment and materials used to produce various goods.", "Over a longer time period (2-3 years), costs can become variable.", "Firms can decide to reduce output, purchase fewer materials and even sell some machinery.", "Over 10 years, most costs become variable as workers can be laid off or new machinery can be bought to replace the old machinery Sunk Costs – This is a fixed cost that has already been incurred and cannot be recovered.", "An example of this can be in R&D development like in the pharmaceutical industry.", "Hundreds of millions of dollars are spent to achieve new drug breakthroughs but this is challenging as its increasingly harder to find new breakthroughs and meet tighter regulation standards.", "Thus many projects are written off leading to losses of millions of dollars === Opportunity cost ===Opportunity cost is closely related to the idea of time constraints.", "One can do only one thing at a time, which means that, inevitably, one is always giving up other things.", "The opportunity cost of any activity is the value of the next-best alternative thing one may have done instead.", "Opportunity cost depends only on the value of the next-best alternative.", "It does not matter whether one has five alternatives or 5,000.Opportunity costs can tell when ''not'' to do something as well as when to do something.", "For example, one may like waffles, but like chocolate even more.", "If someone offers only waffles, one would take it.", "But if offered waffles or chocolate, one would take the chocolate.", "The opportunity cost of eating waffles is sacrificing the chance to eat chocolate.", "Because the cost of not eating the chocolate is higher than the benefits of eating the waffles, it makes no sense to choose waffles.", "Of course, if one chooses chocolate, they are still faced with the opportunity cost of giving up having waffles.", "But one is willing to do that because the waffle's opportunity cost is lower than the benefits of the chocolate.", "Opportunity costs are unavoidable constraints on behaviour because one has to decide what's best and give up the next-best alternative.=== Price theory ===Microeconomics is also known as price theory to highlight the significance of prices in relation to buyer and sellers as these agents determine prices due to their individual actions.", "Price theory is a field of economics that uses the supply and demand framework to explain and predict human behavior.", "It is associated with the Chicago School of Economics.", "Price theory studies competitive equilibrium in markets to yield testable hypotheses that can be rejected.Price theory is not the same as microeconomics.", "Strategic behavior, such as the interactions among sellers in a market where they are few, is a significant part of microeconomics but is not emphasized in price theory.", "Price theorists focus on competition believing it to be a reasonable description of most markets that leaves room to study additional aspects of tastes and technology.", "As a result, price theory tends to use less game theory than microeconomics does.Price theory focuses on how agents respond to prices, but its framework can be applied to a wide variety of socioeconomic issues that might not seem to involve prices at first glance.", "Price theorists have influenced several other fields including developing public choice theory and law and economics.", "Price theory has been applied to issues previously thought of as outside the purview of economics such as criminal justice, marriage, and addiction." ], [ "Microeconomic models", "=== Supply and demand ===Supply and demand is an economic model of price determination in a perfectly competitive market.", "It concludes that in a perfectly competitive market with no externalities, per unit taxes, or price controls, the unit price for a particular good is the price at which the quantity demanded by consumers equals the quantity supplied by producers.", "This price results in a stable economic equilibrium.The alt=A graph depicting Quantity on the X-axis and Price on the Y-axisPrices and quantities have been described as the most directly observable attributes of goods produced and exchanged in a market economy.", "The theory of supply and demand is an organizing principle for explaining how prices coordinate the amounts produced and consumed.", "In microeconomics, it applies to price and output determination for a market with perfect competition, which includes the condition of no buyers or sellers large enough to have price-setting power.For a given market of a commodity, demand is the relation of the quantity that all buyers would be prepared to purchase at each unit price of the good.", "Demand is often represented by a table or a graph showing price and quantity demanded (as in the figure).", "Demand theory describes individual consumers as rationally choosing the most preferred quantity of each good, given income, prices, tastes, etc.", "A term for this is \"constrained utility maximization\" (with income and wealth as the constraints on demand).", "Here, utility refers to the hypothesized relation of each individual consumer for ranking different commodity bundles as more or less preferred.The law of demand states that, in general, price and quantity demanded in a given market are inversely related.", "That is, the higher the price of a product, the less of it people would be prepared to buy (other things unchanged).", "As the price of a commodity falls, consumers move toward it from relatively more expensive goods (the substitution effect).", "In addition, purchasing power from the price decline increases ability to buy (the income effect).", "Other factors can change demand; for example an increase in income will shift the demand curve for a normal good outward relative to the origin, as in the figure.", "All determinants are predominantly taken as constant factors of demand and supply.", "''Supply'' is the relation between the price of a good and the quantity available for sale at that price.", "It may be represented as a table or graph relating price and quantity supplied.", "Producers, for example business firms, are hypothesized to be ''profit maximizers'', meaning that they attempt to produce and supply the amount of goods that will bring them the highest profit.", "Supply is typically represented as a function relating price and quantity, if other factors are unchanged.That is, the higher the price at which the good can be sold, the more of it producers will supply, as in the figure.", "The higher price makes it profitable to increase production.", "Just as on the demand side, the position of the supply can shift, say from a change in the price of a productive input or a technical improvement.", "The \"Law of Supply\" states that, in general, a rise in price leads to an expansion in supply and a fall in price leads to a contraction in supply.", "Here as well, the determinants of supply, such as price of substitutes, cost of production, technology applied and various factors of inputs of production are all taken to be constant for a specific time period of evaluation of supply.Market equilibrium occurs where quantity supplied equals quantity demanded, the intersection of the supply and demand curves in the figure above.", "At a price below equilibrium, there is a shortage of quantity supplied compared to quantity demanded.", "This is posited to bid the price up.", "At a price above equilibrium, there is a surplus of quantity supplied compared to quantity demanded.", "This pushes the price down.", "The model of supply and demand predicts that for given supply and demand curves, price and quantity will stabilize at the price that makes quantity supplied equal to quantity demanded.", "Similarly, demand-and-supply theory predicts a new price-quantity combination from a shift in demand (as to the figure), or in supply.For a given quantity of a consumer good, the point on the demand curve indicates the value, or marginal utility, to consumers for that unit.", "It measures what the consumer would be prepared to pay for that unit.", "The corresponding point on the supply curve measures marginal cost, the increase in total cost to the supplier for the corresponding unit of the good.", "The price in equilibrium is determined by supply and demand.", "In a perfectly competitive market, supply and demand equate marginal cost and marginal utility at equilibrium.On the supply side of the market, some factors of production are described as (relatively) ''variable'' in the short run, which affects the cost of changing output levels.", "Their usage rates can be changed easily, such as electrical power, raw-material inputs, and over-time and temp work.", "Other inputs are relatively ''fixed'', such as plant and equipment and key personnel.", "In the long run, all inputs may be adjusted by management.", "These distinctions translate to differences in the elasticity (responsiveness) of the supply curve in the short and long runs and corresponding differences in the price-quantity change from a shift on the supply or demand side of the market.Marginalist theory, such as above, describes the consumers as attempting to reach most-preferred positions, subject to income and wealth constraints while producers attempt to maximize profits subject to their own constraints, including demand for goods produced, technology, and the price of inputs.", "For the consumer, that point comes where marginal utility of a good, net of price, reaches zero, leaving no net gain from further consumption increases.", "Analogously, the producer compares marginal revenue (identical to price for the perfect competitor) against the marginal cost of a good, with ''marginal profit'' the difference.", "At the point where marginal profit reaches zero, further increases in production of the good stop.", "For movement to market equilibrium and for changes in equilibrium, price and quantity also change \"at the margin\": more-or-less of something, rather than necessarily all-or-nothing.Other applications of demand and supply include the distribution of income among the factors of production, including labour and capital, through factor markets.", "In a competitive labour market for example the quantity of labour employed and the price of labour (the wage rate) depends on the demand for labour (from employers for production) and supply of labour (from potential workers).", "Labour economics examines the interaction of workers and employers through such markets to explain patterns and changes of wages and other labour income, labour mobility, and (un)employment, productivity through human capital, and related public-policy issues.", "•    • Demand-and-supply analysis is used to explain the behaviour of perfectly competitive markets, but as a standard of comparison it can be extended to any type of market.", "It can also be generalized to explain variables across the economy, for example, total output (estimated as real GDP) and the general price level, as studied in macroeconomics.", "Tracing the qualitative and quantitative effects of variables that change supply and demand, whether in the short or long run, is a standard exercise in applied economics.", "Economic theory may also specify conditions such that supply and demand through the market is an efficient mechanism for allocating resources." ], [ "Market structure", "Market structure refers to features of a market, including the number of firms in the market, the distribution of market shares between them, product uniformity across firms, how easy it is for firms to enter and exit the market, and forms of competition in the market.", "A market structure can have several types of interacting market systems.", "Different forms of markets are a feature of capitalism and market socialism, with advocates of state socialism often criticizing markets and aiming to substitute or replace markets with varying degrees of government-directed economic planning.", "Competition acts as a regulatory mechanism for market systems, with government providing regulations where the market cannot be expected to regulate itself.", "Regulations help to mitigate negative externalities of goods and services when the private equilibrium of the market does not match the social equilibrium.", "One example of this is with regards to building codes, which if absent in a purely competition regulated market system, might result in several horrific injuries or deaths to be required before companies would begin improving structural safety, as consumers may at first not be as concerned or aware of safety issues to begin putting pressure on companies to provide them, and companies would be motivated not to provide proper safety features due to how it would cut into their profits.The concept of \"market type\" is different from the concept of \"market structure\".", "Nevertheless, there are a variety of types of markets.The different market structures produce cost curves based on the type of structure present.", "The different curves are developed based on the costs of production, specifically the graph contains marginal cost, average total cost, average variable cost, average fixed cost, and marginal revenue, which is sometimes equal to the demand, average revenue, and price in a price-taking firm.=== Perfect competition ===Perfect competition is a situation in which numerous small firms producing identical products compete against each other in a given industry.", "Perfect competition leads to firms producing the socially optimal output level at the minimum possible cost per unit.", "Firms in perfect competition are \"price takers\" (they do not have enough market power to profitably increase the price of their goods or services).", "A good example would be that of digital marketplaces, such as eBay, on which many different sellers sell similar products to many different buyers.", "Consumers in a perfect competitive market have perfect knowledge about the products that are being sold in this market.=== Imperfect competition ===Imperfect competition is a type of market structure showing some but not all features of competitive markets.", "In perfect competition, market power is not achievable due to a high level of producers causing high levels of competition.", "Therefore, prices are brought down to a marginal cost level.", "In a monopoly, market power is achieved by one firm leading to prices being higher than the marginal cost level.", "Between these two types of markets are firms that are neither perfectly competitive or monopolistic.", "Firms such as Pepsi and Coke and Sony, Nintendo and Microsoft dominate the cola and video game industry respectively.", "These firms are in '''imperfect competition''' === Monopolistic competition ===Monopolistic competition is a situation in which many firms with slightly different products compete.", "Production costs are above what may be achieved by perfectly competitive firms, but society benefits from the product differentiation.", "Examples of industries with market structures similar to monopolistic competition include restaurants, cereal, clothing, shoes, and service industries in large cities.=== Monopoly ===A monopoly is a market structure in which a market or industry is dominated by a single supplier of a particular good or service.", "Because monopolies have no competition, they tend to sell goods and services at a higher price and produce below the socially optimal output level.", "However, not all monopolies are a bad thing, especially in industries where multiple firms would result in more costs than benefits (i.e.", "natural monopolies).", "* Natural monopoly: A monopoly in an industry where one producer can produce output at a lower cost than many small producers.=== Oligopoly ===An oligopoly is a market structure in which a market or industry is dominated by a small number of firms (oligopolists).", "Oligopolies can create the incentive for firms to engage in collusion and form cartels that reduce competition leading to higher prices for consumers and less overall market output.", "Alternatively, oligopolies can be fiercely competitive and engage in flamboyant advertising campaigns.", "* Duopoly: A special case of an oligopoly, with only two firms.", "Game theory can elucidate behavior in duopolies and oligopolies.=== Monopsony ===A monopsony is a market where there is only one buyer and many sellers.=== Bilateral monopoly ===A bilateral monopoly is a market consisting of both a monopoly (a single seller) and a monopsony (a single buyer).=== Oligopsony ===An oligopsony is a market where there are a few buyers and many sellers." ], [ "Game theory", "Game theory is a major method used in mathematical economics and business for modeling competing behaviors of interacting agents.", "The term \"game\" here implies the study of any strategic interaction between people.", "Applications include a wide array of economic phenomena and approaches, such as auctions, bargaining, mergers & acquisitions pricing, fair division, duopolies, oligopolies, social network formation, agent-based computational economics, general equilibrium, mechanism design, and voting systems, and across such broad areas as experimental economics, behavioral economics, information economics, industrial organization, and political economy." ], [ "Information economics", "Information economics is a branch of microeconomic theory that studies how information and information systems affect an economy and economic decisions.", "Information has special characteristics.", "It is easy to create but hard to trust.", "It is easy to spread but hard to control.", "It influences many decisions.", "These special characteristics (as compared with other types of goods) complicate many standard economic theories.", "• Kenneth J. Arrow, 1999.", "\"Information and the Organization of Industry,\" ch.", "1, in Graciela Chichilnisky ''Markets, Information, and Uncertainty.''", "Cambridge University Press, pp.", "20–21.• _____, 1996.", "\"The Economics of Information: An Exposition,\" ''Empirica'', 23(2), pp.", "119–128.• _____, 1984.", "''Collected Papers of Kenneth J. Arrow'', v. 4, ''The Economics of Information''.", "Description and chapter-preview links.", "• Jean-Jacques Laffont, 1989.", "''The Economics of Uncertainty and Information'', MIT Press.", "Description and chapter-preview links.", "The economics of information has recently become of great interest to many - possibly due to the rise of information-based companies inside the technology industry.", "From a game theory approach, the usual constraints that agents have complete information can be loosened to further examine the consequences of having incomplete information.", "This gives rise to many results which are applicable to real life situations.", "For example, if one does loosen this assumption, then it is possible to scrutinize the actions of agents in situations of uncertainty.", "It is also possible to more fully understand the impacts – both positive and negative – of agents seeking out or acquiring information." ], [ "Applied", "United States Capitol Building: meeting place of the United States Congress, where many tax laws are passed, which directly impact economic welfare.", "This is studied in the subject of public economics.Applied microeconomics includes a range of specialized areas of study, many of which draw on methods from other fields.", "* Economic history examines the evolution of the economy and economic institutions, using methods and techniques from the fields of economics, history, geography, sociology, psychology, and political science.", "* Education economics examines the organization of education provision and its implication for efficiency and equity, including the effects of education on productivity.", "* Financial economics examines topics such as the structure of optimal portfolios, the rate of return to capital, econometric analysis of security returns, and corporate financial behavior.", "* Health economics examines the organization of health care systems, including the role of the health care workforce and health insurance programs.", "* Industrial organization examines topics such as the entry and exit of firms, innovation, and the role of trademarks.", "* Law and economics applies microeconomic principles to the selection and enforcement of competing legal regimes and their relative efficiencies.", "* Political economy examines the role of political institutions in determining policy outcomes.", "* Public economics examines the design of government tax and expenditure policies and economic effects of these policies (e.g., social insurance programs).", "* Urban economics, which examines the challenges faced by cities, such as sprawl, air and water pollution, traffic congestion, and poverty, draws on the fields of urban geography and sociology.", "* Labor economics examines primarily labor markets, but comprises a large range of public policy issues such as immigration, minimum wages, or inequality." ], [ "See also", "* Economics* First-order approach* Macroeconomics* Critique of political economy" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * Bouman, John: Principles of Microeconomics – free fully comprehensive Principles of Microeconomics and Macroeconomics texts.", "Columbia, Maryland, 2011* Colander, David.", "''Microeconomics.''", "McGraw-Hill Paperback, 7th ed.", ": 2008.", "* * Eaton, B. Curtis; Eaton, Diane F.; and Douglas W. Allen.", "''Microeconomics''.", "Prentice Hall, 5th ed.", ": 2002.", "* Frank, Robert H.; ''Microeconomics and Behavior''.", "McGraw-Hill/Irwin, 6th ed.", ": 2006.", "* Friedman, Milton.", "''Price Theory.''", "Aldine Transaction: 1976* Hagendorf, Klaus: Labour Values and the Theory of the Firm.", "Part I: The Competitive Firm.", "Paris: EURODOS; 2009.", "* * Hicks, John R. ''Value and Capital''.", "Clarendon Press.", "1939 1946, 2nd ed.", "* Hirshleifer, Jack., Glazer, Amihai, and Hirshleifer, David, ''Price theory and applications: Decisions, markets, and information.''", "Cambridge University Press, 7th ed.", ": 2005.", "* Jaffe, Sonia; Minton, Robert; Mulligan, Casey B.; and Murphy, Kevin M.: Chicago Price Theory.", "Princeton University Press, 2019* Jehle, Geoffrey A.; and Philip J. Reny.", "''Advanced Microeconomic Theory.''", "Addison Wesley Paperback, 2nd ed.", ": 2000.", "* Katz, Michael L.; and Harvey S. Rosen.", "''Microeconomics''.", "McGraw-Hill/Irwin, 3rd ed.", ": 1997.", "* Kreps, David M. ''A Course in Microeconomic Theory''.", "Princeton University Press: 1990* Landsburg, Steven.", "''Price Theory and Applications''.", "South-Western College Pub, 5th ed.", ": 2001.", "* Mankiw, N. Gregory.", "''Principles of Microeconomics''.", "South-Western Pub, 2nd ed.", ": 2000.", "* Mas-Colell, Andreu; Whinston, Michael D.; and Jerry R. Green.", "''Microeconomic Theory''.", "Oxford University Press, US: 1995.", "* McGuigan, James R.; Moyer, R. Charles; and Frederick H. Harris.", "''Managerial Economics: Applications, Strategy and Tactics''.", "South-Western Educational Publishing, 9th ed.", ": 2001.", "* Nicholson, Walter.", "''Microeconomic Theory: Basic Principles and Extensions.''", "South-Western College Pub, 8th ed.", ": 2001.", "* Perloff, Jeffrey M. ''Microeconomics''.", "Pearson – Addison Wesley, 4th ed.", ": 2007.", "* Perloff, Jeffrey M. ''Microeconomics: Theory and Applications with Calculus''.", "Pearson – Addison Wesley, 1st ed.", ": 2007* Pindyck, Robert S.; and Daniel L.", "Rubinfeld.''", "Microeconomics.''", "Prentice Hall, 7th ed.", ": 2008.", "* Ruffin, Roy J.; and Paul R. Gregory.", "''Principles of Microeconomics''.", "Addison Wesley, 7th ed.", ": 2000.", "* Varian, Hal R. (1987).", "\"microeconomics,\" ''The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics'', v. 3, pp. 461–463.", "* Varian, Hal R. ''Intermediate Microeconomics: A Modern Approach''.", "W. W. Norton & Company, 8th ed.", ": 2009.", "* Varian, Hal R. ''Microeconomic Analysis''.", "W.W. Norton & Company, 3rd ed.", ": 1992.", "*The economic times (2023).", "What is Microeconomics.", "https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/definition/microeconomics." ], [ "External links", "* X-Lab: A Collaborative Micro-Economics and Social Sciences Research Laboratory* Simulations in Microeconomics * A brief history of microeconomics" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Macroeconomics" ], [ "Introduction", "(Production and national income) Macroeconomics takes a big-picture view of the entire economy, including examining the roles of, and relationships between, firms, households and governments, and the different types of markets, such as the financial market and the labour market'''Macroeconomics''' is a branch of economics that deals with the performance, structure, behavior, and decision-making of an economy as a whole.", "This includes regional, national, and global economies.", "Macroeconomists study topics such as output/GDP (gross domestic product) and national income, unemployment (including unemployment rates), price indices and inflation, consumption, saving, investment, energy, international trade, and international finance.Macroeconomics and microeconomics are the two most general fields in economics.", "The focus of macroeconomics is often on a country (or larger entities like the whole world) and how its markets interact to produce large-scale phenomena that economists refer to as aggregate variables.", "In microeconomics the focus of analysis is often a single market, such as whether changes in supply or demand are to blame for price increases in the oil and automotive sectors.", "From introductory classes in \"principles of economics\" through doctoral studies, the macro/micro divide is institutionalized in the field of economics.", "Most economists identify as either macro- or micro-economists.Macroeconomics is traditionally divided into topics along different time frames: the analysis of short-term fluctuations over the business cycle, the determination of structural levels of variables like inflation and unemployment in the medium (i.e.", "unaffected by short-term deviations) term, and the study of long-term economic growth.", "It also studies the consequences of policies targeted at mitigating fluctuations like fiscal or monetary policy, using taxation and government expenditure or interest rates, respectively, and of policies that can affect living standards in the long term, e.g.", "by affecting growth rates.Macroeconomics as a separate field of research and study is generally recognized to start in 1936, when John Maynard Keynes published his ''The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money'', but its intellectual predecessors are much older.", "Since World War II, various macroeconomic schools of thought like Keynesians, monetarists, new classical and new Keynesian economists have made contributions to the development of the macroeconomic research mainstream." ], [ "Basic macroeconomic concepts", "Macroeconomics encompasses a variety of concepts and variables, but above all the three central macroeconomic variables are output, unemployment, and inflation.", "Besides, the time horizon varies for different types of macroeconomic topics, and this distinction is crucial for many research and policy debates.", "A further important dimension is that of an economy's openness, economic theory distinguishing sharply between closed economies and open economies.Circulation in macroeconomics===Time frame===It is usual to distinguish between three time horizons in macroeconomics, each having its own focus on e.g.", "the determination of output:* the short run (e.g.", "a few years): Focus is on business cycle fluctuations and changes in aggregate demand which often drive them.", "Stabilization policies like monetary policy or fiscal policy are relevant in this time frame* the medium run (e.g.", "a decade): Over the medium run, the economy tends to an output level determined by supply factors like the capital stock, the technology level and the labor force, and unemployment tends to revert to its structural (or \"natural\") level.", "These factors move slowly, so that it is a reasonable approximation to take them as given in a medium-term time scale, though labour market policies and competition policy are instruments that may influence the economy's structures and hence also the medium-run equilibrium* the long run (e.g.", "a couple of decades or more): On this time scale, emphasis is on the determinants of long-run economic growth like accumulation of human and physical capital, technological innovations and demographic changes.", "Potential policies to influence these developments are education reforms, incentives to change saving rates or to increase R&D activities.===Output and income===National output is the total amount of everything a country produces in a given period of time.", "Everything that is produced and sold generates an equal amount of income.", "The total net output of the economy is usually measured as gross domestic product (GDP).", "Adding net factor incomes from abroad to GDP produces gross national income (GNI), which measures total income of all residents in the economy.", "In most countries, the difference between GDP and GNI are modest so that GDP can approximately be treated as total income of all the inhabitants as well, but in some countries, e.g.", "countries with very large net foreign assets (or debt), the difference may be considerable.", "Economists interested in long-run increases in output study economic growth.", "Advances in technology, accumulation of machinery and other capital, and better education and human capital, are all factors that lead to increased economic output over time.", "However, output does not always increase consistently over time.", "Business cycles can cause short-term drops in output called recessions.", "Economists look for macroeconomic policies that prevent economies from slipping into either recessions or overheating and that lead to higher productivity levels and standards of living.===Unemployment===A chart using US data showing the relationship between economic growth and unemployment expressed by Okun's law.", "The relationship demonstrates cyclical unemployment.", "High short-run GDP growth leads to a lower unemployment rate.The amount of unemployment in an economy is measured by the unemployment rate, i.e.", "the percentage of persons in the labor force who do not have a job, but who are actively looking for one.", "People who are retired, pursuing education, or discouraged from seeking work by a lack of job prospects are not part of the labor force and consequently not counted as unemployed, either.", "Unemployment has a short-run cyclical component which depends on the business cycle, and a more permanent structural component, which can be loosely thought of as the average unemployment rate in an economy over extended periods, and which is often termed the natural or structural rate of unemployment.Cyclical unemployment occurs when growth stagnates.", "Okun's law represents the empirical relationship between unemployment and short-run GDP growth.", "The original version of Okun's law states that a 3% increase in output would lead to a 1% decrease in unemployment.The structural or natural rate of unemployment is the level of unemployment that will occur in a medium-run equilibrium, i.e.", "a situation with a cyclical unemployment rate of zero.", "There may be several reasons why there is some positive unemployment level even in a cyclically neutral situation, which all have their foundation in some kind of market failure:* Search unemployment (also called frictional unemployment) occurs when workers and firms are heterogeneous and there is imperfect information, generally causing a time-consuming search and matching process when filling a job vacancy in a firm, during which the prospective worker will often be unemployed.", "Sectoral shifts and other reasons for a changed demand from firms for workers with particular skills and characteristics, which occur continually in a changing economy, may also cause more search unemployment because of increased mismatch.", "* Efficiency wage models are labor market models in which firms choose not to lower wages to the level where supply equals demand because the lower wages would lower employees' efficiency levels* Trade unions, which are important actors in the labor market in some countries, may exercise market power in order to keep wages over the market-clearing level for the benefice of their members even at the cost of some unemployment* Legal minimum wages may prevent the wage from falling to a market-clearing level, causing unemployment among low-skilled (and low-paid) workers.", "In the case of employers having some monopsony power, however, employment effects may have the opposite sign.===Inflation and deflation===Changes in the ten-year moving averages of price level and growth in money supply (using the measure of M2, the supply of hard currency and money held in most types of bank accounts) in the US from 1880 to 2016.Over the long run, the two series show a clear positive correlation.A general price increase across the entire economy is called inflation.", "When prices decrease, there is deflation.", "Economists measure these changes in prices with price indexes.", "Inflation will increase when an economy becomes overheated and grows too quickly.", "Similarly, a declining economy can lead to decreasing inflation and even in some cases deflation.Central bankers conducting monetary policy usually have as a main priority to avoid too high inflation, typically by adjusting interest rates.", "High inflation as well as deflation can lead to increased uncertainty and other negative consequences, in particular when the inflation (or deflation) is unexpected.", "Consequently, most central banks aim for a positive, but stable and not very high inflation level.Changes in the inflation level may be the result of several factors.", "Too much aggregate demand in the economy will cause an overheating, raising inflation rates via the Phillips curve because of a tight labor market leading to large wage increases which will be transmitted to increases in the price of the products of employers.", "Too little aggregate demand will have the opposite effect of creating more unemployment and lower wages, thereby decreasing inflation.", "Aggregate supply shocks will also affect inflation, e.g.", "the oil crises of the 1970s and the 2021–2023 global energy crisis.", "Changes in inflation may also impact the formation of inflation expectations, creating a self-fulfilling inflationary or deflationary spiral.", "The monetarist quantity theory of money holds that changes in the price level are directly caused by changes in the money supply.", "Whereas there is empirical evidence that there is a long-run positive correlation between the growth rate of the money stock and the rate of inflation, the quantity theory has proved unreliable in the short- and medium-run time horizon relevant to monetary policy and is abandoned as a practical guideline by most central banks today.===Open economy macroeconomics===Open economy macroeconomics deals with the consequences of international trade in goods, financial assets and possibly factor markets like labor migration and international relocation of firms (physical capital).", "It explores what determines import, export, the balance of trade and over longer horizons the accumulation of net foreign assets.", "An important topic is the role of exchange rates and the pros and cons of maintaining a fixed exchange rate system or even a currency union like the Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union, drawing on the research literature on optimum currency areas." ], [ "Development", "John Maynard Keynes is considered the initiator of macroeconomics when he published his work ''The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money'' in 1936Macroeconomics as a separate field of research and study is generally recognized to start with the publication of John Maynard Keynes' ''The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money'' in 1936.The terms \"macrodynamics\" and \"macroanalysis\" were introduced by Ragnar Frisch in 1933, and Lawrence Klein in 1946 used the word \"macroeconomics\" itself in a journal title in 1946.but naturally several of the themes which are central to macroeconomic research had been discussed by thoughtful economists and other writers long before 1936.===Before Keynes===In particular, macroeconomic questions before Keynes were the topic of the two long-standing traditions of business cycle theory and monetary theory.", "William Stanley Jevons was one of the pioneers of the first tradition, whereas the quantity theory of money, labelled the oldest surviving theory in economics, as an example of the second was described already in the 16th century by Martín de Azpilcueta and later discussed by personalities like John Locke and David Hume.", "In the first decades of the 20th century monetary theory was dominated by the eminent economists Alfred Marshall, Knut Wicksell and Irving Fisher.===Keynes and Keynesian economics===When the Great Depression struck, the reigning economists had difficulty explaining how goods could go unsold and workers could be left unemployed.", "In the prevailing neoclassical economics paradigm, prices and wages would drop until the market cleared, and all goods and labor were sold.", "Keynes in his main work, the ''General Theory'', initiated what is known as the Keynesian revolution.", "He offered a new interpretation of events and a whole intellectural framework - a novel theory of economics that explained why markets might not clear, which would evolve into a school of thought known as Keynesian economics, also called Keynesianism or Keynesian theory.In Keynes' theory, aggregate demand - by Keynes called \"effective demand\" - was key to determining output.", "Even if Keynes conceded that output might eventually return to a medium-run equilibrium (or \"potential\") level, the process would be slow at best.", "Keynes coined the term liquidity preference (his preferred name for what is also known as money demand) and explained how monetary policy might affect aggregate demand, at the same time offering clear policy recommendations for an active role of fiscal policy in stabilizing aggregate demand and hence output and employment.", "In addition, he explained how the multiplier effect would magnify a small decrease in consumption or investment and cause declines throughout the economy, and noted the role that uncertainty and animal spirits can play in the economy.The generation following Keynes combined the macroeconomics of the ''General Theory'' with neoclassical microeconomics to create the neoclassical synthesis.", "By the 1950s, most economists had accepted the synthesis view of the macroeconomy.", "Economists like Paul Samuelson, Franco Modigliani, James Tobin, and Robert Solow developed formal Keynesian models and contributed formal theories of consumption, investment, and money demand that fleshed out the Keynesian framework.===Monetarism===Milton Friedman updated the quantity theory of money to include a role for money demand.", "He argued that the role of money in the economy was sufficient to explain the Great Depression, and that aggregate demand oriented explanations were not necessary.", "Friedman also argued that monetary policy was more effective than fiscal policy; however, Friedman doubted the government's ability to \"fine-tune\" the economy with monetary policy.", "He generally favored a policy of steady growth in money supply instead of frequent intervention.Friedman also challenged the original simple Phillips curve relationship between inflation and unemployment.", "Friedman and Edmund Phelps (who was not a monetarist) proposed an \"augmented\" version of the Phillips curve that excluded the possibility of a stable, long-run tradeoff between inflation and unemployment.", "When the oil shocks of the 1970s created a high unemployment and high inflation, Friedman and Phelps were vindicated.", "Monetarism was particularly influential in the early 1980s, but fell out of favor when central banks found the results disappointing when trying to target money supply instead of interest rates as monetarists recommended, concluding that the relationships between money growth, inflation and real GDP growth are too unstable to be useful in practical monetary policy making.===New classical economics===New classical macroeconomics further challenged the Keynesian school.", "A central development in new classical thought came when Robert Lucas introduced rational expectations to macroeconomics.", "Prior to Lucas, economists had generally used adaptive expectations where agents were assumed to look at the recent past to make expectations about the future.", "Under rational expectations, agents are assumed to be more sophisticated.", "Consumers will not simply assume a 2% inflation rate just because that has been the average the past few years; they will look at current monetary policy and economic conditions to make an informed forecast.", "In the new classical models with rational expectations, monetary policy only had a limited impact.Lucas also made an influential critique of Keynesian empirical models.", "He argued that forecasting models based on empirical relationships would keep producing the same predictions even as the underlying model generating the data changed.", "He advocated models based on fundamental economic theory (i.e.", "having an explicit microeconomic foundation) that would, in principle, be structurally accurate as economies changed.", "Following Lucas's critique, new classical economists, led by Edward C. Prescott and Finn E. Kydland, created real business cycle (RBC) models of the macro economy.", "RBC models were created by combining fundamental equations from neo-classical microeconomics to make quantitative models.", "In order to generate macroeconomic fluctuations, RBC models explained recessions and unemployment with changes in technology instead of changes in the markets for goods or money.", "Critics of RBC models argue that technological changes, which typically diffuse slowly throughout the economy, could hardly generate the large short-run output fluctuations that we observe.", "In addition, there is strong empirical evidence that monetary policy does affect real economic activity, and the idea that technological regress can explain recent recessions seems implausible.Despite criticism of the realism in the RBC models, they have been very influential in economic methodology by providing the first examples of general equilibrium models based on microeconomic foundations and a specification of underlying shocks that aim to explain the main features of macroeconomic fluctuations, not only qualitatively, but also quantitatively.", "In this way, they were forerunners of the later DSGE models.===New Keynesian response===New Keynesian economists responded to the new classical school by adopting rational expectations and focusing on developing micro-founded models that were immune to the Lucas critique.", "Like classical models, new classical models had assumed that prices would be able to adjust perfectly and monetary policy would only lead to price changes.", "New Keynesian models investigated sources of sticky prices and wages due to imperfect competition, which would not adjust, allowing monetary policy to impact quantities instead of prices.", "Stanley Fischer and John B. Taylor produced early work in this area by showing that monetary policy could be effective even in models with rational expectations when contracts locked in wages for workers.", "Other new Keynesian economists, including Olivier Blanchard, Janet Yellen, Julio Rotemberg, Greg Mankiw, David Romer, and Michael Woodford, expanded on this work and demonstrated other cases where various market imperfections caused inflexible prices and wages leading in turn to monetary and fiscal policy having real effects.", "Other researchers focused on imperferctions in labor markets, developing models of efficiency wages or search and matching (SAM) models, or imperfections in credit markets like Ben Bernanke.", "By the late 1990s, economists had reached a rough consensus.", "The market imperfections and nominal rigidities of new Keynesian theory was combined with rational expectations and the RBC methodology to produce a new and popular type of models called dynamic stochastic general equilibrium (DSGE) models.", "The fusion of elements from different schools of thought has been dubbed the new neoclassical synthesis.", "These models are now used by many central banks and are a core part of contemporary macroeconomics.===After the global financial crisis===The global financial crisis leading to the Great Recession led to major reassessment of macroeconomics, which as a field generally had neglected the potential role of financial institutions in the economy.", "After the crisis, macroeconomic researchers have turned their attention in several new directions: * the financial system and the nature of macrofinancial linkages and frictions, studying leverage, liquidity and complexity problems in the financial sector, the use of macroprudential tools and the dangers of an unsustainable public debt* increased emphasis on empirical work as part of the so-called credibility revolution in economics, using improved methods to distinguish between correlation and causality to improve future policy discussions* interest in understanding the importance of heterogeneity among the economic agents, leading among other examples to the construction of heterogeneous agent new Keynesian models (HANK models), which may potentially also improve understanding of the impact of macroeconomics on the income distribution* understanding the implications of integrating the findings of the increasingly useful behavioral economics literature into macroeconomics and behavioral finance=== Growth models ===Research in the economics of the determinants behind long-run economic growth has followed its own course.", "The Harrod-Domar model from the 1940s attempted to build a long-run growth model inspired by Keynesian demand-driven considerations.", "The Solow–Swan model worked out by Robert Solow and, independently, Trevor Swan in the 1950s achieved more long-lasting success, however, and is still today a common textbook model for explaining economic growth in the long-run.", "The model operates with a production function where national output is the product of two inputs: capital and labor.", "The Solow model assumes that labor and capital are used at constant rates without the fluctuations in unemployment and capital utilization commonly seen in business cycles.", "In this model, increases in output, i.e.", "economic growth, can only occur because of an increase in the capital stock, a larger population, or technological advancements that lead to higher productivity (total factor productivity).", "An increase in the savings rate leads to a temporary increase as the economy creates more capital, which adds to output.", "However, eventually the depreciation rate will limit the expansion of capital: savings will be used up replacing depreciated capital, and no savings will remain to pay for an additional expansion in capital.", "Solow's model suggests that economic growth in terms of output per capita depends solely on technological advances that enhance productivity.", "The Solow model can be interpreted as a special case of the more general Ramsey growth model, where households' savings rates are not constant as in the Solow model, but derived from an explicit intertemporal utility function.In the 1980s and 1990s endogenous growth theory arose to challenge the neoclassical growth theory of Ramsey and Solow.", "This group of models explains economic growth through factors such as increasing returns to scale for capital and learning-by-doing that are endogenously determined instead of the exogenous technological improvement used to explain growth in Solow's model.", "Another type of endogenous growth models endogenized the process of technological progress by modelling research and development activities by profit-maximizing firms explicitly within the growth models themselves.==== Environmental and climate issues ====Natural resources flow through the economy and end up as waste and pollution.Since the 1970s, various environmental problems have been integrated into growth and other macroeconomic models to study their implications more thoroughly.", "During the oil crises of the 1970s when scarcity problems of natural resources were high on the public agenda, economists like Joseph Stiglitz and Robert Solow introduced non-renewable resources into neoclassical growth models to study the possibilities of maintaining growth in living standards under these conditions.", "More recently, the issue of climate change and the possibilities of a sustainable development are examined in so-called integrated assessment models, pioneered by William Nordhaus.", "In macroeconomic models in environmental economics, the economic system is dependant upon the environment.", "In this case, the circular flow of income diagram may be replaced by a more complex flow diagram reflecting the input of solar energy, which sustains natural inputs and environmental services which are then used as units of production.", "Once consumed, natural inputs pass out of the economy as pollution and waste.", "The potential of an environment to provide services and materials is referred to as an \"environment's source function\", and this function is depleted as resources are consumed or pollution contaminates the resources.", "The \"sink function\" describes an environment's ability to absorb and render harmless waste and pollution: when waste output exceeds the limit of the sink function, long-term damage occurs." ], [ "Macroeconomic policy", "The division into various time frames of macroeconomic research leads to a parallel division of macroeconomic policies into short-run policies aimed at mitigating the harmful consequences of business cycles (known as stabilization policy) and medium- and long-run policies targeted at improving the structural levels of macroeconomic variables.Stabilization policy is usually implemented through two sets of tools: fiscal and monetary policy.", "Both forms of policy are used to stabilize the economy, i.e.", "limiting the effects of the business cycle by conducting expansive policy when the economy is in a recession or contractive policy in the case of overheating.Structural policies may be labor market policies which aim to change the structural unemployment rate or policies which affect long-run propensities to save, invest, or engage in education or research and development.===Monetary policy===Central banks conduct monetary policy mainly by adjusting short-term interest rates.", "The actual method through which the interest rate is changed differs from central bank to central bank, but typically the implementation happens either directly via administratively changing the central bank's own offered interest rates or indirectly via open market operations.Via the monetary transmission mechanism, interest rate changes affect investment, consumption, asset prices like stock prices and house prices, and through exchange rate reactions export and import.", "In this way aggregate demand, employment and ultimately inflation is affected.", "Expansionary monetary policy lowers interest rates, increasing economic activity, whereas contractionary monetary policy raises interest rates.", "In the case of a fixed exchange rate system, interest rate decisions together with direct intervention in the foreign exchange market are major tools to control the exchange rate.In developed countries, most central banks follow inflation targeting, focusing on keeping medium-term inflation close to an explicit target, say 2%, or within an explicit range.", "This includes the Federal Reserve and the European Central Bank, which are generally considered to follow a strategy very close to inflation targeting, even though they do not officially label themselves as inflation targeters.", "In practice, an official inflation targeting often leaves room for the central bank to also help stabilize output and employment, a strategy known as \"flexible inflation targeting\".", "Most emerging economies focus their monetary policy on maintaining a fixed exchange rate regime, aligning their currency with one or more foreign currencies, typically the US dollar or the euro.", "Conventional monetary policy can be ineffective in situations such as a liquidity trap.", "When nominal interest rates are near zero, central banks cannot loosen monetary policy through conventional means.", "In that situation, they may use unconventional monetary policy such as quantitative easing to help stabilize output.", "Quantity easing can be implemented by buying not only government bonds, but also other assets such as corporate bonds, stocks, and other securities.", "This allows lower interest rates for a broader class of assets beyond government bonds.", "A similar strategy is to lower long-term interest rates by buying long-term bonds and selling short-term bonds to create a flat yield curve, known in the US as Operation Twist.===Fiscal policy===Fiscal policy is the use of government's revenue (taxes) and expenditure as instruments to influence the economy.For example, if the economy is producing less than potential output, government spending can be used to employ idle resources and boost output, or taxes could be lowered to boost private consumption which has a similar effect.", "Government spending or tax cuts do not have to make up for the entire output gap.", "There is a multiplier effect that affects the impact of government spending.", "For instance, when the government pays for a bridge, the project not only adds the value of the bridge to output, but also allows the bridge workers to increase their consumption and investment, which helps to close the output gap.The effects of fiscal policy can be limited by partial or full crowding out.", "When the government takes on spending projects, it limits the amount of resources available for the private sector to use.", "Full crowding out occurs in the extreme case when government spending simply replaces private sector output instead of adding additional output to the economy.", "A crowding out effect may also occur if government spending should lead to higher interest rates, which would limit investment.Some fiscal policy is implemented through automatic stabilizers without any active decisions by politicians.", "Automatic stabilizers do not suffer from the policy lags of discretionary fiscal policy.", "Automatic stabilizers use conventional fiscal mechanisms, but take effect as soon as the economy takes a downturn: spending on unemployment benefits automatically increases when unemployment rises, and tax revenues decrease, which shelters private income and consumption from part of the fall in market income.===Comparison of fiscal and monetary policy ===There is a general consensus that both monetary and fiscal instruments may affect demand and activity in the short run (i.e.", "over the business cycle).", "Economists usually favor monetary over fiscal policy to mitigate moderate fluctuations, however, because it has two major advantages.", "First, monetary policy is generally implemented by independent central banks instead of the political institutions that control fiscal policy.", "Independent central banks are less likely to be subject to political pressures for overly expansionary policies.", "Second, monetary policy may suffer shorter inside lags and outside lags than fiscal policy.", "There are some exceptions, however: Firstly, in the case of a major shock, monetary stabilization policy may not be sufficient and should be supplemented by active fiscal stabilization.", "Secondly, in the case of a very low interest level, the economy may be in a liquidity trap in which monetary policy becomes ineffective, which makes fiscal policy the more potent tool to stabilize the economy.", "Thirdly, in regimes where monetary policy is tied to fulfilling other targets, in particular fixed exchange rate regimes, the central bank cannot simultaneously adjust its interest rates to mitigate domestic business cycle fluctuations, making fiscal policy the only usable tool for such countries." ], [ "Macroeconomic models", "Macroeconomic teaching, research and informed debates normally evolve around formal (diagrammatic or equational) macroeconomic models to clarify assumptions and show their consequences in a precise way.", "Models include simple theoretical models, often containing only a few equations, used in teaching and research to highlight key basic principles, and larger applied quantitative models used by e.g.", "governments, central banks, think tanks and international organisations to predict effects of changes in economic policy or other exogenous factors or as a basis for making economic forecasting.", "Well-known specific theoretical models include short-term models like the Keynesian cross, the IS–LM model and the Mundell–Fleming model, medium-term models like the AD–AS model, building upon a Phillips curve, and long-term growth models like the Solow–Swan model, the Ramsey–Cass–Koopmans model and Peter Diamond's overlapping generations model.", "Quantitative models include early large-scale macroeconometric model, the new classical real business cycle models, microfounded computable general equilibrium (CGE) models used for medium-term (structural) questions like international trade or tax reforms, Dynamic stochastic general equilibrium (DSGE) models used to analyze business cycles, not least in many central banks, or integrated assessment models like DICE.===Specific models=======IS–LM model====In this example of a traditional IS–LM chart, the IS curve moves to the right, causing higher interest rates (i) and expansion in the \"real\" economy (real GDP, or Y).The IS–LM model, invented by John Hicks in 1936, gives the underpinnings of aggregate demand (itself discussed below).", "It answers the question \"At any given price level, what is the quantity of goods demanded?\"", "The graphic model shows combinations of interest rates and output that ensure equilibrium in both the goods and money markets under the model's assumptions.", "The goods market is modeled as giving equality between investment and public and private saving (IS), and the money market is modeled as giving equilibrium between the money supply and liquidity preference (equivalent to money demand).The IS curve consists of the points (combinations of income and interest rate) where investment, given the interest rate, is equal to public and private saving, given output.", "The IS curve is downward sloping because output and the interest rate have an inverse relationship in the goods market: as output increases, more income is saved, which means interest rates must be lower to spur enough investment to match saving.The traditional LM curve is upward sloping because the interest rate and output have a positive relationship in the money market: as income (identically equal to output in a closed economy) increases, the demand for money increases, resulting in a rise in the interest rate in order to just offset the incipient rise in money demand.The IS-LM model is often used in elementary textbooks to demonstrate the effects of monetary and fiscal policy, though it ignores many complexities of most modern macroeconomic models.", "A problem related to the LM curve is that modern central banks largely ignore the money supply in determining policy, contrary to the model's basic assumptions.", "In some modern textbooks, consequently, the traditional IS-LM model has been modified by replacing the traditional LM curve with an assumption that the central bank simply determines the interest rate of the economy directly.====AD-AS model====A traditional AD–AS diagram showing a shift in AD, and the AS curve becoming inelastic beyond potential outputThe AD–AS model is a common textbook model for explaining the macroeconomy.", "The original version of the model shows the price level and level of real output given the equilibrium in aggregate demand and aggregate supply.", "The aggregate demand curve's downward slope means that more output is demanded at lower price levels.", "The downward slope can be explained as the result of three effects: the Pigou or real balance effect, which states that as real prices fall, real wealth increases, resulting in higher consumer demand of goods; the Keynes or interest rate effect, which states that as prices fall, the demand for money decreases, causing interest rates to decline and borrowing for investment and consumption to increase; and the net export effect, which states that as prices rise, domestic goods become comparatively more expensive to foreign consumers, leading to a decline in exports.In many representations of the AD–AS model, the aggregate supply curve is horizontal at low levels of output and becomes inelastic near the point of potential output, which corresponds with full employment.", "Since the economy cannot produce beyond the potential output, any AD expansion will lead to higher price levels instead of higher output.In modern textbooks, the AD–AS model is often presented sligthly differently, however, in a diagram showing not the price level, but the inflation rate along the vertical axis, making it easier to relate the diagram to real-world policy discussions.", "In this framework, the AD curve is downward sloping because higher inflation will cause the central bank, which is assumed to follow an inflation target, to raise the interest rate which will dampen economic activity, hence reducing output.", "The AS curve is upward sloping following a standard modern Phillips curve thought, in which a higher level of economic activity lowers unemployment, leading to higher wage growth and in turn higher inflation." ], [ "See also", "* Business cycle accounting* Economic development* Growth accounting" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Blanchard, Olivier.", "(2009). \"", "The State of Macro.\"", "''Annual Review of Economics'' 1(1): 209–228.", "** * * * * * * * * * Nakamura, Emi and Jón Steinsson.", "(2018). \"", "Identification in Macroeconomics.\"", "''Journal of Economic Perspectives'' 32(3): 59–86.", "** * * Snowdon, Brian, and Howard R. Vane, ed.", "(2002).", "''An Encyclopedia of Macroeconomics'', Description & scroll to Contents-preview links.", "* * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* Glandon, P. J., Ken Kuttner, Sandeep Mazumder, and Caleb Stroup.", "2023.\"", "Macroeconomic Research, Present and Past.\"", "''Journal of Economic Literature'', 61 (3): 1088-1126." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mary Pickford" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gladys Marie Smith''' (April 8, 1892 – May 29, 1979), known professionally as '''Mary Pickford''', was a Canadian actress resident in the U.S., and also producer, screenwriter and film studio founder, who was a pioneer in the US film industry with a Hollywood career that spanned five decades.", "Pickford alongside her future husband, actor-producer Douglas Fairbanks, founded Pickford–Fairbanks Studios and United Artists, and was one of the 36 founders of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences.", "At one time, Pickford was considered to be one of the most recognizable women in history.Known as \"America's Sweetheart\" during the silent film era, she is named on the list of the AFI's 100 Years...100 Stars as the 24th-top female star from the Classical Hollywood Cinema era and the \"girl with the curls\".", "Pickford was one of the Canadian pioneers in early Hollywood and a significant figure in the development of film acting.", "She was one of the earliest stars to be billed under her own name, and was one of the most popular actresses of the 1910s and 1920s, earning the nickname \"Queen of the Movies\".", "She is credited with having defined the type in cinema.She was awarded the second Academy Award for Best Actress for her first sound film role in ''Coquette'' (1929).", "By the late 1920s, Pickford's career went into decline.", "She received an Academy Honorary Award in 1976 in consideration of her contributions to American cinema." ], [ "Early life", "University Avenue, near her Toronto birthplaceMary Pickford was born Gladys Louise Smith in 1892, at 211 University Avenue, Toronto, Ontario, now the location of the Hospital for Sick Children.", "Her father, John Charles Smith, was the son of English Methodist immigrants, and worked a variety of odd jobs.", "Her mother, Charlotte Hennessey, was of Irish Catholic descent and worked for a time as a seamstress.", "She had two younger siblings, both actors.", "Charlotte was billed as \"Lottie Pickford\" (born 1893) and John Charles Jr. was billed as \"Jack Pickford\" (born 1896).", "To please her husband's relatives, Pickford's mother baptized her children as Methodists, the religion of their father.", "John Charles Sr. was an alcoholic.", "He died on February 11, 1898, from a fatal blood clot caused by a workplace accident when he was a purser with Niagara Steamship.When Gladys was four years old, her household was under infectious quarantine as a public health measure.", "Their devoutly Catholic maternal grandmother (Catherine Faeley Hennessey) asked a visiting Roman Catholic priest to baptize the children.", "Pickford was at this time baptized as Gladys Marie Smith.After being widowed in 1898, Charlotte Smith began taking in boarders, one of whom was a Mr. Murphy, the theatrical stage manager for Cummings Stock Company, who soon suggested that Gladys, then age seven, and Lottie, then age six, be given two small theatrical roles—Gladys portrayed a girl and a boy, while Lottie was cast in a silent part in the company's production of ''The Silver King'' at Toronto's Princess Theatre (destroyed by fire in 1915, rebuilt, demolished in 1931), while their mother played the organ.", "Pickford subsequently acted in many melodramas with Toronto's Valentine Stock Company, finally playing the major child role in its version of ''The Silver King''.", "She capped her short career in Toronto with the starring role of Little Eva in the Valentine production of ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'', adapted from the 1852 novel." ], [ "Career", "=== Early years ===Mary Pickford, 1914–1915 (digitally restored)Mary Pickford, 1916By the early 1900s, theatre had become a family enterprise.", "Gladys, her mother, and two younger siblings toured the United States by rail, performing in third-rate companies and plays.", "After six impoverished years, Pickford allowed one more summer to land a leading role on Broadway, planning to quit acting if she failed.", "In 1905 she played the boy Freckles in Hal Reid's ''The Gypsy Girl'' on tour, and at the Star Theatre on Broadway.", "In 1906 Gladys, Lottie and Jack Smith supported singer Chauncey Olcott on Broadway in ''Edmund Burke''.", "Gladys finally landed a supporting role in a 1907 Broadway play, ''The Warrens of Virginia''.", "The play was written by William C. deMille, whose brother, Cecil, appeared in the cast.", "David Belasco, the producer of the play, insisted that Gladys Smith assume the stage name Mary Pickford.", "After completing the Broadway run and touring the play, however, Pickford was again out of work.On April 19, 1909, the Biograph Company director D. W. Griffith screen-tested her at the company's New York studio for a role in the nickelodeon film ''Pippa Passes''.", "The role went to someone else but Griffith was immediately taken with Pickford.", "She quickly grasped that movie acting was simpler than the stylized stage acting of the day.", "Most Biograph actors earned $5 a day but, after Pickford's single day in the studio, Griffith agreed to pay her $10 a day against a guarantee of $40 a week.Pickford, like all actors at Biograph, played both leading roles and bit parts, including mothers, ingénues, charwomen, spitfires, slaves, Native Americans, spurned women, and a prostitute.", "As Pickford said of her success at Biograph:I played scrubwomen and secretaries and women of all nationalities ...", "I decided that if I could get into as many pictures as possible, I'd become known, and there would be a demand for my work.", "She appeared in 51 films in 1909—almost one a week—with her first starring role being in ''The Violin Maker of Cremona'' opposite future husband Owen Moore.", "While at Biograph, she suggested to Florence La Badie to \"try pictures\", invited her to the studio and later introduced her to D. W. Griffith, who launched La Badie's career.In January 1910, Pickford traveled with a Biograph crew to Los Angeles.", "Many other film companies wintered on the West Coast, escaping the weak light and short days that hampered winter shooting in the East.", "Pickford added to her 1909 Biographs (''Sweet and Twenty'', ''They Would Elope,'' and ''To Save Her Soul'', to name a few) with films made in California.Actors were not listed in the credits in Griffith's company.", "Audiences noticed and identified Pickford within weeks of her first film appearance.", "Exhibitors, in turn, capitalized on her popularity by advertising on sandwich boards that a film featuring \"The Girl with the Golden Curls\", \"Blondilocks\", or \"The Biograph Girl\" was inside.Pickford left Biograph in December 1910.The following year, she starred in films at Carl Laemmle's Independent Moving Pictures Company (IMP).", "IMP was absorbed into Universal Pictures in 1912, along with Majestic.", "Unhappy with their creative standards, Pickford returned to work with Griffith in 1912.Some of her best performances were in his films, such as ''Friends'', ''The Mender of Nets'', ''Just Like a Woman'', and ''The Female of the Species''.", "That year, Pickford also introduced Dorothy and Lillian Gish—whom she had befriended as new neighbors from Ohio—to Griffith, and each became a major silent film star, in comedy and tragedy, respectively.", "Pickford made her last Biograph picture, ''The New York Hat'', in late 1912.She returned to Broadway in the David Belasco production of ''A Good Little Devil'' (1912).", "This was a major turning point in her career.", "Pickford, who had always hoped to conquer the Broadway stage, discovered how deeply she missed film acting.", "In 1913, she decided to work exclusively in film.", "The previous year, Adolph Zukor had formed Famous Players in Famous Plays.", "It was later known as Famous Players–Lasky and then Paramount Pictures, one of the first American feature film companies.Mary Pickford, 1916Pickford left the stage to join Zukor's roster of stars.", "Zukor believed film's potential lay in recording theatrical players in replicas of their most famous stage roles and productions.", "Zukor first filmed Pickford in a silent version of ''A Good Little Devil''.", "The film, produced in 1913, showed the play's Broadway actors reciting every line of dialogue, resulting in a stiff film that Pickford later called \"one of the worst features I ever made ... it was deadly\".", "Zukor agreed; he held the film back from distribution for a year.Pickford's work in material written for the camera by that time had attracted a strong following.", "Comedy-dramas, such as ''In the Bishop's Carriage'' (1913), ''Caprice'' (1913), and especially ''Hearts Adrift'' (1914), made her irresistible to moviegoers.", "''Hearts Adrift'' was so popular that Pickford asked for the first of her many publicized pay raises based on the profits and reviews.", "The film marked the first time Pickford's name was featured above the title on movie marquees.", "''Tess of the Storm Country'' was released five weeks later.", "Biographer Kevin Brownlow observed that the film \"sent her career into orbit and made her the most popular actress in America, if not the world\".Her appeal was summed up two years later by the February 1916 issue of ''Photoplay'' as \"luminous tenderness in a steel band of gutter ferocity\".", "Only Charlie Chaplin, who slightly surpassed Pickford's popularity in 1916, had a similarly spellbinding pull with critics and the audience.", "Each enjoyed a level of fame far exceeding that of other actors.", "Throughout the 1910s and 1920s, Pickford was believed to be the most famous woman in the world, or, as a silent-film journalist described her, \"the best known woman who has ever lived, the woman who was known to more people and loved by more people than any other woman that has been in all history\".=== Stardom ===leftPickford starred in 52 features throughout her career.", "On June 24, 1916, Pickford signed a new contract with Zukor that granted her full authority over production of the films in which she starred, and a record-breaking salary of $10,000 a week.", "In addition, Pickford's compensation was half of a film's profits, with a guarantee of $1.04 million (US$ in ), making her the first actress to sign a million-dollar contract.", "She also became vice-president of Pickford Film Corporation.Occasionally, she played a child, in films such as ''The Poor Little Rich Girl'' (1917), ''Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm'' (1917), ''Daddy-Long-Legs'' (1919), and ''Pollyanna'' (1920).", "Pickford's fans were devoted to these \"little girl\" roles, but they were not typical of her career.", "Due to her lack of a normal childhood, she enjoyed making these pictures.", "Given how small she was at under five feet, and her naturalistic acting abilities, she was very successful in these roles.", "Douglas Fairbanks Jr., when he first met her in person as a boy, assumed she was a new playmate for him, and asked her to come and play trains with him, which she obligingly did.In August 1918, Pickford's contract expired and, when refusing Zukor's terms for a renewal, she was offered $250,000 to leave the motion picture business.", "She declined, and went to First National Pictures, which agreed to her terms.", "In 1919, Pickford, along with D. W. Griffith, Charlie Chaplin, and Douglas Fairbanks, formed the independent film production company United Artists.", "Through United Artists, Pickford continued to produce and perform in her own movies; she could also distribute them as she chose.", "In 1920, Pickford's film ''Pollyanna'' grossed around $1.1 million.", "The following year, Pickford's film ''Little Lord Fauntleroy'' was also a success, and in 1923, ''Rosita'' grossed over $1 million as well.", "During this period, she also made ''Little Annie Rooney'' (1925), another film in which Pickford played a child, ''Sparrows'' (1926), which blended the Dickensian with newly minted German expressionist style, and ''My Best Girl'' (1927), a romantic comedy featuring her future husband Charles \"Buddy\" Rogers.lobby card for ''Little Lord Fauntleroy'' (1921)The arrival of sound was her undoing.", "Pickford underestimated the value of adding sound to movies, claiming that \"adding sound to movies would be like putting lipstick on the Venus de Milo\".She played a reckless socialite in ''Coquette'' (1929), her first talkie, a role for which her famous ringlets were cut into a 1920s bob.", "Pickford had already cut her hair in the wake of her mother's death in 1928.Fans were shocked at the transformation.", "Pickford's hair had become a symbol of female virtue, and when she cut it, the act made front-page news in ''The New York Times'' and other papers.", "''Coquette'' was a success and won her an Academy Award for Best Actress, although this was highly controversial.", "The public failed to respond to her in the more sophisticated roles.", "Like most movie stars of the silent era, Pickford found her career fading as talkies became more popular among audiences.Her next film, ''The Taming of The Shrew'', made with husband Douglas Fairbanks, was not well received at the box office.", "Established Hollywood actors were panicked by the impending arrival of the talkies.", "On March 29, 1928, ''The Dodge Brothers Hour'' was broadcast from Pickford's bungalow, featuring Fairbanks, Chaplin, Norma Talmadge, Gloria Swanson, John Barrymore, D. W. Griffith, and Dolores del Río, among others.", "They spoke on the radio show to prove that they could meet the challenge of talking movies.A transition in the roles Pickford selected came when she was in her late thirties, no longer able to play the children, teenage spitfires, and feisty young women so adored by her fans, and not suited for the glamorous and vampish heroines of early sound.", "In 1933, she underwent a Technicolor screen test for an animated/live-action film version of ''Alice in Wonderland'', but Walt Disney discarded the project when Paramount released its own version of the book.", "Only one Technicolor still of her screen test still exists.She retired from film acting in 1933 following three costly failures with her last film appearance being ''Secrets''.", "She appeared on stage in Chicago in 1934 in the play ''The Church Mouse'' and went on tour in 1935, starting in Seattle with the stage version of ''Coquette''.", "She also appeared in a season of radio plays for NBC in 1935 and CBS in 1936.In 1936 she became vice-president of United Artists and continued to produce films for others, including ''One Rainy Afternoon'' (1936), ''The Gay Desperado'' (1936), ''Sleep, My Love'' (1948; with Claudette Colbert), and ''Love Happy'' (1949), with the Marx Brothers.=== The film industry ===Mary Pickford giving President Herbert Hoover a ticket for a film industry benefit for the unemployed, 1931Pickford used her stature in the movie industry to promote a variety of causes.", "Although her image depicted fragility and innocence, she proved to be a strong businesswoman who took control of her career in a cutthroat industry.During World War I, she promoted the sale of liberty bonds, making an intensive series of fund-raising speeches, beginning in Washington, D.C., where she sold bonds alongside Charlie Chaplin, Douglas Fairbanks, Theda Bara, and Marie Dressler.", "Five days later she spoke on Wall Street to an estimated 50,000 people.", "Though Canadian-born, she was a powerful symbol of American culture, kissing the American flag for cameras and auctioning one of her world-famous curls for $15,000.In a single speech in Chicago, she sold an estimated five million dollars' worth of bonds.", "She was christened the U.S. Navy's official \"Little Sister\"; the Army named two cannons after her and made her an honorary colonel.Douglas Fairbanks, Charlie Chaplin, and D. W. Griffith, with whom Mary Pickford founded United Artists in 1919In 1916, Pickford and Constance Adams DeMille, wife of director Cecil B. DeMille, helped found the Hollywood Studio Club, a dormitory for young women involved in the motion picture business.", "At the end of World War I, Pickford conceived of the Motion Picture Relief Fund, an organization to help financially needy actors.", "Leftover funds from her work selling Liberty Bonds were put toward its creation, and in 1921, the Motion Picture Relief Fund (MPRF) was officially incorporated, with Joseph Schenck voted its first president and Pickford its vice president.", "In 1932, Pickford spearheaded the \"Payroll Pledge Program\", a payroll-deduction plan for studio workers who gave one half of one percent of their earnings to the MPRF.", "As a result, in 1940, the Fund was able to purchase land and build the Motion Picture Country House and Hospital, in Woodland Hills, California.An astute businesswoman, Pickford became her own producer within three years of her start in features.", "According to her Foundation, \"she oversaw every aspect of the making of her films, from hiring talent and crew to overseeing the script, the shooting, the editing, to the final release and promotion of each project\".", "She demanded (and received) these powers in 1916, when she was under contract to Zukor's Famous Players in Famous Plays (later Paramount).", "Zukor acquiesced to her refusal to participate in block-booking, the widespread practice of forcing an exhibitor to show a bad film of the studio's choosing to also be able to show a Pickford film.", "In 1916, Pickford's films were distributed, singly, through a special distribution unit called Artcraft.", "The Mary Pickford Corporation was briefly Pickford's motion-picture production company.Bungalow Mary Pickford War Funds, 1943In 1919, she increased her power by co-founding United Artists (UA) with Charlie Chaplin, D. W. Griffith, and her soon-to-be husband, Douglas Fairbanks.", "Before UA's creation, Hollywood studios were vertically integrated, not only producing films but forming chains of theaters.", "Distributors (also part of the studios) arranged for company productions to be shown in the company's movie venues.", "Filmmakers relied on the studios for bookings; in return they put up with what many considered creative interference.United Artists broke from this tradition.", "It was solely a distribution company, offering independent film producers access to its own screens as well as the rental of temporarily unbooked cinemas owned by other companies.", "In 1919, Pickford established The Mary Pickford Company, that was devoted exclusively to producing films distributed by United Artists.", "With the film ''Pollyanna'' being Mary's first film distributed by The United Artists.", "Pickford and Fairbanks produced and shot their films after 1920 at the jointly owned Pickford-Fairbanks studio on Santa Monica Boulevard.", "The producers who signed with UA were true independents, producing, creating and controlling their work to an unprecedented degree.", "As a co-founder, as well as the producer and star of her own films, Pickford became the most powerful woman who has ever worked in Hollywood.", "By 1930, her acting career had largely faded.", "After retiring three years later, however, she continued to produce films for United Artists.", "She and Chaplin remained partners in the company for decades.", "Chaplin left the company in 1955, and Pickford followed suit in 1956, selling her remaining shares for $3 million.She had purchased the rights to many of her early silent films with the intention of burning them on her death, but in 1970 she agreed to donate 50 of her Biograph films to the American Film Institute.", "In 1976, she received an Academy Honorary Award for her contribution to American film." ], [ "Personal life", "Mary Pickford, 1921Pickford was married three times.", "She married Owen Moore, an Irish-born silent film actor, on January 7, 1911.It is rumored she became pregnant by Moore in the early 1910s and had a miscarriage or an abortion.", "Some accounts suggest this resulted in her later inability to have children.", "The couple's marriage was strained by Moore's alcoholism, insecurity about living in the shadow of Pickford's fame, and bouts of domestic violence.", "The couple lived together on-and-off for several years.Pickford became secretly involved in a relationship with Douglas Fairbanks.", "They toured the U.S. together in 1918 to promote Liberty Bond sales for the World War I effort.", "Around this time, Pickford also suffered from the flu during the 1918 flu pandemic.", "Pickford divorced Moore on March 2, 1920, after she agreed to his $100,000 demand for a settlement ($1.5 million in 2023, adjusted for inflation).", "She married Fairbanks just days later on March 28, 1920, in what was described as the \"marriage of the century\" and they were referred to as the King and Queen of Hollywood.", "They went to Europe for their honeymoon; fans in London and in Paris caused riots trying to get to the famous couple.", "The couple's triumphant return to Hollywood was witnessed by vast crowds who turned out to hail them at railway stations across the United States.", "''The Mark of Zorro'' (1920) and a series of other swashbucklers gave the popular Fairbanks a more romantic, heroic image.", "Pickford continued to epitomize the virtuous but fiery girl next door.", "Even at private parties, people instinctively stood up when Pickford entered a room; she and her husband were often referred to as \"Hollywood royalty\".", "Their international reputations were broad.", "Foreign heads of state and dignitaries who visited the White House often asked if they could also visit Pickfair, the couple's mansion in Beverly Hills.Dinners at Pickfair became celebrity events.", "Charlie Chaplin, Fairbanks' best friend, was often present.", "Other guests included George Bernard Shaw, Albert Einstein, Elinor Glyn, Helen Keller, H. G. Wells, Lord Mountbatten, Fritz Kreisler, Amelia Earhart, F. Scott Fitzgerald, Noël Coward, Max Reinhardt, Baron Nishi, Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko, Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, Austen Chamberlain, Sir Harry Lauder, and Meher Baba, among others.", "However, the public nature of Pickford's second marriage strained it to the breaking point.", "Both she and Fairbanks had little time off from producing and acting in their films.", "They were also constantly on display as America's unofficial ambassadors to the world, leading parades, cutting ribbons, and making speeches.", "When their film careers both began to flounder at the end of the silent era, Fairbanks' restless nature prompted him to overseas travel (something which Pickford did not enjoy).", "When Fairbanks' romance with Sylvia, Lady Ashley became public in the early 1930s, he and Pickford separated.", "They divorced January 10, 1936.Fairbanks' son by his first wife, Douglas Fairbanks Jr., claimed his father and Pickford long regretted their inability to reconcile.On June 24, 1937, Pickford married her third and last husband, actor and band leader Charles \"Buddy\" Rogers.", "They adopted two children: Ronald Charles (born 1937, adopted 1943, a.k.a.", "Ronnie Pickford Rogers), and Roxanne (born 1944, adopted 1944).", "A PBS ''American Experience'' documentary described Pickford's relationship with her children as tense.", "She criticized their physical imperfections, including Ronnie's small stature and Roxanne's crooked teeth.", "Both children later said their mother was too self-absorbed to provide real maternal love.", "In 2003, Ronnie recalled that \"Things didn't work out that much, you know.", "But I'll never forget her.", "I think that she was a good woman.", "\"===Political views===Pickford supported Thomas Dewey in the 1944 United States presidential election, Barry Goldwater in the 1964 United States presidential election and Ronald Reagan in his race for governor in 1966.She was a charter member of the Hollywood Republican Committee.=== Later years and death ===Mary Pickford in ''Star Night at the Cocoanut Grove'' (1934), her only film appearance in TechnicolorAfter retiring from the screen, Pickford became an alcoholic, as her father had been.", "Her mother Charlotte died of breast cancer in March 1928.Her siblings, Lottie and Jack, died of alcohol-related causes in 1936 and 1933.These deaths, her divorce from Fairbanks, and the end of silent films left Pickford deeply depressed.", "Her relationship with her adopted children, Roxanne and Ronald, was turbulent at best.", "Pickford withdrew and gradually became a recluse, remaining almost entirely at Pickfair and allowing visits only from Lillian Gish, her stepson Douglas Fairbanks Jr., and a few select others.In 1955, she published her memoirs, ''Sunshine and Shadows''.", "She had previously published ''Why Not Try God'' in 1934, an essay on spirituality and personal growth, ''My Rendevouz of Life'' (1935), an essay on death and her belief in an afterlife and also a novel in 1935, ''The Demi-Widow''.In the mid-1960s, Pickford often received visitors only by telephone, speaking to them from her bedroom.", "Charles \"Buddy\" Rogers often gave guests tours of Pickfair, including views of a genuine western bar Pickford had bought for Douglas Fairbanks, and a portrait of Pickford in the drawing room.", "A print of this image now hangs in the Library of Congress.", "When Pickford received an Academy Honorary Award in 1976, the Academy sent a TV crew to her house to record her short statement of thanks—offering the public a very rare glimpse into Pickfair Manor.", "Charitable events continued to be held at Pickfair, including an annual Christmas party for blind war veterans, mostly from World War I.Mary Pickford posing with a group of employees during her visit to the General Engineering Company (Canada) munitions factory on June 5, 1943Pickford believed that she had ceased to be a British subject when she married Fairbanks, an American citizen, in 1920, and thus presumably had not acquired Canadian citizenship when it was first created in 1947.However, Pickford held and traveled under a British/Canadian passport which she renewed regularly at the British/Canadian consulates in Los Angeles, and she did not take out papers for American citizenship.", "She also owned a house in Toronto, Ontario, Canada.", "Towards the end of her life, Pickford made arrangements with the Canadian Department of Citizenship to officially acquire Canadian citizenship because she wished to \"die as a Canadian\".", "Canadian authorities were not sure that she had ever lost her Canadian citizenship, given her passport status, but her request was approved and she officially became a Canadian citizen.The tomb of actress Mary Pickford in the Garden of Memory, Forest Lawn GlendaleOn May 29, 1979, Pickford died at a Santa Monica, California, hospital of complications from a cerebral hemorrhage she had suffered the week before.", "She was interred in the Garden of Memory of the Forest Lawn Memorial Park cemetery in Glendale, California." ], [ "Legacy", "* Pickford was awarded a star in the category of motion pictures on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6280 Hollywood Blvd.", "* Her handprints and footprints are displayed at Grauman's Chinese Theatre in Hollywood, California.", "Although the theater's official account credits Norma Talmadge as having inspired the theater’s tradition of putting footprints in concrete when she accidentally stepped into wet concrete, in a short interview during the September 13, 1937, ''Lux Radio Theatre'' broadcast of a radio adaptation of ''A Star Is Born'', Sid Grauman related another version of how he got the idea to put hand and foot prints in the concrete, involving Pickford.", "He said it was \"pure accident.", "I walked right into it.", "While we were building the theatre, I accidentally happened to step in some soft concrete.", "And there it was.", "So, I went to Mary Pickford immediately.", "Mary put her foot into it.", "\"*She is represented in Hergé's ''Tintin in America''.", "* The Pickford Center for Motion Picture Study at 1313 Vine Street in Hollywood, constructed by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, opened in 1948 as a radio and television studio facility.", "* The Mary Pickford Theater at the James Madison Memorial Building of the Library of Congress is named in her honor.", "* A prohibition-era cocktail was named in her honor.", "* The Mary Pickford Auditorium at Claremont McKenna College is named in her honor.", "* In 1948, Mary Pickford built a seven-bedroom, eight-bathroom, estate on at the B Bar H Ranch, California, where she lived and then later sold.", "* A first-run movie theatre in Cathedral City, California, is called The Mary Pickford Theatre, which was established on May 25, 2001.The theater is a grand one with several screens and is built in the shape of a Spanish Cathedral, complete with bell tower and three-story lobby.", "The lobby contains a historic display with original artifacts belonging to Pickford and Buddy Rogers, her last husband.", "Among them are a rare and spectacular beaded gown she wore in the film ''Dorothy Vernon of Haddon Hall'' (1924) designed by Mitchell Leisen, her special Oscar, and a jewelry box.", "* The 1980 stage musical ''The Biograph Girl'', about the silent film era, features the character of Pickford.", "* In 2007, the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences sued the estate of the deceased Buddy Rogers' second wife, Beverly Rogers, in order to stop the public sale of one of Pickford's Oscars.", "* A bust and historical plaque marks her birthplace in Toronto, now the site of the Hospital for Sick Children.", "The plaque was unveiled by her husband Buddy Rogers in 1973.The bust by artist Eino Gira was added ten years later.", "Her date of birth is stated on the plaque as April 8, 1893.This can only be assumed to be because her date of birth was never registered; throughout her life, beginning as a child, she led many people to believe that she was a year younger than her real age, so that she appeared to be more of an acting prodigy and continued to be cast in younger roles, which were more plentiful in the theatre.", "* The family home had been demolished in 1943, and many of the bricks delivered to Pickford in California.", "Proceeds from the sale of the property were donated by Pickford to build a bungalow in East York, Ontario which was then a Toronto suburb.", "The bungalow was the first prize in a lottery in Toronto to benefit war charities, and Pickford unveiled the home on May 26, 1943.", "* In 1993, a Golden Palm Star on the Palm Springs Walk of Stars was dedicated to her.", "* Pickford received a posthumous star on Canada's Walk of Fame in Toronto in 1999.", "* Pickford was featured on a Canadian postage stamp in 2006.", "* From January 2011 until July 2011, the Toronto International Film Festival exhibited a collection of Mary Pickford memorabilia in the Canadian Film Gallery of the TIFF Bell LightBox building.", "* In February 2011, the Spadina Museum, dedicated to the 1920s and 1930s era in Toronto, staged performances of ''Sweetheart: The Mary Pickford Story'', a one-woman musical based on the life and career of Pickford.", "* Since 2013, the Mary Pickford Foundation has sponsored ''The Pickford Composers'' and ''The Pickford Ensemble'' at Pepperdine University, composed of students learning to develop music scores for live players to support silent films onscreen.", "* In 2013, a copy of an early Pickford film that was thought to be lost (''Their First Misunderstanding'') was found by Peter Massie, a carpenter tearing down an abandoned barn in New Hampshire.", "It was donated to Keene State College and is currently undergoing restoration by the Library of Congress for exhibition.", "The film is notable as being the first in which Pickford was credited by name.", "* On August 29, 2014, while presenting ''Behind The Scenes'' (1914) at Cinecon, film historian Jeffrey Vance announced he is working with the Mary Pickford Foundation on what will be her official biography.", "* The Google Doodle of April 8, 2017, commemorated Mary Pickford's 125th birthday.", "* ''The Girls in the Picture'', a 2018 novel by Melanie Benjamin, is a historical fiction about the friendship of Mary Pickford and screenwriter Frances Marion.", "* On August 20, 2019, the Toronto International Film Festival announced Mati Diop as the recipient of the first Mary Pickford Award.File:Grauman's Chinese Theatre, mary pickford.JPG|Pickford's handprints and footprints at Grauman's Chinese Theatre in Hollywood, CaliforniaFile:Mary Pickford star on Walk of Fame.jpg|Pickford's star on the Walk of Fame in TorontoFile:PickfordCenter01.jpg|Pickford Center for Motion Picture Study in Hollywood, California" ], [ "Filmography" ], [ "See also", "* Timeline of Mary Pickford* List of actors with Academy Award nominations" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== General sources ===* Total pages: 680." ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * Gladys goes to Hollywood at ''100 Canadian Heroines: Famous and Forgotten Faces'', by Merna Forster, via Google Books, pp.", "204 sq." ], [ "External links", "* * * Mary Pickford at the Women Film Pioneers Project* About Mary Pickford, from the Mary Pickford Foundation website* Mary Pickford CBC Radio interview May 25, 1959* Mary Pickford at the ''Encyclopædia Britannica''* Footage of Mary Pickford with Charlie Chaplin and Douglas Fairbanks in 1919* Mary Pickford at Virtual History* Mary Pickford–Buddy Rogers correspondence, 1943–1976, held by the Billy Rose Theatre Division, New York Public Library for the Performing Arts* Mary Pickford scrapbook, 1915–1917, held by the Billy Rose Theatre Division, New York Public Library for the Performing Arts* Mary Pickford papers, Margaret Herrick Library, Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences* ''Mary Pickford – Whose Real Name is Gladys Smith'' from ''Current Opinion Magazine'', June, 1918" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mack Sennett" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Mack Sennett''' (born '''Michael Sinnott'''; January 17, 1880 – November 5, 1960) was a Canadian-American producer, director, actor, and studio head who was known as the \"King of Comedy\" during his career.Born in Danville, Quebec, in 1880, he started in films in the Biograph Company of New York City, and later opened Keystone Studios in Edendale, California in 1912.Keystone possessed the first fully enclosed film stage, and Sennett became famous as the originator of slapstick routines such as pie-throwing and car-chases, as seen in the Keystone Cops films.", "He also produced short features that displayed his Bathing Beauties, many of whom went on to develop successful acting careers.After struggling with bankruptcy and the dominance of sound films in the early 1930s, Sennett was presented with an honorary Academy Award in 1938 for his contributions to the film industry, with the Academy describing him as a \"master of fun, discoverer of stars, sympathetic, kindly, understanding comedy genius\"." ], [ "Early life", "Born Michael Sinnott in Danville, Quebec, he was the son of Irish Catholic John Sinnott and Catherine Foy.", "His parents married in 1879 in Tingwick, Quebec and moved the same year to Richmond, Quebec where Sinnott was hired as a laborer.", "By 1883, when Sennett's brother George was born, Sinnott was working as an innkeeper, a position he held for many years.", "Sennett's parents had all their children and raised their family in Richmond, then a small Eastern Townships village.", "At that time, Sennett's grandparents were living in Danville, Quebec.", "Sennett moved to Connecticut when he was 17 years old.He lived for a while in Northampton, Massachusetts, where, according to his autobiography, he first got the idea to become an opera singer after seeing a vaudeville show.", "He said that the most respected lawyer in town, Northampton mayor (and future President of the United States) Calvin Coolidge, as well as Sennett's mother, tried to talk him out of his musical ambitions.In New York City, he took on the stage name Mack Sennett and became an actor, singer, dancer, clown, set designer, and director for the Biograph Company.", "A distinction in his acting career, often overlooked, is that he played Sherlock Holmes 11 times, albeit as a parody, between 1911 and 1913." ], [ "Keystone Studios", "The Mack Sennett 222x222pxWith financial backing from Adam Kessel and Charles O. Bauman of the New York Motion Picture Company, Sennett founded Keystone Studios in Edendale, California – now a part of Echo Park – in 1912.The original main building which was the first totally enclosed film stage and studio ever constructed, is still standing, as of 2023.Many successful actors began their film careers with Sennett, including Marie Dressler, Mabel Normand, Charlie Chaplin, Harry Langdon, Roscoe Arbuckle, Harold Lloyd, Raymond Griffith, Gloria Swanson, Ford Sterling, Andy Clyde, Chester Conklin, Polly Moran, Louise Fazenda, The Keystone Cops, Bing Crosby, and W. C. Fields.Dubbed the King of Hollywood's ''Fun Factory'', Sennett's studios produced slapstick comedies that were noted for their hair-raising car chases and custard pie warfare, especially in the ''Keystone Cops ''series.", "The comic formulas, however well executed, were based on humorous situations rather than the personal traits of the comedians; the various social types, often grotesquely portrayed by members of Sennett's troupe, were adequate to render the largely \"interchangeable routines: \"Having a funny moustache, or crossed-eyes, or an extra two-hundred pounds was as much individualization as was required.", "\"Film historian Richard Koszarski qualifies \"fun factory\" influence on comedic film acting:Sennett's first female comedian was Mabel Normand, who became a major star under his direction and with whom he embarked on a tumultuous romantic relationship.", "Sennett also developed the ''Kid Comedies'', a forerunner of the ''Our Gang'' films, and in a short time, his name became synonymous with screen comedy which were called \"flickers\" at the time.", "In 1915, Keystone Studios became an autonomous production unit of the ambitious Triangle Film Corporation, as Sennett joined forces with D. W. Griffith and Thomas Ince, both powerful figures in the film industry.=== Sennett Bathing Beauties ===Sennett Bathing BeautiesAlso beginning in 1915, Sennett assembled a bevy of women known as the Sennett Bathing Beauties to appear in provocative bathing costumes in comedy short subjects, in promotional material, and in promotional events such as Venice Beach beauty contests.", "The Sennett Bathing Beauties continued to appear through 1928." ], [ "Independent production", "Mack Sennett Studios, c. 1917In 1917, Sennett gave up the Keystone trademark and organized his own company, Mack Sennett Comedies Corporation.", "Sennett's bosses retained the Keystone trademark and produced a cheap series of comedy shorts that were \"Keystones\" in name only: they were unsuccessful, and Sennett had no connection with them, and Sennett went on to produce more ambitious comedy short films and a few feature-length films.Many of Sennett's films of the early 1920s were inherited by Warner Bros.", "Studio.", "Warner Bros. merged with the original distributor, First National, and added music and commentary to several of these short subjects.", "Many of the films of this period physically deteriorated due to inadequate storage.", "Hence, many of Sennett's films from his most productive and creative period no longer exist." ], [ "Move to Pathé Exchange", "In the mid-1920s, Sennett moved to Pathé Exchange distribution.", "In 1927, Hollywood's two most successful studios, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer and Paramount Pictures, took note of the profits being made by smaller companies such as Pathé Exchange and Educational Pictures.", "MGM and Paramount resumed the production and distribution of short subjects, while hundreds of other independent exhibitors and movie houses of this period had switched from Pathé to the new MGM or Paramount films and short subjects, but Sennett remained loyal to Pathé." ], [ "Experiments, awards, and bankruptcy", "Movie theatre audience members Roscoe Arbuckle and Sennett square off while watching Mabel Normand onscreen in ''Mabel's Dramatic Career'' (1913).Mabel Normand, Sennett, and Charlie Chaplin in ''The Fatal Mallet'' (1914)Silent film ''Love, Speed and Thrills'' (1915), directed by Walter Wright and produced by Sennett, is a chase film in which a man (named Walrus) kidnaps the wife of his benefactor, but the so-called \"Keystone Cops\" are also chasing down Walrus.Sennett made a reasonably smooth transition to sound films, releasing them through Earle Hammons's Educational Pictures.", "Sennett occasionally experimented with color as well.", "He was also the first to get a talkie short subject on the market in 1928.In 1932, he was nominated for the Academy Award for Live Action Short Film in the comedy division for producing ''The Loud Mouth'' (with Matt McHugh, in the sports-heckler role later taken in Columbia Pictures remakes by Charley Chase and Shemp Howard).", "Sennett also won an Academy Award in the novelty division for his film ''Wrestling Swordfish'', also in 1932.Sennett often clung to outmoded techniques, making his early-1930s films seem dated and quaint.", "This doomed his attempt to re-enter the feature-film market with ''Hypnotized'' (starring blackface comedians Moran and Mack, \"The Two Black Crows\").", "However, Sennett enjoyed great success with short comedies starring Bing Crosby, which were more than likely instrumental in Sennett's product being picked up by a major studio, Paramount PicturesW.", "C. Fields conceived and starred in four famous Sennett-Paramount comedies.", "Fields himself recalled that he \"made seven comedies for the Irishman\", though some have cited five, not seven.", "Two other Sennett shorts were made with Fields scripts: ''The Singing Boxer'' (1933) with Donald Novis and ''Too Many Highballs'' (1933) with Lloyd Hamilton.Sennett's studio did not survive the Great Depression.", "His partnership with Paramount lasted only one year and he was forced into bankruptcy in November 1933.On January 12, 1934, Sennett was injured in an automobile accident that killed blackface performer Charles Mack in Mesa, Arizona.His last work, in 1935, was as a producer-director for Educational Pictures, in which he directed Buster Keaton in ''The Timid Young Man'' and Joan Davis in ''Way Up Thar''.The 1935 Vitaphone short subject ''Keystone Hotel'' is not a Sennett production, although it featured several alumni from the Mack Sennett Studios.", "Actually, Sennett was not involved in the making of this film.Mack Sennett went into semi-retirement at the age of 55, having produced more than 1,000 silent films and several dozen talkies during a 25-year career.", "His studio property was purchased by Mascot Pictures (later part of Republic Pictures), and many of his former staffers found work at Columbia Pictures.In March 1938, Sennett was presented with an honorary Academy Award: \"for his lasting contribution to the comedy technique of the screen, the basic principles of which are as important today as when they were first put into practice, the Academy presents a Special Award to that master of fun, discoverer of stars, sympathetic, kindly, understanding comedy genius – Mack Sennett.\"" ], [ "Later projects", "Rumors abounded that Sennett would be returning to film production (a 1938 publicity release indicated that he would be working with Stan Laurel of Laurel and Hardy), but apart from Sennett reissuing a couple of his Bing Crosby two-reelers to theaters, nothing happened.Sennett did appear in front of the camera, however, in ''Hollywood Cavalcade'' (1939), itself a thinly disguised version of the Mack Sennett-Mabel Normand romance.In 1949, he provided film footage for and also appeared in the first full-length comedy compilation called ''Down Memory Lane'' (1949), which was written and narrated by Steve Allen.Sennett was profiled in the television series ''This Is Your Life'' in 1954, and made a cameo appearance (for $1,000) in ''Abbott and Costello Meet the Keystone Kops'' (1955).His last contribution worth noting was to the NBC radio program ''Biography in Sound'' relating memories of working with W.C. Fields, which was broadcast February 28, 1956." ], [ "Personal life", "Sennett was never married, but his tumultuous relationship with actress Mabel Normand was widely publicized in the press at the time.", "According to the ''Los Angeles Times'', Sennett reportedly lived a \"madcap, extravagant life\", often throwing \"lavish parties\", and at the peak of his career he owned three homes.On March 25, 1932, he became a United States citizen.=== Death ===Sennett died on November 5, 1960, in Woodland Hills, California, aged 80.He was interred in the Holy Cross Cemetery in Culver City, California." ], [ "Filmography" ], [ "Tributes", "For his contribution to the motion picture industry, Sennett was honored with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6712 Hollywood Boulevard.", "He was also inducted into Canada's Walk of Fame in 2014.The building of Sennett's original studio in Echo Park was deemed a historical landmark by The City of Los Angeles in 1982." ], [ "In popular culture", "*In ''A Story of Water'', a 1961 short film by Jean-Luc Godard and François Truffaut, the directors dedicated the film to Mack Sennett.", "*In 1974, Michael Stewart and Jerry Herman wrote the musical ''Mack & Mabel'', chronicling the romance between Sennett and Mabel Normand.", "*Sennett also was a leading character in ''The Biograph Girl'', a 1980 musical about the silent film era.", "*Peter Lovesey's 1983 novel ''Keystone'' is a whodunnit set in the Keystone Studios and involving (among others), Mack Sennett, Mabel Normand, Roscoe Arbuckle, and the Keystone Cops.", "*Dan Aykroyd portrayed Mack Sennett in the 1992 movie ''Chaplin'' alongside Marisa Tomei as Mabel Normand and Robert Downey Jr. as Charlie Chaplin.", "*Joseph Beattie and Andrea Deck portrayed Mack Sennett and Mabel Normand, respectively, in episode eight of series two of ITV's ''Mr.", "Selfridge''.", "*Carol Burnett did a lengthy tribute skit to Mack Sennett on her show that aired on Me TV in June 2021." ], [ "See also", "*Canadian pioneers in early Hollywood" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "*Koszarski, Richard.", "1976.", "''Hollywood Directors: 1914-1940''.", "Oxford University Press.", "Library of Congress Catalog Number: 76-9262.", "*Silver, Charles.", "2009.", "''Send in the Clowns.", "AN AUTEURIST HISTORY OF FILM'' https://www.moma.org/explore/inside_out/2009/12/22/send-in-the-clowns/ Retrieved 3 October 2020.", "*Sinnott, Michael.", "1999.", "''Mack Sennett: Canadian-American director and producer.''", "Encyclopædia Britannica.", "https://www.britannica.com/biography/Mack-Sennett Retrieved 3 October 2020.", "*Walker, Brent.", "2010.", "''Mack Sennett's fun factory: a history and filmography of his studio and his Keystone and Mack Sennett comedies, with biographies of players and personnel.''", "Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland & Co.; '''Further reading'''* Lahue, Kalton (1971) ''Mack Sennett's Keystone: The man, the myth and the comedies''.", "New York: Barnes;" ], [ "External links", "**** Mack Sennett at Virtual History* Mack Sennett papers, Margaret Herrick Library, Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Motion Picture Patents Company" ], [ "Introduction", "Thomas Edison with the licensees of the Motion Picture Patents Company (December 19, 1908)The '''Motion Picture Patents Company''' ('''MPPC''', also known as the '''Edison Trust'''), founded in December 1908 and effectively terminated in 1915 after it lost a federal antitrust suit, was a trust of all the major US film companies and local foreign-branches (Edison, Biograph, Vitagraph, Essanay, Selig Polyscope, Lubin Manufacturing, Kalem Company, Star Film Paris, American Pathé), the leading film distributor (George Kleine) and the biggest supplier of raw film stock, Eastman Kodak.", "The MPPC ended the domination of foreign films on US screens, standardized the manner in which films were distributed and exhibited within the US, and improved the quality of US motion pictures by internal competition.", "It also discouraged its members' entry into feature film production, and the use of outside financing, both to its members' eventual detriment." ], [ "Creation", "The MPPC was preceded by the Edison licensing system, in effect in 1907–1908, on which the MPPC was modeled.", "During the 1890s, Thomas Edison owned most of the major US patents relating to motion picture cameras.", "The Edison Manufacturing Company's patent lawsuits against each of its domestic competitors crippled the US film industry, reducing production mainly to two companies: Edison and Biograph, which used a different camera design.", "This left Edison's other rivals with little recourse but to import French and British films.Since 1902, Edison had also been notifying distributors and exhibitors that if they did not use Edison machines and films exclusively, they would be subject to litigation for supporting filmmaking that infringed Edison's patents.", "Exhausted by the lawsuits, Edison's competitors — Essanay, Kalem, Pathé Frères, Selig, and Vitagraph — approached him in 1907 to negotiate a licensing agreement, which Lubin was also invited to join.", "The one notable filmmaker excluded from the licensing agreement was Biograph, which Edison hoped to squeeze out of the market.", "No further applicants could become licensees.", "The purpose of the licensing agreement, according to an Edison lawyer, was to \"preserve the business of present manufacturers and not to throw the field open to all competitors.", "\"In February 1909, major European producers held the Paris Film Congress in an attempt to create a similar European organisation.", "This group also included MPPC members Pathé and Vitagraph, which had extensive European production and distribution interests.", "This proposed European cartel ultimately failed when Pathé, then still the largest company in the world, withdrew in April.===The addition of Biograph===Biograph retaliated for being frozen out of the trust agreement by purchasing the patent to the Latham film loop, a key feature of virtually all motion picture cameras then in use.", "Edison sued to gain control of the patent.", "After a federal court upheld the validity of the patent in 1907, Edison began negotiation with Biograph in May 1908 to reorganize the Edison licensing system.", "The resulting trust pooled 16 motion picture patents.", "Ten were considered of minor importance.", "The remaining six pertained one each to films, cameras, and the Latham loop, and three to projectors." ], [ "Policies", "Several films in production The MPPC eliminated the outright sale of films to distributors and exhibitors, replacing it with rentals, which allowed quality control over prints that had formerly been exhibited long past their prime.", "The trust also established a uniform rental rate for all licensed films, thereby removing price as a factor for the exhibitor in film selection, in favor of selection made on quality, which in turn encouraged the upgrading of production values.The MPPC also established a monopoly on all aspects of filmmaking.", "Eastman Kodak owned the patent on raw film stock, and the company was a member of the trust and thus agreed to sell stock only to other members.", "Likewise, the trust's control of patents on motion picture cameras ensured that only MPPC studios were able to film, and the projector patents allowed the trust to make licensing agreements with distributors and theaters – and thus determine who screened their films and where.The patents owned by the MPPC allowed them to use federal law enforcement officials to enforce their licensing agreements and to prevent unauthorized use of their cameras, films, projectors, and other equipment.", "In some cases, the MPPC made use of hired thugs and mob connections to violently disrupt productions that were not licensed by the trust.===Content===The MPPC also strictly regulated the production content of their films, primarily as a means of cost control.", "Films were initially limited to one reel in length (13–17 minutes), although competition by independent and foreign producers by 1912 led to the introduction of two-reelers, and by 1913, three and four-reelers." ], [ "Backlash and decline", "Nestor Studio, Hollywood's first movie studio, 1912Many independent filmmakers, who controlled from one-quarter to one-third of the domestic marketplace, responded to the creation of the MPPC by moving their operations to Hollywood, whose distance from Edison's home base of New Jersey made it more difficult for the MPPC to enforce its patents.", "The Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals, which is headquartered in San Francisco, California, and covers the area, was averse to enforcing patent claims.", "Southern California was also chosen because of its beautiful year-round weather and varied countryside; its topography, semi-arid climate and widespread irrigation gave its landscapes the ability to offer motion picture shooting scenes set in deserts, jungles and great mountains.", "Hollywood had one additional advantage: if a non-licensed studio was sued, it was only a hundred miles to \"run for the border\" and get out of the US to Mexico, where the trust's patents were not in effect and thus equipment could not be seized.The reasons for the MPPC's decline are manifold.", "The first blow came in 1911 when Eastman Kodak modified its exclusive contract with the MPPC to allow Kodak, which led the industry in quality and price, to sell its raw film stock to unlicensed independents.", "The number of theaters exhibiting independent films grew by 33 percent within twelve months, to half of all houses.Another reason was the MPPC's overestimation of the efficiency of controlling the motion picture industry through patent litigation and the exclusion of independents from licensing.", "The slow process of using detectives to investigate patent infringements, and of obtaining injunctions against the infringers, was outpaced by the dynamic rise of new companies in diverse locations.Despite the rise in popularity of feature films in 1912–1913 from independent producers and foreign imports, the MPPC was very reluctant to make the changes necessary to distribute such longer films.", "Edison, Biograph, Essanay, and Vitagraph did not release their first features until 1914, after dozens, if not hundreds, of feature films, had been released by independents.Patent royalties to the MPPC ended in September 1913 with the expiration of the last of the patents filed in the mid-1890s at the dawn of commercial film production and exhibition.", "Thus the MPPC lost the ability to control the American film industry through patent licensing and had to rely instead on its subsidiary, the General Film Company, formed in 1910, which monopolized film distribution in US.The outbreak of World War I in 1914 cut off most of the European market, which played a much more significant part of the revenue and profit for MPPC members than for the independents, which concentrated on Westerns produced for a primarily US market.The end came with a federal court decision in ''United States v. Motion Picture Patents Co.'' on October 1, 1915, which ruled that the MPPC's acts went \"far beyond what was necessary to protect the use of patents or the monopoly which went with them\" and was, therefore, an illegal restraint of trade under the Sherman Antitrust Act.", "An appellate court dismissed the MPPC's appeal, and officially terminated the company in 1918." ], [ "See also", "* History of cinema" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Before the Nickelodeon: Motion Picture Patents Company Agreements* History of Edison Motion Pictures: Litigation and Licensees* Independence In Early And Silent American Cinema*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "MD5" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''MD5 message-digest algorithm''' is a widely used hash function producing a 128-bit hash value.", "MD5 was designed by Ronald Rivest in 1991 to replace an earlier hash function MD4, and was specified in 1992 as RFC 1321.MD5 can be used as a checksum to verify data integrity against unintentional corruption.", "Historically it was widely used as a cryptographic hash function; however it has been found to suffer from extensive vulnerabilities.", "It remains suitable for other non-cryptographic purposes, for example for determining the partition for a particular key in a partitioned database, and may be preferred due to lower computational requirements than more recent Secure Hash Algorithms." ], [ "History and cryptanalysis", "MD5 is one in a series of message digest algorithms designed by Professor Ronald Rivest of MIT (Rivest, 1992).", "When analytic work indicated that MD5's predecessor MD4 was likely to be insecure, Rivest designed MD5 in 1991 as a secure replacement.", "(Hans Dobbertin did indeed later find weaknesses in MD4.", ")In 1993, Den Boer and Bosselaers gave an early, although limited, result of finding a \"pseudo-collision\" of the MD5 compression function; that is, two different initialization vectors that produce an identical digest.In 1996, Dobbertin announced a collision of the compression function of MD5 (Dobbertin, 1996).", "While this was not an attack on the full MD5 hash function, it was close enough for cryptographers to recommend switching to a replacement, such as SHA-1 (also compromised since) or RIPEMD-160.The size of the hash value (128 bits) is small enough to contemplate a birthday attack.", "MD5CRK was a distributed project started in March 2004 to demonstrate that MD5 is practically insecure by finding a collision using a birthday attack.MD5CRK ended shortly after 17 August 2004, when collisions for the full MD5 were announced by Xiaoyun Wang, Dengguo Feng, Xuejia Lai, and Hongbo Yu.", "Their analytical attack was reported to take only one hour on an IBM p690 cluster.On 1 March 2005, Arjen Lenstra, Xiaoyun Wang, and Benne de Weger demonstrated construction of two X.509 certificates with different public keys and the same MD5 hash value, a demonstrably practical collision.", "The construction included private keys for both public keys.", "A few days later, Vlastimil Klima described an improved algorithm, able to construct MD5 collisions in a few hours on a single notebook computer.", "On 18 March 2006, Klima published an algorithm that could find a collision within one minute on a single notebook computer, using a method he calls tunneling.Various MD5-related RFC errata have been published.", "In 2009, the United States Cyber Command used an MD5 hash value of their mission statement as a part of their official emblem.On 24 December 2010, Tao Xie and Dengguo Feng announced the first published single-block (512-bit) MD5 collision.", "(Previous collision discoveries had relied on multi-block attacks.)", "For \"security reasons\", Xie and Feng did not disclose the new attack method.", "They issued a challenge to the cryptographic community, offering a US$10,000 reward to the first finder of a different 64-byte collision before 1 January 2013.Marc Stevens responded to the challenge and published colliding single-block messages as well as the construction algorithm and sources.In 2011 an informational RFC 6151 was approved to update the security considerations in MD5 and HMAC-MD5." ], [ "Security", "One basic requirement of any cryptographic hash function is that it should be computationally infeasible to find two distinct messages that hash to the same value.", "MD5 fails this requirement catastrophically.", "On 31 December 2008, the CMU Software Engineering Institute concluded that MD5 was essentially \"cryptographically broken and unsuitable for further use\".", "The weaknesses of MD5 have been exploited in the field, most infamously by the Flame malware in 2012., MD5 continues to be widely used, despite its well-documented weaknesses and deprecation by security experts.A collision attack exists that can find collisions within seconds on a computer with a 2.6 GHz Pentium 4 processor (complexity of 224.1).", "Further, there is also a chosen-prefix collision attack that can produce a collision for two inputs with specified prefixes within seconds, using off-the-shelf computing hardware (complexity 239).The ability to find collisions has been greatly aided by the use of off-the-shelf GPUs.", "On an NVIDIA GeForce 8400GS graphics processor, 16–18 million hashes per second can be computed.", "An NVIDIA GeForce 8800 Ultra can calculate more than 200 million hashes per second.These hash and collision attacks have been demonstrated in the public in various situations, including colliding document files and digital certificates.", "As of 2015, MD5 was demonstrated to be still quite widely used, most notably by security research and antivirus companies.As of 2019, one quarter of widely used content management systems were reported to still use MD5 for password hashing.=== Overview of security issues ===In 1996, a flaw was found in the design of MD5.While it was not deemed a fatal weakness at the time, cryptographers began recommending the use of other algorithms, such as SHA-1, which has since been found to be vulnerable as well.In 2004 it was shown that MD5 is not collision-resistant.", "As such, MD5 is not suitable for applications like SSL certificates or digital signatures that rely on this property for digital security.", "Researchers additionally discovered more serious flaws in MD5, and described a feasible collision attack—a method to create a pair of inputs for which MD5 produces identical checksums.", "Further advances were made in breaking MD5 in 2005, 2006, and 2007.In December 2008, a group of researchers used this technique to fake SSL certificate validity.As of 2010, the CMU Software Engineering Institute considers MD5 \"cryptographically broken and unsuitable for further use\", and most U.S. government applications now require the SHA-2 family of hash functions.", "In 2012, the Flame malware exploited the weaknesses in MD5 to fake a Microsoft digital signature.===Collision vulnerabilities===In 1996, collisions were found in the compression function of MD5, and Hans Dobbertin wrote in the RSA Laboratories technical newsletter, \"The presented attack does not yet threaten practical applications of MD5, but it comes rather close ... in the future MD5 should no longer be implemented ... where a collision-resistant hash function is required.", "\"In 2005, researchers were able to create pairs of PostScript documents and X.509 certificates with the same hash.", "Later that year, MD5's designer Ron Rivest wrote that \"md5 and sha1 are both clearly broken (in terms of collision-resistance)\".On 30 December 2008, a group of researchers announced at the 25th Chaos Communication Congress how they had used MD5 collisions to create an intermediate certificate authority certificate that appeared to be legitimate when checked by its MD5 hash.", "The researchers used a PS3 cluster at the EPFL in Lausanne, Switzerland to change a normal SSL certificate issued by RapidSSL into a working CA certificate for that issuer, which could then be used to create other certificates that would appear to be legitimate and issued by RapidSSL.", "VeriSign, the issuers of RapidSSL certificates, said they stopped issuing new certificates using MD5 as their checksum algorithm for RapidSSL once the vulnerability was announced.", "Although Verisign declined to revoke existing certificates signed using MD5, their response was considered adequate by the authors of the exploit (Alexander Sotirov, Marc Stevens, Jacob Appelbaum, Arjen Lenstra, David Molnar, Dag Arne Osvik, and Benne de Weger).", "Bruce Schneier wrote of the attack that \"we already knew that MD5 is a broken hash function\" and that \"no one should be using MD5 anymore\".", "The SSL researchers wrote, \"Our desired impact is that Certification Authorities will stop using MD5 in issuing new certificates.", "We also hope that use of MD5 in other applications will be reconsidered as well.", "\"In 2012, according to Microsoft, the authors of the Flame malware used an MD5 collision to forge a Windows code-signing certificate.MD5 uses the Merkle–Damgård construction, so if two prefixes with the same hash can be constructed, a common suffix can be added to both to make the collision more likely to be accepted as valid data by the application using it.", "Furthermore, current collision-finding techniques allow specifying an arbitrary ''prefix'': an attacker can create two colliding files that both begin with the same content.", "All the attacker needs to generate two colliding files is a template file with a 128-byte block of data, aligned on a 64-byte boundary, that can be changed freely by the collision-finding algorithm.", "An example MD5 collision, with the two messages differing in 6 bits, is: d131dd02c5e6eec4 693d9a0698aff95c 2fcab5712467eab 4004583eb8fb7f89 55ad340609f4b302 83e48883251415a 085125e8f7cdc99f d91dbd280373c5b d8823e3156348f5b ae6dacd436c919c6 dd53e2487da03fd 02396306d248cda0 e99f33420f577ee8 ce54b6708080d1e c69821bcb6a88393 96f965b6ff72a70 d131dd02c5e6eec4 693d9a0698aff95c 2fcab5712467eab 4004583eb8fb7f89 55ad340609f4b302 83e48883251415a 085125e8f7cdc99f d91dbd280373c5b d8823e3156348f5b ae6dacd436c919c6 dd53e2487da03fd 02396306d248cda0 e99f33420f577ee8 ce54b6708080d1e c69821bcb6a88393 96f965b6ff72a70Both produce the MD5 hash 79054025255fb1a26e4bc422aef54eb4.The difference between the two samples is that the leading bit in each nibble has been flipped.", "For example, the 20th byte (offset 0x13) in the top sample, 0x87, is 10000111 in binary.", "The leading bit in the byte (also the leading bit in the first nibble) is flipped to make 00000111, which is 0x07, as shown in the lower sample.Later it was also found to be possible to construct collisions between two files with separately chosen prefixes.", "This technique was used in the creation of the rogue CA certificate in 2008.A new variant of parallelized collision searching using MPI was proposed by Anton Kuznetsov in 2014, which allowed finding a collision in 11 hours on a computing cluster.===Preimage vulnerability===In April 2009, an attack against MD5 was published that breaks MD5's preimage resistance.", "This attack is only theoretical, with a computational complexity of 2123.4 for full preimage." ], [ "Applications", "MD5 digests have been widely used in the software world to provide some assurance that a transferred file has arrived intact.", "For example, file servers often provide a pre-computed MD5 (known as md5sum) checksum for the files, so that a user can compare the checksum of the downloaded file to it.", "Most unix-based operating systems include MD5 sum utilities in their distribution packages; Windows users may use the included PowerShell function \"Get-FileHash\", the included command line function \"certutil -hashfile md5\", install a Microsoft utility, or use third-party applications.", "Android ROMs also use this type of checksum.Diagram showing use of MD5 hashing in file transmissionAs it is easy to generate MD5 collisions, it is possible for the person who created the file to create a second file with the same checksum, so this technique cannot protect against some forms of malicious tampering.", "In some cases, the checksum cannot be trusted (for example, if it was obtained over the same channel as the downloaded file), in which case MD5 can only provide error-checking functionality: it will recognize a corrupt or incomplete download, which becomes more likely when downloading larger files.Historically, MD5 has been used to store a one-way hash of a password, often with key stretching.", "NIST does not include MD5 in their list of recommended hashes for password storage.MD5 is also used in the field of electronic discovery, to provide a unique identifier for each document that is exchanged during the legal discovery process.", "This method can be used to replace the Bates stamp numbering system that has been used for decades during the exchange of paper documents.", "As above, this usage should be discouraged due to the ease of collision attacks." ], [ "Algorithm", "Figure 1.One MD5 operation.", "MD5 consists of 64 of these operations, grouped in four rounds of 16 operations.", "is a nonlinear function; one function is used in each round.", "denotes a 32-bit block of the message input, and denotes a 32-bit constant, different for each operation.", "denotes a left bit rotation by places; varies for each operation.", "denotes addition modulo 232.MD5 processes a variable-length message into a fixed-length output of 128 bits.", "The input message is broken up into chunks of 512-bit blocks (sixteen 32-bit words); the message is padded so that its length is divisible by 512.The padding works as follows: first, a single bit, 1, is appended to the end of the message.", "This is followed by as many zeros as are required to bring the length of the message up to 64 bits fewer than a multiple of 512.The remaining bits are filled up with 64 bits representing the length of the original message, modulo 264.The main MD5 algorithm operates on a 128-bit state, divided into four 32-bit words, denoted , , , and .", "These are initialized to certain fixed constants.", "The main algorithm then uses each 512-bit message block in turn to modify the state.", "The processing of a message block consists of four similar stages, termed ''rounds''; each round is composed of 16 similar operations based on a non-linear function , modular addition, and left rotation.", "Figure 1 illustrates one operation within a round.", "There are four possible functions; a different one is used in each round:: denote the XOR, AND, OR and NOT operations respectively.===Pseudocode===The MD5 hash is calculated according to this algorithm.", "All values are in little-endian.", "// '': All variables are unsigned 32 bit and wrap modulo 2^32 when calculating'' '''var''' ''int'' s64, K64 '''var''' ''int'' i // ''s specifies the per-round shift amounts'' s 0..15 := { 7, 12, 17, 22, 7, 12, 17, 22, 7, 12, 17, 22, 7, 12, 17, 22 } s16..31 := { 5, 9, 14, 20, 5, 9, 14, 20, 5, 9, 14, 20, 5, 9, 14, 20 } s32..47 := { 4, 11, 16, 23, 4, 11, 16, 23, 4, 11, 16, 23, 4, 11, 16, 23 } s48..63 := { 6, 10, 15, 21, 6, 10, 15, 21, 6, 10, 15, 21, 6, 10, 15, 21 } // ''Use binary integer part of the sines of integers (Radians) as constants:'' '''for''' i '''from''' 0 '''to''' 63 '''do''' Ki := floor(232 × abs(sin(i + 1))) '''end for''' // ''(Or just use the following precomputed table):'' K 0.. 3 := { 0xd76aa478, 0xe8c7b756, 0x242070db, 0xc1bdceee } K 4.. 7 := { 0xf57c0faf, 0x4787c62a, 0xa8304613, 0xfd469501 } K 8..11 := { 0x698098d8, 0x8b44f7af, 0xffff5bb1, 0x895cd7be } K12..15 := { 0x6b901122, 0xfd987193, 0xa679438e, 0x49b40821 } K16..19 := { 0xf61e2562, 0xc040b340, 0x265e5a51, 0xe9b6c7aa } K20..23 := { 0xd62f105d, 0x02441453, 0xd8a1e681, 0xe7d3fbc8 } K24..27 := { 0x21e1cde6, 0xc33707d6, 0xf4d50d87, 0x455a14ed } K28..31 := { 0xa9e3e905, 0xfcefa3f8, 0x676f02d9, 0x8d2a4c8a } K32..35 := { 0xfffa3942, 0x8771f681, 0x6d9d6122, 0xfde5380c } K36..39 := { 0xa4beea44, 0x4bdecfa9, 0xf6bb4b60, 0xbebfbc70 } K40..43 := { 0x289b7ec6, 0xeaa127fa, 0xd4ef3085, 0x04881d05 } K44..47 := { 0xd9d4d039, 0xe6db99e5, 0x1fa27cf8, 0xc4ac5665 } K48..51 := { 0xf4292244, 0x432aff97, 0xab9423a7, 0xfc93a039 } K52..55 := { 0x655b59c3, 0x8f0ccc92, 0xffeff47d, 0x85845dd1 } K56..59 := { 0x6fa87e4f, 0xfe2ce6e0, 0xa3014314, 0x4e0811a1 } K60..63 := { 0xf7537e82, 0xbd3af235, 0x2ad7d2bb, 0xeb86d391 } // ''Initialize variables:'' '''var''' ''int'' a0 := 0x67452301 // A '''var''' ''int'' b0 := 0xefcdab89 // B '''var''' ''int'' c0 := 0x98badcfe // C '''var''' ''int'' d0 := 0x10325476 // D // ''Pre-processing: adding a single 1 bit'' '''append''' \"1\" bit '''to''' message// ''Pre-processing: padding with zeros'' '''append''' \"0\" bit '''until''' message length in bits ≡ 448 (mod 512) // Notice: the two padding steps above are implemented in a simpler way // in implementations that only work with complete bytes: append 0x80 // and pad with 0x00 bytes so that the message length in bytes ≡ 56 (mod 64).", "'''append''' original length in bits '''mod''' 264 '''to''' message // ''Process the message in successive 512-bit chunks:'' '''for each''' ''512-bit'' chunk '''of''' padded message '''do''' break chunk into sixteen 32-bit words Mj, 0 ≤ j ≤ 15 // ''Initialize hash value for this chunk:'' '''var''' ''int'' A := a0 '''var''' ''int'' B := b0 '''var''' ''int'' C := c0 '''var''' ''int'' D := d0 // ''Main loop:'' '''for''' i '''from''' 0 '''to''' 63 '''do''' '''var''' ''int'' F, g '''if''' 0 ≤ i ≤ 15 '''then''' F := (B '''and''' C) '''or''' (('''not''' B) '''and''' D) g := i '''else if''' 16 ≤ i ≤ 31 '''then''' F := (D '''and''' B) '''or''' (('''not''' D) '''and''' C) g := (5×i + 1) '''mod''' 16 '''else if''' 32 ≤ i ≤ 47 '''then''' F := B '''xor''' C '''xor''' D g := (3×i + 5) '''mod''' 16 '''else if''' 48 ≤ i ≤ 63 '''then''' F := C '''xor''' (B '''or''' ('''not''' D)) g := (7×i) '''mod''' 16 // ''Be wary of the below definitions of a,b,c,d'' F := F + A + Ki + Mg // ''Mg must be a 32-bit block'' A := D D := C C := B B := B + '''leftrotate'''(F, si) '''end for''' // ''Add this chunk's hash to result so far:'' a0 := a0 + A b0 := b0 + B c0 := c0 + C d0 := d0 + D '''end for''' '''var''' ''char'' digest16 := a0 '''append''' b0 '''append''' c0 '''append''' d0 // ''(Output is in little-endian)''Instead of the formulation from the original RFC 1321 shown, the following may be used for improved efficiency (useful if assembly language is being used – otherwise, the compiler will generally optimize the above code.", "Since each computation is dependent on another in these formulations, this is often slower than the above method where the nand/and can be parallelised): ( 0 ≤ i ≤ 15): F := D '''xor''' (B '''and''' (C '''xor''' D)) (16 ≤ i ≤ 31): F := C '''xor''' (D '''and''' (B '''xor''' C))" ], [ "MD5 hashes", "The 128-bit (16-byte) MD5 hashes (also termed ''message digests'') are typically represented as a sequence of 32 hexadecimal digits.", "The following demonstrates a 43-byte ASCII input and the corresponding MD5 hash: MD5(\"The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog\") = 9e107d9d372bb6826bd81d3542a419d6Even a small change in the message will (with overwhelming probability) result in a mostly different hash, due to the avalanche effect.", "For example, adding a period to the end of the sentence: MD5(\"The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog\") = e4d909c290d0fb1ca068ffaddf22cbd0The hash of the zero-length string is: MD5(\"\") = d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427eThe MD5 algorithm is specified for messages consisting of any number of bits; it is not limited to multiples of eight bits (octets, bytes).", "Some MD5 implementations such as md5sum might be limited to octets, or they might not support ''streaming'' for messages of an initially undetermined length." ], [ "Implementations", "Below is a list of cryptography libraries that support MD5:* Botan* Bouncy Castle* cryptlib* Crypto++* Libgcrypt* Nettle* OpenSSL* wolfSSL" ], [ "See also", "* Comparison of cryptographic hash functions* Hash function security summary* HashClash* MD5Crypt* md5deep* md5sum* MD6* SHA-1* SHA-2" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * Hans Dobbertin, Cryptanalysis of MD5 compress.", "Announcement on Internet, May 1996.", "* *" ], [ "External links", "* W3C recommendation on MD5* MD5 Calculator" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Magic: The Gathering" ], [ "Introduction", " '''''Magic: The Gathering''''' (colloquially known as '''''Magic''''' or '''''MTG''''') is a tabletop and digital collectible card game created by Richard Garfield.", "Released in 1993 by Wizards of the Coast, ''Magic'' was the first trading card game and had approximately fifty million players , and over twenty billion ''Magic'' cards were produced in the period from 2008 to 2016, during which time it grew in popularity.", ", ''Magic'' generates about $1 billion per year.A player in ''Magic'' takes the role of a Planeswalker, a powerful wizard who can travel (\"walk\") between dimensions (\"planes\") of the Multiverse, doing battle with other players as Planeswalkers by casting spells, using artifacts, and summoning creatures as depicted on individual cards drawn from their individual decks.", "A player defeats their opponent typically (but not always) by casting spells and attacking with creatures to deal damage to the opponent's \"life total\", with the objective being to reduce it from 20 to 0, or 40 to 0 in some group formats.", "Although the original concept of the game drew heavily from the motifs of traditional fantasy role-playing games such as ''Dungeons & Dragons'', the gameplay bears little similarity to pen-and-paper games, while simultaneously having substantially more cards and more complex rules than many other card games.", "''Magic'' can be played by two or more players, either in person with printed cards or on a computer, smartphone or tablet with virtual cards through the Internet-based software ''Magic: The Gathering Online'' or other video games such as ''Magic: The Gathering Arena'' and ''Magic Duels''.", "It can be played in various rule formats, which fall into two categories: ''constructed'' and ''limited''.", "Limited formats involve players building a deck spontaneously out of a pool of random cards with a minimum deck size of 40 cards; in constructed formats, players create decks from cards they own, usually with a minimum of 60 cards per deck.New cards are released on a regular basis through expansion sets.", "Further developments include the Wizards Play Network played at the international level and the worldwide community Players Tour, as well as a substantial resale market for ''Magic'' cards.", "Certain cards can be valuable due to their rarity in production and utility in gameplay, with prices ranging from a few cents to tens of thousands of dollars." ], [ "Gameplay", "''Magic: The Gathering'' zones.Cards in ''Magic: The Gathering'' have a consistent format, with half of the face of the card showing the card's art, and the other half listing the card's mechanics, often relying on commonly-reused keywords to simplify the card's text.", "Cards fall into generally two classes: lands and spells.", "Lands produce mana, or magical energy.", "Players usually can only play one land card per turn, with most land providing a specific color of mana when they are \"tapped\" (usually by rotating the card 90 degrees to show it has been used that turn); each land can be tapped for mana only once per turn.", "Meanwhile, spells consume mana, typically requiring at least one mana of a specific color.", "More powerful spells cost more, and more specifically colored, mana, so as the game progresses, more land will be in play, more mana will be available, and the quantity and relative power of the spells played tends to increase.", "Spells come in several varieties: non-permanents like \"sorceries\" and \"instants\" have a single, one-time effect before they go to the \"graveyard\" (discard pile); \"enchantments\" and \"artifacts\" that remain in play after being cast to provide a lasting magical effect; and \"creature\" spells summon creatures that can attack and damage an opponent as well as used to defend from the opponent's creature attacks; \"planeswalker\" spells that summon powerful allies that act similarly to other players.", "Land, enchantments, artifacts, and creature cards are considered \"permanents\" as they remain in play until removed by other spells, ability, or combat effects.Players begin the game by shuffling their decks and then drawing seven cards.", "On each player's turn, following a set phase order, they draw a card, tap their lands and other permanents as necessary to gain mana as to cast spells, engage their creatures in a single attack round against their opponent who may use their own creatures to block the attack, and then complete other actions with any remaining mana.", "Most actions that a player can perform enter the \"Stack\", a concept similar to the stack in computer programming, as either player can react to these actions with other actions, such as counter-spells; the stack provides a method of resolving complex interactions that may result in certain scenarios.===Deck construction===Dissection of a ''Magic: The Gathering'' card.Most sanctioned games for ''Magic: The Gathering'' under the Wizards Play Network (WPN) use the based Constructed format that require players to build their decks from their own library of cards.", "In general, this requires a minimum of sixty cards in the deck, and, except for basic land cards, no more than four cards of the same named card.", "The pool of cards is also typically limited to the Standard rotation, which consists of only recently released cards.", "The Standard format helps to prevent \"power creep\" that can be difficult to predict with the size of the ''Magic'' card library and help give newer players a fair advantage with long-term players.", "Other Constructed formats exist that allow for use of older expansions to give more variety for decks.", "A large variety of formats have been defined by the WPN which allows different pools of expansions to be used or alter deck construction rules for special events.Commander is a one hundred card constructed format that makes many changes to typical deck building rules.", "In Commander, each of the one hundred cards must be uniquely named, excluding lands and cards that have text that supersede that rule.", "Additionally, Commander is also a ''historic'' format, denoting that any cards from any set release can be used, excluding any specific cards that have been banned from play.", "Commander as a format has a separate ban list than other Constructed formats.In the Limited format, a small number of cards are opened for play from booster packs or tournament packs, and a minimum deck size of forty cards is enforced.", "One of the most popular limited formats is Booster Draft, in which players open a booster pack, choose a card from it, and pass it to the player seated next to them.", "This continues until all the cards have been picked, and then a new pack is opened.", "Three packs are opened in total, and the direction of passing alternates left-right-left.", "Once the draft is done, players create 40-card decks out of the cards they picked, basic land cards being provided for free, and play games with the players they drafted with.==== Limitations =======Colors of ''Magic''===The five colors of ''Magic: The Gathering''Most cards in ''Magic'' are based on one of five colors that make up the game's \"Color Wheel\" or \"Color Pie\", shown on the back of each card, and each representing a school or realm of magic: white, blue, black, red, and green.", "The arrangement of these colors on the wheel describes relationships between the schools, which can broadly affect deck construction and game execution.", "For a given color such as white, the two colors immediately adjacent to it, green and blue, are considered complementary, while the two colors on the opposite side, black and red, are its opposing schools.", "The Research and Development (R&D) team at Wizards of the Coast aimed to balance power and abilities among the five colors by using the Color Pie to differentiate the strengths and weaknesses of each.", "This guideline lays out the capabilities, themes, and mechanics of each color and allows for every color to have its own distinct attributes and gameplay.", "The Color Pie is used to ensure new cards are thematically in the correct color and do not infringe on the territory of other colors.The concepts behind each of the colors on the Color Wheel, based on a series of articles written by Mark Rosewater, are as follows:* White represents order, peace, and light, and draws mana from plains.", "White planeswalkers can summon individually weak creatures that are collectively strong as a group such as soldiers, as well as powerful creatures and leaders that can strengthen all of the player's creatures with additional abilities or strength.", "Their spells tend to focus on healing or preventing damage, protecting their allies, and neutralizing an opponent's advantages on the battlefield.", "* Blue represents intellect, logic, manipulation, and trickery, and pulls its mana from islands.", "Its magic is typically associated with the classical elements of air and water.", "Many of Blue's spells can interact or interfere with the opponent's spells as well as with the general flow of the game.", "Blue's magic is also associated with control, allowing the player to gain temporary or full control of the opponent's creatures.", "Blue creatures often tend to be weak but evasive and difficult to target.", "* Black represents power, death, corruption, and sacrifice, drawing mana from swamps.", "Many of Black's creatures are undead, and several can be sacrificed to make other creatures more powerful, destroy opponent's creatures or permanents, or other effects.", "Black creatures may be able to draw the life taken in an attack back to their caster, or may even be able to kill creatures through a deathtouch effect.", "Black's spells similarly coerce sacrifice by the player or their opponent through cards or life.", "* Red represents freedom, chaos, fury, and warfare, pulling its power from mountains.", "Its powers are associated with the classical fire and earth elements, and tends to have the strongest spells such as fireballs that can be powered-up by tapping additional mana when cast.", "Red is an offense-oriented class: in addition to powerful creatures like dragons, red planeswalkers can summon weak creatures that can strike quickly to gain the short-term edge.", "* Green is the color of life, nature, evolution, and indulgence, drawing mana from forests.", "Green has the widest array of creatures to draw upon, ranging across all power levels, and generally is able to dominate the battlefield with many creatures in play at once.", "Green creatures and spells can generate life points and mana, and can also gain massive strength through spells.Most cards in ''Magic: The Gathering'' are based on a single color, shown along the card's border.", "The cost to play them requires some mana of that color and potentially any amount of mana from any other color.", "Multicolored cards were introduced in the ''Legends'' expansion and typically use a gold border.", "Their casting cost includes mana from at least two colors plus additional mana from any color.", "Hybrid cards, included with ''Ravnica'', use a two-color gradient border.", "These cards can be cast using mana from either color shown, in addition to other mana costs.", "Finally, colorless cards, such as some artifacts, do not have any colored mana requirements but still require a general amount of mana to be spent to play.The color wheel can influence deck construction choices.", "Cards from colors that are aligned such as red and green often provide synergistic effects, either due to the core nature of the schools or through designs of cards, but may leave the deck vulnerable to the magic of the common color in conflict, blue in the case of red and green.", "Alternatively, decks constructed with opposing colors like green and blue may not have many favorable combinations but will be capable of dealing with decks based on any other colors.", "There are no limits to how many colors can be in a deck, but the more colors in a deck, the more difficult it may be to provide mana of the right color.===Luck vs. skill===''Magic'', like many other games, combines chance and skill.", "One frequent complaint about the game involves the notion that there is too much luck involved, especially concerning drawing too many or too few lands.", "Early in the game especially, too many or too few lands could ruin a player's chance at victory without the player having made a mistake.", "This in-game statistical variance can be minimized by proper deck construction, as an appropriate land count can reduce mana problems.", "In ''Duels of the Planeswalkers 2012'', the land count is automatically adjusted to 40% of the total deck size.A \"mulligan\" rule was introduced into the game, first informally in casual play and then in the official game rules.", "In multiplayer, a player may take one mulligan without penalty, while subsequent mulligans will cost one card (a rule known as \"Partial Paris mulligan\").", "The original mulligan allowed a player a single redraw of seven new cards if that player's initial hand contained seven or zero lands.", "A variation of this rule called a \"forced mulligan\" is still used in some casual play circles and in multiplayer formats on ''Magic Online'', and allows a single \"free\" redraw of seven new cards if a player's initial hand contains seven, six, one or zero lands.", "With the release of the Core Set 2020, a new mulligan system was introduced for competitive play known as the London Mulligan.", "Under this rule, after taking a mulligan, the player redraws 7 new cards, and then chooses 1 card to place on the bottom of their library for each mulligan they have taken (or chooses to mulligan again, drawing another 7 cards.)", "This mulligan rule is generally considered less punishing to mulligans than the prior mulligan rule, in which a player would simply draw one less card each time they mulliganed, rather than drawing 7 new cards after each mulligan, and subsequently choosing to “bottom” one card per mulligan taken.Confessing his love for games combining both luck and skill, ''Magic'' creator Richard Garfield admitted its influence in his design of ''Magic''.", "In addressing the complaint about luck influencing a game, Garfield states that new and casual players tend to appreciate luck as a leveling effect, since randomness can increase their chances of winning against a more skilled player.", "Meanwhile, a player with higher skills appreciates a game with less chance, as the higher degree of control increases their chances of winning.", "According to Garfield, ''Magic'' has and would likely continue decreasing its degree of luck as the game matured.", "The \"Mulligan rule\", as well as card design, past vs. present, are good examples of this trend.", "He feels that this is a universal trend for maturing games.", "Garfield explained using chess as an example, that unlike modern chess, in predecessors, players would use dice to determine which chess piece to move.===Gambling===The original set of rules prescribed that all games were to be played for ante.", "Garfield was partly inspired by the game of marbles and added this rule because he wanted the players to play with the cards rather than simply collect them.", "The ante rule stated that each player must remove a card at random from the deck they wished to play with before the game began, and the two cards would be set aside together as the ante.", "At the end of the match, the winner would take and keep both cards.", "Early sets included a few cards with rules designed to interact with this gambling aspect, allowing replacements of cards up for ante, adding more cards to the ante, or even permanently trading ownership of cards in play.", "The ante concept became controversial because many regions had restrictions on games of chance.", "The ante rule was soon made optional because of these restrictions and because of players' reluctance to possibly lose a card that they owned.", "The gambling rule was also forbidden at sanctioned events.", "The last card to mention ante was printed in the 1995 expansion set ''Homelands''." ], [ "Organized play", "Officially sanctioned ''Magic'' tournaments attract participants of all ages and are held around the world.", "These players in Rostock, Germany competed for an invitation to a professional tournament in Nagoya, Japan.The Wizards Play Network (WPN), formerly the Duelists' Convocation International (DCI), is the organizing body for sanctioned ''Magic'' events; it is owned and operated by Wizards of the Coast.", "The WPN establishes the set allowances and card restrictions for the Constructed and Limited formats for regulation play for tournaments as well as for other events.", "\"Thousands of games shops\" participate in Friday Night Magic (FNM), an event sponsored by the WPN; it is advertised as \"the event where new players can approach the game, and start building their community\".", "FNM offers both sanctioned tournament formats and all casual formats.", "In 2018, ''The New Yorker'' reported that \"even as it has grown in popularity and size, Magic flies low to the ground.", "It thrives on the people who gather at lunch tables, in apartments, or in one of the six thousand stores worldwide that Wizards has licensed to put on weekly tournaments dubbed Friday Night Magic\".", "FNM tournaments can act as a stepping-stone to more competitive play.=== Tournaments ===''Magic'' tournaments regularly occur in gaming stores and other venues.", "Larger tournaments with hundreds of competitors from around the globe sponsored by Wizards of the Coast are arranged many times every year, with substantial cash prizes for the top finishers.", "A number of websites report on tournament news, give complete lists for the most currently popular decks, and feature articles on current issues of debate about the game.", "Additionally, the WPN maintains a set of rules for being able to sanction tournaments, as well as runs its own circuit.==== The Pro Tour and Pro Club (2005-2019) ====By winning a yearly Invitational tournament, Jon Finkel won the right for this card to feature his design and likenessThe WPN ran the Pro Tour as a series of major tournaments to attract interest.", "The right to compete in a Pro Tour had to be earned by either winning a Pro Tour Qualifier Tournament or being successful in a previous tournament on a similar level.", "The Pro Tour would take place over the course of three days.", "The first two days were usually structured in a Swiss format.", "On the final day, the top eight players would compete with each other in a single-elimination format to select the winner.", "At the end of the competition in a Pro Tour, players were awarded Pro Points depending on their finishing place.", "If the player finished high enough, they would also be awarded prize money.", "Frequent winners of these events made names for themselves in the ''Magic'' community, such as Luis Scott-Vargas, Gabriel Nassif, Kai Budde and Jon Finkel.", "As a promotional tool, the DCI launched the Hall of Fame in 2005 to honor selected players.At the end of the year the ''Magic'' World Championship would be held.", "The World Championship functioned like a Pro Tour, except that competitors had to present their skill in three different formats (usually Standard, booster draft, and a second constructed format) rather than one.", "Another difference was that invitations to the World Championship could not be gained through Pro Tour Qualifiers.", "They could only be earned via the national championship of a country.", "Most countries sent their top four players of the tournament as representatives, though nations with minor ''Magic'' playing communities would sometimes only send one player.", "The World Championship also has a team-based competition, where the national teams compete with each other.At the beginning of the World Championship, new members were inducted into the Hall of Fame.", "The tournament also concluded the current season of tournament play and at the end of the event, the player who earned the most Pro Points during the year was awarded the title \"Pro Player of the Year\".", "The player who earned the most Pro Points and did not compete in any previous season was awarded the title \"Rookie of the Year\".Invitation to a Pro Tour, Pro Points, and prize money could also be earned in lesser tournaments called Grand Prix that were open to the general public and held more frequently throughout the year.", "Grand Prix events were usually the largest ''Magic'' tournaments, sometimes drawing more than 2,000 players.", "The largest ''Magic'' tournament ever held was Grand Prix: Las Vegas in June 2013 with a total of 4,500 players.In 2018, Wizards of the Coast announced that 2019 would be the last season for The Pro Tour and the Pro Club.", "With these changes, the system eliminated Nationals, the World Magic Cup, and the Team Series.==== The Magic Pro League and the Player's Tour (2019-2022) ====Starting with a partial season in 2019, the new organized play structure for Magic: The Gathering split into digital and tabletop play with separate Mythic Championships for ''Magic: The Gathering Arena'' and tabletop play.", "The Magic Pro League (MPL) included the top 32 players from the previous season, although two players turned down their spots.", "The players were notably given a $75,000/year salary and the opportunity to win much more money in exclusive tournaments.", "The new system consisted of several interconnected circuits: The Player's Tour, The Magic Pro League, Challengers/Rivals, Tabletop Mythic Championships, and Arena Mythic Championships.", "The new organized play system did maintain the yearly World Championship, but it was made a more exclusive 16 player tournament.", "In order to compete in the World Championship in this structure you must have placed top four in MPL, placed top four in the Challengers/Rivals League, won one of the seven tabletop or arena Mythic Championships, or won of the previous year's World Championship.While the Mythic Championships and Magic Pro League catered to the highest level of competitive play, the Player's Tour system was meant to give a path for average players to go from their local game store to the World Championship.", "There were three regional Player's Tours for Europe, Asia-Pacific, and the Americas.", "There were several ways to qualify for a regional Player's Tour, including local store events, accumulating points at Gran Prix/MagicFests, and winning on Magic: The Gathering Online.In 2021, it was announced that the competitive play system would undergo another shift.", "Wizards of the Coast stressed a return to in-person play and the disbandment of The Magic Pro League after the 2021–2022 season.", "According to several players from the MPL, the messaging they received was that competitive Magic would no longer be supported as a full-time, high-paid esports profession.===== The Return of The Pro Tour =====After announcing that The Magic Pro League would no longer be supported, Wizards of the Coast announced a return to the branding of The Pro Tour.", "With a simplified structure, the new Pro Tour system kept some of the original aspects from the system introduced in 2005, like a point system and the World Championship tournament each year.", "The new system starts players at Regional Championship qualifiers, which are exclusively held by local game shops.", "Winners of local qualifiers advance to Regional Championships which would be comparable to a Grand Prix in the previous systems.", "If a player performs well enough at their Regional Championship, they can qualify for a Pro Tour tournament.", "Players who earned 10 wins in the previous pro tour or have enough Adjusted Match Win (AMW) points from the previous season also earn a Pro Tour Qualification.", "The World Championship under the new system will have around 128 players who will compete for a $1,000,000 prize pool." ], [ "Development", "===Inception===Garfield in 2014Richard Garfield had an early attachment to games during his youth: before settling down in Oregon, his father, an architect, had brought his family to Bangladesh and Nepal during his work projects.", "Garfield did not speak the native languages, but was able to make friends with the local youth through playing cards or marbles.", "Once back in the United States, he had heard of ''Dungeons & Dragons'' but neither his local game store nor his friends had a copy, so he developed his own version of what he thought the game would be based on the descriptions he had read, which considered closer to ''Clue'', with players moving from room to room fighting monsters with a fixed end-goal.", "When Garfield eventually got copies of the ''Dungeons & Dragons'' rulesets, he was surprised that it was a more open-ended game but was \"dreadfully written\".", "''Dungeons & Dragons''s open-endedness inspired him, like many others, to develop their own game ideas from it.", "For Garfield, this was a game he called ''Five Magics'', based on five elemental magics that were drawn from geographically diverse areas.", "While this remained the core concept of ''Five Magics'', Garfield continued to refine the game while growing up, often drastically changing the base type of game, though never planned to publish this game.In 1991, Garfield was a doctoral candidate in combinatorial mathematics at University of Pennsylvania and had been brought on as an adjunct professor at Whitman College.", "During his candidacy, he developed his ideas and had playtested ''RoboRally'', a board game based on moving robots through a factory filled with hazards.", "Garfield had been seeking publishers for the title, and his colleague, Mike Davis, suggested the newly formed Wizards of the Coast, a small outfit established by Peter Adkison, a systems analyst for Boeing in Seattle.", "In mid-1991, the three arranged to meet in Oregon near Garfield's parents' home.", "Adkison was impressed by ''RoboRally'' but considered that it had too many logistics and would be too risky for him to publish.", "He told Garfield and Davis that he liked Garfield's ideas and that he was looking for a portable game that could be played in the downtime that frequently occurs at gaming conventions.After the meeting, Garfield remained in Oregon to contemplate Adkison's advice.", "While hiking near Multnomah Falls, he was inspired to take his ''Five Magics'' concept but apply it to collectible color-themed cards, so that each player could make a customizable deck, something each player could consider part of their identity.", "Garfield arranged to meet with Adkison back in Seattle within the week, and when Adkison heard the idea, he recognized the potential that this would be a game that could be expanded on indefinitely with new cards in contrast to most typical tabletop games; Adkison later wrote on the idea on a USENET post \"If executed properly, the cards would make us millions.\"", "Adkison immediately agreed to produce it.===Initial design===Garfield returned to Pennsylvania and set out to design the game's core rules and initial cards, with about 150 completed in the few months after his return.", "The type of gameplay centered on each color remained consistent with how ''Five Magics'' had been and with how ''Magic: The Gathering'' would stay in the future, such as red representing aggressive attacks.", "Other games also influenced the design at this point, with Garfield citing games like ''Cosmic Encounter'' and ''Strat-o-matic Baseball'' as games that differ each time they are played because of different sets of cards being in play.", "Initial \"cards\" were based on using available copyrighted art, and copied to paper to be tested by groups of volunteers at the university.", "About six months after the meeting with Adkison, Garfield had refined the first complete version of his game.", "Garfield also began to set the narrative of the game in \"Dominia\", a multiverse of infinite \"planes\" from which players, as wizards, can draw power from, which would allow for the vast array of creatures and magics that he was planning for the cards.Garfield has stated that two major influences in his creation of ''Magic: the Gathering'' were the games ''Cosmic Encounter'', which first used the concept that normal rules could sometimes be overridden, and ''Dungeons & Dragons''.", "One of the \"''Magic'' Golden Rules\" states that \"Whenever a card's text directly contradicts these rules, the card takes precedence.\"", "The ''Comprehensive Rules'', a detailed rulebook, exists to clarify conflicts.Simultaneously, Adkison sought investment into Wizards of the Coast to prepare to publish the game.", "The company had already committed to completing ''The Primal Order'' rulebook, aimed to be compatible with most other role-playing systems on the market, which most investment was drawn to.", "He had to bring in a number of local Cornish artists to create the fantasy art for Garfield's cards, offering them shares in Wizards of the Coast in payment.", "After ''The Primal Order'' was published in 1992, Wizards of the Coast was sued by Palladium for copyright infringement, a case that was settled out of court and with the result that a second printing of ''The Primal Order'' removed the rules relevant to Palladium's system, but this case also financially harmed Wizards of the Coast.", "Adkison decided to create a separate company, Garfield Games, for publishing the card game.While the game was simply called ''Magic'' through most of playtesting, when the game had to be officially named a lawyer informed them that the name ''Magic'' was too generic to be trademarked.", "''Mana Clash'' was instead chosen to be the name used in the first solicitation of the game.", "However, everybody involved with the game continued to refer to it simply as ''Magic''.", "After further legal consultation, it was decided to rename the game ''Magic: The Gathering'', thus enabling the name to be trademarked.===First releases===By 1993, Garfield and Adkison had gotten everything ready to premiere ''Magic: The Gathering'' at that year's Gen Con in Milwaukee that August, but did not have the funds for production to have cards shipped to game stores in time.", "Adkison took a single box of cards with a handful of complete decks to the Wizards booth at Origins Game Fair hoping to secure the funds by demonstrating the game.", "Among those he demonstrated to were representatives of Wargames West, manufacturers of historical tactics games; the representatives eventually brought their CEO over, and after seeing the game, took Adkison to dinner and negotiated funding terms.", "Adkison returned with , enough to make the necessary orders.", "''Magic: The Gathering'' underwent a general release on August 5, 1993.After shipping the orders, Adkison and his wife drove towards Milwaukee while making stops at game stores and demonstrate the game to drum up support for Gen Con.", "Their initial stops were quiet, but word of mouth from previous stops spread, and as they traveled south and west, they found larger and larger crowds anxiously awaiting their arrival.", "Garfield met up with Adkison at Gen Con, where their shipment of 2.5 million cards had been delayed a day.", "Despite this, by the end of the convention, they had completely sold out.", "''Magic'' was an immediate success for Wizards of the Coast.", "By October 1993, they had sold out their supply of 10 million cards.", "Wizards was even reluctant to advertise the game because they were unable to keep pace with existing demand.", "Initially ''Magic'' attracted many ''Dungeons & Dragons'' players, but the following included all types of other people as well.===Expansions===The success of the initial edition prompted a reissue later in 1993, along with expansions to the game.", "''Arabian Nights'' was released as the first expansion in December 1993.New expansions and revisions of the base game (\"Core Sets\") have since been released on a regular basis, amounting to four releases a year.", "By the end of 1994, the game had printed over a billion cards.", "Until the release of ''Mirage'' in 1996, expansions were released on an irregular basis.", "Beginning in 2009 one revision of the core set and a set of three related expansions called a \"block\" were released every year.", "This system was revised in 2015, with the Core Set being eliminated and blocks now consisting of two sets, released semiannually.", "A further revision occurred in 2018, reversing the elimination of the core sets and no longer constraining sets to blocks.", "While the essence of the game has always stayed the same, the rules of ''Magic'' have undergone three major revisions with the release of the ''Revised Edition'' in 1994, ''Classic'' Edition in 1999, and ''Magic 2010'' in July 2009.With the release of the ''Eighth Edition'' in 2003, ''Magic'' also received a major visual redesign.In 1996, Wizards of the Coast established the \"Pro Tour\", a circuit of tournaments where players can compete for sizeable cash prizes over the course of a single weekend-long tournament.", "In 2009 the top prize at a single tournament was US$40,000.Sanctioned through the DCI, the tournaments added an element of prestige to the game by virtue of the cash payouts and media coverage from within the community.", "For a brief period of time, ESPN2 televised the tournaments.By April 1997, billion cards had been sold.", "In 1999, Wizards of The Coast was acquired by Hasbro for $325 million, making ''Magic'' a Hasbro game.A patent was granted to Wizards of the Coast in 1997 for \"a novel method of game play and game components that in one embodiment are in the form of trading cards\" that includes claims covering games whose rules include many of ''Magic'''s elements in combination, including concepts such as changing orientation of a game component to indicate use (referred to in the rules of ''Magic'' and later of Garfield's games such as ''Vampire: The Eternal Struggle'' as \"tapping\") and constructing a deck by selecting cards from a larger pool.", "The patent has aroused criticism from some observers, who believe some of its claims to be invalid.", "In 2003, the patent was an element of a larger legal dispute between Wizards of the Coast and Nintendo, regarding trade secrets related to Nintendo's ''Pokémon Trading Card Game''.", "The legal action was settled out of court, and its terms were not disclosed.While unofficial methods of online play existed previously, ''Magic Online'' (often shortened to \"MTGO\" or \"Modo\"), an official online version of the game, was released in 2002.A new, updated version of ''Magic Online'' was released in April 2008.In February 2018, Wizards noted that between the years of 2008 and 2016 they had printed over 20 billion ''Magic: the Gathering'' cards.", "In 2022, ''CBR'' reported that \"over 20,000 unique ''MTG'' cards have been created\" since the game's release.Wizards of the Coast has continued to release expansions and sets through 2023, though the number of such expansions released per year began to increase, leading to concerns from investors and analysis that the accelerated release may create market fatigue." ], [ "Production and marketing", "''Magic: The Gathering'' cards are produced in much the same way as normal playing cards.", "Each ''Magic'' card, approximately 63 × 88 mm in size (2.5 by 3.5 inches), has a face which displays the card's name and rules text as well as an illustration appropriate to the card's concept.", "23,318 unique cards have been produced for the game ,many of them with variant editions, artwork, or layouts, and 600–1000 new ones are added each year.", "The first ''Magic'' cards were printed exclusively in English, but current sets are also printed in Simplified Chinese, Traditional Chinese, French, German, Italian, Japanese, Korean, Portuguese, Russian, and Spanish.The overwhelming majority of ''Magic'' cards are issued and marketed in the form of sets.", "For the majority of its history there were two types: the Core Set and the themed expansion sets.", "Under Wizards of the Coast's current production and marketing scheme, a new set is released quarterly.", "Various products are released with each set to appeal to different segments of the ''Magic'' playing community:* The majority of cards are sold in booster packs, which contain fifteen cards normally divided into four rarities, which can be differentiated by the color of the expansion symbol.", "A fifteen-card Booster Pack will typically contain one rare (gold), three uncommons (silver), ten commons (black), and one basic land (colored black, as commons).", "Sets prior to ''Shards of Alara'' contained eleven commons instead of a basic land.", "''Shards of Alara'' also debuted mythic rares (red-orange), which replace one in eight rare cards on average.", "There are also premium versions of every card with holographic foil, randomly inserted into some boosters in place of a common, which replace about one in seventy cards.", "* Each set since Kaladesh features two Planeswalker decks, which are meant to help new players learn the game.", "They contain a 60-card pre-constructed deck with an exclusive Planeswalker, as well as several exclusive cards, two booster packs from the set they accompany, as well as a rule guide and a card board box with an image of the included Planeswalker.", "* Each set from Shards of Alara to Eldritch Moon featured five Intro Packs, which fulfilled the same function as planeswalker decks.", "They contained a 60-card pre-constructed deck, as well as two booster packs from the set they accompany and a rule guide.", "* Each set from ''Mirrodin Besieged'' to ''Gatecrash'' featured two Event Decks, which were pre-constructed decks designed as an introduction to tournament play.", "Beginning with '' Dragon's Maze'', each set featured only one Event Deck.", "However, event decks were discontinued after the set \"Battle for Zendikar\".", "* Previously, cards were also sold in Tournament Packs typically containing three rares, ten uncommons, thirty-two commons, and thirty basic lands.", "Tournament Packs were discontinued after ''Shards of Alara''.As of 2018, the number of consecutive sets set on the same world varies.", "For example, although ''Dominaria'' takes place in one set, the ''Guilds of Ravnica'' block takes place over three sets.", "In addition, small sets have been removed due to developmental problems and all sets are now large.", "Prior to this change, sets were put into two-set blocks, starting with a large set and ending with a smaller one three months later.", "Prior to 2016, expansion sets were released in a three-set block (again, beginning with a larger set followed by two smaller sets).", "These sets consist almost exclusively of newly designed cards.", "In contrast with the wide-ranging Core Set, each expansion focuses on a subset of mechanics and ties into a set storyline.", "Expansions also dedicate several cards to a handful of particular, often newly introduced, game mechanics.The Core Sets began to be released annually (previously biennially) in July 2009 coinciding with the name change from ''10th Edition'' to ''Magic 2010''.", "This shift also introduced new, never before printed cards into the core set, something that previously had never been done.", "However, core sets were discontinued following the release of ''Magic Origins'', on July 17, 2015, at the same time that two-set blocks were introduced.", "Wizards of Coast announced on June 12, 2017, that they planned on revamping and reintroducing a revamped core set, and Core Set 2019 was released on July 13, 2018.In addition to the quarterly set releases, ''Magic'' cards are released in other products as well, such as the ''Planechase'' and ''Archenemy'' spin-off games.", "These combine reprinted ''Magic'' cards with new, oversized cards with new functionality.", "''Magic'' cards are also printed specifically for collectors, such as the ''From the Vault'' and ''Premium Deck Series'' sets, which contain exclusively premium foil cards.In 2003, starting with the ''Eighth Edition'' Core Set, the game went through its biggest visual change since its creation—a new card frame layout was developed to allow more rules text and larger art on the cards, while reducing the thick, colored border to a minimum.", "The new frame design aimed to improve contrast and readability using black type instead of the previous white, a new font, and partitioned areas for the name, card type, and power and toughness.", "The card frame was changed once again in Core Set 2015, which maintained the same templating, but made the card sleeker and added a holo-foil stamp to every rare and mythic card to curtail counterfeiting.For the first few years of its production, ''Magic: The Gathering'' featured a small number of cards with names or artwork with demonic or occultist themes, in 1995 the company elected to remove such references from the game.", "In 2002, believing that the depiction of demons was becoming less controversial and that the game had established itself sufficiently, Wizards of the Coast reversed this policy and resumed printing cards with \"demon\" in their names.In 2019, starting with ''Throne of Eldraine'', booster packs have a chance of containing an alternate art \"showcase card\".", "This is to increase the reward of buying boosters and making it more exciting.A new format, \"Jumpstart\", was introduced in July 2020 alongside the Core 2021 set.", "These are special themed 20-card booster packs, based on nearly 500 cards, several being reprints of cards from previous sets, with 121 possible packs available.", "Each is a curated set rather than random selection of cards, built around a theme, such as \"Pirates\" or \"Unicorns\".", "Each theme has a small number of possible card sets on that theme, distributed on a rarity basis, such that the specific booster that a player purchases will still be a random selection.", "Because many are reprints, not all Jumpstart cards are available to be used in the various Constructed formats but can be used in other modes of play.", "Jumpstart was designed to make it much easier to get into ''Magic'' by eliminating the deck-building but still providing some customization and randomness that comes with card acquisition and deck building.", "A special Jumpstart format was introduced for these boosters, where players select two desired themes, and are given a random booster from those themes and sufficient land cards to make a 60-card deck.With the release of the ''Murders At Karlov Manor'' set in February 2024, Wizards will introduce a new booster set called \"Play boosters\", intended to replace Draft and Set booster packs in the future.", "Play boosters contain 14 cards with a set distribution of common, uncommon, and rare/mythic cards, along with land and wildcards; however, within each of these, there is a chance for special \"booster fun\" variant.", "There is also a chance at a card from \"The List\", a limited number of cards from ''MTG'' history.", "These boosters are intended to be usable for draft gameplay modes as well as for normal library expansion, as in years since the Set booster introduction, Wizards had found that stories favors those sales over Draft boosters.===Writing and storyline===Garfield had established that ''Magic: The Gathering'' took place in a Multiverse with countless possible worlds (planes), the game's primary events taking place on the planes of Dominaria, Ravnica, Zendikar, and Innistrad.", "Only extremely rare beings called Planeswalkers are capable of traversing the Multiverse.", "This allows the game to frequently change worlds so as to renew its mechanical inspiration, while maintaining planeswalkers as recurrent, common elements across worlds.", "Players represent planeswalkers able to draw on the magics and entities of these planes to do battle with others.", "Story elements were told through the cards' flavor text, and a driving narrative.", "The first expansion ''Arabian Nights'' designed by Garfield was based on ''One Thousand and One Nights'' folklore and include figures from that like Aladdin.Early expansions were designed separately, each with their own internal narrative to establish concepts, keywords, and flavoring.", "With ''Weatherlight'', the team wanted to start a longer arc that would cover multiple expansions over five years that would also extend into comics, magazines, and other media.", "However, with a change in oversight of the ''Magic: The Gathering'' team, player fatigue, and a disconnect between the novels and cards, this plan was scrapped.", "returning to the general approach of designing a narrative specific to one expansion.Wizards, which had regained the license from Harper Prism and Armada (an imprint of Acclaim Entertainment) to write novels for ''Magic: The Gathering'', still worked to integrate the novel writing staff with the game designers so that there was some cohesion between the game and books, but did not seek to make this a key priority as the ''Weatherlight'' goal had been.", "Novels soon gave way to eBooks and later to shorter stories posted on the Wizards' website which fared better in terms of popularity.In 2017, Wizards hired novelist and scriptwriter Nic Kelman as their Head of Story and Entertainment.", "Kelman became responsible for crafting the ''Magic: The Gathering'' story bible from all established lore as reference for further expansions and for the external media.", "This task helped Kelmen to prepare the novel ''War of the Spark: Ravnica'' that was published just prior to the new set ''War of the Spark'', with cards retaining continuity with the novel and past events.===Artwork===Each card has an illustration to represent the flavor of the card, often reflecting the setting of the expansion for which it was designed.", "Much of ''Magic''s early artwork was commissioned with little specific direction or concern for visual cohesion.", "One infamous example was the printing of the creature Whippoorwill without the \"flying\" ability even though its art showed a bird in flight.", "The art direction team later decided to impose a few constraints so that the artistic vision more closely aligned with the design and development of the cards.", "Each block of cards now has its own style guide with sketches and descriptions of the various races and places featured in the setting.A few early sets experimented with alternate art for cards.", "However, Wizards came to believe that this impeded easy recognition of a card and that having multiple versions caused confusion when identifying a card at a glance.", "Consequently, alternate art is now only used sparingly and mostly for promotional cards.", "When older cards are reprinted in new sets, however, Wizards of the Coast usually prints them with new art to make the older cards more collectible, though they sometimes reuse well-received artwork if it makes sense thematically.At the back of each card, at the end of the word \"Deckmaster\", a pen stroke is visible.", "According to Wizards of the Coast, this is a printing error which was never corrected, as all card backs have to look the same.As ''Magic'' has expanded across the globe, its artwork has had to change for its international audience.", "Artwork has been edited or given alternate art to comply with the governmental standards.", "For example, the portrayal of skeletons and most undead in artwork was prohibited by the Chinese government until 2008.===Promotional crossovers===Wizards of the Coast has introduced specials cards and sets that include cross-promotional elements with other brands typically as promotional cards, not legal for Standard play and may not be playable even in eternal formats.", "Four promotional cards were sold at HasCon 2017, featuring three other Hasbro brands, ''Transformers'', ''Nerf'', and ''Dungeons & Dragons''.", "A special three-card set based on characters from ''My Little Pony: Friendship Is Magic'' (another Hasbro brand) was sold as both physical product and digital items within ''MTG Arena'' to support the Extra Life charity.", "The \"Ikoria, Lair of Behemoths\" set released in April 2020 included 16 kaiju monsters from Toho as promotional cards, such as Godzilla.", "The Secret Lair promotional series has also been used to introduce crossover cards from other brands.", "As part of the Secret Lair set in 2020, a number of cards were made that featured crossovers with AMC's television show ''The Walking Dead'', which the development team felt was a natural fit since zombies were already part of the ''Magic'' game.", "A limited set of land cards in the Secret Lair featured paintings from Bob Ross, licensed through his estate.", "In June 2021, Wizards of the Coast announced a Secret Lair based on ''Dungeons and Dragon cartoon''.", "Secret Lair drops in 2021 featured cards based on ''Stranger Things'', while ''Fortnite'' and ''Street Fighter'' were featured in 2022.The new Universes Beyond series has been used to bring more crossover properties into ''Magic'' such as ''Warhammer 40,000'' and ''The Lord of the Rings''.", "Such sets will have both Commander decks and booster packs, and their cards will play-legal and usable in most Magic gameplay formats.", "Universes Beyond sets for ''Doctor Who'', and ''Jurassic Park'' are set for release in 2024, while other planned sets include crossovers with ''Fallout'', ''Assassin's Creed'', ''Final Fantasy'', Wizards of the Coast partnered with Marvel Entertainment to bring several \"tentpole\" sets featuring Marvel characters in 2025.Additionally, Wizards has continued to develop a strong connection between the ''Magic'' and the ''Dungeons & Dragons'' ''(D&D)'' universes.", "Greg Tito, Wizards of the Coast Senior Communications Manager, said that \"there is a huge crossover between ''Magic'' players and ''D&D'' players\".", "In July 2021, a ''D&D'' themed set expansion, ''Adventures in the Forgotten Realms'', was released; it is based on the ''Forgotten Realms'' campaign setting.", "Separately, elements of ''Magic'' have been brought into the role-playing game.", "The first such official crossover was a ''D&D'' campaign setting book for the plane of Ravnica, a ''Magic'' expansion introduced in 2005 and 2006 and later revisited in the 2018 expansion ''Guilds of Ravnica''.", "''Guildmasters' Guide to Ravnica'' was also published in 2018 to correspond with the newer ''Magic'' expansion's release.", "A second campaign setting book, ''Mythic Odysseys of Theros'' (2020), introduced the plane of Theros to ''D&D'' and corresponded with the 2020 ''Theros Beyond Death'' expansion.", "''Strixhaven: A Curriculum of Chaos'' (2021) introduces the 2021 ''Magic'' expansion as a ''D&D'' campaign setting; it was released in December 2021." ], [ "Reception", "===Critical reviews===Scott Haring reviewed ''Magic: The Gathering'' in ''Pyramid'' #4 (Nov./Dec., 1993), and stated that \"Not only is ''Magic'' the best gaming bargain to come down the pike in memory; not only is it the most original idea in years; it's also a delightfully addictive game that you and your friends will find impossible to put down.\"", "Marcelo A. Figueroa reviewed the game in a 1993 issue of ''Space Gamer/Fantasy Gamer'', noting both positives and negatives, stating that, \"despite all of its flaws, it's as endearing as Star Fleet Battles\".", "Overall, Figueroa rated the game a 7 out of 10.A 2004 article in ''USA Today'' suggested that playing ''Magic'' might help improve the social and mental skills of some of the players.", "The article interviewed players' parents who believe that the game, similar to sports, teaches children how to more gracefully win and lose.", "''Magic'' also contains a great amount of strategy and vocabulary that children may not be exposed to on a regular basis.", "Parents also claimed that playing ''Magic'' helped keep their children out of trouble, such as using illegal drugs or joining criminal gangs.", "On the other hand, the article also briefly mentions that ''Magic'' can be highly addictive, leading to parents worried about their children's ''Magic'' obsession.", "In addition, until 2007, some of the better players had opportunities to compete for a small number of scholarships.Jordan Weisman, an American game designer and entrepreneur, commentedI love games that challenge and change our definition of adventure gaming, and ''Magic: The Gathering'' is definitely one of a very short list of titles that has accomplished that elusive goal.", "By combining the collecting and trading elements of baseball cards with the fantasy play dynamics of role-playing games, ''Magic'' created a whole new genre of product that changed our industry forever.", "\"In 2015, ''The Guardian'' reported that an estimated 20 million people played ''Magic'' around the world and that the game had a thriving tournament scene, a professional league and a weekly organized game program called Friday Night Magic.A July 2019 article in ''Bloomberg'' reported that \"''Magic'' is part of the Hasbro’s 'franchise brands,' a segment that accounted for $2.45 billion in net revenue for the company last year, bigger than its emerging, partner and gaming brand units combined.", "Chris Cocks said ''Magic'' accounts for a 'meaningful portion' of that, with KeyBanc estimating the game’s contribution is already more than $500 million—including both the physical cards and the nascent digital version.", "Of the franchise brands, only ''Magic'' and Monopoly logged revenue gains last year\".", "''Magic: The Gathering Arena'', in open beta testing since September 2018, is a free-to-play digital collectible card game with microtransaction purchases based on ''Magic''.", "Brett Andress, an analyst at KeyBanc Capital Markets, predicts ''Magic: The Gathering Arena'' adding as much as 98 cents a share in incremental earnings to results by 2021 (which is at least a 20% boost).", "Joe Deaux, for ''Bloomberg'', wrote that \"nearly 3 million active users will be playing Arena by the end of this year, KeyBanc estimates, and that could swell to nearly 11 million by 2021 according to its bull case scenario—especially if it expands from PCs to mobile.", "That’s just active users, and registered users could be higher by the millions.", "Already, according to Hasbro, a billion games have been played online\".In 2022, ''The Gamer'' and ''Kotaku'' reported on the increased product release schedule for ''Magic: The Gathering'' with ''The Gamer'' opining that the increased number of preview seasons for the game was leading to exhaustion within the community and had \"drained the well of enthusiasm dry\".", "Wizards released a commemorative product, ''Magic: The Gathering 30th Anniversary Edition'', for $999; this product rereleased cards which were not sanctioned for tournament play.", "CNET stated that \"it's not a practical purchase, it's a piece of art\".", "Both WBUR and ''Vice'' reported that many fans were unhappy with the price point of the product.", "''Vice'' commented that there is \"a growing divide in the ''Magic: The Gathering'' community between the casual players and the collectors\" as \"some rich collectors have turned the cards into a kind of commodities market .... Wizards of the Coast has increasingly catered to this kind of consumer\" leading to products that are too expensive for many casual players.", "CNBC reported that \"Bank of America downgraded the stock of Wizard of the Coast's owner, Hasbro\" in November 2022 with analyst Jason Haas stating that changes to the ''Magic: The Gathering'' \"brand amount to Hasbro 'killing its golden goose and highlighting that the \"primary concern\" is the overproduction of \"''Magic'' cards which has propped up Hasbro's recent results but is destroying the long-term value of the brand\".===Awards===* 1994: Mensa Select Award winner* 1994: Origins Awards for ''Best Fantasy or Science Fiction Board game of 1993'' and ''Best Graphic Presentation of a Board game of 1993''* 1994: Origins Award for the ''Legends'' expansion as ''Best Game Accessory''* 1995: Deutscher Spiele Preis special award for new game mechanics* 1995: Italian Gaming Society ''Gioco dell'Anno'' award winner* 1996: Super As d'Or award for \"Best New Game Concept and Genre Introduced in France\"* 1997: ''InQuest'' Fan Award for Best CCG Expansion for the ''Weatherlight'' expansion* 1998: Origins Award for the Urza's Saga expansion as ''Collectible Card Game Expansion of the Year''* 1999: Inducted alongside Richard Garfield into the Origins Hall of Fame* 2003: ''Games'' Magazine selected ''Magic'' for its Games Hall of Fame* 2005: Origins Award for the Ravnica: City of Guilds expansion as ''Collectible Card Game Expansion of the Year''* 2009: Origins Award for the Shards of Alara expansion as ''Collectible Card Game Expansion of the Year''* 2012: Origins Award for the Innistrad expansion as ''Collectible Card Game Expansion of the Year''* 2015: Origins Award for the Khans of Tarkir expansion as ''Best Collectible Card Game of the Year''* 2019: Inducted into the National Toy Hall of FameIn addition, several individuals including Richard Garfield and Donato Giancola won personal awards for their contributions to ''Magic''.===Legacy===The success of ''Magic: The Gathering'' led to the creation of similar games by other companies as well as Wizards of the Coast themselves.", "Companion Games produced the Galactic Empires CCG (the first science fiction trading card game), which allowed players to pay for and design their own promotional cards, while TSR created the ''Spellfire'' game, which eventually included five editions in six languages, plus twelve expansion sets.", "Wizards of the Coast produced ''Jyhad'' (now called ''Vampire: The Eternal Struggle''), a game about modern-day vampires.", "Other similar games included trading card games based on ''Star Trek'' and ''Star Wars''.", "''Magic'' is often cited as an example of a 1990s collecting fad, though the game's makers were able to overcome the bubble traditionally associated with collecting fads.", "Its popularity often was associated with addictive behavior similar to gambling through the allure of gaining new cards in booster packs and expansions, and due to this, ''Magic: The Gathering'' has been sometimes called \"cardboard crack\" by both fans and critics.There was a brief resurgence of a satanic panic over ''Magic: The Gathering'' in the mid-1990s, following a similar panic over ''Dungeons and Dragons'', though did not persist for long.===Secondary market===There is an active secondary market in individual cards among players and game shops.", "This market arose from two different facets: players seeking specific cards to help complete or enhance their existing decks and thus were less concerned on the value of the cards themselves, and from collectors seeking the rarer cards for their monetary value to complete collections.", "Many physical and online stores sell single cards or \"playsets\" of four of a card.", "Common cards rarely sell for more than a few cents and are usually sold in bulk.", "Uncommon cards and weak rare cards typically sell from 10¢ up to US$1.The more expensive cards in Standard tournament play—a rotating format featuring the newest cards designed to be fairer and more accessible to newer players—are typically priced between $1 and $25.A second format, Modern, comprising an intermediate level of power and allowing most cards released since roughly 2003, has staple cards that often value between $5 and $100, with higher rarity and demand but reprints every few years intended to keep the format affordable.", "Foil versions of rare and mythic rare cards are typically priced at about twice as much as the regular versions.", "Some of the more sought-after rare and mythic rare cards can have foil versions that cost up to three or four times more than the non-foil versions.A few of the oldest cards, due to smaller printings and limited distribution, are highly valued and rare.", "This is partly due to the Reserved List, a list of cards from the sets ''Alpha'' to ''Urza's Destiny'' (1994–1999) that Wizards has promised never to reprint.", "Legacy-only cards on the Reserved List, which are barred from reprint under a voluntary but genuine legal obligation, are in short supply due to smaller print runs of the game in its oldest days, and may be worth $200 to $1,000 or higher.", "And certain Vintage cards—the oldest cards in Magic, with most on the Reserved List, such as the so-called \"Power Nine\"—can easily cost more than $1,000 apiece.", "The most expensive card that was in regular print (versus a promotional or special printing) is the ''Black Lotus'', which are currently worth thousands of dollars.", "In 2019, an anonymous buyer purchased an unsigned \"Pristine 9.5 grade\" Beckett Grading Services-graded Alpha Black Lotus for a record $166,100.A PSA \"Gem Mint 10\" graded Alpha ''Black Lotus'', framed in a case signed by its artist Christopher Rush, sold at auction for $511,100 in January 2021, while a similar ''Black Lotus'' of the same quality sold for $540,000 in March 2023.In July 2023, the singleton \"One Ring\" card printed as part of ''The Lord of the Rings'' crossover set was found by a retail worker in Toronto, who later sold it to rapper Post Malone for .The secondary market started with comic book stores, and hobby shops displaying and selling cards, with the cards' values determined somewhat arbitrarily by the employees of the store.", "Hobbyist magazines, already tracking prices of sports trading cards, engaged with the ''Magic'' secondary market by surveying the stores to inquire on current prices to cards, which they then published.", "With the expansion of the Internet, prices of cards were determined by the number of tournament deck lists a given card would appear in.", "If a card was played in a tournament more frequently, the cost of the card would be higher (in addition to the market availability of the card).", "When eBay, Amazon, and other large online markets started to gain popularity, the ''Magic'' secondary market evolved substantially, with the site TCGPlayer.com launched in 2008 being the first that not only compiled the pricing data but allowed for players to buy and sell cards for ''Magic'' and other CCGs directly via the site.", "TCGPlayer developed a metric called the TCG Market Price for each card that was based on the most recent sales, allowing for near real-time valuation of a card in the same manner as a stock market.", "Buying and selling ''Magic'' cards online became a source of income for people who learned how to manipulate the market.Today, the secondary market is so large and complex, it has become an area of study for consumer research called ''Magic: The Gathering'' finance.", "Some people make a career out of market manipulation, creating mathematical models to analyze the growth of cards' worth, and predict the market value of both individual cards, and entire sets of cards.", "''Magic''s economy has also been tied to the introduction of Bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies, as ''Magic'' cards represent a physical asset that can be converted back and forth into the virtual currency.", "Nearly all of ''Magic''s trading market is unregulated, and issues related to insider trading based on planned changes to the game have occurred.", "Active ''Magic'' financial traders have gained a sour reputation with more casual ''Magic'' players due to the lack of regulations, and that the market manipulations makes it costly for casual players to buy single cards simply for purposes for improving decks.As of late 2013, Wizards of the Coast has expressed concern over the increasing number of counterfeit cards in the secondary market.", "Wizards of the Coast has since made an effort to counteract the rise of counterfeits by introducing a new holofoil stamp on all rare and mythic rare cards as of Magic 2015.===Academic analysis===There are several examples of academic, peer-reviewed research concerning different aspects of ''Magic: The Gathering''.", "One study examined how players use their imaginations when playing.", "This research studied hobby players and showed how players sought to create and participate in an epic fantasy narrative.", "Another example used online auctions for ''Magic'' cards to test revenue outcomes for various auction types.", "A third example uses probability to examine ''Magic'' card-collecting strategies.", "Using a specific set of cards in a specialized manner has shown ''Magic: The Gathering'' to be Turing complete.", "Further, by proving this, the researchers assert that ''Magic: The Gathering'' is so complex as to be Turing complete and capable of being \"programmed\" to perform any task, that in terms of playing an actual game of ''Magic'', \"the winning strategy is non-computable\", making it an improbable challenge to devise computer opponents that can play ''Magic'' in a mathematically optimal manner." ], [ "Franchise", "''Magic: The Gathering'' video games, comics, and books have been produced under licensing or directly by Wizards of the Coast.===Other traditional games===In 2015 Wizards of the Coast and Hasbro published ''Magic: The Gathering – Arena of the Planeswalkers''.", "Arena of the Planeswalkers is a tactical boardgame where the players maneuver miniatures over a customizable board game, and the ruleset and terrain is based on Heroscape, but with an addition of spell cards and summoning.", "The original master set includes miniatures that represent the five Planeswalkers Gideon, Jace, Liliana, Chandra, and Nissa as well as select creatures from the Magic: The Gathering universe.", "They later released an expansion ''Battle for Zendikar'' featuring multi-color Planeswalkers Kiora and Ob Nixilis and a colorless Eldrazi Ruiner, and a second master set Shadows Over Innistrad which has 4 new Planeswalkers and also includes the addition of cryptoliths.===Video games===There are currently two official video game adaptions of ''Magic: The Gathering'' for online play.", "''Magic: The Gathering Online'', first introduced in 2002, allows for players to buy cards and boosters and play against others including in officially-sanctioned tournaments for prize money.", "''Magic: The Gathering Arena'', introduced in 2019, is fashioned after the free-to-play ''Hearthstone'', with players able to acquire new cards for free or through spending real-world funds.", "''Arena'' currently limited online events with in-game prizes, but is currently being positioned by Wizards of the Coast to also serve as a means for official tournament play, particularly after the COVID-19 pandemic.", "Both ''Online'' and ''Arena'' are regularly updated with new Core and Expansion cards as well as all rule changes made by Wizards.In addition, Wizards of the Coast has worked with other developers for various iterations of ''Magic: The Gathering'' as a card game in a single-player game format.", "Microprose developed 1997 ''Magic: The Gathering'' and its expansions, which had the player travel the world of Shandalar to challenge computer opponents, earn cards to customize their decks, improve their own Planeswalker attributes and ultimately defeat a powerful Planeswalker.", "Stainless Games developed a series of titles starting with 2009's ''Magic: The Gathering – Duels of the Planeswalkers'' and culminating with 2015's ''Magic Duels'', a free-to-play title.", "The ''Duels'' series did not feature full sets of ''Magic'' cards but selected subsets, and were initially designed to couple a challenging single-player experience with an advanced artificial-intelligence computer opponent.", "Later games in the series added in more deck-building options and multiplayer support.Additional games have tried other variations of the ''Magic: The Gathering'' gameplay in other genres.", "Acclaim developed a real-time strategy game ''Magic: The Gathering: BattleMage'' in 2003, in which the player's abilities were inspired by the various cards.", "Acclaim also had made a 1997 arcade game ''Magic: The Gathering – Armageddon'', a ''Breakout''-style trackball-based game, but only as many as six cabinets were known to have been made.", "Hiberium and D3 Publisher developed ''Magic: The Gathering – Puzzle Quest'', combining deck building with match-3-style casual gaming.", "This was released in December 2015 as a freemium game and continues to be updated with new card sets from the physical game.", "Cryptic Studios and Perfect World Entertainment have started beta tests for ''Magic: Legends'', a massively multiplayer online action role-playing game for personal computers and consoles.", "The title was cancelled ahead of its full release in 2021; executive producer Stephen Ricossa explained that the game's creative vision had \"missed the mark\".In addition to official programs, a number of unofficial programs were developed to help user to track their ''Magic: The Gathering'' library and allow for rudimentary play between online players.", "Examples of such programs included ''Apprentice'', ''Magic Workstation'', ''XMage'', and ''Cockatrice''.", "These programs are not endorsed by Wizards of the Coast.===Novels===Harper Prism originally had an exclusive license to produce novels for ''Magic: The Gathering'', and published ten books between 1994 and 1996.Around 1997, the license reverted to Wizards, and the company published its own novels to better tie these works to the expansion sets from 1998 to about 2011.===Comics===In 1994, Wizards of the Coast gave an exclusive license to Armada Comics, an imprint of Acclaim Entertainment, to publish comic books.", "The comics were not developed in concert with the game and were created with divergent ideas to the game.", "However, \"much of the lore established\" by Armada Comics was \"the foundation from which the rest of continuity was built.", "...", "Some of the details changed (or were 'retconned', in popular fan speak), but for the most part the core of these stories stayed the same\".", "The comics came to a sudden end in 1996 when Acclaim started to run into financial trouble.", "In 1998, a new four-issue limited comic series was published by Dark Horse.In September 2011, Hasbro and IDW Publishing accorded to make a four-issue mini-series about ''Magic: The Gathering'' with a new story but heavily based on MTG elements and with a new Planeswalker called ''Dack Fayden'', the story of which mainly developed in the planes of Ravnica and Innistrad.", "The series started in February 2012.In 2018, a four-issue mini-series on the Planeswalker Chandra Nalaar was released.", "A sequel mini-series was announced in 2019, however, it was cancelled before publication.In January 2021, Boom!", "Studios acquired the comic license of ''Magic: The Gathering'' and announced for a new ''Magic'' series for April 2021.===Film===In January 2014, 20th Century Fox acquired the rights to produce a ''Magic: The Gathering'' film with Simon Kinberg as producer and TSG Entertainment (its co-financing partner), and Allspark Pictures as co-financers, after Universal Pictures allegedly dropped the film from their schedule (both Universal and Hasbro had been developing the original ''Magic: The Gathering'' film since 2009).", "In June 2014, Fox hired screenwriter Bryan Cogman to write the script for the film.", "In 2019 following Disney's acquisition of 21st Century Fox's assets, the film along with numerous other properties in development at Fox were cancelled.In April 2016, ''Enter the Battlefield'', a documentary about life on the Magic Pro Tour was released.", "The film was written by Greg Collins, Nathan Holt, and Shawn Kornhauser.The production team behind ''The Toys That Made Us'' will produce a documentary ''Igniting the Spark, The Story of Magic: The Gathering''.===Television===In June 2019, Variety reported that Joe and Anthony Russo, Wizards of the Coast, and Hasbro's Entertainment One have teamed with Netflix for an animated ''Magic: The Gathering'' television series.", "In July 2019 at the San Diego Comic-Con, the Russos revealed the logo of the animated series and spoke about doing a live-action series.", "During the Magic Showcase virtual event in August 2021, they revealed that Brandon Routh would be the voice of Gideon Jura, and that the series will premiere sometime in 2023.The Russo brothers, along with Henry Gilroy and Jose Molina, have since separated from the project, and production has been entrusted to Jeff Kline.===Parodies===In 1998, PGI Limited created ''Havic: The Bothering'', which was a parody of ''Magic: The Gathering''.", "Wizards of the Coast, which owned the rights to ''Magic: The Gathering'', took active steps to hinder the distribution of the game and successfully shut out PGI Limited from attending GenCon in July 1998.In an attempt to avoid breaching copyright and Richard Garfield's patent, each starter deck of ''Havic'' had printed on the back side, \"This is a Parody\", and on the bottom of the rule card was printed, \"''Do not have each player'': construct their own library of predetermined number of game components by examining and selecting the game components from a reservoir of game components or you may infringe on U.S. Patent No.", "5,662,332 to Garfield.", "\"Five official parody expansions of ''Magic'' exist: ''Unglued'', ''Unhinged'', ''Unstable'', ''Unsanctioned'', and ''Unfinity''.", "Most of the cards in these sets feature silver borders and humorous themes.", "The silver-bordered cards are not legal for play in WPN-sanctioned tournaments." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * * Review in Shadis" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mathematics" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Mathematics''' is an area of knowledge that includes the topics of numbers, formulas and related structures, shapes and the spaces in which they are contained, and quantities and their changes.", "These topics are represented in modern mathematics with the major subdisciplines of number theory, algebra, geometry, and analysis, respectively.", "There is no general consensus among mathematicians about a common definition for their academic discipline.Most mathematical activity involves the discovery of properties of abstract objects and the use of pure reason to prove them.", "These objects consist of either abstractions from nature orin modern mathematicsentities that are stipulated to have certain properties, called axioms.", "A ''proof'' consists of a succession of applications of deductive rules to already established results.", "These results include previously proved theorems, axioms, andin case of abstraction from naturesome basic properties that are considered true starting points of the theory under consideration.Mathematics is essential in the natural sciences, engineering, medicine, finance, computer science, and the social sciences.", "Although mathematics is extensively used for modeling phenomena, the fundamental truths of mathematics are independent from any scientific experimentation.", "Some areas of mathematics, such as statistics and game theory, are developed in close correlation with their applications and are often grouped under applied mathematics.", "Other areas are developed independently from any application (and are therefore called pure mathematics), but often later find practical applications.", "The problem of integer factorization, for example, which goes back to Euclid in 300 BC, had no practical application before its use in the RSA cryptosystem, now widely used for the security of computer networks.Historically, the concept of a proof and its associated mathematical rigour first appeared in Greek mathematics, most notably in Euclid's ''Elements''.", "Since its beginning, mathematics was primarily divided into geometry and arithmetic (the manipulation of natural numbers and fractions), until the 16th and 17th centuries, when algebra and infinitesimal calculus were introduced as new fields.", "Since then, the interaction between mathematical innovations and scientific discoveries has led to a correlated increase in the development of both.", "At the end of the 19th century, the foundational crisis of mathematics led to the systematization of the axiomatic method, which heralded a dramatic increase in the number of mathematical areas and their fields of application.", "The contemporary Mathematics Subject Classification lists more than sixty first-level areas of mathematics." ], [ "Etymology", "The word ''mathematics'' comes from Ancient Greek ''máthēma'' (''''), meaning \"that which is learnt\", \"what one gets to know\", hence also \"study\" and \"science\".", "The word came to have the narrower and more technical meaning of \"mathematical study\" even in Classical times.", "Its adjective is ''mathēmatikós'' (), meaning \"related to learning\" or \"studious\", which likewise further came to mean \"mathematical\".", "In particular, ''mathēmatikḗ tékhnē'' (; ) meant \"the mathematical art\".Similarly, one of the two main schools of thought in Pythagoreanism was known as the ''mathēmatikoi'' (μαθηματικοί)which at the time meant \"learners\" rather than \"mathematicians\" in the modern sense.", "The Pythagoreans were likely the first to constrain the use of the word to just the study of arithmetic and geometry.", "By the time of Aristotle (384–322 BC) this meaning was fully established.In Latin, and in English until around 1700, the term ''mathematics'' more commonly meant \"astrology\" (or sometimes \"astronomy\") rather than \"mathematics\"; the meaning gradually changed to its present one from about 1500 to 1800.This change has resulted in several mistranslations: For example, Saint Augustine's warning that Christians should beware of ''mathematici'', meaning \"astrologers\", is sometimes mistranslated as a condemnation of mathematicians.The apparent plural form in English goes back to the Latin neuter plural (Cicero), based on the Greek plural ''ta mathēmatiká'' () and means roughly \"all things mathematical\", although it is plausible that English borrowed only the adjective ''mathematic(al)'' and formed the noun ''mathematics'' anew, after the pattern of ''physics'' and ''metaphysics'', inherited from Greek.", "In English, the noun ''mathematics'' takes a singular verb.", "It is often shortened to ''maths'' or, in North America, ''math''." ], [ "Areas of mathematics", "Before the Renaissance, mathematics was divided into two main areas: arithmetic, regarding the manipulation of numbers, and geometry, regarding the study of shapes.", "Some types of pseudoscience, such as numerology and astrology, were not then clearly distinguished from mathematics.During the Renaissance, two more areas appeared.", "Mathematical notation led to algebra which, roughly speaking, consists of the study and the manipulation of formulas.", "Calculus, consisting of the two subfields ''differential calculus'' and ''integral calculus'', is the study of continuous functions, which model the typically nonlinear relationships between varying quantities, as represented by variables.", "This division into four main areasarithmetic, geometry, algebra, calculusendured until the end of the 19th century.", "Areas such as celestial mechanics and solid mechanics were then studied by mathematicians, but now are considered as belonging to physics.", "The subject of combinatorics has been studied for much of recorded history, yet did not become a separate branch of mathematics until the seventeenth century.At the end of the 19th century, the foundational crisis in mathematics and the resulting systematization of the axiomatic method led to an explosion of new areas of mathematics.", "The 2020 Mathematics Subject Classification contains no less than first-level areas.", "Some of these areas correspond to the older division, as is true regarding number theory (the modern name for higher arithmetic) and geometry.", "Several other first-level areas have \"geometry\" in their names or are otherwise commonly considered part of geometry.", "Algebra and calculus do not appear as first-level areas but are respectively split into several first-level areas.", "Other first-level areas emerged during the 20th century or had not previously been considered as mathematics, such as mathematical logic and foundations.=== Number theory ===This is the Ulam spiral, which illustrates the distribution of prime numbers.", "The dark diagonal lines in the spiral hint at the hypothesized approximate independence between being prime and being a value of a quadratic polynomial, a conjecture now known as Hardy and Littlewood's Conjecture F.Number theory began with the manipulation of numbers, that is, natural numbers and later expanded to integers and rational numbers Number theory was once called arithmetic, but nowadays this term is mostly used for numerical calculations.", "Number theory dates back to ancient Babylon and probably China.", "Two prominent early number theorists were Euclid of ancient Greece and Diophantus of Alexandria.", "The modern study of number theory in its abstract form is largely attributed to Pierre de Fermat and Leonhard Euler.", "The field came to full fruition with the contributions of Adrien-Marie Legendre and Carl Friedrich Gauss.Many easily stated number problems have solutions that require sophisticated methods, often from across mathematics.", "A prominent example is Fermat's Last Theorem.", "This conjecture was stated in 1637 by Pierre de Fermat, but it was proved only in 1994 by Andrew Wiles, who used tools including scheme theory from algebraic geometry, category theory, and homological algebra.", "Another example is Goldbach's conjecture, which asserts that every even integer greater than 2 is the sum of two prime numbers.", "Stated in 1742 by Christian Goldbach, it remains unproven despite considerable effort.Number theory includes several subareas, including analytic number theory, algebraic number theory, geometry of numbers (method oriented), diophantine equations, and transcendence theory (problem oriented).=== Geometry ===On the surface of a sphere, Euclidean geometry only applies as a local approximation.", "For larger scales the sum of the angles of a triangle is not equal to 180°.Geometry is one of the oldest branches of mathematics.", "It started with empirical recipes concerning shapes, such as lines, angles and circles, which were developed mainly for the needs of surveying and architecture, but has since blossomed out into many other subfields.A fundamental innovation was the ancient Greeks' introduction of the concept of proofs, which require that every assertion must be ''proved''.", "For example, it is not sufficient to verify by measurement that, say, two lengths are equal; their equality must be proven via reasoning from previously accepted results (theorems) and a few basic statements.", "The basic statements are not subject to proof because they are self-evident (postulates), or are part of the definition of the subject of study (axioms).", "This principle, foundational for all mathematics, was first elaborated for geometry, and was systematized by Euclid around 300 BC in his book ''Elements''.The resulting Euclidean geometry is the study of shapes and their arrangements constructed from lines, planes and circles in the Euclidean plane (plane geometry) and the three-dimensional Euclidean space.Euclidean geometry was developed without change of methods or scope until the 17th century, when René Descartes introduced what is now called Cartesian coordinates.", "This constituted a major change of paradigm: Instead of defining real numbers as lengths of line segments (see number line), it allowed the representation of points using their ''coordinates'', which are numbers.", "Algebra (and later, calculus) can thus be used to solve geometrical problems.", "Geometry was split into two new subfields: synthetic geometry, which uses purely geometrical methods, and analytic geometry, which uses coordinates systemically.Analytic geometry allows the study of curves unrelated to circles and lines.", "Such curves can be defined as the graph of functions, the study of which led to differential geometry.", "They can also be defined as implicit equations, often polynomial equations (which spawned algebraic geometry).", "Analytic geometry also makes it possible to consider Euclidean spaces of higher than three dimensions.In the 19th century, mathematicians discovered non-Euclidean geometries, which do not follow the parallel postulate.", "By questioning that postulate's truth, this discovery has been viewed as joining Russell's paradox in revealing the foundational crisis of mathematics.", "This aspect of the crisis was solved by systematizing the axiomatic method, and adopting that the truth of the chosen axioms is not a mathematical problem.", "In turn, the axiomatic method allows for the study of various geometries obtained either by changing the axioms or by considering properties that do not change under specific transformations of the space.Today's subareas of geometry include:* Projective geometry, introduced in the 16th century by Girard Desargues, extends Euclidean geometry by adding points at infinity at which parallel lines intersect.", "This simplifies many aspects of classical geometry by unifying the treatments for intersecting and parallel lines.", "* Affine geometry, the study of properties relative to parallelism and independent from the concept of length.", "* Differential geometry, the study of curves, surfaces, and their generalizations, which are defined using differentiable functions.", "* Manifold theory, the study of shapes that are not necessarily embedded in a larger space.", "* Riemannian geometry, the study of distance properties in curved spaces.", "* Algebraic geometry, the study of curves, surfaces, and their generalizations, which are defined using polynomials.", "* Topology, the study of properties that are kept under continuous deformations.", "** Algebraic topology, the use in topology of algebraic methods, mainly homological algebra.", "* Discrete geometry, the study of finite configurations in geometry.", "* Convex geometry, the study of convex sets, which takes its importance from its applications in optimization.", "* Complex geometry, the geometry obtained by replacing real numbers with complex numbers.=== Algebra ===The quadratic formula, which concisely expresses the solutions of all quadratic equations The Rubik's Cube group is a concrete application of group theory.Algebra is the art of manipulating equations and formulas.", "Diophantus (3rd century) and al-Khwarizmi (9th century) were the two main precursors of algebra.", "Diophantus solved some equations involving unknown natural numbers by deducing new relations until he obtained the solution.", "Al-Khwarizmi introduced systematic methods for transforming equations, such as moving a term from one side of an equation into the other side.", "The term ''algebra'' is derived from the Arabic word ''al-jabr'' meaning 'the reunion of broken parts' that he used for naming one of these methods in the title of his main treatise.Algebra became an area in its own right only with François Viète (1540–1603), who introduced the use of variables for representing unknown or unspecified numbers.", "Variables allow mathematicians to describe the operations that have to be done on the numbers represented using mathematical formulas.Until the 19th century, algebra consisted mainly of the study of linear equations (presently ''linear algebra''), and polynomial equations in a single unknown, which were called ''algebraic equations'' (a term still in use, although it may be ambiguous).", "During the 19th century, mathematicians began to use variables to represent things other than numbers (such as matrices, modular integers, and geometric transformations), on which generalizations of arithmetic operations are often valid.", "The concept of algebraic structure addresses this, consisting of a set whose elements are unspecified, of operations acting on the elements of the set, and rules that these operations must follow.", "The scope of algebra thus grew to include the study of algebraic structures.", "This object of algebra was called ''modern algebra'' or abstract algebra, as established by the influence and works of Emmy Noether.", "(The latter term appears mainly in an educational context, in opposition to elementary algebra, which is concerned with the older way of manipulating formulas.", ")Some types of algebraic structures have useful and often fundamental properties, in many areas of mathematics.", "Their study became autonomous parts of algebra, and include:* group theory;* field theory;* vector spaces, whose study is essentially the same as linear algebra;* ring theory;* commutative algebra, which is the study of commutative rings, includes the study of polynomials, and is a foundational part of algebraic geometry;* homological algebra;* Lie algebra and Lie group theory;* Boolean algebra, which is widely used for the study of the logical structure of computers.The study of types of algebraic structures as mathematical objects is the purpose of universal algebra and category theory.", "The latter applies to every mathematical structure (not only algebraic ones).", "At its origin, it was introduced, together with homological algebra for allowing the algebraic study of non-algebraic objects such as topological spaces; this particular area of application is called algebraic topology.=== Calculus and analysis ===A Cauchy sequence consists of elements such that all subsequent terms of a term become arbitrarily close to each other as the sequence progresses (from left to right).Calculus, formerly called infinitesimal calculus, was introduced independently and simultaneously by 17th-century mathematicians Newton and Leibniz.", "It is fundamentally the study of the relationship of variables that depend on each other.", "Calculus was expanded in the 18th century by Euler with the introduction of the concept of a function and many other results.", "Presently, \"calculus\" refers mainly to the elementary part of this theory, and \"analysis\" is commonly used for advanced parts.Analysis is further subdivided into real analysis, where variables represent real numbers, and complex analysis, where variables represent complex numbers.", "Analysis includes many subareas shared by other areas of mathematics which include:* Multivariable calculus* Functional analysis, where variables represent varying functions;* Integration, measure theory and potential theory, all strongly related with probability theory on a continuum;* Ordinary differential equations;* Partial differential equations;* Numerical analysis, mainly devoted to the computation on computers of solutions of ordinary and partial differential equations that arise in many applications.=== Discrete mathematics ===A diagram representing a two-state Markov chain.", "The states are represented by 'A' and 'E'.", "The numbers are the probability of flipping the state.Discrete mathematics, broadly speaking, is the study of individual, countable mathematical objects.", "An example is the set of all integers.", "Because the objects of study here are discrete, the methods of calculus and mathematical analysis do not directly apply.", "Algorithmsespecially their implementation and computational complexityplay a major role in discrete mathematics.The four color theorem and optimal sphere packing were two major problems of discrete mathematics solved in the second half of the 20th century.", "The P versus NP problem, which remains open to this day, is also important for discrete mathematics, since its solution would potentially impact a large number of computationally difficult problems.Discrete mathematics includes:* Combinatorics, the art of enumerating mathematical objects that satisfy some given constraints.", "Originally, these objects were elements or subsets of a given set; this has been extended to various objects, which establishes a strong link between combinatorics and other parts of discrete mathematics.", "For example, discrete geometry includes counting configurations of geometric shapes* Graph theory and hypergraphs* Coding theory, including error correcting codes and a part of cryptography* Matroid theory* Discrete geometry* Discrete probability distributions* Game theory (although continuous games are also studied, most common games, such as chess and poker are discrete)* Discrete optimization, including combinatorial optimization, integer programming, constraint programming=== Mathematical logic and set theory ===The Venn diagram is a commonly used method to illustrate the relations between sets.The two subjects of mathematical logic and set theory have belonged to mathematics since the end of the 19th century.", "Before this period, sets were not considered to be mathematical objects, and logic, although used for mathematical proofs, belonged to philosophy and was not specifically studied by mathematicians.Before Cantor's study of infinite sets, mathematicians were reluctant to consider actually infinite collections, and considered infinity to be the result of endless enumeration.", "Cantor's work offended many mathematicians not only by considering actually infinite sets but by showing that this implies different sizes of infinity, per Cantor's diagonal argument.", "This led to the controversy over Cantor's set theory.In the same period, various areas of mathematics concluded the former intuitive definitions of the basic mathematical objects were insufficient for ensuring mathematical rigour.", "Examples of such intuitive definitions are \"a set is a collection of objects\", \"natural number is what is used for counting\", \"a point is a shape with a zero length in every direction\", \"a curve is a trace left by a moving point\", etc.This became the foundational crisis of mathematics.", "It was eventually solved in mainstream mathematics by systematizing the axiomatic method inside a formalized set theory.", "Roughly speaking, each mathematical object is defined by the set of all similar objects and the properties that these objects must have.", "For example, in Peano arithmetic, the natural numbers are defined by \"zero is a number\", \"each number has a unique successor\", \"each number but zero has a unique predecessor\", and some rules of reasoning.", "This mathematical abstraction from reality is embodied in the modern philosophy of formalism, as founded by David Hilbert around 1910.The \"nature\" of the objects defined this way is a philosophical problem that mathematicians leave to philosophers, even if many mathematicians have opinions on this nature, and use their opinionsometimes called \"intuition\"to guide their study and proofs.", "The approach allows considering \"logics\" (that is, sets of allowed deducing rules), theorems, proofs, etc.", "as mathematical objects, and to prove theorems about them.", "For example, Gödel's incompleteness theorems assert, roughly speaking that, in every consistent formal system that contains the natural numbers, there are theorems that are true (that is provable in a stronger system), but not provable inside the system.", "This approach to the foundations of mathematics was challenged during the first half of the 20th century by mathematicians led by Brouwer, who promoted intuitionistic logic, which explicitly lacks the law of excluded middle.These problems and debates led to a wide expansion of mathematical logic, with subareas such as model theory (modeling some logical theories inside other theories), proof theory, type theory, computability theory and computational complexity theory.", "Although these aspects of mathematical logic were introduced before the rise of computers, their use in compiler design, program certification, proof assistants and other aspects of computer science, contributed in turn to the expansion of these logical theories.=== Statistics and other decision sciences ===distribution (μ), the sampling mean (x̄) tends to a Gaussian distribution and its variance (σ) is given by the central limit theorem of probability theory.The field of statistics is a mathematical application that is employed for the collection and processing of data samples, using procedures based on mathematical methods especially probability theory.", "Statisticians generate data with random sampling or randomized experiments.", "The design of a statistical sample or experiment determines the analytical methods that will be used.", "Analysis of data from observational studies is done using statistical models and the theory of inference, using model selection and estimation.", "The models and consequential predictions should then be tested against new data.Statistical theory studies decision problems such as minimizing the risk (expected loss) of a statistical action, such as using a procedure in, for example, parameter estimation, hypothesis testing, and selecting the best.", "In these traditional areas of mathematical statistics, a statistical-decision problem is formulated by minimizing an objective function, like expected loss or cost, under specific constraints.", "For example, designing a survey often involves minimizing the cost of estimating a population mean with a given level of confidence.", "Because of its use of optimization, the mathematical theory of statistics overlaps with other decision sciences, such as operations research, control theory, and mathematical economics.=== Computational mathematics ===Computational mathematics is the study of mathematical problems that are typically too large for human, numerical capacity.", "Numerical analysis studies methods for problems in analysis using functional analysis and approximation theory; numerical analysis broadly includes the study of approximation and discretization with special focus on rounding errors.", "Numerical analysis and, more broadly, scientific computing also study non-analytic topics of mathematical science, especially algorithmic-matrix-and-graph theory.", "Other areas of computational mathematics include computer algebra and symbolic computation." ], [ "History", "=== Ancient ===The history of mathematics is an ever-growing series of abstractions.", "Evolutionarily speaking, the first abstraction to ever be discovered, one shared by many animals, was probably that of numbers: the realization that, for example, a collection of two apples and a collection of two oranges (say) have something in common, namely that there are of them.", "As evidenced by tallies found on bone, in addition to recognizing how to count physical objects, prehistoric peoples may have also known how to count abstract quantities, like timedays, seasons, or years.The Babylonian mathematical tablet ''Plimpton 322'', dated to 1800 BCEvidence for more complex mathematics does not appear until around 3000 , when the Babylonians and Egyptians began using arithmetic, algebra, and geometry for taxation and other financial calculations, for building and construction, and for astronomy.", "The oldest mathematical texts from Mesopotamia and Egypt are from 2000 to 1800 BC.", "Many early texts mention Pythagorean triples and so, by inference, the Pythagorean theorem seems to be the most ancient and widespread mathematical concept after basic arithmetic and geometry.", "It is in Babylonian mathematics that elementary arithmetic (addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division) first appear in the archaeological record.", "The Babylonians also possessed a place-value system and used a sexagesimal numeral system which is still in use today for measuring angles and time.In the 6th century BC, Greek mathematics began to emerge as a distinct discipline and some Ancient Greeks such as the Pythagoreans appeared to have considered it a subject in its own right.", "Around 300 BC, Euclid organized mathematical knowledge by way of postulates and first principles, which evolved into the axiomatic method that is used in mathematics today, consisting of definition, axiom, theorem, and proof.", "His book, ''Elements'', is widely considered the most successful and influential textbook of all time.", "The greatest mathematician of antiquity is often held to be Archimedes () of Syracuse.", "He developed formulas for calculating the surface area and volume of solids of revolution and used the method of exhaustion to calculate the area under the arc of a parabola with the summation of an infinite series, in a manner not too dissimilar from modern calculus.", "Other notable achievements of Greek mathematics are conic sections (Apollonius of Perga, 3rd century BC), trigonometry (Hipparchus of Nicaea, 2nd century BC), and the beginnings of algebra (Diophantus, 3rd century AD).The numerals used in the Bakhshali manuscript, dated between the 2nd century BC and the 2nd century ADThe Hindu–Arabic numeral system and the rules for the use of its operations, in use throughout the world today, evolved over the course of the first millennium AD in India and were transmitted to the Western world via Islamic mathematics.", "Other notable developments of Indian mathematics include the modern definition and approximation of sine and cosine, and an early form of infinite series.=== Medieval and later ===A page from al-Khwārizmī's ''Algebra''During the Golden Age of Islam, especially during the 9th and 10th centuries, mathematics saw many important innovations building on Greek mathematics.", "The most notable achievement of Islamic mathematics was the development of algebra.", "Other achievements of the Islamic period include advances in spherical trigonometry and the addition of the decimal point to the Arabic numeral system.", "Many notable mathematicians from this period were Persian, such as Al-Khwarismi, Omar Khayyam and Sharaf al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī.", "The Greek and Arabic mathematical texts were in turn translated to Latin during the Middle Ages and made available in Europe.During the early modern period, mathematics began to develop at an accelerating pace in Western Europe, with innovations that revolutionized mathematics, such as the introduction of variables and symbolic notation by François Viète (1540–1603), the introduction of logarithms by John Napier in 1614, which greatly simplified numerical calculations, especially for astronomy and marine navigation, the introduction of coordinates by René Descartes (1596–1650) for reducing geometry to algebra, and the development of calculus by Isaac Newton (1642–1726/27) and Gottfried Leibniz (1646–1716).", "Leonhard Euler (1707–1783), the most notable mathematician of the 18th century, unified these innovations into a single corpus with a standardized terminology, and completed them with the discovery and the proof of numerous theorems.Carl Friedrich GaussPerhaps the foremost mathematician of the 19th century was the German mathematician Carl Gauss, who made numerous contributions to fields such as algebra, analysis, differential geometry, matrix theory, number theory, and statistics.", "In the early 20th century, Kurt Gödel transformed mathematics by publishing his incompleteness theorems, which show in part that any consistent axiomatic systemif powerful enough to describe arithmeticwill contain true propositions that cannot be proved.Mathematics has since been greatly extended, and there has been a fruitful interaction between mathematics and science, to the benefit of both.", "Mathematical discoveries continue to be made to this very day.", "According to Mikhail B. Sevryuk, in the January 2006 issue of the ''Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society'', \"The number of papers and books included in the ''Mathematical Reviews'' database since 1940 (the first year of operation of MR) is now more than 1.9 million, and more than 75 thousand items are added to the database each year.", "The overwhelming majority of works in this ocean contain new mathematical theorems and their proofs.\"" ], [ "Symbolic notation and terminology", "An explanation of the sigma (Σ) summation notationMathematical notation is widely used in science and engineering for representing complex concepts and properties in a concise, unambiguous, and accurate way.", "This notation consists of symbols used for representing operations, unspecified numbers, relations and any other mathematical objects, and then assembling them into expressions and formulas.", "More precisely, numbers and other mathematical objects are represented by symbols called variables, which are generally Latin or Greek letters, and often include subscripts.", "Operation and relations are generally represented by specific symbols or glyphs, such as (plus), (multiplication), (integral), (equal), and (less than).", "All these symbols are generally grouped according to specific rules to form expressions and formulas.", "Normally, expressions and formulas do not appear alone, but are included in sentences of the current language, where expressions play the role of noun phrases and formulas play the role of clauses.Mathematics has developed a rich terminology covering a broad range of fields that study the properties of various abstract, idealized objects and how they interact.", "It is based on rigorous definitions that provide a standard foundation for communication.", "An axiom or postulate is a mathematical statement that is taken to be true without need of proof.", "If a mathematical statement has yet to be proven (or disproven), it is termed a conjecture.", "Through a series of rigorous arguments employing deductive reasoning, a statement that is proven to be true becomes a theorem.", "A specialized theorem that is mainly used to prove another theorem is called a lemma.", "A proven instance that forms part of a more general finding is termed a corollary.Numerous technical terms used in mathematics are neologisms, such as ''polynomial'' and ''homeomorphism''.", "Other technical terms are words of the common language that are used in an accurate meaning that may differ slightly from their common meaning.", "For example, in mathematics, \"or\" means \"one, the other or both\", while, in common language, it is either ambiguous or means \"one or the other but not both\" (in mathematics, the latter is called \"exclusive or\").", "Finally, many mathematical terms are common words that are used with a completely different meaning.", "This may lead to sentences that are correct and true mathematical assertions, but appear to be nonsense to people who do not have the required background.", "For example, \"every free module is flat\" and \"a field is always a ring\"." ], [ "Relationship with sciences", "Mathematics is used in most sciences for modeling phenomena, which then allows predictions to be made from experimental laws.", "The independence of mathematical truth from any experimentation implies that the accuracy of such predictions depends only on the adequacy of the model.", "Inaccurate predictions, rather than being caused by invalid mathematical concepts, imply the need to change the mathematical model used.", "For example, the perihelion precession of Mercury could only be explained after the emergence of Einstein's general relativity, which replaced Newton's law of gravitation as a better mathematical model.There is still a philosophical debate whether mathematics is a science.", "However, in practice, mathematicians are typically grouped with scientists, and mathematics shares much in common with the physical sciences.", "Like them, it is falsifiable, which means in mathematics that, if a result or a theory is wrong, this can be proved by providing a counterexample.", "Similarly as in science, theories and results (theorems) are often obtained from experimentation.", "In mathematics, the experimentation may consist of computation on selected examples or of the study of figures or other representations of mathematical objects (often mind representations without physical support).", "For example, when asked how he came about his theorems, Gauss once replied \"durch planmässiges Tattonieren\" (through systematic experimentation).", "However, some authors emphasize that mathematics differs from the modern notion of science by not on empirical evidence.=== Pure and applied mathematics ===Until the 19th century, the development of mathematics in the West was mainly motivated by the needs of technology and science, and there was no clear distinction between pure and applied mathematics.", "For example, the natural numbers and arithmetic were introduced for the need of counting, and geometry was motivated by surveying, architecture and astronomy.", "Later, Isaac Newton introduced infinitesimal calculus for explaining the movement of the planets with his law of gravitation.", "Moreover, most mathematicians were also scientists, and many scientists were also mathematicians.", "However, a notable exception occurred with the tradition of pure mathematics in Ancient Greece.In the 19th century, mathematicians such as Karl Weierstrass and Richard Dedekind increasingly focused their research on internal problems, that is, ''pure mathematics''.", "This led to split mathematics into ''pure mathematics'' and ''applied mathematics'', the latter being often considered as having a lower value among mathematical purists.", "However, the lines between the two are frequently blurred.The aftermath of World War II led to a surge in the development of applied mathematics in the US and elsewhere.", "Many of the theories developed for applications were found interesting from the point of view of pure mathematics, and many results of pure mathematics were shown to have applications outside mathematics; in turn, the study of these applications may give new insights on the \"pure theory\".An example of the first case is the theory of distributions, introduced by Laurent Schwartz for validating computations done in quantum mechanics, which became immediately an important tool of (pure) mathematical analysis.", "An example of the second case is the decidability of the first-order theory of the real numbers, a problem of pure mathematics that was proved true by Alfred Tarski, with an algorithm that is impossible to implement because of a computational complexity that is much too high.", "For getting an algorithm that can be implemented and can solve systems of polynomial equations and inequalities, George Collins introduced the cylindrical algebraic decomposition that became a fundamental tool in real algebraic geometry.In the present day, the distinction between pure and applied mathematics is more a question of personal research aim of mathematicians than a division of mathematics into broad areas.", "The Mathematics Subject Classification has a section for \"general applied mathematics\" but does not mention \"pure mathematics\".", "However, these terms are still used in names of some university departments, such as at the Faculty of Mathematics at the University of Cambridge.=== Unreasonable effectiveness ===The unreasonable effectiveness of mathematics is a phenomenon that was named and first made explicit by physicist Eugene Wigner.", "It is the fact that many mathematical theories (even the \"purest\") have applications outside their initial object.", "These applications may be completely outside their initial area of mathematics, and may concern physical phenomena that were completely unknown when the mathematical theory was introduced.", "Examples of unexpected applications of mathematical theories can be found in many areas of mathematics.A notable example is the prime factorization of natural numbers that was discovered more than 2,000 years before its common use for secure internet communications through the RSA cryptosystem.", "A second historical example is the theory of ellipses.", "They were studied by the ancient Greek mathematicians as conic sections (that is, intersections of cones with planes).", "It is almost 2,000 years later that Johannes Kepler discovered that the trajectories of the planets are ellipses.In the 19th century, the internal development of geometry (pure mathematics) led to definition and study of non-Euclidean geometries, spaces of dimension higher than three and manifolds.", "At this time, these concepts seemed totally disconnected from the physical reality, but at the beginning of the 20th century, Albert Einstein developed the theory of relativity that uses fundamentally these concepts.", "In particular, spacetime of special relativity is a non-Euclidean space of dimension four, and spacetime of general relativity is a (curved) manifold of dimension four.A striking aspect of the interaction between mathematics and physics is when mathematics drives research in physics.", "This is illustrated by the discoveries of the positron and the baryon In both cases, the equations of the theories had unexplained solutions, which led to conjecture of the existence of an unknown particle, and the search for these particles.", "In both cases, these particles were discovered a few years later by specific experiments.=== Specific sciences ======= Physics ====Diagram of a pendulumMathematics and physics have influenced each other over their modern history.", "Modern physics uses mathematics abundantly, and is also the motivation of major mathematical developments.==== Computing ====The rise of technology in the 20th century opened the way to a new science: computing.", "This field is closely related to mathematics in several ways.", "Theoretical computer science is essentially mathematical in nature.", "Communication technologies apply branches of mathematics that may be very old (e.g., arithmetic), especially with respect to transmission security, in cryptography and coding theory.", "Discrete mathematics is useful in many areas of computer science, such as complexity theory, information theory, graph theory, and so on.In return, computing has also become essential for obtaining new results.", "This is a group of techniques known as experimental mathematics, which is the use of ''experimentation'' to discover mathematical insights.", "The most well-known example is the four-color theorem, which was proven in 1976 with the help of a computer.", "This revolutionized traditional mathematics, where the rule was that the mathematician should verify each part of the proof.", "In 1998, the Kepler conjecture on sphere packing seemed to also be partially proven by computer.", "An international team had since worked on writing a formal proof; it was finished (and verified) in 2015.Once written formally, a proof can be verified using a program called a proof assistant.", "These programs are useful in situations where one is uncertain about a proof's correctness.A major open problem in theoretical computer science is P versus NP.", "It is one of the seven Millennium Prize Problems.==== Biology and chemistry ====The skin of this giant pufferfish exhibits a Turing pattern, which can be modeled by reaction–diffusion systems.Biology uses probability extensively – for example, in ecology or neurobiology.", "Most of the discussion of probability in biology, however, centers on the concept of evolutionary fitness.Ecology heavily uses modeling to simulate population dynamics, study ecosystems such as the predator-prey model, measure pollution diffusion, or to assess climate change.", "The dynamics of a population can be modeled by coupled differential equations, such as the Lotka–Volterra equations.", "However, there is the problem of model validation.", "This is particularly acute when the results of modeling influence political decisions; the existence of contradictory models could allow nations to choose the most favorable model.Genotype evolution can be modeled with the Hardy-Weinberg principle.Phylogeography uses probabilistic models.Medicine uses statistical hypothesis testing, run on data from clinical trials, to determine whether a new treatment works.Since the start of the 20th century, chemistry has used computing to model molecules in three dimensions.", "It turns out that the form of macromolecules in biology is variable and determines the action.", "Such modeling uses Euclidean geometry; neighboring atoms form a polyhedron whose distances and angles are fixed by the laws of interaction.==== Earth sciences ====Structural geology and climatology use probabilistic models to predict the risk of natural catastrophes.", "Similarly, meteorology, oceanography, and planetology also use mathematics due to their heavy use of models.==== Social sciences ====Areas of mathematics used in the social sciences include probability/statistics and differential equations.", "These are used in linguistics, economics, sociology, and psychology.Supply and demand curves, like this one, are a staple of mathematical economics.The fundamental postulate of mathematical economics is that of the rational individual actor – ''Homo economicus'' ().", "In this model, the individual seeks to maximize their self-interest, and always makes optimal choices using perfect information.", "This atomistic view of economics allows it to relatively easily mathematize its thinking, because individual calculations are transposed into mathematical calculations.", "Such mathematical modeling allows one to probe economic mechanisms which would be difficult to discover by a \"literary\" analysis.", "For example, explanations of economic cycles are not trivial.", "Without mathematical modeling, it is hard to go beyond statistical observations or unproven speculation.However, many people have rejected or criticized the concept of ''Homo economicus''.", "Economists note that real people have limited information, make poor choices and care about fairness, altruism, not just personal gain.At the start of the 20th century, there was a development to express historical movements in formulas.", "In 1922, Nikolai Kondratiev discerned the ~50-year-long Kondratiev cycle, which explains phases of economic growth or crisis.", "Towards the end of the 19th century, and extended their analysis into geopolitics.", "Peter Turchin has worked on developing cliodynamics since the 1990s.Even so, mathematization of the social sciences is not without danger.", "In the controversial book ''Fashionable Nonsense'' (1997), Sokal and Bricmont denounced the unfounded or abusive use of scientific terminology, particularly from mathematics or physics, in the social sciences.", "The study of complex systems (evolution of unemployment, business capital, demographic evolution of a population, etc.)", "uses mathematical knowledge.", "However, the choice of counting criteria, particularly for unemployment, or of models, can be subject to controversy." ], [ "Relationship with astrology and esotericism", "Some renowned mathematicians have also been considered to be renowned astrologists; for example, Ptolemy, Arab astronomers, Regiomantus, Cardano, Kepler, or John Dee.", "In the Middle Ages, astrology was considered a science that included mathematics.", "In his encyclopedia, Theodor Zwinger wrote that astrology was a mathematical science that studied the \"active movement of bodies as they act on other bodies\".", "He reserved to mathematics the need to \"calculate with probability the influences of stars\" to foresee their \"conjunctions and oppositions\".Astrology is no longer considered a science." ], [ "Philosophy", "===Reality===The connection between mathematics and material reality has led to philosophical debates since at least the time of Pythagoras.", "The ancient philosopher Plato argued that abstractions that reflect material reality have themselves a reality that exists outside space and time.", "As a result, the philosophical view that mathematical objects somehow exist on their own in abstraction is often referred to as Platonism.", "Independently of their possible philosophical opinions, modern mathematicians may be generally considered as Platonists, since they think of and talk of their objects of study as real objects.Armand Borel summarized this view of mathematics reality as follows, and provided quotations of G. H. Hardy, Charles Hermite, Henri Poincaré and Albert Einstein that support his views.Nevertheless, Platonism and the concurrent views on abstraction do not explain the unreasonable effectiveness of mathematics.=== Proposed definitions ===There is no general consensus about a definition of mathematics or its epistemological statusthat is, its place among other human activities.", "A great many professional mathematicians take no interest in a definition of mathematics, or consider it undefinable.", "There is not even consensus on whether mathematics is an art or a science.", "Some just say, \"mathematics is what mathematicians do\".", "This makes sense, as there is a strong consensus among them about what is mathematics and what is not.", "Most proposed definitions try to define mathematics by its object of study.Aristotle defined mathematics as \"the science of quantity\" and this definition prevailed until the 18th century.", "However, Aristotle also noted a focus on quantity alone may not distinguish mathematics from sciences like physics; in his view, abstraction and studying quantity as a property \"separable in thought\" from real instances set mathematics apart.", "In the 19th century, when mathematicians began to address topicssuch as infinite setswhich have no clear-cut relation to physical reality, a variety of new definitions were given.", "With the large number of new areas of mathematics that appeared since the beginning of the 20th century and continue to appear, defining mathematics by this object of study becomes an impossible task.Another approach for defining mathematics is to use its methods.", "So, an area of study can be qualified as mathematics as soon as one can prove theoremsassertions whose validity relies on a proof, that is, a purely-logical deduction.", "Others take the perspective that mathematics is an investigation of axiomatic set theory, as this study is now a foundational discipline for much of modern mathematics.=== Rigor ===Mathematical reasoning requires rigor.", "This means that the definitions must be absolutely unambiguous and the proofs must be reducible to a succession of applications of inference rules, without any use of empirical evidence and intuition.", "Rigorous reasoning is not specific to mathematics, but, in mathematics, the standard of rigor is much higher than elsewhere.", "Despite mathematics' concision, rigorous proofs can require hundreds of pages to express.", "The emergence of computer-assisted proofs has allowed proof lengths to further expand, such as the 255-page Feit–Thompson theorem.", "The result of this trend is a philosophy of the quasi-empiricist proof that can not be considered infallible, but has a probability attached to it.The concept of rigor in mathematics dates back to ancient Greece, where their society encouraged logical, deductive reasoning.", "However, this rigorous approach would tend to discourage exploration of new approaches, such as irrational numbers and concepts of infinity.", "The method of demonstrating rigorous proof was enhanced in the sixteenth century through the use of symbolic notation.", "In the 18th century, social transition led to mathematicians earning their keep through teaching, which led to more careful thinking about the underlying concepts of mathematics.", "This produced more rigorous approaches, while transitioning from geometric methods to algebraic and then arithmetic proofs.At the end of the 19th century, it appeared that the definitions of the basic concepts of mathematics were not accurate enough for avoiding paradoxes (non-Euclidean geometries and Weierstrass function) and contradictions (Russell's paradox).", "This was solved by the inclusion of axioms with the apodictic inference rules of mathematical theories; the re-introduction of axiomatic method pioneered by the ancient Greeks.", "It results that \"rigor\" is no more a relevant concept in mathematics, as a proof is either correct or erroneous, and a \"rigorous proof\" is simply a pleonasm.", "Where a special concept of rigor comes into play is in the socialized aspects of a proof, wherein it may be demonstrably refuted by other mathematicians.", "After a proof has been accepted for many years or even decades, it can then be considered as reliable.Nevertheless, the concept of \"rigor\" may remain useful for teaching to beginners what is a mathematical proof." ], [ "Training and practice", "=== Education ===Mathematics has a remarkable ability to cross cultural boundaries and time periods.", "As a human activity, the practice of mathematics has a social side, which includes education, careers, recognition, popularization, and so on.", "In education, mathematics is a core part of the curriculum and forms an important element of the STEM academic disciplines.", "Prominent careers for professional mathematicians include math teacher or professor, statistician, actuary, financial analyst, economist, accountant, commodity trader, or computer consultant.Archaeological evidence shows that instruction in mathematics occurred as early as the second millennium BCE in ancient Babylonia.", "Comparable evidence has been unearthed for scribal mathematics training in the ancient Near East and then for the Greco-Roman world starting around 300 BCE.", "The oldest known mathematics textbook is the Rhind papyrus, dated from in Egypt.", "Due to a scarcity of books, mathematical teachings in ancient India were communicated using memorized oral tradition since the Vedic period ().", "In Imperial China during the Tang dynasty (618–907 CE), a mathematics curriculum was adopted for the civil service exam to join the state bureaucracy.Following the Dark Ages, mathematics education in Europe was provided by religious schools as part of the Quadrivium.", "Formal instruction in pedagogy began with Jesuit schools in the 16th and 17th century.", "Most mathematical curriculum remained at a basic and practical level until the nineteenth century, when it began to flourish in France and Germany.", "The oldest journal addressing instruction in mathematics was ''L'Enseignement Mathématique'', which began publication in 1899.The Western advancements in science and technology led to the establishment of centralized education systems in many nation-states, with mathematics as a core componentinitially for its military applications.", "While the content of courses varies, in the present day nearly all countries teach mathematics to students for significant amounts of time.During school, mathematical capabilities and positive expectations have a strong association with career interest in the field.", "Extrinsic factors such as feedback motivation by teachers, parents, and peer groups can influence the level of interest in mathematics.", "Some students studying math may develop an apprehension or fear about their performance in the subject.", "This is known as math anxiety or math phobia, and is considered the most prominent of the disorders impacting academic performance.", "Math anxiety can develop due to various factors such as parental and teacher attitudes, social stereotypes, and personal traits.", "Help to counteract the anxiety can come from changes in instructional approaches, by interactions with parents and teachers, and by tailored treatments for the individual.=== Psychology (aesthetic, creativity and intuition) ===The validity of a mathematical theorem relies only on the rigor of its proof, which could theoretically be done automatically by a computer program.", "This does not mean that there is no place for creativity in a mathematical work.", "On the contrary, many important mathematical results (theorems) are solutions of problems that other mathematicians failed to solve, and the invention of a way for solving them may be a fundamental way of the solving process.", "An extreme example is Apery's theorem: Roger Apery provided only the ideas for a proof, and the formal proof was given only several months later by three other mathematicians.Creativity and rigor are not the only psychological aspects of the activity of mathematicians.", "Some mathematicians can see their activity as a game, more specifically as solving puzzles.", "This aspect of mathematical activity is emphasized in recreational mathematics.Mathematicians can find an aesthetic value to mathematics.", "Like beauty, it is hard to define, it is commonly related to ''elegance'', which involves qualities like simplicity, symmetry, completeness, and generality.", "G. H. Hardy in ''A Mathematician's Apology'' expressed the belief that the aesthetic considerations are, in themselves, sufficient to justify the study of pure mathematics.", "He also identified other criteria such as significance, unexpectedness, and inevitability, which contribute to mathematical aesthetic.", "Paul Erdős expressed this sentiment more ironically by speaking of \"The Book\", a supposed divine collection of the most beautiful proofs.", "The 1998 book ''Proofs from THE BOOK'', inspired by Erdős, is a collection of particularly succinct and revelatory mathematical arguments.", "Some examples of particularly elegant results included are Euclid's proof that there are infinitely many prime numbers and the fast Fourier transform for harmonic analysis.Some feel that to consider mathematics a science is to downplay its artistry and history in the seven traditional liberal arts.", "One way this difference of viewpoint plays out is in the philosophical debate as to whether mathematical results are ''created'' (as in art) or ''discovered'' (as in science).", "The popularity of recreational mathematics is another sign of the pleasure many find in solving mathematical questions." ], [ "Cultural impact", "=== Artistic expression ===Notes that sound well together to a Western ear are sounds whose fundamental frequencies of vibration are in simple ratios.", "For example, an octave doubles the frequency and a perfect fifth multiplies it by .Fractal with a scaling symmetry and a central symmetryHumans, as well as some other animals, find symmetric patterns to be more beautiful.", "Mathematically, the symmetries of an object form a group known as the symmetry group.For example, the group underlying mirror symmetry is the cyclic group of two elements, .", "A Rorschach test is a figure invariant by this symmetry, as are butterfly and animal bodies more generally (at least on the surface).", "Waves on the sea surface possess translation symmetry: moving one's viewpoint by the distance between wave crests does not change one's view of the sea.", "Fractals possess self-similarity.=== Popularization ===Popular mathematics is the act of presenting mathematics without technical terms.", "Presenting mathematics may be hard since the general public suffers from mathematical anxiety and mathematical objects are highly abstract.", "However, popular mathematics writing can overcome this by using applications or cultural links.", "Despite this, mathematics is rarely the topic of popularization in printed or televised media." ], [ "Awards and prize problems", "The front side of the Fields Medal with an illustration of the Greek polymath ArchimedesThe most prestigious award in mathematics is the Fields Medal, established in 1936 and awarded every four years (except around World War II) to up to four individuals.", "It is considered the mathematical equivalent of the Nobel Prize.Other prestigious mathematics awards include:* The Abel Prize, instituted in 2002 and first awarded in 2003* The Chern Medal for lifetime achievement, introduced in 2009 and first awarded in 2010* The AMS Leroy P. Steele Prize, awarded since 1970* The Wolf Prize in Mathematics, also for lifetime achievement, instituted in 1978A famous list of 23 open problems, called \"Hilbert's problems\", was compiled in 1900 by German mathematician David Hilbert.", "This list has achieved great celebrity among mathematicians, and, , at least thirteen of the problems (depending how some are interpreted) have been solved.A new list of seven important problems, titled the \"Millennium Prize Problems\", was published in 2000.Only one of them, the Riemann hypothesis, duplicates one of Hilbert's problems.", "A solution to any of these problems carries a 1 million dollar reward.", "To date, only one of these problems, the Poincaré conjecture, has been solved." ], [ "See also", "* List of mathematical jargon* Lists of mathematicians* Lists of mathematics topics* Mathematical constant* Mathematical sciences* Mathematics and art* Mathematics education* Outline of mathematics* Philosophy of mathematics* Relationship between mathematics and physics* Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics" ], [ "References", "=== Notes ======Citations====== Sources ===* * * * * * * * .", "* * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * Available online (registration required).", "* * *  – A translated and expanded version of a Soviet mathematics encyclopedia, in ten volumes.", "Also in paperback and on CD-ROM, and online.", ".", "* * * *" ] ]
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[ [ "Manhattan (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Manhattan''' is a borough of New York City.", "'''Manhattan''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Places", "* Manhattan, Colorado, a ghost town* Manhattan, Florida, an unincorporated community* Manhattan, Illinois, a village in Will County* Manhattan Township, Will County, Illinois* Manhattan, Indiana, an unincorporated community* Manhattan, Kansas, a city* Manhattan, Montana, a town* Manhattan, Nevada, a town" ], [ "Businesses", "* The Manhattan Company, a bank in the United States from 1799 to 1955* Manhattan Construction Company, a division of Rooney Holdings Inc.* Manhattan Life Insurance Company, founded in 1850* Hotel Manhattan, a former hotel in New York City" ], [ "Ships", "* ''Manhattan'' (1843 ship), a ship that made the first authorized United States visit to Tokyo Bay* ''Manhattan'' (YTB-779), a large harbor tug serving from 1965 to 2004* SS ''Manhattan'' (1931), a luxury liner* SS ''Manhattan'' (1962), a tanker constructed to pass the Northwest Passage* USS ''Manhattan'' (1863), a Union Navy ship in service until 1902" ], [ "Music", "* Manhattan Records, a record label* The Manhattans, an R&B group from the 1970s and 80s* ''Manhattan'' (Art Farmer album), 1981, or the title song* ''Manhattan'' (Jeffrey Lewis & Los Bolts album), 2015* ''Manhattan'' (Skaters album), 2014* \"Manhattan\" (song), a song written in 1925 by Rodgers and Hart* \"Manhattan\", a 1973 song by C. Jérôme* \"Manhattan\", a 2009 song by the Kings of Leon from ''Only by the Night''* ''Manhattan'' (soundtrack), to the 1979 film* The Manhattan Transfer, jazz and pop vocal quartet* \"Manhattan\", a 2023 song by CHVRCHES from ''The Bones of What You Believe (10 Year Anniversary Edition)''" ], [ "Film and television", "* ''Manhattan'' (1979 film), a film by Woody Allen* ''Manhattan'' (1924 film), a film starring Richard Dix* ''Manhattan'' (TV series), a 2014–2016 series* \"Manhattan\" (''Once Upon a Time''), a 2013 episode of ''Once Upon a Time''* Manhattan, a fictional town in ''Manhattan, AZ''" ], [ "Schools", "* Manhattan Christian College, Manhattan, Kansas* Manhattan High School, Manhattan, Kansas* Manhattan School, Manhattan, Nevada* Manhattan School of Music, Manhattan, New York* Manhattan College, Bronx, New York" ], [ "Buildings", "* Manhattan Laundry, a complex of historic buildings in Washington, D.C.* Manhattan Tower, an apartment building in the Park Tzameret neighborhood of Tel Aviv, Israel" ], [ "Other uses", "* ''Manhattan'' (board game), a 1990s board game by Andreas Seyfarth* Manhattan (cocktail), an alcoholic drink* ''Manhattan'', a 1979 novel by Neal Travis* Manhattan Avenue (Brooklyn), in Williamsburg and Greenpoint, New York* Manhattan Avenue (Manhattan), in Harlem and the Upper West Side, New York* Manhattan Bridge, connecting Lower Manhattan and Brooklyn* Manhattan Handicap, an American Thoroughbred horse race held annually at Belmont Park in Elmont, New York* Manhattan Limited, a Pennsylvania Railroad that ran between Chicago and New York City until 1971* Manhattan station, a commuter railroad station on Metra's SouthWest Service in Manhattan, Illinois* Manhattan Theatre, a former Broadway theatre* Manhattan Project, an operation that built the first nuclear weapons* Manhattan Rebellion, a failed coup attempt against the government of Thailand in 1951" ], [ "People with the surname", "* Avro Manhattan (1914–1990), a writer best known for his criticisms of the Roman Catholic Church" ], [ "See also", "* Doctor Manhattan, a character in the comic ''Watchmen''* Manhattan Building (disambiguation)* Manhattan distance or Manhattan length, a distance relating to taxicab geometry* Manhattan wiring, a technique for laying out circuits in computer engineering* USS ''Manhattan'', a list of ships* ''Manhattan, Inc.'', a monthly magazine (1984–1990)* * Mainhattan, the business center of Frankfurt am Main" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Middle Ages" ], [ "Introduction", "stained glass panel from Canterbury Cathedral, .", "It depicts the Parable of the Sower, a biblical narrative.In the history of Europe, the '''Middle Ages''' or '''medieval period''' (also spelt '''mediaeval''' or '''mediæval''') lasted approximately from 500 AD to 1500, although alternative starting and end points exist.", "The Middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history: antiquity, medieval, and modern.", "The medieval period is itself subdivided into the Early, High, and Late Middle Ages, and the early medieval period is alternatively referred to as the Dark Ages.Population decline, counterurbanisation, the collapse of centralised authority, invasion and the mass migration of tribes, which had begun in late antiquity, continued into the Early Middle Ages.", "The large-scale movements of the Migration Period, including of Germanic peoples, led to the rise of new kingdoms in Western Europe.", "In the 7th century, the Middle East and North Africa came under caliphal rule with the Arab conquests.", "The Byzantine Empire survived in the Eastern Mediterranean and advanced secular law through the ''Code of Justinian''.", "In the West, most kingdoms incorporated extant Roman institutions, while the influence of Christianity expanded across Europe.", "The Carolingian dynasty of the Franks established the Carolingian Empire during the later 8th and early 9th centuries in Western Europe before it succumbed to internal conflict and external invasions.During the High Middle Ages, which began after 1000, the population of Europe increased greatly as technological and agricultural innovations allowed trade to flourish and the Medieval Warm Period climate change allowed crop yields to increase.", "Manorialism, the organisation of peasants into villages that owed rent and labour services to the nobles, and feudalism, the political structure whereby knights and lower-status nobles owed military service to their overlords in return for the right to rent from lands and manors, were two of the ways society was organised in the High Middle Ages.", "This period also saw the formal division of the Catholic and Orthodox churches, with the East–West Schism of 1054.The Crusades, which began in 1095, were military attempts by Western European Christians to regain control of the Holy Land from Muslims and also contributed to the expansion of Latin Christendom in the Baltic region and the Iberian Peninsula.", "In the West, intellectual life was marked by scholasticism, a philosophy that emphasised joining faith to reason, and by the founding of universities.", "The theology of Thomas Aquinas, the paintings of Giotto, the poetry of Dante and Chaucer, the travels of Marco Polo, and the Gothic architecture of cathedrals such as Chartres mark the end of this period.The Late Middle Ages was marked by difficulties and calamities including famine, plague, and war, which significantly diminished the population of Europe; between 1347 and 1350, the Black Death killed about a third of Europeans.", "Controversy, heresy, and the Western Schism within the Catholic Church paralleled the interstate conflict, civil strife, and peasant revolts that occurred in the kingdoms.", "Cultural and technological developments transformed European society, concluding the Late Middle Ages and beginning the early modern period." ], [ "Terminology and periodisation", "Palais des Papes (Avignon, France) The Middle Ages is one of the three major periods in the most enduring scheme for analysing European history: Antiquity, the Middle Ages and the modern period.", "Leonardo Bruni (d. 1444) was the first historian to use tripartite periodisation in his ''History of the Florentine People'' in 1442, and it became standard with the German historian Christoph Cellarius (d. 1707).", "The adjective medieval, meaning pertaining to the Middle Ages, derives from ('middle age'), a Neo-Latin term first recorded in 1604.The Middle Ages customarily spans the period between around 500 and 1500 in academic studies but both the starting and the end years are uncertain.", "A commonly given starting point, first used by Bruni, is 476—the year the last Western Roman Emperor was deposed.", "As an alternative, the conversion of the Roman Emperor Constantine the Great () to Christianity is mentioned.", "There is no universally agreed-upon end date either; the most frequently used dates include 1453 (the Fall of Constantinople), 1492 (Christopher Columbus's first voyage to the Americas), and 1517 (the start of the Protestant Reformation).Europe, as the historian Miri Rubin emphasises, \"did not live to a single rhythm over this period\": urbanisation began in different regions in different periods, and the Christianisation, or conversion of Europe to Christianity happened in waves.", "According to scholarly consensus, the common features of medieval Europe include the agriculture's predominance in economy, the exploitation of the peasantry, the importance of intrapersonal relations in power structures, slow interregional communication, and fragile state bureaucracy.Historians from Romance language-speaking countries tend to divide the Middle Ages into two parts: an earlier \"High\" and later \"Low\" period.", "English-speaking historians, following their German counterparts, generally subdivide the period into three intervals: \"Early\", \"High\", and \"Late\".", "In the , the entire Middle Ages were often referred to as the Dark Ages, but with the adoption of the three subdivisions, use of the term was restricted to the Early Middle Ages in the early 20th century.", "Historians who regard the Middle Ages as a Eurocentric concept tend to avoid its use for global history but studies on \"Medieval India\", \"Muslim Middle Ages\", and similar subjects are not exceptional." ], [ "Sources", "on birch bark in Novgorod in the early 12th centuryThe systematic publication of medieval written sources began with the by Ludovico Muratori (d. 1750) which was followed by similar series such as the in Germany, and the Rolls Series in the United Kingdom.", "These large collections mainly contain annals, chronicles and other narrative sources with a focus on the deeds of powerful men.", "According to modern perceptions, most chronicles were written in monasteries but cathedral chapters, royal courts, and cities were also important centers of historical writing.", "Professional historians mainly treat medieval narratives cautiously as they are often filled with distorted facts or unrealistic information.", "Documents of state or church administration, such as royal charters and chrysobulls, are indispensable sources for medieval history, although forged or backdated legal papers abound.", "Most cartularies—collections of charters—have survived in monasteries.", "Further types of written sources include graffiti, seals, and letters.Since the 1950s, archaeology have significantly contributed to the study of the history of poorly documented regions and periods.", "However, chronological dating is still uncertain.", "Radiocarbon dating covers a 60-year-long period, and the more precise dendrochronological analysis—the study of growth rings in trunks—is applicable only if wooden remains are available at the archaeological site.", "Legislation may influence archaeological research: new finds of coins and hoards are frequently exhibited in jurisdictions with a liberal regulation, such as England and Wales, whereas in other countries, such as Italy, finds from unofficial excavations are exceptionally published.", "As few detailed written records documenting peasant life remain from before the , surviving information available to historians also comes mainly from archaeology.", "Medieval images and sculptures may provide useful information about everyday life but a critical approach is needed because irony, satire, and anachronism were popular stylistic devices of medieval artists." ], [ "Later Roman Empire", "depicting the Tetrarchs (now in Venice, Italy)The Roman Empire reached its greatest territorial extent during the ; the following two centuries witnessed the slow decline of Roman control over its outlying territories.", "Runaway inflation, external pressure on the frontiers, and outbreaks of plague combined to create the Crisis of the Third Century, with emperors coming to the throne only to be rapidly replaced by new usurpers.", "Military expenses steadily increased, mainly in response to the war with the Sasanian Empire.", "The army doubled in size, and cavalry and smaller units replaced the legion as the main tactical unit.", "The need for revenue led to increased taxes and a decline in numbers of the curial, or landowning, class.", "More bureaucrats were needed in the central administration to deal with the needs of the army.The Emperor Diocletian (r. 284–305) split the empire into separately administered eastern and western halves in 286.This system, which eventually encompassed two senior and two junior co-emperors (hence known as the Tetrarchy) stabilised the imperial government for about two decades.", "After a period of civil war, Constantine the Great restored internal peace, and refounded the city of Byzantium as the newly renamed eastern capital, Constantinople in 330.For much of the 4th century, Roman society stabilised in a new form that differed from the earlier classical period, with a widening gulf between the rich and poor, and a decline in the vitality of the smaller towns.", "Another change was the Christianisation of the Roman Empire.", "It was accelerated by the conversion of Constantine but Christianity emerged as the empire's dominant religion only at the end of the 4th century.", "Debates about Christian theology intensified, and those who persisted with theological views condemned at the ecumenical councils faced persecution.", "Such heretic views survived through proselytising campaigns outside the empire, or because of local ethnic groups' support in the eastern provinces, like Arianism among the Germanic peoples, or Monophysitism in Egypt and Syria.", "Judaism remained a tolerated religion, although legislation limited Jews' rights.By the 3rd century, the Early Christians developed their own symbolism, often by reinterpreting popular motifs of pagan Roman art, and decorated their catacombs with frescoes depicting Biblical scenes.", "The solemnity of the Later Roman artists' abstract style effectively visualised Christian messages.", "Christ's enthroned figure became a principal element of Early Christian art in the early 4th century.", "Under Constantine, basilicas, large halls that had been used for administrative and commercial purposes, were adapted for Christian worship.", "The first illuminated manuscripts—hand-written books decorated with colourful miniatures—were produced in parallel with the spread of silent reading in the 5th century.", "Civil war between rival emperors became common in the middle of the 4th century, diverting soldiers from the empire's frontier forces and allowing invaders to encroach.", "Although the movements of peoples during this period are usually described as \"invasions\", they were not just military expeditions but migrations into the empire.", "In 376, hundreds of thousands of Goths, fleeing from the Huns, received permission from Emperor Valens (r. 364–78) to settle in Roman territory in the Balkans.", "The settlement did not go smoothly, and when Roman officials mishandled the situation, the Goths began to raid and plunder.", "Valens, attempting to put down the disorder, was killed fighting the Goths at the Battle of Adrianople.", "The Visigoths, a Gothic group, invaded the Western Roman Empire in 401; the Alans, Vandals, and Suevi crossed into Gaul in 406, and into modern-day Spain in 409.A year later the Visigoths sacked the city of Rome.", "The Franks, Alemanni, and the Burgundians all ended up in Gaul while the Germanic groups now collectively known as Anglo-Saxons settled in Britain, and the Vandals conquered the province of Africa.", "The Hunnic king Attila (r. 434–53) led invasions into the Balkans in 442 and 447, Gaul in 451, and Italy in 452 but the Hunnic confederation he led fell apart after his death.When dealing with the migrations, the Eastern Roman elites combined the deployment of armed forces with gifts and grants of offices to the tribal leaders, whereas the Western aristocrats failed to support the army but also refused to pay tribute to prevent invasions by the tribes.", "These invasions led to the division of the western section of the empire into smaller political units, ruled by the tribes that had invaded.", "The emperors of the 5th century were often controlled by military strongmen such as Stilicho (d. 408), Aetius (d. 454), Aspar (d. 471), Ricimer (d. 472), or Gundobad (d. 516), who were partly or fully of non-Roman ancestry.", "The deposition of the last emperor of the west, Romulus Augustulus (r. 475–76) has traditionally marked the end of the Western Roman Empire.", "The Eastern Roman Empire, often referred to as the Byzantine Empire after the fall of its western counterpart, had little ability to assert control over the lost western territories although the Byzantine emperors maintained a claim over the territory." ], [ "Early Middle Ages", "===Post-Roman kingdoms===Post-Roman kingdoms and tribes, and the Byzantine Empire after the end of the Western Roman EmpireIn the post-Roman world, the fusion of Roman culture with the customs of the invading tribes is well documented.", "Popular assemblies that allowed free male tribal members more say in political matters than had been common in the Roman state developed into legislative and judicial bodies.", "Material artefacts left by the Romans and the invaders are often similar, and tribal items were often modelled on Roman objects.", "Much of the scholarly and written culture of the new kingdoms was based on Roman intellectual traditions.", "Many of the new political entities no longer supported their armies through taxes, instead relying on granting them land or rents.", "This meant there was less need for large tax revenues and so the taxation systems decayed.In Britain, the local Celtic Britons' culture had little impact on the Anglo-Saxons' way of life, but the linguistic assimilation of masses of the natives to the newcomers is evident.", "By around 600, new political centres emerged, some local leaders accumulated considerable wealth, and a number of small kingdoms such as Wessex and Mercia were formed.", "Smaller kingdoms in present-day Wales and Scotland were still under the control of the native Britons and Picts.", "Ireland was divided into even smaller political units, perhaps as many as 150 tribal kingdoms.The Ostrogoths moved to Italy from the Balkans in the late 5th century under Theoderic the Great (r. 493–526).", "He set up a kingdom marked by its co-operation between the natives and the conquerors.", "Power struggles between Romanised and traditionalist Ostrogothic groups followed his death, providing the opportunity for the Byzantines to reconquer Italy.", "The Burgundians settled in Gaul where they reorganised their kingdom.", "Elsewhere in Gaul, the Franks and Celtic Britons set up stable polities.", "Francia was centred in northern Gaul, and the first king of whom much is known is Childeric I (d. 481).", "Under his son Clovis I (r. 509–11), the founder of the Merovingian dynasty, the Frankish kingdom expanded and converted to Christianity.", "Unlike other Germanic peoples, the Franks accepted Catholicism which facilitated their cooperation with the native Gallo-Roman aristocracy.", "Britons fleeing from  – modern-day Great Britain – settled in what is now Brittany.Other monarchies were established by the Visigoths in the Iberian Peninsula, the Suebi in northwestern Iberia, and the Vandals in North Africa.", "The Lombards settled in Northern Italy in 568 and established a new kingdom composed of town-based duchies.", "Coming from the Asian steppes, the nomadic Avars conquered most Slavic, Turkic and Germanic tribes in the lowlands along the Lower and Middle Danube by the end of the 6th century, and they were routinely able to force the Eastern emperors to pay tribute.", "Around 670, another steppe people, the Bulgars settled at the Danube Delta.", "In 681, they defeated a Byzantine imperial army, and established the First Bulgarian Empire, subjugating the local Slavic tribes.The settlement of peoples was accompanied by changes in languages.", "Latin, the literary language of the Western Roman Empire, was gradually replaced by vernacular languages which evolved from Latin, but were distinct from it, collectively known as Romance languages.", "Greek remained the language of the Byzantine Empire, but the migrations of the Slavs expanded the area of Slavic languages in Central and Eastern Europe.===Byzantine survival===A mosaic showing Justinian with Archbishop Maximianus of Ravenna, bodyguards, clerics and courtiers (Basilica of San Vitale, Ravenna, Italy)The Eastern Roman Empire remained intact and experienced an economic revival that lasted into the early 7th century.", "Here political life was marked by closer relations between the political state and Christian Church, with theological matters assuming an importance in Eastern politics that they did not have in Western Europe.", "The Byzantines regularly employed eunuchs for administrative tasks, or as guardians or tutors to women and children, as they regarded castrated men as exceptionally intelligent and loyal servants.", "Legal developments included the codification of Roman law; the most comprehensive compilation, the , took place under Emperor Justinian (r. 527–65).Justinian almost lost his throne during the Nika riots, a popular revolt that destroyed half of Constantinople in 532.After crushing the revolt, he reinforced the autocratic elements of the imperial government and mobilised his troops against the Arian western kingdoms.", "The general Belisarius (d. 565) conquered North Africa from the Vandals, and attacked the Ostrogoths, but the campaign was interrupted by an unexpected Sasanian invasion from the east.", "Between 541 and 543, a deadly outbreak of plague decimated the empire's population.", "Justinian ceased to finance the maintenance of public roads, and covered the lack of military personnel by developing an extensive system of border forts.", "In a decade, he resumed expansionism, completing the conquest of the Ostrogothic kingdom, and seizing much of southern Spain from the Visigoths.Justinian's reconquests and excessive building program have been criticised by historians for bringing his realm to the brink of bankruptcy, but many of the difficulties faced by Justinian's successors were because of other factors, including the epidemic and the massive expansion of the Avars and their Slav allies.", "In the east, border defences collapsed during a new war with the Sasanian Empire, and the Persians seized large chunks of the empire, including Egypt, Syria, and much of Anatolia.", "In 626, the Avars, Slavs and Persians attacked Constantinople but could not conquer it.", "Two years later, Emperor Heraclius (r. 610–41) launched an unexpected counterattack against the heart of the Sassanian Empire, recovering all territories previously lost to the Persians.===Western society===In Western Europe, some of the older Roman elite families died out while others became more involved with ecclesiastical than secular affairs.", "Values attached to Latin scholarship and education mostly disappeared.", "While literacy remained important, it became a practical skill rather than a sign of elite status.", "By the late 6th century, the principal means of religious instruction had become music and art rather than the book.", "Most intellectual efforts went towards imitating classical scholarship, but some original works were created, along with now-lost oral compositions.", "The writings of Sidonius Apollinaris (d. 489), Cassiodorus (d. ), and Boethius (d. ) were typical of the age.", "Aristocratic culture focused on great feasts rather than on literary pursuits.", "Family ties within the elites were important, as were the virtues of loyalty, courage, and honour.", "These ties led to the prevalence of the feud in aristocratic society.", "Most feuds seem to have ended quickly with the payment of some sort of compensation.Women took part in aristocratic society mainly in their roles as wives and mothers, with the role of mother of a ruler being especially prominent in Francia.", "In Anglo-Saxon society the lack of many child rulers meant a lesser role for women as queen mothers, but this was compensated for by the increased role played by abbesses of monasteries.", "Women's influence on politics was particularly fragile, and early medieval authors tended to depict powerful women in a bad light.", "Women usually died at considerably younger age than men, primarily owing to infanticide and complications at childbirth.", "The disparity between the numbers of marriageable women and grown men led to the detailed regulation of legal institutions protecting women's interests, including their right to the , or \"morning gift\".", "Early medieval laws acknowledged a man's right to have long-term sexual relationships with women other than his wife, such as concubines, but women were expected to remain faithful.", "Clerics censured sexual unions outside marriage, and monogamy became also the norm of secular law in the 9th century.Reconstruction of an early medieval peasant village in BavariaLandholding patterns were not uniform; some areas had greatly fragmented holdings, but in other areas large contiguous blocks of land were the norm.", "These differences allowed for a wide variety of peasant societies, some dominated by aristocratic landholders and others having a great deal of autonomy.", "Land settlement also varied greatly.", "Some peasants lived in large settlements that numbered as many as 700 inhabitants, others on isolated farms.", "As legislation made a clear distinction between free and unfree, there was no sharp break between the legal status of the free peasant and the aristocrat, and it was possible for a free peasant's family to rise into the aristocracy through military service.", "Demand for slaves was covered through warring and raids.", "Initially, the Franks' expansion and conflicts between the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms supplied the slave market with prisoners of war and captives.", "After the Anglo-Saxons' conversion to Christianity, slave hunters mainly targeted the pagan Slav tribes—hence the English word \"slave\" from , the Medieval Latin term for Slavs.", "Christian ethics brought about significant changes in the position of slaves in the 7th and 8th centuries.", "They were no more regarded as their lords' property, and their right to a decent treatment was enacted.Roman city life and culture changed greatly in the early Middle Ages.", "Although the northern Italian cities remained inhabited, they contracted significantly in size.", "In Northern Europe, cities also shrank, while civic monuments and other public buildings were raided for building materials.", "The Jewish communities survived in Spain, southern Gaul and Italy.", "The Visigothic kings made concentrated efforts to convert the Hispanic Jews to Christianity but the Jewish community quickly regenerated after the Muslim conquest of Spain.", "Whereas Muslim rulers employed Jewish courtiers, Christian legislation forbade the Jews' appointment to government positions.===Rise of Islam===The early Muslim conquestsReligious beliefs were in flux in the lands along the Eastern Roman and Persian frontiers.", "State-sponsored Christian missionaries proselytised among the pagan steppe peoples, and the Persians made attempts to enforce Zoroastrianism on the Christian Armenians.", "Judaism was an active proselytising faith, and at least one Arab political leader—Dhu Nuwas, ruler of what is today Yemen—converted to it.", "The emergence of Islam in Arabia during the lifetime of Muhammad (d. 632) brought about more radical changes.", "After his death, Islamic forces conquered Syria, Persia, and Egypt.", "The Eastern Romans halted the Muslim expansion at Constantinople in 674–78 and 717–18, but in the west, Islamic troops conquered North Africa by the early 8th century, annihilated the Visigothic Kingdom in 711, and invaded southern Gaul from 713.The Muslim conquerors bypassed the mountainous northwestern region of the Iberian Peninsula.", "Here a small kingdom, Asturias emerged as the centre of local resistance.", "The defeat of Muslim forces at the Battle of Tours in 732 led to the reconquest of southern France by the Franks, but the main reason for the halt of Islamic growth in Europe was the overthrow of the Umayyad Caliphate and its replacement by the Abbasid Caliphate.", "The Abbasids were concerned with the Middle East, losing control of sections of the Muslim lands in the west.", "Umayyad descendants took over Al-Andalus (or Muslim Spain), the Aghlabids controlled North Africa, and the Tulunids became rulers of Egypt.", "The Islamisation of the countryside in Al-Andalus was slow.", "Christians were regularly employed in state administration, but sometimes violent interreligious conflicts led to their mass migration to the north.", "Apart from Byzantium, Muslim Spain was the only place in Europe where eunuchs played a preeminent role in administration and social life, holding positions such as guardians of religious shrines, or harem servants.===Trade and economy===solidus of the Austrasian king Theudebert I (r. 533–47/48)As the migrations and conquests disrupted trade networks throughout the old Roman lands, goods from long-range trade were replaced with local products.", "Non-local goods appearing in the archaeological record are usually luxury goods or metalworks.", "In the 7th and 8th centuries, new commercial networks were developing in northern Europe.", "Goods like furs, walrus ivory and amber were delivered from the Baltic region to western Europe, triggering the establishment of toll stations and conflicts over their control.", "In the post-Roman kingdoms, base metal coinage nearly ceased but Roman bronze coins remained in circulation for centuries.", "Although gold coins were struck, they were mainly spent for extraordinary expenditures, such as the purchase of land or luxury goods.", "A shift from gold coinage to the mint of silver pennies began in the late 7th century, not independently of the cessation of Byzantine subsidy payments to the Lombards and Franks.", "The elites' new emphasis on Christian charity also increased the demand for coins of lower value.The flourishing Islamic economies' constant demand for fresh labour force and raw materials opened up a new market for Europe around 750.Europe emerged as a major supplier of house slaves and slave soldiers for Al-Andalus, northern Africa and the Levant.", "Venice developed into the most important European center of slave trade.", "In addition, timber, fur and arms were delivered from Europe to the Mediterranean, while Europe imported spices, medicine, incense, and silk.", "The large rivers connecting distant regions facilitated the expansion of transcontinental trade.", "Contemporaneous reports indicate that Anglo-Saxon merchants visited fairs at Paris, pirates preyed on tradesman on the Danube, and Eastern Frankish merchants reached as far as Zaragoza in Al-Andalus.===Church life===Gregory the Great dictating to a secretary, inspired by the Holy SpiritThe idea of Christian unity endured, although differences in ideology and practice between the Eastern and Western Churches became apparent by the 6th century.", "The native Romans' aversion to the Arian conquerors reinforced the traditional Christian concept of the separation of church and state in the west, whereas this notion was alien to eastern clergymen who regarded the Roman state as an instrument of divine providence.", "In the late 7th century, clerical marriage emerged as a permanent focus of controversy.", "After the Muslim conquests, the Byzantine emperors could less effectively intervene in the west.", "When Leo III (r. 717–41) prohibited the display of paintings representing human figures in places of worship, the papacy openly rejected his claim to declare new dogmas by imperial edicts.", "Although the Byzantine Church condemned iconoclasm in 843, further issues such as fierce rivalry for ecclesiastic jurisdiction over newly converted peoples, and the unilateral modification of the Nicene Creed in the west widened to the extent that the differences were greater than the similarities.", "In the west, the tithe, originally a voluntarily contribution, was levied as a regular church tax on agrarian products from the 10th century.", "Few of the Western bishops looked to the papacy for leadership.", "The only part of Western Europe where the papacy had influence was Britain, where Gregory the Great (pope 590–604) had sent a mission to convert the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity.", "Irish missionaries were most active in Western Europe between the 5th and the 7th centuries.", "People did not visit churches regularly.", "Instead, meetings with itinerant clergy and pilgrimages to popular saints' shrines were instrumental in the spread of Christian teaching.", "Clergymen used special handbooks known as penitentials to determine the appropriate acts of penance—typically prayers, and fasts—for sinners.", "They placed a special emphasis on sexuality and prescribed severe penances for adulterers, fornicators and those engaged in non-reproductive sexual acts, such as homosexuals.", "In contrast with official Christianity, the Bogomils of the Balkans condemned sexual reproduction as they regarded Satan the creator of the physical universe.The Early Middle Ages witnessed the rise of Christian monasticism.", "Monastic ideals spread from Egypt through hagiographical literature, especially the ''Life of Anthony''.", "Most European monasteries were of the type that focuses on community experience of the spiritual life, called cenobitism.", "The Italian monk Benedict of Nursia (d. 547) developed the Benedictine Rule which became widely used in western monasteries.", "In the east, the monastic rules compiled by Theodore the Studite (d. 826) gained popularity after they were adopted in the Great Lavra on Mount Athos in the 960s, turning the mount into the most important centre of Orthodox monasticism.Monks and monasteries had a deep effect on religious and political life, in various cases acting as land trusts for powerful families and important centres of political authority.", "They were the main and sometimes only outposts of education and literacy in a region.", "Many of the surviving manuscripts of the Latin classics were copied in monasteries.", "Monks were also the authors of new works, including history, theology, and other subjects, written by authors such as Bede (d. 735), a native of northern England.", "The erudite Saxon nun Hrosvitha (d. 1000) authored the first non-liturgical medieval dramas.", "The Byzantine missionary Constantine (d. 869) developed Old Church Slavonic as a new liturgical language, establishing the basis for flourishing Slavic religious literature; around 900 a new script was adopted for it, now known for Constantine's monastic name as Cyrillic.In Western Christendom, lay influence over Church affairs came to a climax in the 10th century.", "Aristocrats regarded the churches and monasteries under their patronage as their personal property, and simony—the sale of Church offices—was a common practice.", "Simony aroused a general fear as many believed that irregularly appointed priests could not confer valid sacraments such as baptism.", "Monastic communities were the first to react to this fear by the rigorous observance of their rules.", "The establishment of Cluny Abbey in Burgundy in 909 initiated a more radical change as Cluny was freed from lay control and placed under the protection of the papacy.", "The Cluniac Reforms spread through the founding of new monasteries and the reform of monastic life in old abbeys.", "Cluny's example indicated that the reformist idea of the \"Liberty of the Church\" could be achieved through submission to the papacy.===Carolingian Europe===Map showing growth of Frankish power from 481 to 814The Merovingian kings customarily distributed Francia among their sons and destroyed their own power base by extensive land grants.", "In the northeastern Frankish kingdom Austrasia, the Arnulfings were the most prominent beneficiaries of royal favour.", "As hereditary Mayors of the Palace, they were the power behind the throne from the mid-7th century.", "One of them, Pepin of Herstal (d. 714), also assumed power in the central Frankish realm Neustria.", "His son Charles Martel (d. 741) took advantage of the permanent Muslim threat to confiscate church property and raise new troops by parcelling it out among the recruits.The Carolingians, as Charles Martel's descendants are known, succeeded the Merovingians as the new royal dynasty of Francia in 751.This year the last Merovingian king Childeric III (r. 743–51) was deposed, and Charles Martel's son Pepin the Short (r. 751–68) was crowned king with the consent of the Frankish leaders and the papacy.", "Pepin attacked the Lombards and enforced their promise to respect the possessions of the papacy.", "His subsequent donation of Central Italian territories to the Holy See marked the beginnings of the Papal States.Pepin left his kingdom in the hands of his two sons, Charles, more often known as Charlemagne (r. 768–814), and Carloman (r. 768–71).", "When Carloman died of natural causes, Charlemagne reunited Francia and embarked upon a programme of systematic expansion, rewarding allies with war booty and command over parcels of land.", "He subjugated the Saxons, conquered the Lombards, and created a new border province in northern Spain.", "Frankish troops also destroyed the Avars which facilitated the development of small Slavic principalities, mainly ruled by ambitious warlords under Frankish suzerainty.", "The coronation of Charlemagne as emperor on Christmas Day 800 marked a return of the Western Roman Empire although the Byzantines did not recognise him as a second \"emperor of the Romans\".The empire was administered by an itinerant court that travelled with the emperor, as well as approximately 300 imperial officials called counts, who administered the counties the empire had been divided into.", "The central administration supervised the counts through imperial emissaries called ''missi dominici''.", "They served as roving inspectors and troubleshooters.", "The clerics of the royal chapel were responsible for recording important royal grants and decisions.Charlemagne's court in Aachen was the centre of the cultural revival sometimes referred to as the \"Carolingian Renaissance\".", "Literacy increased, as did development in the arts, architecture and jurisprudence, as well as liturgical and scriptural studies under the auspices of the Anglo-Saxon scholar Alcuin (d. 804).", "He developed a new script, today known as Carolingian minuscule, which facilitated reading by the clear separation of words, and the use of extensive punctuation and transparent sectioning.", "Charlemagne sponsored changes in church liturgy, imposing the Roman form of church service on his domains, as well as the Gregorian chant in liturgical music for the churches.", "An important activity for scholars during this period was the copying, correcting, and dissemination of basic works on religious and secular topics, with the aim of encouraging learning.", "New works on religious topics and schoolbooks were also produced.===Breakup of the Carolingian Empire===Charlemagne continued the Frankish tradition of dividing his empire between all his sons, but only one son, Louis the Pious (r. 814–40), was still alive by 813.Louis's reign was marked by numerous divisions of the empire among his sons, and civil wars between various alliances of father and sons.", "Three years after his death, his three surviving sons divided the empire among themselves by the Treaty of Verdun.", "A kingdom between the Rhine and Rhone rivers was created for Lothair I (r. 817–55) to go with his lands in Italy, and his imperial title was recognised.", "Louis the German (r. 843–76) was in control of the eastern lands in modern-day Germany.", "Charles the Bald (r. 843–77) received the western Frankish lands, comprising most of modern-day France.", "Charlemagne's grandsons and great-grandsons divided their kingdoms between their descendants, eventually causing all internal cohesion to be lost.There was a brief re-uniting of the empire by Charles the Fat in 884, although the actual units of the empire retained their separate administrations.", "By the time he died early in 888, the Carolingians were close to extinction, and non-dynastic claimants assumed power in most of the successor states, such as the Parisien count Odo in Francia (r. 888–98).", "In the eastern lands the dynasty died out with the death of Louis the Child (r. 899–911), and the selection of the Franconian duke Conrad I (r. 911–18) as king.", "In West Francia, the dynasty was restored first in 898, then in 936, but the last Carolingians were unable to keep the aristocracy under control.", "In 987 the dynasty was replaced, with the crowning of Hugh Capet (r. 987–96) as king.", "Although the Capetian kings remained nominally in charge, much of the political power devolved to the local lords.Frankish culture and the Carolingian methods of state administration had a significant impact on the neighboring peoples.", "Frankish threat triggered the formation of new states along the empire's eastern frontier—Bohemia, Moravia, and Croatia.", "The breakup of the Carolingian Empire was accompanied by invasions, migrations, and raids by external foes.", "The Atlantic and northern shores were harassed by the Vikings, who also raided the British Isles and settled there.", "In 911, the Viking chieftain Rollo (d. ) received permission from the Frankish king Charles the Simple (r. 898–922) to settle in what became Normandy.", "The eastern parts of the Frankish kingdoms, especially Germany and Italy, were under continual Magyar assault until the invaders' defeat at the Battle of Lechfeld in 955.In the Mediterranean, Arab pirates launched regular raids against Italy and southern France, and the Muslim states began expanding.", "The Aghlabids conquered Sicily, and the Umayyads of Al-Andalus annexed the Balearic Islands.===New kingdoms and Byzantine revival===Ottonian plaque from the Magdeburg Ivories with Christ receiving a church from The Vikings' settlement in the British Isles led to the formation of new political entities, including the small but militant Kingdom of Dublin in Ireland.", "The Anglo-Saxon king Alfred the Great (r. 871–99) came to an agreement with the Danish invaders in 879, acknowledging the existence of an independent Viking realm in Britain.", "By the middle of the 10th century, Alfred's successors had restored English control over the territory.", "In northern Britain, Kenneth MacAlpin (d. ) united the Picts and the Scots into the Kingdom of Alba.", "In the early 10th century, the Ottonian dynasty established itself in Germany, and was engaged in driving back the Magyars and fighting the disobedient dukes.", "After an appeal by the widowed Queen Adelaide of Italy (d. 999) for protection, (r. 936–73) crossed the Alps into Italy, married the young widow and had himself crowned king in Pavia in 951.His coronation as Holy Roman Emperor in Rome in 962 demonstrated his claim to Charlemagne's legacy.", "Otto's successors remained keenly interested in Italian affairs but the absent German kings were unable to assert permanent authority over the local aristocracy.", "In the Iberian Peninsula, the Basques' fight for independence led to the formation of the small Kingdom of Navarre in the Pyrenees, and the counts of Barcelona gained autonomy in the Carolingian border province.", "Asturias expanded slowly south, and continued as the Kingdom of León in the 10th century.The Eastern European trade routes towards Asia were controlled by the Khazars.", "Their multiethnic empire resisted the Muslim expansion, and their leaders converted to Judaism.", "At the end of the 9th century, a new trade route developed, bypassing Khazar territory and connecting Central Asia with Europe across Volga Bulgaria; here the local inhabitants converted to Islam.", "In Scandinavia, contacts with Francia paved the way for missionary efforts by Christian clergy, and Christianisation was closely associated with the growth of centralised kingdoms in Denmark, Norway, and Sweden.", "Swedish traders and slave hunters ranged down the rivers of the East European Plain, captured Kyiv from the Khazars, and even attempted to seize Constantinople in 860 and 907.Norse colonists settled in Iceland and created a political system that hindered the accumulation of power by ambitious chieftains.Byzantium revived its fortunes under Emperor Basil I (r. 867–86) and his successors Leo VI (r. 886–912) and Constantine VII (r. 913–59), members of the Macedonian dynasty.", "Commerce revived and the emperors oversaw the extension of a uniform administration to all the provinces.", "The imperial court was the centre of a revival of classical learning, a process known as the Macedonian Renaissance.", "The military was reorganised, which allowed the emperors John I (r. 969–76) and Basil II (r. 976–1025) to expand the frontiers of the empire.Missionary efforts by both Eastern and Western clergy resulted in the conversion of the Moravians, Danubian Bulgars, Czechs, Poles, Magyars, and the inhabitants of the Kievan Rus'.", "Moravia fell victim to Magyar invasions around 900, Bulgaria to Byzantine expansionism between 971 and 1018.After the fall of Moravia, dukes of the Czech Přemyslid dynasty consolidated authority in Bohemia.", "In Poland, the destruction of old power centres accompanied the formation of state under the Piast dukes.", "In Hungary, the princes of the Árpád dynasty applied extensive violence to crush opposition by rival Magyar chieftains.", "The Rurikid princes of Kievan Rus' emerged as the hegemon power of East Europe's vast forest zones after Rus' raiders sacked the Khazar capital Atil in 965.===Architecture and art===A page from the ''Book of Kells'', an illuminated manuscript created in the British IslesNew basilicas were built in the major Roman cities and the post-Roman kingdoms in the 4th–6th centuries.", "In the late 6th century, Byzantine church architecture adopted an alternative model imitating the rectangular plan and the dome of Justinian's Hagia Sophia, the largest single roofed structure of the Roman world.", "As the spacious basilicas became of little use with the decline of urban centres in the west, they gave way to smaller churches.", "By the beginning of the 8th century, the Carolingian Empire revived the basilica form of architecture.", "One new standard feature of Carolingian basilicas is the use of a transept, or the \"arms\" of a T-shaped building that are perpendicular to the long nave.", "An extraordinary monument of Moorish architecture is the former Great Mosque of Córdoba—now the city's cathedral church—with a forest of reused Roman columns supporting a double line of red-and-white-striped arches.Magnificent halls built of timber or stone were the centres of political and social life.", "Their design often adopted elements of Later Roman architecture like pilasters, columns, and sculptured discs.", "After the disintegration of the Carolingian Empire, the spread of aristocratic castles indicates a transition from communal fortifications to private defence in western Europe.", "Most castles were wooden structures but the wealthiest lords built stone fortresses.", "One or more towers, now known as keeps, were their most characteristic features but castles often developed into multifunctional compounds with their drawbridges, fortified courtyards, cisterns or wells, halls, chapels, stables and workshops.In the age of mass migrations, gold pouring to the tribal leaders from the Roman Empire was regularly remoulded into new artifacts, such as massive necklaces, and eagle-shaped fibulae by local goldsmiths.", "Their unrealistic style, often influenced by Iranian polychrome and cloisonné metalworks, was introduced into Roman territory by the invading peoples.", "Artisans working for post-Roman elites developed a distinctly abstract design, characterised by ribbons and highly stylised animal motifs.", "Literary works, like the Old English epic poem ''Beowulf'', and the Nordic sagas refer to great royal treasures but only a few of them survived, including the grave goods from Childeric's tomb at Tournai, and the rich Anglo-Saxon burial at Sutton Hoo.", "Religious art quickly assimilated several elements of the post-Roman secular style, such as strapwork ornamenting, and extensive segmentation.", "Paintings have mainly survived in richly decorated Gospel Books, including the ''Book of Kells'' and the ''Book of Lindisfarne''—two representative works of the Insular art of Ireland and Northumbria.The Hellenistic tradition of realistic portrayal survived in the Mediterranean.", "Although the iconoclastic movement restricted Byzantine art, the iconophiles' triumph paved the way for an artistic renewal.", "The more naturalistic Mediterranean style served as an important source of inspiration for western artists under Charlemagne who treated visual arts as a powerful instrument of education and propaganda.", "After a long pause, Carolingian art rediscovered the human figure, and western artists often depicted people in illuminated codices.", "These were often protected by sumptuous book covers, made of gold, pearls, and polished gemstones.", "Charlemagne's court seems to have been responsible for the acceptance of figurative monumental sculpture in Christian art, and by the end of the period near life-sized figures such as the Gero Cross were common in important churches.", "In England, book illuminators freely enriched their Insular heritage with Carolingian motifs, such as sprigs of foliage.", "In Germany, manuscripts illustrated with lively pictorial cycles indicate the direct impact of contemporary Byzantine art on Ottonian artists.", "In Christian Spain, artists adopted Islamic decorative motifs such as Kufic letters and Moorish arches.===Military and technology===Byzantine cavalry cheasing Muslim horsemen (a miniature from the 12th-century ''Madrid Skylitzes'')During the later Roman Empire, the principal military developments were attempts to create an effective cavalry force as well as the continued development of highly specialised types of troops.", "The creation of heavily armoured cataphract-type soldiers as cavalry was an important feature of the Late Roman military.", "The various invading tribes had differing emphases on types of soldiers—ranging from the primarily infantry Anglo-Saxon invaders of Britain to the Vandals and Visigoths who had a high proportion of cavalry in their armies.", "The greatest change in military affairs was the adoption of the Hunnic composite bow in place of the earlier, and weaker, Scythian composite bow.", "The Avar heavy cavalry introduced the use of stirrups in Europe, and it was adopted by Byzantine cavalrymen before the end of the 6th century.", "Another development was the increasing use of longswords and the progressive replacement of scale armour by mail and lamellar armour.The importance of infantry and light cavalry began to decline during the early Carolingian period, with a growing dominance of elite heavy cavalry, although a large proportion of the armies appear to have been mounted infantry, rather than true cavalry.", "The use of militia-type levies of the free population declined.", "One exception was Anglo-Saxon England, where the armies were still composed of regional levies, known as the ''fyrd''.", "In military technology, one of the main changes was the reappearance of the crossbow as a military weapon.", "A technological advance that had implications beyond the military was the horseshoe, which allowed horses to be used in rocky terrain." ], [ "High Middle Ages", "===Society===13th-century French historiated initial with the three classes of medieval society: those who prayed (the clergy) those who fought (the knights), and those who worked (the peasantry).Between around 950 and 1060, severe draughts hit the Middle East, and the Eurasian Steppe experienced cold anomalies.", "The ensuing famines led to riots and military coups in the Byzantine Empire, the Abbasid Caliphate, and Egypt, and forced masses of nomadic Turks to seek new pasturelands in Iraq, Anatolia, and the Balkans.", "Their influx caused much destruction, and culminated in the establishment of the Seljuk Empire in the Middle East.", "In Europe, a period of tremendous population expansion began, and the estimated population grew from 35 to 80 million between around 1000 and 1347.The exact causes remain unclear: improved agricultural techniques, assarting (or bringing new lands into production), a more clement climate and the lack of invasion have all been suggested.", "Most medieval western thinkers divided the society into three fundamental classes.", "These were the clergy, the nobility, and the commoners.", "Constituting about 98 per cent of the total population, commoners were mainly rural peasants and artisans.", "The number of townspeople was growing but never exceeded 10 per cent of the total population.", "Feudalism regulated fundamental social relations in many parts of Europe.", "In this system, one party granted property, typically land to the other in return for services, mostly of military nature that the recipient, or vassal, had to render to the grantor, or lord.", "In other parts of Europe, such as Germany, Poland, and Hungary, inalienable allods remained the dominant forms of landholding.", "Their owners owed homage to the king or a higher-ranking aristocrat but their landholding was free of feudal obligations.Many of the peasantry were no longer settled in isolated farms but had gathered into more defensible small communities, usually known as manors or villages.", "In the system of manorialism, a manor was the basic unit of landholding, and it comprised smaller components, such as parcels held by peasant tenants, and the lord's demesne.", "As churchmen prohibited the enslavement of coreligionists, a new form of dependency (serfdom) almost completely supplanted slavery by the late 11th century.", "Unlike slaves, serfs had legal capacity, and their hereditary status was regulated by agreements with their lords.", "Restrictions on their activities varied but their freedom of movement was customarily limited, and they usually owed , or labor services.", "Peasants left their homelands in return for significant economic and legal privileges, typically a lower level of taxation and the right to administer justice at local level.", "The crossborder movement of masses of peasantry had radical demographic consequences, such as the spread of German settlements to the east, and the expansion of the Christian population in Iberia.", "With the development of heavy cavalry, the previously uniform class of free warriors split into two groups.", "Those who could equip themselves as mounted knights were integrated into the traditional aristocracy, but others were assimilated into the peasantry.", "The new elite's position was stabilised through the adoption of strict inheritance customs, such as primogeniture—the eldest son's right to inherit the family domains undivided.", "Nobles were stratified in terms of the land and people over whom they held authority; the lowest-ranking nobles did not hold land and had to serve wealthier aristocrats.", "The nobility was never a closed group: kings could raise commoners to the aristocracy, wealthy commoners could marry into noble families, and impoverished aristocrats could lose their privileged status.", "Western aristocrats often moved to the peripheries of Latin Christendom either with the support of local rulers who appreciated their military skills, or as conquerors.", "French-speaking noblemen mainly settled in the British Isles, southern Italy or Iberia, whereas the German aristocrats preferred Central and Eastern Europe.The clergy was divided into two types.", "The secular clergy cared for believers' spiritual needs, mainly serving in the parish churches, whereas the regular clergy lived under a religious rule as monks, canons, or friars.", "The introduction of clerical celibacy—the ban on priestly marriage—clearly distinguished Catholic clergy from laity.", "Church courts had exclusive jurisdiction over marriage affairs, and church authorities supported popular peace movements in the west.", "From the early 13th century, laypeople were obliged to confess their sins to a priest at least once a year which reinforced priestly control of their life.", "Individuals who were thought to receive divine revelations might present a challenge to clerical monopolies but most of them respected official doctrines.", "The veneration of popular mystics, such as Francis of Assisi (d. 1226), was often sanctioned by church authorities.", "Jewish mysticism culminated in the compilation of the ('The Book of Illumination'), a 13th-century summary of kabbalistic teaching.Women were officially required to be subordinate to some male, whether their father, husband, or other kinsman.", "Women's work generally consisted of household or other domestically inclined tasks such as child-care.", "Peasant women could supplement the household income by spinning or brewing at home, and they also did field-work at harvest-time.", "Townswomen could engage in trade but often only by right of their husband, and unlike their male competitors, they were not always allowed to train apprentices.", "Noblewomen could inherit land in the absence of a male heir but their potential to give birth to children was regarded as their principal virtue.", "As women were not ordained priests, the only role open to them in the Church was that of nuns, but many popular mystics were women.", "Among them, the nun Hildegard of Bingen (d. 1179/80) was a prolific and highly respected scholar, who proudly stated that \"no man can be made without a woman\".===Trade and economy===Impression of the earliest known seal of the northern German city of Hamburg (1241)The expansion of population, greater agricultural productivity and relative political stability laid the foundations for the medieval \"Commercial Revolution\" in the 11th century.", "People with surplus cash began investing in commodities like salt, pepper and silk at faraway markets.", "Rising trade brought new methods of dealing with money, and gold coinage was again minted in Europe, first in Florence and Genoa.", "New forms of commercial contracts emerged, allowing risk to be shared within the framework of partnerships known as or .", "Bills of exchange also appeared, enabling easy transmission of money.", "As many types of coins were in circulation, money changers facilitated transactions between local and foreign merchants.", "Loans could also be negotiated with them which gave rise to the development of credit institutions called banks.As new towns were developing from local commercial centres, the economic growth brought about a new wave of urbanisation.", "Kings and aristocrats mainly supported the process in the hope of increased tax revenues.", "Most urban communities received privileges acknowledging their autonomy, but few cities could get rid of all elements of royal or aristocratic control.", "Townspeople engaged in the same trade or profession were united in confraternities known as guilds.", "Typically, these associations set the rules for quality, training, and pricing, and only their members had access to the local market.The Italian maritime republics such as Amalfi, Venice, Genoa, and Pisa were the first to profit from the revival of commerce in the Mediterranean.", "In the north, German merchants established associations known as and took control of the trade routes connecting the British Islands and the Low Countries with Scandinavia and Eastern Europe.", "Great trading fairs were established and flourished in northern France, allowing Italian and German merchants to trade with each other as well as local merchants.Economic growth provided opportunities to Jewish merchants to spread all over Europe with the local rulers' support.", "As the Jews could not engage in prestigious trades outside their communities, they often took despised jobs such as ragmen or tax collectors.", "They were especially active in moneylending for they could ignore the Christian clerics' condemnation on loan interest.", "The Jewish moneylenders and pawn brokers reinforced antisemitism, which led to blood libels and pogroms.", "Church authorities' growing concerns about Jewish influence on Christian life inspired segregationist laws, and even their permanent expulsion from England in 1290.===Technology and military===Portrait of Cardinal Hugh of Saint-Cher (d. 1263) by Tommaso da Modena (1352), the first known (although anachronistic) depiction of spectaclesTechnology developed mainly through minor innovations and by the adoption of advanced technologies from Asia through Muslim mediation.", "Major technological advances included the first mechanical clocks and convex spectacles, and the manufacture of distilled spirits.", "In Europe, horizontal treadle looms were introduced in the 11th century, windmills were first built after 1100, and spinning wheels appeared around 1200.Large scale construction projects advanced building technology, and increased demand for raw materials like timber, stone, and bricks.", "Shipbuilding improved with the use of the rib and plank method rather than the old Roman system of mortise and tenon.", "Other improvements to ships included the use of lateen sails and the stern-post rudder, both of which increased the speed at which ships could be sailed.", "The use of astrolabe and compass allowed navigation in large distance from the shores.The development of a three-field rotation system for planting crops increased the usage of land by more than 30 per cent, with a consequent increase in production.", "The development of the heavy plough allowed heavier soils to be farmed more efficiently.", "The spread of horse collar led to the use of draught horses that required less pastures than oxen.", "Legumes—such as peas, beans, or lentils—were grown more widely, in addition to the cereal crops.In military affairs, the use of infantry with specialised roles increased.", "Along with the still-dominant heavy cavalry, armies often included mounted and infantry crossbowmen, as well as sappers and engineers.", "Crossbows increased in use partly because of the increase in siege warfare.", "This led to the use of closed-face helmets, heavy body armour, as well as horse armour during the 12th and 13th centuries.", "In contrast, the Mongols remained lightly armoured steppe horsemen even after they had adopted Chinese military devices.", "The extensive use of spies for reconnoitering enemy lands was a prominent factor in their successful military campaigns.===Church life===Romanesque Church of Maria Laach Abbey, built mainly between 1130 and 1156In the early 11th century, papal elections were controlled by Roman aristocrats, but Emperor Henry III (r. 1039–56) broke their power and placed reform-minded clerics on the papal throne.", "Through popular support, they achieved the acknowledgement of their supreme jurisdiction in church affairs in many parts of Europe.", "In contrast, the head of the Byzantine Church Patriarch Michael I Cerularius (d. 1059) refused papal supremacy for which a papal legate excommunicated him in 1054.Eventually, after a string of mutual excommunications, this event, known as the East–West Schism, led to the separation of the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches.Lay investiture—the appointment of clerics by secular rulers—was condemned at an assembly of bishops in Rome in 1059, and the same synod established the exclusive right of the College of Cardinals to elect the popes.", "Henry's son and successor Henry IV (r. 1056–1105) wanted to preserve the right to appoint his own choices as bishops within his lands but his appointments outraged Pope Gregory VII (pope 1073–85).", "Their quarrel developed into the Investiture Controversy, involving other powers as well because kings did not relinquish the control of appointments to bishoprics voluntarily.", "All conflicts ended with a compromise, in the case of the Holy Roman Emperors with the 1122 Concordat of Worms.The High Middle Ages was a period of great religious movements.", "Old pilgrimage sites such as Rome, Jerusalem, and Compostela received increasing numbers of visitors, and new sites such as Monte Gargano and Bari rose to prominence.", "Popular movements emerged to support the implementation of the church reform but their anticlericalism sometimes led to the rejection of Catholic dogmas by the most radical groups such as the Waldensians and Cathars.", "To suppress heresies, the popes appointed special commissioners of investigation known as inquisitors.", "Monastic reforms continued as the Cluniac monasteries' splendid ceremonies were alien to those who preferred the simpler hermetical monasticism of early Christianity, or wanted to live the \"Apostolic life\" of poverty and preaching.", "New monastic orders were established, including the Carthusians and the Cistercians.", "In the 13th century mendicant orders—the Franciscans and the Dominicans—who earned their living by begging, were approved by the papacy.===Rise of state power===Europe and the Mediterranean Sea in 1190The High Middle Ages saw the development of institutions that would dominate political life in Europe until the late 18th century, or even later.", "The kings' right to rule without a foreign power's intercession became widely accepted, inducing the idea of state sovereignty.", "The concept of hereditary monarchy was strengthening, and the first queens regnant assumed power, as female succession was recognised in most countries.", "The chancery emerged as the central office of royal government but also acted as a court of appeals.", "Taxation quickly developed because revenues from the royal domains could no more cover state expenditures.", "Initially, extraordinary taxes were levied for military purposes but by the end of the period taxes had been collected on a more regular basis.", "Effective taxation depended on consent which reinforced the role of representative assemblies, allowing them to exert influence on state administration.", "The papacy, long attached to an ideology of independence from secular influence, first asserted its claim to temporal authority over the entire Christian world.", "The Papal Monarchy reached its apogee under the pontificate of (pope 1198–1216).", "The popes who were rulers of much of central Italy and feudal overlords of some of the Catholic rulers such as the Sicilian kings were deeply involved in secular politics.", "Sicily and southern Italy had been seized by Norman warbands from the local Lombard, Byzantine and Muslim rulers between 1016 and 1091, and Roger II (r. 1105–54) united the Norman principalities into the Kingdom of Sicily.In the Holy Roman Empire, the Ottonians were replaced by the Salians in 1024.They protected the lesser nobility to reduce ducal power, and seized Burgundy before clashing with the papacy under Henry IV.", "After a short interval between 1125 and 1137, the Hohenstaufens succeeded the Salians.", "Their recurring conflicts with the papacy allowed the northern Italian cities and the German princes to extort considerable concessions from them.", "In 1183, Barbarossa (r. 1155–90) sanctioned the right of the Lombard cities to elect their leaders; the princes' autonomy was recognised during the reign of his grandson (r. 1220–50).", "Frederick was famed for his erudition and unconventional life style but his efforts to rule Italy eventually led to the fall of his dynasty.", "In Germany, a period of interregnum, or rather civil war began, whereas Sicily—Frederick's maternal inheritance—was seized by an ambitious French prince Charles I of Anjou (r. 1266–85).", "During the civil war, the right of seven prince-electors to elect the king was reaffirmed.", "Rudolf of Habsburg (r. 1273–91), the first German king to be elected after the interregnum, realised that he was unable to control the whole empire.", "He granted Austria to his sons, thus establishing the basis for the Habsburgs' future dominance in Central Europe.", "After his death, the peasantry of three Alpine communities formed the Swiss Confederacy to defend their judicial autonomy against his kinsmen.The Bayeux Tapestry (detail) showing William the Conqueror (centre), his half-brothers Robert, Count of Mortain (right) and Odo, Bishop of Bayeux in the Duchy of Normandy (left)The French monarchy slowly began to expand its authority over the nobility.", "The kings faced a powerful rival in the Dukes of Normandy, who in 1066 under William the Conqueror (r. 1035–87) conquered England.", "This cross-Channel empire further expanded when (r. 1154–89) from the Angevin dynasty ascended the throne, as he had seized large areas of France through inheritance and marriage.", "The first Anglo-Norman lordships in Ireland were established during his reign.", "Under his son Richard I (r. 1189–99), the Angevin Empire remained intact, but Richard's brother John (r. 1199–1216) lost the northern French possessions to the French king Philip II Augustus (r. 1180–1223).", "John's financial exactions to pay for his unsuccessful attempts to regain Normandy led in 1215 to Magna Carta, a charter that confirmed the rights and privileges of free men in England.", "In France, Philip Augustus's son (r. 1223–26) distributed large portions of his father's conquests among his younger sons as appanages—virtually independent provinces—to facilitate their administration.", "His son Louis IX (r. 1226–70) improved local administration by appointing inspectors known as to oversee the royal officials' conduct.", "The royal court at Paris began hearing litigants in regular sessions almost all over the year.The Iberian Christian states began to push back against the Islamic powers in the south, a period known as the .", "After numerous divisions and reunifications of the Christian states, the Christian north had coalesced into the four kingdoms of Castile, Aragon, Navarre, and Portugal by 1230.Aragon emerged as a naval power, conquering the Balearic Island from the Muslims, Sicily from the Italian Angevins, and Sardinia from the Genoese.", "Southern Iberia remained under the control of Islamic states, initially under the Caliphate of Córdoba, which broke up in 1031 into a shifting number of petty states known as ''taifas''.", "Although the Almoravids and the Almohads, two dynasties from the Maghreb, established centralised rule over Southern Iberia in the 1110s and 1170s respectively, their empires quickly disintegrated, allowing further expansion of the Christian kingdoms.", "The Catholic Scandinavian states also expanded: the Norwegian kings assumed control of the Norse colonies in Iceland and Greenland, Denmark seized parts of Estonia, and the Swedes conquered Finland.In the east, Kievan Rus' fell apart into independent principalities.", "Among them, the northern Vladimir-Suzdal emerged as the dominant power after Suzdalian troops sacked Kyiv in 1169.Poland also disintegrated into autonomous duchies, enabling the Czech kings to expand in the prosperous Duchy of Silesia.", "The kings of Hungary seized Croatia but respected the liberties of the native aristocracy.", "They claimed (but only periodically achieved) suzerainty over other lands and peoples such as Dalmatia, Bosnia, and the nomadic Cumans.", "The Cumans supported the Bulgarians and Vlachs during their anti-Byzantine revolt that led to the restoration of Bulgaria in the late 12th century.", "To the west of Bulgaria, Serbia gained independence.With the rise of the Mongol Empire in the Eurasian steppes under Genghis Khan (r. 1206–27), a new expansionist power reached Europe's eastern borderlands.", "Between 1236 and 1242, the Mongols conquered Volga Bulgaria, shattered the Rus' principalities, and laid waste to large regions in Poland, Hungary, Croatia, Serbia and Bulgaria.", "Their commander-in-chief Batu Khan (r. 1241–56)—a grandson of Genghis Khan—set up his capital at Sarai on the Volga, establishing the Golden Horde, a Mongol state nominally under the distant Great Khan's authority.", "The Mongols extracted heavy tribute from the Rus' principalities, and the Rus' princes had to ingratiate themselves with the Mongol khans for economic and political concessions.", "Under Mongol pressure, the Anatolian Seljuk Sultanate disintegrated into small but often aggressive Turkic lordships, such as the one ruled by the Ottoman clan on the Byzantine border.", "The Mongol conquest was followed by a peaceful period in Eastern Europe which facilitated the development of direct trade contacts between Europe and China through newly established Genoese colonies in the Black Sea region.", "The new land and sea routes to the Far East were famously described in ''The Travels of Marco Polo'' written by one of the traders, Marco Polo (d. 1324).===Crusades===Krak des Chevaliers in Syria, built during the crusades for the Knights Hospitallers.Clashes with secular powers led to the militarization of the papacy.", "Pope Urban II (pope 1088–99) proclaimed the First Crusade at the Council of Clermont in response to a Byzantine appeal for military aid against the Seljuk Turks.", "He declared the liberation of Jerusalem as its ultimate goal, and offered indulgence—the remission of sins—to all who took part.", "Tens of thousands of commoners formed loosely organised bands to march to the east.", "They lived off looting, and attacked the Jewish communities.", "Few of them reached Anatolia, and those who succeeded were annihilated by the Turks.", "The official crusade departed in 1096 under the command of prominent aristocrats like Godfrey of Bouillon (d. 1100), and Raymond of Saint-Gilles (d. 1105).", "They defeated the Turks in two major battles at Dorylaeum and Antioch, allowing the Byzantines to recover western Anatolia.", "The westerners consolidated their conquests in the Middle East into crusader states, but their security depended on external military assistance which led to further crusades.", "Muslim resistance was raised by ambitious warlords, like Saladin (d. 1193) who captured Jerusalem in 1187.New crusades prolonged the crusader states' existence for another century, until the crusaders' last strongholds fell to the Mamluks of Egypt in 1291.The papacy used the crusading ideology against its opponents and non-Catholic groups in other theaters of war as well.", "The Iberian crusades became fused with the and reduced Al-Andalus to the Emirate of Granada by 1248.The northern German and Scandinavian rulers' expansion against the neighbouring pagan tribes developed into the Northern Crusades bringing the forced assimilation of numerous Slavic, Baltic and Finnic peoples into the culture of Catholic Europe.", "The Fourth Crusade was diverted from the Holy Land to Constantinople, and captured the city in 1204, setting up a Latin Empire in the east.", "Michael VIII Palaiologos (r. 1259–82), the ruler of a Byzantine rump state in Anatolia recaptured the city in 1261, but parts of Greece remained under the westerners' rule.", "The Albigensian Crusades against the Cathars of Occitania provided the opportunity for the French monarchy to expand into the region.With its specific ceremonies and institutions, the crusading movement became a featuring element of medieval life.", "From 1213 a crusader oath could be fulfilled through a cash payment which gave rise to the sale of plenary indulgences by Church authorities.", "The crusades brought about the fusion of monastic life with military service within the framework of a new type of monastic order, the military orders.", "The establishment of the Knights Templar set the precedent, inspiring the militarisation of charitable associations, like the Hospitallers and the Teutonic Knights, and the founding of new orders of warrior monks, like the Order of Calatrava and the Livonian Brothers of the Sword.", "Although established in the crusader states, the Teutonic Order focused much of its activity in the Baltic where they founded their own state in 1226.===Intellectual life===Abbot Richard of Wallingford making his astronomical clock, 14th-century miniatureCathedral chapters were expected to operate a school from the late 11th century, and the more lenient cathedral schools quickly marginalised the traditional monastic schools.", "Schools reaching the highest level of mastery within the disciplines they taught received the rank of , or university from the pope or the Holy Roman Emperor.", "The new institutions of education encouraged scholarly discussions.", "Debates between the realists and the nominalists over the concept of \"universals\" were especially heated.", "Philosophical discourse was stimulated by the rediscovery of Aristotle and his emphasis on empiricism and rationalism.", "Scholars such as Peter Abelard (d. 1142) and Peter Lombard (d. 1164) introduced Aristotelian logic into theology.", "Scholasticism, the new method of intellectual discourse and pedagogy, required the study of authoritative texts, notably the Vulgate and patristic literature, but references to them could no more override rational argumentation.", "Scholastic academics summarised their and other authors' views on specific subjects in comprehensive sentence collections known as , including the by Thomas Aquinas (d. 1274).", "Chivalry and the ethos of courtly love developed in royal and noble courts.", "This culture was expressed in the vernacular languages rather than Latin, and comprised poems, stories, legends, and popular songs.", "Often the stories were written down in the , or \"songs of great deeds\", glorifying their male heroes' often brutal acts such as ''The Song of Roland'', and ''The Poem of the Cid''.", "In contrast, chivalric romance praised chaste love, while eroticism was mainly present in poems composed by troubadours.", "Chivalric literature took inspiration from classical mythology, and also from the Celtic legends of the Arthurian cycle collected by Geoffrey of Monmouth (d. ).", "Further featuring literary genres include spiritual autobiographies, chronicles, philosophical poems, and hymns.", "Theatre developed in the guise of mystery plays performed in the vernacular, but comic farces, like those written by Adam de la Halle (d. 1287/88) also gained popularity.The discovery of a copy of the in the 11th century paved the way for the systematic study of Roman law at Bologna.", "This led to the recording and standardisation of legal codes throughout Western Europe.", "Around 1140, the monk Gratian (fl.", "12th century), a teacher at Bologna, wrote what became the standard text of ecclesiastical law, or canon law—the .", "Among the results of the Greek and Islamic influence on this period in European history was the replacement of Roman numerals with the decimal positional number system and the invention of algebra, which allowed more advanced mathematics.", "Astronomy benefited from the translation of Ptolemy's ''Almagest'' from Greek into Latin in the late 12th century.", "Medicine was also studied, especially in southern Italy, where Islamic medicine influenced the school at Salerno.===Architecture and arts===León Cathedral, an example of Rayonnant Gothic, completed in three phases during the 13th–15th centuriesEncastellation continued, as more and more stone fortresses were built in regions where central authority was weak.", "Many of them were motte-and-bailey structures, but , or tower castles, were preferred in Central Europe, and the competing urban families built tall towers in Italian cities and towns.", "The great pilgrimages entailed the construction of large churches along pilgrimage roads.", "This led to the development of stone architecture that bears some resemblance to classical Roman building design, hence known as Romanasque.", "Romanesque buildings have massive stone walls, decorated with sculpture in relief, and are typically covered by barrel, groin or rib vaults.", "Romanesque has various regional variants: in Provence, Corinthian columns betray the direct influence of the local Roman monuments; in Tuscany, stone arches were used as ornamental elements; and in Norway, dragon heads decorated the exterior of stave churches.", "Some Serbian churches display Romanesque influence but traditional Byzantine religious architecture remained dominant in the Balkans.Romanesque art, especially metalwork, was at its most sophisticated in Mosan art, in which distinct artistic personalities including Nicholas of Verdun (d. 1205) become apparent, and an almost classical style is seen in works such as a font at Liège.", "Few wall-paintings survive although references to images abound in written sources.", "The employment of itinerant artists, and the use of sketches made of murals facilitated the transmission of artistic motifs over large territory.", "Embroidery flourished as the churches and castles were decorated by tapestries, and clerical vestments were adorned by needlework images.Structural innovations introduced the development of the Gothic style from Romanesque.", "These included pointed arches for the reduction of lateral thrust, flying buttresses to reinforce the walls, and rib vaults to minimise their static importance.", "The new solutions allowed the extensive use of large stained glass windows.", "The Gothic architecture emerged as a combination of all these during the reconstruction of the Saint-Denis Abbey near Paris under Abbot Suger (d. 1151).", "The new style quickly spread and dominated religious architecture in much of Catholic Europe till the end of the Middle Ages.", "The practice of manuscript illumination gradually passed from monasteries to lay workshops, and the book of hours developed as a form of devotional book for lay-people.", "Metalwork continued to be the most prestigious form of art, with Limoges enamel a popular and relatively affordable option.", "In Italy the innovations of Cimabue and Duccio, followed by the Trecento master Giotto (d. 1337), greatly increased the sophistication and status of panel painting and fresco.", "Increasing prosperity during the 12th century resulted in greater production of secular art; many carved ivory objects such as gaming pieces, combs, and small religious figures have survived." ], [ "Late Middle Ages", "===Society and economy===Execution of some of the ringleaders of the revolt, from a 14th-century manuscript of the ''Chroniques de France ou de St Denis''Average annual temperature was declining from around 1200, introducing the gradual transition to the Little Ice Age.", "Climate anomalies caused agricultural crises, culminating in the Great Famine of 1315–17.As the starving peasants slaughtered their draft animals, those who survived had to make extraordinary efforts to revive farming.", "These troubles were followed in 1346 by the Black Death, a pandemic that spread throughout Europe, killing about one-third of the population in four years.", "As plague continued to strike Europe regularly until 1400, the total population reduced by about 50 percent.", "The trauma of the plague led to savage pogroms against the Jews, and the self-mortification of the flagellants.", "The peasants who survived the pandemic paid lower rents to the landlords but demand for agricultural products declined, and the lower prices barely covered their costs.", "Urban workers received higher salaries but they were heavily taxed.", "Occasionally, the governments tried to fix rural rents at a high level, or to keep urban salaries low, which provoked popular uprisings, including the in France, the Peasants' Revolt in England, and the Ciompi Revolt in Florence.Labor services the peasants owed for their land tenure were often changed into cash rents, providing the landlords with a stable source of income.", "Landlords joined to extort privileges from their governments but royal administration also started to protect the interests of the poor.", "From the early 14th century, serfdom was officially abolished in many places, although in other regions, mainly in Central and Eastern Europe, it was imposed on tenants who had previously been free.", "The rise of banking continued, fuelled partly by the crossborder movement of papal revenues with the mediation of large merchant houses.", "These also loaned money to warring royalty, at great risk, as some were bankrupted when kings defaulted on their loans.Private feuds were almost permanent in politically fragmented regions, and local skirmishes often escalated into full-scale warfare.", ", or crusading tours in the Baltic region, became a fashionable form of warring for Catholic aristocrats.", "Conflicts between ethnic groups became polarised, and local statutes were issued to prohibit intermarriages and limit membership in guilds along ethnic lines.The Jewish communities were permanently expelled from France, and at least provisionally from most German cities and principalities.", "In contrast, the Hungarian and Polish rulers encouraged the Jewish moneylenders' immigration.", "Massive pogroms led to the mass conversion of Spanish Jewry in 1391.As the \"New Christians\" were suspected of heresy, the Spanish Inquisition was established to inspect their faith.", "The Jews who refused to convert were exiled from Spain in 1492, and from Portugal in 1497.Most Spanish Jews left for the Ottoman Empire.===State resurgence===Although the growth of central governments continued, still more than 500 autonomous polities existed at the end of the period.", "Taxation quickly expanded which contributed to the development of self-conscious communities of taxpayers, eager to protect their common interests both at central and local levels.", "Legal procedures improved as discretionary justice, previously dispensed by kings and their retainers, was delegated to professional lawyers.", "Commoners could approach their kings but from the end of the period flattering courtiers and royal propaganda emphasised the distance between the monarchs and their subjects.", "Successful dynasties reigned over several states mainly in close cooperation with local elites but could not freely redistribute resources among their realms.Joan of Arc in peasant custom, wearing her arms, from a late 15th-century documentIn Germany, the elected emperors were no more than supreme arbitrators even if they had a significant power base in their hereditary lands.", "The emperors' authority was even more limited in Italy where Florence, Milan, and Venice exploited the power vacuum to expand.", "The centuries-old rivalry between England and France escaleted into the Hundred Years' War when Edward III (r. 1327–77) laid claim to the French throne in 1337.The English won the battles of Crécy and Poitiers, captured the city of Calais, and won control of an enlarged Gascony by 1360.French aristocrats' feuds escalated into a civil war, allowing Henry V of England (r. 1413–22) to seize much of France.", "The unconquered French regions put up a strong resistance, boosted by the visions of a peasant girl Joan of Arc (d. 1431), and Charles VII of France (r. 1422–61) expelled the English from the country except for Calais by 1453.England went on to suffer a long civil war known as the Wars of the Roses, which ended after Richard III (r. 1483–85) died fighting at Bosworth, and his opponent Henry Tudor consolidated power as Henry VII (r. 1485–1509).", "The wars mainly prevented the English to expand in the British Isles, but royal power remained weak in Scotland, and much of Ireland was ruled by feuding local lords.Succession troubles were not uncommon in the Iberian kingdoms, as intermarriages between the royal houses created conflicting claims to the thrones, and royal bastards could successfully claim their father's inheritance.", "Portugal opened a new theater of anti-Muslim warfare in Morocco by seizing Ceuta in 1415.Aragon and Castile were riven by conflicts between magnate factions or over the limits of royal government but the Castilian Isabella I (r. 1474–1504) and her Aragonese husband Ferdinand II (r. 1479–1516) reinforced royal power.", "They completed the by conquering Granada in 1492.The idea of elective kingship revived in the Central European and Scandinavian monarchies for various reasons, including the aristocrats' aversion to foreign influence.", "Royal power was restored in Poland early in the 14th century, in a period when the Teutonic Knights' expansion intensified.", "The Knights primarily targeted Lithuania, a loose confederation of mainly pagan Lithuanian chieftains and Orthodox Rus' principalities.", "The common enemy prompted a lasting Polish–Lithuanian union, sealed by the marriage of the Lithuanian grand duke Jogaila (r. 1377–1434) with the Polish queen Jadwiga (r. 1384–99), and the Lithuanians' conversion to Catholicism.", "In Scandinavia, Margaret I of Denmark (r. 1387–1412) consolidated Denmark, Norway, and Sweden in the Union of Kalmar in 1397 but only the Danish–Norwegian union proved lasting.After Polish, Hungarian, and Lithuanian invasions, and succession crises undermined the Golden Horde's power in the 14th century, the princes of Muscovy began annexing the Rus' principalities often in competition with Lithuania.", "Under Grand Prince Ivan III (r. 1462–1505), the conquest of the great trading cities of Novgorod and Tver completed Muscovy's dominance in the northeast.", "In southeastern Europe, two small Vlach principalities emerged, Wallachia and Moldavia; their rulers mainly accepted the suzerainty of the Hungarian or Polish kings.===Collapse of Byzantium and rise of the Ottomans===Battle of Nicopolis depicted in the late-16th-century Ottoman illuminated chronicle Facing financial crises and threats from the west, the restored Byzantine Empire was unable to prevent the Turks' expansion in Anatolia.", "Revolts by Catalan mercenaries and recurring civil wars further weakened the empire, allowing the Ottoman Turks to establish a strategic bridgehead at Gallipoli in Europe in 1354.Within a century, the Ottomans reduced the competing southeastern European kingdoms, principalities and lordships to tributary states.", "International coalitions, such as the Crusades of Nicopolis (1396) and Varna (1444), could not stop their advance.", "The last Byzantine emperor Constantine XI (r. 1449–53) died fighting during the conquest of Constantinople by Sultan Mehmed II (r. 1451–81).", "Talented military commanders could repel individual Ottoman attacks but by the end of the century the Ottomans conquered almost the whole Balkans: Bulgaria was fully occupied in 1396, Serbia in 1459, Byzantine Greece in 1460, Bosnia in 1463, and the Ottomans broke all Albanian lords' resistance by 1488.The Ottoman sultans ruled a highly centralised state, often appointing slaves to the highest offices.", "From the late 15th century, the sultans murdered their brothers to avoid succession crises.===Controversy within the Church===As prolonged papal elections and conflicts with the Roman aristocracy had undermined papal authority in Italy, the seat of the papacy was moved to the city of Avignon in 1309, introducing the period of the Avignon Papacy.", "The French king Philip IV (r. 1285–1314) brought the wealthy Knights Templar to court on the false charges of heresy and deviance, and Pope Clement V (1305–14) could not prevent their suppression in 1312.Under popular pressure, the papal seat was returned to Rome in 1377, but disputes within the leadership of the Church led to the Great Schism, with two and later three rival lines of popes, each supported by several states.", "The schism was removed at the Council of Constance, with the resignation of one of the popes and the deposition of his two rivals, which paved the way for the election of an Italian cardinal as Pope Martin V (1417–31).", "Theological debates intensified.", "John Wycliffe (d. 1384), an English theologian, criticised popular acts of devotion, such as pilgrimages, and challenged the Catholic doctrine on the Eucharist.", "His teachings influenced two major movements condemned as heretics by the official Church: Lollardy in England, and Hussitism in Bohemia.", "The Bohemian movement initiated with the teaching of the Czech theologian Jan Hus (d. 1415) who was burned at the stake at Constance.", "Hussitism, although the target of anti-heretic crusades, survived as an officially recognised denomination in Bohemia.", "In the hope of western support against the Ottomans, Byzantine church leaders submitted themselves to the papacy at the Council of Florence in 1438–39, but most Orthodox believers rejected papal supremacy, and those who supported the church union died in exile.Mysticism and devotional literature flourished.", "Meister Eckhart (d. 1327), a skilful critic of Aquinas, urged the faithful to focus on their inner divine core for perfection.", "Although his works were censured for heresy, his sermons survived in copies, also read by the Protestant reformator Martin Luther (d. 1546).", "The most characteristic late medieval reform movement, the put a special emphasis on lay piety, community experience and personal faith.", "In the Orthodox world, the Athonite monks Gregory of Sinai (d. 1346) and Gregory Palamas (d. 1359) promoted a form of meditative prayers known as Hesychasm.", "A general fear of evil practices led to the first witch trials around 1450, but a popular handbook, the ('Hammer of the Witches'), laid the groundwork for hysterical early modern witch hunts.===Scholars, intellectuals, and exploration===Clerics studying astronomy and geometry, French, early 15th centuryProminent late medieval philosophers departed from Aristotelian logic.", "Among them, William of Ockham (d. ) concluded that natural philosophy could not prove God's existence.", "Under his influence, most scholars who researched subjects yielding verifiable conclusions such as mathematics or physics no more analysed theological issues.", "In contrast, Marsilius of Padua (d. 1342) gained inspiration from Aristotle to argue in favor of the communities' right to regulate their life and control the clergy.", "Late medieval scholars such as Petrarch (d. 1374) intensively studied Classical literature, and many of them put a special emphasis on human dignity, hence they were known as Humanists.The level of literacy improved as new schools and universities were established all over Europe.", "These were often sponsored by urban authorities or rich individuals.", "The invention of printing press with movable type simplified the mass publication of books at a reasonable price, and the competition between publishing houses contributed to the quick spread of news and new ideas.", "The poetry of Dante (d. 1321) and the prose of Boccaccio (d. 1375), both from Florence, indicate that the Tuscan dialect of Italian matured into a literary language on a par with Latin.", "English reached the same level with the ''Canterbury Tales'', written by Geoffrey Chaucer (d. 1400).", "In France, theoretical discussions about chivalric literature led to the standardisation of French.", "Christine de Pizan (d. ), a sharp critic of chivalric romances for their prejudice against women, authored a feminist utopia, ''The Book of the City of Ladies'' in French.Several factors, primarily a growing demand for gold and the European merchants' eagerness to avoid custom payments prompted the search for a direct maritime route towards India along the African coasts.", "Initially, the Portuguese assumed the leadership of the explorations: Dinis Dias landed at Cap Verde in 1444, Bartolomeu Dias (d. 1500) sailed as far as Cape of Good Hope in 1486, and Vasco da Gama (d. 1524) reached India in 1498.After visiting the African slave markets, the Portuguese became deeply involved in slave trade towards Europe and the Muslim world.", "Christopher Colombus proposed a westward alternative route to India.", "He gained Isabella of Castile's support for his voyage of exploration that led to his discovery of the Americas in 1492.===Technological and military developments===Labours of the Months, agricultural calendar , from a manuscript of Pietro de Crescenzi's manual on farmingIn cloth production, the second main employer after agriculture, the invention of treadle-wheel improved productivity, and the increased usage of sheep with long-fibred wool allowed a stronger thread to be spun.", "From the 14th century, the use of buttons as closures for garments enabled better fit.", "Popular tailoring designs were quickly spread by pedlars, and trends in fashion were dictated by the style of the Burgundian dukes' court in much of 15th-century Europe.", "In metalworking, the blast furnace increased the quantity of iron produced, also improving its quality.", "The first patent law in 1447 in Venice granted a ten-year monopoly to inventors for their inventions.As increased tax revenues allowed the employment of mercenaries in growing numbers, wars were mainly fought by professional soldiers almost all over Europe from the mid-14th century.", "Initially, mercenaries were hired for periods of war but a standing army was created in France in the late 1440s.", "From around 1438, child tribute from the Christian population supplied the Ottoman army with professional foot soldiers known as Jannisaries.", "In Bohemia, religious enthusiasm, stern discipline and the use of wagon forts were the key factors in the Hussites' victories.", "The earliest references to cannons were recorded in the early 14th century; the use of cheap handguns quickly spread from around 1360.===Art and architecture===The wealthiest Italian and French princes regularly hired foreign artists which led to the convergence of courtly styles.", "This \"International Gothic\" reached much of Europe in the decades around 1400, producing naturalistic masterpieces such as the sculptures of the portal of the new Burgundian ducal mausoleum at Champmol, and the miniatures in the ('Very Rich Hours of the Duke of Berry').", "All over Europe, secular art continued to increase in quantity and quality, and in the 15th century, the mercantile classes of Italy and Flanders became important patrons, commissioning small portraits as well as a growing range of luxury items such as jewellery, ivory caskets, cassone chests, and maiolica pottery.", "Although royalty owned huge collections of plate, little survives except for the Royal Gold Cup.", "In France and Flanders tapestry weaving of sets like ''The Lady and the Unicorn'' became a major luxury industry.From about 1450, printed books rapidly became popular, though still expensive.", "There were around 30,000 different editions of incunabula, or works printed before 1500, by which time illuminated manuscripts were commissioned only by royalty and a few others.", "Very small woodcuts, nearly all religious, were affordable even by peasants in parts of Northern Europe from the middle of the 15th century.", "More expensive engravings supplied a wealthier market with a variety of images." ], [ "Modern perceptions", "Medieval illustration of the spherical Earth, in a 14th-century copy of ''L'Image du monde''The medieval period is frequently caricatured as a \"time of barbarism, ignorance, and superstition\" that placed \"religious authority above personal experience and rational activity\" (David Lindberg).", "This is a legacy from both the Renaissance and Enlightenment when scholars favourably contrasted their intellectual cultures with those of the medieval period.", "Renaissance scholars saw the Middle Ages as a period of decline from the high culture and civilisation of the Classical world.", "Enlightenment scholars saw reason as superior to faith, and thus viewed the Middle Ages as a time of ignorance and superstition.Others argue that reason was generally held in high regard during the Middle Ages.", "Science historian Edward Grant writes, \"If revolutionary rational thoughts were expressed in the Age of Reason, they were only made possible because of the long medieval tradition that established the use of reason as one of the most important of human activities\".", "Also, contrary to common belief, Lindberg writes, \"The late medieval scholar rarely experienced the coercive power of the Church and would have regarded himself as free (particularly in the natural sciences) to follow reason and observation wherever they led.", "\"The caricature of the period is also reflected in some more specific notions.", "One misconception, first propagated in the 19th century, is that all people in the Middle Ages believed that the Earth was flat.", "This is untrue, as lecturers in the medieval universities commonly argued that evidence showed the Earth was a sphere." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "References", "********* *************************************************************" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * ** ** * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* De Re Militari: The Society for Medieval Military History* Medieval Realms Learning resources from the British Library including studies of medieval manuscripts.", "* Medievalists.net News and articles about the period.", "* Medieval History Database (MHDB)* Medieval Worlds, Official website – Comparative and interdisciplinary articles about the period.", "* The Labyrinth Resources for Medieval Studies." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Median" ], [ "Introduction", "Finding the median in sets of data with an odd and even number of values.In statistics and probability theory, the '''median''' is the value separating the higher half from the lower half of a data sample, a population, or a probability distribution.", "For a data set, it may be thought of as \"the middle\" value.", "The basic feature of the median in describing data compared to the mean (often simply described as the \"average\") is that it is not skewed by a small proportion of extremely large or small values, and therefore provides a better representation of the center.", "Median income, for example, may be a better way to describe the center of the income distribution because increases in the largest incomes alone have no effect on the median.", "For this reason, the median is of central importance in robust statistics." ], [ "Finite data set of numbers", "The median of a finite list of numbers is the \"middle\" number, when those numbers are listed in order from smallest to greatest.If the data set has an odd number of observations, the middle one is selected.", "For example, the following list of seven numbers,: 1, 3, 3, '''6''', 7, 8, 9has the median of ''6'', which is the fourth value.If the data set has an even number of observations, there is no distinct middle value and the median is usually defined to be the arithmetic mean of the two middle values.", "For example, this data set of 8 numbers: 1, 2, 3, '''4, 5''', 6, 8, 9has a median value of ''4.5'', that is .", "(In more technical terms, this interprets the median as the fully trimmed mid-range).", "In general, with this convention, the median can be defined as follows: For a data set of elements, ordered from smallest to greatest,: if is odd, : if is even, + Comparison of common averages of values 1, 2, 2, 3, 4, 7, 9 Type Description Example Result Midrange Midway point between the minimum and the maximum of a data set '''1''', 2, 2, 3, 4, 7, '''9''' '''5''' Arithmetic mean Sum of values of a data set divided by number of values: '''4''' Median Middle value separating the greater and lesser halves of a data set 1, 2, 2, '''3''', 4, 7, 9 '''3''' Mode Most frequent value in a data set 1, '''2''', '''2''', 3, 4, 7, 9 '''2'''" ], [ "Formal definition and notation", "Formally, a median of a population is any value such that at least half of the population is less than or equal to the proposed median and at least half is greater than or equal to the proposed median.", "As seen above, medians may not be unique.", "If each set contains more than half the population, then some of the population is exactly equal to the unique median.The median is well-defined for any ordered (one-dimensional) data and is independent of any distance metric.", "The median can thus be applied to school classes which are ranked but not numerical (e.g.", "working out a median grade when student test scores are graded from F to A), although the result might be halfway between classes if there is an even number of classes.", "(For odd number classes, one specific class is determined as the median.", ")A geometric median, on the other hand, is defined in any number of dimensions.", "A related concept, in which the outcome is forced to correspond to a member of the sample, is the medoid.There is no widely accepted standard notation for the median, but some authors represent the median of a variable ''x'' as med(''x''), ''x͂'', as ''μ''1/2, or as ''M''.", "In any of these cases, the use of these or other symbols for the median needs to be explicitly defined when they are introduced.The median is a special case of other ways of summarizing the typical values associated with a statistical distribution: it is the 2nd quartile, 5th decile, and 50th percentile." ], [ "Uses", "The median can be used as a measure of location when one attaches reduced importance to extreme values, typically because a distribution is skewed, extreme values are not known, or outliers are untrustworthy, i.e., may be measurement/transcription errors.For example, consider the multiset: 1, 2, 2, 2, 3, 14.The median is 2 in this case, as is the mode, and it might be seen as a better indication of the center than the arithmetic mean of 4, which is larger than all but one of the values.", "However, the widely cited empirical relationship that the mean is shifted \"further into the tail\" of a distribution than the median is not generally true.", "At most, one can say that the two statistics cannot be \"too far\" apart; see below.As a median is based on the middle data in a set, it is not necessary to know the value of extreme results in order to calculate it.", "For example, in a psychology test investigating the time needed to solve a problem, if a small number of people failed to solve the problem at all in the given time a median can still be calculated.Because the median is simple to understand and easy to calculate, while also a robust approximation to the mean, the median is a popular summary statistic in descriptive statistics.", "In this context, there are several choices for a measure of variability: the range, the interquartile range, the mean absolute deviation, and the median absolute deviation.For practical purposes, different measures of location and dispersion are often compared on the basis of how well the corresponding population values can be estimated from a sample of data.", "The median, estimated using the sample median, has good properties in this regard.", "While it is not usually optimal if a given population distribution is assumed, its properties are always reasonably good.", "For example, a comparison of the efficiency of candidate estimators shows that the sample mean is more statistically efficient when—and only when— data is uncontaminated by data from heavy-tailed distributions or from mixtures of distributions.", "Even then, the median has a 64% efficiency compared to the minimum-variance mean (for large normal samples), which is to say the variance of the median will be ~50% greater than the variance of the mean." ], [ "Probability distributions", "Geometric visualization of the mode, median and mean of an arbitrary probability density function.For any real-valued probability distribution with cumulative distribution function ''F'', a median is defined as any real number ''m'' that satisfies the inequalitiesAn equivalent phrasing uses a random variable ''X'' distributed according to ''F'':Note that this definition does not require ''X'' to have an absolutely continuous distribution (which has a probability density function ''f''), nor does it require a discrete one.", "In the former case, the inequalities can be upgraded to equality: a median satisfiesAny probability distribution on the real number set has at least one median, but in pathological cases there may be more than one median: if ''F'' is constant 1/2 on an interval (so that ''f'' = 0 there), then any value of that interval is a median.===Medians of particular distributions===\tThe medians of certain types of distributions can be easily calculated from their parameters; furthermore, they exist even for some distributions lacking a well-defined mean, such as the Cauchy distribution:* The median of a symmetric unimodal distribution coincides with the mode.", "* The median of a symmetric distribution which possesses a mean ''μ'' also takes the value ''μ''.", "** The median of a normal distribution with mean ''μ'' and variance ''σ''2 is μ.", "In fact, for a normal distribution, mean = median = mode.", "** The median of a uniform distribution in the interval ''a'', ''b'' is (''a'' + ''b'') / 2, which is also the mean.", "* The median of a Cauchy distribution with location parameter ''x''0 and scale parameter ''y'' is ''x''0, the location parameter.", "* The median of a power law distribution ''x''−''a'', with exponent ''a'' > 1 is 21/(''a'' − 1)''x''min, where ''x''min is the minimum value for which the power law holds* The median of an exponential distribution with rate parameter ''λ'' is the natural logarithm of 2 divided by the rate parameter: ''λ''−1ln 2.", "* The median of a Weibull distribution with shape parameter ''k'' and scale parameter ''λ'' is ''λ''(ln 2)1/''k''." ], [ "Properties", "===Optimality property===The ''mean absolute error'' of a real variable ''c'' with respect to the random variable ''X'' is:Provided that the probability distribution of ''X'' is such that the above expectation exists, then ''m'' is a median of ''X'' if and only if ''m'' is a minimizer of the mean absolute error with respect to ''X''.", "In particular, if ''m'' is a sample median, then it minimizes the arithmetic mean of the absolute deviations.", "Note, however, that in cases where the sample contains an even number of elements, this minimizer is not unique.More generally, a median is defined as a minimum of:as discussed below in the section on multivariate medians (specifically, the spatial median).This optimization-based definition of the median is useful in statistical data-analysis, for example, in ''k''-medians clustering.===Inequality relating means and medians===Comparison of mean, median and mode of two log-normal distributions with different skewnessIf the distribution has finite variance, then the distance between the median and the mean is bounded by one standard deviation.This bound was proved by Book and Sher in 1979 for discrete samples, and more generally by Page and Murty in 1982.In a comment on a subsequent proof by O'Cinneide, Mallows in 1991 presented a compact proof that uses Jensen's inequality twice, as follows.", "Using |·| for the absolute value, we have: The first and third inequalities come from Jensen's inequality applied to the absolute-value function and the square function, which are each convex.", "The second inequality comes from the fact that a median minimizes the absolute deviation function .Mallows's proof can be generalized to obtain a multivariate version of the inequality simply by replacing the absolute value with a norm:: where ''m'' is a spatial median, that is, a minimizer of the function The spatial median is unique when the data-set's dimension is two or more.An alternative proof uses the one-sided Chebyshev inequality; it appears in an inequality on location and scale parameters.", "This formula also follows directly from Cantelli's inequality.====Unimodal distributions====For the case of unimodal distributions, one can achieve a sharper bound on the distance between the median and the mean:: .A similar relation holds between the median and the mode::" ], [ "Jensen's inequality for medians", "Jensen's inequality states that for any random variable ''X'' with a finite expectation ''E''''X'' and for any convex function ''f'': This inequality generalizes to the median as well.", "We say a function is a '''C function''' if, for any ''t'',: is a closed interval (allowing the degenerate cases of a single point or an empty set).", "Every convex function is a C function, but the reverse does not hold.", "If ''f'' is a C function, then: If the medians are not unique, the statement holds for the corresponding suprema." ], [ "Medians for samples", "=== Efficient computation of the sample median===Even though comparison-sorting ''n'' items requires operations, selection algorithms can compute the th-smallest of items with only operations.", "This includes the median, which is the th order statistic (or for an even number of samples, the arithmetic mean of the two middle order statistics).Selection algorithms still have the downside of requiring memory, that is, they need to have the full sample (or a linear-sized portion of it) in memory.", "Because this, as well as the linear time requirement, can be prohibitive, several estimation procedures for the median have been developed.", "A simple one is the median of three rule, which estimates the median as the median of a three-element subsample; this is commonly used as a subroutine in the quicksort sorting algorithm, which uses an estimate of its input's median.", "A more robust estimator is Tukey's ''ninther'', which is the median of three rule applied with limited recursion: if is the sample laid out as an array, and:,then:The ''remedian'' is an estimator for the median that requires linear time but sub-linear memory, operating in a single pass over the sample.===Sampling distribution===The distributions of both the sample mean and the sample median were determined by Laplace.", "The distribution of the sample median from a population with a density function is asymptotically normal with mean and variance: where is the median of and is the sample size::A modern proof follows below.", "Laplace's result is now understood as a special case of the asymptotic distribution of arbitrary quantiles.For normal samples, the density is , thus for large samples the variance of the median equals (See also section #Efficiency below.", ")==== Derivation of the asymptotic distribution ====We take the sample size to be an odd number and assume our variable continuous; the formula for the case of discrete variables is given below in .", "The sample can be summarized as \"below median\", \"at median\", and \"above median\", which corresponds to a trinomial distribution with probabilities , and .", "For a continuous variable, the probability of multiple sample values being exactly equal to the median is 0, so one can calculate the density of at the point directly from the trinomial distribution:: .Now we introduce the beta function.", "For integer arguments and , this can be expressed as .", "Also, recall that .", "Using these relationships and setting both and equal to allows the last expression to be written as: Hence the density function of the median is a symmetric beta distribution pushed forward by .", "Its mean, as we would expect, is 0.5 and its variance is .", "By the chain rule, the corresponding variance of the sample median is: .The additional 2 is negligible in the limit.=====Empirical local density=====In practice, the functions and above are often not known or assumed.", "However, they can be estimated from an observed frequency distribution.", "In this section, we give an example.", "Consider the following table, representing a sample of 3,800 (discrete-valued) observations: v 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 f(v) 0.000 0.008 0.010 0.013 0.083 0.108 0.328 0.220 0.202 0.023 0.005 F(v) 0.000 0.008 0.018 0.031 0.114 0.222 0.550 0.770 0.972 0.995 1.000Because the observations are discrete-valued, constructing the exact distribution of the median is not an immediate translation of the above expression for ; one may (and typically does) have multiple instances of the median in one's sample.", "So we must sum over all these possibilities:: Here, ''i'' is the number of points strictly less than the median and ''k'' the number strictly greater.Using these preliminaries, it is possible to investigate the effect of sample size on the standard errors of the mean and median.", "The observed mean is 3.16, the observed raw median is 3 and the observed interpolated median is 3.174.The following table gives some comparison statistics.", "3 9 15 21 Expected value of median 3.198 3.191 3.174 3.161 Standard error of median (above formula) 0.482 0.305 0.257 0.239 Standard error of median (asymptotic approximation) 0.879 0.508 0.393 0.332 Standard error of mean 0.421 0.243 0.188 0.159The expected value of the median falls slightly as sample size increases while, as would be expected, the standard errors of both the median and the mean are proportionate to the inverse square root of the sample size.", "The asymptotic approximation errs on the side of caution by overestimating the standard error.=== Estimation of variance from sample data ===The value of —the asymptotic value of where is the population median—has been studied by several authors.", "The standard \"delete one\" jackknife method produces inconsistent results.", "An alternative—the \"delete k\" method—where grows with the sample size has been shown to be asymptotically consistent.", "This method may be computationally expensive for large data sets.", "A bootstrap estimate is known to be consistent, but converges very slowly (order of ).", "Other methods have been proposed but their behavior may differ between large and small samples.===Efficiency===The efficiency of the sample median, measured as the ratio of the variance of the mean to the variance of the median, depends on the sample size and on the underlying population distribution.", "For a sample of size from the normal distribution, the efficiency for large N is: The efficiency tends to as tends to infinity.In other words, the relative variance of the median will be , or 57% greater than the variance of the mean – the relative standard error of the median will be , or 25% greater than the standard error of the mean, (see also section #Sampling distribution above.", ").===Other estimators===For univariate distributions that are ''symmetric'' about one median, the Hodges–Lehmann estimator is a robust and highly efficient estimator of the population median.If data is represented by a statistical model specifying a particular family of probability distributions, then estimates of the median can be obtained by fitting that family of probability distributions to the data and calculating the theoretical median of the fitted distribution.", "Pareto interpolation is an application of this when the population is assumed to have a Pareto distribution." ], [ "Multivariate median", "Previously, this article discussed the univariate median, when the sample or population had one-dimension.", "When the dimension is two or higher, there are multiple concepts that extend the definition of the univariate median; each such multivariate median agrees with the univariate median when the dimension is exactly one.===Marginal median===The marginal median is defined for vectors defined with respect to a fixed set of coordinates.", "A marginal median is defined to be the vector whose components are univariate medians.", "The marginal median is easy to compute, and its properties were studied by Puri and Sen.===Geometric median===The geometric median of a discrete set of sample points in a Euclidean space is the point minimizing the sum of distances to the sample points.", ":In contrast to the marginal median, the geometric median is equivariant with respect to Euclidean similarity transformations such as translations and rotations.===Median in all directions===If the marginal medians for all coordinate systems coincide, then their common location may be termed the \"median in all directions\".", "This concept is relevant to voting theory on account of the median voter theorem.", "When it exists, the median in all directions coincides with the geometric median (at least for discrete distributions).===Centerpoint===" ], [ "Other median-related concepts", "===Interpolated median===When dealing with a discrete variable, it is sometimes useful to regard the observed values as being midpoints of underlying continuous intervals.", "An example of this is a Likert scale, on which opinions or preferences are expressed on a scale with a set number of possible responses.", "If the scale consists of the positive integers, an observation of 3 might be regarded as representing the interval from 2.50 to 3.50.It is possible to estimate the median of the underlying variable.", "If, say, 22% of the observations are of value 2 or below and 55.0% are of 3 or below (so 33% have the value 3), then the median is 3 since the median is the smallest value of for which is greater than a half.", "But the interpolated median is somewhere between 2.50 and 3.50.First we add half of the interval width to the median to get the upper bound of the median interval.", "Then we subtract that proportion of the interval width which equals the proportion of the 33% which lies above the 50% mark.", "In other words, we split up the interval width pro rata to the numbers of observations.", "In this case, the 33% is split into 28% below the median and 5% above it so we subtract 5/33 of the interval width from the upper bound of 3.50 to give an interpolated median of 3.35.More formally, if the values are known, the interpolated median can be calculated from: Alternatively, if in an observed sample there are scores above the median category, scores in it and scores below it then the interpolated median is given by: ===Pseudo-median===For univariate distributions that are ''symmetric'' about one median, the Hodges–Lehmann estimator is a robust and highly efficient estimator of the population median; for non-symmetric distributions, the Hodges–Lehmann estimator is a robust and highly efficient estimator of the population ''pseudo-median'', which is the median of a symmetrized distribution and which is close to the population median.", "The Hodges–Lehmann estimator has been generalized to multivariate distributions.===Variants of regression===The Theil–Sen estimator is a method for robust linear regression based on finding medians of slopes.===Median filter===The median filter is an important tool of image processing, that can effectively remove any salt and pepper noise from grayscale images.===Cluster analysis===In cluster analysis, the k-medians clustering algorithm provides a way of defining clusters, in which the criterion of maximising the distance between cluster-means that is used in k-means clustering, is replaced by maximising the distance between cluster-medians.===Median–median line===This is a method of robust regression.", "The idea dates back to Wald in 1940 who suggested dividing a set of bivariate data into two halves depending on the value of the independent parameter : a left half with values less than the median and a right half with values greater than the median.", "He suggested taking the means of the dependent and independent variables of the left and the right halves and estimating the slope of the line joining these two points.", "The line could then be adjusted to fit the majority of the points in the data set.Nair and Shrivastava in 1942 suggested a similar idea but instead advocated dividing the sample into three equal parts before calculating the means of the subsamples.", "Brown and Mood in 1951 proposed the idea of using the medians of two subsamples rather the means.", "Tukey combined these ideas and recommended dividing the sample into three equal size subsamples and estimating the line based on the medians of the subsamples." ], [ "Median-unbiased estimators", "Any ''mean''-unbiased estimator minimizes the risk (expected loss) with respect to the squared-error loss function, as observed by Gauss.", "A ''median''-unbiased estimator minimizes the risk with respect to the absolute-deviation loss function, as observed by Laplace.", "Other loss functions are used in statistical theory, particularly in robust statistics.The theory of median-unbiased estimators was revived by George W. Brown in 1947:Further properties of median-unbiased estimators have been reported.", "Median-unbiased estimators are invariant under one-to-one transformations.There are methods of constructing median-unbiased estimators that are optimal (in a sense analogous to the minimum-variance property for mean-unbiased estimators).", "Such constructions exist for probability distributions having monotone likelihood-functions.", "One such procedure is an analogue of the Rao–Blackwell procedure for mean-unbiased estimators: The procedure holds for a smaller class of probability distributions than does the Rao—Blackwell procedure but for a larger class of loss functions." ], [ "History", "Scientific researchers in the ancient near east appear not to have used summary statistics altogether, instead choosing values that offered maximal consistency with a broader theory that integrated a wide variety of phenomena.", "Within the Mediterranean (and, later, European) scholarly community, statistics like the mean are fundamentally a medieval and early modern development.", "(The history of the median outside Europe and its predecessors remains relatively unstudied.", ")The idea of the median appeared in the 6th century in the Talmud, in order to fairly analyze divergent appraisals.", "However, the concept did not spread to the broader scientific community.Instead, the closest ancestor of the modern median is the mid-range, invented by Al-Biruni Transmission of his work to later scholars is unclear.", "He applied his technique to assaying currency metals, but, after he published his work, most assayers still adopted the most unfavorable value from their results, lest they appear to cheat.", "However, increased navigation at sea during the Age of Discovery meant that ship's navigators increasingly had to attempt to determine latitude in unfavorable weather against hostile shores, leading to renewed interest in summary statistics.", "Whether rediscovered or independently invented, the mid-range is recommended to nautical navigators in Harriot's \"Instructions for Raleigh's Voyage to Guiana, 1595\".The idea of the median may have first appeared in Edward Wright's 1599 book ''Certaine Errors in Navigation'' on a section about compass navigation.", "Wright was reluctant to discard measured values, and may have felt that the median — incorporating a greater proportion of the dataset than the mid-range — was more likely to be correct.", "However, Wright did not give examples of his technique's use, making it hard to verify that he described the modern notion of median.", "The median (in the context of probability) certainly appeared in the correspondence of Christiaan Huygens, but as an example of a statistic that was inappropriate for actuarial practice.The earliest recommendation of the median dates to 1757, when Roger Joseph Boscovich developed a regression method based on the ''L''1 norm and therefore implicitly on the median.", "In 1774, Laplace made this desire explicit: he suggested the median be used as the standard estimator of the value of a posterior PDF.", "The specific criterion was to minimize the expected magnitude of the error; where is the estimate and is the true value.", "To this end, Laplace determined the distributions of both the sample mean and the sample median in the early 1800s.", "However, a decade later, Gauss and Legendre developed the least squares method, which minimizes to obtain the mean.", "Within the context of regression, Gauss and Legendre's innovation offers vastly easier computation.", "Consequently, Laplaces' proposal was generally rejected until the rise of computing devices 150 years later (and is still a relatively uncommon algorithm).Antoine Augustin Cournot in 1843 was the first to use the term ''median'' (''valeur médiane'') for the value that divides a probability distribution into two equal halves.", "Gustav Theodor Fechner used the median (''Centralwerth'') in sociological and psychological phenomena.", "It had earlier been used only in astronomy and related fields.", "Gustav Fechner popularized the median into the formal analysis of data, although it had been used previously by Laplace, and the median appeared in a textbook by F. Y. Edgeworth.", "Francis Galton used the English term ''median'' in 1881, having earlier used the terms ''middle-most value'' in 1869, and the ''medium'' in 1880.Statisticians encouraged the use of medians intensely throughout the 19th century for its intuitive clarity.", "However, the notion of median does not lend itself to the theory of higher moments as well as the arithmetic mean does, and is much harder to compute.", "As a result, the median was steadily supplanted as a notion of generic average by the arithmetic mean during the 20th century." ], [ "See also", "* * * * for * * – Algorithm to calculate the approximate median in linear time* * * * s – Generalization of the median in higher dimensions" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Median as a weighted arithmetic mean of all Sample Observations* On-line calculator* Calculating the median* A problem involving the mean, the median, and the mode.", "* * Python script for Median computations and income inequality metrics* Fast Computation of the Median by Successive Binning* 'Mean, median, mode and skewness', A tutorial devised for first-year psychology students at Oxford University, based on a worked example.", "* The Complex SAT Math Problem Even the College Board Got Wrong: Andrew Daniels in ''Popular Mechanics''" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mammal" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''mammal''' () is a vertebrate animal of the class '''Mammalia''' ().", "Mammals are characterized by the presence of milk-producing mammary glands for feeding their young, a neocortex region of the brain, fur or hair, and three middle ear bones.", "These characteristics distinguish them from reptiles and birds, from which their ancestors diverged in the Carboniferous Period over 300 million years ago.", "Around 6,400 extant species of mammals have been described and divided into 29 orders.The largest orders of mammals, by number of species, are the rodents, bats, and Eulipotyphla (including hedgehogs, moles and shrews).", "The next three are the primates (including humans, monkeys and lemurs), the even-toed ungulates (including pigs, camels, and whales), and the Carnivora (including cats, dogs, and seals).Mammals are the only living members of Synapsida; this clade, together with Sauropsida (reptiles and birds), constitutes the larger Amniota clade.", "Early synapsids are referred to as \"pelycosaurs\".", "The more advanced therapsids became dominant during the Middle Permian.", "Mammals originated from cynodonts, an advanced group of therapsids, during the Late Triassic to Early Jurassic.", "Modern mammalian achieved their modern diversity in the Paleogene and Neogene periods of the Cenozoic era, after the extinction of non-avian dinosaurs, and have been the dominant terrestrial animal group from 66 million years ago to the present.The basic mammalian body type is quadruped, and most mammals use their four extremities for terrestrial locomotion; but in some, the extremities are adapted for life at sea, in the air, in trees, underground, or on two legs.", "Mammals range in size from the bumblebee bat to the blue whale—possibly the largest animal to have ever lived.", "Maximum lifespan varies from two years for the shrew to 211 years for the bowhead whale.", "All modern mammals give birth to live young, except the five species of monotremes, which are egg-laying mammals.", "The most species-rich group of mammals, the infraclass called placentals, have a placenta, which enables the feeding of the fetus during gestation.Most mammals are intelligent, with some possessing large brains, self-awareness, and tool use.", "Mammals can communicate and vocalize in several ways, including the production of ultrasound, scent-marking, alarm signals, singing, echolocation; and, in the case of humans, complex language.", "Mammals can organize themselves into fission–fusion societies, harems, and hierarchies—but can also be solitary and territorial.", "Most mammals are polygynous, but some can be monogamous or polyandrous.Domestication of many types of mammals by humans played a major role in the Neolithic Revolution, and resulted in farming replacing hunting and gathering as the primary source of food for humans.", "This led to a major restructuring of human societies from nomadic to sedentary, with more co-operation among larger and larger groups, and ultimately the development of the first civilizations.", "Domesticated mammals provided, and continue to provide, power for transport and agriculture, as well as food (meat and dairy products), fur, and leather.", "Mammals are also hunted and raced for sport, kept as pets and working animals of various types, and are used as model organisms in science.", "Mammals have been depicted in art since Paleolithic times, and appear in literature, film, mythology, and religion.", "Decline in numbers and extinction of many mammals is primarily driven by human poaching and habitat destruction, primarily deforestation." ], [ "Classification", "Over 70% of mammal species come from the orders Rodentia, rodents (blue); Chiroptera, bats (red); and Soricomorpha, shrews (yellow).Mammal classification has been through several revisions since Carl Linnaeus initially defined the class, and at present, no classification system is universally accepted.", "McKenna & Bell (1997) and Wilson & Reeder (2005) provide useful recent compendiums.", "Simpson (1945) provides systematics of mammal origins and relationships that had been taught universally until the end of the 20th century.However, since 1945, a large amount of new and more detailed information has gradually been found: The paleontological record has been recalibrated, and the intervening years have seen much debate and progress concerning the theoretical underpinnings of systematization itself, partly through the new concept of cladistics.", "Though fieldwork and lab work progressively outdated Simpson's classification, it remains the closest thing to an official classification of mammals, despite its known issues.Most mammals, including the six most species-rich orders, belong to the placental group.", "The three largest orders in numbers of species are Rodentia: mice, rats, porcupines, beavers, capybaras, and other gnawing mammals; Chiroptera: bats; and Soricomorpha: shrews, moles, and solenodons.", "The next three biggest orders, depending on the biological classification scheme used, are the primates: apes, monkeys, and lemurs; the Cetartiodactyla: whales and even-toed ungulates; and the Carnivora which includes cats, dogs, weasels, bears, seals, and allies.", "According to ''Mammal Species of the World'', 5,416 species were identified in 2006.These were grouped into 1,229 genera, 153 families and 29 orders.", "In 2008, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) completed a five-year Global Mammal Assessment for its IUCN Red List, which counted 5,488 species.", "According to research published in the ''Journal of Mammalogy'' in 2018, the number of recognized mammal species is 6,495, including 96 recently extinct.===Definitions ===The word \"mammal\" is modern, from the scientific name ''Mammalia'' coined by Carl Linnaeus in 1758, derived from the Latin ''mamma'' (\"teat, pap\").", "In an influential 1988 paper, Timothy Rowe defined Mammalia phylogenetically as the crown group of mammals, the clade consisting of the most recent common ancestor of living monotremes (echidnas and platypuses) and Therian mammals (marsupials and placentals) and all descendants of that ancestor.", "Since this ancestor lived in the Jurassic period, Rowe's definition excludes all animals from the earlier Triassic, despite the fact that Triassic fossils in the Haramiyida have been referred to the Mammalia since the mid-19th century.", "If Mammalia is considered as the crown group, its origin can be roughly dated as the first known appearance of animals more closely related to some extant mammals than to others.", "''Ambondro'' is more closely related to monotremes than to therian mammals while ''Amphilestes'' and ''Amphitherium'' are more closely related to the therians; as fossils of all three genera are dated about in the Middle Jurassic, this is a reasonable estimate for the appearance of the crown group.T.", "S. Kemp has provided a more traditional definition: \"Synapsids that possess a dentary–squamosal jaw articulation and occlusion between upper and lower molars with a transverse component to the movement\" or, equivalently in Kemp's view, the clade originating with the last common ancestor of ''Sinoconodon'' and living mammals.", "The earliest-known synapsid satisfying Kemp's definitions is ''Tikitherium'', dated , so the appearance of mammals in this broader sense can be given this Late Triassic date.===McKenna/Bell classification===In 1997, the mammals were comprehensively revised by Malcolm C. McKenna and Susan K. Bell, which has resulted in the McKenna/Bell classification.", "The authors worked together as paleontologists at the American Museum of Natural History.", "McKenna inherited the project from Simpson and, with Bell, constructed a completely updated hierarchical system, covering living and extinct taxa, that reflects the historical genealogy of Mammalia.", "Their 1997 book, ''Classification of Mammals above the Species Level'', is a comprehensive work on the systematics, relationships and occurrences of all mammal taxa, living and extinct, down through the rank of genus, though molecular genetic data challenge several of the groupings.In the following list, extinct groups are labelled with a dagger (†).", "'''Class Mammalia'''* '''Subclass Prototheria''': monotremes: echidnas and the platypus* '''Subclass Theriiformes''': live-bearing mammals and their prehistoric relatives** Infraclass †Allotheria: multituberculates** Infraclass †Eutriconodonta: eutriconodonts** Infraclass Holotheria: modern live-bearing mammals and their prehistoric relatives*** Superlegion †Kuehneotheria*** Supercohort Theria: live-bearing mammals**** Cohort Marsupialia: marsupials***** Magnorder Australidelphia: Australian marsupials and the monito del monte***** Magnorder Ameridelphia: New World marsupials.", "Now considered paraphyletic, with shrew opossums being closer to australidelphians.", "**** Cohort Placentalia: placentals***** Magnorder Xenarthra: xenarthrans***** Magnorder Epitheria: epitheres****** Superorder †Leptictida****** Superorder Preptotheria******* Grandorder Anagalida: lagomorphs, rodents and elephant shrews******* Grandorder Ferae: carnivorans, pangolins, †creodonts and relatives******* Grandorder Lipotyphla: insectivorans******* Grandorder Archonta: bats, primates, colugos and treeshrews (now considered paraphyletic, with bats being closer to other groups)******* Grandorder Euungulata: ungulates******** Order Tubulidentata ''incertae sedis'': aardvark******** Mirorder Eparctocyona: †condylarths, whales and artiodactyls (even-toed ungulates)******** Mirorder †Meridiungulata: South American ungulates******** Mirorder Altungulata: perissodactyls (odd-toed ungulates), elephants, manatees and hyraxes===Molecular classification of placentals===coding DNA sequences.", "The major clades are colored: Marsupials (magenta), Xenarthrans (orange), afrotherians (red), laurasiatherians (green), and euarchontoglires (blue).As of the early 21st century, molecular studies based on DNA analysis have suggested new relationships among mammal families.", "Most of these findings have been independently validated by retrotransposon presence/absence data.", "Classification systems based on molecular studies reveal three major groups or lineages of placental mammals—Afrotheria, Xenarthra and Boreoeutheria—which diverged in the Cretaceous.", "The relationships between these three lineages is contentious, and all three possible hypotheses have been proposed with respect to which group is basal.", "These hypotheses are Atlantogenata (basal Boreoeutheria), Epitheria (basal Xenarthra) and Exafroplacentalia (basal Afrotheria).", "Boreoeutheria in turn contains two major lineages—Euarchontoglires and Laurasiatheria.Estimates for the divergence times between these three placental groups range from 105 to 120 million years ago, depending on the type of DNA used (such as nuclear or mitochondrial) and varying interpretations of paleogeographic data.", "Tarver et al.", "2016 Sandra Álvarez-Carretero et al.", "2022" ], [ "Evolution", "===Origins===Synapsida, a clade that contains mammals and their extinct relatives, originated during the Pennsylvanian subperiod (~323 million to ~300 million years ago), when they split from the reptile lineage.", "Crown group mammals evolved from earlier mammaliaforms during the Early Jurassic.", "The cladogram takes Mammalia to be the crown group.===Evolution from older amniotes===temporal opening behind the orbitals, in a fairly low position on the skull (lower right in this image).", "This opening might have assisted in containing the jaw muscles of these organisms which could have increased their biting strength.The first fully terrestrial vertebrates were amniotes.", "Like their amphibious early tetrapod predecessors, they had lungs and limbs.", "Amniotic eggs, however, have internal membranes that allow the developing embryo to breathe but keep water in.", "Hence, amniotes can lay eggs on dry land, while amphibians generally need to lay their eggs in water.The first amniotes apparently arose in the Pennsylvanian subperiod of the Carboniferous.", "They descended from earlier reptiliomorph amphibious tetrapods, which lived on land that was already inhabited by insects and other invertebrates as well as ferns, mosses and other plants.", "Within a few million years, two important amniote lineages became distinct: the synapsids, which would later include the common ancestor of the mammals; and the sauropsids, which now include turtles, lizards, snakes, crocodilians and dinosaurs (including birds).", "Synapsids have a single hole (temporal fenestra) low on each side of the skull.", "Primitive synapsids included the largest and fiercest animals of the early Permian such as Dimetrodon.", "Nonmammalian synapsids were traditionally—and incorrectly—called \"mammal-like reptiles\" or pelycosaurs; we now know they were neither reptiles nor part of reptile lineage.Therapsids, a group of synapsids, evolved in the Middle Permian, about 265 million years ago, and became the dominant land vertebrates.", "They differ from basal eupelycosaurs in several features of the skull and jaws, including: larger skulls and incisors which are equal in size in therapsids, but not for eupelycosaurs.", "The therapsid lineage leading to mammals went through a series of stages, beginning with animals that were very similar to their early synapsid ancestors and ending with probainognathian cynodonts, some of which could easily be mistaken for mammals.", "Those stages were characterized by:* The gradual development of a bony secondary palate.", "* Abrupt acquisition of endothermy among Mammaliamorpha, thus prior to the origin of mammals by 30–50 millions of years ''''''''''.", "* Progression towards an erect limb posture, which would increase the animals' stamina by avoiding Carrier's constraint.", "But this process was slow and erratic: for example, all herbivorous nonmammaliaform therapsids retained sprawling limbs (some late forms may have had semierect hind limbs); Permian carnivorous therapsids had sprawling forelimbs, and some late Permian ones also had semisprawling hindlimbs.", "In fact, modern monotremes still have semisprawling limbs.", "* The dentary gradually became the main bone of the lower jaw which, by the Triassic, progressed towards the fully mammalian jaw (the lower consisting only of the dentary) and middle ear (which is constructed by the bones that were previously used to construct the jaws of reptiles).===First mammals===The Permian–Triassic extinction event about 252 million years ago, which was a prolonged event due to the accumulation of several extinction pulses, ended the dominance of carnivorous therapsids.", "In the early Triassic, most medium to large land carnivore niches were taken over by archosaurs which, over an extended period (35 million years), came to include the crocodylomorphs, the pterosaurs and the dinosaurs; however, large cynodonts like ''Trucidocynodon'' and traversodontids still occupied large sized carnivorous and herbivorous niches respectively.", "By the Jurassic, the dinosaurs had come to dominate the large terrestrial herbivore niches as well.The first mammals (in Kemp's sense) appeared in the Late Triassic epoch (about 225 million years ago), 40 million years after the first therapsids.", "They expanded out of their nocturnal insectivore niche from the mid-Jurassic onwards; the Jurassic ''Castorocauda'', for example, was a close relative of true mammals that had adaptations for swimming, digging and catching fish.", "Most, if not all, are thought to have remained nocturnal (the nocturnal bottleneck), accounting for much of the typical mammalian traits.", "The majority of the mammal species that existed in the Mesozoic Era were multituberculates, eutriconodonts and spalacotheriids.", "The earliest-known metatherian is ''Sinodelphys'', found in 125-million-year-old Early Cretaceous shale in China's northeastern Liaoning Province.", "The fossil is nearly complete and includes tufts of fur and imprints of soft tissues.Juramaia sinensis'', the oldest-known Eutherian (160 mya)The oldest-known fossil among the Eutheria (\"true beasts\") is the small shrewlike ''Juramaia sinensis'', or \"Jurassic mother from China\", dated to 160 million years ago in the late Jurassic.", "A later eutherian relative, ''Eomaia'', dated to 125 million years ago in the early Cretaceous, possessed some features in common with the marsupials but not with the placentals, evidence that these features were present in the last common ancestor of the two groups but were later lost in the placental lineage.", "In particular, the epipubic bones extend forwards from the pelvis.", "These are not found in any modern placental, but they are found in marsupials, monotremes, other nontherian mammals and ''Ukhaatherium'', an early Cretaceous animal in the eutherian order Asioryctitheria.", "This also applies to the multituberculates.", "They are apparently an ancestral feature, which subsequently disappeared in the placental lineage.", "These epipubic bones seem to function by stiffening the muscles during locomotion, reducing the amount of space being presented, which placentals require to contain their fetus during gestation periods.", "A narrow pelvic outlet indicates that the young were very small at birth and therefore pregnancy was short, as in modern marsupials.", "This suggests that the placenta was a later development.One of the earliest-known monotremes was ''Teinolophos'', which lived about 120 million years ago in Australia.", "Monotremes have some features which may be inherited from the original amniotes such as the same orifice to urinate, defecate and reproduce (cloaca)—as lizards and birds also do— and they lay eggs which are leathery and uncalcified.===Earliest appearances of features===''Hadrocodium'', whose fossils date from approximately 195 million years ago, in the early Jurassic, provides the first clear evidence of a jaw joint formed solely by the squamosal and dentary bones; there is no space in the jaw for the articular, a bone involved in the jaws of all early synapsids.Fossil of ''Thrinaxodon'' at the National Museum of Natural HistoryThe earliest clear evidence of hair or fur is in fossils of ''Castorocauda'' and ''Megaconus'', from 164 million years ago in the mid-Jurassic.", "In the 1950s, it was suggested that the foramina (passages) in the maxillae and premaxillae (bones in the front of the upper jaw) of cynodonts were channels which supplied blood vessels and nerves to vibrissae (whiskers) and so were evidence of hair or fur; it was soon pointed out, however, that foramina do not necessarily show that an animal had vibrissae, as the modern lizard ''Tupinambis'' has foramina that are almost identical to those found in the nonmammalian cynodont ''Thrinaxodon''.", "Popular sources, nevertheless, continue to attribute whiskers to ''Thrinaxodon''.", "Studies on Permian coprolites suggest that non-mammalian synapsids of the epoch already had fur, setting the evolution of hairs possibly as far back as dicynodonts.When endothermy first appeared in the evolution of mammals is uncertain, though it is generally agreed to have first evolved in non-mammalian therapsids.", "Modern monotremes have lower body temperatures and more variable metabolic rates than marsupials and placentals, but there is evidence that some of their ancestors, perhaps including ancestors of the therians, may have had body temperatures like those of modern therians.", "Likewise, some modern therians like afrotheres and xenarthrans have secondarily developed lower body temperatures.The evolution of erect limbs in mammals is incomplete—living and fossil monotremes have sprawling limbs.", "The parasagittal (nonsprawling) limb posture appeared sometime in the late Jurassic or early Cretaceous; it is found in the eutherian ''Eomaia'' and the metatherian ''Sinodelphys'', both dated to 125 million years ago.", "Epipubic bones, a feature that strongly influenced the reproduction of most mammal clades, are first found in Tritylodontidae, suggesting that it is a synapomorphy between them and mammaliaformes.", "They are omnipresent in non-placental mammaliaformes, though ''Megazostrodon'' and ''Erythrotherium'' appear to have lacked them.It has been suggested that the original function of lactation (milk production) was to keep eggs moist.", "Much of the argument is based on monotremes, the egg-laying mammals.", "In human females, mammary glands become fully developed during puberty, regardless of pregnancy.===Rise of the mammals===''Hyaenodon horridus'', a North American species of hypercarnivore within the now-extinct order Hyaenodonta, at the Royal Ontario Museum.", "The genus ''Hyaenodon'' was amongst the most successful mammals of the late Eocene-early Miocene epochs spanning for most of the Paleogene and some of the Neogene periods, undergoing many endemic radiations in North America, Europe, and Asia.Therian mammals took over the medium- to large-sized ecological niches in the Cenozoic, after the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event approximately 66 million years ago emptied ecological space once filled by non-avian dinosaurs and other groups of reptiles, as well as various other mammal groups, and underwent an exponential increase in body size (megafauna).", "Then mammals diversified very quickly; both birds and mammals show an exponential rise in diversity.", "For example, the earliest-known bat dates from about 50 million years ago, only 16 million years after the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs.Molecular phylogenetic studies initially suggested that most placental orders diverged about 100 to 85 million years ago and that modern families appeared in the period from the late Eocene through the Miocene.", "However, no placental fossils have been found from before the end of the Cretaceous.", "The earliest undisputed fossils of placentals come from the early Paleocene, after the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs.", "(Scientists identified an early Paleocene animal named ''Protungulatum donnae'' as one of the first placental mammals, but it has since been reclassified as a non-placental eutherian.)", "Recalibrations of genetic and morphological diversity rates have suggested a Late Cretaceous origin for placentals, and a Paleocene origin for most modern clades.The earliest-known ancestor of primates is ''Archicebus achilles'' from around 55 million years ago.", "This tiny primate weighed 20–30 grams (0.7–1.1 ounce) and could fit within a human palm." ], [ "Anatomy", "===Distinguishing features===Living mammal species can be identified by the presence of sweat glands, including those that are specialized to produce milk to nourish their young.", "In classifying fossils, however, other features must be used, since soft tissue glands and many other features are not visible in fossils.Many traits shared by all living mammals appeared among the earliest members of the group:* '''Jaw joint''' – The dentary (the lower jaw bone, which carries the teeth) and the squamosal (a small cranial bone) meet to form the joint.", "In most gnathostomes, including early therapsids, the joint consists of the articular (a small bone at the back of the lower jaw) and quadrate (a small bone at the back of the upper jaw).", "* '''Middle ear''' – In crown-group mammals, sound is carried from the eardrum by a chain of three bones, the malleus, the incus and the stapes.", "Ancestrally, the malleus and the incus are derived from the articular and the quadrate bones that constituted the jaw joint of early therapsids.", "* '''Tooth replacement''' – Teeth can be replaced once (diphyodonty) or (as in toothed whales and murid rodents) not at all (monophyodonty).", "Elephants, manatees, and kangaroos continually grow new teeth throughout their life (polyphyodonty).", "* '''Prismatic enamel''' – The enamel coating on the surface of a tooth consists of prisms, solid, rod-like structures extending from the dentin to the tooth's surface.", "* '''Occipital condyles''' – Two knobs at the base of the skull fit into the topmost neck vertebra; most other tetrapods, in contrast, have only one such knob.For the most part, these characteristics were not present in the Triassic ancestors of the mammals.", "Nearly all mammaliaforms possess an epipubic bone, the exception being modern placentals.===Sexual dimorphism===Sexual dimorphism in aurochs, the extinct wild ancestor of cattleOn average, male mammals are larger than females, with males being at least 10% larger than females in over 45% of investigated species.", "Most mammalian orders also exhibit male-biased sexual dimorphism, although some orders do not show any bias or are significantly female-biased (Lagomorpha).", "Sexual size dimorphism increases with body size across mammals (Rensch's rule), suggesting that there are parallel selection pressures on both male and female size.", "Male-biased dimorphism relates to sexual selection on males through male–male competition for females, as there is a positive correlation between the degree of sexual selection, as indicated by mating systems, and the degree of male-biased size dimorphism.", "The degree of sexual selection is also positively correlated with male and female size across mammals.", "Further, parallel selection pressure on female mass is identified in that age at weaning is significantly higher in more polygynous species, even when correcting for body mass.", "Also, the reproductive rate is lower for larger females, indicating that fecundity selection selects for smaller females in mammals.", "Although these patterns hold across mammals as a whole, there is considerable variation across orders.===Biological systems===The majority of mammals have seven cervical vertebrae (bones in the neck).", "The exceptions are the manatee and the two-toed sloth, which have six, and the three-toed sloth which has nine.", "All mammalian brains possess a neocortex, a brain region unique to mammals.", "Placental brains have a corpus callosum, unlike monotremes and marsupials.====Circulatory systems====The mammalian heart has four chambers, two upper atria, the receiving chambers, and two lower ventricles, the discharging chambers.", "The heart has four valves, which separate its chambers and ensures blood flows in the correct direction through the heart (preventing backflow).", "After gas exchange in the pulmonary capillaries (blood vessels in the lungs), oxygen-rich blood returns to the left atrium via one of the four pulmonary veins.", "Blood flows nearly continuously back into the atrium, which acts as the receiving chamber, and from here through an opening into the left ventricle.", "Most blood flows passively into the heart while both the atria and ventricles are relaxed, but toward the end of the ventricular relaxation period, the left atrium will contract, pumping blood into the ventricle.", "The heart also requires nutrients and oxygen found in blood like other muscles, and is supplied via coronary arteries.====Respiratory systems====Raccoon lungs being inflated manuallyThe lungs of mammals are spongy and honeycombed.", "Breathing is mainly achieved with the diaphragm, which divides the thorax from the abdominal cavity, forming a dome convex to the thorax.", "Contraction of the diaphragm flattens the dome, increasing the volume of the lung cavity.", "Air enters through the oral and nasal cavities, and travels through the larynx, trachea and bronchi, and expands the alveoli.", "Relaxing the diaphragm has the opposite effect, decreasing the volume of the lung cavity, causing air to be pushed out of the lungs.", "During exercise, the abdominal wall contracts, increasing pressure on the diaphragm, which forces air out quicker and more forcefully.", "The rib cage is able to expand and contract the chest cavity through the action of other respiratory muscles.", "Consequently, air is sucked into or expelled out of the lungs, always moving down its pressure gradient.", "This type of lung is known as a bellows lung due to its resemblance to blacksmith bellows.====Integumentary systems====Mammal skin: (1) hair, (2) epidermis, (3) sebaceous gland, (4) Arrector pili muscle, (5) dermis, (6) hair follicle, (7) sweat gland.", "Not labeled, the bottom layer: hypodermis, showing round adipocytesThe integumentary system (skin) is made up of three layers: the outermost epidermis, the dermis and the hypodermis.", "The epidermis is typically 10 to 30 cells thick; its main function is to provide a waterproof layer.", "Its outermost cells are constantly lost; its bottommost cells are constantly dividing and pushing upward.", "The middle layer, the dermis, is 15 to 40 times thicker than the epidermis.", "The dermis is made up of many components, such as bony structures and blood vessels.", "The hypodermis is made up of adipose tissue, which stores lipids and provides cushioning and insulation.", "The thickness of this layer varies widely from species to species; marine mammals require a thick hypodermis (blubber) for insulation, and right whales have the thickest blubber at .", "Although other animals have features such as whiskers, feathers, setae, or cilia that superficially resemble it, no animals other than mammals have hair.", "It is a definitive characteristic of the class, though some mammals have very little.====Digestive systems====Herbivores have developed a diverse range of physical structures to facilitate the consumption of plant material.", "To break up intact plant tissues, mammals have developed teeth structures that reflect their feeding preferences.", "For instance, frugivores (animals that feed primarily on fruit) and herbivores that feed on soft foliage have low-crowned teeth specialized for grinding foliage and seeds.", "Grazing animals that tend to eat hard, silica-rich grasses, have high-crowned teeth, which are capable of grinding tough plant tissues and do not wear down as quickly as low-crowned teeth.", "Most carnivorous mammals have carnassialiforme teeth (of varying length depending on diet), long canines and similar tooth replacement patterns.The stomach of even-toed ungulates (Artiodactyla) is divided into four sections: the rumen, the reticulum, the omasum and the abomasum (only ruminants have a rumen).", "After the plant material is consumed, it is mixed with saliva in the rumen and reticulum and separates into solid and liquid material.", "The solids lump together to form a bolus (or cud), and is regurgitated.", "When the bolus enters the mouth, the fluid is squeezed out with the tongue and swallowed again.", "Ingested food passes to the rumen and reticulum where cellulolytic microbes (bacteria, protozoa and fungi) produce cellulase, which is needed to break down the cellulose in plants.", "Perissodactyls, in contrast to the ruminants, store digested food that has left the stomach in an enlarged cecum, where it is fermented by bacteria.", "Carnivora have a simple stomach adapted to digest primarily meat, as compared to the elaborate digestive systems of herbivorous animals, which are necessary to break down tough, complex plant fibers.", "The caecum is either absent or short and simple, and the large intestine is not sacculated or much wider than the small intestine.====Excretory and genitourinary systems====Bovine kidneyGenitourinary system of a male and female rabbitThe mammalian excretory system involves many components.", "Like most other land animals, mammals are ureotelic, and convert ammonia into urea, which is done by the liver as part of the urea cycle.", "Bilirubin, a waste product derived from blood cells, is passed through bile and urine with the help of enzymes excreted by the liver.", "The passing of bilirubin via bile through the intestinal tract gives mammalian feces a distinctive brown coloration.", "Distinctive features of the mammalian kidney include the presence of the renal pelvis and renal pyramids, and of a clearly distinguishable cortex and medulla, which is due to the presence of elongated loops of Henle.", "Only the mammalian kidney has a bean shape, although there are some exceptions, such as the multilobed reniculate kidneys of pinnipeds, cetaceans and bears.", "Most adult placental mammals have no remaining trace of the cloaca.", "In the embryo, the embryonic cloaca divides into a posterior region that becomes part of the anus, and an anterior region that has different fates depending on the sex of the individual: in females, it develops into the vestibule or urogenital sinus that receives the urethra and vagina, while in males it forms the entirety of the penile urethra.", "However, the tenrecs, golden moles, and some shrews retain a cloaca as adults.", "In marsupials, the genital tract is separate from the anus, but a trace of the original cloaca does remain externally.", "Monotremes, which translates from Greek into \"single hole\", have a true cloaca.===Sound production===A diagram of ultrasonic signals emitted by a bat, and the echo from a nearby objectAs in all other tetrapods, mammals have a larynx that can quickly open and close to produce sounds, and a supralaryngeal vocal tract which filters this sound.", "The lungs and surrounding musculature provide the air stream and pressure required to phonate.", "The larynx controls the pitch and volume of sound, but the strength the lungs exert to exhale also contributes to volume.", "More primitive mammals, such as the echidna, can only hiss, as sound is achieved solely through exhaling through a partially closed larynx.", "Other mammals phonate using vocal folds.", "The movement or tenseness of the vocal folds can result in many sounds such as purring and screaming.", "Mammals can change the position of the larynx, allowing them to breathe through the nose while swallowing through the mouth, and to form both oral and nasal sounds; nasal sounds, such as a dog whine, are generally soft sounds, and oral sounds, such as a dog bark, are generally loud.Beluga whale echolocation soundsSome mammals have a large larynx and thus a low-pitched voice, namely the hammer-headed bat (''Hypsignathus monstrosus'') where the larynx can take up the entirety of the thoracic cavity while pushing the lungs, heart, and trachea into the abdomen.", "Large vocal pads can also lower the pitch, as in the low-pitched roars of big cats.", "The production of infrasound is possible in some mammals such as the African elephant (''Loxodonta'' spp.)", "and baleen whales.", "Small mammals with small larynxes have the ability to produce ultrasound, which can be detected by modifications to the middle ear and cochlea.", "Ultrasound is inaudible to birds and reptiles, which might have been important during the Mesozoic, when birds and reptiles were the dominant predators.", "This private channel is used by some rodents in, for example, mother-to-pup communication, and by bats when echolocating.", "Toothed whales also use echolocation, but, as opposed to the vocal membrane that extends upward from the vocal folds, they have a melon to manipulate sounds.", "Some mammals, namely the primates, have air sacs attached to the larynx, which may function to lower the resonances or increase the volume of sound.The vocal production system is controlled by the cranial nerve nuclei in the brain, and supplied by the recurrent laryngeal nerve and the superior laryngeal nerve, branches of the vagus nerve.", "The vocal tract is supplied by the hypoglossal nerve and facial nerves.", "Electrical stimulation of the periaqueductal gray (PEG) region of the mammalian midbrain elicit vocalizations.", "The ability to learn new vocalizations is only exemplified in humans, seals, cetaceans, elephants and possibly bats; in humans, this is the result of a direct connection between the motor cortex, which controls movement, and the motor neurons in the spinal cord.===Fur===Porcupines use their spines for defense.The primary function of the fur of mammals is thermoregulation.", "Others include protection, sensory purposes, waterproofing, and camouflage.", "Different types of fur serve different purposes:* Definitive – which may be shed after reaching a certain length* Vibrissae – sensory hairs, most commonly whiskers* Pelage – guard hairs, under-fur, and awn hair* Spines – stiff guard hair used for defense (such as in porcupines)* Bristles – long hairs usually used in visual signals.", "(such as a lion's mane)* Velli – often called \"down fur\" which insulates newborn mammals* Wool – long, soft and often curly====Thermoregulation====Hair length is not a factor in thermoregulation: for example, some tropical mammals such as sloths have the same length of fur length as some arctic mammals but with less insulation; and, conversely, other tropical mammals with short hair have the same insulating value as arctic mammals.", "The denseness of fur can increase an animal's insulation value, and arctic mammals especially have dense fur; for example, the musk ox has guard hairs measuring as well as a dense underfur, which forms an airtight coat, allowing them to survive in temperatures of .", "Some desert mammals, such as camels, use dense fur to prevent solar heat from reaching their skin, allowing the animal to stay cool; a camel's fur may reach in the summer, but the skin stays at .", "Aquatic mammals, conversely, trap air in their fur to conserve heat by keeping the skin dry.A leopard's disruptively colored coat provides camouflage for this ambush predator.====Coloration====Mammalian coats are colored for a variety of reasons, the major selective pressures including camouflage, sexual selection, communication, and thermoregulation.", "Coloration in both the hair and skin of mammals is mainly determined by the type and amount of melanin; eumelanins for brown and black colors and pheomelanin for a range of yellowish to reddish colors, giving mammals an earth tone.", "Some mammals have more vibrant colors; certain monkeys such mandrills and vervet monkeys, and opossums such as the Mexican mouse opossums and Derby's woolly opossums, have blue skin due to light diffraction in collagen fibers.", "Many sloths appear green because their fur hosts green algae; this may be a symbiotic relation that affords camouflage to the sloths.Camouflage is a powerful influence in a large number of mammals, as it helps to conceal individuals from predators or prey.", "In arctic and subarctic mammals such as the arctic fox (''Alopex lagopus''), collared lemming (''Dicrostonyx groenlandicus''), stoat (''Mustela erminea''), and snowshoe hare (''Lepus americanus''), seasonal color change between brown in summer and white in winter is driven largely by camouflage.", "Some arboreal mammals, notably primates and marsupials, have shades of violet, green, or blue skin on parts of their bodies, indicating some distinct advantage in their largely arboreal habitat due to convergent evolution.Aposematism, warning off possible predators, is the most likely explanation of the black-and-white pelage of many mammals which are able to defend themselves, such as in the foul-smelling skunk and the powerful and aggressive honey badger.", "Coat color is sometimes sexually dimorphic, as in many primate species.", "Differences in female and male coat color may indicate nutrition and hormone levels, important in mate selection.", "Coat color may influence the ability to retain heat, depending on how much light is reflected.", "Mammals with a darker colored coat can absorb more heat from solar radiation, and stay warmer, and some smaller mammals, such as voles, have darker fur in the winter.", "The white, pigmentless fur of arctic mammals, such as the polar bear, may reflect more solar radiation directly onto the skin.", "The dazzling black-and-white striping of zebras appear to provide some protection from biting flies.===Reproductive system===Goat kids stay with their mother until they are weaned.Mammals are solely gonochoric (an animal is born with either male or female genitalia, as opposed to hermaphrodites where there is no such schism).", "In male placentals, the penis is used both for urination and copulation.", "Depending on the species, an erection may be fueled by blood flow into vascular, spongy tissue or by muscular action.", "A penis may be contained in a prepuce when not erect, and some placentals also have a penis bone (baculum).", "Marsupials typically have forked penises, while the echidna penis generally has four heads with only two functioning.", "The testicles of most mammals descend into the scrotum which is typically posterior to the penis but is often anterior in marsupials.", "Female mammals generally have a vulva (clitoris and labia) on the outside, while the internal system contains paired oviducts, 1–2 uteri, 1–2 cervices and a vagina.", "Marsupials have two lateral vaginas and a medial vagina.", "The \"vagina\" of monotremes is better understood as a \"urogenital sinus\".", "The uterine systems of placental mammals can vary between a duplex, where there are two uteri and cervices which open into the vagina, a bipartite, where two uterine horns have a single cervix that connects to the vagina, a bicornuate, which consists where two uterine horns that are connected distally but separate medially creating a Y-shape, and a simplex, which has a single uterus.Matschie's tree-kangaroo with young in pouchThe ancestral condition for mammal reproduction is the birthing of relatively undeveloped, either through direct vivipary or a short period as soft-shelled eggs.", "This is likely due to the fact that the torso could not expand due to the presence of epipubic bones.", "The oldest demonstration of this reproductive style is with ''Kayentatherium'', which produced undeveloped perinates, but at much higher litter sizes than any modern mammal, 38 specimens.", "Most modern mammals are viviparous, giving birth to live young.", "However, the five species of monotreme, the platypus and the four species of echidna, lay eggs.", "The monotremes have a sex-determination system different from that of most other mammals.", "In particular, the sex chromosomes of a platypus are more like those of a chicken than those of a therian mammal.Viviparous mammals are in the subclass Theria; those living today are in the marsupial and placental infraclasses.", "Marsupials have a short gestation period, typically shorter than its estrous cycle and generally giving birth to a number of undeveloped newborns that then undergo further development; in many species, this takes place within a pouch-like sac, the marsupium, located in the front of the mother's abdomen.", "This is the plesiomorphic condition among viviparous mammals; the presence of epipubic bones in all non-placental mammals prevents the expansion of the torso needed for full pregnancy.", "Even non-placental eutherians probably reproduced this way.", "The placentals give birth to relatively complete and developed young, usually after long gestation periods.", "They get their name from the placenta, which connects the developing fetus to the uterine wall to allow nutrient uptake.", "In placental mammals, the epipubic is either completely lost or converted into the baculum; allowing the torso to be able to expand and thus birth developed offspring.The mammary glands of mammals are specialized to produce milk, the primary source of nutrition for newborns.", "The monotremes branched early from other mammals and do not have the nipples seen in most mammals, but they do have mammary glands.", "The young lick the milk from a mammary patch on the mother's belly.", "Compared to placental mammals, the milk of marsupials changes greatly in both production rate and in nutrient composition, due to the underdeveloped young.", "In addition, the mammary glands have more autonomy allowing them to supply separate milks to young at different development stages.", "Lactose is the main sugar in placental mammal milk while monotreme and marsupial milk is dominated by oligosaccharides.", "Weaning is the process in which a mammal becomes less dependent on their mother's milk and more on solid food.===Endothermy===Nearly all mammals are endothermic (\"warm-blooded\").", "Most mammals also have hair to help keep them warm.", "Like birds, mammals can forage or hunt in weather and climates too cold for ectothermic (\"cold-blooded\") reptiles and insects.", "Endothermy requires plenty of food energy, so mammals eat more food per unit of body weight than most reptiles.", "Small insectivorous mammals eat prodigious amounts for their size.", "A rare exception, the naked mole-rat produces little metabolic heat, so it is considered an operational poikilotherm.", "Birds are also endothermic, so endothermy is not unique to mammals.===Species lifespan===Among mammals, species maximum lifespan varies significantly (for example the shrew has a lifespan of two years, whereas the oldest bowhead whale is recorded to be 211 years).", "Although the underlying basis for these lifespan differences is still uncertain, numerous studies indicate that the ability to repair DNA damage is an important determinant of mammalian lifespan.", "In a 1974 study by Hart and Setlow, it was found that DNA excision repair capability increased systematically with species lifespan among seven mammalian species.", "Species lifespan was observed to be robustly correlated with the capacity to recognize DNA double-strand breaks as well as the level of the DNA repair protein Ku80.In a study of the cells from sixteen mammalian species, genes employed in DNA repair were found to be up-regulated in the longer-lived species.", "The cellular level of the DNA repair enzyme poly ADP ribose polymerase was found to correlate with species lifespan in a study of 13 mammalian species.", "Three additional studies of a variety of mammalian species also reported a correlation between species lifespan and DNA repair capability.===Locomotion=======Terrestrial====Running gait.", "Photographs by Eadweard Muybridge, 1887Most vertebrates—the amphibians, the reptiles and some mammals such as humans and bears—are plantigrade, walking on the whole of the underside of the foot.", "Many mammals, such as cats and dogs, are digitigrade, walking on their toes, the greater stride length allowing more speed.", "Some animals such as horses are unguligrade, walking on the tips of their toes.", "This even further increases their stride length and thus their speed.", "A few mammals, namely the great apes, are also known to walk on their knuckles, at least for their front legs.", "Giant anteaters and platypuses are also knuckle-walkers.", "Some mammals are bipeds, using only two limbs for locomotion, which can be seen in, for example, humans and the great apes.", "Bipedal species have a larger field of vision than quadrupeds, conserve more energy and have the ability to manipulate objects with their hands, which aids in foraging.", "Instead of walking, some bipeds hop, such as kangaroos and kangaroo rats.Animals will use different gaits for different speeds, terrain and situations.", "For example, horses show four natural gaits, the slowest horse gait is the walk, then there are three faster gaits which, from slowest to fastest, are the trot, the canter and the gallop.", "Animals may also have unusual gaits that are used occasionally, such as for moving sideways or backwards.", "For example, the main human gaits are bipedal walking and running, but they employ many other gaits occasionally, including a four-legged crawl in tight spaces.", "Mammals show a vast range of gaits, the order that they place and lift their appendages in locomotion.", "Gaits can be grouped into categories according to their patterns of support sequence.", "For quadrupeds, there are three main categories: walking gaits, running gaits and leaping gaits.", "Walking is the most common gait, where some feet are on the ground at any given time, and found in almost all legged animals.", "Running is considered to occur when at some points in the stride all feet are off the ground in a moment of suspension.====Arboreal====Gibbons are very good brachiators because their elongated limbs enable them to easily swing and grasp on to branches.Arboreal animals frequently have elongated limbs that help them cross gaps, reach fruit or other resources, test the firmness of support ahead and, in some cases, to brachiate (swing between trees).", "Many arboreal species, such as tree porcupines, silky anteaters, spider monkeys, and possums, use prehensile tails to grasp branches.", "In the spider monkey, the tip of the tail has either a bare patch or adhesive pad, which provides increased friction.", "Claws can be used to interact with rough substrates and reorient the direction of forces the animal applies.", "This is what allows squirrels to climb tree trunks that are so large to be essentially flat from the perspective of such a small animal.", "However, claws can interfere with an animal's ability to grasp very small branches, as they may wrap too far around and prick the animal's own paw.", "Frictional gripping is used by primates, relying upon hairless fingertips.", "Squeezing the branch between the fingertips generates frictional force that holds the animal's hand to the branch.", "However, this type of grip depends upon the angle of the frictional force, thus upon the diameter of the branch, with larger branches resulting in reduced gripping ability.", "To control descent, especially down large diameter branches, some arboreal animals such as squirrels have evolved highly mobile ankle joints that permit rotating the foot into a 'reversed' posture.", "This allows the claws to hook into the rough surface of the bark, opposing the force of gravity.", "Small size provides many advantages to arboreal species: such as increasing the relative size of branches to the animal, lower center of mass, increased stability, lower mass (allowing movement on smaller branches) and the ability to move through more cluttered habitat.", "Size relating to weight affects gliding animals such as the sugar glider.", "Some species of primate, bat and all species of sloth achieve passive stability by hanging beneath the branch.", "Both pitching and tipping become irrelevant, as the only method of failure would be losing their grip.====Aerial====Slow-motion and normal speed of Egyptian fruit bats flyingBats are the only mammals that can truly fly.", "They fly through the air at a constant speed by moving their wings up and down (usually with some fore-aft movement as well).", "Because the animal is in motion, there is some airflow relative to its body which, combined with the velocity of the wings, generates a faster airflow moving over the wing.", "This generates a lift force vector pointing forwards and upwards, and a drag force vector pointing rearwards and upwards.", "The upwards components of these counteract gravity, keeping the body in the air, while the forward component provides thrust to counteract both the drag from the wing and from the body as a whole.The wings of bats are much thinner and consist of more bones than those of birds, allowing bats to maneuver more accurately and fly with more lift and less drag.", "By folding the wings inwards towards their body on the upstroke, they use 35% less energy during flight than birds.", "The membranes are delicate, ripping easily; however, the tissue of the bat's membrane is able to regrow, such that small tears can heal quickly.", "The surface of their wings is equipped with touch-sensitive receptors on small bumps called Merkel cells, also found on human fingertips.", "These sensitive areas are different in bats, as each bump has a tiny hair in the center, making it even more sensitive and allowing the bat to detect and collect information about the air flowing over its wings, and to fly more efficiently by changing the shape of its wings in response.====Fossorial and subterranean====A fossorial (from Latin ''fossor'', meaning \"digger\") is an animal adapted to digging which lives primarily, but not solely, underground.", "Some examples are badgers, and naked mole-rats.", "Many rodent species are also considered fossorial because they live in burrows for most but not all of the day.", "Species that live exclusively underground are subterranean, and those with limited adaptations to a fossorial lifestyle sub-fossorial.", "Some organisms are fossorial to aid in temperature regulation while others use the underground habitat for protection from predators or for food storage.Fossorial mammals have a fusiform body, thickest at the shoulders and tapering off at the tail and nose.", "Unable to see in the dark burrows, most have degenerated eyes, but degeneration varies between species; pocket gophers, for example, are only semi-fossorial and have very small yet functional eyes, in the fully fossorial marsupial mole the eyes are degenerated and useless, talpa moles have vestigial eyes and the cape golden mole has a layer of skin covering the eyes.", "External ears flaps are also very small or absent.", "Truly fossorial mammals have short, stout legs as strength is more important than speed to a burrowing mammal, but semi-fossorial mammals have cursorial legs.", "The front paws are broad and have strong claws to help in loosening dirt while excavating burrows, and the back paws have webbing, as well as claws, which aids in throwing loosened dirt backwards.", "Most have large incisors to prevent dirt from flying into their mouth.Many fossorial mammals such as shrews, hedgehogs, and moles were classified under the now obsolete order Insectivora.====Aquatic====A pod of short-beaked common dolphins swimmingFully aquatic mammals, the cetaceans and sirenians, have lost their legs and have a tail fin to propel themselves through the water.", "Flipper movement is continuous.", "Whales swim by moving their tail fin and lower body up and down, propelling themselves through vertical movement, while their flippers are mainly used for steering.", "Their skeletal anatomy allows them to be fast swimmers.", "Most species have a dorsal fin to prevent themselves from turning upside-down in the water.", "The flukes of sirenians are raised up and down in long strokes to move the animal forward, and can be twisted to turn.", "The forelimbs are paddle-like flippers which aid in turning and slowing.Semi-aquatic mammals, like pinnipeds, have two pairs of flippers on the front and back, the fore-flippers and hind-flippers.", "The elbows and ankles are enclosed within the body.", "Pinnipeds have several adaptions for reducing drag.", "In addition to their streamlined bodies, they have smooth networks of muscle bundles in their skin that may increase laminar flow and make it easier for them to slip through water.", "They also lack arrector pili, so their fur can be streamlined as they swim.", "They rely on their fore-flippers for locomotion in a wing-like manner similar to penguins and sea turtles.", "Fore-flipper movement is not continuous, and the animal glides between each stroke.", "Compared to terrestrial carnivorans, the fore-limbs are reduced in length, which gives the locomotor muscles at the shoulder and elbow joints greater mechanical advantage; the hind-flippers serve as stabilizers.", "Other semi-aquatic mammals include beavers, hippopotamuses, otters and platypuses.", "Hippos are very large semi-aquatic mammals, and their barrel-shaped bodies have graviportal skeletal structures, adapted to carrying their enormous weight, and their specific gravity allows them to sink and move along the bottom of a river." ], [ "Behavior", "===Communication and vocalization===Vervet monkeys use at least four distinct alarm calls for different predators.Many mammals communicate by vocalizing.", "Vocal communication serves many purposes, including in mating rituals, as warning calls, to indicate food sources, and for social purposes.", "Males often call during mating rituals to ward off other males and to attract females, as in the roaring of lions and red deer.", "The songs of the humpback whale may be signals to females; they have different dialects in different regions of the ocean.", "Social vocalizations include the territorial calls of gibbons, and the use of frequency in greater spear-nosed bats to distinguish between groups.", "The vervet monkey gives a distinct alarm call for each of at least four different predators, and the reactions of other monkeys vary according to the call.", "For example, if an alarm call signals a python, the monkeys climb into the trees, whereas the eagle alarm causes monkeys to seek a hiding place on the ground.", "Prairie dogs similarly have complex calls that signal the type, size, and speed of an approaching predator.", "Elephants communicate socially with a variety of sounds including snorting, screaming, trumpeting, roaring and rumbling.", "Some of the rumbling calls are infrasonic, below the hearing range of humans, and can be heard by other elephants up to away at still times near sunrise and sunset.Orca calling including occasional echolocation clicksMammals signal by a variety of means.", "Many give visual anti-predator signals, as when deer and gazelle stot, honestly indicating their fit condition and their ability to escape, or when white-tailed deer and other prey mammals flag with conspicuous tail markings when alarmed, informing the predator that it has been detected.", "Many mammals make use of scent-marking, sometimes possibly to help defend territory, but probably with a range of functions both within and between species.", "Microbats and toothed whales including oceanic dolphins vocalize both socially and in echolocation.===Feeding===A short-beaked echidna foraging for insectsTo maintain a high constant body temperature is energy expensive—mammals therefore need a nutritious and plentiful diet.", "While the earliest mammals were probably predators, different species have since adapted to meet their dietary requirements in a variety of ways.", "Some eat other animals—this is a carnivorous diet (and includes insectivorous diets).", "Other mammals, called herbivores, eat plants, which contain complex carbohydrates such as cellulose.", "An herbivorous diet includes subtypes such as granivory (seed eating), folivory (leaf eating), frugivory (fruit eating), nectarivory (nectar eating), gummivory (gum eating) and mycophagy (fungus eating).", "The digestive tract of an herbivore is host to bacteria that ferment these complex substances, and make them available for digestion, which are either housed in the multichambered stomach or in a large cecum.", "Some mammals are coprophagous, consuming feces to absorb the nutrients not digested when the food was first ingested.", "An omnivore eats both prey and plants.", "Carnivorous mammals have a simple digestive tract because the proteins, lipids and minerals found in meat require little in the way of specialized digestion.", "Exceptions to this include baleen whales who also house gut flora in a multi-chambered stomach, like terrestrial herbivores.The size of an animal is also a factor in determining diet type (Allen's rule).", "Since small mammals have a high ratio of heat-losing surface area to heat-generating volume, they tend to have high energy requirements and a high metabolic rate.", "Mammals that weigh less than about are mostly insectivorous because they cannot tolerate the slow, complex digestive process of an herbivore.", "Larger animals, on the other hand, generate more heat and less of this heat is lost.", "They can therefore tolerate either a slower collection process (carnivores that feed on larger vertebrates) or a slower digestive process (herbivores).", "Furthermore, mammals that weigh more than usually cannot collect enough insects during their waking hours to sustain themselves.", "The only large insectivorous mammals are those that feed on huge colonies of insects (ants or termites).Some mammals are omnivores and display varying degrees of carnivory and herbivory, generally leaning in favor of one more than the other.", "Since plants and meat are digested differently, there is a preference for one over the other, as in bears where some species may be mostly carnivorous and others mostly herbivorous.", "They are grouped into three categories: mesocarnivory (50–70% meat), hypercarnivory (70% and greater of meat), and hypocarnivory (50% or less of meat).", "The dentition of hypocarnivores consists of dull, triangular carnassial teeth meant for grinding food.", "Hypercarnivores, however, have conical teeth and sharp carnassials meant for slashing, and in some cases strong jaws for bone-crushing, as in the case of hyenas, allowing them to consume bones; some extinct groups, notably the Machairodontinae, had saber-shaped canines.Some physiological carnivores consume plant matter and some physiological herbivores consume meat.", "From a behavioral aspect, this would make them omnivores, but from the physiological standpoint, this may be due to zoopharmacognosy.", "Physiologically, animals must be able to obtain both energy and nutrients from plant and animal materials to be considered omnivorous.", "Thus, such animals are still able to be classified as carnivores and herbivores when they are just obtaining nutrients from materials originating from sources that do not seemingly complement their classification.", "For example, it is well documented that some ungulates such as giraffes, camels, and cattle, will gnaw on bones to consume particular minerals and nutrients.", "Also, cats, which are generally regarded as obligate carnivores, occasionally eat grass to regurgitate indigestible material (such as hairballs), aid with hemoglobin production, and as a laxative.Many mammals, in the absence of sufficient food requirements in an environment, suppress their metabolism and conserve energy in a process known as hibernation.", "In the period preceding hibernation, larger mammals, such as bears, become polyphagic to increase fat stores, whereas smaller mammals prefer to collect and stash food.", "The slowing of the metabolism is accompanied by a decreased heart and respiratory rate, as well as a drop in internal temperatures, which can be around ambient temperature in some cases.", "For example, the internal temperatures of hibernating arctic ground squirrels can drop to ; however, the head and neck always stay above .", "A few mammals in hot environments aestivate in times of drought or extreme heat, for example the fat-tailed dwarf lemur (''Cheirogaleus medius'').===Drinking======Intelligence===In intelligent mammals, such as primates, the cerebrum is larger relative to the rest of the brain.", "Intelligence itself is not easy to define, but indications of intelligence include the ability to learn, matched with behavioral flexibility.", "Rats, for example, are considered to be highly intelligent, as they can learn and perform new tasks, an ability that may be important when they first colonize a fresh habitat.", "In some mammals, food gathering appears to be related to intelligence: a deer feeding on plants has a brain smaller than a cat, which must think to outwit its prey.A bonobo fishing for termites with a stickTool use by animals may indicate different levels of learning and cognition.", "The sea otter uses rocks as essential and regular parts of its foraging behaviour (smashing abalone from rocks or breaking open shells), with some populations spending 21% of their time making tools.", "Other tool use, such as chimpanzees using twigs to \"fish\" for termites, may be developed by watching others use tools and may even be a true example of animal teaching.", "Tools may even be used in solving puzzles in which the animal appears to experience a \"Eureka moment\".", "Other mammals that do not use tools, such as dogs, can also experience a Eureka moment.Brain size was previously considered a major indicator of the intelligence of an animal.", "Since most of the brain is used for maintaining bodily functions, greater ratios of brain to body mass may increase the amount of brain mass available for more complex cognitive tasks.", "Allometric analysis indicates that mammalian brain size scales at approximately the or exponent of the body mass.", "Comparison of a particular animal's brain size with the expected brain size based on such allometric analysis provides an encephalisation quotient that can be used as another indication of animal intelligence.", "Sperm whales have the largest brain mass of any animal on earth, averaging and in mature males.Self-awareness appears to be a sign of abstract thinking.", "Self-awareness, although not well-defined, is believed to be a precursor to more advanced processes such as metacognitive reasoning.", "The traditional method for measuring this is the mirror test, which determines if an animal possesses the ability of self-recognition.", "Mammals that have passed the mirror test include Asian elephants (some pass, some do not); chimpanzees; bonobos; orangutans; humans, from 18 months (mirror stage); common bottlenose dolphins; orcas; and false killer whales.===Social structure===Female elephants live in stable groups, along with their offspringEusociality is the highest level of social organization.", "These societies have an overlap of adult generations, the division of reproductive labor and cooperative caring of young.", "Usually insects, such as bees, ants and termites, have eusocial behavior, but it is demonstrated in two rodent species: the naked mole-rat and the Damaraland mole-rat.Presociality is when animals exhibit more than just sexual interactions with members of the same species, but fall short of qualifying as eusocial.", "That is, presocial animals can display communal living, cooperative care of young, or primitive division of reproductive labor, but they do not display all of the three essential traits of eusocial animals.", "Humans and some species of Callitrichidae (marmosets and tamarins) are unique among primates in their degree of cooperative care of young.", "Harry Harlow set up an experiment with rhesus monkeys, presocial primates, in 1958; the results from this study showed that social encounters are necessary in order for the young monkeys to develop both mentally and sexually.A fission–fusion society is a society that changes frequently in its size and composition, making up a permanent social group called the \"parent group\".", "Permanent social networks consist of all individual members of a community and often varies to track changes in their environment.", "In a fission–fusion society, the main parent group can fracture (fission) into smaller stable subgroups or individuals to adapt to environmental or social circumstances.", "For example, a number of males may break off from the main group in order to hunt or forage for food during the day, but at night they may return to join (fusion) the primary group to share food and partake in other activities.", "Many mammals exhibit this, such as primates (for example orangutans and spider monkeys), elephants, spotted hyenas, lions, and dolphins.Solitary animals defend a territory and avoid social interactions with the members of its species, except during breeding season.", "This is to avoid resource competition, as two individuals of the same species would occupy the same niche, and to prevent depletion of food.", "A solitary animal, while foraging, can also be less conspicuous to predators or prey.Red kangaroos \"boxing\" for dominanceIn a hierarchy, individuals are either dominant or submissive.", "A despotic hierarchy is where one individual is dominant while the others are submissive, as in wolves and lemurs, and a pecking order is a linear ranking of individuals where there is a top individual and a bottom individual.", "Pecking orders may also be ranked by sex, where the lowest individual of a sex has a higher ranking than the top individual of the other sex, as in hyenas.", "Dominant individuals, or alphas, have a high chance of reproductive success, especially in harems where one or a few males (resident males) have exclusive breeding rights to females in a group.", "Non-resident males can also be accepted in harems, but some species, such as the common vampire bat (''Desmodus rotundus''), may be more strict.Some mammals are perfectly monogamous, meaning that they mate for life and take no other partners (even after the original mate's death), as with wolves, Eurasian beavers, and otters.", "There are three types of polygamy: either one or multiple dominant males have breeding rights (polygyny), multiple males that females mate with (polyandry), or multiple males have exclusive relations with multiple females (polygynandry).", "It is much more common for polygynous mating to happen, which, excluding leks, are estimated to occur in up to 90% of mammals.", "Lek mating occurs when males congregate around females and try to attract them with various courtship displays and vocalizations, as in harbor seals.All higher mammals (excluding monotremes) share two major adaptations for care of the young: live birth and lactation.", "These imply a group-wide choice of a degree of parental care.", "They may build nests and dig burrows to raise their young in, or feed and guard them often for a prolonged period of time.", "Many mammals are K-selected, and invest more time and energy into their young than do r-selected animals.", "When two animals mate, they both share an interest in the success of the offspring, though often to different extremes.", "Mammalian females exhibit some degree of maternal aggression, another example of parental care, which may be targeted against other females of the species or the young of other females; however, some mammals may \"aunt\" the infants of other females, and care for them.", "Mammalian males may play a role in child rearing, as with tenrecs, however this varies species to species, even within the same genus.", "For example, the males of the southern pig-tailed macaque (''Macaca nemestrina'') do not participate in child care, whereas the males of the Japanese macaque (''M.", "fuscata'') do." ], [ "Humans and other mammals", "===In human culture===Upper Paleolithic cave painting of a variety of large mammals, Lascaux, years oldNon-human mammals play a wide variety of roles in human culture.", "They are the most popular of pets, with tens of millions of dogs, cats and other animals including rabbits and mice kept by families around the world.", "Mammals such as mammoths, horses and deer are among the earliest subjects of art, being found in Upper Paleolithic cave paintings such as at Lascaux.", "Major artists such as Albrecht Dürer, George Stubbs and Edwin Landseer are known for their portraits of mammals.", "Many species of mammals have been hunted for sport and for food; deer and wild boar are especially popular as game animals.", "Mammals such as horses and dogs are widely raced for sport, often combined with betting on the outcome.", "There is a tension between the role of animals as companions to humans, and their existence as individuals with rights of their own.", "Mammals further play a wide variety of roles in literature, film, mythology, and religion.===Uses and importance===Cattle have been kept for milk for thousands of years.The domestication of mammals was instrumental in the Neolithic development of agriculture and of civilization, causing farmers to replace hunter-gatherers around the world.", "This transition from hunting and gathering to herding flocks and growing crops was a major step in human history.", "The new agricultural economies, based on domesticated mammals, caused \"radical restructuring of human societies, worldwide alterations in biodiversity, and significant changes in the Earth's landforms and its atmosphere... momentous outcomes\".Domestic mammals form a large part of the livestock raised for meat across the world.", "They include (2009) around 1.4 billion cattle, 1 billion sheep, 1 billion domestic pigs, and (1985) over 700 million rabbits.", "Working domestic animals including cattle and horses have been used for work and transport from the origins of agriculture, their numbers declining with the arrival of mechanised transport and agricultural machinery.", "In 2004 they still provided some 80% of the power for the mainly small farms in the third world, and some 20% of the world's transport, again mainly in rural areas.", "In mountainous regions unsuitable for wheeled vehicles, pack animals continue to transport goods.", "Mammal skins provide leather for shoes, clothing and upholstery.", "Wool from mammals including sheep, goats and alpacas has been used for centuries for clothing.Livestock make up 62% of the world's mammal biomass; humans account for 34%; and wild mammals are just 4%Mammals serve a major role in science as experimental animals, both in fundamental biological research, such as in genetics, and in the development of new medicines, which must be tested exhaustively to demonstrate their safety.", "Millions of mammals, especially mice and rats, are used in experiments each year.", "A knockout mouse is a genetically modified mouse with an inactivated gene, replaced or disrupted with an artificial piece of DNA.", "They enable the study of sequenced genes whose functions are unknown.", "A small percentage of the mammals are non-human primates, used in research for their similarity to humans.Despite the benefits domesticated mammals had for human development, humans have an increasingly detrimental effect on wild mammals across the world.", "It has been estimated that the mass of all ''wild'' mammals has declined to only 4% of all mammals, with 96% of mammals being humans and their livestock now (see figure).", "In fact, terrestrial wild mammals make up only 2% of all mammals.===Hybrids===Hybrids are offspring resulting from the breeding of two genetically distinct individuals, which usually will result in a high degree of heterozygosity, though hybrid and heterozygous are not synonymous.", "The deliberate or accidental hybridizing of two or more species of closely related animals through captive breeding is a human activity which has been in existence for millennia and has grown for economic purposes.", "Hybrids between different subspecies within a species (such as between the Bengal tiger and Siberian tiger) are known as intra-specific hybrids.", "Hybrids between different species within the same genus (such as between lions and tigers) are known as interspecific hybrids or crosses.", "Hybrids between different genera (such as between sheep and goats) are known as intergeneric hybrids.", "Natural hybrids will occur in hybrid zones, where two populations of species within the same genera or species living in the same or adjacent areas will interbreed with each other.", "Some hybrids have been recognized as species, such as the red wolf (though this is controversial).Artificial selection, the deliberate selective breeding of domestic animals, is being used to breed back recently extinct animals in an attempt to achieve an animal breed with a phenotype that resembles that extinct wildtype ancestor.", "A breeding-back (intraspecific) hybrid may be very similar to the extinct wildtype in appearance, ecological niche and to some extent genetics, but the initial gene pool of that wild type is lost forever with its extinction.", "As a result, bred-back breeds are at best vague look-alikes of extinct wildtypes, as Heck cattle are of the aurochs.Purebred wild species evolved to a specific ecology can be threatened with extinction through the process of genetic pollution, the uncontrolled hybridization, introgression genetic swamping which leads to homogenization or out-competition from the heterosic hybrid species.", "When new populations are imported or selectively bred by people, or when habitat modification brings previously isolated species into contact, extinction in some species, especially rare varieties, is possible.", "Interbreeding can swamp the rarer gene pool and create hybrids, depleting the purebred gene pool.", "For example, the endangered wild water buffalo is most threatened with extinction by genetic pollution from the domestic water buffalo.", "Such extinctions are not always apparent from a morphological standpoint.", "Some degree of gene flow is a normal evolutionary process, nevertheless, hybridization threatens the existence of rare species.===Threats===Biodiversity of large mammal species per continent before and after humans arrived thereThe loss of species from ecological communities, defaunation, is primarily driven by human activity.", "This has resulted in empty forests, ecological communities depleted of large vertebrates.", "In the Quaternary extinction event, the mass die-off of megafaunal variety coincided with the appearance of humans, suggesting a human influence.", "One hypothesis is that humans hunted large mammals, such as the woolly mammoth, into extinction.", "The 2019 ''Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services'' by IPBES states that the total biomass of wild mammals has declined by 82 percent since the beginning of human civilization.", "Wild animals make up just 4% of mammalian biomass on earth, while humans and their domesticated animals make up 96%.Various species are predicted to become extinct in the near future, among them the rhinoceros, giraffes, and species of primates and pangolins.", "According to the WWF's 2020 ''Living Planet Report'', vertebrate wildlife populations have declined by 68% since 1970 as a result of human activities, particularly overconsumption, population growth and intensive farming, which is evidence that humans have triggered a sixth mass extinction event.", "Hunting alone threatens hundreds of mammalian species around the world.", "Scientists claim that the growing demand for meat is contributing to biodiversity loss as this is a significant driver of deforestation and habitat destruction; species-rich habitats, such as significant portions of the Amazon rainforest, are being converted to agricultural land for meat production.", "Another influence is over-hunting and poaching, which can reduce the overall population of game animals, especially those located near villages, as in the case of peccaries.", "The effects of poaching can especially be seen in the ivory trade with African elephants.", "Marine mammals are at risk from entanglement from fishing gear, notably cetaceans, with discard mortalities ranging from 65,000 to 86,000 individuals annually.Attention is being given to endangered species globally, notably through the Convention on Biological Diversity, otherwise known as the Rio Accord, which includes 189 signatory countries that are focused on identifying endangered species and habitats.", "Another notable conservation organization is the IUCN, which has a membership of over 1,200 governmental and non-governmental organizations.Recent extinctions can be directly attributed to human influences.", "The IUCN characterizes 'recent' extinction as those that have occurred past the cut-off point of 1500, and around 80 mammal species have gone extinct since that time and 2015.Some species, such as the Père David's deer are extinct in the wild, and survive solely in captive populations.", "Other species, such as the Florida panther, are ecologically extinct, surviving in such low numbers that they essentially have no impact on the ecosystem.", "Other populations are only locally extinct (extirpated), still existing elsewhere, but reduced in distribution, as with the extinction of gray whales in the Atlantic." ], [ "See also", "* List of mammal genera – living mammals* List of mammalogists* List of monotremes and marsupials* List of placental mammals* List of prehistoric mammals* List of threatened mammals of the United States* Lists of mammals by population size* Lists of mammals by region* Mammals described in the 2000s* Mammals in culture* Small mammal" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "*" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* ASM Mammal Diversity Database* Biodiversitymapping.org – All mammal orders in the world with distribution maps * Paleocene Mammals , a site covering the rise of the mammals, paleocene-mammals.de* Evolution of Mammals, a brief introduction to early mammals, enchantedlearning.com* European Mammal Atlas EMMA from Societas Europaea Mammalogica, European-mammals.org* Marine Mammals of the World – An overview of all marine mammals, including descriptions, both fully aquatic and semi-aquatic, noaa.gov* Mammalogy.org The American Society of Mammalogists was established in 1919 for the purpose of promoting the study of mammals, and this website includes a mammal image library" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Music" ], [ "Introduction", "Grooved side of the Voyager Golden Record launched along the ''Voyager'' probes to space, which feature music from around the worldIn the most general of terms, '''music''' is the arrangement of sound to create some combination of form, harmony, melody, rhythm, or otherwise expressive content.", "Definitions of music vary depending on culture, though it is an aspect of all human societies and a cultural universal.", "While scholars agree that music is defined by a few specific elements, there is no consensus on their precise definitions.", "The creation of music is commonly divided into musical composition, musical improvisation, and musical performance, though the topic itself extends into academic disciplines, criticism, philosophy, psychology, and therapeutic contexts.", "Music may be performed or improvised using a vast range of instruments, including the human voice, and thus is often credited for its extreme versatility and opportunity for creativity.In some musical contexts, a performance or composition may be to some extent improvised.", "For instance, in Hindustani classical music, the performer plays spontaneously while following a partially defined structure and using characteristic motifs.", "In modal jazz, the performers may take turns leading and responding while sharing a changing set of notes.", "In a free jazz context, there may be no structure whatsoever, with each performer acting at their discretion.", "Music may be deliberately composed to be unperformable or agglomerated electronically from many performances.", "Music is played in public and private areas, highlighted at events such as festivals, rock concerts, and orchestra performances, and heard incidentally as part of a score or soundtrack to a film, TV show, opera, or video game.", "Musical playback is the primary function of an MP3 player or CD player, and a universal feature of radios and smartphones.Music often plays a key role in social activities, religious rituals, rite of passage ceremonies, celebrations, and cultural activities.", "The music industry includes songwriters, performers, sound engineers, producers, tour organizers, distributors of instruments, accessories, and sheet music.", "Compositions, performances, and recordings are assessed and evaluated by music critics, music journalists, and music scholars, as well as amateurs." ], [ "Etymology and terminology", "In Greek mythology, the nine Muses were the inspiration for many creative endeavors, including the arts, and eventually became closely aligned with music specifically.The modern English word 'music' came into use in the 1630s.", "It is derived from a long line of successive precursors: the Old English '' of the mid-13th century; the Old French of the 12th century; and the Latin .", "The Latin word itself derives from the Ancient Greek ()— ()—literally meaning \"(art) of the Muses\".", "The Muses were nine deities in Ancient Greek mythology who presided over the arts and sciences.", "They were included in tales by the earliest Western authors, Homer and Hesiod, and eventually came to be associated with music specifically.", "Over time, Polyhymnia would reside over music more prominently than the other muses.", "The Latin word was also the originator for both the Spanish and French via spelling and linguistic adjustment, though other European terms were probably loanwords, including the Italian , German , Dutch , Norwegian , Polish and Russian .The modern Western world usually defines music as an all-encompassing term used to describe diverse genres, styles, and traditions.", "This is not the case worldwide, and languages such as modern Indonesian ('''') and Shona ('''') have recently adopted words to reflect this universal conception, as they did not have words that fit exactly the Western scope.", "Before Western contact in East Asia, neither Japan nor China had a single word that encompasses music in a broad sense, but culturally, they often regarded music in such a fashion.", "The closest word to mean music in Chinese, , shares a character with , meaning joy, and originally referred to all the arts before narrowing in meaning.", "Africa is too diverse to make firm generalizations, but the musicologist J. H. Kwabena Nketia has emphasized African music's often inseparable connection to dance and speech in general.", "Some African cultures, such as the Songye people of the Democratic Republic of the Congo and the Tiv people of Nigeria, have a strong and broad conception of 'music' but no corresponding word in their native languages.", "Other words commonly translated as 'music' often have more specific meanings in their respective cultures: the Hindi word for music, '''', properly refers to art music, while the many Indigenous languages of the Americas have words for music that refer specifically to song but describe instrumental music regardless.", "Though the Arabic '''' can refer to all music, it is usually used for instrumental and metric music, while '''' identifies vocal and improvised music." ], [ "History", "=== Origins and prehistory ===Bone flute from Geissenklösterle, Germany, dated around BP.Sha-Amun-en-su, Egyptian singer.It is often debated to what extent the origins of music will ever be understood, and there are competing theories that aim to explain it.", "Many scholars highlight a relationship between the origin of music and the origin of language, and there is disagreement surrounding whether music developed before, after, or simultaneously with language.", "A similar source of contention surrounds whether music was the intentional result of natural selection or was a byproduct spandrel of evolution.", "The earliest influential theory was proposed by Charles Darwin in 1871, who stated that music arose as a form of sexual selection, perhaps via mating calls.", "Darwin's original perspective has been heavily criticized for its inconsistencies with other sexual selection methods, though many scholars in the 21st century have developed and promoted the theory.", "Other theories include that music arose to assist in organizing labor, improving long-distance communication, benefiting communication with the divine, assisting in community cohesion or as a defense to scare off predators.Prehistoric music can only be theorized based on findings from paleolithic archaeology sites.", "The Divje Babe flute, carved from a cave bear femur, is thought to be at least 40,000 years old, though there is considerable debate surrounding whether it is truly a musical instrument or an object formed by animals.", "The earliest objects whose designations as musical instruments are widely accepted are bone flutes from the Swabian Jura, Germany, namely from the Geissenklösterle, Hohle Fels and Vogelherd caves.", "Dated to the Aurignacian (of the Upper Paleolithic) and used by Early European modern humans, from all three caves there are eight examples, four made from the wing bones of birds and four from mammoth ivory; three of these are near complete.", "Three flutes from the Geissenklösterle are dated as the oldest, BP.=== Antiquity ===The earliest material and representational evidence of Egyptian musical instruments dates to the Predynastic period, but the evidence is more securely attested in the Old Kingdom when harps, flutes and double clarinets were played.", "Percussion instruments, lyres, and lutes were added to orchestras by the Middle Kingdom.", "Cymbals frequently accompanied music and dance, much as they still do in Egypt today.", "Egyptian folk music, including the traditional Sufi rituals, are the closest contemporary music genre to ancient Egyptian music, having preserved many of its features, rhythms and instruments.The \"Hurrian Hymn to Nikkal\", found on clay tablets in the ancient Syrian city of Ugarit, is the oldest surviving notated work of music, dating back to approximately 1400 BCE.Music was an important part of social and cultural life in ancient Greece, in fact it was one of the main subjects taught to children.", "Musical education was considered to be important for the development of an individual's soul.", "Musicians and singers played a prominent role in Greek theater, and those who received a musical education were seen as nobles and in perfect harmony (as can be read in the Republic, Plato).", "Mixed gender choruses performed for entertainment, celebration, and spiritual ceremonies.", "Instruments included the double-reed and a plucked string instrument, the ''lyre'', principally a special kind called a .", "Music was an important part of education, and boys were taught music starting at age six.", "Greek musical literacy created significant musical development.", "Greek music theory included the Greek musical modes, that eventually became the basis for Western religious and classical music.", "Later, influences from the Roman Empire, Eastern Europe, and the Byzantine Empire changed Greek music.", "The Seikilos epitaph is the oldest surviving example of a complete musical composition, including musical notation, from anywhere in the world.", "The oldest surviving work written on the subject of music theory is ''Harmonika Stoicheia'' by Aristoxenus.=== Asian cultures ===Asian music covers a swath of music cultures surveyed in the articles on Arabia, Central Asia, East Asia, South Asia, and Southeast Asia.", "Several have traditions reaching into antiquity.Indian women dressed in regional attire playing a variety of musical instruments popular in different parts of IndiaIndian classical music is one of the oldest musical traditions in the world.", "Sculptures from the Indus Valley civilization show dance and old musical instruments, like the seven-holed flute.", "Stringed instruments and drums have been recovered from Harappa and Mohenjo Daro by excavations carried out by Mortimer Wheeler.", "The Rigveda, an ancient Hindu text, has elements of present Indian music, with musical notation to denote the meter and mode of chanting.", "Indian classical music (marga) is monophonic, and based on a single melody line or raga rhythmically organized through talas.", "The poem ''Cilappatikaram'' provides information about how new scales can be formed by modal shifting of the tonic from an existing scale.", "Present day Hindi music was influenced by Persian traditional music and Afghan Mughals.", "Carnatic music, popular in the southern states, is largely devotional; the majority of the songs are addressed to the Hindu deities.", "There are songs emphasizing love and other social issues.Indonesia is the home of gong chime, there are variants across Indonesia, especially in Java and Bali.Indonesian music has been formed since the Bronze Age culture migrated to the Indonesian archipelago in the 2nd-3rd centuries BCE.", "Indonesian traditional music uses percussion instruments, especially kendang and gongs.", "Some of them developed elaborate and distinctive instruments, such as the sasando stringed instrument on the island of Rote, the Sundanese angklung, and the complex and sophisticated Javanese and Balinese gamelan orchestras.", "Indonesia is the home of gong chime, a general term for a set of small, high pitched pot gongs.", "Gongs are usually placed in order of note, with the boss up on a string held in a low wooden frame.", "The most popular form of Indonesian music is gamelan, an ensemble of tuned percussion instruments that include metallophones, drums, gongs and spike fiddles along with bamboo suling (like a flute).Chinese classical music, the traditional art or court music of China, has a history stretching over about 3,000 years.", "It has its own unique systems of musical notation, as well as musical tuning and pitch, musical instruments and styles or genres.", "Chinese music is pentatonic-diatonic, having a scale of twelve notes to an octave (5 + 7 = 12) as does European-influenced music.=== Western classical ======= Early music ====Musical notation from a Catholic Missal, –1320The medieval music era (500 to 1400), which took place during the Middle Ages, started with the introduction of monophonic (single melodic line) chanting into Catholic Church services.", "Musical notation was used since ancient times in Greek culture, but in the Middle Ages, notation was first introduced by the Catholic Church, so chant melodies could be written down, to facilitate the use of the same melodies for religious music across the Catholic empire.", "The only European Medieval repertory that has been found, in written form, from before 800 is the monophonic liturgical plainsong chant of the Catholic Church, the central tradition of which was called Gregorian chant.", "Alongside these traditions of sacred and church music there existed a vibrant tradition of secular song (non-religious songs).", "Examples of composers from this period are Léonin, Pérotin, Guillaume de Machaut, and Walther von der Vogelweide.Renaissance music ( to 1600) was more focused on secular themes, such as courtly love.", "Around 1450, the printing press was invented, which made printed sheet music much less expensive and easier to mass-produce (prior to the invention of the press, all notated music was hand-copied).", "The increased availability of sheet music spread musical styles quicker and across a larger area.", "Musicians and singers often worked for the church, courts and towns.", "Church choirs grew in size, and the church remained an important patron of music.", "By the middle of the 15th century, composers wrote richly polyphonic sacred music, in which different melody lines were interwoven simultaneously.", "Prominent composers from this era include Guillaume Du Fay, Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina, Thomas Morley, Orlando di Lasso and Josquin des Prez.", "As musical activity shifted from the church to aristocratic courts, kings, queens and princes competed for the finest composers.", "Many leading composers came from the Netherlands, Belgium, and France; they are called the Franco-Flemish composers.", "They held important positions throughout Europe, especially in Italy.", "Other countries with vibrant musical activity included Germany, England, and Spain.==== Common practice period ========= Baroque =====The Baroque era of music took place from 1600 to 1750, as the Baroque artistic style flourished across Europe; and during this time, music expanded in its range and complexity.", "Baroque music began when the first operas (dramatic solo vocal music accompanied by orchestra) were written.", "During the Baroque era, polyphonic contrapuntal music, in which multiple, simultaneous independent melody lines were used, remained important (counterpoint was important in the vocal music of the Medieval era).", "German Baroque composers wrote for small ensembles including strings, brass, and woodwinds, as well as for choirs and keyboard instruments such as pipe organ, harpsichord, and clavichord.", "During this period several major music forms were defined that lasted into later periods when they were expanded and evolved further, including the fugue, the invention, the sonata, and the concerto.", "The late Baroque style was polyphonically complex and richly ornamented.", "Important composers from the Baroque era include Johann Sebastian Bach (''Cello suites''), George Frideric Handel (''Messiah''), Georg Philipp Telemann and Antonio Vivaldi (''The Four Seasons'').===== Classicism =====Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was a prolific and influential composer of the Classical period.The music of the Classical period (1730 to 1820) aimed to imitate what were seen as the key elements of the art and philosophy of Ancient Greece and Rome: the ideals of balance, proportion and disciplined expression.", "(Note: the music from the Classical period should not be confused with Classical music in general, a term which refers to Western art music from the 5th century to the 2000s, which includes the Classical period as one of a number of periods).", "Music from the Classical period has a lighter, clearer and considerably simpler texture than the Baroque music which preceded it.", "The main style was homophony, where a prominent melody and a subordinate chordal accompaniment part are clearly distinct.", "Classical instrumental melodies tended to be almost voicelike and singable.", "New genres were developed, and the fortepiano, the forerunner to the modern piano, replaced the Baroque era harpsichord and pipe organ as the main keyboard instrument (though pipe organ continued to be used in sacred music, such as Masses).Importance was given to instrumental music.", "It was dominated by further development of musical forms initially defined in the Baroque period: the sonata, the concerto, and the symphony.", "Other main kinds were the trio, string quartet, serenade and divertimento.", "The sonata was the most important and developed form.", "Although Baroque composers also wrote sonatas, the Classical style of sonata is completely distinct.", "All of the main instrumental forms of the Classical era, from string quartets to symphonies and concertos, were based on the structure of the sonata.", "The instruments used chamber music and orchestra became more standardized.", "In place of the basso continuo group of the Baroque era, which consisted of harpsichord, organ or lute along with a number of bass instruments selected at the discretion of the group leader (e.g., viol, cello, theorbo, serpent), Classical chamber groups used specified, standardized instruments (e.g., a string quartet would be performed by two violins, a viola and a cello).", "The practice of improvised chord-playing by the continuo keyboardist or lute player, a hallmark of Baroque music, underwent a gradual decline between 1750-1800.One of the most important changes made in the Classical period was the development of public concerts.", "The aristocracy still played a significant role in the sponsorship of concerts and compositions, but it was now possible for composers to survive without being permanent employees of queens or princes.", "The increasing popularity of classical music led to a growth in the number and types of orchestras.", "The expansion of orchestral concerts necessitated the building of large public performance spaces.", "Symphonic music including symphonies, musical accompaniment to ballet and mixed vocal/instrumental genres, such as opera and oratorio, became more popular.The best known composers of Classicism are Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, Christoph Willibald Gluck, Johann Christian Bach, Joseph Haydn, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Ludwig van Beethoven and Franz Schubert.", "Beethoven and Schubert are also considered to be composers in the later part of the Classical era, as it began to move towards Romanticism.===== Romanticism =====The piano was the centrepiece of social activity for middle-class urbanites in the 19th century (Moritz von Schwind, 1868).", "The man at the piano is composer Franz Schubert.Romantic music ( to 1900) from the 19th century had many elements in common with the Romantic styles in literature and painting of the era.", "Romanticism was an artistic, literary, and intellectual movement was characterized by its emphasis on emotion and individualism as well as glorification of all the past and nature.", "Romantic music expanded beyond the rigid styles and forms of the Classical era into more passionate, dramatic expressive pieces and songs.", "Romantic composers such as Wagner and Brahms attempted to increase emotional expression and power in their music to describe deeper truths or human feelings.", "With symphonic tone poems, composers tried to tell stories and evoke images or landscapes using instrumental music.", "Some composers promoted nationalistic pride with patriotic orchestral music inspired by folk music.", "The emotional and expressive qualities of music came to take precedence over tradition.Romantic composers grew in idiosyncrasy, and went further in the syncretism of exploring different art-forms in a musical context, (such as literature), history (historical figures and legends), or nature itself.", "Romantic love or longing was a prevalent theme in many works composed during this period.", "In some cases, the formal structures from the classical period continued to be used (e.g., the sonata form used in string quartets and symphonies), but these forms were expanded and altered.", "In many cases, new approaches were explored for existing genres, forms, and functions.", "Also, new forms were created that were deemed better suited to the new subject matter.", "Composers continued to develop opera and ballet music, exploring new styles and themes.In the years after 1800, the music developed by Ludwig van Beethoven and Franz Schubert introduced a more dramatic, expressive style.", "In Beethoven's case, short motifs, developed organically, came to replace melody as the most significant compositional unit (an example is the distinctive four note figure used in his Fifth Symphony).", "Later Romantic composers such as Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, Antonín Dvořák, and Gustav Mahler used more unusual chords and more dissonance to create dramatic tension.", "They generated complex and often much longer musical works.", "During the late Romantic period, composers explored dramatic chromatic alterations of tonality, such as extended chords and altered chords, which created new sound \"colors.\"", "The late 19th century saw a dramatic expansion in the size of the orchestra, and the industrial revolution helped to create better instruments, creating a more powerful sound.", "Public concerts became an important part of well-to-do urban society.", "It also saw a new diversity in theatre music, including operetta, and musical comedy and other forms of musical theatre.=== 20th and 21st century ===Landman's 2006 ''Moodswinger'', a 3rd-bridged overtone zither and an example of experimental musical instrumentsIn the 19th century, a key way new compositions became known to the public, was by the sales of sheet music, which middle class amateur music lovers would perform at home, on their piano or other common instruments, such as the violin.", "With 20th-century music, the invention of new electric technologies such as radio broadcasting and mass market availability of gramophone records meant sound recordings heard by listeners (on the radio or record player), became the main way to learn about new songs and pieces.", "There was a vast increase in music listening as the radio gained popularity and phonographs were used to replay and distribute music, anyone with a radio or record player could hear operas, symphonies and big bands in their own living room.", "During the 19th century, the focus on sheet music had restricted access to new music to middle and upper-class people who could read music and who owned pianos and other instruments.", "Radios and record players allowed lower-income people, who could not afford an opera or symphony concert ticket to hear this music.", "It meant people could hear music from different parts of the country, or even different parts of the world, even if they could not afford to travel to these locations.", "This helped to spread musical styles.The focus of art music in the 20th century was characterized by exploration of new rhythms, styles, and sounds.", "The horrors of World War I influenced many of the arts, including music, and composers began exploring darker, harsher sounds.", "Traditional music styles such as jazz and folk music were used by composers as a source of ideas for classical music.", "Igor Stravinsky, Arnold Schoenberg, and John Cage were influential composers in 20th-century art music.", "The invention of sound recording and the ability to edit music gave rise to new subgenres of classical music, including the acousmatic and Musique concrète schools of electronic composition.", "Sound recording was a major influence on the development of popular music genres, because it enabled recordings of songs and bands to be widely distributed.", "The introduction of the multitrack recording system had a major influence on rock music, because it could do more than record a band's performance.", "Using a multitrack system, a band and their music producer could overdub many layers of instrument tracks and vocals, creating new sounds that would not be possible in a live performance.Jazz evolved and became an important genre of music over the course of the 20th century, and during the second half, rock music did the same.", "Jazz is an American musical artform that originated in the beginning of the 20th century, in African American communities in the Southern United States from a confluence of African and European music traditions.", "The style's West African pedigree is evident in its use of blue notes, improvisation, polyrhythms, syncopation, and the swung note.SherineRock music is a genre of popular music that developed in the 1950s from rock and roll, rockabilly, blues, and country music.", "The sound of rock often revolves around the electric or acoustic guitar, and it uses a strong back beat laid down by a rhythm section.", "Along with the guitar or keyboards, saxophone and blues-style harmonica are used as soloing instruments.", "In its \"purest form\", it \"has three chords, a strong, insistent back beat, and a catchy melody.\"", "The traditional rhythm section for popular music is rhythm guitar, electric bass guitar, drums.", "Some bands have keyboard instruments such as organ, piano, or, since the 1970s, analog synthesizers.", "In the 1980s, pop musicians began using digital synthesizers, such as the DX-7 synthesizer, electronic drum machines such as the TR-808 and synth bass devices (such as the TB-303) or synth bass keyboards.", "In the 1990s, an increasingly large range of computerized hardware musical devices and instruments and software (e.g.", "digital audio workstations) were used.", "In the 2020s, soft synths and computer music apps make it possible for bedroom producers to create and record types of music, such as electronic dance music, in their home, adding sampled and digital instruments and editing the recording digitally.", "In the 1990s, bands in genres such as nu metal began including DJs in their bands.", "DJs create music by manipulating recorded music, using a DJ mixer.Innovation in music technology continued into the 21st century, including the development of isomorphic keyboards and Dynamic Tonality." ], [ "Creation", "=== Composition ===French Baroque music composer Michel Richard Delalande (1657–1726), pen in handPeople composing music in 2013 using electronic keyboards and computers\"Composition\" is the act or practice of creating a song, an instrumental music piece, a work with both singing and instruments, or another type of music.", "In many cultures, including Western classical music, the act of composing also includes the creation of music notation, such as a sheet music \"score\", which is then performed by the composer or by other singers or musicians.", "In popular music and traditional music, the act of composing, which is typically called songwriting, may involve the creation of a basic outline of the song, called the lead sheet, which sets out the melody, lyrics and chord progression.", "In classical music, the composer typically orchestrates his or her own compositions, but in musical theatre and in pop music, songwriters may hire an arranger to do the orchestration.", "In some cases, a songwriter may not use notation at all, and instead, compose the song in her mind and then play or record it from memory.", "In jazz and popular music, notable recordings by influential performers are given the weight that written scores play in classical music.Even when music is notated relatively precisely, as in classical music, there are many decisions that a performer has to make, because notation does not specify all of the elements of music precisely.", "The process of deciding how to perform music that has been previously composed and notated is termed \"interpretation\".", "Different performers' interpretations of the same work of music can vary widely, in terms of the tempos that are chosen and the playing or singing style or phrasing of the melodies.", "Composers and songwriters who present their own music are interpreting their songs, just as much as those who perform the music of others.", "The standard body of choices and techniques present at a given time and a given place is referred to as performance practice, whereas interpretation is generally used to mean the individual choices of a performer.Although a musical composition often uses musical notation and has a single author, this is not always the case.", "A work of music can have multiple composers, which often occurs in popular music when a band collaborates to write a song, or in musical theatre, when one person writes the melodies, a second person writes the lyrics, and a third person orchestrates the songs.", "In some styles of music, such as the blues, a composer/songwriter may create, perform and record new songs or pieces without ever writing them down in music notation.", "A piece of music can also be composed with words, images, or computer programs that explain or notate how the singer or musician should create musical sounds.", "Examples range from avant-garde music that uses graphic notation, to text compositions such as ''Aus den sieben Tagen'', to computer programs that select sounds for musical pieces.", "Music that makes heavy use of randomness and chance is called aleatoric music, and is associated with contemporary composers active in the 20th century, such as John Cage, Morton Feldman, and Witold Lutosławski.", "A commonly known example of chance-based music is the sound of wind chimes jingling in a breeze.The study of composition has traditionally been dominated by examination of methods and practice of Western classical music, but the definition of composition is broad enough to include the creation of popular music and traditional music songs and instrumental pieces as well as spontaneously improvised works like those of free jazz performers and African percussionists such as Ewe drummers.=== Performance ===Naxi musicians|leftAssyrians playing ''zurna'' and ''Davul'', instruments that go back thousands of years|leftPerformance is the physical expression of music, which occurs when a song is sung or piano piece, guitar melody, symphony, drum beat or other musical part is played.", "In classical music, a work is written in music notation by a composer and then performed once the composer is satisfied with its structure and instrumentation.", "However, as it gets performed, the interpretation of a song or piece can evolve and change.", "In classical music, instrumental performers, singers or conductors may gradually make changes to the phrasing or tempo of a piece.", "In popular and traditional music, the performers have more freedom to make changes to the form of a song or piece.", "As such, in popular and traditional music styles, even when a band plays a cover song, they can make changes such as adding a guitar solo or inserting an introduction.A performance can either be planned out and rehearsed (practiced)—which is the norm in classical music, jazz big bands, and many popular music styles–or improvised over a chord progression (a sequence of chords), which is the norm in small jazz and blues groups.", "Rehearsals of orchestras, concert bands and choirs are led by a conductor.", "Rock, blues and jazz bands are usually led by the bandleader.", "A rehearsal is a structured repetition of a song or piece by the performers until it can be sung or played correctly and, if it is a song or piece for more than one musician, until the parts are together from a rhythmic and tuning perspective.Many cultures have strong traditions of solo performance (in which one singer or instrumentalist performs), such as in Indian classical music, and in the Western art-music tradition.", "Other cultures, such as in Bali, include strong traditions of group performance.", "All cultures include a mixture of both, and performance may range from improvised solo playing to highly planned and organized performances such as the modern classical concert, religious processions, classical music festivals or music competitions.", "Chamber music, which is music for a small ensemble with only one or a few of each type of instrument, is often seen as more intimate than large symphonic works.=== Improvisation ===Musical improvisation is the creation of spontaneous music, often within (or based on) a pre-existing harmonic framework, chord progression, or riffs.", "Improvisers use the notes of the chord, various scales that are associated with each chord, and chromatic ornaments and passing tones which may be neither chord tones nor from the typical scales associated with a chord.", "Musical improvisation can be done with or without preparation.", "Improvisation is a major part of some types of music, such as blues, jazz, and jazz fusion, in which instrumental performers improvise solos, melody lines, and accompaniment parts..In the Western art music tradition, improvisation was an important skill during the Baroque era and during the Classical era.", "In the Baroque era, performers improvised ornaments, and basso continuo keyboard players improvised chord voicings based on figured bass notation.", "As well, the top soloists were expected to be able to improvise pieces such as preludes.", "In the Classical era, solo performers and singers improvised virtuoso cadenzas during concerts.However, in the 20th and early 21st century, as \"common practice\" Western art music performance became institutionalized in symphony orchestras, opera houses, and ballets, improvisation has played a smaller role, as more and more music was notated in scores and parts for musicians to play.", "At the same time, some 20th and 21st century art music composers have increasingly included improvisation in their creative work.", "In Indian classical music, improvisation is a core component and an essential criterion of performances." ], [ "Art and entertainment", "Khatia Buniatishvili playing a grand pianoMusic is composed and performed for many purposes, ranging from aesthetic pleasure, religious or ceremonial purposes, or as an entertainment product for the marketplace.", "When music was only available through sheet music scores, such as during the Classical and Romantic eras, music lovers would buy the sheet music of their favourite pieces and songs so that they could perform them at home on the piano.", "With the advent of the phonograph, records of popular songs, rather than sheet music became the dominant way that music lovers would enjoy their favourite songs.", "With the advent of home tape recorders in the 1980s and digital music in the 1990s, music lovers could make tapes or playlists of favourite songs and take them with them on a portable cassette player or MP3 player.", "Some music lovers create mix tapes of favourite songs, which serve as a \"self-portrait, a gesture of friendship, prescription for an ideal party... and an environment consisting solely of what is most ardently loved\".Amateur musicians can compose or perform music for their own pleasure and derive income elsewhere.", "Professional musicians are employed by institutions and organisations, including armed forces (in marching bands, concert bands and popular music groups), religious institutions, symphony orchestras, broadcasting or film production companies, and music schools.", "Professional musicians sometimes work as freelancers or session musicians, seeking contracts and engagements in a variety of settings.", "There are often many links between amateur and professional musicians.", "Beginning amateur musicians take lessons with professional musicians.", "In community settings, advanced amateur musicians perform with professional musicians in a variety of ensembles such as community concert bands and community orchestras.A distinction is often made between music performed for a live audience and music that is performed in a studio so that it can be recorded and distributed through the music retail system or the broadcasting system.", "However, there are also many cases where a live performance in front of an audience is also recorded and distributed.", "Live concert recordings are popular in both classical music and in popular music forms such as rock, where illegally taped live concerts are prized by music lovers.", "In the jam band scene, live, improvised jam sessions are preferred to studio recordings.=== Notation ===Sheet music is a written representation of music.", "Homorhythmic (i.e., hymn-style) arrangement of the traditional \"Adeste Fideles\" in standard two-staff format for mixed voices.", "|upright=1.9Music notation typically means the written expression of music notes and rhythms on paper using symbols.", "When music is written down, the pitches and rhythm of the music, such as the notes of a melody, are notated.", "Music notation often provides instructions on how to perform the music.", "For example, the sheet music for a song may state the song is a \"slow blues\" or a \"fast swing\", which indicates the tempo and the genre.", "To read notation, a person must have an understanding of music theory, harmony and the performance practice associated with a particular song or piece's genre.Written notation varies with the style and period of music.", "Nowadays, notated music is produced as sheet music or, for individuals with computer scorewriter programs, as an image on a computer screen.", "In ancient times, music notation was put onto stone or clay tablets.", "To perform music from notation, a singer or instrumentalist requires an understanding of the rhythmic and pitch elements embodied in the symbols and the performance practice that is associated with a piece of music or genre.", "In genres requiring musical improvisation, the performer often plays from music where only the chord changes and form of the song are written, requiring the performer to have a great understanding of the music's structure, harmony and the styles of a particular genre e.g., jazz or country music.In Western art music, the most common types of written notation are scores, which include all the music parts of an ensemble piece, and parts, which are the music notation for the individual performers or singers.", "In popular music, jazz, and blues, the standard musical notation is the lead sheet, which notates the melody, chords, lyrics (if it is a vocal piece), and structure of the music.", "Fake books are also used in jazz; they may consist of lead sheets or simply chord charts, which permit rhythm section members to improvise an accompaniment part to jazz songs.", "Scores and parts are also used in popular music and jazz, particularly in large ensembles such as jazz \"big bands.\"", "In popular music, guitarists and electric bass players often read music notated in tablature (often abbreviated as \"tab\"), which indicates the location of the notes to be played on the instrument using a diagram of the guitar or bass fingerboard.", "Tablature was used in the Baroque era to notate music for the lute, a stringed, fretted instrument.=== Oral and aural tradition ===Many types of music, such as traditional blues and folk music were not written down in sheet music; instead, they were originally preserved in the memory of performers, and the songs were handed down orally, from one musician or singer to another, or aurally, in which a performer learns a song \"by ear\".", "When the composer of a song or piece is no longer known, this music is often classified as \"traditional\" or as a \"folk song\".", "Different musical traditions have different attitudes towards how and where to make changes to the original source material, from quite strict, to those that demand improvisation or modification to the music.", "A culture's history and stories may also be passed on by ear through song." ], [ "Elements", "Music has many different fundamentals or elements.", "Depending on the definition of \"element\" being used, these can include pitch, beat or pulse, tempo, rhythm, melody, harmony, texture, style, allocation of voices, timbre or color, dynamics, expression, articulation, form, and structure.", "The elements of music feature prominently in the music curriculums of Australia, the UK, and the US.", "All three curriculums identify pitch, dynamics, timbre, and texture as elements, but the other identified elements of music are far from universally agreed upon.", "Below is a list of the three official versions of the \"elements of music\":* Australia: pitch, timbre, texture, dynamics and expression, rhythm, form and structure.", "* UK: pitch, timbre, texture, dynamics, duration, tempo, structure.", "* USA: pitch, timbre, texture, dynamics, rhythm, form, harmony, style/articulation.In relation to the UK curriculum, in 2013 the term: \"appropriate musical notations\" was added to their list of elements and the title of the list was changed from the \"elements of music\" to the \"inter-related dimensions of music\".", "The inter-related dimensions of music are listed as: pitch, duration, dynamics, tempo, timbre, texture, structure, and appropriate musical notations.The phrase \"the elements of music\" is used in a number of different contexts.", "The two most common contexts can be differentiated by describing them as the \"rudimentary elements of music\" and the \"perceptual elements of music\".=== Pitch ===Pitch is an aspect of a sound that we can hear, reflecting whether one musical sound, note, or tone is \"higher\" or \"lower\" than another musical sound, note, or tone.", "We can talk about the highness or lowness of pitch in the more general sense, such as the way a listener hears a piercingly high piccolo note or whistling tone as higher in pitch than a deep thump of a bass drum.", "We also talk about pitch in the precise sense associated with musical melodies, basslines and chords.", "Precise pitch can only be determined in sounds that have a frequency that is clear and stable enough to distinguish from noise.", "For example, it is much easier for listeners to discern the pitch of a single note played on a piano than to try to discern the pitch of a crash cymbal that is struck.=== Melody ===The melody to the traditional song \"upright=2.8A melody, also called a \"tune\", is a series of pitches (notes) sounding in succession (one after the other), often in a rising and falling pattern.", "The notes of a melody are typically created using pitch systems such as scales or modes.", "Melodies also often contain notes from the chords used in the song.", "The melodies in simple folk songs and traditional songs may use only the notes of a single scale, the scale associated with the tonic note or key of a given song.", "For example, a folk song in the key of C (also referred to as C major) may have a melody that uses only the notes of the C major scale (the individual notes C, D, E, F, G, A, B, and C; these are the \"white notes\" on a piano keyboard.", "On the other hand, Bebop-era jazz from the 1940s and contemporary music from the 20th and 21st centuries may use melodies with many chromatic notes (i.e., notes in addition to the notes of the major scale; on a piano, a chromatic scale would include all the notes on the keyboard, including the \"white notes\" and \"black notes\" and unusual scales, such as the whole tone scale (a whole tone scale in the key of C would contain the notes C, D, E, F, G and A).", "A low musical line played by bass instruments, such as double bass, electric bass, or tuba, is called a bassline.=== Harmony ===notes) on a guitarHarmony refers to the \"vertical\" sounds of pitches in music, which means pitches that are played or sung together at the same time to create a chord.", "Usually, this means the notes are played at the same time, although harmony may also be implied by a melody that outlines a harmonic structure (i.e., by using melody notes that are played one after the other, outlining the notes of a chord).", "In music written using the system of major-minor tonality (\"keys\"), which includes most classical music written from 1600 to 1900 and most Western pop, rock, and traditional music, the key of a piece determines the \"home note\" or tonic to which the piece generally resolves, and the character (e.g.", "major or minor) of the scale in use.", "Simple classical pieces and many pop and traditional music songs are written so that all the music is in a single key.", "More complex Classical, pop, and traditional music songs and pieces may have two keys (and in some cases three or more keys).", "Classical music from the Romantic era (written from about 1820–1900) often contains multiple keys, as does jazz, especially Bebop jazz from the 1940s, in which the key or \"home note\" of a song may change every four bars or even every two bars.=== Rhythm ===Rhythm is the arrangement of sounds and silences in time.", "Meter animates time in regular pulse groupings, called measures or bars, which in Western classical, popular, and traditional music often group notes in sets of two (e.g., 2/4 time), three (e.g., 3/4 time, also known as Waltz time, or 3/8 time), or four (e.g., 4/4 time).", "Meters are made easier to hear because songs and pieces often (but not always) place an emphasis on the first beat of each grouping.", "Notable exceptions exist, such as the backbeat used in much Western pop and rock, in which a song that uses a measure that consists of four beats (called 4/4 time or common time) will have accents on beats two and four, which are typically performed by the drummer on the snare drum, a loud and distinctive-sounding percussion instrument.", "In pop and rock, the rhythm parts of a song are played by the rhythm section, which includes chord-playing instruments (e.g., electric guitar, acoustic guitar, piano, or other keyboard instruments), a bass instrument (typically electric bass or for some styles such as jazz and bluegrass, double bass) and a drum kit player.=== Texture ===Musical texture is the overall sound of a piece of music or song.", "The texture of a piece or song is determined by how the melodic, rhythmic, and harmonic materials are combined in a composition, thus determining the overall nature of the sound in a piece.", "Texture is often described in regard to the density, or thickness, and range, or width, between lowest and highest pitches, in relative terms as well as more specifically distinguished according to the number of voices, or parts, and the relationship between these voices (see common types below).", "For example, a thick texture contains many 'layers' of instruments.", "One layer can be a string section or another brass.", "The thickness is affected by the amount and the richness of the instruments.", "Texture is commonly described according to the number of and relationship between parts or lines of music:* monophony: a single melody (or \"tune\") with neither instrumental accompaniment nor a harmony part.", "A mother singing a lullaby to her baby would be an example.", "* heterophony: two or more instruments or singers playing/singing the same melody, but with each performer slightly varying the rhythm or speed of the melody or adding different ornaments to the melody.", "Two bluegrass fiddlers playing the same traditional fiddle tune together will typically each vary the melody by some degree and each add different ornaments.", "* polyphony: multiple independent melody lines that interweave together, which are sung or played at the same time.", "Choral music written in the Renaissance music era was typically written in this style.", "A round, which is a song such as \"Row, Row, Row Your Boat\", which different groups of singers all start to sing at a different time, is an example of polyphony.", "* homophony: a clear melody supported by chordal accompaniment.", "Most Western popular music songs from the 19th century onward are written in this texture.Music that contains a large number of independent parts (e.g., a double concerto accompanied by 100 orchestral instruments with many interweaving melodic lines) is generally said to have a \"thicker\" or \"denser\" texture than a work with few parts (e.g., a solo flute melody accompanied by a single cello).=== Timbre ===Spectrogram of the first second of an E9 suspended chord played on a Fender Stratocaster guitar.", "Below is the E9 suspended chord audio: File:9577 Guitarz1970 Clean E9 Guitar Chord (Mike Tribulas).oggTimbre, sometimes called \"color\" or \"tone color\" is the quality or sound of a voice or instrument.", "Timbre is what makes a particular musical sound different from another, even when they have the same pitch and loudness.", "For example, a 440 Hz A note sounds different when it is played on oboe, piano, violin, or electric guitar.", "Even if different players of the same instrument play the same note, their notes might sound different due to differences in instrumental technique (e.g., different embouchures), different types of accessories (e.g., mouthpieces for brass players, reeds for oboe and bassoon players) or strings made out of different materials for string players (e.g., gut strings versus steel strings).", "Even two instrumentalists playing the same note on the same instrument (one after the other) may sound different due to different ways of playing the instrument (e.g., two string players might hold the bow differently).The physical characteristics of sound that determine the perception of timbre include the spectrum, envelope, and overtones of a note or musical sound.", "For electric instruments developed in the 20th century, such as electric guitar, electric bass and electric piano, the performer can also change the tone by adjusting equalizer controls, tone controls on the instrument, and by using electronic effects units such as distortion pedals.", "The tone of the electric Hammond organ is controlled by adjusting drawbars.=== Expression ===Expressive qualities are those elements in music that create change in music without changing the main pitches or substantially changing the rhythms of the melody and its accompaniment.", "Performers, including singers and instrumentalists, can add musical expression to a song or piece by adding phrasing, by adding effects such as vibrato (with voice and some instruments, such as guitar, violin, brass instruments, and woodwinds), dynamics (the loudness or softness of piece or a section of it), tempo fluctuations (e.g., ritardando or accelerando, which are, respectively slowing down and speeding up the tempo), by adding pauses or fermatas on a cadence, and by changing the articulation of the notes (e.g., making notes more pronounced or accented, by making notes more legato, which means smoothly connected, or by making notes shorter).Expression is achieved through the manipulation of pitch (such as inflection, vibrato, slides etc.", "), volume (dynamics, accent, tremolo etc.", "), duration (tempo fluctuations, rhythmic changes, changing note duration such as with legato and staccato, etc.", "), timbre (e.g.", "changing vocal timbre from a light to a resonant voice) and sometimes even texture (e.g.", "doubling the bass note for a richer effect in a piano piece).", "Expression therefore can be seen as a manipulation of all elements to convey \"an indication of mood, spirit, character etc.\"", "and as such cannot be included as a unique perceptual element of music, although it can be considered an important rudimentary element of music.=== Form ===Sheet music notation for the chorus (refrain) of the Christmas song \"Jingle Bells\" In music, form describes the overall structure or plan of a song or piece of music, and it describes the layout of a composition as divided into sections.", "In the early 20th century, Tin Pan Alley songs and Broadway musical songs were often in AABA thirty-two-bar form, in which the A sections repeated the same eight bar melody (with variation) and the B section provided a contrasting melody or harmony for eight bars.", "From the 1960s onward, Western pop and rock songs are often in verse-chorus form, which comprises a sequence of verse and chorus (\"refrain\") sections, with new lyrics for most verses and repeating lyrics for the choruses.", "Popular music often makes use of strophic form, sometimes in conjunction with the twelve bar blues.In the tenth edition of ''The Oxford Companion to Music'', Percy Scholes defines musical form as \"a series of strategies designed to find a successful mean between the opposite extremes of unrelieved repetition and unrelieved alteration.\"", "Examples of common forms of Western music include the fugue, the invention, sonata-allegro, canon, strophic, theme and variations, and rondo.Scholes states that European classical music had only six stand-alone forms: simple binary, simple ternary, compound binary, rondo, air with variations, and fugue (although musicologist Alfred Mann emphasized that the fugue is primarily a method of composition that has sometimes taken on certain structural conventions.", ")Where a piece cannot readily be broken into sectional units (though it might borrow some form from a poem, story or programme), it is said to be through-composed.", "Such is often the case with a fantasia, prelude, rhapsody, etude (or study), symphonic poem, Bagatelle, impromptu or similar compostion.", "Professor Charles Keil classified forms and formal detail as \"sectional, developmental, or variational.\"" ], [ "Philosophy", "''The Woman in Red'' by Giovanni BoldiniThe philosophy of music is the study of fundamental questions regarding music and has connections with questions in metaphysics and aesthetics.", "Questions include:* What is the definition of music?", "(What are the necessary and sufficient conditions for classifying something as music?", ")* What is the relationship between music and mind?", "* What does music history reveal to us about the world?", "* What is the connection between music and emotions?", "* What is meaning in relation to music?In ancient times, such as with the Ancient Greeks, the aesthetics of music explored the mathematical and cosmological dimensions of rhythmic and harmonic organization.", "In the 18th century, focus shifted to the experience of hearing music, and thus to questions about its beauty and human enjoyment (''plaisir'' and ''jouissance'') of music.", "The origin of this philosophic shift is sometimes attributed to Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten in the 18th century, followed by Immanuel Kant.", "Through their writing, the ancient term 'aesthetics', meaning sensory perception, received its present-day connotation.", "In the 2000s, philosophers have tended to emphasize issues besides beauty and enjoyment.", "For example, music's capacity to express emotion has been foregrounded.", "In the 20th century, important contributions were made by Peter Kivy, Jerrold Levinson, Roger Scruton, and Stephen Davies.", "However, many musicians, music critics, and other non-philosophers have contributed to the aesthetics of music.", "In the 19th century, a significant debate arose between Eduard Hanslick, a music critic and musicologist, and composer Richard Wagner regarding whether music can express meaning.", "Harry Partch and some other musicologists, such as Kyle Gann, have studied and tried to popularize microtonal music and the usage of alternate musical scales.", "Modern composers like La Monte Young, Rhys Chatham and Glenn Branca paid much attention to a scale called just intonation.It is often thought that music has the ability to affect our emotions, intellect, and psychology; it can assuage our loneliness or incite our passions.", "The philosopher Plato suggests in ''The Republic'' that music has a direct effect on the soul.", "Therefore, he proposes that in the ideal regime music would be closely regulated by the state (Book VII).", "In Ancient China, the philosopher Confucius believed that music and rituals or rites are interconnected and harmonious with nature; he stated that music was the harmonization of heaven and earth, while the order was brought by the rites order, making them extremely crucial functions in society." ], [ "Psychology", "Modern music psychology aims to explain and understand musical behavior and experience.", "Research in this field and its subfields are primarily empirical; their knowledge tends to advance on the basis of interpretations of data collected by systematic observation of and interaction with human participants.", "In addition to its focus on fundamental perceptions and cognitive processes, music psychology is a field of research with practical relevance for many areas, including music performance, composition, education, criticism, and therapy, as well as investigations of human aptitude, skill, intelligence, creativity, and social behavior.=== Neuroscience ===The primary auditory cortex is one of the main areas associated with superior pitch resolution.Cognitive neuroscience of music is the scientific study of brain-based mechanisms involved in the cognitive processes underlying music.", "These behaviours include music listening, performing, composing, reading, writing, and ancillary activities.", "It also is increasingly concerned with the brain basis for musical aesthetics and musical emotion.", "The field is distinguished by its reliance on direct observations of the brain, using such techniques as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), magnetoencephalography (MEG), electroencephalography (EEG), and positron emission tomography (PET).=== Cognitive musicology ===Cognitive musicology is a branch of cognitive science concerned with computationally modeling musical knowledge with the goal of understanding both music and cognition.", "The use of computer models provides an exacting, interactive medium in which to formulate and test theories and has roots in artificial intelligence and cognitive science.This interdisciplinary field investigates topics such as the parallels between language and music in the brain.", "Biologically inspired models of computation are often included in research, such as neural networks and evolutionary programs.", "This field seeks to model how musical knowledge is represented, stored, perceived, performed, and generated.", "By using a well-structured computer environment, the systematic structures of these cognitive phenomena can be investigated.=== Psychoacoustics ===Psychoacoustics is the scientific study of sound perception.", "More specifically, it is the branch of science studying the psychological and physiological responses associated with sound (including speech and music).", "It can be further categorized as a branch of psychophysics.=== Evolutionary musicology ===Evolutionary musicology concerns the \"origins of music, the question of animal song, selection pressures underlying music evolution\", and \"music evolution and human evolution\".", "It seeks to understand music perception and activity in the context of evolutionary theory.", "Charles Darwin speculated that music may have held an adaptive advantage and functioned as a protolanguage, a view which has spawned several competing theories of music evolution.", "An alternate view sees music as a by-product of linguistic evolution; a type of \"auditory cheesecake\" that pleases the senses without providing any adaptive function.", "This view has been directly countered by numerous music researchers.=== Cultural effects ===An individual's culture or ethnicity plays a role in their music cognition, including their preferences, emotional reaction, and musical memory.", "Musical preferences are biased toward culturally familiar musical traditions beginning in infancy, and adults' classification of the emotion of a musical piece depends on both culturally specific and universal structural features.", "Additionally, individuals' musical memory abilities are greater for culturally familiar music than for culturally unfamiliar music.=== Perceptual ===Since the emergence of the study of psychoacoustics in the 1930s, most lists of elements of music have related more to how we ''hear'' music than how we learn to play it or study it.", "C.E.", "Seashore, in his book ''Psychology of Music'', identified four \"psychological attributes of sound\".", "These were: \"pitch, loudness, time, and timbre\" (p. 3).", "He did not call them the \"elements of music\" but referred to them as \"elemental components\" (p. 2).", "Nonetheless, these elemental components link precisely with four of the most common musical elements: \"Pitch\" and \"timbre\" match exactly, \"loudness\" links with dynamics, and \"time\" links with the time-based elements of rhythm, duration, and tempo.", "This usage of the phrase \"the elements of music\" links more closely with ''Webster's New 20th Century Dictionary'' definition of an element as: \"a substance which cannot be divided into a simpler form by known methods\" and educational institutions' lists of elements generally align with this definition as well.Although writers of lists of \"rudimentary elements of music\" can vary their lists depending on their personal (or institutional) priorities, the perceptual elements of music should consist of an established (or proven) list of discrete elements which can be independently manipulated to achieve an intended musical effect.", "It seems at this stage that there is still research to be done in this area.A slightly different way of approaching the identification of the elements of music, is to identify the \"elements of sound\" as: pitch, duration, loudness, timbre, sonic texture and spatial location, and then to define the \"elements of music\" as: sound, structure, and artistic intent." ], [ "Sociological aspects", "Song dynasty (960–1279) painting, ''Night Revels of Han Xizai'', showing Chinese musicians entertaining guests at a party in a 10th-century householdEthnographic studies demonstrate that music is a participatory, community-based activity.", "Music is experienced by individuals in a range of social settings from being alone, to attending a large concert, forming a music community, which cannot be understood as a function of individual will or accident; it includes both commercial and non-commercial participants with a shared set of common values.", "Musical performances take different forms in different cultures and socioeconomic milieus.In Europe and North America, there was a divide between what types of music were viewed as \"high culture\" and \"low culture.\"", "\"High culture\" included Baroque, Classical, Romantic, and modern-era symphonies, concertos, and solo works, and are typically heard in formal concerts in concert halls and churches, with the audience sitting quietly.", "Other types of music—including jazz, blues, soul, and country—are often performed in bars, nightclubs, and theatres, where the audience may drink, dance and cheer.", "Until the 20th century, the division between \"high\" and \"low\" musical forms was accepted as a valid distinction that separated out \"art music\", from popular music heard in bars and dance halls.", "Musicologists, such as David Brackett, note a \"redrawing of high-low cultural-aesthetic boundaries\" in the 20th century.", "And, \"when industry and public discourses link categories of music with categories of people, they tend to conflate stereotypes with actual listening communities.\"", "Stereotypes can be based on socioeconomic standing, or social class, of the performers or audience of the different types of music.When composers introduce styles of music that break with convention, there can be strong resistance from academics and others.", "Late-period Beethoven string quartets, Stravinsky ballet scores, serialism, bebop, hip hop, punk rock, and electronica were controversial and criticised, when they were first introduced.", "Such themes are examined in the sociology of music, sometimes called sociomusicology, which is pursued in departments of sociology, media studies, or music, and is closely related to ethnomusicology.=== Role of women ===19th-century composer and pianist Clara SchumannWomen have played a major role in music throughout history, as composers, songwriters, instrumental performers, singers, conductors, music scholars, music educators, music critics/music journalists and other musical professions.", "In the 2010s, while women comprise a significant proportion of popular music and classical music singers, and a significant proportion of songwriters (many of them being singer-songwriters), there are few women record producers, rock critics and rock instrumentalists.", "Although there have been a huge number of women composers in classical music, from the medieval period to the present day, women composers are significantly underrepresented in the commonly performed classical music repertoire, music history textbooks and music encyclopedias; for example, in the ''Concise Oxford History of Music'', Clara Schumann is one of the few female composers who is mentioned.Women comprise a significant proportion of instrumental soloists in classical music and the percentage of women in orchestras is increasing.", "A 2015 article on concerto soloists in major Canadian orchestras, however, indicated that 84% of the soloists with the Orchestre Symphonique de Montreal were men.", "In 2012, women still made up just 6% of the top-ranked Vienna Philharmonic orchestra.", "Women are less common as instrumental players in popular music genres such as rock and heavy metal, although there have been a number of notable female instrumentalists and all-female bands.", "Women are particularly underrepresented in extreme metal genres.", "In the 1960s pop-music scene, \"like most aspects of the...music business, in the 1960s, songwriting was a male-dominated field.", "Though there were plenty of female singers on the radio, women ...were primarily seen as consumers:... Singing was sometimes an acceptable pastime for a girl, but playing an instrument, writing songs, or producing records simply wasn't done.\"", "Young women \"...were not socialized to see themselves as people who create music.", "\"Women are also underrepresented in orchestral conducting, music criticism/music journalism, music producing, and sound engineering.", "While women were discouraged from composing in the 19th century, and there are few women musicologists, women became involved in music education \"...to such a degree that women dominated this field during the later half of the 19th century and well into the 20th century.", "\"According to Jessica Duchen, a music writer for London's ''The Independent'', women musicians in classical music are \"...too often judged for their appearances, rather than their talent\" and they face pressure \"...to look sexy onstage and in photos.\"", "Duchen states that while \"there are women musicians who refuse to play on their looks,...the ones who do tend to be more materially successful.\"", "According to the UK's Radio 3 editor, Edwina Wolstencroft, the music industry has long been open to having women in performance or entertainment roles, but women are much less likely to have positions of authority, such as being the conductor of an orchestra.", "In popular music, while there are many women singers recording songs, there are very few women behind the audio console acting as music producers, the individuals who direct and manage the recording process.", "One of the most recorded artists is Asha Bhosle, an Indian singer best known as a playback singer in Hindi cinema." ], [ "Media and technology", "Compact Disc Digital Audio (CD-DA) revolutionized audio music formatting.", "It allowed for music to be played portably without the need to rewind a series of tape.", "The CD surpassed LP sales in 1988, and cassette tapes in 1991.By 1999, the CD accounted for 87.9% of the entire market share in regard to music sales.Since the 20th century, live music can be broadcast over the radio, television or the Internet, or recorded and listened to on a CD player or MP3 player.In the early 20th century (in the late 1920s), as talking pictures emerged in the early 20th century, with their prerecorded musical tracks, an increasing number of moviehouse orchestra musicians found themselves out of work.", "During the 1920s, live musical performances by orchestras, pianists, and theater organists were common at first-run theaters.", "With the coming of the talking motion pictures, those featured performances were largely eliminated.", "The American Federation of Musicians (AFM) took out newspaper advertisements protesting the replacement of live musicians with mechanical playing devices.", "One 1929 ad that appeared in the ''Pittsburgh Press'' features an image of a can labeled \"Canned Music / Big Noise Brand / Guaranteed to Produce No Intellectual or Emotional Reaction Whatever\"Sometimes, live performances incorporate prerecorded sounds.", "For example, a disc jockey uses disc records for scratching, and some 20th-century works have a solo for an instrument or voice that is performed along with music that is prerecorded onto a tape.", "Some pop bands use recorded backing tracks.", "Computers and many keyboards can be programmed to produce and play Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI) music.", "Audiences can also ''become'' performers by participating in karaoke, an activity of Japanese origin centered on a device that plays voice-eliminated versions of well-known songs.", "Most karaoke machines also have video screens that show lyrics to songs being performed; performers can follow the lyrics as they sing over the instrumental tracks.Music production in the 2000s using a digital audio workstation (DAW) with an electronic keyboard and a multi-monitor set-upThe advent of the Internet and widespread high-speed broadband access has transformed the experience of music, partly through the increased ease of access to recordings of music via streaming video and vastly increased choice of music for consumers.", "Another effect of the Internet arose with online communities and social media websites like YouTube and Facebook, a social networking service.", "These sites make it easier for aspiring singers and amateur bands to distribute videos of their songs, connect with other musicians, and gain audience interest.", "Professional musicians also use YouTube as a free publisher of promotional material.", "YouTube users, for example, no longer only download and listen to MP3s, but also actively create their own.", "According to Don Tapscott and Anthony D. Williams, in their book ''Wikinomics'', there has been a shift from a traditional consumer role to what they call a \"prosumer\" role, a consumer who both creates content and consumes.", "Manifestations of this in music include the production of mashes, remixes, and music videos by fans." ], [ "Education", "=== Non-institutional ===Suzuki violin recital with students of varying ages|leftThe incorporation of music into general education from preschool to post secondary education, is common in North America and Europe.", "Involvement in playing and singing music is thought to teach basic skills such as concentration, counting, listening, and cooperation while also promoting understanding of language, improving the ability to recall information, and creating an environment more conducive to learning in other areas.", "In elementary schools, children often learn to play instruments such as the recorder, sing in small choirs, and learn about the history of Western art music and traditional music.", "Some elementary school children also learn about popular music styles.", "In religious schools, children sing hymns and other religious music.", "In secondary schools (and less commonly in elementary schools), students may have the opportunity to perform in some types of musical ensembles, such as choirs (a group of singers), marching bands, concert bands, jazz bands, or orchestras.", "In some school systems, music lessons on how to play instruments may be provided.", "Some students also take private music lessons after school with a singing teacher or instrument teacher.", "Amateur musicians typically learn basic musical rudiments (e.g., learning about musical notation for musical scales and rhythms) and beginner- to intermediate-level singing or instrument-playing techniques.At the university level, students in most arts and humanities programs can receive credit for taking a few music courses, which typically take the form of an overview course on the history of music, or a music appreciation course that focuses on listening to music and learning about different musical styles.", "In addition, most North American and European universities have some types of musical ensembles that students in arts and humanities are able to participate in, such as choirs, marching bands, concert bands, or orchestras.", "The study of Western art music is increasingly common outside of North America and Europe, such as the Indonesian Institute of the Arts in Yogyakarta, Indonesia, or the classical music programs that are available in Asian countries such as South Korea, Japan, and China.", "At the same time, Western universities and colleges are widening their curriculum to include music of non-Western cultures, such as the music of Africa or Bali (e.g.", "Gamelan music).=== Institutional ===Manhattan School of Music professor and professional double bass player Timothy Cobb teaching a bass lesson in the late 2000s.", "His bass has a low C extension with a metal \"machine\" with buttons for playing the pitches on the extension.People aiming to become professional musicians, singers, composers, songwriters, music teachers and practitioners of other music-related professions such as music history professors, sound engineers, and so on study in specialized post-secondary programs offered by colleges, universities and music conservatories.", "Some institutions that train individuals for careers in music offer training in a wide range of professions, as is the case with many of the top U.S. universities, which offer degrees in music performance (including singing and playing instruments), music history, music theory, music composition, music education (for individuals aiming to become elementary or high school music teachers) and, in some cases, conducting.", "On the other hand, some small colleges may only offer training in a single profession (e.g., sound recording).While most university and conservatory music programs focus on training students in classical music, there are universities and colleges that train musicians for careers as jazz or popular music musicians and composers, with notable U.S. examples including the Manhattan School of Music and the Berklee College of Music.", "Two schools in Canada which offer professional jazz training are McGill University and Humber College.", "Individuals aiming at careers in some types of music, such as heavy metal music, country music or blues are unlikely to become professionals by completing degrees or diplomas.", "Instead, they typically learn about their style of music by singing or playing in bands (often beginning in amateur bands, cover bands and tribute bands), studying recordings on DVD and the Internet, and working with already-established professionals in their style of music, either through informal mentoring or regular music lessons.", "Since the 2000s, the increasing popularity and availability of Internet forums and YouTube \"how-to\" videos have enabled singers and musicians from metal, blues and similar genres to improve their skills.", "Many pop, rock and country singers train informally with vocal coaches and voice teachers." ], [ "Academic study", "=== Musicology ===Musicology, the academic study of music, is studied in universities and music conservatories.", "The earliest definitions from the 19th century defined three sub-disciplines of musicology: systematic musicology, historical musicology, and comparative musicology or ethnomusicology.", "In 2010-era scholarship, one is more likely to encounter a division into music theory, music history, and ethnomusicology.", "Research in musicology has often been enriched by cross-disciplinary work, for example in the field of psychoacoustics.", "The study of music of non-Western cultures, and cultural study of music, is called ethnomusicology.", "Students can pursue study of musicology, ethnomusicology, music history, and music theory through different types of degrees, including bachelor's, master's and PhD.=== Music theory ===Music theory is the study of music, generally in a highly technical manner outside of other disciplines.", "More broadly it refers to any study of music, usually related in some form with compositional concerns, and may include mathematics, physics, and anthropology.", "What is most commonly taught in beginning music theory classes are guidelines to write in the style of the common practice period, or tonal music.", "Theory, even of music of the common practice period, may take other forms.", "Musical set theory is the application of mathematical set theory to music, first applied to atonal music.", "''Speculative music theory'', contrasted with ''analytic music theory'', is devoted to the analysis and synthesis of music materials, for example tuning systems, generally as preparation for composition.=== Zoomusicology ===Zoomusicology is the study of the music of non-human animals, or the musical aspects of sounds produced by non-human animals.", "As George Herzog (1941) asked, \"do animals have music?\"", "François-Bernard Mâche's ''Musique, mythe, nature, ou les Dauphins d'Arion'' (1983), a study of \"ornitho-musicology\" using a technique of Nicolas Ruwet's ''Language, musique, poésie'' (1972) paradigmatic segmentation analysis, shows that bird songs are organised according to a repetition-transformation principle.", "Jean-Jacques Nattiez (1990), argues that \"in the last analysis, it is a human being who decides what is and is not musical, even when the sound is not of human origin.", "If we acknowledge that sound is not organised and conceptualised (that is, made to form music) merely by its producer, but by the mind that perceives it, then music is uniquely human.", "\"=== Ethnomusicology ===Ethnomusicologist Frances Densmore recording Blackfoot chief Mountain Chief for the Bureau of American Ethnology (1916)In the West, much of the history of music that is taught deals with the Western civilization's art music, known as classical music.", "The history of music in non-Western cultures (\"world music\" or the field of \"ethnomusicology\") is also taught in Western universities.", "This includes the documented classical traditions of Asian countries outside the influence of Western Europe, as well as the folk or indigenous music of various other cultures.", "Popular or folk styles of music in non-Western countries varied from culture to culture, and period to period.", "Different cultures emphasised different instruments, techniques, singing styles and uses for music.", "Music has been used for entertainment, ceremonies, rituals, religious purposes and for practical and artistic communication.", "Non-Western music has also been used for propaganda purposes, as was the case with Chinese opera during the Cultural Revolution.There is a host of music classifications for non-Western music, many of which are caught up in the argument over the definition of music.", "Among the largest of these is the division between classical music (or \"art\" music), and popular music (or commercial music – including non-Western styles of rock, country, and pop music-related styles).", "Some genres do not fit neatly into one of these \"big two\" classifications, (such as folk music, world music, or jazz-related music).As world cultures have come into greater global contact, their indigenous musical styles have often merged with other styles, which produces new styles.", "For example, the United States bluegrass style contains elements from Anglo-Irish, Scottish, Irish, German and African instrumental and vocal traditions, which were able to fuse in the United States' multi-ethnic \"melting pot\" society.", "Some types of world music contain a mixture of non-Western indigenous styles with Western pop music elements.", "Genres of music are determined as much by tradition and presentation as by the actual music.", "Some works, like George Gershwin's ''Rhapsody in Blue'', are claimed by both jazz and classical music, while Gershwin's ''Porgy and Bess'' and Leonard Bernstein's ''West Side Story'' are claimed by both opera and the Broadway musical tradition.", "Many music festivals for non-Western music, include bands and singers from a particular musical genre, such as world music.Indian music, for example, is one of the oldest and longest living types of music, and is still widely heard and performed in South Asia, as well as internationally (especially since the 1960s).", "Indian music has mainly three forms of classical music, Hindustani, Carnatic, and Dhrupad styles.", "It has also a large repertoire of styles, which involve only percussion music such as the talavadya performances famous in South India." ], [ "Therapy", "A music therapist from a \"Blues in the Schools\" program plays harmonica with a US Navy sailor at a Naval Therapy Center.Music therapy is an interpersonal process in which a trained therapist uses music and all of its facets—physical, emotional, mental, social, aesthetic, and spiritual—to help clients to improve or maintain their health.", "In some instances, the client's needs are addressed directly through music; in others they are addressed through the relationships that develop between the client and therapist.", "Music therapy is used with individuals of all ages and with a variety of conditions, including: psychiatric disorders, medical problems, physical disabilities, sensory impairments, developmental disabilities, substance abuse issues, communication disorders, interpersonal problems, and aging.", "It is also used to improve learning, build self-esteem, reduce stress, support physical exercise, and facilitate a host of other health-related activities.", "Music therapists may encourage clients to sing, play instruments, create songs, or do other musical activities.In the 10th century, the philosopher Al-Farabi described how vocal music can stimulate the feelings and souls of listeners.", "Music has long been used to help people deal with their emotions.", "In the 17th century, the scholar Robert Burton's ''The Anatomy of Melancholy'' argued that music and dance were critical in treating mental illness, especially melancholia.", "He noted that music has an \"excellent power ...to expel many other diseases\" and he called it \"a sovereign remedy against despair and melancholy.\"", "He pointed out that in Antiquity, Canus, a Rhodian fiddler, used music to \"make a melancholy man merry, ...a lover more enamoured, a religious man more devout.\"", "In the Ottoman Empire, mental illnesses were treated with music.", "In November 2006, Michael J. Crawford and his colleagues also found that music therapy helped schizophrenic patients." ], [ "See also", "* Glossary of music terminology* Lists of musicians* List of musicology topics* Music and emotion* Music archaeology* Music history* Music-specific disorders" ], [ "References", "=== Notes ====== Citations ====== Sources ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * Small, Christopher (1977).", "''Music, Society, Education''.", "John Calder Publishers, London.", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Grove Music Online — online version of ''The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians''.", "* All ten volumes of the ''Garland Encyclopedia of World Music'' * Dolmetsch free online music dictionary, complete, with references to a list of specialised music dictionaries (by continent, by instrument, by genre, etc.)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mode" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Mode''' ( meaning \"manner, tune, measure, due measure, rhythm, melody\") may refer to:" ], [ "Arts and entertainment", "* ''MO''D''E (magazine)'', a defunct U.S. women's fashion magazine * ''Mode'' magazine, a fictional fashion magazine which is the setting for the ABC series ''Ugly Betty''* ''Mode'' (video game), a 1996 video game * Mode Records, a record label* Mode Media, a defunct digital media company* ''Mode'' series, a quartet of novels by Piers Anthony* Modern Organization for Dance Evolvement, known as MODE, a 1970s modern dance organisation in New York* ''Mode'', a defunct Indonesian women's magazine===Music===* Mode (music), a system of musical tonality involving a type of scale coupled with a set of characteristic melodic behaviors** Modus (medieval music)*** Gregorian mode, a system of modes used in Gregorian chant (as opposed to ancient Greek modes or Byzantine octoechos)* \"Mode\", a song by PRhyme from the 2015 soundtrack ''Southpaw: Music from and Inspired by the Motion Picture''* ''The Mode'' (album), a 1962 album by Sonny Red" ], [ "Computing", "* Data types in some programming languages* MODE (command), a DOS and Windows command line utility for the configuration of devices and the console* Mode (user interface), distinct method of operation within a computer system, in which the same user input can produce different results depending on the state of the system** A game mode, a mode used as a game mechanic in video games** Digital camera modes** Direct mode, a software configuration where text input is processed outside of an application** Immediate mode (computer graphics), a graphic library where commands produce direct rendering on the display* Modes (Unix), permissions given to users and groups to access files and folders on Unix hosts" ], [ "Language", "* Grammatical mood, also known as mode, a category of verbal inflections that expresses an attitude of mind** Imperative mood** Subjunctive mood* Mode (literature), the general category of a literary work, e.g.", "the pastoral mode* Rhetorical modes, a category of discourse** Narrative mode, the type of method voice and point of view used to convey a narrative** Modes of persuasion, oratorical devices" ], [ "Mathematics", "* Mode (statistics), the most common value among a group* Modes of convergence, a property of a series" ], [ "Places", "* Mode, Banmauk, a village in Burma* Mode, Illinois, an unincorporated community in Shelby County, Illinois, United States" ], [ "Science", "* Mode (electromagnetism)** Hybrid mode, such as longitudinal-section mode* Normal mode, patterns of vibration in acoustics, electromagnetic theory, etc.", "** Longitudinal mode** Transverse mode** Global mode* Quasinormal mode, a type of energy dissipation of a perturbed object or field* Starvation mode, a biological condition" ], [ "Other uses", "* Amateur radio modes* Fashion* IL Mode, a former name of Bærum SK, a Norwegian association football club* Mode of transport, a means of transportation* A technocomplex of stone tools* Mode of production, a Marxist term for way of producing goods*, several ships of the Swedish Navy" ], [ "See also", "* Asynchronous Transfer Mode, a method of digital communication* Block cipher mode of operation, in cryptography* ''The Devil's Mode'', a collection of short stories by Anthony Burgess* Edna Mode, a fictional character in Pixar's animated superhero film ''The Incredibles''* ''Explosive Mode'', a 1998 album by San Quinn and Messy Marv* * Modal (disambiguation)* Modality (disambiguation)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mouse" ], [ "Introduction", "House mouse (''Mus musculus'')Phase specific vocalizations of male mice at the initial encounter during the courtship sequence poneA '''mouse''' (: '''mice''') is a small rodent.", "Characteristically, mice are known to have a pointed snout, small rounded ears, a body-length scaly tail, and a high breeding rate.", "The best known mouse species is the common house mouse (''Mus musculus'').", "Mice are also popular as pets.", "In some places, certain kinds of field mice are locally common.", "They are known to invade homes for food and shelter.Mice are typically distinguished from rats by their size.", "Generally, when a muroid rodent is discovered, its common name includes the term ''mouse'' if it is smaller, or ''rat'' if it is larger.", "The common terms ''rat'' and ''mouse'' are not taxonomically specific.", "Typical mice are classified in the genus ''Mus'', but the term ''mouse'' is not confined to members of ''Mus'' and can also apply to species from other genera such as the deer mouse (''Peromyscus'').Domestic mice sold as pets often differ substantially in size from the common house mouse.", "This is attributable to breeding and different conditions in the wild.", "The best-known strain of mouse is the white lab mouse.", "It has more uniform traits that are appropriate to its use in research.Cats, wild dogs, foxes, birds of prey, snakes and certain kinds of arthropods have been known to prey upon mice.", "Despite this, mice populations remain plentiful.", "Due to its remarkable adaptability to almost any environment, the mouse is one of the most successful mammalian genera living on Earth today.In certain contexts, mice can be considered vermin.", "Vermin are a major source of crop damage, as they are known to cause structural damage and spread disease.", "Mice spread disease through their feces and are often carriers of parasites.", "In North America, breathing dust that has come in contact with mouse excrement has been linked to hantavirus, which may lead to hantavirus pulmonary syndrome (HPS).Primarily nocturnal animals, mice compensate for their poor eyesight with a keen sense of hearing.", "They depend on their sense of smell to locate food and avoid predators.In the wild, mice are known to build intricate burrows.", "These burrows have long entrances and are equipped with escape tunnels.", "In at least one species, the architectural design of a burrow is a genetic trait." ], [ "Types of animals known as mice", "The most common mice are murines, in the same clade as common rats.", "They are murids, along with gerbils and other close relatives.", "*order Dasyuromorphia**marsupial mice, smaller species of Dasyuridae*order Rodentia**suborder Castorimorpha*** family Heteromyidae**** Kangaroo mouse, genus ''Microdipodops''**** Pocket mouse, tribe Perognathinae**** Spiny pocket mouse, genus ''Heteromys''**suborder Anomaluromorpha*** family Anomaluridae**** flying mouse**suborder Myomorpha*** family Cricetidae**** Brush mouse, ''Peromyscus boylii''**** Florida mouse**** Golden mouse**** American harvest mouse, genus ''Reithrodontomys''**** Voles Often referred to as \"Field or Meadow mice\"*** family Muridae**** typical mice, the genus ''Mus''**** Field mice, genus ''Apodemus''***** Wood mouse, ''Apodemus sylvaticus''***** Yellow-necked mouse, ''Apodemus flavicollis''**** Large Mindoro forest mouse**** Big-eared hopping mouse**** Luzon montane forest mouse**** Forrest's mouse**** Pebble-mound mouse**** Bolam's mouse**** Eurasian harvest mouse, genus ''Micromys''" ], [ "Emotions", "Researchers at the Max Planck Institute of Neurobiology have confirmed that mice have a range of facial expressions.", "They used machine vision to spot familiar human emotions like pleasure, disgust, nausea, pain, and fear." ], [ "Diet", "In nature, mice are largely herbivores, consuming any kind of fruit or grain from plants.", "However, mice adapt well to urban areas and are known for eating almost all types of food scraps.", "In captivity, mice are commonly fed commercial pelleted mouse diet.", "These diets are nutritionally complete, but they still need a large variety of vegetables.Despite popular belief, most mice do not have a special appetite for cheese.", "They will only eat cheese for lack of better options." ], [ "Human use", "=== As experimental animals ===Knockout mouse (left) and normal mouse (right)Mice are common experimental animals in laboratory research of biology and psychology fields primarily because they are mammals, and also because they share a high degree of homology with humans.", "They are the most commonly used mammalian model organism, more common than rats.", "The mouse genome has been sequenced, and virtually all mouse genes have human homologs.", "The mouse has approximately 2.7 billion base pairs and 20 pairs of chromosomes.They can also be manipulated in ways that are illegal with humans, although animal rights activists often object.", "A knockout mouse is a genetically modified mouse that has had one or more of its genes made inoperable through a gene knockout.", "Experimental mouse model systems include mouse models of colorectal and intestinal cancer, mouse models of Down syndrome and mouse models of breast cancer metastasis.Reasons for common selection of mice are that they are small and inexpensive, have a widely varied diet, are easily maintained, and can reproduce quickly.", "Several generations of mice can be observed in a relatively short time.", "Mice are generally very docile if raised from birth and given sufficient human contact.", "However, certain strains have been known to be quite temperamental.=== As pets ===Pet miceMany people buy mice as companion pets.", "They can be playful, loving and can grow used to being handled.", "Like pet rats, pet mice should not be left unsupervised outside as they have many natural predators, including (but not limited to) birds, snakes, lizards, cats, and dogs.", "Male mice tend to have a stronger odor than the females.", "However, mice are careful groomers and as pets they never need bathing.", "Well looked-after mice can make ideal pets.", "Some common mouse care products are:* Cage – Usually a hamster or gerbil cage, but a variety of special mouse cages are now available.", "Most should have a secure door.", "* Food – Special pelleted and seed-based food is available.", "Mice can generally eat most rodent food (for rats, mice, hamsters, gerbils, etc.", ")* Bedding – Usually made of hardwood pulp, such as aspen, sometimes from shredded, uninked paper or recycled virgin wood pulp.", "Using corn husk bedding is avoided because it promotes ''Aspergillus'' fungus, and can grow mold once it gets wet, which is rough on their feet.=== As feed ===\"Pinkie\" mice for sale as reptile feedMice are a staple in the diet of many small carnivores.", "In various countries mice are used as feed for pets such as snakes, lizards, frogs, tarantulas, and birds of prey, and many pet stores carry mice for this purpose.", "Such mice are sold in various sizes and with various amounts of fur.", "Mice without fur are easier for the animal to consume; however, mice with fur may be more convincing as animal feed.=== As food ===Humans have eaten mice since prehistoric times.", "In Victorian Britain, fried mice were still given to children as a folk remedy for bed-wetting; while Jared Diamond reports creamed mice being used in England as a dietary supplement during Second World War rationing.", "Mice are a delicacy throughout eastern Zambia and northern Malawi, where they are a seasonal source of protein.", "Field rat is a popular food in Vietnam and neighboring countries.", "In many countries, however, mouse is no longer a food item.Prescribed cures in Ancient Egypt included mice as medicine.", "In Ancient Egypt, when infants were ill, mice were eaten as treatment by their mothers.", "It was believed that mouse eating by the mother would help heal the baby who was ill." ], [ "See also", "* Fe, Fi, Fo, Fum, and Phooey, mice who orbited the Moon a record 75 times in 1972 on Apollo 17* List of fictional rodents* Mouse brain development timeline* Mousetrap* Musophobia (fear of mice)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Fancy Mice: extensive information about breeding mice and keeping them as pets* High-resolution images of cross sections of mice brains* History of the mouse (with focus on their use in genetics studies)* Mouse tracks: How to identify mouse tracks" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Multics" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Multics''' (\"'''MULTiplexed Information and Computing Service'''\") is an influential early time-sharing operating system based on the concept of a single-level memory.", "Nathan Gregory writes that Multics \"has influenced all modern operating systems since, from microcomputers to mainframes.", "\"Initial planning and development for Multics started in 1964, in Cambridge, Massachusetts.", "Originally it was a cooperative project led by MIT (Project MAC with Fernando Corbató) along with General Electric and Bell Labs.", "It was developed on the GE 645 computer, which was specially designed for it; the first one was delivered to MIT in January 1967.GE offered their earlier 635 systems with an early timesharing system known as \"Mark I\" and intended to offer the 645 with Multics as a larger successor.", "Bell withdrew from the project in 1969 as it became clear it would not deliver a working system in the short term.", "Shortly thereafter, GE decided to exit the computer industry entirely and sold the division to Honeywell in 1970.Honeywell offered Multics commercially, but with limited success.Multics has numerous features intended to ensure high availability so that it would support a computing utility similar to the telephone and electricity utilities.", "Modular hardware structure and software architecture are used to achieve this.", "The system can grow in size by simply adding more of the appropriate resource, be it computing power, main memory, or disk storage.", "Separate access control lists on every file provide flexible information sharing, but complete privacy when needed.", "Multics has a number of standard mechanisms to allow engineers to analyze the performance of the system, as well as a number of adaptive performance optimization mechanisms.Due to its many novel and valuable ideas, Multics has had a significant influence on computer science despite its faults.", "Its most lasting effect on the computer industry was to inspire the creation of Unix, which carried forward many Multics features, but was able to run on less-expensive hardware.", "Unix was developed at Bell to allow their Multics team to continue their research using smaller machines, first a PDP-7 and ultimately the PDP-11." ], [ "Novel ideas", "Multics Commands reference manualMultics implements a single-level store for data access, discarding the clear distinction between files (called ''segments'' in Multics) and ''process memory''.", "The memory of a process consists solely of segments that were mapped into its address space.", "To read or write to them, the process simply uses normal central processing unit (CPU) instructions, and the operating system takes care of making sure that all the modifications were saved to disk.", "In POSIX terminology, it is as if every file were mmap()ed; however, in Multics there is no concept of ''process memory'', separate from the memory used to hold mapped-in files, as Unix has.", "''All'' memory in the system is part of ''some'' segment, which appears in the file system; this includes the temporary scratch memory of the process, its kernel stack, etc.Segments are limited to 256 kilowords, just over 1 MB, because Multics hardware had 18-bit word addresses for the content of a segment.", "Larger files are \"multisegment files\" and are handled differently.", "The 256 kW limit was rarely encountered in practice, because at the time, one megabyte of memory was prohibitively expensive.Another major new idea of Multics was dynamic linking, in which a running process can make external routines available by adding the segments containing them to its address space.", "This allows applications to always use the latest version of any external routine, since those routines are kept in other segments, which are dynamically linked only when a process first attempts to begin execution in them.", "Since different processes can use different search rules, different users can end up using different versions of external routines.", "Equally importantly, with the appropriate settings in the Multics security facilities, the code in the other segment can gain access to data structures maintained in a different process.", "Dynamic linking in Multics does not require special Dynamic-link libraries (DLLs); a program can dynamically link to any executable segment to which it has access rights.Thus, to interact with an application running in part as a daemon (in another process), a user's process simply performs a normal procedure-call instruction to a code segment to which it had dynamically linked (a code segment that implemented some operation associated with the daemon).", "The code in that segment can then modify data maintained and used in the daemon.", "When the action necessary to commence the request is completed, a simple procedure return instruction returns control of the user's process to the user's code.Multics also supports extremely aggressive on-line reconfiguration: central processing units, memory banks, disk drives, etc.", "can be added and removed while the system continues operating.", "At the MIT system, where most early software development was done, it was common practice to split the multiprocessor system into two separate systems during off-hours by incrementally removing enough components to form a second working system, leaving the rest still running for the original logged-in users.", "System software development testing could be done on the second system, then the components of the second system were added back to the main user system, without ever having shut it down.", "Multics supports multiple CPUs; it is one of the earliest multiprocessor systems.Multics is the first major operating system to be designed as a secure system from the outset.", "Despite this, early versions of Multics were compromised repeatedly.", "This led to further work that makes the system more secure, and prefigured modern security engineering techniques.", "Break-ins became very rare once the second-generation hardware base was adopted; it has hardware support for ring-oriented security, a multilevel refinement of the concept of master mode.", "A US Air Force tiger team project tested Multics security in 1973 under the codeword ZARF.", "On 28 May 1997, the American National Security Agency declassified this use of the codeword ZARF.Multics is the first operating system to provide a hierarchical file system, and file names can be of almost arbitrary length and syntax.", "A given file or directory can have multiple names (typically a long and short form), and symbolic links between directories are also supported.", "Multics is the first to use the now-standard concept of per-process stacks in the kernel, with a separate stack for each security ring.", "It is also the first to have a command processor implemented as ordinary user code – an idea later used in the Unix shell.", "It is also one of the first written in a high-level language (Multics PL/I), after the Burroughs MCP system written in ESPOL, an expanded version of ALGOL.The deployment of Multics into secure computing environments also spurred the development of innovative supporting applications.", "In 1975, Morrie Gasser of MITRE Corporation developed a pronounceable random word generator to address password requirements of installations such as the Air Force Data Services Center (AFDSC) processing classified information.", "To avoid guessable passwords, the AFDSC decided to assign passwords but concluded the manual assignment required too much administrative overhead.", "Thus, a random word generator was researched and then developed in PL/I.", "Instead of being based on phonemes, the system employed phonemic segments (second order approximations of English) and other rules to enhance pronounceability and randomness, which was statistically modeled against other approaches.", "A descendant of this generator was added to Multics during Project Guardian." ], [ "Project history", "In 1964, Multics was developed initially for the GE-645 mainframe, a 36-bit system.", "GE's computer business, including Multics, was taken over by Honeywell in 1970; around 1973, Multics is supported on the Honeywell 6180 machines, which included security improvements including hardware support for protection rings.Bell Labs pulled out of the project in 1969; some of the people who had worked on it there went on to create the Unix system.", "Multics development continued at MIT and General Electric.", "At MIT in 1975, use of Multics was declining and did not recover by 1976 to prior levels.", "Finally by slashing prices, MIT managed to lure users back to Multics in 1978.Honeywell continued system development until 1985.About 80 multimillion-dollar sites were installed, at universities, industry, and government sites.", "The French university system had several installations in the early 1980s.", "After Honeywell stopped supporting Multics, users migrated to other systems like Unix.In 1985, Multics was issued certification as a B2 level secure operating system using the Trusted Computer System Evaluation Criteria from the National Computer Security Center (NCSC) a division of the NSA, the first operating system evaluated to this level.Multics was distributed from 1975 to 2000 by Groupe Bull in Europe, and by Bull HN Information Systems Inc. in the United States.", "In 2006, Bull SAS released the source code of Multics versions MR10.2, MR11.0, MR12.0, MR12.1, MR12.2, MR12.3, MR12.4 & MR12.5 under a free software license.The last known Multics installation running natively on Honeywell hardware was shut down on October 30, 2000, at the Canadian Department of National Defence in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada.===Current status===In 2006 Bull HN released the source code for MR12.5, the final 1992 Multics release, to MIT.", "Most of the system is now available as free software with the exception of some optional pieces such as TCP/IP.In 2014, Multics was successfully run on current hardware using an emulator created by Multicians Harry Reed and Charles Anthony.", "The 1.0 release of the emulator is available .", "Release 12.6f of Multics accompanies the 1.0 release of the emulator, and adds a few new features, including command line recall and editing using the video system." ], [ "Commands", "The following is a list of programs and commands for common computing tasks that are supported by the Multics command-line interface.=== File and directory access commands ===* () - change the working directory* () - create a directory* () - copy files* () - list files and directories* () - print the contents of a text file* () - print the working directory* () - move a file or directory to a different directory* () - rename a file without moving it=== Text editors ===* - a simple line editor* - Multics Emacs* === Document formatters ===* ()=== Compilers and interpreters ===* * * ()* * === Email ===* ()* ()* ()=== On-line doocumentation ===* === Scripting ===* * === Data processing ===* () - simulator to run GCOS programs* , - sorting and merging of text and binary files=== Login sessions ===* * === Active functions ===The Multics shell language supports \"active functions\", which are similar to commands, but which return a string value.", "An active function is called by putting the active function name and the arguments to the active function in square brackets and .", "The string returned by the active function is substituted into the command in place of the call to the active function.", "For example, when the command is processed, the active function is run; it returns the full path of the working directory, which is substituted into the command, so that the command prints the working directory.Some programs can act either as commands or as active functions; when run as a command, its result is printed, and when run as an active function, its result is returned as a string.Some common active functions are:* - returns the smallest integer greater than or equal to the argument* - returns the largest integer less than or equal to the argument* () - returns the home directory* * * - returns the integer part of the argument* () - returns the working directory" ], [ "Retrospective observations", "Peter H. Salus, author of a book covering Unix's early years, stated one position: \"With Multics they tried to have a much more versatile and flexible operating system, and it failed miserably\".", "This position, however, is said to have been discredited in the computing community because many of Multics' technical innovations are used in modern commercial computing systems.The permanently resident kernel of Multics, a system derided in its day as being too large and complex, was 135 KB of code.", "The first MIT GE-645 had 512 kilowords of memory (2 MiB), a truly enormous amount at the time, and the kernel used a moderate portion of Multics main memory.The entire system, including the operating system and the complex PL/I compiler, user commands, and subroutine libraries, consists of about 1500 source modules.", "These average roughly 200 lines of source code each, and compile to a total of roughly 4.5 MiB of procedure code, which was fairly large by the standards of the day.Multics compilers generally optimise more for code density than CPU performance, for example using small sub-routines called ''operators'' for short standard code sequences, which makes comparison of object code size with modern systems less useful.", "High code density is a good optimisation choice for Multics as a multi-user system with expensive main memory.During its commercial product history, it was often commented internally that the Honeywell Information Systems (HIS) (later Honeywell-Bull) sales and marketing staff were more familiar with and comfortable making the business case for Honeywell's other computer line, the DPS 6 running GCOS.", "The DPS-6 and GCOS was a well-regarded and reliable platform for inventory, accounting, word processing, and vertical market applications, such as banking, where it had a sizeable customer base.", "In contrast, the full potential of Multics’ flexibility for even mundane tasks was not easy to comprehend in that era and its features were generally outside the skill set of contemporary business analysts.", "The scope of this disconnect was concretized by an anecdote conveyed by Paul Stachour, CNO/CSC:When American Telephone and Telegraph was changing its name to just AT&T in 1983, a staffer from Honeywell’s legal department showed up and asked a Multician if he could arrange to have the name changed in all of their computerized documents.", "When asked when the process could be completed, the Multician replied, \"It's done.\"", "The staffer repeated that he needed ''hundreds perhaps thousands'' of documents updated.", "The Multician explained that he had executed a global search and replace as the staffer was speaking, and the task was in fact completed." ], [ "Influence on other projects", "===Unix===The design and features of Multics influenced the Unix operating system, which was originally written by two Multics programmers, Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie.", "Influence of Multics on Unix is evident in many areas, including the hierarchical file system, redirection, the shell, and the naming of some commands.", "But the internal design philosophy is quite different, focusing on keeping the system small and simple, and so correcting some perceived deficiencies of Multics because of its high resource demands on the limited computer hardware of the time.The name ''Unix'' (originally ''Unics'') is itself a pun on ''Multics''.", "The ''U'' in Unix is rumored to stand for ''uniplexed'' as opposed to the ''multiplexed'' of Multics, further underscoring the designers' rejections of Multics' complexity in favor of a more straightforward and workable approach for smaller computers.", "(Garfinkel and Abelson cite an alternative origin: Peter Neumann at Bell Labs, watching a demonstration of the prototype, suggested the pun name UNICS – pronounced \"eunuchs\" – as a \"castrated Multics\", although Dennis Ritchie is said to have denied this.", ")Ken Thompson, in a transcribed 2007 interview with Peter Seibel refers to Multics as \"overdesigned and overbuilt and over everything.", "It was close to unusable.", "They Massachusetts Institute of Technology still claim it's a monstrous success, but it just clearly wasn't\".", "On the influence of Multics on Unix, Thompson stated that \"the things that I liked enough (about Multics) to actually take were the hierarchical file system and the shell — a separate process that you can replace with some other process\".Dennis Ritchie wrote that the design of UNIX was influenced by CTSS.===Other operating systems===The Prime Computer operating system, PRIMOS, was referred to as \"Multics in a shoebox\" by William Poduska, a founder of the company.", "Poduska later moved on to found Apollo Computer, whose AEGIS and later Domain/OS operating systems, sometimes called \"Multics in a matchbox\", extends the Multics design to a networked graphics workstation environment.The Stratus VOS operating system of Stratus Computer (now Stratus Technologies) is very strongly influenced by Multics, and both its external user interface and internal structure bear many close resemblances to the older project.", "The high-reliability, availability, and security features of Multics are extended in Stratus VOS to support a new line of fault tolerant computer systems supporting secure, reliable transaction processing.", "Stratus VOS is the most directly related descendant of Multics still in active development and production usage today.General Motors' Multiple Console Time Sharing System (MCTS) for the Control Data Corporation STAR-100 computer was based on Multics.The protection architecture of Multics, restricting the ability of code at one level of the system to access resources at another, was adopted as the basis for the security features of ICL's VME operating system.The Edinburgh Multiple Access System (EMAS) draws particularly on the one-level store concept used by Multics, providing access to files only by mapping them into memory.", "All memory space is associated with a segment." ], [ "See also", "* Time-sharing system evolution* Peter J. Denning* Jack B. Dennis* Robert Fano – director of Project MAC at MIT (1963–1968)* Robert M. Graham (computer scientist)* J. C. R. Licklider – director of Project MAC at MIT (1968–1971)* Peter G. Neumann* Elliott Organick* Louis Pouzin – introduced the term ''shell'' for the command language used in Multics* Jerome H. Saltzer* Roger R. Schell* Glenda Schroeder – implemented the first command line user interface shell and proposed the first email system with Pouzin and Crisman* Victor A. Vyssotsky" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "The literature contains a large number of papers about Multics, and various components of it; a fairly complete list is available at the Multics Bibliography page and on a second, briefer 1994 Multics bibliography (text format).", "The most important and/or informative ones are listed below.", "* F. J. Corbató, V. A. Vyssotsky, ''Introduction and Overview of the Multics System'' (AFIPS 1965) is a good introduction to the system.", "* F. J. Corbató, C. T. Clingen, J. H. Saltzer, ''Multics – The First Seven Years'' (AFIPS, 1972) is an excellent review, written after a considerable period of use and improvement over the initial efforts.", "* J. J. Donovan, S. Madnick, Operating Systems, is a fundamental read on operating systems.", "* J. J. Donovan, Systems Programming, is a good introduction into systems programming and operating systems.===Technical details===* Jerome H. Saltzer, '' Introduction to Multics'' (MIT Project MAC, 1974) is a considerably longer introduction to the system, geared towards actual users.", "* Elliott I. Organick, ''The Multics System: An Examination of Its Structure'' (MIT Press, 1972) is the standard work on the system, although it documents an early version, and some features described therein never appeared in the actual system.", "* V. A. Vyssotsky, F. J. Corbató, R. M. Graham, '' Structure of the Multics Supervisor'' (AFIPS 1965) describes the basic internal structure of the Multics kernel.", "* Jerome H. Saltzer, '' Traffic Control in a Multiplexed Computer System'' (MIT Project MAC, June 1966) is the original description of the idea of switching kernel stacks; one of the classic papers of computer science.", "* R. C. Daley, P. G. Neumann, '' A General Purpose File System for Secondary Storage'' (AFIPS, 1965) describes the file system, including the access control and backup mechanisms.", "* R. J. Feiertag, E. I. Organick, '' The Multics Input/Output System''.", "Describes the lower levels of the I/O implementation.", "* A. Bensoussan, C. T. Clingen, R. C. Daley, '' The Multics Virtual Memory: Concepts and Design'', (ACM SOSP, 1969) describes the Multics memory system in some detail.", "* Paul Green, '' Multics Virtual Memory – Tutorial and Reflections'' is a good in-depth look at the Multics storage system.", "* Roger R. Schell, ''Dynamic Reconfiguration in a Modular Computer System'' (MIT Project MAC, 1971) describes the reconfiguration mechanisms.===Security===* Paul A. Karger, Roger R. Schell, '' Multics Security Evaluation: Vulnerability Analysis'' (Air Force Electronic Systems Division, 1974) describes the classic attacks on Multics security by a \"tiger team\".", "* Jerome H. Saltzer, Michael D. Schroeder, '' The Protection of Information in Computer Systems'' (Proceedings of the IEEE, September 1975) describes the fundamentals behind the first round of security upgrades; another classic paper.", "* M. D. Schroeder, D. D. Clark, J. H. Saltzer, D. H. Wells. ''", "Final Report of the Multics Kernel Design Project'' (MIT LCS, 1978) describes the security upgrades added to produce an even more improved version.", "* Paul A. Karger, Roger R. Schell, '' Thirty Years Later: Lessons from the Multics Security Evaluation'' (IBM, 2002) is an interesting retrospective which compares actual deployed security in today's hostile environment with what was demonstrated to be possible decades ago.", "It concludes that Multics offered considerably stronger security than most systems commercially available in 2002." ], [ "External links", "* multicians.org is a comprehensive site with a lot of material** Multics papers online** Multics glossary** Myths discusses numerous myths about Multics in some detail, including the myths that it failed, that it was big and slow, as well as a few understandable misapprehensions** Multics security** Unix and Multics** Multics general info and FAQ Includes extensive overview of other software systems influenced by Multics* Open source emulator for the GE Large Systems / Honeywell / Bull 600/6000‑series mainframe computers* Honeywell, Inc., MULTICS records, 1965–1982.Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota.", "Multics development records include the second MULTICS System Programmers Manual; MULTICS Technical Bulletins that describe procedures, applications, and problems, especially concerning security; and returned \"Request for Comments Forms\" that include technical papers and thesis proposals.", "* Current Multics development home page* Official historical source code archive at MIT* * * Multics at Universitaet Mainz* Various scanned Multics manuals * , a critical review of Multicians.org, plus a capsule history of Multics." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Marxist film theory" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Marxist film theory''' is an approach to film theory centered on concepts that make possible a political understanding of the medium.An individual studying Marxist representations in a film will take special interest in its representations of political hierarchy and social injustices." ], [ "Overview", "Sergei Eisenstein and many other Soviet filmmakers in the 1920s expressed ideas of Marxism through film.", "In fact, the Hegelian dialectic was considered best displayed in film editing through the Kuleshov Experiment and the development of montage.While this structuralist approach to Marxism and filmmaking was used, the more vociferous complaint that the Russian filmmakers had was with the narrative structure of the cinema of the United States.Eisenstein's solution was to shun narrative structure by eliminating the individual protagonist and tell stories where the action is moved by the group and the story is told through a clash of one image against the next (whether in composition, motion, or idea) so that the audience is never lulled into believing that they are watching something that has not been worked over.Eisenstein himself, however, was accused by the Soviet authorities under Joseph Stalin of \"formalist error\", of highlighting form as a thing of beauty instead of portraying the worker nobly.French Marxist film makers, such as Jean-Luc Godard, employed radical editing and choice of subject matter as well as subversive parody to heighten class consciousness and promote Marxist ideas.Situationist film maker Guy Debord, author of ''The Society of the Spectacle'', began his film ''In girum imus nocte et consumimur igni'' with a radical critique of the spectator who goes to the cinema to forget about their dispossessed daily life.Situationist film makers produced a number of important films, where the only contribution by the situationist film cooperative was the sound-track.", "In ''Can dialectics break bricks?''", "(1973), a Chinese Kung Fu film was transformed by redubbing into an epistle on state capitalism and Proletarian revolution.", "The intellectual technique of using capitalism's own structures against itself is known as détournement.Marxist film theory has developed from these precise and historical beginnings and is now sometimes viewed in a wider way to refer to any power relationships or structures within a moving image text.", "Those who accurately study Marxist film theory do so not to promote Marx's ideals, but to study them and therefore gain a wider understanding of how onscreen interactions affect societal ideals both regionally and internationally." ], [ "See also", "* Karl Marx in film* Screen theory, a Marxist-psychoanalytic film theory associated with the British journal ''Screen'' in the 1970s" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mars (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Mars''' is a planet in the Solar System.", "'''Mars''' also commonly refers to:*Mars (mythology), the Ancient Roman god of war, equivalent to the Greek god ''Ares''*Mars Inc., a confectioner and food company**Mars (chocolate bar), produced by Mars, Inc.'''Mars''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Biology and medicine", "*MARS (gene), a human enzyme*Medication Administration Record Sheet*MARS, the Molecular Adsorbents Recirculation System for liver dialysis" ], [ "Geography", "*Mars Glacier, Alexander Island, Antarctica===Canada===*MaRS Discovery District, a scientific research centre in Toronto*McGill Arctic Research Station, Nunavut, Canada===France===*Mars, Ardèche, France*Mars-sous-Bourcq, Ardennes, France*Mars, Gard, France*Mars, Loire, France*Mars-la-Tour, Meurthe-et-Moselle, France*Mars-sur-Allier, Nièvre, France===United States===*Monterey Accelerated Research System, a cabled-based ocean observatory in Monterey Bay, California*Mars, California, a populated place*Mars Bluff, South Carolina, an unincorporated community*Outingdale, California, formerly called Mars, a populated place*Le Mars, Iowa, a city in and the county seat of Plymouth County*Mars Hill, Maine, a town*Mars, Nebraska, a ghost town*Mars, Pennsylvania, a borough*Mars, Texas, a ghost town===Ukraine===*Mars, Chernihiv Oblast, a village on North of Ukraine" ], [ "Media, music and arts", "===Fictional entities===*Mars (''Black Clover''), a character in ''Black Clover''*Mars (''Biker Mice from Mars''), the planet as it appears in ''Biker Mice from Mars''*Military Armament Research Syndicate, a fictional organization in the G.I.", "Joe universe*Commander Mars, a ''Pokémon'' character*Mars or Scarface, an ''Ultimate Muscle'' character*The Megaversity Association for Reenactments and Simulations, a fictional association in ''The Big U''*Mars the Dog, canine star of ''A Dog's Breakfast''===Film and television===*''Mars'' (1930 film), an animated short film in the Oswald the Lucky Rabbit series*''Mars'' (1968 film), a soviet science education/fiction film*''Mars'' (1997 film), a film starring Shari Belafonte*''Mars'' (1998 film), a film starring Olivier Gruner*''Mars'' (2004 film), a Russian film set in Mars, a small town on the Black Sea*''Mars'' (2010 film), a 2010 animated film*''Mars'' (American TV series), a 2016 docudrama science fiction series*''Mars'' (Taiwanese TV series), a 2004 drama series based on the manga by Fuyumi Soryo*''Mars'' (talk show), a female talk show on GMA News TV*''Mars'', an upcoming animated film by The Whitest Kids U' Know*''Mars: Zero's Rebellion'', a 2024 drama series starring Shunsuke Michieda===Literature===*''Mars'' (Fritz Zorn), a 1976 autobiographical essay by Fritz Angst*''Mars'' (comics), a comic book series*''Mars'' (manga), a 1996 manga series by Fuyumi Soryo*''Mars'' trilogy, three science fiction novels by Kim Stanley Robinson*''Mars'', a novel by Ben Bova in the ''Grand Tour'' series*''Mars'', 1976 manga series by Mitsuteru Yokoyama*''The Mars Project'', a non-fiction science book by Wernher von Braun*''Project Mars: A Technical Tale'', a science fiction novel by Wernher von Braun===Music albums===*''Mars'' (B'z album)*''Mars'' (Gackt album)*''Mars'', disk two of the Red Hot Chili Peppers double album ''Stadium Arcadium''*''Mars'', an album by Sinkane===Music groups===*Mars Music, a now defunct U.S. music store chain*Mars (band), a No Wave band*M.A.R.S., a heavy metal supergroup that released the 1986 album ''Project Driver''*MARRS, British electronic music group===Songs and movements===*\"Mars\" (song), a 2008 single by Fake Blood*\"Mars, the Bringer of War\", a movement in Holst's ''The Planets''*\"Mars\", a song by Jay Sean from ''Neon''*\"Mars\", a song by Mario from ''Closer to Mars''*\"Mars\", a song by Soulfly from ''Prophecy''===Video gaming===*Project Mars, codename for the Sega 32X add-on video game console*Memory Array Redcode Simulator, the environment for the competitive programming game Core War" ], [ "Military", "*MARS (missile), air to ground missile built by Israel Military Industries*Mars Automatic Pistol, a semi-automatic pistol developed in 1900*MARS tanker, a programme to buy new tanker ships for the Royal Fleet Auxiliary*ITL MARS, a reflex sight made by International Technologies Lasers*Operation Mars, codename of the Second Rzhev-Sychevka Offensive, a Soviet offensive during World War II*Military Auxiliary Radio System, an auxiliary communications system of amateur radio operators for the United States armed forces* or M270 Multiple Launch Rocket System*''Operation Mars'', 28 March 1918 German offensive in World War I, part of the Spring Offensive*Machine-Assisted Analytic Rapid-Repository System, a US Defense Intelligence Agency data repository ===Warships===*Dutch frigate ''Mars'', later HMS ''Mars'', a 32-gun fifth rate ship of the line built in 1769*French ship ''Mars'', a list of French warships**French privateer ''Mars'' (1746), later HMS ''Mars'', a 64-gun third-rate *HMS ''Mars'', a list of ships of the Royal Navy**HMS ''Mars'' (1759), a 74-gun third rate**HMS ''Mars'' (1794), a 74-gun third rate***''Mars''-class ship of the line**HMS ''Mars'' (1848), an 80-gun second rate**HMS ''Mars'' (1896), a ''Majestic''-class battleship**HMS ''Mars'' (R76), a ''Colossus''-class aircraft carrier renamed HMS ''Pioneer'' in 1944**''Mars'', a planned ''Minotaur''-class cruiser of the Royal Navy, cancelled in 1946*SMS ''Mars'', a list of ships**SMS ''Mars'' (1879), a German gunnery training ship**SMS ''Tegetthoff'' (1878) or SMS ''Mars'', an Austro-Hungarian central battery ship*Swedish warship ''Mars'', a ship sunk in 1564*USS ''Mars'', several ships of the US Navy**USS ''Mars'' (1798), a galley**USS ''Mars'' (AC-6), launched in 1909**USS ''Mars'' (AFS-1), launched in 1963***''Mars''-class combat stores ship*''Mars'' class, several ship classes" ], [ "Organizations and products", "*Mars (beer), a type of lambic ale*Mars (motorcycle), a defunct German motorcycle manufacturer*Mars (oil platform), an oil drilling platform in the Gulf of Mexico*Mars (supermarket), a U.S. grocery chain*Icaro Mars, an Italian hang glider design*MARS Group, a British architectural think tank founded in 1933*Mauritius Amateur Radio Society*Mongolian Amateur Radio Society*Mumbai Amateur Radio Society, Mumbai, India*Mars Tver, a former name of THK Tver, a minor professional ice hockey club in Tver, Russia" ], [ "People", "*Mars (surname), a list of people with the surname*Cheung Wing-fat (born 1954), nicknamed Mars, Hong Kong actor, action director, stuntman and martial artist*Mars (rapper) (born 1980), stage name of Mario Delgado, American horrorcore rapper*Mars (record producer), moniker of Lamar Edwards from production teams 1500 or Nothin' and Smash Factory*Jean-Baptiste Belley or Mars (1740s–1805), Senegalese Haitian politician*Xueyang \"Mars\" Ma, member of Mandopop boy band Top Combine===People with the given name===*Mars Argo, stage name of Brittany Sheets, American singer, songwriter, actress, photographer, Internet personality and YouTuber*Mars Bonfire (born 1943), Canadian musician and songwriter*Mars Di Bartolomeo (born 1952), Luxembourgish politician*Mars Ravelo (1916–1988), Filipino comic book cartoonist and graphic novelist" ], [ "Technology", "*MARS (cipher), a block cipher, IBM's submission for the AES*Cisco Security Monitoring, Analysis, and Response System, a security monitoring tool for network devices*Mars computer, a family of PDP-10-compatible digital computers built by Systems Concepts*Mars program, a series of uncrewed spacecraft launched by the Soviet Union*Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport, a space launch site on Wallops Island, Virginia*Mars Analogue Research Station Program, of The Mars Society*Marketing and Reporting Sales system, a customer relationship management software package produced and sold by Phoenix American" ], [ "Transportation", "*Mars Light, an oscillating railroad safety light found on locomotives*MARS (ticket reservation system), a train seat reservation system used in Japan*Mars (Metra), a station on Metra's Milwaukee District/West in Chicago, Illinois*JRM Mars, a flying boat*Mars, a West Cornwall Railway locomotive" ], [ "Other uses", "*Mars (astrology), a set of qualities and influences*Mars (surname)**Mars family, the family that owns Mars, Incorporated*Multivariate adaptive regression splines, a statistical analysis technique" ], [ "See also", "*Ares (disambiguation)*Colonization of Mars for the Mars colony concept*Exploration of Mars, for various Mars projects and programmes*Champ de Mars (disambiguation)*Field of Mars (disambiguation)*Mars 1 (disambiguation)*Mars II (disambiguation)*Mars Hill (disambiguation)*Mars station (disambiguation)*Marrs, an American surname***" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Morpheme" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''morpheme''' is the smallest meaningful constituent of a linguistic expression.", "The field of linguistic study dedicated to morphemes is called morphology.In English, morphemes are often but not necessarily words.", "Morphemes that stand alone are considered roots (such as the morpheme ''cat''); other morphemes, called affixes, are found only in combination with other morphemes.", "For example, the ''-s'' in ''cats'' indicates the concept of plurality but is always bound to another concept to indicate a specific kind of plurality.This distinction is not universal and does not apply to, for example, Latin, in which many roots cannot stand alone.", "For instance, the Latin root ''reg-'' ('king') must always be suffixed with a case marker: ''rex'' (''reg-s''), ''reg-is'', ''reg-i'', etc.", "For a language like Latin, a root can be defined as the main lexical morpheme of a word.These sample English words have the following morphological analyses:* \"Unbreakable\" is composed of three morphemes: ''un-'' (a bound morpheme signifying \"not\"), ''break'' (the root, a free morpheme), and ''-able'' (a bound morpheme signifying \"an ability to be done\").", "* The plural morpheme for regular nouns (''-s'') has three allomorphs: it is pronounced (e.g., in ''cats'' ), (e.g., in ''dishes'' ), and (e.g., in ''dogs'' ), depending on the pronunciation of the root." ], [ "Classification", "===Free and bound morphemes===Every morpheme can be classified as free or bound:* Free morphemes can function independently as words (e.g.", "''town'', ''dog'') and can appear within lexemes (e.g.", "''town hall'', ''doghouse'').", "* Bound morphemes appear only as parts of words, always in conjunction with a root and sometimes with other bound morphemes.", "For example, ''un-'' appears only when accompanied by other morphemes to form a word.", "Most bound morphemes in English are affixes, specifically prefixes and suffixes.", "Examples of suffixes are ''-tion'', ''-sion'', ''-tive'', ''-ation'', ''-ible'', and ''-ing''.", "Bound morphemes that are not affixed are called cranberry morphemes.=== Classification of bound morphemes ===Bound morphemes can be further classified as derivational or inflectional morphemes.", "The main difference between them is their function in relation to words.==== Derivational bound morphemes ====* Derivational morphemes, when combined with a root, change the semantic meaning or the part of speech of the affected word.", "For example, in the word ''happiness'', the addition of the bound morpheme ''-ness'' to the root ''happy'' changes the word from an adjective (''happy'') to a noun (''happiness'').", "In the word ''unkind'', ''un-'' functions as a derivational morpheme since it inverts the meaning of the root morpheme (word) ''kind''.", "Generally, morphemes that affix to a root morpheme (word) are bound morphemes.==== Inflectional bound morphemes ====* Inflectional morphemes modify the tense, aspect, mood, person, or number of a verb or the number, grammatical gender, or case of a noun, adjective, or pronoun without affecting the word's meaning or class (part of speech).", "Examples of applying inflectional morphemes to words are adding ''-s'' to the root ''dog'' to form ''dogs'' and adding ''-ed'' to ''wait'' to form ''waited''.", "An inflectional morpheme changes the form of a word.", "English has eight inflections.===Allomorphs===Allomorphs are variants of a morpheme that differ in form but are semantically similar.", "For example, the English plural marker has three allomorphs: (''bug'''s'''''), (''bat'''s'''''), or (''bus'''es''''').", "An allomorph is a concrete realization of a morpheme, which is an abstract unit.", "That is parallel to the relation of an allophone and a phoneme.===Zero-bound-morpheme======Zero-morpheme===A zero-morpheme is a type of morpheme that carries semantic meaning but is not represented by auditory phoneme.", "A word with a zero-morpheme is analyzed as having the morpheme for grammatical purposes, but the morpheme is not realized in speech.", "They are often represented by /∅/ within glosses.Generally, such morphemes have no visible changes.", "For instance, ''sheep'' is both the singular and the plural form of that noun; rather than taking the usual plural suffix ''-s'' to form hypothetical ''*sheeps'', the plural is analyzed as being composed of ''sheep + -∅'', the null plural suffix.", "The intended meaning is thus derived from the co-occurrence determiner (in this case, \"some-\" or \"a-\").In some cases, a zero-morpheme may also be used to contrast with other inflected forms of a word that contain an audible morpheme.", "For example, the plural noun ''cats'' in English consists of the root ''cat'' and the plural suffix ''-s,'' and so the singular ''cat'' may be analyzed as the root inflected with the null singular suffix -''∅''.===Content vs. function===Content morphemes express a concrete meaning or ''content'', and function morphemes have more of a grammatical role.", "For example, the morphemes ''fast'' and ''sad'' can be considered content morphemes.", "On the other hand, the suffix ''-ed'' is a function morpheme since it has the grammatical function of indicating past tense.Both categories may seem very clear and intuitive, but the idea behind them is occasionally more difficult to grasp since they overlap with each other.", "Examples of ambiguous situations are the preposition ''over'' and the determiner ''your'', which seem to have concrete meanings but are considered function morphemes since their role is to connect ideas grammatically.", "Here is a general rule to determine the category of a morpheme:* Content morphemes include free morphemes that are nouns, adverbs, adjectives, and main verbs and bound morphemes that are bound roots and derivational affixes.", "* Function morphemes may be free morphemes that are prepositions, pronouns, determiners, auxiliary verbs and conjunctions.", "They may be bound morphemes that are inflectional affixes." ], [ "Other features", "Roots are composed of only one morpheme, but stems can be composed of more than one morpheme.", "Any additional affixes are considered morphemes.", "For example, in the word ''quirkiness'', the root is ''quirk'', but the stem is ''quirky'', which has two morphemes.Moreover, some pairs of affixes have identical phonological form but different meanings.", "For example, the suffix ''-er'' can be either derivational (e.g.", "''sell'' ⇒ ''seller'') or inflectional (e.g.", "''small'' ⇒ ''smaller'').", "Such morphemes are called homophonous.Some words might seem to be composed of multiple morphemes but are not.", "Therefore, not only form but also meaning must be considered when identifying morphemes.", "For example, the word ''Madagascar'' is long and might seem to have morphemes like ''mad'', ''gas'', and ''car'', but it does not.", "Conversely, some short words have multiple morphemes (e.g.", "''dogs'' = ''dog'' + ''s'')." ], [ "Morphological icons", "Morphological icons are images, patterns or symbols that relate to a specific morpheme.", "For children with dyslexia, it has been shown to be an effective way of building up a word.", "The word 'inviting' as an example contains two commonly used morphemes, 'in-' and '-ing'.", "A morphological icon for 'in-' could be an arrow going into a cup, and '-ing' could be an arrow going forward to symbolise that something is in action (as in ''being, running, fishing'').The concept of combining visual aid icons with morpheme teaching methods was pioneered from the mid-1980s by Neville Brown.", "He founded the Maple Hayes school for dyslexia in 1981, where he later improved the method alongside his son, Daryl Brown.", "The school's curriculum uses morphological icons as a learning aid." ], [ "Morphological analysis", "In natural language processing for Japanese, Chinese, and other languages, morphological analysis is the process of segmenting a sentence into a row of morphemes.", "Morphological analysis is closely related to part-of-speech tagging, but word segmentation is required for those languages because word boundaries are not indicated by blank spaces.The purpose of morphological analysis is to determine the minimal units of meaning in a language (morphemes) by comparison of similar forms: such as comparing \"She is walking\" and \"They are walking\" with each other, rather than either with something less similar like \"You are reading\".", "Those forms can be effectively broken down into parts, and the different morphemes can be distinguished.Both meaning and form are equally important for the identification of morphemes.", "An agent morpheme is an affix like ''-er'' that in English transforms a verb into a noun (e.g.", "''teach'' → ''teacher'').", "English also has another morpheme that is identical in pronunciation (and written form) but has an unrelated meaning and function: a comparative morpheme that changes an adjective into another degree of comparison (but remains the same adjective) (e.g.", "''small'' → ''smaller'').", "The opposite can also occur: a pair of morphemes with identical meaning but different forms." ], [ "Changing definitions", "In generative grammar, the definition of a morpheme depends heavily on whether syntactic trees have morphemes as leaves or features as leaves.", "* Direct surface-to-syntax mapping in lexical functional grammar (LFG) – leaves are words* Direct syntax-to-semantics mapping** Leaves in syntactic trees spell out morphemes: distributed morphology – leaves are morphemes** Branches in syntactic trees spell out morphemes: radical minimalism and nanosyntax – leaves are \"nano-\" (small) morpho-syntactic featuresGiven the definition of a morpheme as \"the smallest meaningful unit\", nanosyntax aims to account for idioms in which an entire syntactic tree often contributes \"the smallest meaningful unit\".", "An example idiom is \"Don't let the cat out of the bag\".", "There, the idiom is composed of \"let the cat out of the bag\".", "That might be considered a semantic morpheme, which is itself composed of many syntactic morphemes.", "Other cases of the \"smallest meaningful unit\" being longer than a word include some collocations such as \"in view of\" and \"business intelligence\" in which the words, when together, have a specific meaning.The definition of morphemes also plays a significant role in the interfaces of generative grammar in the following theoretical constructs:* Event semantics: the idea that each productive morpheme must have a compositional semantic meaning (a denotation), and if the meaning is there, there must be a morpheme (whether null or overt).", "* Spell-out: the interface with which syntactic/semantic structures are \"spelled out\" by using words or morphemes with phonological content.", "That can also be thought of as lexical insertion into the syntactic." ], [ "See also", "* Alternation (linguistics)* Bound morpheme* Floating tone* Greek morphemes* Hybrid word* Morphological parsing* Morphophonology* Morphotactics* ''Motif-Index of Folk-Literature'', featuring a comparable concept in folklore studies* Phoneme* Theoretical linguistics* Word stem" ], [ "References", "* *" ], [ "External links", "* Glossary of reading terms* Comprehensive and searchable morpheme reference* Linguistics 001 — Lecture 7 — Morphology by Mark Lieberman* Pronunciation of the word morpheme" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "MTV" ], [ "Introduction", "'''MTV''' (originally an initialism of '''Music Television''') is an American cable television channel.", "It was officially launched on August 1, 1981.Based in New York City, it serves as the flagship property of the MTV Entertainment Group, part of Paramount Media Networks, a division of Paramount Global.The channel originally aired music videos and related programming as guided by television personalities known as video jockeys, or VJs.", "MTV was one of the American cable channels which was available in other countries that became a cult hit across the world and was one of the factors in cable programming's rise to fame and American corporations overwhelmingly dominating the television economy in the 1990s.", "In the years since its inception, it significantly toned down its focus on music in favor of original reality programming for teenagers and young adults.Since the late 2010s, MTV has devoted its programming schedule to select programs, primarily ''Ridiculousness'', which in June 2020 aired \"for 113 hours out of the network's entire 168-hour lineup\".MTV has spawned numerous sister channels in the United States and affiliated channels internationally, some of which have since gone independent.", "Approximately 90.6 million households in the US received MTV as of January 2017." ], [ "Programming", "As MTV expanded, music videos and VJ-guided programming were no longer the centerpiece of its programming.", "The channel's programming has covered a wide variety of genres and formats aimed at adolescents and young adults.", "In addition to its original programming, MTV has also aired original and syndicated programs from Paramount-owned siblings and third-party networks.MTV is also a producer of films aimed at young adults through its production label, MTV Films, and has aired both its own theatrically released films and original made-for-television movies from MTV Studios in addition to acquired films.In 2010, a study by the Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation found that of 207.5 hours of prime time programming on MTV, 42% included content reflecting the lives of gay, bisexual and transgender people.", "This was the highest in the industry and the highest percentage ever.In 2018, MTV launched a new production unit under the MTV Studios name focused on producing new versions of MTV's library shows.", "This was later renamed MTV Entertainment Studios.=== ''Video Music Awards'' ===In 1984, the channel produced its first ''MTV Video Music Awards'' show, or VMAs.", "The first award show, in 1984, was punctuated by a live performance by Madonna of \"Like A Virgin\".", "The statuettes that are handed out at the ''Video Music Awards'' are of the MTV moonman, the channel's original image from its first broadcast in 1981., the ''Video Music Awards'' were MTV's most watched annual event.=== Special, annual events ===MTV began its annual ''Spring Break'' coverage in 1986, setting up temporary operations in Daytona Beach, Florida, for a week in March, broadcasting live eight hours per day.", "\"Spring break is a youth culture event\", MTV's vice president Doug Herzog said at the time.", "\"We wanted to be part of it for that reason.", "It makes good sense for us to come down and go live from the center of it, because obviously the people there are the kinds of people who watch MTV.", "\"The channel later expanded its beach-themed events to the summer, dedicating most of each summer season to broadcasting live from a beach house at different locations away from New York City, eventually leading to channel-wide branding throughout the summer in the 1990s and early 2000s such as ''Motel California'', ''Summer Share'', ''Isle of MTV'', ''SoCal Summer'', ''Summer in the Keys'', and ''Shore Thing''.", "MTV VJs hosted blocks of music videos, interview artists and bands, and introduced live performances and other programs from the beach house location each summer.MTV also held week-long music events that took over the presentation of the channel.", "Examples from the 1990s and 2000s include ''All Access Week'', a week in the summer dedicated to live concerts and festivals; ''Spankin' New Music Week'', a week in the fall dedicated to brand new music videos; and week-long specials that culminated in a particular live event, such as ''Wanna be a VJ'' and the ''Video Music Awards''.At the end of each year, MTV takes advantage of its home location in New York City to broadcast live coverage on New Year's Eve in Times Square.", "Several live music performances are featured alongside interviews with artists and bands that were influential throughout the year.", "For many years from the 1980s to the 2000s, the channel upheld a tradition of having a band perform a cover song at midnight immediately following the beginning of the new year.=== Live concert broadcasts ===Throughout its history, MTV has covered global benefit concert series live.", "For most of July 13, 1985, MTV showed the Live Aid concerts, held in London and Philadelphia and organized by Bob Geldof and Midge Ure to raise funds for famine relief in Ethiopia.", "While the ABC network showed only selected highlights during primetime, MTV broadcast 16 hours of coverage.Along with VH1, MTV broadcast the Live 8 concerts, a series of concerts set in the G8 states and South Africa, on July 2, 2005.Live 8 preceded the 31st G8 summit and the 20th anniversary of Live Aid.", "MTV drew heavy criticism for its coverage of Live 8.The network cut to commercials, VJ commentary, or other performances during performances.", "Complaints surfaced on the Internet over MTV interrupting the reunion of Pink Floyd.", "In response, MTV president Van Toffler stated that he wanted to broadcast highlights from every venue of Live 8 on MTV and VH1, and clarified that network hosts talked over performances only in transition to commercials, informative segments or other musical performances.", "Toffler acknowledged that \"MTV should not have placed such a high priority on showing so many acts, at the expense of airing complete sets by key artists.\"", "He also blamed the Pink Floyd interruption on a mandatory cable affiliate break.", "MTV averaged 1.4 million viewers for its original July 2 broadcast of Live 8.Consequently, MTV and VH1 aired five hours of uninterrupted Live 8 coverage on July 9, with each channel airing other blocks of artists." ], [ "History", "=== Background ===In the 1970s, music television focused on live performances, with shows such as ''The Midnight Special'', ''In Concert'', and ''The Old Grey Whistle Test''.", "Numerous major musical acts had made music videos to accompany their songs, including the Beatles, Bob Dylan, and Queen, but the concept and format had not been widely established.In 1979, executives at the newly formed Warner-American Express Satellite Entertainment Company felt teenagers were an overlooked and potentially lucrative audience, and hoped to develop a television format to target them.", "MTV's original format was created by the executive Robert W. Pittman, later the president and CEO of MTV Networks.", "He tested the format by producing and hosting a 15-minute show, ''Album Tracks'', on New York City's WNBC-TV in the late 1970s.", "Pittman's boss, Warner executive vice president John Lack, had shepherded ''PopClips'', a TV series created by the former Monkees member Michael Nesmith, whose attention had turned to the music video format in the late 1970s.=== Launch ===The first images shown on MTV were a montage of the Apollo 11 Moon landing.On Saturday, August 1, 1981, at 12:01 a.m. Eastern Time, MTV was launched with the words \"Ladies and gentlemen, rock and roll\", spoken by John Lack and played over footage of the first Space Shuttle launch countdown of ''Columbia'' (which took place earlier that year) and the launch of Apollo 11.The words were followed by the original MTV theme song, a rock tune composed by Jonathan Elias and John Petersen, playing over the U.S. flag changed to show MTV's logo changing into different textures and designs.", "MTV producers Alan Goodman and Fred Seibert used this public domain footage as a concept; Seibert said that they had originally planned to use Neil Armstrong's \"One small step\" quote, but lawyers said that Armstrong owned his name and likeness and that he had refused, so the quote was replaced with a beeping sound.", "A shortened version of the shuttle launch ID ran at the top of every hour in different forms, from MTV's first day until it was pulled in early 1986 in the wake of the ''Challenger'' disaster.=== 1981–1992 ===The first music video on MTV, which at the time was only available to homes in New Jersey, was the Buggles' \"Video Killed the Radio Star\".", "It was followed by Pat Benatar's \"You Better Run\".", "Occasionally the screen went black when an employee at MTV inserted a tape into a VCR.", "MTV's lower third graphics near the beginnings and ends of videos eventually used the recognizable Kabel typeface for about 25 years; but they varied on MTV's first day, set in a different typeface, and including details such as the song's year and record label.", "MTV's on-air programming was originally produced from the Teletronics studio facility at West 33rd Street in Manhattan, New York; programming was uplinked to satellite from a facility in Hauppauge, New York that also served as the uplink for sister networks Nickelodeon and The Movie Channel (originally, then-owner Warner-Amex Satellite Entertainment had planned to uplink MTV from a facility located at the studios of WIVB-TV in Buffalo, New York, where Nickelodeon and The Movie Channel had been uplinked; said facility was planned to be expanded to handle MTV's needs, but the deal with WIVB fell apart when Warner-Amex was unable to reach a deal with channel 4's ownership concerning a long-term lease).", "MTV later moved studio facilities to Unitel Video's complex located on 57th Street (ironically located across the street from the CBS Broadcast Center, owned by future corporate sibling CBS) in 1987, remaining until 1995 when MTV chose to begin producing studio content in-house.As programming chief, Robert W. Pittman recruited and managed a team of co-founders for the launch that included Tom Freston (who succeeded Pittman as CEO of MTV Networks), Fred Seibert and John Sykes.", "They were joined by Carolyn Baker (original head of talent and acquisition), Marshall Cohen (original head of research), Gail Sparrow (of talent and acquisition), Sue Steinberg (executive producer), Julian Goldberg, Steve Lawrence, Geoff Bolton; studio producers and MTV News writers/associate producers Liz Nealon, Nancy LaPook and Robin Zorn; Steve Casey (creator of the name \"MTV\" and its first program director), Marcy Brafman, Richard Schenkman, Ronald E. \"Buzz\" Brindle, and Robert Morton.", "Kenneth M. Miller is credited as MTV's first technical director at its New York City-based network operations facility.Within two months, record stores were selling music local radio stations were not playing, such as Men at Work, Bow Wow Wow and the Human League.", "MTV also sparked the Second British Invasion, featuring existing videos by British acts who had used the format for several years (for example, on BBC's ''Top of the Pops'').MTV targeted an audience of ages 12 to 34.However its self-conducted research showed that over 50% of its audience was 12–24, and that this group watched for an average of 30 minutes to two hours a day.", "As the PBS series ''Frontline'' explored, MTV was a driving force that catapulted music videos to a mainstream audience, turning music videos into an art form as well as a marketing machine that became beneficial to artists.", "\"==== Original VJs and format ====MTV's earliest format was modeled after AOR (album-oriented rock) radio.", "It underwent a transition to emulate a full Top 40 station in 1984.Fresh-faced young people hosted its programming and introduced videos.", "Many VJs became celebrities in their own right.", "MTV's five original VJs in 1981 were Nina Blackwood, Mark Goodman, Alan Hunter, J. J. Jackson and Martha Quinn.", "Popular New York DJ Meg Griffin was going to be a VJ, but decided against it at the last minute.", "The VJs were hired to fit certain demographics the channel was trying to obtain: Goodman was the affable everyman; Hunter, the popular jock; Jackson, the hip radio veteran; Blackwood, the bombshell vixen; and Quinn, the girl next door.", "Due to uncertainty around the channel's success, the VJs were told not to buy permanent residences and to keep their second jobs.The VJs recorded intro and outro voiceovers before broadcast, along with music news, interviews, concert dates and promotions.", "These segments appeared to air live and debut on MTV 24/7, but they were pre-taped within a regular work week at MTV's studios.Rock bands and performers of the 1980s who appeared on MTV ranged from new wave to soft rock and heavy metal including Adam Ant, Bryan Adams, Pat Benatar, Blondie, the Cars, Culture Club, Def Leppard, Dire Straits (whose 1985 song and video \"Money for Nothing\" included the slogan \"I want my MTV\" in its lyrics), Duran Duran, Eurythmics, Peter Gabriel, Genesis, Daryl Hall & John Oates, Billy Idol, Michael Jackson, Billy Joel, John Mellencamp, Mötley Crüe, Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers, the Police, Prince, Ratt, Ultravox, U2, Van Halen and ZZ Top.In 1984, more record companies and artists began making clips, realizing the popularity of MTV and the growing medium.", "To accommodate the influx of videos, MTV announced changes to its playlists in the November 3, 1984, issue of ''Billboard'' that took effect the next week.", "Playlist rotation categories were expanded from three (Light, Medium, Heavy) to seven: New, Light, Breakout, Medium, Active, Heavy and Power.", "This ensured that artists with chart hits got the exposure they deserved, with Medium being a home for established hits still on the climb up to the top 10; and Heavy a home for the big hitswithout the bells and whistlesjust the exposure they commanded.", "''Flashdance'' (1983) was the first film whose promoters supplied MTV with musical clips to compose promotional videos, which the channel included in its regular rotation.The channel also rotated the music videos of \"Weird Al\" Yankovic, who made a career out of parodying other artists' videos.", "It also aired several of Yankovic's specials in the 1980s and 1990s, under the title ''Al TV''.PSAs and promotion of charitable causes and NFPs were woven into the MTV fabric.", "In response to the AIDS epidemic, MTV initiated a safe-sex campaign in 1985, believing that many youths would be more open to the message there than from their parents.", "Its safe-sex campaign continues today as \"It's Your Sex Life\".==== Formatted music series ====1986 brought the departures of three of the five original VJs, as J. J. Jackson moved back to Los Angeles and returned to radio, while Nina Blackwood moved on to pursue new roles in television.", "Martha Quinn's contract was not renewed in late 1986 and she departed the network.", "She was brought back in early 1989 and stayed until 1992.Downtown Julie Brown was hired as the first new VJ as a replacement.", "In mid-1987, Alan Hunter and Mark Goodman ceased being full-time MTV veejays.=== 1995–2002: Animation and ''TRL'' ===From 1995 to 2000, MTV played 36.5% fewer music videos.", "MTV president Van Toffler stated: \"Clearly, the novelty of just showing music videos has worn off.", "It's required us to reinvent ourselves to a contemporary audience.\"", "The network launched '''MTV Radio Network''' in 1995 with Westwood One.", "Despite targeted efforts to play certain types of music videos in limited rotation, MTV greatly reduced its overall rotation of music videos by the mid-2000s.", "A 10pm programming block for top shows and specials was created and called the 10 Spot.", "Dana Fuchs was the promo voice actor and writer for ads promoting these shows.==== Adult animation ====cosplaying as Daria Morgendorffer, the title character of the popular MTV animated series ''Daria'', which originally aired from March 1997 to January 2002.MTV would venture into adult animation, with shows like ''Beavis and Butt-Head'', ''Celebrity Deathmatch'', ''Undergrads'', ''Clone High'', and ''Daria'' each becoming cult classics.", "''Daria'' also included two full-length television films: ''Is It Fall Yet?''", "and ''Is It College Yet?", "'', which originally aired on MTV in 2000 and 2002, respectively.", "The 1996 ''Beavis and Butt-Head'' film ''Beavis and Butt-Head Do America'' aired on MTV in 1999 after previous objections from show creator Mike Judge.", "===== ''Return of the Rock'' =====Beginning in late 1997, MTV progressively reduced its airing of rock music videos, leading to the slogan among skeptics, \"Rock is dead.\"", "Two years later, in the fall of 1999, MTV announced a special ''Return of the Rock'' weekend, in which new rock acts received airtime, after which a compilation album was released.By 2000, Linkin Park, Sum 41, Jimmy Eat World, Mudvayne, Cold, At the Drive-In, Alien Ant Farm, and other acts were added to the musical rotation.", "MTV also launched the subscription channel MTVX to play rock music videos exclusively.===== ''Total Request Live'' =====1515 Broadway in Times Square, the site of MTV Studios since 1997 |200x200pxIn 1997, MTV introduced its new studios in Times Square.", "MTV created four shows in the late 1990s that centered on music videos: ''MTV Live'', ''Total Request'', ''Say What?", "'', and ''12 Angry Viewers''.", "A year later, in 1998, MTV merged ''Total Request'' and ''MTV Live'' into a live daily top 10 countdown show, ''Total Request Live'', which became known as ''TRL.''", "The original host was Carson Daly.", "The show included a live studio audience and was filmed in a windowed studio that allowed crowds to look in.", "According to Nielsen, the average audience for the show was at its highest in 1999 and continued with strong numbers through 2001.The program played the top ten pop, rock, R&B, and hip hop music videos, and featured live interviews with artists and celebrities.", "In 2003, Carson Daly left MTV and ''TRL'' to focus on his late night talk show on NBC.", "The series came to an end with a special finale episode, ''Total Finale Live'', which aired November 16, 2008, and featured hosts and guests that previously appeared on the show.==== Other programs ====From 1998 to 2003, MTV also aired several other music video programs from its studios.", "These programs included ''Say What?", "Karaoke'', a game show hosted by Dave Holmes.", "In the early 2000s MTV aired ''VJ for a Day'', hosted by Ray Munns.", "MTV also aired ''Hot Zone'', hosted by Ananda Lewis, which featured pop music videos during the midday time period.", "Other programs at the time included ''Sucker Free'', and ''BeatSuite''.===== Milestones and specials =====Around 1999 through 2001, as MTV aired fewer music videos throughout the day, it regularly aired compilation specials from its then 20-year history to look back on its roots.", "An all-encompassing special, ''MTV Uncensored'', premiered in 1999 and was later released as a book.Janet Jackson became the inaugural honoree of the \"MTV Icon\" award, \"an annual recognition of artists who have made significant contributions to music, music video and pop culture while tremendously impacting the MTV generation.\"", "Subsequent recipients included Aerosmith, Metallica, and the Cure.=== 2000–2010: Reality television ===Over the next decade, MTV would engage in channel drift, gradually expanding its programming outside of music videos with programming lightly or heavily related to music.", "MTV became known for its reality programming, some of which followed the lives of musicians; ''The Osbournes'', a reality show based on the everyday life of Black Sabbath frontman Ozzy Osbourne and his family premiered in 2002 and would become one of the network's premiere shows.", "It also kick-started a musical career for Kelly Osbourne, while Sharon Osbourne went on to host her own self-titled talk show on US television.", "Production ended on ''The Osbournes'' in November 2004.2007's ''A Shot at Love with Tila Tequila'', chronicling MySpace sensation Tila Tequila's journey to find a companion, was the subject of criticism due to Tequila's bisexuality.MTV also spawned the paranormal reality TV genre with the broadcast of MTV's ''Fear'' in 2000.While music videos were featured on MTV up to eight hours per day in 2000, the year 2008 saw an average of just three hours of music videos per day on MTV.", "It's been speculated that the rise of social media and websites like YouTube as an outlet for the promotion and viewing of music videos led to this reduction.", "During this time, MTV hired Nancy Bennett as Senior VP of creative and content development for MTV Networks Music.", "As the decade progressed, MTV video blocks would be relegated to the early morning hours.", "During his acceptance speech at the 2007 MTV Video Music Awards, Justin Timberlake implored MTV to \"play more damn videos!\"", "in response to these changes.", "''leftPrior to ''Total Request Live'' ending its run in 2008, MTV was experimenting with its remaining music programming under new formats.", "MTV first premiered a new music video programming block called ''FNMTV'', and a weekly special event called ''FNMTV Premieres'', hosted from Los Angeles by Pete Wentz of the band Fall Out Boy, which was designed to premiere new music videos and have viewers provide instantaneous feedback.", "''AMTV'', an early morning block, debuted in 2009.The block would rebrand as ''Music Feed'' in 2013 with a reduced schedule and, unlike ''FNMTV'', featured many full-length music videos, news updates, interviews, and performances.", "MTV would continue to air music programming over the next decade, with the return of ''MTV Unplugged'' in 2009, the debut of ''10 on Top'' in May 2010, and ''Hip Hop POV'' on April 12, 2012.Pauly D and the Situation of ''Jersey Shore'' in 2011|202x202px2009 saw the debut of ''Jersey Shore'', which became a ratings success throughout its run and spawned the \"MTV Shores\" franchise, but would attract various controversies.", "With backlash towards what some consider too much superficial content on the network, a 2009 ''New York Times'' article also revealed plans to shift MTV's focus towards more socially conscious media, which the article labels \"MTV for the Obama era.\"", "Shortly after Michael Jackson died on June 25, the channel aired several hours of Jackson's music videos, accompanied by live news specials featuring reactions from MTV personalities and other celebrities.", "The temporary shift in MTV's programming culminated the following week with the channel's live coverage of Jackson's memorial service.", "MTV aired similar one-hour live specials with music videos and news updates following the death of Whitney Houston on February 11, 2012, and the death of Adam Yauch of the Beastie Boys on May 4, 2012.=== 2010–present: Retirement from music videos ===In February 2010, MTV would drop the \"Music Television\" branding.", "The network would still air video premieres on occasion, through both television and real-time interaction with artists and celebrities on its website.", "Throughout the decade, music programming on the network would be scaled back.", "In April 2016, then-appointed MTV president Sean Atkins announced plans to restore music programming to the channel.", "On April 21, 2016, MTV announced that new ''Unplugged'' episodes will begin airing, as well as a new weekly performance series called ''Wonderland''.", "On that same day, immediately after the death of Prince, MTV interrupted its usual programming to air Prince's music videos.", "In July 2017, it was announced that ''TRL'' would be returning to the network on October 2, 2017.Throughout the latter half of the 2010s, it was observed that MTV's daily schedule came to predominantly consist of film broadcasts and frequent marathons of select original programming, similar to other cable networks.", "In 2020, ''Reality Blurred'' criticized the network for its overreliance on ''Ridiculousness'' marathons.Alongside its unscripted slate, MTV would produce more scripted programming.", "Such shows included ''Awkward'', an American version of ''Skins'', and a reimagining of ''Teen Wolf''.", "In June 2012, the network announced the development of a television series based on the ''Scream'' franchise.", "As MTV would pivot back to unscripted programming towards the end of the decade, some of these shows would be moved to other networks.Chris McCarthy was named president of MTV in 2016.In 2021, McCarthy was named president and CEO of MTV Entertainment Group (which also oversees Comedy Central, Paramount Network, TV Land, CMT, and Smithsonian Channel)." ], [ "Logo and branding", "leftMTV's second logo, used from May 31, 1994, to April 12, 2009.It was still used outside United States until July 1, 2011.One of many MTV station IDs used during the 1980s; this one was designed by Henry Selick.MTV's logo was designed in 1981 by Manhattan Design (a collective formed by Frank Olinsky, Pat Gorman and Patty Rogoff) under the guidance of original creative director Fred Seibert.", "The block letter \"M\" was sketched by Rogoff, with the scribbled word \"TV\" spraypainted by Olinksky.", "The primary variant of MTV's logo at the time had the \"M\" in yellow and the \"TV\" in red.", "But unlike most television networks' logos at the time, the logo was constantly branded with different colors, patterns and images on a variety of station IDs.", "Examples include 1988's ID \"Adam And Eve\", where the \"M\" is an apple and the snake is the \"TV\".", "And for 1984's ID \"Art History\", the logo is shown in different art styles.", "The only constant aspects of MTV's logo at the time were its general shape and proportions, with everything else being dynamic.MTV launched on August 1, 1981, with an extended network ID featuring the first landing on the Moon (with still images acquired directly from NASA), which was a concept of Seibert's executed by Buzz Potamkin and Perpetual Motion Pictures.", "The ID then cut to the American flag planted on the Moon's surface changed to show the MTV logo on it, which rapidly changed into different colors and patterns several times per second as the network's original guitar-driven jingle was played for the first time.", "After MTV's launch, the \"Moon landing\" ID was edited to show only its ending, and was shown at the top of every hour until early 1986, when the ID was scrapped in light of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' disaster.", "The ID ran \"more than 75,000 times each year (48 times each day), at the top and bottom of every hour every day\" according to Seibert.leftFrom the late 1990s to the early 2000s, MTV updated its on-air appearance at the beginning of every year and each summer, creating a consistent brand across all of its music-related shows.", "This style of channel-wide branding came to an end as MTV drastically reduced its number of music-related shows in the early to mid 2000s.", "Around this time, MTV introduced a static and single color digital on-screen graphic mainly grey during on-air and some color to be shown during all of its programming.MTV's former logo used on-air from April 12, 2009, to September 12, 2021.It was still used on some MTV programs and YouTube channel as the logo thumbnail on some videos.Starting with the premiere of the short-lived program ''FNMTV: Friday Night MTV'' in 2008, MTV started using a updated and cropped version of its original logo for the 30 years during most of its on-air programming.", "It became MTV's official logo on February 8, 2010, and officially debuted on its website.", "The channel's full text \"MUSIC TELEVISION\" was eliminated, with the revised and chopped down on the logo largely the same as the original logo, but without the initialism, the bottom of the \"M\" being cropped and the \"V\" in \"TV\" no longer branching off.", "This change was most likely made to reflect MTV's more prominent focus on reality and comedy programming and less on music-related programming.", "However, much like the original logo, the new logo was designed to be filled in with a seemingly unlimited variety of images.", "It is used worldwide, but not everywhere existentially.", "The new logo was first used on MTV Films logo with the 2010 film ''Jackass 3D''.", "MTV's rebranding was overseen by Popkern.On June 25, 2015, MTV International rebranded its on-air look with a new vaporwave and seapunk-inspired graphics package.", "It included a series of new station IDs featuring 3D renderings of objects and people, much akin to vaporwave and seapunk \"aesthetics\".", "Many have derided MTV's choice of rebranding, insisting that the artistic style was centered on denouncing corporate capitalism (many aesthetic pieces heavily incorporate corporate logos of the 1970s, 80s and 90s, which coincidentally include MTV's original logo) rather than being embraced by major corporations like MTV.", "Many have also suggested that MTV made an attempt to be relevant in the modern entertainment world with the rebrand.", "In addition to this, the rebrand was made on exactly the same day that the social media site Tumblr introduced Tumblr TV, an animated GIF viewer which featured branding inspired by MTV's original 1980s on-air look.", "Tumblr has been cited as a prominent location of aesthetic art, and thus many have suggested MTV and Tumblr \"switched identities\".", "The rebrand also incorporated a modified version of MTV's classic \"I Want My MTV!\"", "slogan, changed to read \"I Am My MTV\".", "''Vice'' has suggested that the slogan change represents \"the current generation's movement towards self-examination, identity politics and apparent narcissism.\"", "MTV also introduced MTV Bump, a website that allows Instagram and Vine users to submit videos to be aired during commercial breaks, as well as MTV Canvas, an online program where users submit custom IDs to also be aired during commercial breaks.Logo since 2021MTV's single color version, used for specific pieces of contentOn February 5, 2021, MTV began to use a revised logo in tandem with the 2010 version, doing away with the 3D effect inherited from its predecessors (much akin to the current MTV Video Music Awards variant).", "That logo is revealed to be an alternate variant of the current logo designed by the design agency Loyalkaspar, which pays homage to MTV of the past with the red-yellow-blue color combination and the 3D effect mainly inherited from its predecessor logo.", "The new logo's rollout was completed in time for the 2021 MTV Video Music Awards.=== \"I Want My MTV!\"", "===The channel's iconic \"I Want My MTV!\"", "advertising campaign was launched in 1982.It was first developed by George Lois and was based on a cereal commercial from the 1950s with the slogan \"I Want My Maypo!\"", "that Lois adapted unsuccessfully from the original created by animator John Hubley.Lois's first pitch to the network was roundly rejected when Lois insisted that rock stars like Mick Jagger should be crying when they said the tag line, not unlike his failed 'Maypo' revamp.", "His associate, and Seibert mentor Dale Pon took over the campaign, strategically and creatively, and was able to get the campaign greenlit when he laughed the tears out of the spots.", "From then on –with the exception of the closely logos on the first round of commercials– Pon was the primary creative force.All the commercials were produced by Buzz Potamkin and his new company Buzzco Productions, directed first by Thomas Schlamme and Alan Goodman and eventually by Candy Kugel.The campaign featured popular artists and celebrities, including Pete Townshend, Pat Benatar, Adam Ant, David Bowie, the Police, Kiss, Culture Club, Billy Idol, Hall & Oates, Cyndi Lauper, Madonna, Lionel Richie, Ric Ocasek, John Mellencamp, Peter Wolf, Joe Elliott, Stevie Nicks, Rick Springfield, and Mick Jagger, interacting with the MTV logo on-air and encouraging viewers to call their pay television providers and request that MTV be added to their local channel lineups.", "Eventually, the slogan became so ubiquitous that it made an appearance as a lyric sung by Sting on the Dire Straits song \"Money for Nothing\", whose music video aired in regular rotation on MTV when it was first released in 1985 and also served as the first video played on its European arm, and became the basis of the music used in the MTV Entertainment Studios production logo." ], [ "Influence and controversies", "The channel has been a target of criticism by different groups about programming choices, social issues, political correctness, sensitivity, censorship, and a perceived negative social influence on young people.", "Portions of the content of MTV's programs and productions have come under controversy in the general news media and among social groups that have taken offense.", "Some within the music industry criticized what they saw as MTV's homogenization of rock 'n' roll, including the punk band the Dead Kennedys, whose song \"M.T.V.Get Off the Air\" was released on their 1985 album ''Frankenchrist'', just as MTV's influence over the music industry was being solidified.", "MTV was also the major influence on the growth of music videos during the 1980s.=== Breaking the \"color barrier\" ===During MTV's first few years, very few black artists were featured.", "The select few in MTV's rotation between 1981 and 1984 were Michael Jackson, Prince, Eddy Grant, Tina Turner, Donna Summer, Joan Armatrading, Musical Youth, The Specials, Living Color, The Selecter, Grace Jones, John Butcher and Herbie Hancock.", "Mikey Craig of Culture Club, Joe Leeway of Thompson Twins and Tracy Wormworth of The Waitresses were also black (and still are).", "The Specials, which included black and white vocalists and musicians, were also the first act with people of color to perform on MTV; their song \"Rat Race\" was the 58th video on the station's first broadcast day.MTV refused other black artists' videos, such as Rick James' \"Super Freak\", because they did not fit the channel's carefully selected album-oriented rock format at the time.", "The exclusion enraged James, who publicly advocated the addition of more black artists to the channel.", "David Bowie also questioned MTV's lack of black artists during an on-air interview with VJ Mark Goodman in 1983.MTV's original head of talent and acquisition, Carolyn B. Baker, who was black, questioned why the definition of music had to be so narrow, as did a few others outside the network.", "Years later, Baker said, \"The party line at MTV was that we weren't playing black music because of the research' – but the research was based on ignorance… We were young, we were cutting-edge.", "We didn't have to be on the cutting edge of racism.\"", "Nevertheless, it was Baker who rejected Rick James' ''Super Freak'' video \"because there were half-naked women in it, and it was a piece of crap.", "As a black woman, I did not want that representing my people as the first black video on MTV.", "\"The network's director of music programming, Buzz Brindle, told an interviewer in 2006: \"MTV was originally designed to be a rock music channel.", "It was difficult for MTV to find African American artists whose music fit the channel's format that leaned toward rock at the outset.\"", "Writers Craig Marks and Rob Tannenbaum noted that the channel \"aired videos by plenty of white artists who didn't play rock.\"", "Andrew Goodwin later wrote: \"MTV denied racism, on the grounds that it merely followed the rules of the rock business.\"", "MTV senior executive vice president Les Garland complained decades later, \"The worst thing was that 'racism' bullshit... there were hardly any videos being made by black artists.", "Record companies weren't funding them.", "''They'' never got charged with racism.\"", "However, critics of that defence pointed out that record companies were not funding videos for black artists because they knew they would have difficulty persuading MTV to play them.In celebrating the 40th anniversary of the network's launch in 2021, current MTV Entertainment Group president Chris McCarthy acknowledged that \"(o)ne of the bigger mistakes in the early years was not playing enough diverse music...but the nice thing that I've always learned at MTV is we have no problem owning our mistakes, quickly correcting them and trying to do the right thing and always follow where the audience is going.", "\"Before 1983, Michael Jackson also struggled for MTV airtime.", "To resolve the struggle and finally \"break the color barrier\", the president of CBS Records, Walter Yetnikoff, denounced MTV in a strong, profane statement, threatening to take away its right to play any of the label's music.", "However, Les Garland, then acquisitions head, said he decided to air Jackson's \"Billie Jean\" video without pressure from CBS, a statement later contradicted by CBS head of Business Affairs David Benjamin in Vanity Fair.Michael Jackson, whose discography included music videos such as \"Beat It\", \"Billie Jean\", and \"Thriller\"According to ''The Austin Chronicle'', Jackson's video for the song \"Billie Jean\" was \"the video that broke the color barrier, even though the channel itself was responsible for erecting that barrier in the first place.\"", "But change was not immediate.", "\"Billie Jean\" was not added to MTV's \"medium rotation\" playlist (two to three airings per day) until it reached No.", "1 on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 chart.", "In the final week of March, it was in \"heavy rotation\", one week before the MTV debut of Jackson's \"Beat It\" video.", "Prince's \"Little Red Corvette\" joined both videos in heavy rotation at the end of April.", "At the beginning of June, \"Electric Avenue\" by Eddy Grant joined \"Billie Jean\", which was still in heavy rotation until mid-June.", "At the end of August, \"She Works Hard for the Money\" by Donna Summer was in heavy rotation on the channel.", "Herbie Hancock's \"Rockit\" and Lionel Richie's \"All Night Long\" were placed in heavy rotation at the end of October and the beginning of November respectively.", "In the final week of November, Donna Summer's \"Unconditional Love\" was in heavy rotation.", "When Jackson's elaborate video for \"Thriller\" was released late that year, raising the bar for what a video could be, the network's support for it was total; subsequently, more pop and R&B videos were played on MTV.Following Jackson's and Prince's breakthroughs on MTV, Rick James did several interviews where he brushed off the accomplishment as tokenism, saying in a 1983 interview, in an episode of ''Mike Judge Presents: Tales from the Tour Bus'' on James, that \"any black artist that had their video played on MTV should pull their videos off MTV.", "\"=== Subsequent concepts ===HBO also had a 30-minute program of music videos called ''Video Jukebox'', that first aired around the time of MTV's launch and lasted until late 1986.Also around this time, HBO, as well as other premium channels such as Cinemax, Showtime and The Movie Channel, occasionally played one or a few music videos between movies.SuperStation WTBS launched ''Night Tracks'' on June 3, 1983, with up to 14 hours of music video airplay each late night weekend by 1985.Its most noticeable difference was that black artists that MTV initially ignored received airplay.", "The program ran until the end of May 1992.A few markets also launched music-only channels including Las Vegas' KRLR-TV (now KSNV), which debuted in the summer of 1984 and branded as \"Vusic 21\".", "The first video played on that channel was \"Video Killed the Radio Star\", following in the footsteps of MTV.Shortly after TBS began ''Night Tracks'', NBC launched a music video program called ''Friday Night Videos'', which was considered network television's answer to MTV.", "Later renamed simply ''Friday Night'', the program ran from 1983 to 2002.ABC's contribution to the music video program genre in 1984, ''ABC Rocks'', was far less successful, lasting only a year.TBS founder Ted Turner started the Cable Music Channel in 1984, designed to play a broader mix of music videos than MTV's rock format allowed.", "But after one month as a money-losing venture, Turner sold it to MTV, who redeveloped the channel into VH1.The founders of Financial News Network, Glenn Taylor and Karen Tyler tried to capitalize on the concept by launching Discovery Music Network, which was set to be a cable network, and has plans to set up the Discovery Broadcasting System, which consists of the aforementioned network, along with computer and business networks, but it never got off the ground.Shortly after its launch, the Disney Channel aired a program called ''DTV'', a play on the MTV acronym.", "The program used music cuts, both from past and upcoming artists.", "Instead of music videos, the program used clips of various vintage Disney cartoons and animated films (from ''Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs'' to ''The Fox and the Hound'') to go with the songs.", "The program aired in multiple formats, sometimes between shows, sometimes as its own program, and other times as one-off specials.", "The specials tended to air both on the Disney Channel and NBC.", "The program aired at several times between 1984 and 1999.In 2009, Disney Channel revived the ''DTV'' concept with a new series of short-form segments called ''Re-Micks''.Hanna-Barbera created ''HBTV'', similar to ''DTV'' in 1985 and in 1986.=== Censorship ===MTV has edited a number of music videos to remove references to drugs, sex, violence, weapons, racism, homophobia, and/or advertising.", "Many music videos aired on the channel were either censored, moved to late-night rotation, or banned entirely from the channel.In the 1980s, parent media watchdog groups such as the Parents Music Resource Center (PMRC) criticized MTV over certain music videos that were claimed to have explicit imagery of satanism.", "As a result, MTV developed a strict policy on refusal to air videos that may depict Satanism or anti-religious themes.", "This policy led MTV to ban music videos such as \"Jesus Christ Pose\" by Soundgarden in 1991 and \"Megalomaniac\" by Incubus in 2004; however, the controversial band Marilyn Manson was among the most popular rock bands on MTV during the late 1990s and early 2000s.On September 28, 2016, on an AfterBuzz TV live stream, Scout Durwood said that MTV had a \"no appropriation policy\" that forbid her from wearing her hair in cornrows in an episode of ''Mary + Jane''.", "She said, \"I wanted to cornrow my hair, and they were like, 'That's racist.", "'\"=== Trademark suit ===Magyar Televízió, Hungary's public broadcaster who has a trademark on the initials '''MTV''', registered with the Hungarian copyright office, sued the American MTV (Music Television) network for trademark infringement when the Hungarian version of the music channel was launched in 2007.The suit is still ongoing.=== Andrew Dice Clay ===During the 1989 MTV Video Music Awards ceremony, comedian Andrew Dice Clay did his usual \"adult nursery rhymes\" routine (which he had done in his stand-up acts), after which the network executives imposed a lifetime ban.", "Billy Idol's music video for the song \"Cradle of Love\" originally had scenes from Clay's film ''The Adventures of Ford Fairlane'' when it was originally aired; scenes from the film were later excised.", "During the 2011 MTV Video Music Awards, Clay was in attendance where he confirmed that the channel lifted the ban.=== ''Beavis and Butt-head'' ===In the wake of controversy that involved a child burning down his house after allegedly watching ''Beavis and Butt-head'', MTV moved the show from its original 7 p.m. time slot to an 11p.m.", "time slot.", "Also, Beavis's tendency to flick a lighter and yell \"fire\" was removed from new episodes, and controversial scenes were removed from existing episodes before their rebroadcast.", "Some extensive edits were noted by series creator Mike Judge after compiling his Collection DVDs, saying that \"some of those episodes may not even exist actually in their original form.", "\"=== ''Dude, This Sucks'' ===A pilot for a show called ''Dude, This Sucks'' was canceled after teens attending a taping at the Snow Summit Ski Resort in January 2001 were sprayed with liquidized fecal matter by a group known as \"The Shower Rangers\".", "The teens later sued, with MTV later apologizing and ordering the segment's removal.=== Super Bowl XXXVIII halftime show ===After Viacom's purchase of CBS, MTV was selected to produce the Super Bowl XXXV halftime show in 2001, airing on CBS and featuring Britney Spears, NSYNC, and Aerosmith.", "Due to its success, MTV was invited back to produce another halftime show in 2004; this sparked a nationwide debate and controversy that drastically changed Super Bowl halftime shows, MTV's programming, and radio censorship.When CBS aired Super Bowl XXXVIII in 2004, MTV was again chosen to produce the halftime show, with performances by such artists as Nelly, P. Diddy, Janet Jackson, and Justin Timberlake.", "The show became controversial, however, after Timberlake tore off part of Jackson's outfit while performing \"Rock Your Body\" with her, revealing her right breast.", "All involved parties apologized for the incident, and Timberlake referred to the incident as a \"wardrobe malfunction\".Michael Powell, then-chairman of the Federal Communications Commission, ordered an investigation the day after broadcast.", "In the weeks following the halftime show, MTV censored much of its programming.", "Several music videos, including \"This Love\" and \"I Miss You\", were edited for sexual content.", "In September 2004, the FCC ruled that the halftime show was indecent and fined CBS $550,000.The FCC upheld it in 2006, but federal judges reversed the fine in 2008.==== Nipplegate ====Timberlake and Jackson's controversial event gave way to a \"wave of self-censorship on American television unrivaled since the McCarthy era\".", "After the sudden event, names surfaced such as nipplegate, Janet moment, and boobgate, and this spread politically, furthering the discussion into the 2004 presidential election surrounding \"moral values\" and \"media decency\".=== Moral criticism ===In 2005, the Parents Television Council (PTC) released a study titled \"MTV Smut Peddlers\", which sought to expose excessive sexual, profane, and violent content on the channel, based on MTV's spring break programming from 2004.Jeanette Kedas, an MTV network executive, called the PTC report \"unfair and inaccurate\" and \"underestimating young people's intellect and level of sophistication\", while L. Brent Bozell III, then-president of the PTC, stated: \"the incessant sleaze on MTV presents the most compelling case yet for consumer cable choice\", referring to the practice of pay television companies to allow consumers to pay for channels ''à la carte''.In April 2008, PTC released ''The Rap on Rap'', a study covering hip-hop and R&B music videos rotated on programs ''106 & Park'' and ''Rap City'', both shown on BET, and ''Sucker Free'' on MTV.", "PTC urged advertisers to withdraw sponsorship of those programs, whose videos PTC stated targeted children and teenagers containing adult content.=== ''Jersey Shore'' ===MTV received significant criticism from Italian American organizations for ''Jersey Shore'', which premiered in 2009.The controversy was due in large part to the manner in which MTV marketed the show, as it liberally used the word \"guido\" to describe the cast members.", "The word \"guido\" is generally regarded as an ethnic slur when referring to Italians and Italian Americans.", "One promotion stated that the show was to follow, \"eight of the hottest, tannest, craziest Guidos,\" while yet another advertisement stated, \"''Jersey Shore'' exposes one of the tri-state area's most misunderstood species ... the GUIDO.", "Yes, they really do exist!", "Our Guidos and Guidettes will move into the ultimate beach house rental and indulge in everything the Seaside Heights, New Jersey scene has to offer.", "\"Prior to the series debut, Unico National formally requested that MTV cancel the show.", "In a formal letter, the company called the show a \"direct, deliberate and disgraceful attack on Italian Americans.\"", "Unico National President Andre DiMino said, \"MTV has festooned the 'bordello-like' house set with Italian flags and red, white and green maps of New Jersey while every other cutaway shot is of Italian signs and symbols.", "They are blatantly as well as subliminally bashing Italian Americans with every technique possible.\"", "Around this time, other Italian organizations joined the fight, including the NIAF and the Order Sons of Italy in America.MTV responded by issuing a press release which stated in part, \"The Italian American cast takes pride in their ethnicity.", "We understand that this show is not intended for every audience and depicts just one aspect of youth culture.\"", "Following the calls for the show's removal, several sponsors requested that their ads not be aired during the show.", "These sponsors included Dell, Domino's Pizza, and American Family Insurance.", "Despite the loss of certain advertisers, MTV did not cancel the show.", "Moreover, the show saw its audience increase from its premiere in 2009, and continued to place as MTV's top-rated programs during ''Jersey Shore's'' six-season run, ending in 2012.=== ''Resolutions for White Guys'' ===In December 2016, MTV online published a social justice-oriented New Year's resolution-themed video directed towards white men.", "The video caused widespread outrage online, including video responses from well-known online personas, and was deleted from MTV's YouTube channel.", "The video was then reuploaded to their channel, with MTV claiming the new video contained \"updated graphical elements\".", "The new video quickly received over 10,000 dislikes and fewer than 100 likes from only 20,000 views, and MTV deleted the video for a second time." ], [ "Social activism", "In addition to its regular programming, MTV has a long history of promoting social, political, and environmental activism in young people.", "The channel's vehicles for this activism have been ''Choose or Lose'', encompassing political causes and encouraging viewers to vote in elections; ''Fight For Your Rights'', encompassing anti-violence and anti-discrimination causes; ''think MTV''; and ''MTV Act'' and ''Power of 12'', the newest umbrellas for MTV's social activism.=== ''Choose or Lose'' ===MTV ''Choose or Lose'' logoIn 1992, MTV started a pro-democracy campaign called ''Choose or Lose'', to encourage over 20 million people to register to vote, and the channel hosted a town hall forum for then-candidate Bill Clinton.In recent years, other politically diverse programs on MTV have included ''True Life'', which documents people's lives and problems, and MTV News specials, which center on very current events in both the music industry and the world.", "One special show covered the 2004 US presidential election, airing programs focused on the issues and opinions of young people, including a program where viewers could ask questions of Senator John Kerry.", "MTV worked with P. Diddy's \"Citizen Change\" campaign, designed to encourage young people to vote.Additionally, MTV aired a documentary covering a trip by the musical group Sum 41 to the Democratic Republic of the Congo, documenting the conflict there.", "The group ended up being caught in the midst of an attack outside of the hotel and were subsequently flown out of the country.The channel also began showing presidential campaign commercials for the first time during the 2008 US presidential election.", "This has led to criticism, with Jonah Goldberg opining that \"MTV serves as the Democrats' main youth outreach program.", "\"=== ''Rock the Vote'' ===MTV is aligned with Rock the Vote, a campaign to motivate young adults to register and vote.=== ''MTV Act'' and ''Power of 12'' ===In 2012, MTV launched ''MTV Act'' and ''Power of 12'', its current social activism campaigns.", "''MTV Act'' focuses on a wide array of social issues, while ''Power of 12'' was a replacement for MTV's ''Choose or Lose'' and focused on the 2012 US presidential election.=== ''Elect This'' ===In 2016, MTV continued its pro-democracy campaign with ''Elect This'', an issue-oriented look at the 2016 election targeting Millennials.", "Original content under the \"Elect This\" umbrella includes \"Infographica,\" short animations summarizing MTV News polls; \"Robo-Roundtable,\" a digital series hosted by animatronic robots; \"The Racket,\" a multi-weekly digital series; and \"The Stakes,\" a weekly political podcast.=== ''Vote Early Day'' ===In 2020, MTV was the principal founder of Vote Early Day.", "Initially, the primary target audience was young voters.", "The MTV campaign launched with partners across media, consumer brands, and advocacy organizations, and its strength being that it isn’t ‘owned’ by any one entity." ], [ "Beyond MTV", "Since its launch in 1981, the brand \"MTV\" has expanded to include many additional properties beyond the original MTV channel, including a variety of sister channels in the US, dozens of affiliated channels around the world, and an Internet presence through MTV.com and related websites.=== Sister channels in the US ===MTV operates a group of channels under MTV Networksa name that continues to be used for the individual units of the Paramount Media Networks, a division of corporate parent Paramount Global.", "In 1985, MTV saw the introduction of its first regular sister channel, VH1, which was originally an acronym for \"Video Hits One\" and was designed to play adult contemporary music videos.", "VH1 is aimed at celebrity and popular culture programming which include many reality shows.", "Another sister channel, CMT, targets the southern culture market.The advent of satellite television and digital cable brought MTV greater channel diversity, including its sister channels MTV2 and Spanish-speaking MTV Tr3́s (Tr3́s), which initially played music videos exclusively but later focused on other programming.", "MTV also formerly broadcast MTVU on campuses at various universities until 2018, when the MTV Networks on Campus division was sold, and the channel remained as a digital cable channel only.", "MTV formerly also had MTV Hits and MTVX channels until these were converted into NickMusic and MTV Jams, respectively.", "MTV Jams was later rebranded as BET Jams in 2015.In January 2006, MTV launched MTV HD, a 1080i high-definition simulcast feed of MTV.", "Until Viacom's main master control was upgraded in 2013, only the network's original series after 2010 (with some pre-2010 content) are broadcast in high definition, while music videos, despite being among the first television works to convert to high definition presentation in the mid-2000s, were presented in 4:3 standard definition, forcing them into a windowboxing type of presentation; since that time, all music videos are presented in HD and are framed to their director's preference.", "''Jersey Shore'', despite being shot with widescreen HD cameras, was also presented with SD windowboxing (though the 2018 ''Family Vacation'' revival is in full HD).", "The vast majority of providers carry MTV HD.MTV Networks also operates MTV Live, a high-definition channel that features original HD music programming and HD versions of music related programs from MTV, VH1 and CMT.", "The channel was launched in January 2006 as MHD (Music: High Definition).", "The channel was officially rebranded as MTV Live on February 1, 2016.In 2005 and 2006, MTV launched a list of channels for Asian Americans.", "The first channel was MTV Desi, launched in July 2005, dedicated towards Indian Americans.", "Next was MTV Chi, in December 2005, which catered to Chinese Americans.", "The third was MTV K, launched in June 2006 and targeted toward Korean Americans.", "Each of these channels featured music videos and shows from MTV's international affiliates as well as original US programming, promos, and packaging.", "All three of these channels ceased broadcasting on April 30, 2007.On August 1, 2016, the 35th anniversary of the original MTV's launch, VH1 Classic was rebranded as MTV Classic.", "The channel's programming focused on classic music videos and programming (including notable episodes of ''MTV Unplugged'' and ''VH1 Storytellers''), but skews more towards the 1980s, 1990s and 2000s.", "The network aired encores of former MTV series such as ''Beavis and Butt-Head'' and ''Laguna Beach: The Real Orange County''.", "The network's relaunch included a broadcast of MTV's first hour on the air, which was also simulcast on MTV and online via Facebook live streaming.", "MTV Classic only retained three original VH1 Classic programs, which were ''That Metal Show'', ''Metal Evolution,'' and ''Behind the Music Remastered'', although repeats of current and former VH1 programs such as ''Pop-Up Video'' and ''VH1 Storytellers'' remained on the schedule.", "However, the rebranded MTV Classic had few viewers, and declined quickly to become the least-watched English-language subscription network rated by Nielsen at the end of 2016.At the start of 2017, it was reorganized into an all-video network.=== Internet ===MTV.com in 2008In the late 1980s, before the World Wide Web, MTV VJ Adam Curry began experimenting on the Internet.", "He registered the then-unclaimed domain name \"'''MTV.com'''\" in 1993 with the idea of being MTV's unofficial new voice on the Internet.", "Although this move was sanctioned by his supervisors at MTV Networks at the time, when Curry left to start his own web-portal design and hosting company, MTV subsequently sued him for the domain name, which led to an out-of-court settlement.The service hosted at the domain name was originally branded \"MTV Online\" during MTV's first few years of control over it in the mid-1990s.", "It served as a counterpart to the America Online portal for MTV content, which existed at AOL keyword MTV until approximately the end of the 1990s.", "After this time, the website became known as simply \"MTV.com\" and served as the Internet hub for all MTV and MTV News content.MTV.com experimented with entirely video-based layouts between 2005 and 2007.The experiment began in April 2005 as ''MTV Overdrive'', a streaming video service that supplemented the regular MTV.com website.", "Shortly after the 2006 MTV Video Music Awards, which were streamed on MTV.com and heavily used the ''MTV Overdrive'' features, MTV introduced a massive change for MTV.com, transforming the entire site into a Flash video-based entity.", "Much of users' feedback about the Flash-based site was negative, demonstrating a dissatisfaction with videos that played automatically, commercials that could not be skipped or stopped, and the slower speed of the entire website.", "The experiment ended in February 2007 as MTV.com reverted to a traditional HTML-based website design with embedded video clips, in the style of YouTube and some other video-based websites.From 2006 to 2007, MTV operated an online channel, MTV International, targeted to the broad international market.", "The purpose of the online channel was to air commercial-free music videos once the television channels started concentrating on shows unrelated to music videos or music-related programming.The channel responded to the rise of the Internet as the new central place to watch music videos in October 2008 by launching MTV Music (later called MTV Hive), a website that featured thousands of music videos from MTV and VH1's video libraries, dating back to the earliest videos from 1981.A newly created division of the company, MTV New Media, announced in 2008 that it would produce its own original web series, in an attempt to create a bridge between old and new media.", "The programming is available to viewers via personal computers, cell phones, iPods, and other digital devices.In the summer of 2012, MTV launched a music discovery website called the MTV Artists Platform (also known as Artists.MTV).", "MTV explained, \"While technology has made it way easier for artists to produce and distribute their own music on their own terms, it hasn't made it any simpler to find a way to cut through all the Internet noise and speak directly to all of their potential fans.", "The summer launch of the platform is an attempt to help music junkies and musicians close the gap by providing a one-stop place where fans can listen to and buy music and purchase concert tickets and merchandise.", "\"MTV.com remains the official website of MTV, and it expands on the channel's broadcasts by bringing additional content to its viewers.", "In 2022, it was revised to mostly focus on direct consumers to content on Paramount+ and Pluto TV.", "The site featured an online version of MTV News and podcasts.", "It has TV Everywhere authenticated streaming.", "The news site is defunct but still can be accessed with prior movie features, profiles and interviews with recording artists and from MTV's television programs.", "A related MTV app is available on mobile platforms and connected TV devices." ], [ "See also", "* List of MTV award shows* List of MTV channels* MTV Australia and New Zealand* MTV Latin America* MTV Europe* Music industry" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Bibliography ===* Blackwood, Nina/Goodman, Mark/Hunter, Alan/Quinn, Martha/Edwards, Gavin (2013).", "''VJ: The Unplugged Adventures of MTV's First Wave''.", "Atria.", ".", "* Denisoff, R. Serge (1988).", "''Inside MTV''.", "Transaction.", ".", "* McGrath, Tom (1996).", "''MTV: The Making of a Revolution''.", "Running Pr.", ".", "* MTV (2001).", "''MTV Uncensored''.", "MTV.", ".", "* Prato, Greg (2011).", "''MTV Ruled the World: The Early Years of Music Video''.", "Createspace.", ".", "* Tannenbaum, Rob/Marks, Craig (2012).", "''I Want My MTV: The Uncensored Story of the Music Video Revolution''.", "Plume.", "." ], [ "External links", "* Mark Goodman, Nina Blackwood, Alan Hunter interviewed on Stuck in the '80s podcast" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mustelidae" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Mustelidae''' (; from Latin , weasel) are a diverse family of carnivorous mammals, including weasels, stoats, badgers, otters, martens, grisons, and wolverines.", "Otherwise known as '''mustelids''' (), they form the largest family in the suborder Caniformia of the order Carnivora with about 66 to 70 species in nine subfamilies." ], [ "Variety", "''Sthenictis'' sp.", "(American Museum of Natural History)Mustelids vary greatly in size and behaviour.", "The smaller variants of the least weasel can be under in length, while the giant otter of Amazonian South America can measure up to and sea otters can exceed in weight.", "Wolverines can crush bones as thick as the femur of a moose to get at the marrow, and have been seen attempting to drive bears away from their kills.", "The sea otter uses rocks to break open shellfish to eat.", "Martens are largely arboreal, while European badgers dig extensive tunnel networks, called setts.", "Only one mustelid has been domesticated; the ferret.", "Tayra are also kept as pets (although they require a Dangerous Wild Animals licence in the UK), or as working animals for hunting or vermin control.", "Others have been important in the fur trade—the mink is often raised for its fur.Being one of the most species-rich families in the order Carnivora, the family Mustelidae also is one of the oldest.", "Mustelid-like forms first appeared about 40 million years ago (Mya), roughly coinciding with the appearance of rodents.", "The common ancestor of modern mustelids appeared about 18 Mya." ], [ "Characteristics", "Skeleton of a black-footed ferret (''Mustela nigripes'') on display at the Museum of OsteologyWithin a large range of variation, the mustelids exhibit some common characteristics.", "They are typically small animals with elongated bodies, short legs, short skulls, short, round ears, and thick fur.", "Most mustelids are solitary, nocturnal animals, and are active year-round.With the exception of the sea otter they have anal scent glands that produce a strong-smelling secretion the animals use for sexual signalling and marking territory.Most mustelid reproduction involves embryonic diapause.", "The embryo does not immediately implant in the uterus, but remains dormant for some time.", "No development takes place as long as the embryo remains unattached to the uterine lining.", "As a result, the normal gestation period is extended, sometimes up to a year.", "This allows the young to be born under favourable environmental conditions.", "Reproduction has a large energy cost, so it is to a female's benefit to have available food and mild weather.", "The young are more likely to survive if birth occurs after previous offspring have been weaned.Mustelids are predominantly carnivorous, although some eat vegetable matter at times.", "While not all mustelids share an identical dentition, they all possess teeth adapted for eating flesh, including the presence of shearing carnassials.", "One characteristic trait is a meat-shearing upper-back molar that is rotated 90°, towards the inside of the mouth.", "With variation between species, the most common dental formula is ." ], [ "Ecology", "Stoat killing a rabbitThe fisher, tayra, and martens are partially arboreal, while badgers are fossorial.", "A number of mustelids have aquatic lifestyles, ranging from semiaquatic minks and river otters to the fully aquatic sea otter, which is one of the few nonprimate mammals known to use tools while foraging.", "It uses \"anvil\" stones to crack open the shellfish that form a significant part of its diet.", "It is a \"keystone species\", keeping its prey populations in balance so some do not outcompete the others and destroy the kelp in which they live.The black-footed ferret is entirely dependent on another keystone species, the prairie dog.", "A family of four ferrets eats 250 prairie dogs in a year; this requires a stable population of prairie dogs from an area of some ." ], [ "Animals of similar appearance", "Skunks were previously included as a subfamily of the mustelids, but DNA research placed them in their own separate family (Mephitidae).", "Mongooses bear a striking resemblance to many mustelids, but belong to a distinctly different suborder—the Feliformia (all those carnivores sharing more recent origins with the cats) and not the Caniformia (those sharing more recent origins with the dogs).", "Because mongooses and mustelids occupy similar ecological niches, convergent evolution has led to similarity in form and behavior." ], [ "Human uses", "Detail from Leonardo da Vinci's ''Lady with an Ermine'', 1489–1490Several mustelids, including the mink, the sable (a type of marten), and the stoat (ermine), possess furs that are considered beautiful and valuable, so have been hunted since prehistoric times.", "From the early Middle Ages, the trade in furs was of great economic importance for northern and eastern European nations with large native populations of fur-bearing mustelids, and was a major economic impetus behind Russian expansion into Siberia and French and English expansion in North America.", "In recent centuries fur farming, notably of mink, has also become widespread and provides the majority of the fur brought to market.One species, the sea mink (''Neogale macrodon'') of New England and Canada, was driven to extinction by fur trappers.", "Its appearance and habits are almost unknown today because no complete specimens can be found and no systematic contemporary studies were conducted.The sea otter, which has the densest fur of any animal, narrowly escaped the fate of the sea mink.", "The discovery of large populations in the North Pacific was the major economic driving force behind Russian expansion into Kamchatka, the Aleutian Islands, and Alaska, as well as a cause for conflict with Japan and foreign hunters in the Kuril Islands.", "Together with widespread hunting in California and British Columbia, the species was brought to the brink of extinction until an international moratorium came into effect in 1911.Today, some mustelids are threatened for other reasons.", "Sea otters are vulnerable to oil spills and the indirect effects of overfishing; the black-footed ferret, a relative of the European polecat, suffers from the loss of American prairie; and wolverine populations are slowly declining because of habitat destruction and persecution.", "The rare European mink (''Mustela lutreola'') is one of the most endangered mustelid species.The ferret, a domesticated European polecat, is a fairly common pet." ], [ "Evolution and systematics", "The oldest known mustelid from North America is ''Corumictis wolsani'' from the early and late Oligocene (early and late Arikareean, Ar1–Ar3) of Oregon.", "Middle Oligocene ''Mustelictis'' from Europe might be a mustelid, as well.", "Other early fossils of the mustelids were dated at the end of the Oligocene to the beginning of the Miocene.", "Which of these forms are Mustelidae ancestors and which should be considered the first mustelids is unclear.The fossil record indicates that mustelids appeared in the late Oligocene period (33 Mya) in Eurasia and migrated to every continent except Antarctica and Australia (all the continents that were connected during or since the early Miocene).", "They reached the Americas via the Bering land bridge.The 68 recent mustelids (66 extant species) are classified into eight subfamilies in 22 genera:'''Subfamily Taxidiinae'''* Genus ''Taxidea''** American badger, ''T.", "taxus'''''Subfamily Mellivorinae'''* Genus ''Mellivora''** Honey badger, ''M.", "capensis'''''Subfamily Melinae'''* Genus ''Arctonyx''** Northern hog badger, ''A.", "albogularis''** Greater hog badger, ''A.", "collaris''** Sumatran hog badger, ''A.", "hoevenii''* Genus ''Meles''** Japanese badger, ''M.", "anakuma''** Asian badger, ''M.", "leucurus''** European badger, ''M.", "meles''** Caucasian badger, ''M.", "canescens'''''Subfamily Helictidinae'''* Genus ''Melogale''** Vietnam ferret-badger, ''M.", "cucphuongensis''** Bornean ferret-badger, ''M.", "everetti''** Chinese ferret-badger, ''M.", "moschata''** Javan ferret-badger, ''M.", "orientalis''** Burmese ferret-badger, ''M.", "personata''** Formosan ferret-badger, ''M.", "subaurantiaca'''''Subfamily Guloninae'''* Genus ''Eira''** Tayra, ''E.", "barbara''* Genus ''Gulo''** Wolverine, ''G.", "gulo''* Genus ''Martes''** American marten, ''M.", "americana''** Pacific marten, ''M.", "caurina''** Yellow-throated marten, ''M.", "flavigula''** Beech marten, ''M.", "foina''** Nilgiri marten, ''M.", "gwatkinsii''** European pine marten, ''M.", "martes''** Japanese marten, ''M.", "melampus''** Sable, ''M.", "zibellina''* Genus ''Pekania''** Fisher, ''P.", "pennanti'''''Subfamily Ictonychinae'''* Genus ''Galictis''** Lesser grison, ''G.", "cuja''** Greater grison, ''G.", "vittata''* Genus ''Ictonyx''** Saharan striped polecat, ''I.", "libycus''** Striped polecat, ''I.", "striatus''* Genus ''Lyncodon''** Patagonian weasel, ''L.", "patagonicus''* Genus ''Poecilogale''** African striped weasel, ''P.", "albinucha''* Genus ''Vormela''** Marbled polecat, ''V.", "peregusna'''''Subfamily Lutrinae''' (otters)* Genus ''Aonyx''** African clawless otter, ''A.", "capensis''** Asian small-clawed otter, ''A.", "cinerea''** Congo clawless otter, ''A.", "congicus''* Genus ''Enhydra''** Sea otter, ''E.", "lutris''* Genus ''Lontra''** North American river otter, ''L.", "canadensis''** Marine otter, ''L.", "felina''** Neotropical otter, ''L.", "longicaudis''** Southern river otter, ''L.", "provocax''* Genus ''Lutra''** Eurasian otter, ''L.", "lutra''** Hairy-nosed otter, ''L.", "sumatrana''** Japanese otter.", "''L.", "nippon''* Genus ''Hydrictis''** Spotted-necked otter, ''H.", "maculicollis''* Genus ''Lutrogale''** Smooth-coated otter, ''L.", "perspicillata''* Genus ''Pteronura''** Giant otter, ''P.", "brasiliensis'''''Subfamily Mustelinae''' (weasels, ferrets, and mink)* Genus ''Mustela''** Mountain weasel, ''M.", "altaica''** Stoat (Beringian ermine), ''M.", "erminea''** Steppe polecat, ''M.", "eversmannii''** Domestic ferret, ''M.", "furo''** Haida ermine, ''M.", "haidarum''** Japanese weasel, ''M.", "itatsi''** Yellow-bellied weasel, ''M.", "kathiah''** European mink, ''M.", "lutreola''** Indonesian mountain weasel, ''M.", "lutreolina''** Black-footed ferret, ''M.", "nigripes''** Least weasel, ''M.", "nivalis''** Malayan weasel, ''M.", "nudipes''** European polecat, ''M.", "putorius''** American ermine, ''M.", "richardsonii''** Siberian weasel, ''M.", "sibirica''** Back-striped weasel, ''M.", "strigidorsa''* Genus ''Neogale''** Amazon weasel, ''N.", "africana''** Colombian weasel, ''N.", "felipei''** Long-tailed weasel, ''N.", "frenata''** American mink, ''N.", "vison''** Sea mink, ''N.", "macrodon'''''Fossil mustelids'''Extinct genera of the family Mustelidae include:* ''Brachypsalis''* ''Chamitataxus''* ''Corumictis''* ''Cyrnaonyx''* ''Ekorus''* ''Enhydriodon''* ''Eomellivora''* ''Hoplictis''* ''Megalictis''* ''Oligobunis''* ''Plesictis''* ''Sthenictis''* ''Teruelictis''* ''Trochictis''===Phylogeny===Multigene phylogenies constructed by Koepfli et al.", "(2008) and Law et al.", "(2018) found that Mustelidae comprises eight living subfamilies.", "The early mustelids appear to have undergone two rapid bursts of diversification in Eurasia, with the resulting species spreading to other continents only later.File:MustelidaePhylogeneticTree (edited).jpg|Phylogenetic tree of Mustelidae.", "Contains 53 of the 79 putative mustelid species.File:Mustelidae timetree (edited).jpg|Time-calibrated tree of Mustelidae showing divergence times between lineages.", "Split times include: 28.8 million years (Ma) for mustelids vs. procyonids; 17.8 Ma for Taxidiinae; 15.5 Ma for Mellivorinae; 14.8 Ma for Melinae; 14.0 Ma for Guloninae + Helictidinae; 11.5 Ma for Guloninae + Naquinae vs. Helictidinae; 12.0 Ma for Ictonychinae; 11.6 Ma for Lutrinae vs. Mustelinae.", "Mustelid species diversity is often attributed to an adaptive radiation coinciding with the mid-Miocene climate transition.", "Contrary to expectations, Law et al.", "(2018) found no evidence for rapid bursts of lineage diversification at the origin of the Mustelidae, and further analyses of lineage diversification rates using molecular and fossil-based methods did not find associations between rates of lineage diversification and mid-Miocene climate transition as previously hypothesized." ], [ "See also", "* List of heaviest extant mustelids" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "*\" The Mighty Weasel\" (February 19, 2020) – ''Nature''" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Maryland" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Maryland''' ( ) is a state in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States.", "The state borders Virginia to its south, West Virginia to its west, Pennsylvania to its north, Delaware to its east, the Atlantic Ocean, and the national capital of Washington, D.C. With a total land area of , Maryland is the ninth-smallest state by land area, and its population of 6,177,224 ranks it the 18th-most populous state and the fifth-most densely populated.", "Maryland's most populous city is Baltimore, and the capital is Annapolis.", "Occasional nicknames include ''Old Line State'', the ''Free State'', and the ''Chesapeake Bay State''.", "It is named after Henrietta Maria, the French-born queen of England, Scotland, and Ireland during the 17th century.The western portion of the state contains numerous stretches of the Appalachian Mountains, the central portion is primarily composed of the Piedmont, and the eastern side of the state makes up a significant portion of Chesapeake Bay.Maryland's coastline was first explored by Europeans in the 16th century.", "Prior to that, it was inhabited by several Native American tribes, mostly the Algonquian peoples and, to a lesser degree, Iroquoians and Siouans.", "As one of the original Thirteen Colonies of England, Maryland was founded by George Calvert, 1st Baron Baltimore, a Catholic convert who sought to provide a religious haven for Catholics persecuted in England.", "In 1632, Charles I of England granted Lord Baltimore a colonial charter, naming the colony after his wife, Henrietta Maria.", "Unlike the Pilgrims and Puritans, who rejected Catholicism in their settlements, Lord Baltimore envisioned a colony where people of different religious sects would coexist under the principle of toleration.In 1649, the Maryland General Assembly passed an Act Concerning Religion, which enshrined this principle by penalizing anyone who \"reproached\" a fellow Marylander based on religious affiliation.", "Nevertheless, religious strife was common in the early years, and Catholics remained a minority, albeit in greater numbers than in any other English colony.Maryland's early settlements and population centers clustered around rivers and other waterways that empty into the Chesapeake Bay.", "Its economy was heavily plantation-based and centered mostly on the cultivation of tobacco.", "Demand for cheap labor from Maryland colonists led to the importation of numerous indentured servants and enslaved Africans.", "In 1760, Maryland's current boundaries took form following the settlement of a long-running border dispute with Pennsylvania.", "Maryland was an active participant in the events leading up to the American Revolution, and by 1776, its delegates signed the Declaration of Independence.", "Many of its citizens subsequently played key political and military roles in the war.", "In 1790, the state ceded land for the establishment of the U.S. capital of Washington, D.C.Although then a slave state, Maryland remained in the Union during the American Civil War, its strategic location giving it a significant role in the conflict.", "After the Civil War, Maryland took part in the Industrial Revolution, driven by its seaports, railroad networks, and mass immigration from Europe.", "Since the 1940s, the state's population has grown rapidly, to approximately six million residents, and it is among the most densely populated U.S. states.", ", Maryland had the highest median household income of any state, owing in large part to its proximity to Washington, D.C., and a highly diversified economy spanning manufacturing, retail services, public administration, real estate, higher education, information technology, defense contracting, health care, and biotechnology.", "Maryland is one of the most multicultural states in the country; it is one of the six states where non-Whites compose a majority of the population, with the fifth-highest percentage of African Americans, and high numbers of residents born in Africa, Asia, Central America, and the Caribbean.", "The state's central role in U.S. history is reflected by its hosting of some of the highest numbers of historic landmarks per capita.Sixteen of Maryland's twenty-three counties, as well as the city of Baltimore, border the tidal waters of the Chesapeake Bay estuary and its many tributaries, which combined total more than 4,000 miles of shoreline.", "Although one of the smallest states in the U.S., it features a variety of climates and topographical features that have earned it the moniker of ''America in Miniature''.", "In a similar vein, Maryland's geography, culture, and history combine elements of the Mid-Atlantic, Northeastern, and Southern regions of the country." ], [ "History", "===17th century=======Maryland's first colonial settlement====George Calvert, 1st Baron Baltimore (1579–1632), sought a charter from King Charles I for the territory between Massachusetts to the north and Virginia to the immediate south.After Baltimore died in April 1632, the charter was granted to his son, Cecilius Calvert, 2nd Baron Baltimore (1605–1675), on June 20, 1632.Officially, the new \"Maryland Colony\" was named in honor of Henrietta Maria of France, wife of Charles I. Lord Baltimore initially proposed the name \"Crescentia\", the land of growth or increase, but \"the King proposed Terra Mariae Mary Land, which was concluded on and Inserted in the bill.", "\"The original capital of Maryland was St. Mary's City, on the north shore of the Potomac River, and the county surrounding it, the first erected/created in the province, was first called Augusta Carolina, after the King, and later named St. Mary's County.Lord Baltimore's first settlers arrived in the new colony in March 1634, with his younger brother the Honorable Leonard Calvert (1606–1647), as first provincial Governor of Maryland.", "They made their first permanent settlement at St. Mary's City in what is now St. Mary's County.", "They purchased the site from the paramount chief of the region, who was eager to establish trade.", "St. Mary's became the first capital of Maryland, and remained so for 60 years until 1695.More settlers soon followed.", "Their tobacco crops were successful and quickly made the new colony profitable.", "However, given the incidence of malaria, yellow fever, and typhoid, life expectancy in Maryland was about 10 years less than in New England.====Persecution of Catholics====Maryland was founded to provide a haven for England's Roman Catholic minority.Although Maryland was the most heavily Catholic of the English mainland colonies, the religion was still in the minority, consisting of less than 10% of the total population.In 1642, a number of Puritans left Virginia for Maryland and founded Providence (now called Annapolis) on the western shore of the upper Chesapeake Bay.", "A dispute with traders from Virginia over Kent Island in the Chesapeake led to armed conflict.", "In 1644, William Claiborne, a Puritan, seized Kent Island while his associate, the pro-Parliament Puritan Richard Ingle, took over St. Mary's.", "Both used religion as a tool to gain popular support.", "The two years from 1644 to 1646 when Claiborne and his Puritan associates held sway were known as \"The Plundering Time\".", "They captured Jesuit priests, imprisoned them, then sent them back to England.In 1646, Leonard Calvert returned with troops, recaptured St. Mary's City, and restored order.", "The House of Delegates passed the \"Act concerning Religion\" in 1649 granting religious liberty to all Trinitarian Christians.In 1650, the Puritans revolted against the proprietary government.", "\"Protestants swept the Catholics out of the legislature... and religious strife returned.\"", "The Puritans set up a new government prohibiting both Roman Catholicism and Anglicanism.", "The Puritan revolutionary government persecuted Maryland Catholics during its reign, known as the \"plundering time\".", "Mobs burned down all the original Catholic churches of southern Maryland.", "The Puritan rule lasted until 1658 when the Calvert family and Lord Baltimore regained proprietary control and re-enacted the Toleration Act.After England's \"Glorious Revolution\" of 1688, Maryland outlawed Catholicism.", "In 1704, the Maryland General Assembly prohibited Catholics from operating schools, limited the corporate ownership of property to hamper religious orders from expanding or supporting themselves, and encouraged the conversion of Catholic children.", "The celebration of the Catholic sacraments was also officially restricted.", "This state of affairs lasted until after the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783).", "Wealthy Catholic planters built chapels on their land to practice their religion in relative secrecy.Into the 18th century, individual priests and lay leaders claimed Maryland farms belonging to the Jesuits as personal property and bequeathed them in order to evade the legal restrictions on religious organizations' owning property.===Border disputes (1681–1760)===1732 map of MarylandThe royal charter granted Maryland the land north of the Potomac River up to the 40th parallel.", "A problem arose when Charles II granted a charter for Pennsylvania.", "The grant defined Pennsylvania's southern border as identical to Maryland's northern border, the 40th parallel.", "But the grant indicated that Charles II and William Penn assumed the 40th parallel would pass close to New Castle, Delaware when it falls north of Philadelphia, the site of which Penn had already selected for his colony's capital city.", "Negotiations ensued after the problem was discovered in 1681.A compromise proposed by Charles II in 1682 was undermined by Penn's receiving the additional grant of what is now Delaware.", "Penn successfully argued that the Maryland charter entitled Lord Baltimore only to unsettled lands, and Dutch settlement in Delaware predated his charter.", "The dispute remained unresolved for nearly a century, carried on by the descendants of William Penn and Lord Baltimore—the Calvert family, which controlled Maryland, and the Penn family, which controlled Pennsylvania.The border dispute with Pennsylvania led to Cresap's War in the 1730s.", "Hostilities erupted in 1730 and escalated through the first half of the decade, culminating in the deployment of military forces by Maryland in 1736 and by Pennsylvania in 1737.The armed phase of the conflict ended in May 1738 with the intervention of King George II, who compelled the negotiation of a cease-fire.", "A provisional agreement had been established in 1732.Negotiations continued until a final agreement was signed in 1760.The agreement defined the border between Maryland and Pennsylvania as the line of latitude now known as the Mason–Dixon line.", "Maryland's border with Delaware was based on a Transpeninsular Line and the Twelve-Mile Circle around New Castle.===18th century===Most of the English colonists arrived in Maryland as indentured servants, and had to serve a several years' term as laborers to pay for their passage.", "In the early years, the line between indentured servants and African slaves or laborers was fluid, and white and black laborers commonly lived and worked together, and formed unions.", "Mixed-race children born to white mothers were considered free by the principle of ''partus sequitur ventrem'', by which children took the social status of their mothers, a principle of slave law that was adopted throughout the colonies, following Virginia in 1662.Many of the free black families migrated to Delaware, where land was cheaper.", "As the flow of indentured laborers to the colony decreased with improving economic conditions in England, planters in Maryland imported thousands more slaves and racial caste lines hardened.Maryland was one of the thirteen colonies that revolted against British rule in the American Revolution.", "Near the end of the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783), on February 2, 1781, Maryland became the last and 13th state to approve the ratification of the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, first proposed in 1776 and adopted by the Second Continental Congress in 1778, which brought into being the United States as a united, sovereign and national state.", "It also became the seventh state admitted to the Union after ratifying the new federal Constitution in 1788.In December 1790, Maryland donated land selected by first President George Washington to the federal government for the creation of the new national capital of Washington, D.C.", "The land was provided along the north shore of the Potomac River from Montgomery and Prince George's counties, as well as from Fairfax County and Alexandria on the south shore of the Potomac in Virginia; however, the land donated by the Commonwealth of Virginia was later returned to that state by the District of Columbia retrocession in 1846.===19th century===The bombardment of Fort McHenry in the Battle of Baltimore inspired \"The Star-Spangled Banner\".Influenced by a changing economy, revolutionary ideals, and preaching by ministers, numerous planters in Maryland freed their slaves in the 20 years after the Revolutionary War.", "Across the Upper South the free black population increased from less than 1% before the war to 14% by 1810.Abolitionists Harriet Tubman and Frederick Douglass were born slaves during this time in Dorchester County and Talbot County, respectively.During the War of 1812, the British military attempted to capture Baltimore, which was protected by Fort McHenry.", "During this bombardment the song \"Star-Spangled Banner\" was written by Francis Scott Key; it was later adopted as the national anthem.The National Road (U.S. Hwy 40 today) was authorized in 1817 and ran from Baltimore to St. Louis—the first federal highway.", "The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad (B&O) was the first chartered railroad in the United States.", "It opened its first section of track for regular operation in 1830 between Baltimore and Ellicott City, and in 1852 it became the first rail line to reach the Ohio River from the eastern seaboard.====Civil War====The Battle of Antietam in 1862 was one of the bloodiest battles of the Civil War with nearly 23,000 casualties.The state remained with the Union during the Civil War, due in significant part to demographics and Federal intervention.", "The 1860 census, held shortly before the outbreak of the civil war, showed that 49% of Maryland's African Americans were free.Governor Thomas Holliday Hicks suspended the state legislature, and to help ensure the election of a new pro-union governor and legislature, President Abraham Lincoln had a number of its pro-slavery politicians arrested, including the Mayor of Baltimore, George William Brown; suspended several civil liberties, including ''habeas corpus''; and ordered artillery placed on Federal Hill overlooking Baltimore.In April 1861, Federal units and state regiments were attacked as they marched through Baltimore, sparking the Baltimore riot of 1861, the first bloodshed in the Civil War.", "Of the 115,000 Marylanders who joined the military during the Civil War, around 85,000, or 77%, joined the Union army, while the remainder joined the Confederate Army.", "The largest and most significant battle in the state was the Battle of Antietam on September 17, 1862, near Sharpsburg.", "Although a tactical draw, the battle was considered a strategic Union victory and a turning point of the war.====After the war====A new state constitution in 1864 abolished slavery and Maryland was first recognized as a \"Free State\" in that context.", "Following passage of constitutional amendments that granted voting rights to freedmen, in 1867 the state extended suffrage to non-white males.The Democratic Party rapidly regained power in the state from Republicans.", "Democrats replaced the Constitution of 1864 with the Constitution of 1867.Following the end of Reconstruction in 1877, Democrats devised means of disenfranchising blacks, initially by physical intimidation and voter fraud, later by constitutional amendments and laws.", "Blacks and immigrants, however, resisted Democratic Party disfranchisement efforts in the state.", "Maryland blacks were part of a biracial Republican coalition elected to state government in 1896–1904 and comprised 20% of the electorate.Compared to some other states, blacks were better established both before and after the civil war.", "Nearly half the black population was free before the war, and some had accumulated property.", "Half the population lived in cities.", "Literacy was high among blacks and, as Democrats crafted means to exclude them, suffrage campaigns helped reach blacks and teach them how to resist.", "Whites did impose racial segregation in public facilities and Jim Crow laws, which effectively lasted until the passage of federal civil rights legislation in the mid-1960s.Baltimore grew significantly during the Industrial Revolution, due in large part to its seaport and good railroad connections, attracting European immigrant labor.", "Many manufacturing businesses were established in the Baltimore area after the Civil War.", "Baltimore businessmen, including Johns Hopkins, Enoch Pratt, George Peabody, and Henry Walters, founded notable city institutions that bear their names, including respectively a university, library system, music and dance conservatory, and art museum.Cumberland was Maryland's second-largest city in the 19th century.", "Nearby supplies of natural resources along with railroads fostered its growth into a major manufacturing center.===20th and 21st centuries=======Early 20th century====Ruin left by the Great Baltimore Fire of 1904The Progressive Era of the late 19th and early 20th centuries brought political reforms.", "In a series of laws passed between 1892 and 1908, reformers worked for standard state-issued ballots (rather than those distributed and marked by the parties); obtained closed voting booths to prevent party workers from \"assisting\" voters; initiated primary elections to keep party bosses from selecting candidates; and had candidates listed without party symbols, which discouraged the illiterate from participating.", "These measures worked against ill-educated whites and blacks.", "Blacks resisted such efforts, with suffrage groups conducting voter education.Blacks defeated three efforts to disenfranchise them, making alliances with immigrants to resist various Democratic campaigns.", "Disenfranchisement bills in 1905, 1907, and 1911 were rebuffed, in large part because of black opposition.", "Blacks comprised 20% of the electorate and immigrants comprised 15%, and the legislature had difficulty devising requirements against blacks that did not also disadvantage immigrants.The Progressive Era also brought reforms in working conditions for Maryland's labor force.", "In 1902, the state regulated conditions in mines; outlawed child laborers under the age of 12; mandated compulsory school attendance; and enacted the nation's first workers' compensation law.", "The workers' compensation law was overturned in the courts, but was redrafted and finally enacted in 1910.The Great Baltimore Fire of 1904 burned for more than 30 hours, destroying 1,526 buildings and spanning 70 city blocks.", "More than 1,231 firefighters worked to bring the blaze under control.With the nation's entry into World War I in 1917, new military bases such as Camp Meade, the Aberdeen Proving Ground, and the Edgewood Arsenal were established.", "Existing facilities, including Fort McHenry, were greatly expanded.After Georgia congressman William D. Upshaw criticized Maryland openly in 1923 for not passing Prohibition laws, ''Baltimore Sun'' editor Hamilton Owens coined the \"Free State\" nickname for Maryland in that context, which was popularized by H. L. Mencken in a series of newspaper editorials.Maryland's urban and rural communities had different experiences during the Great Depression.", "The \"Bonus Army\" marched through the state in 1932 on its way to Washington, D.C. Maryland instituted its first income tax in 1937 to generate revenue for schools and welfare.Passenger and freight steamboat service, once important throughout Chesapeake Bay and its many tributary rivers, ended in 1962.Baltimore was a major war production center during World War II.", "The biggest operations were Bethlehem Steel's Fairfield Yard, which built Liberty ships; and Glenn Martin, an aircraft manufacturer.====1950–present====Maryland experienced population growth following World War II.", "Beginning in the 1960s, as suburban growth took hold around Washington, D.C. and Baltimore, the state began to take on a more mid-Atlantic culture as opposed to the traditionally Southern and Tidewater culture that previously dominated most of the state.", "Agricultural tracts gave way to residential communities, some of them carefully planned such as Columbia, St. Charles, and Montgomery Village.", "Concurrently the Interstate Highway System was built throughout the state, most notably I-95, I-695, and the Capital Beltway, altering travel patterns.", "In 1952, the eastern and western halves of Maryland were linked for the first time by the Chesapeake Bay Bridge, which replaced a nearby ferry service.Maryland's regions experienced economic changes following WWII.", "Heavy manufacturing declined in Baltimore.", "In Maryland's four westernmost counties, industrial, railroad, and coal mining jobs declined.", "On the lower Eastern Shore, family farms were bought up by major concerns and large-scale poultry farms and vegetable farming became prevalent.", "In Southern Maryland, tobacco farming nearly vanished due to suburban development and a state tobacco buy-out program in the 1990s.In an effort to reverse depopulation due to the loss of working-class industries, Baltimore initiated urban renewal projects in the 1960s with Charles Center and the Baltimore World Trade Center.", "Some resulted in the break-up of intact residential neighborhoods, producing social volatility, and some older residential areas around the harbor have had units renovated and have become popular with new populations." ], [ "Geography", "Physical regions of MarylandMaryland has an area of and is comparable in overall area with Belgium .", "It is the 42nd-largest and 9th-smallest state and is closest in size to the state of Hawaii , the next smallest state.", "The next largest state is Maryland's neighbor, West Virginia, which is nearly twice the size of Maryland .===Description===Western Maryland is known for its heavily forested mountains.", "A panoramic view of Deep Creek Lake and the surrounding Appalachian Mountains in Garrett County.Great Falls on the Potomac RiverPatapsco River includes the Thomas Viaduct and is part of the Patapsco Valley State Park; the river forms Baltimore's Inner Harbor as it empties into the Chesapeake Bay.Sunset over a marsh at Cardinal Cove on the Patuxent RiverTidal wetlands of the Chesapeake Bay, the largest estuary in the nation and the largest water feature in MarylandMaryland possesses a variety of topography within its borders, contributing to its nickname ''America in Miniature''.", "It ranges from sandy dunes dotted with seagrass in the east, to low marshlands teeming with wildlife and large bald cypress near the Chesapeake Bay, to gently rolling hills of oak forests in the Piedmont Region, and pine groves in the Maryland mountains to the west.Maryland is bounded on its north by Pennsylvania, on its north and east by Delaware, on its east by the Atlantic Ocean, and on its south and west, across the Potomac River, by West Virginia and Virginia.", "The mid-portion of its border with Virginia is interrupted by Washington, D.C., which sits on land that was originally part of Montgomery and Prince George's counties and including the town of Georgetown, Maryland.", "This land was ceded to the United States Federal Government in 1790 to form the Washington, D.C. Chesapeake Bay nearly bisects the state, and the counties east of the bay are known collectively as the Eastern Shore.Most of the state's waterways are part of the Chesapeake Bay watershed, with the exceptions of a tiny portion of extreme western Garrett County (drained by the Youghiogheny River as part of the watershed of the Mississippi River), the eastern half of Worcester County (which drains into Maryland's Atlantic coastal bays), and a small portion of the state's northeast corner (which drains into the Delaware River watershed).", "So prominent is the Chesapeake in Maryland's geography and economic life that there has been periodic agitation to change the state's official nickname to the \"Bay State\", a nickname that has been used by Massachusetts for decades.The highest point in Maryland, with an elevation of , is Hoye Crest on Backbone Mountain, in the southwest corner of Garrett County, near the border with West Virginia, and near the headwaters of the North Branch of the Potomac River.", "Close to the small town of Hancock, in western Maryland, about two-thirds of the way across the state, less than separates its borders, the Mason–Dixon line to the north, and the northwards-arching Potomac River to the south.Portions of Maryland are included in various official and unofficial geographic regions.", "For example, the Delmarva Peninsula is composed of the Eastern Shore counties of Maryland, the entire state of Delaware, and the two counties that make up the Eastern Shore of Virginia, whereas the westernmost counties of Maryland are considered part of Appalachia.", "Much of the Baltimore–Washington corridor lies just south of the Piedmont in the Coastal Plain, though it straddles the border between the two regions.===Geology===Earthquakes in Maryland are infrequent and small due to the state's distance from seismic/earthquake zones.", "The M5.8 Virginia earthquake in 2011 was felt moderately throughout Maryland.", "Buildings in the state are not well-designed for earthquakes and can suffer damage easily.Maryland has no natural lakes, mostly due to the lack of glacial history in the area.", "All lakes in the state today were constructed, mostly via dams.", "Buckel's Bog is believed by geologists to have been a remnant of a former natural lake.Maryland has shale formations containing natural gas, where fracking is theoretically possible.===Flora===Black-eyed susans, the state flower, grow throughout much of the state.As is typical of states on the East Coast, Maryland's plant life is abundant and healthy.", "An adequate volume of annual precipitation helps to support many types of plants, including seagrass and various reeds at the smaller end of the spectrum to the gigantic Wye Oak, a huge example of white oak, the state tree, which can grow over tall.Middle Atlantic coastal forests, typical of the southeastern Atlantic coastal plain, grow around Chesapeake Bay and on the Delmarva Peninsula.", "Moving west, a mixture of Northeastern coastal forests and Southeastern mixed forests cover the central part of the state.", "The Appalachian Mountains of western Maryland are home to Appalachian-Blue Ridge forests.", "These give way to Appalachian mixed mesophytic forests near the West Virginia border.Many foreign species are cultivated in the state, some as ornamentals, others as novelty species.", "Included among these are the crape myrtle, Italian cypress, southern magnolia, live oak in the warmer parts of the state, and even hardy palm trees in the warmer central and eastern parts of the state.", "USDA plant hardiness zones in the state range from Zones 5and6 in the extreme western part of the state to Zone7 in the central part, and Zone8 around the southern part of the coast, the bay area, and parts of metropolitan Baltimore.", "Invasive plant species, such as kudzu, tree of heaven, multiflora rose, and Japanese stiltgrass, stifle growth of endemic plant life.", "Maryland's state flower, the black-eyed susan, grows in abundance in wild flower groups throughout the state.===Fauna===A feral Chincoteague Pony on Assateague Island on Maryland's Atlantic coastal islandsThe state harbors a considerable number of white-tailed deer, especially in the woody and mountainous west of the state, and overpopulation can become a problem.", "Mammals can be found ranging from the mountains in the west to the central areas and include black bears, bobcats, foxes, coyotes, raccoons, and otters.There is a population of rare wild (feral) horses found on Assateague Island.", "They are believed to be descended from horses who escaped from Spanish galleon shipwrecks.", "Every year during the last week of July, they are captured and swim across a shallow bay for sale at Chincoteague, Virginia, a conservation technique which ensures the tiny island is not overrun by the horses.", "The ponies and their sale were popularized by the children's book, ''Misty of Chincoteague.", "''The purebred Chesapeake Bay Retriever dog was bred specifically for water sports, hunting and search and rescue in the Chesapeake area.", "In 1878, the Chesapeake Bay Retriever was the first individual retriever breed recognized by the American Kennel Club.", "and was later adopted by the University of Maryland, Baltimore County as their mascot.Maryland's reptile and amphibian population includes the diamondback terrapin turtle, which was adopted as the mascot of University of Maryland, College Park, as well as the threatened Eastern box turtle.", "The state is part of the territory of the Baltimore oriole, which is the official state bird and mascot of the MLB team the Baltimore Orioles.", "Aside from the oriole, 435 other species of birds have been reported from Maryland.The state insect is the Baltimore checkerspot butterfly, although it is not as common in Maryland as it is in the southern edge of its range.===Environment===Maryland joined with neighboring states during the end of the 20th century to improve the health of the Chesapeake Bay.", "The bay's aquatic life and seafood industry have been threatened by development and by fertilizer and livestock waste entering the bay.In 2007, Forbes.com rated Maryland as the fifth \"Greenest\" state in the country, behind three of the Pacific States and Vermont.", "Maryland ranks 40th in total energy consumption nationwide, and it managed less toxic waste per capita than all but six states in 2005.In April 2007, Maryland joined the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative (RGGI) — a regional initiative, formed by all the Northeastern states, Washington, D.C., and three Canadian provinces, to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.", "In March 2017, Maryland became the first state with proven gas reserves to ban fracking by passing a law against it.", "Vermont has such a law, but no shale gas, and New York has such a ban, though it was made by executive order.===Climate===Köppen climate types of Maryland, using 1991–2020 climate normalsWinter on Lancaster Street in Baltimore's Fells PointMaryland has a wide array of climates, due to local variances in elevation, proximity to water, and protection from colder weather due to downslope winds.The eastern half of Maryland — which includes the cities of Ocean City, Salisbury, Annapolis, and the southern and eastern suburbs of Washington, D.C., and Baltimore — lies on the Atlantic Coastal Plain, with flat topography and sandy or muddy soil.", "This region has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen ''Cfa''), with hot, humid summers and cool to cold winters; it falls under USDA Hardiness zone 8a.The Piedmont region, which includes northern and western greater Baltimore, Westminster, Gaithersburg, Frederick, and Hagerstown, has average seasonal snowfall totals generally exceeding , and, as part of USDA Hardiness zones 7b and 7a, temperatures below are less rare.", "From the Cumberland Valley on westward, the climate begins to transition to a humid continental climate (Köppen ''Dfa'').In western Maryland, the higher elevations of Allegany and Garrett counties, including the cities of Cumberland, Frostburg, and Oakland, display more characteristics of the humid continental zone, due in part to elevation.", "They fall under USDA Hardiness zones 6b and below.Precipitation in the state is characteristic of the East Coast.", "Annual rainfall ranges from with more in higher elevations.", "Nearly every part of Maryland receives per month of rain.", "Average annual snowfall varies from in the coastal areas to over in the western mountains of the state.Because of its location near the Atlantic Coast, Maryland is somewhat vulnerable to tropical cyclones, although the Delmarva Peninsula and the outer banks of North Carolina provide a large buffer, such that strikes from major hurricanes (category3 or above) occur infrequently.", "More often, Maryland gets the remnants of a tropical system that has already come ashore and released most of its energy.", "Maryland averages around 30–40 days of thunderstorms a year, and averages around six tornado strikes annually.Monthly average high and low temperatures for various Maryland cities and landmarks (covering breadth and width of the state) City Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Oakland Cumberland Hagerstown Frederick Baltimore Elkton Ocean City Waldorf Point Lookout State Park ''''=== Cities and metro areas ===Maryland population distribution map; Maryland's population is concentrated mostly in the Washington–Baltimore combined statistical area.Most of the population of Maryland lives in the central region of the state, in the Baltimore metropolitan area and Washington metropolitan area, both of which are part of the Baltimore–Washington metropolitan area.", "The majority of Maryland's population is concentrated in the cities and suburbs surrounding Washington, D.C., as well as in and around Maryland's most populous city, Baltimore.", "Historically, these and many other Maryland cities developed along the Fall Line, the line along which rivers, brooks, and streams are interrupted by rapids and waterfalls.", "Maryland's capital city, Annapolis, is one exception to this pattern since it lies along the banks of the Severn River, close to where it empties into the Chesapeake Bay.The Eastern Shore is less populous and more rural, as are the counties of western Maryland.", "The two westernmost counties of Maryland, Allegany and Garrett, are mountainous and sparsely populated, resembling West Virginia and Appalachia more than they do the rest of the state.", "Both eastern and western Maryland are, however, dotted with cities of regional importance, such as Ocean City, Princess Anne, and Salisbury on the Eastern Shore and Cumberland, Frostburg, and Hancock in Western Maryland.", "Southern Maryland is still somewhat rural, but suburbanization from Washington, D.C., has encroached significantly since the 1960s; important local population centers include Lexington Park, Prince Frederick, California, and Waldorf." ], [ "Demographics", "Maryland's countiesIn the 2020 United States census, the United States Census Bureau found that population of Maryland was 6,185,278 people, a 7.1% increase from the 2010 United States census.", "The United States Census Bureau estimated that the population of Maryland was 6,045,680 on July 1, 2019, a 4.71% increase from the 2010 United States census and an increase of 2,962, from the prior year.", "This includes a natural increase since the last census of 269,166 (464,251 births minus 275,093 deaths) and an increase due to net migration of 116,713 people into the state.", "Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 129,730 people, and migration within the country produced a net loss of 13,017 people.", "In 2018, The top countries of origin for Maryland's immigrants were El Salvador (11%), India (6%), China (5%), Nigeria (5%), and the Philippines (4%).", "The center of population of Maryland is located on the county line between Anne Arundel County and Howard County, in the unincorporated community of Jessup.Maryland's history as a border state has led it to exhibit characteristics of both the Northern and the Southern regions of the United States.", "Generally, rural Western Maryland between the West Virginian Panhandle and Pennsylvania has an Appalachian culture; the Southern and Eastern Shore regions of Maryland embody a Southern culture,while densely populated Central Maryland – radiating outward from Baltimore and Washington, D.C. – has more in common with that of the Northeast.", "The U.S. Census Bureau designates Maryland as one of the South Atlantic States, but it is commonly associated with the Mid-Atlantic States and Northeastern United States by other federal agencies, the media, and some residents.According to HUD's 2022 Annual Homeless Assessment Report, there were an estimated 5,349 homeless people in Maryland.===Birth data===As of 2011, 58.0 percent of Maryland's population younger than age1 were minority background.", "''Note: Births in the table do not add up because Hispanics are counted both by their ethnicity and by their race, giving a higher overall number.", "''+ Live births by single race/ethnicity of mother Race 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 White: 41,474 (57.6%) 42,525 (57.5%) 42,471 (57.7%) ... ... ... ... ... ... > Non-Hispanic White 32,568 (45.2%) 33,178 (44.9%) 32,412 (44.0%) 31,278 (42.8%) 29,809 (41.6%) 29,585 (41.6%) 28,846 (41.1%) 28,060 (40.9%) 28,193 (41.3%) Black 24,764 (34.4%) 25,339 (34.3%) 25,017 (34.0%) 22,829 (31.2%) 22,327 (31.1%) 21,893 (30.8%) 21,494 (30.6%) 20,869 (30.4%) 20,449 (29.9%) Asian 5,415 (7.5%) 5,797 (7.8%) 5,849 (7.9%) 5,282 (7.2%) 5,276 (7.3%) 4,928 (6.9%) 4,928 (7.0%) 4,595 (6.7%) 4,431 (6.5%) American Indian 300 (0.4%) 260 (0.3%) 279 (0.4%) 104 (0.1%) 127 (0.2%) 114 (0.2%) 113 (0.2%) 79 (0.1%) 83 (0.1%) ''Hispanic'' (of any race) ''10,515'' (14.6%) ''10,974'' (14.8%) ''11,750'' (16.0%) ''11,872'' (16.2%) ''12,223'' (17.1%) ''12,470'' (17.5%) ''12,872'' (18.3%) ''13,034'' (19.0%) ''13,164'' (19.3%) '''Total Maryland''' '''71,953''' (100%) '''73,921''' (100%) '''73,616''' (100%) '''73,136''' (100%) '''71,641''' (100%) '''71,080''' (100%) '''70,178''' (100%) '''68,554''' (100%) '''68,285''' (100%)Since 2016, data for births of White Hispanic origin are not collected, but included in one ''Hispanic'' group; persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.+Country of birth (2022) Birthplace Population United States 4,999,873 105,778 60,535 43,499 39,185 38,222 37,020 34,091 33,833 28,554 26,068 21,991 19,934 19,08217,41416,38614,72213,8808,646-25,000===Language and ancestry===As of 2016, the most spoken languages in Maryland other than English were Spanish (9%), Chinese (1.2%), West African languages (mostly Yoruba and Igbo, 1%), French (1%), Korean (0.7%), Afro-Asiatic languages (mostly Amharic, 0.6%), and Tagalog (0.6%).", "Other languages with a large number of speakers in Maryland include Vietnamese (0.4%), Arabic (0.4%), Russian (0.4%), Hindi (0.3%), Urdu (0.3%), Persian (0.3%), Nepali (0.3%), Haitian Creole (0.2%), and Telugu (0.2%).+ Racial breakdown of population of Maryland Racial composition 1970 1990 2000 20102020 White 81.5% 71.0% 64.0% 60.8%58.5% Black 17.8% 24.9% 27.9% 29.8%31.1% Asian 0.5% 2.9% 4.0% 5.5%6.7% Native American 0.1% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3%0.6% Other race 0.1% 0.9% 1.8% 3.6%– Two or more races – – 2.0% 2.9%2.9% Non-Hispanic whites 80.4% 69.6% 62.1% 54.7%50.0%Ethnic origins in Maryland2020 U.S. census findings '''Non-Hispanic White''''''Black or African American'''241x241pxIn 1970, the U.S. Census Bureau reported Maryland's population as 17.8 percent African-American and 80.4 percent non-Hispanic White.In 2019, non-Hispanic white Americans were 49.8% of Maryland's population (White Americans, including White Hispanics, were 57.3%), which made Maryland a majority minority state.", "50.2% of Maryland's population is non-white, or is Hispanic or Latino, the highest percentage of any state on the East Coast, and the highest percentage after the majority-minority states of Hawaii, New Mexico, Texas, California, and Nevada, along with Washington D.C. By 2031, minorities are projected to become the majority of voting eligible residents of Maryland.", "Maryland's multiculturalism and diversity can be explained by its historically large African American population, and immigration brought by the importance of the D.C. and Baltimore areas, especially from Central America, Africa, the Caribbean, and Asia.African Americans form a sizable portion of the state's population, 31.1% as of 2020.Most are descendants of people transported to the area as slaves from West Africa.", "Concentrations of African Americans live in Baltimore City, Prince George's County, Charles County, western parts of Baltimore County, and the southern Eastern Shore.", "Charles County and Prince George's County are the two counties where African Americans are the most successful monetarily in the country, with average household incomes much higher than in the rest of the country.", "As a former slave state, Maryland has had a large African-American population for much of its history; African American populations have increased over time with the Great Migration to the D.C. and Baltimore areas, and in more recent times with the New Great Migration and with movement out from Washington D.C. into Montgomery, Prince George's, and Charles counties, as a result of gentrification and rising housing costs in D.C. causing many African Americans to leave.", "Prince George's County in particular has been a magnet for African Americans from D.C. to move to for decades; it is often referred to as \"Ward 9\" of D.C.Maryland has by far the highest percentage of residents born in Africa out of any state; residents of African descent include 20th-century and later immigrants from Nigeria, particularly of the Igbo and Yoruba tribes; Ethiopia, particularly Amharas with significant Oromo and Tigrayan populations; Cameroon, Ghana, Sierra Leone, and Kenya.", "Maryland also hosts populations from other African and Caribbean nations.", "Maryland's African immigrant population is generally well-educated and is most concentrated in the inner suburbs of Baltimore and D.C. Nigerians are the fourth-largest immigrant group in Maryland, and are largely concentrated in the Baltimore area and surrounding suburbs, as well as Prince George's county.", "Many immigrants from the Horn of Africa, especially Ethiopia, have settled in Maryland, with large communities in the suburbs of Washington, D.C. (particularly Montgomery County and Prince George's County); the Greater Washington area has the world's largest population of Ethiopians outside of Ethiopia.", "The Ethiopian community of Greater D.C. was historically based in Washington, D.C.'s Adams Morgan and Shaw neighborhoods, but as the community has grown, many Ethiopians have settled in Silver Spring.", "The Ethiopian American population in Maryland and the rest of the D.C. area is largely Amharic-speaking, but there are significant numbers of speakers of Oromo and Tigrinya speakers as well.", "The Washington, D.C., metropolitan area is also home to a large Eritrean community.The top reported ancestries by Maryland residents are: German (15%), Irish (11%), English (8%), American (7%), Italian (6%), and Polish (3%).Irish American populations can be found throughout the Baltimore area, and the Northern and Eastern suburbs of Washington, D.C., in Maryland (descendants of those who moved out to the suburbs of Washington's once predominantly Irish neighborhoods), as well as Western Maryland, where Irish immigrant laborers helped to build the B&O Railroad.", "Smaller but much older Irish populations can be found in Southern Maryland, with some roots dating as far back as the early Maryland colony.", "This population, however, still remains culturally very active and yearly festivals are held.A large percentage of the population of the Eastern Shore and Southern Maryland are descendants of British American ancestry.", "The Eastern Shore was settled by Protestants, chiefly Methodist and the southern counties were initially settled by English Catholics.", "Western and northern Maryland have large German-American populations.More recent European immigrants of the late 19th and early 20th century settled first in Baltimore, attracted to its industrial jobs.", "These groups were largely of Jewish, Italian, Greek, Polish, Czech, Lithuanian, Russian and Ukrainian descent.", "The Greek community includes a number of Greek Jews.", "These Southern and Eastern European immigrants were largely concentrated in Southeast Baltimore and significantly influenced the unique culture of the city; although many have moved out into surrounding areas of Baltimore County due to gentrification, the city retains the culture and influence of these immigrants, and cultural events celebrating these communities are common in Baltimore.", "Maryland has had a significant Jewish American presence since the early 20th century, with large numbers of Jewish immigrants to the Baltimore area, followed by Jewish migration to the Washington D.C. area; Maryland has the fifth-highest percentage of Jewish residents in the country (including Washington D.C.), with 239,000 Jews making up 4 percent of the population, and the Washington-Baltimore area having the seventh-largest number of Jews of any combined metropolitan area in the country, with a Jewish population estimated at 300,000.The shares of European immigrants born in Eastern Europe increased significantly between 1990 and 2010.Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Yugoslavia, and Czechoslovakia, many immigrants from Eastern Europe came to the United States—12 percent of whom currently reside in Maryland.Hispanic immigrants of the later 20th century have settled in Aspen Hill, Hyattsville/Langley Park, Glenmont/Wheaton, Bladensburg, Riverdale Park, Gaithersburg, as well as Highlandtown and Greektown in East Baltimore.", "Maryland has the highest percentage of residents of Central American origin of any state.", "Salvadorans are the largest Hispanic group in Maryland, and Maryland has the largest percentage of Salvadoran residents of any state.", "The D.C. area also has the highest percentage of Salvadorans of any American metro area, who are particularly concentrated in Prince George's and Montgomery counties, and has the second-highest total number of Salvadorans after the Los Angeles area.", "Other Hispanic groups with significant populations in the state include Mexicans, Guatemalans, Hondurans, Dominicans, Peruvians, and Puerto Ricans, along with growing populations of Brazilians, Colombians, Ecuadorians, and Bolivians.", "Maryland's Hispanic population is especially concentrated in Montgomery County and Prince George's County, with other large populations in the Baltimore area and Frederick County.", "Maryland has one of the most diverse Hispanic populations in the country, with significant populations from various Caribbean and Central American nations.Caribbean Americans have a significant presence in Maryland, especially Jamaican Americans, who make up 0.6% of the population and have had a significant presence and influence in Maryland's politics and culture; Maryland's current governor, Wes Moore, is the son of a Jamaican immigrant mother.", "Other Caribbean American nationalities with a large population in Maryland include Dominicans, Haitians, Trinidadians and Tobagonians, and Guyanese.", "Caribbean Americans are most concentrated in Prince George's County, the city of Baltimore, and Baltimore County.Asian Americans are concentrated in the suburban counties surrounding Washington, D.C., and in Baltimore suburbs, especially Howard County, with Chinese American, Korean American and Taiwanese American communities in Rockville, Gaithersburg, and Germantown.", "Chinese in particular form the second largest group of Asian Americans, and are the largest group in Montgomery County.", "Maryland also has a large Korean American population, especially in Howard County, where there is a Koreatown in Ellicott City.", "Filipino Americans, the largest group of Southeast Asians, form major communities in Montgomery, Prince George's, and Charles counties; other large groups of Southeast Asians include Vietnamese, who are concentrated in Montgomery County, and Burmese, who are concentrated in Frederick, Howard, and Baltimore Counties.", "Maryland has a very large and diverse South Asian American population that has had a major presence in the state since the 1970s.", "Indian Americans are the largest Asian group in Maryland, making up 1.7 percent of the population, and live throughout the state, especially in Montgomery and Howard counties, with large numbers in Baltimore, Frederick, and Prince George's counties.", "The Indian American population is culturally and linguistically diverse, with the Indian languages spoken most being Hindi, Gujarati, Telugu, and Tamil.", "There are also large Pakistani American populations throughout the D.C. and Baltimore areas, especially in Baltimore County and Howard County, and a large Bangladeshi American community in the D.C. area.", "Maryland has one of the largest populations of Nepali Americans, including Bhutanese Americans of Nepali descent, in the U.S., many of whom are recent immigrants or refugees who sought asylum after expulsion from Bhutan or the 2015 Nepal earthquake; there are an estimated 20,000 to 25,000 Nepalis in Maryland, concentrated in the Baltimore area with significant populations in the D.C. area.", "The first Nepali American elected to a state legislature, Harry Bhandari, was elected in Maryland, representing part of Baltimore County.Attracting educated Asians and Africans to the professional jobs in the region, Maryland has the fifth-largest proportions of racial minorities in the country.In 2006, 645,744 were counted as foreign born, which represents mainly people from Latin America and Asia.", "About four percent are undocumented immigrants.According to The Williams Institute's analysis of the 2010 U.S. census, 12,538 same-sex couples are living in Maryland, representing 5.8 same-sex couples per 1,000 households.===Religion===Baltimore Basilica was the first Catholic cathedral built in the U.S.|leftMaryland has been historically prominent to American Catholic tradition because the English colony of Maryland was intended by George Calvert as a haven for English Catholics.", "Baltimore was the seat of the first Catholic bishop in the U.S. (1789), and Emmitsburg was the home and burial place of the first American-born citizen to be canonized, St. Elizabeth Ann Seton.", "Georgetown University, the first Catholic University, was founded in 1789 in what was then part of Maryland; it became a part of the District of Columbia when it was created in the 1790s.", "The Basilica of the National Shrine of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary in Baltimore was the first Roman Catholic cathedral built in the United States, and the Archbishop of Baltimore is, albeit without formal primacy, the United States' quasi-primate, and often a cardinal.", "Among the immigrants of the 19th and 20th centuries from eastern and southern Europe were many Catholics.Despite its historic relevance to the Catholic Church in the United States, the percentage of Catholics in the state of Maryland is below the national average of 20%.", "Demographically, both Protestants and those identifying with no religion are more numerous than Catholics.According to the Pew Research Center in 2014, 69 percent of Maryland's population identifies themselves as Christian.", "Nearly 52% of the adult population are Protestants.", "Following Protestantism, Catholicism is the second largest religious affiliation, comprising 15% percent of the population.", "Amish/Mennonite communities are found in St. Mary's, Garrett, and Cecil counties.", "Judaism is the largest non-Christian religion in Maryland, with 241,000 adherents, or four percent of the total population.", "Jews are numerous throughout Montgomery County and in Pikesville and Owings Mills northwest of Baltimore.", "An estimated 81,500 Jewish Americans live in Montgomery County, constituting approximately 10% of the total population.", "The Seventh-day Adventist Church's world headquarters and Ahmadiyya Muslims' national headquarters are located in Silver Spring, just outside Washington, D.C..Per the Public Religion Research Institute in 2020, 61 percent of Maryland's population identified with Christianity.", "Protestantism and Roman Catholicism continued to dominate the Christian landscape, and the Jewish community remained at 3% of the total religious population.", "Of the unaffiliated, the PRRI study determined their increase to 28% of the population.=== LGBT population ===Maryland has one of the highest percentages of LGBT people in its populace out of any state; 5.7% of Marylanders identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, or queer, the highest of any state.", "(Washington, D.C. ranks higher with a LGBT population of 8.6%.)", "Maryland ranks as one of the best states in the nation for rights of the LGBT community, with protections against discrimination enacted since 2001 for sexuality and 2014 for gender, same-sex marriage legalization in 2013, bans on conversion therapy enacted in 2018, abolition of the gay panic defense in 2021, and issuance in 2023 of an executive order protecting the rights of transgender individuals.", "In 2020, Montgomery County unanimously passed an ordinance implementing an LGBTIQ+ bill of rights.The first person known to describe himself as a drag queen was William Dorsey Swann, born enslaved in Hancock, Maryland.", "Swann was the first American on record who pursued legal and political action to defend the LGBTQ community's right to assemble.In February 2010, Attorney General Doug Gansler issued an opinion stating that Maryland law should honor same-sex marriages from out of state.", "At the time, the state Supreme Court wrote a decision upholding marriage discrimination.On March 1, 2012, Maryland Governor Martin O'Malley signed the freedom to marry bill into law after it passed in the state legislature.", "Opponents of same-sex marriage began collecting signatures to overturn the law, which faced a referendum, as Question 6, in the November 2012 election.", "A January 2011 Gonzales Research & Marketing Strategies poll showed 51% support for marriage in the state.In May 2012, Maryland's Court of Appeals ruled that the state will recognize marriages of same-sex couples who married out-of-state, no matter the outcome of the November election.", "Voters upheld the bill, passing Question 6 with 52% to 48% on November 6, 2012.Same-sex couples began marrying in Maryland on January 1, 2013." ], [ "Economy", "ACS five-year estimate report published by the U.S. Census Bureau.The Bureau of Economic Analysis estimates that Maryland's gross state product in 2016 was $382.4billion.", "However, Maryland has been using Genuine Progress Indicator, an indicator of well-being, to guide the state's development, rather than relying only on growth indicators like GDP.", "According to the U.S. Census Bureau, Maryland households are currently the wealthiest in the country, with a 2013 median household income of $72,483, which puts it ahead of New Jersey and Connecticut, which are second and third respectively.", "Two of Maryland's counties, Howard and Montgomery, are the second and eleventh wealthiest counties in the nation respectively.", "Maryland has the most millionaires per capita in 2013, with a ratio of 7.7 percent.", "Also, the state's poverty rate of 7.8 percent is the lowest in the country.", "Per capita personal income in 2006 was $43,500, fifth in the nation.", "As of March 2022, the state's unemployment rate was 4.6 percent.Maryland's economy benefits from the state's proximity to the federal government in Washington, D.C., with an emphasis on technical and administrative tasks for the defense/aerospace industry and bio-research laboratories, as well as staffing of satellite government headquarters in the suburban or exurban Baltimore/Washington area.", "Ft. Meade serves as the headquarters of the Defense Information Systems Agency, United States Cyber Command, and the National Security Agency/Central Security Service.", "In addition, a number of educational and medical research institutions are located in the state.", "In fact, the various components of The Johns Hopkins University and its medical research facilities are now the largest single employer in the Baltimore area.", "Altogether, white collar technical and administrative workers comprise 25 percent of Maryland's labor force, attributable in part to nearby Maryland being a part of the Washington Metro Area where the federal government office employment is relatively high.Manufacturing, while large in dollar value, is highly diversified with no sub-sector contributing over 20 percent of the total.", "Typical forms of manufacturing include electronics, computer equipment, and chemicals.", "The once-mighty primary metals sub-sector, which once included what was then the largest steel factory in the world at Sparrows Point, still exists, but is pressed with foreign competition, bankruptcies, and mergers.", "During World War II, the Glenn Martin Company (now part of Lockheed Martin) airplane factory employed some 40,000 people.Mining other than construction materials is virtually limited to coal, which is located in the mountainous western part of the state.", "The brownstone quarries in the east, which gave Baltimore and Washington much of their characteristic architecture in the mid-19th century, were once a predominant natural resource.", "Historically, there used to be small gold-mining operations in Maryland, some near Washington, but these no longer exist.In 2022, the top private employers by number of employees were BYK Gardner, Clean Harbors, Holy Cross Hospital, Johns Hopkins Bayview Medical Center, Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Maryland Neuroimaging Center, Northrop Grumman Electronic Systems, University of Maryland, and University of Maryland Medical Center.===Port of Baltimore===One major service activity is transportation, centered on the Port of Baltimore and its related rail and trucking access.", "The port ranked 17th in the U.S. by tonnage in 2008.Although the port handles a wide variety of products, the most typical imports are raw materials and bulk commodities, such as iron ore, petroleum, sugar, and fertilizers, often distributed to the relatively close manufacturing centers of the inland Midwest via good overland transportation.", "The port also receives several brands of imported motor vehicles and is the number one auto port in the U.S.Baltimore City is among the top 15 largest ports in the nation, and was one of six major U.S. ports that were part of the February 2006 controversy over the Dubai Ports World deal.", "The state as a whole is heavily industrialized, with a booming economy and influential technology centers.", "Its computer industries are some of the most sophisticated in the United States, and the federal government has invested heavily in the area.", "Maryland is home to several large military bases and scores of high-level government jobs.The Chesapeake and Delaware Canal is a canal on the Eastern Shore that connects the waters of the Delaware River with those of the Chesapeake Bay, and in particular with the Port of Baltimore, carrying 40 percent of the port's ship traffic.===Fishing===Maryland has a large food-production sector.", "A large component of this is commercial fishing, centered in the Chesapeake Bay, but also including activity off the short Atlantic seacoast.", "The largest catches by species are the blue crab, oysters, striped bass, and menhaden.", "The Bay also has overwintering waterfowl in its wildlife refuges.", "The waterfowl support a tourism sector of sportsmen.===Agriculture===Agriculture is an important part of Maryland's economy.Maryland has large areas of fertile agricultural land in its coastal and Piedmont zones, though this land use is being encroached upon by urbanization.", "Agriculture is oriented to dairy farming (especially in foothill and piedmont areas) for nearby large city milksheads, plus specialty perishable horticulture crops, such as cucumbers, watermelons, sweet corn, tomatoes, melons, squash, and peas (Source:USDA Crop Profiles).", "The southern counties of the western shoreline of Chesapeake Bay are warm enough to support a tobacco cash crop zone, which has existed since early Colonial times, but declined greatly after a state government buy-out in the 1990s.", "There is also a large automated chicken-farming sector in the state's southeastern part; Salisbury is home to Perdue Farms.", "Maryland's food-processing plants are the most significant type of manufacturing by value in the state.", "Farming suffers from weeds as anywhere else, including an unusual multiply resistant ragweed (''Ambrosia artemisiifolia'') found by Rousonelos ''et al.", "'', 2012 with both ALS- and PPO-resistances and which by 2016 had developed a third, EPSP resistance.", "This ragweed population is a drag on soybean cultivation and, , is the worst multiresistant weed problem in the state.===Biotechnology===Maryland is a major center for life sciences research and development.", "With more than 400 biotechnology companies located there, Maryland is the fourth largest nexus in this field in the United States.Institutions and government agencies with an interest in research and development located in Maryland include the Johns Hopkins University, the Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory, more than one campus of the University System of Maryland, Goddard Space Flight Center, the United States Census Bureau, the National Institutes of Health (NIH), the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), the Walter Reed National Military Medical Center, the federal Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the Howard Hughes Medical Institute, the Celera Genomics company, the J. Craig Venter Institute (JCVI), and AstraZeneca (formerly MedImmune).Maryland is home to defense contractor Emergent BioSolutions, which manufactures and provides an anthrax vaccine to U.S. government military personnel.===Tourism===Ocean City, a beach resort along the Atlantic Ocean, is a popular tourist destination in Maryland.Tourism is popular in Maryland.", "Many tourists visit Baltimore, the beaches of the Eastern Shore, and the nature of western Maryland.", "Attractions in Baltimore include the Harborplace, the Baltimore Aquarium, Fort McHenry, as well as the Camden Yards baseball stadium.", "Ocean City on the Atlantic Coast has been a popular beach destination in summer, particularly since the Chesapeake Bay Bridge was built in 1952 connecting the Eastern Shore to the more populated Maryland cities.", "The state capital of Annapolis offers sites such as the state capitol building, the historic district, and the waterfront.", "Maryland also has several sites of interest to military history, given Maryland's role in the American Civil War and in the War of 1812.Other attractions include the historic and picturesque towns along the Chesapeake Bay, such as Saint Mary's, Maryland's first colonial settlement and original capital.===Healthcare===As of 2017, the top two health insurers including all types of insurance were CareFirst BlueCross BlueShield with 47% market share followed by UnitedHealth Group at 15%.Maryland has experimented with healthcare payment reforms, notably beginning in the 1970s with an all-payer rate setting program regulated by the Health Services Cost Review Commission.", "In 2014, it switched to a global budget revenue system, whereby hospitals receive a capitated payment to care for their population." ], [ "Transportation", "The Maryland Department of Transportation oversees most transportation in the state through its various administration-level agencies.", "The independent Maryland Transportation Authority maintains and operates the state's eight toll facilities.===Roads===The Chesapeake Bay Bridge connects Maryland's Eastern and Western Shores.Maryland's Interstate highways include of Interstate95 (I-95), which enters the northeast portion of the state, travels through Baltimore, and becomes part of the eastern section of the Capital Beltway to the Woodrow Wilson Bridge.", "I-68 travels , connecting the western portions of the state to I-70 at the small town of Hancock.", "I-70 enters from Pennsylvania north of Hancock and continues east for to Baltimore, connecting Hagerstown and Frederick along the way.I-83 has in Maryland and connects Baltimore to southern central Pennsylvania (Harrisburg and York, Pennsylvania).", "Maryland also has an portion of I-81 that travels through the state near Hagerstown.", "I-97, fully contained within Anne Arundel County and the shortest () one- or two-digit interstate highway in the contiguous US, connects the Baltimore area to the Annapolis area.There are also several auxiliary Interstate highways in Maryland.", "Among them are two beltways encircling the major cities of the region: I-695, the McKeldin (Baltimore) Beltway, which encircles Baltimore; and a portion of I-495, the Capital Beltway, which encircles Washington, D.C. I-270, which connects the Frederick area with Northern Virginia and Washington, D.C. through major suburbs to the northwest of Washington, is a major commuter route and is as wide as fourteen lanes at points.", "I-895, also known as the Harbor Tunnel Thruway, provides an alternate route to I-95 across Baltimore Harbor.Both I-270 and the Capital Beltway were extremely congested; however, the Intercounty Connector (ICC; MD200) has alleviated some congestion over time.", "Construction of the ICC was a major part of the campaign platform of former Governor Robert Ehrlich, who was in office from 2003 until 2007, and of Governor Martin O'Malley, who succeeded him.", "I-595, which is an unsigned highway concurrent with US50/US301, is the longest unsigned interstate in the country and connects Prince George's County and Washington, D.C. with Annapolis and the Eastern Shore via the Chesapeake Bay Bridge.Maryland also has a state highway system that contains routes numbered from 2through 999, however most of the higher-numbered routes are either unsigned or are relatively short.", "Major state highways include Routes 2 (Governor Ritchie Highway/Solomons Island Road/Southern Maryland Blvd.", "), 4 (Pennsylvania Avenue/Southern Maryland Blvd./Patuxent Beach Road/St.", "Andrew's Church Road), 5 (Branch Avenue/Leonardtown Road/Point Lookout Road), 32, 45 (York Road), 97 (Georgia Avenue), 100 (Paul T. Pitcher Memorial Highway), 210 (Indian Head Highway), 235 (Three Notch Road), 295 (Baltimore-Washington Parkway), 355 (Wisconsin Avenue/Rockville Pike/Frederick Road), 404 (Queen Anne Highway/ Shore Highway), and 650 (New Hampshire Avenue).===Airports===Maryland's largest airport is Baltimore-Washington International Thurgood Marshall Airport, more commonly referred to as BWI.", "The airport is named for the Baltimore-born Thurgood Marshall, the first African-American Supreme Court justice.", "The only other airports with commercial service are at Hagerstown and Salisbury.The Maryland suburbs of Washington, D.C. are also served by the other two airports in the region, Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport and Dulles International Airport, both in Northern Virginia.", "The College Park Airport is the nation's oldest, founded in 1909, and is still used.", "Wilbur Wright trained military aviators at this location.===Rail===Ellicott City Station, on the original B&O Railroad line, is the oldest remaining passenger station in the nation.", "The rail line is still used by CSX Transportation for freight trains, and the station is now a museum.Amtrak trains, including the high-speed Acela Express serve Baltimore's Penn Station, BWI Airport, New Carrollton, and Aberdeen along the Washington, D.C. to Boston Northeast Corridor.", "In addition, train service is provided to Rockville and Cumberland by Amtrak's Washington, D.C., to Chicago Capitol Limited.The WMATA's Metrorail rapid transit and Metrobus local bus systems (the 2nd and 6th busiest in the nation of their respective modes) provide service in Montgomery and Prince George's counties and connect them to Washington, D.C., with the express Metrobus ''Route B30'' serving BWI Airport.", "The Maryland Transit Administration (often abbreviated as \"MTA Maryland\"), a state agency part of the Maryland Department of Transportation also provides transit services within the state.", "Headquartered in Baltimore, MTA's transit services are largely focused on central Maryland, as well as some portions of the Eastern Shore and Southern MD.", "Baltimore's Light RailLink and Metro SubwayLink systems serve its densely populated inner-city and the surrounding suburbs.", "The MTA also serves the city and its suburbs with its local bus service (the 9th largest system in the nation).", "The MTA's Commuter Bus system provides express coach service on longer routes connecting Washington, D.C. and Baltimore to parts of Central and Southern MD as well as the Eastern Shore.", "The commuter rail service, known as MARC, operates three lines which all terminate at Washington Union Station and provide service to Baltimore's Penn and Camden stations, Perryville, Frederick, and Martinsburg, WV.", "In addition, many suburban counties operate local bus systems which connect to and complement the larger MTA and WMATA/Metro services.The MTA will also administer the Purple Line, an under-construction light rail line that will connect the Maryland branches of the Red, Green/Yellow, and Orange lines of the Washington Metro, as well as offer transfers to all three lines of the MARC commuter rail system.Freight rail transport is handled principally by two Class I railroads, as well as several smaller regional and local carriers.", "CSX Transportation has more extensive trackage throughout the state, with , followed by Norfolk Southern Railway.", "Major rail yards are located in Baltimore and Cumberland, with an intermodal terminal (rail, truck and marine) in Baltimore." ], [ "Law and government", "The Maryland State House in Annapolis dates to 1772, and houses the Maryland General Assembly and offices of the governor.historical coat of arms of Maryland in 1876The government of Maryland is conducted according to the state constitution.", "The government of Maryland, like the other 49 state governments, has exclusive authority over matters that lie entirely within the state's borders, except as limited by the Constitution of the United States.Power in Maryland is divided among three branches of government: executive, legislative, and judicial.", "The Maryland General Assembly is composed of the Maryland House of Delegates and the Maryland Senate.", "Maryland's governor is unique in the United States as the office is vested with significant authority in budgeting.", "The legislature may not increase the governor's proposed budget expenditures.", "Unlike many other states, significant autonomy is granted to many of Maryland's counties.Most of the business of government is conducted in Annapolis, the state capital however some cabinet departments and state officials have their offices in Baltimore.", "Elections for governor and most statewide offices, as well as most county elections, are held in midterm-election years (even-numbered years not divisible by four).The judicial branch of state government consists of one united District Court of Maryland that sits in every county and Baltimore City, as well as 24 Circuit Courts sitting in each County and Baltimore City, the latter being courts of general jurisdiction for all civil disputes over $30,000, all equitable jurisdiction and major criminal proceedings.", "The intermediate appellate court is known as the Appellate Court of Maryland and the state supreme court is the Supreme Court of Maryland.", "The appearance of the justices of the Supreme Court of Maryland is unique; Maryland is the only state whose justices wear red robes.===Taxation===Maryland imposes five income tax brackets, ranging from 2to 6.25 percent of personal income.", "The city of Baltimore and Maryland's 23 counties levy local \"piggyback\" income taxes at rates between 1.25 and 3.2 percent of Maryland taxable income.", "Local officials set the rates and the revenue is returned to the local governments quarterly.", "The top income tax bracket of 9.45 percent is the fifth highest combined state and local income tax rates in the country, behind New York City's 11.35 percent, California's 10.3 percent, Rhode Island's 9.9 percent, and Vermont's 9.5 percent.Maryland's state sales tax is six percent.", "All real property in Maryland is subject to the property tax.", "Generally, properties that are owned and used by religious, charitable, or educational organizations or property owned by the federal, state or local governments are exempt.", "Property tax rates vary widely.", "No restrictions or limitations on property taxes are imposed by the state, meaning cities and counties can set tax rates at the level they deem necessary to fund governmental services.===Elections===Spiro Agnew, 39th Vice President of the United States, is the highest-ranking political leader from Maryland since the nation's founding.Prior to the American Civil War, Maryland's elections were largely controlled by the Democrats, which account for 54.9% of all registered voters as of May 2017.State elections are dominated by Baltimore and the populous suburban counties bordering Washington, D.C., and Baltimore: Montgomery, Prince George's, Anne Arundel, and Baltimore counties.", "As of July 2017, 66 percent of the state's population resides in these six jurisdictions, most of which contain large, traditionally Democratic voting blocs: African Americans in Baltimore City and Prince George's; federal employees in Prince George's, Anne Arundel, and Montgomery; and post-graduates in Montgomery.", "The remainder of the state, particularly Western Maryland and the Eastern Shore, is more supportive of Republicans.", "One of Maryland's best known political figures is a Republican – former governor Spiro Agnew, who pled no contest to tax evasion and resigned in 1973.In 1980, Maryland was one of six states to vote for Jimmy Carter.", "In 1992, Bill Clinton fared better in Maryland than any other state, except his home state of Arkansas.", "In 1996, Maryland was Clinton's sixth best; in 2000, Maryland ranked fourth for Gore; and in 2004, John Kerry showed his fifth-best performance in Maryland.", "In 2008, Barack Obama won the state's 10 electoral votes with 61.9 percent of the vote, to John McCain's 36.5 percent.In 2002, former Governor Robert Ehrlich was the first Republican to be elected to that office in four decades, and after one term, he lost his seat to Baltimore Mayor and Democrat Martin O'Malley.", "Ehrlich ran again for governor in 2010, losing again to O'Malley.+ Voter registration and party enrollment in Marylandas of December 2023 Party Total Percentage Democratic 2,221,517 53.26% Republican 989,200 23.72% Independents and unaffiliated 887,739 21.28% Other parties 72,233 1.73% Total 4,170,689 100.00%The 2006 election brought no change in the pattern of Democratic dominance.", "After Democratic Senator Paul Sarbanes announced that he was retiring, Democratic Congressman Benjamin Cardin defeated Republican Lieutenant Governor Michael S. Steele, with 55 percent of the vote, against Steele's 44 percent.While Republicans typically win more counties in statewide elections by piling up large margins in the west and east, they are usually overcome by the densely populated and solidly Democratic Baltimore–Washington axis.", "In 2008, for instance, McCain won 17 counties to Obama's six (plus Baltimore City).", "While McCain won most of the western and eastern counties by margins of 2-to-1 or more, he was almost completely shut out in the larger counties surrounding Baltimore and Washington; every large county except Anne Arundel went for Obama, who won by 25 points statewide.From 2007 to 2011, U.S.", "Congressman Steny Hoyer (MD-5), a Democrat, was elected as Majority Leader for the 110th Congress and 111th Congress of the House of Representatives, serving in that post again from 2019 to 2023.In addition, Hoyer served as House Minority Whip from 2003 to 2006 and 2012 to 2018.His district covers parts of Anne Arundel and Prince George's counties, in addition to all of Charles, Calvert, and St. Mary's counties in southern Maryland.In 2010, Republicans won control of most counties.", "The Democratic Party remained in control of eight county governments, including that of Baltimore.In 2022, Wes Moore became the first Democrat elected Governor of Maryland since 2010, replacing moderate Republican Larry Hogan, who did not run for re-election due to term limits.", "Moore is the first African-American elected Governor of Maryland, and the fifth African-American governor in American history." ], [ "Media", "A well-known newspaper in Maryland is ''The Baltimore Sun''.Many residents of the Washington metropolitan area receive ''The Washington Post.", "''The most populous areas are served by either Baltimore or Washington, D.C. broadcast stations.", "The Eastern Shore is served primarily by broadcast media based around the Delmarva Peninsula; the northeastern section receives both Baltimore and Philadelphia stations.", "Garrett County, which is mountainous, is served by stations from Pittsburgh, and requires cable or satellite for reception.", "Maryland is served by statewide PBS member station Maryland Public Television (MPT)." ], [ "Education", "===Primary and secondary education===University of Maryland, Maryland's flagship universityUMBC Commons and Quad''Education Week'' ranked Maryland #1 in its nationwide 2009–2013 Quality Counts reports.", "The College Board's 9th Annual AP Report to the Nation also ranked Maryland first.", "Primary and secondary education in Maryland is overseen by the Maryland State Department of Education, which is headquartered in Baltimore.", "The highest educational official in the state is the State Superintendent of Schools, who is appointed by the State Board of Education to a four-year term of office.", "The Maryland General Assembly has given the Superintendent and State Board autonomy to make educationally related decisions, limiting its influence on the day-to-day functions of public education.", "Each county and county-equivalent in Maryland has a local Board of Education charged with running the public schools in that particular jurisdiction.The budget for education was $5.5billion in 2009, representing about 40 percent of the state's general fund.", "Data from the 2017 census shows that, among large school districts, four Maryland districts are in the top six for per-pupil annual spending, exceeded only by the Boston and New York City districts.Maryland has a broad range of private primary and secondary schools.", "Many of these are affiliated with various religious sects, including parochial schools of the Catholic Church, Quaker schools, Seventh-day Adventist schools, and Jewish schools.", "In 2003, Maryland law was changed to allow for the creation of publicly funded charter schools, although the charter schools must be approved by their local Board of Education and are not exempt from state laws on education, including collective bargaining laws.In 2008, the state led the entire country in the percentage of students passing Advanced Placement examinations.", "23.4 percent of students earned passing grades on the AP tests given in May 2008.This marks the first year that Maryland earned this honor.", "Three Maryland high schools (in Montgomery County) were ranked among the top 100 in the country by US News in 2009, based in large part on AP test scores.===Colleges and universities===Maryland has several historic and renowned private colleges and universities, the most prominent of which is Johns Hopkins University, founded in 1876 with a grant from Baltimore entrepreneur Johns Hopkins.The first public university in the state is the University of Maryland, Baltimore, which was founded in 1807 and contains the University of Maryland's only public academic health, human services, and one of two law centers (the other being the University of Baltimore School of Law).", "Seven professional and graduate schools train the majority of the state's physicians, nurses, dentists, lawyers, social workers, and pharmacists.", "The flagship university and largest undergraduate institution in Maryland is the University of Maryland, College Park which was founded as the Maryland Agricultural College in 1856 and became a public land grant college in 1864.Towson University, founded in 1866, is the state's second largest university.In 1974, Maryland, along with seven other states, mainly in the South, submitted plans to desegregate its state universities; Maryland's plans were approved by the U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare.Baltimore is home to the University of Maryland, Baltimore County and the Maryland Institute College of Art.", "The majority of public universities in the state (Bowie State University, Coppin State University, Frostburg State University, Salisbury University and the University of Maryland-Eastern Shore) are affiliated with the University System of Maryland.", "Two state-funded institutions, Morgan State University and St. Mary's College of Maryland, as well as two federally funded institutions, the Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences and the United States Naval Academy, are not affiliated with the University System of Maryland.", "The University of Maryland Global Campus is the largest public university in Maryland and one of the largest distance-learning institutions in the world.St.", "John's College in Annapolis and Washington College in Chestertown, both private institutions, are the oldest colleges in the state and among the oldest in the country.", "Other private institutions include Mount St. Mary's University, McDaniel College (formerly known as Western Maryland College), Hood College, Stevenson University (formerly known as Villa Julie College), Loyola University Maryland, and Goucher College, among others.===Public libraries===Maryland's 24 public library systems deliver public education for everyone in the state of Maryland through a curriculum that comprises three pillars: Self-Directed Education (books and materials in all formats, e-resources), Research Assistance & Instruction (individualized research assistance, classes for students of all ages), and Instructive & Enlightening Experiences (e.g., Summer Reading Clubs, author events).Maryland's library systems include, in part:* Anne Arundel County Public Library* Baltimore County Public Library* Cecil County Public Library* Enoch Pratt Free Library* Frederick County Public Library* Harford County Public Library* Howard County Public Library* Montgomery County Public Libraries* Prince George's County Memorial Library System* St. Mary's County Public LibraryMany of the library systems have established formalized partnerships with other educational institutions in their counties and regions." ], [ "Sports", "Oriole Park at Camden Yards, home of the Baltimore OriolesM&T Bank Stadium, home of the Baltimore RavensWith two major metropolitan areas, Maryland has a number of major and minor professional sports franchises.", "Two National Football League teams play in Maryland, the Baltimore Ravens in Baltimore and the Washington Commanders in Landover.", "The Baltimore Colts represented the NFL in Baltimore from 1953 to 1983 before moving to Indianapolis.The Baltimore Orioles are the state's Major League Baseball franchise.", "The National Hockey League's Washington Capitals and the National Basketball Association's Washington Wizards formerly played in Maryland, until the construction of an arena in Washington, D.C. in 1997 (now known as Capital One Arena).", "University of Maryland's team is the Maryland Terrapins.Maryland enjoys considerable historical repute for the talented sports players of its past, including Cal Ripken Jr. and Babe Ruth.", "In 2012, ''The Baltimore Sun'' published a list of Maryland's top ten athletes in the state's history.", "The list includes Babe Ruth, Cal Ripken Jr, Johnny Unitas, Brooks Robinson, Frank Robinson, Ray Lewis, Michael Phelps, Jimmie Foxx, Jim Parker, and Wes Unseld.Other professional sports franchises in the state include three affiliated minor league baseball teams, one independent league baseball team, the Baltimore Blast indoor soccer team, two indoor football teams and three low-level outdoor soccer teams.", "Maryland is also home to one of the three races in horse racing's annual Triple Crown, the Preakness Stakes, which is run every spring at Pimlico Race Course in Baltimore.", "The Baltimore Stallions were a Canadian Football Team in the CFL that played the 1994–95 season.The Congressional Country Club has hosted three golf tournaments for the U.S. Open and a PGA Championship.The official state sport of Maryland, since 1962, is jousting; the official team sport since 2004 is lacrosse.", "The National Lacrosse Hall of Fame is located in Sparks, Maryland at the USA Lacrosse headquarters.", "In 2008, intending to promote physical fitness for all ages, walking became the official state exercise.", "Maryland is the first state with an official state exercise." ], [ "Friendship partners", "Maryland has relationships with many provinces, states, and other entities worldwide.", "* Bong and Maryland Counties, in Liberia* Jalisco, Mexico (1996)* Cross River and Ondo States, Nigeria* Kwazulu-Natal, South Africa* Medan Marelan, Indonesia" ], [ "See also", "* Index of Maryland-related articles* Outline of Maryland* List of people from Maryland* USS ''Maryland'', 4 ships" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * Davis, William Wilkins.", "''Religion and Politics in Maryland on the Eve of the Civil War: The Letters of W. Wilkins Davis''.", "Foreword by Charles W. Mitchell.", "1988; rev.", "ed., Eugene, Ore.: Wipf & Stock, 2009.", "* *" ], [ "External links", "* * Maryland Office of Tourism* Energy Data & Statistics for Maryland* USGS real-time, geographic, and other scientific resources of Maryland* U.S. Census Bureau* Catholic Encyclopedia article* Maryland State Facts from USDA* * * Maryland State Archives: Special Collections, Map Collections* Maryland Historical Society: County Maps* The Huntingfield Map Collection* Maryland: State Resource Guide, from the Library of Congress" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Michigan" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Michigan''' ( ) is a state in the Great Lakes region of the Upper Midwestern United States.", "It borders Wisconsin to the northwest in the Upper Peninsula, and Indiana and Ohio to the south in the Lower Peninsula; it is also connected by Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, and Erie to Minnesota and Illinois, and the Canadian province of Ontario.", "With a population of nearly 10.12 million and an area of , Michigan is the 10th-largest state by population, the 11th-largest by area, and the largest by area east of the Mississippi River.", "Its capital is Lansing, and its largest city is Detroit.", "Metro Detroit is among the nation's most populous and largest metropolitan economies.", "The name derives from a gallicized variant of the original Ojibwe word (), meaning \"large water\" or \"large lake\".Michigan consists of two peninsulas.", "The Lower Peninsula resembles the shape of a mitten, and comprises a majority of the state's land area.", "The Upper Peninsula (often called \"the U.P.\")", "is separated from the Lower Peninsula by the Straits of Mackinac, a channel that joins Lake Huron to Lake Michigan.", "The Mackinac Bridge connects the peninsulas.", "Michigan has the longest freshwater coastline of any political subdivision in the United States, being bordered by four of the five Great Lakes and Lake St. Clair.", "It also has 64,980 inland lakes and ponds.", "Michigan has the second-most water area of any state, behind only Alaska.The area was first occupied by a succession of Native American tribes over thousands of years.", "In the 17th century, French explorers claimed it as part of the New France colony, when it was largely inhabited by indigenous peoples.", "French and Canadian traders and settlers, Métis, and others migrated to the area, settling largely along the waterways.", "After France's defeat in the French and Indian War in 1762, the region came under British rule.", "Britain ceded the territory to the newly independent United States after its defeat in the American Revolutionary War.The area was part of the larger Northwest Territory until 1800, when western Michigan became part of the Indiana Territory.", "Michigan Territory was formed in 1805, but some of the northern border with Canada was not agreed upon until after the War of 1812.Michigan was admitted into the Union in 1837 as the 26th state, a free one.", "It soon became an important center of industry and trade in the Great Lakes region, attracting immigrants in the late 19th and early 20th centuries from many European countries.", "Immigrants from Finland, Macedonia, and the Netherlands were especially numerous.", "Migration from Appalachia and of Black Southerners as part of the Great Migration increased in the 1930s, with many settling in Metro Detroit.Although Michigan has developed a diverse economy, in the early 20th century it became widely known as the center of the U.S. automotive industry, which developed as a major national economic force.", "It is home to the country's three major automobile companies (whose headquarters are all in Metro Detroit).", "Once exploited for logging and mining, today the sparsely populated Upper Peninsula is important for tourism because of its abundance of natural resources.", "The Lower Peninsula is a center of manufacturing, forestry, agriculture, services, and high-tech industry." ], [ "History", "When the first European explorers arrived, the most populous tribes were the Algonquian peoples, which include the Anishinaabe groups of Ojibwe, Odaawaa/Odawa (Ottawa), and the Boodewaadamii/Bodéwadmi (Potawatomi).", "The three nations coexisted peacefully as part of a loose confederation called the Council of Three Fires.", "The Ojibwe, whose numbers are estimated to have been between 25,000 and 35,000, were the largest.The Ojibwe Indians (also known as Chippewa in the U.S.), an Anishinaabe tribe, were established in Michigan's Upper Peninsula and northern and central Michigan.", "Bands also inhabited Ontario and southern Manitoba, Canada; and northern Wisconsin, and northern and north-central Minnesota.", "The Ottawa Indians lived primarily south of the Straits of Mackinac in northern, western, and southern Michigan, but also in southern Ontario, northern Ohio, and eastern Wisconsin.", "The Potawatomi were in southern and western Michigan, in addition to northern and central Indiana, northern Illinois, southern Wisconsin, and southern Ontario.", "Other Algonquian tribes in Michigan, in the south and east, were the Mascouten, the Menominee, the Miami, the Sac (or Sauk), and the Meskwaki (Fox).", "The Wyandot were an Iroquoian-speaking people in this area; they were historically known as the Huron by the French, and were the historical adversaries of the Iroquois Confederation.===17th century===''Père Marquette and the Indians'' (1869), by Wilhelm LamprechtFrench ''voyageurs'' and ''coureurs des bois'' explored and settled in Michigan in the 17th century.", "The first Europeans to reach what became Michigan were those of Étienne Brûlé's expedition in 1622.The first permanent European settlement was founded in 1668 on the site where Père Jacques Marquette established Sault Ste.", "Marie, Michigan, as a base for Catholic missions.", "Missionaries in 1671–75 founded outlying stations at Saint Ignace and Marquette.", "Jesuit missionaries were well received by the area's Indian populations, with few difficulties or hostilities.", "In 1679, Robert Cavelier, Sieur de la Salle built Fort Miami at present-day St. Joseph.", "In 1691, the French established a trading post and Fort St. Joseph along the St. Joseph River at the present-day city of Niles.===18th century===In 1701, French explorer and army officer Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac founded Fort Pontchartrain du Détroit or \"Fort Pontchartrain on-the-Strait\" on the strait, known as the Detroit River, between lakes Saint Clair and Erie.", "Cadillac had convinced King Louis XIV's chief minister, Louis Phélypeaux, Comte de Pontchartrain, that a permanent community there would strengthen French control over the upper Great Lakes and discourage British aspirations.The hundred soldiers and workers who accompanied Cadillac built a fort enclosing one arpent (about , the equivalent of just under per side) and named it Fort Pontchartrain.", "Cadillac's wife, Marie Thérèse Guyon, soon moved to Detroit, becoming one of the first European women to settle in what was considered the wilderness of Michigan.", "The town quickly became a major fur-trading and shipping post.", "The ''Église de Saint-Anne'' (Catholic Church of Saint Anne) was founded the same year.", "While the original building does not survive, the congregation remains active.", "Cadillac later departed to serve as the French governor of Louisiana from 1710 to 1716.French attempts to consolidate the fur trade led to the Fox Wars, in which the Meskwaki (Fox) and their allies fought the French and their Native allies.At the same time, the French strengthened Fort Michilimackinac at the Straits of Mackinac to better control their lucrative fur-trading empire.", "By the mid-18th century, the French also occupied forts at present-day Niles and Sault Ste.", "Marie, though most of the rest of the region remained unsettled by Europeans.", "France offered free land to attract families to Detroit, which grew to 800 people in 1765.It was the largest city between Montreal and New Orleans.", "French settlers also established small farms south of the Detroit River opposite the fort, near a Jesuit mission and Huron village.Map of British America showing the original boundaries of the Province of Quebec and its Quebec Act of 1774 post-annexation boundariesTreaty of Paris'', by Benjamin West (1783), an unfinished painting of the American diplomatic negotiators of the Treaty of Paris which brought official conclusion to the Revolutionary War and gave possession of Michigan and other territory to the new United StatesFrom 1660 until the end of French rule, Michigan was part of the Royal Province of New France.", "In 1760, Montreal fell to the British forces, ending the French and Indian War (1754–1763), the North American front of the Seven Years' War in Europe.", "Under the 1763 Treaty of Paris, Michigan and the rest of New France east of the Mississippi River were ceded by defeated France to Great Britain.", "After the Quebec Act was passed in 1774, Michigan became part of the British Province of Quebec.", "By 1778, Detroit's population reached 2,144 and it was the third-largest city in Quebec province.During the American Revolutionary War, Detroit was an important British supply center.", "Most of the inhabitants were French-Canadians or American Indians, many of whom had been allied with the French because of long trading ties.", "Because of imprecise cartography and unclear language defining the boundaries in the 1783 Treaty of Paris, the British retained control of Detroit and Michigan after the American Revolution.", "When Quebec split into Lower and Upper Canada in 1791, Michigan was part of Kent County, Upper Canada.", "It held its first democratic elections in August 1792 to send delegates to the new provincial parliament at Newark (now Niagara-on-the-Lake).Under terms negotiated in the 1794 Jay Treaty, Britain withdrew from Detroit and Michilimackinac in 1796.It retained control of territory east and south of the Detroit River, which are now included in Ontario, Canada.", "Questions remained over the boundary for many years, and the United States did not have uncontested control of the Upper Peninsula and Drummond Island until 1818 and 1847, respectively.===19th century===During the War of 1812, the United States forces at Fort Detroit surrendered Michigan Territory (effectively consisting of Detroit and the surrounding area) after a nearly bloodless siege in 1812.A U.S. attempt to retake Detroit resulted in a severe American defeat in the River Raisin Massacre.", "This battle, still ranked as the bloodiest ever fought in the state, had the highest number of American casualties of any battle of the war.Michigan was recaptured by the Americans in 1813 after the Battle of Lake Erie.", "They used Michigan as a base to launch an invasion of Canada, which culminated in the Battle of the Thames.", "But the more northern areas of Michigan were held by the British until the peace treaty restored the old boundaries.", "A number of forts, including Fort Wayne, were built by the United States in Michigan during the 19th century out of fears of renewed fighting with Britain.Michigan Territory governor and judges established the University of Michigan in 1817, as the Catholepistemiad, or the University of Michigania.The population grew slowly until the opening in 1825 of the Erie Canal through the Mohawk Valley in New York, connecting the Great Lakes to the Hudson River and New York City.", "The new route attracted a large influx of settlers to the Michigan territory.", "They worked as farmers, lumbermen, shipbuilders, and merchants and shipped out grain, lumber, and iron ore. By the 1830s, Michigan had 80,000 residents, more than enough to apply and qualify for statehood.Commemorative stamp, issue of 1935, celebrating the100th anniversary of Michigan statehood.On November 1, 1935, the U.S. Post Office issued a commemorative 3-cent stamp celebrating the 100th anniversary of Michigan statehood.", "Michigan's statehood, however, wasn't officially established until January 26, 1837, but since the campaign for statehood actually began in 1835, Michigan chose to hold its centennial celebration in 1935, the year the stamp was first issued.A constitutional convention of assent was held to lead the territory to statehood.", "In October 1835 the people approved the constitution of 1835, thereby forming a state government.", "Congressional recognition was delayed pending resolution of a boundary dispute with Ohio known as the Toledo War.", "Congress awarded the \"Toledo Strip\" to Ohio.", "Michigan received the western part of the Upper Peninsula as a concession and formally entered the Union as a free state on January 26, 1837.The Upper Peninsula proved to be a rich source of lumber, iron, and copper.", "Michigan led the nation in lumber production from the 1850s to the 1880s.", "Railroads became a major engine of growth from the 1850s onward, with Detroit the chief hub.A second wave of French-Canadian immigrants settled in Michigan during the late 19th to early 20th century, working in lumbering areas in counties on the Lake Huron side of the Lower Peninsula, such as the Saginaw Valley, Alpena, and Cheboygan counties, as well as throughout the Upper Peninsula, with large concentrations in Escanaba and the Keweenaw Peninsula.", "This was also a period of development of the gypsum industry in Alabaster, Michigan, which became nationally prominent.The first statewide meeting of the Republican Party took place on July 6, 1854, in Jackson, Michigan, where the party adopted its platform.", "The state was predominantly Republican until the 1930s, reflecting the political continuity of migrants from across the Northern Tier of New England and New York.", "Michigan made a significant contribution to the Union in the American Civil War and sent more than forty regiments of volunteers to the federal armies.Michigan modernized and expanded its system of education in this period.", "The Michigan State Normal School, now Eastern Michigan University, was founded in 1849, for the training of teachers.", "It was the fourth oldest normal school in the United States and the first U.S. normal school outside New England.", "In 1899, the Michigan State Normal School became the first normal school in the nation to offer a four-year curriculum.", "Michigan Agricultural College (1855), now Michigan State University in East Lansing, was founded as the first agricultural college in the nation.", "Many private colleges were founded as well, and the smaller cities established high schools late in the century.=== 20th–21st centuries ===Detroit in the mid-twentieth century.", "At the time, the city was the fourth-largest U.S. metropolis by population, and held about one-third of the state's population.Michigan's economy underwent a transformation at the turn of the 20th century.", "Many individuals, including Ransom E. Olds, John and Horace Dodge, Henry Leland, David Dunbar Buick, Henry Joy, Charles King, and Henry Ford, provided the concentration of engineering know-how and technological enthusiasm to develop the automotive industry.", "Ford's development of the moving assembly line in Highland Park marked a new era in transportation.", "Like the steamship and railroad, mass production of automobiles was a far-reaching development.", "More than the forms of public transportation, the affordable automobile transformed private life.", "Automobile production became the major industry of Detroit and Michigan, and permanently altered the socioeconomic life of the United States and much of the world.With the growth, the auto industry created jobs in Detroit that attracted immigrants from Europe and migrants from across the United States, including both blacks and whites from the rural South.", "By 1920, Detroit was the fourth-largest city in the U.S..", "Residential housing was in short supply, and it took years for the market to catch up with the population boom.", "By the 1930s, so many immigrants had arrived that more than 30 languages were spoken in the public schools, and ethnic communities celebrated in annual heritage festivals.", "Over the years immigrants and migrants contributed greatly to Detroit's diverse urban culture, including popular music trends.", "The influential Motown Sound of the 1960s was led by a variety of individual singers and groups.Grand Rapids, the second-largest city in Michigan, also became also an important center of manufacturing.", "Since 1838, the city has been noted for its furniture industry.", "In the 21st century, it is home to five of the world's leading office furniture companies.", "Grand Rapids is home to a number of major companies including Steelcase, Amway, and Meijer.", "Grand Rapids is also an important center for GE Aviation Systems.Michigan held its first United States presidential primary election in 1910.With its rapid growth in industry, it was an important center of industry-wide union organizing, such as the rise of the United Auto Workers.In 1920 WWJ (AM) in Detroit became the first radio station in the United States to regularly broadcast commercial programs.", "Throughout that decade, some of the country's largest and most ornate skyscrapers were built in the city.", "Particularly noteworthy are the Fisher Building, Cadillac Place, and the Guardian Building, each of which has been designated as a National Historic Landmark (NHL).In 1927 a school bombing took place in Clinton County.", "The Bath School disaster, perpetrated by an adult man, resulted in the deaths of 38 schoolchildren and constitutes the deadliest mass murder in a school in U.S. history.Michigan converted much of its manufacturing to satisfy defense needs during World War II; it manufactured 10.9% of the United States military armaments produced during the war, ranking second (behind New York) among the 48 states.Detroit continued to expand through the 1950s, at one point doubling its population in a decade.", "After World War II, housing was developed in suburban areas outside city cores to meet demand for residences.", "The federal government subsidized the construction of interstate highways, which were intended to strengthen military access, but also allowed commuters and business traffic to travel the region more easily.", "Since 1960, modern advances in the auto industry have led to increased automation, high-tech industry, and increased suburban growth.Michigan became the leading auto-producing state in the U.S., with the industry primarily located throughout the Midwestern United States; Ontario, Canada; and the Southern United States.", "With almost ten million residents in 2010, Michigan is a large and influential state, ranking tenth in population among the fifty states.", "Detroit is the centrally located metropolitan area of the Great Lakes megalopolis and the second-largest metropolitan area in the U.S. (after Chicago) linking the Great Lakes system.The Metro Detroit area in Southeast Michigan is the state's largest metropolitan area (roughly 50% of the population resides there) and the eleventh largest in the United States.", "The Grand Rapids metropolitan area in Western Michigan is the state's fastest-growing metro area, with more than 1.3 million residents ." ], [ "Geography", "Saint Lawrence River/Great Lakes Watershed in North America.", "Its drainage area includes the Great Lakes, the world's largest system of freshwater lakes.", "The basin covers nearly all of Michigan.The Huron National Wildlife Refuge, one of the fifteen federal wildernesses in MichiganMichigan consists of two peninsulas separated by the Straits of Mackinac.", "The 45th parallel north runs through the state, marked by highway signs and the Polar-Equator Trail— along a line including Mission Point Light near Traverse City, the towns of Gaylord and Alpena in the Lower Peninsula and Menominee in the Upper Peninsula.", "With the exception of two tiny areas drained by the Mississippi River by way of the Wisconsin River in the Upper Peninsula and by way of the Kankakee-Illinois River in the Lower Peninsula, Michigan is drained by the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence watershed and is the only state with the majority of its land thus drained.", "No point in the state is more than from a natural water source or more than from a Great Lakes shoreline.The Great Lakes that border Michigan from east to west are Lake Erie, Lake Huron, Lake Michigan and Lake Superior.", "The state is bounded on the south by the states of Ohio and Indiana, sharing land and water boundaries with both.", "Michigan's western boundaries are almost entirely water boundaries, from south to north, with Illinois and Wisconsin in Lake Michigan; then a land boundary with Wisconsin and the Upper Peninsula, that is principally demarcated by the Menominee and Montreal Rivers; then water boundaries again, in Lake Superior, with Wisconsin and Minnesota to the west, capped around by the Canadian province of Ontario to the north and east.The heavily forested Upper Peninsula is relatively mountainous in the west.", "The Porcupine Mountains, which are part of one of the oldest mountain chains in the world, rise to an altitude of almost above sea level and form the watershed between the streams flowing into Lake Superior and Lake Michigan.", "The surface on either side of this range is rugged.", "The state's highest point, in the Huron Mountains northwest of Marquette, is Mount Arvon at .", "The peninsula is as large as Connecticut, Delaware, Massachusetts, and Rhode Island combined but has fewer than 330,000 inhabitants.", "They are sometimes called \"Yoopers\" (from \"U.P.", "'ers\"), and their speech (the \"Yooper dialect\") has been heavily influenced by the numerous Scandinavian and Canadian immigrants who settled the area during the lumbering and mining boom of the late 19th century.Mackinac Island, an island and resort area at the eastern end of the Straits of Mackinac.", "More than 80% of the island is preserved as Mackinac Island State Park.Sleeping Bear Dunes, along the northwest coast of the Lower Peninsula of MichiganThe Tahquamenon Falls in the Upper PeninsulaThe Pointe Mouillee State Game Area, one of the 221 state game and wildlife areas in Michigan.", "It encompasses 7,483 acres of hunting, recreational, and protected wildlife and wetland areas at the mouth of the Huron River at Lake Erie, as well as smaller outlying areas within the Detroit River.The Lower Peninsula is shaped like a mitten and many residents hold up a hand to depict where they are from.", "It is long from north to south and from east to west and occupies nearly two-thirds of the state's land area.", "The surface of the peninsula is generally level, broken by conical hills and glacial moraines usually not more than a few hundred feet tall.", "It is divided by a low water divide running north and south.", "The larger portion of the state is on the west of this and gradually slopes toward Lake Michigan.", "The highest point in the Lower Peninsula is either Briar Hill at , or one of several points nearby in the vicinity of Cadillac.", "The lowest point is the surface of Lake Erie at .The geographic orientation of Michigan's peninsulas makes for a long distance between the ends of the state.", "Ironwood, in the far western Upper Peninsula, lies by highway from Lambertville in the Lower Peninsula's southeastern corner.", "The geographic isolation of the Upper Peninsula from Michigan's political and population centers makes the region culturally and economically distinct.", "Frequent attempts to establish the Upper Peninsula as its own state have failed to gain traction.A feature of Michigan that gives it the distinct shape of a mitten is the Thumb.", "This peninsula projects out into Lake Huron and the Saginaw Bay.", "The geography of the Thumb is mainly flat with a few rolling hills.", "Other peninsulas of Michigan include the Keweenaw Peninsula, making up the Copper Country region of the state.", "The Leelanau Peninsula lies in the Northern Lower Michigan region.", "''See Also Michigan Regions''Numerous lakes and marshes mark both peninsulas, and the coast is much indented.", "Keweenaw Bay, Whitefish Bay, and the Big and Little Bays De Noc are the principal indentations on the Upper Peninsula.", "The Grand and Little Traverse, Thunder, and Saginaw bays indent the Lower Peninsula.", "Michigan has the second longest shoreline of any state—, including of island shoreline.The state has numerous large islands, the principal ones being the North Manitou and South Manitou, Beaver, and Fox groups in Lake Michigan; Isle Royale and Grande Isle in Lake Superior; Marquette, Bois Blanc, and Mackinac islands in Lake Huron; and Neebish, Sugar, and Drummond islands in St. Mary's River.", "Michigan has about 150 lighthouses, the most of any U.S. state.", "The first lighthouses in Michigan were built between 1818 and 1822.They were built to project light at night and to serve as a landmark during the day to safely guide the passenger ships and freighters traveling the Great Lakes (see: lighthouses in the United States).The state's rivers are generally small, short and shallow, and few are navigable.", "The principal ones include the Detroit River, St. Marys River, and St. Clair River which connect the Great Lakes; the Au Sable, Cheboygan, and Saginaw, which flow into Lake Huron; the Ontonagon, and Tahquamenon, which flow into Lake Superior; and the St. Joseph, Kalamazoo, Grand, Muskegon, Manistee, and Escanaba, which flow into Lake Michigan.", "The state has 11,037 inland lakes—totaling of inland water—in addition to of Great Lakes waters.", "No point in Michigan is more than from an inland lake or more than from one of the Great Lakes.The state is home to several areas maintained by the National Park Service including: Isle Royale National Park, in Lake Superior, about southeast of Thunder Bay, Ontario.", "Other national protected areas in the state include: Keweenaw National Historical Park, Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore, Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore, Huron National Forest, Manistee National Forest, Hiawatha National Forest, Ottawa National Forest and Father Marquette National Memorial.", "The largest section of the North Country National Scenic Trail passes through Michigan.With 78 state parks, 19 state recreation areas, and six state forests, Michigan has the largest state park and state forest system of any state.===Climate===Köppen climate types of Michigan, using 1991–2020 climate normalsMichigan has a continental climate, although there are two distinct regions.", "The southern and central parts of the Lower Peninsula (south of Saginaw Bay and from the Grand Rapids area southward) have a warmer climate (Köppen climate classification ''Dfa'') with hot summers and cold winters.", "The northern part of Lower Peninsula and the entire Upper Peninsula has a more severe climate (Köppen ''Dfb''), with warm, but shorter summers and longer, cold to very cold winters.", "Some parts of the state average high temperatures below freezing from December through February, and into early March in the far northern parts.", "During the winter through the middle of February, the state is frequently subjected to heavy lake-effect snow.", "The state averages from of precipitation annually; however, some areas in the northern lower peninsula and the upper peninsula average almost of snowfall per year.", "Michigan's highest recorded temperature is at Mio on July 13, 1936, and the coldest recorded temperature is at Vanderbilt on February 9, 1934.The state averages 30 days of thunderstorm activity per year.", "These can be severe, especially in the southern part of the state.", "The state averages 17 tornadoes per year, which are more common in the state's extreme southern section.", "Portions of the southern border have been almost as vulnerable historically as states further west and in Tornado Alley.", "For this reason, many communities in the very southern portions of the state have tornado sirens to warn residents of approaching tornadoes.", "Farther north, in Central Michigan, Northern Michigan, and the Upper Peninsula, tornadoes are rare.===Geology===The geological formation of the state is greatly varied, with the Michigan Basin being the most major formation.", "Primary boulders are found over the entire surface of the Upper Peninsula (being principally of primitive origin), while Secondary deposits cover the entire Lower Peninsula.", "The Upper Peninsula exhibits Lower Silurian sandstones, limestones, copper and iron bearing rocks, corresponding to the Huronian system of Canada.", "The central portion of the Lower Peninsula contains coal measures and rocks of the Pennsylvanian period.", "Devonian and sub-Carboniferous deposits are scattered over the entire state.Michigan rarely experiences earthquakes, and those that it does experience are generally smaller ones that do not cause significant damage.", "A 4.6-magnitude earthquake struck in August 1947.More recently, a 4.2-magnitude earthquake occurred on Saturday, May 2, 2015, shortly after noon, about five miles south of Galesburg, Michigan (9 miles southeast of Kalamazoo) in central Michigan, about 140 miles west of Detroit, according to the Colorado-based U.S. Geological Survey's National Earthquake Information Center.", "No major damage or injuries were reported, according to then-Governor Rick Snyder's office.=== Administrative divisions ===State government is decentralized among three tiers—statewide, county and township.", "Counties are administrative divisions of the state, and townships are administrative divisions of a county.", "Both of them exercise state government authority, localized to meet the particular needs of their jurisdictions, as provided by state law.", "There are 83 counties in Michigan.Cities, state universities, and villages are vested with home rule powers of varying degrees.", "Home rule cities can generally do anything not prohibited by law.", "The fifteen state universities have broad power and can do anything within the parameters of their status as educational institutions that is not prohibited by the state constitution.", "Villages, by contrast, have limited home rule and are not completely autonomous from the county and township in which they are located.There are two types of township in Michigan: ''general law'' township and ''charter''.", "Charter township status was created by the Legislature in 1947 and grants additional powers and stream-lined administration in order to provide greater protection against annexation by a city.", ", there were 127 charter townships in Michigan.", "In general, charter townships have many of the same powers as a city but without the same level of obligations.", "For example, a charter township can have its own fire department, water and sewer department, police department, and so on—just like a city—but it is not ''required'' to have those things, whereas cities ''must'' provide those services.", "Charter townships can opt to use county-wide services instead, such as deputies from the county sheriff's office instead of a home-based force of ordinance officers." ], [ "Demographics", "Since 1800 U.S. census, Michigan has experienced relatively positive and stable population growth trends; beginning with a population of 3,757, the 2010 census recorded 9,883,635 residents.", "At the 2020 United States census, its population was 10,077,331, an increase of 2.03% since 2010's tabulation.", "According to the United States Census Bureau, it is the third-most populous state in the Midwest and its East North Central subregion, behind Ohio and Illinois.The center of population of Michigan is in Shiawassee County, in the southeastern corner of the civil township of Bennington, which is northwest of the village of Morrice.According to the American Immigration Council in 2019, an estimated 6.8% of Michiganders were immigrants, while 3.8% were native-born U.S. citizens with at least one immigrant parent.", "Numbering approximately 678,255 according to the 2019 survey, the majority of Michigander immigrants came from Mexico (11.5%), India (11.3%), Iraq (7.5%), China (5.3%), and Canada (5.3%); the primary occupations of its immigrants were technology, agriculture, and healthcare.", "Among its immigrant cohort, there were 108,105 undocumented immigrants, making up 15.9% of the total immigrant population.According to HUD's 2022 Annual Homeless Assessment Report, there were an estimated 8,206 homeless people in Michigan.=== Race and ethnicity === Michigan racial breakdown of population Self-identified race 1970 1990 2000 2010 2020 White American 88.3% 83.4% 80.1% 78.9% 73.9% Black or African American 11.2% 13.9% 14.2% 14.2% 13.7% Asian American 0.2% 1.1% 1.8% 2.4% 3.3% American Indian 0.2% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% Native Hawaiian andother Pacific Islander — — — — — Other race 0.2% 0.9% 1.3% 1.5% 2.2% Two or more races — — 1.9% 2.3% 6.3%Ethnic origins in Michigan in 2021.Since colonial European and American settlement, the majority of Michigan's population has been predominantly non-Hispanic or non-Latino white; Americans of European descent live throughout every county in the state, and most of Metro Detroit.", "Large European American groups include those of German, British, Irish, Polish and Belgian ancestry.", "Scandinavian and Finnish Americans have a notable presence in the Upper Peninsula.", "Western Michigan is known for its Dutch heritage, especially in Holland and metropolitan Grand Rapids.Black and African Americans—coming to Detroit and other northern cities in the Great Migration of the early 20th century—have formed a majority of the population in Detroit and other cities including Flint and Benton Harbor.", "Since the 2021 census estimates—while Detroit was still the largest city in Michigan with a majority black population—it was no longer the largest black-majority city in the U.S., citing crime and higher-paying jobs given to whites., about 300,000 people in Southeastern Michigan trace their descent from the Middle East and Asia.", "Dearborn has a sizeable Arab American community, with many Assyrian/Chaldean/Syriac, and Lebanese who immigrated for jobs in the auto industry in the 1920s, along with more recent Yemenis and Iraqis.", ", almost 8,000 Hmong people lived in the state of Michigan, about double their 1999 presence in the state.", "Most lived in northeastern Detroit, but they had been increasingly moving to Pontiac and Warren.", "By 2015, the number of Hmong in the Detroit city limits had significantly declined.", "Lansing hosts a statewide Hmong New Year Festival.", "The Hmong community also had a prominent portrayal in the 2008 film ''Gran Torino'', which was set in Detroit., 80% of Michigan's Japanese population lived in the counties of Macomb, Oakland, Washtenaw, and Wayne in the Detroit and Ann Arbor areas.", ", the largest Japanese national population is in Novi, with 2,666 Japanese residents, and the next largest populations are respectively in Ann Arbor, West Bloomfield Township, Farmington Hills, and Battle Creek.", "The state has 481 Japanese employment facilities providing 35,554 local jobs.", "391 of them are in Southeast Michigan, providing 20,816 jobs, and the 90 in other regions in the state provide 14,738 jobs.", "The Japanese Direct Investment Survey of the Consulate-General of Japan, Detroit stated more than 2,208 additional Japanese residents were employed in the State of Michigan , than in 2011.During the 1990s, the Japanese population of Michigan experienced an increase, and many Japanese people with children moved to particular areas for their proximity to Japanese grocery stores and high-performing schools.===Languages===In 2010, about 91.11% (8,507,947) of Michigan residents age five and older spoke only English at home, while 2.93% (273,981) spoke Spanish, 1.04% (97,559) Arabic, 0.44% (41,189) German, 0.36% (33,648) Chinese (which includes Mandarin), 0.31% (28,891) French, 0.29% (27,019) Polish, and Syriac languages (such as Modern Aramaic and Northeastern Neo-Aramaic) was spoken as a main language by 0.25% (23,420) of the population over the age of five.", "In total, 8.89% (830,281) of Michigan's population age five and older spoke a mother language other than English.", "Since 2021, 90.1% of residents aged five and older spoke only English at home, and Spanish was the second-most spoken language with 2.9% of the population speaking it.===Religion===Historically, several Native American religions have been practiced in the present-day state of Michigan.", "Following British and French colonization of the region surrounding Michigan, Christianity became the dominant religion, with Roman Catholicism historically being the largest single Christian group for the state.", "Until the 19th century, the Roman Catholic Church was the only organized religious group in Michigan, reflecting the territory's French colonial roots.", "Detroit's St. Anne's parish, established in 1701 by Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac, is the second-oldest Roman Catholic parish in the United States.", "On March 8, 1833, the Holy See formally established a diocese in the Michigan territory, which included all of Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, and the Dakotas east of the Mississippi River.", "When Michigan became a state in 1837, the boundary of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Detroit was redrawn to coincide with that of the state; the other dioceses were later carved out from the Detroit Diocese but remain part of the Ecclesiastical Province of Detroit.According to the Association of Religion Data Archives in 2020, there were 1,492,732 adherents of Roman Catholicism.", "Additionally, there's also a significant Independent Catholic presence centered in Metro Detroit.", "As of 2016, the most notable Independent Catholic jurisdiction is the Ecumenical Catholic Church of Christ established by Archbishop Karl Rodig; the see of this church operates in a former Roman Catholic parish church.With the introduction of Protestantism to the state, it began to form the largest collective Christian group.", "In 2010, the Association of Religion Data Archives reported the largest Protestant denomination was the United Methodist Church with 228,521 adherents; followed by the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod with 219,618, and the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America with 120,598 adherents.", "The Christian Reformed Church in North America had almost 100,000 members and more than 230 congregations in Michigan.", "The Reformed Church in America had 76,000 members and 154 congregations in the state.", "By the 2020 study, non- and inter-denominational Protestant churches formed the largest Protestant group in Michigan, numbering 508,904.The Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod grew to become the second-largest single Christian denomination, and United Methodists declined to being the third-largest.", "The Lutheran Protestant tradition was introduced by German and Scandinavian immigrants.", "Altogether, Baptists numbered 321,581 between the National Missionary Baptists, National Baptists, American Baptists, Southern Baptists, National Baptists of America, Progressive National Baptists, and Full Gospel Baptists; black Baptists formed the largest constituency.", "In West Michigan, Dutch immigrants fled from the specter of religious persecution and famine in the Netherlands around 1850 and settled in and around what is now Holland, Michigan, establishing a \"colony\" on American soil that fervently held onto Calvinist doctrine that established a significant presence of Reformed churches.In the same 2010 survey, Jewish adherents in the state of Michigan were estimated at 44,382, and Muslims at 120,351.The first Jewish synagogue in the state was Temple Beth El, founded by twelve German Jewish families in Detroit in 1850.Islam was introduced by immigrants from the Near East during the 20th century.", "Michigan is home to the largest mosque in North America, the Islamic Center of America in Dearborn.", "Battle Creek, Michigan, is also the birthplace of the Seventh-day Adventist Church, which was founded on May 21, 1863." ], [ "Economy", "The Ambassador Bridge, a suspension bridge that connects Detroit with Windsor, Ontario, in Canada.", "It is the busiest international border crossing in North America in terms of trade volume.Michigan is the center of the American automotive industry.", "The Renaissance Center in Downtown Detroit is the world headquarters of General Motors.Ford Dearborn Proving Ground (DPG) completed major reconstruction and renovations in 2006.In 2017, 3,859,949 people in Michigan were employed at 222,553 establishments, according to the U.S. Census Bureau.The U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis estimated Michigan's Q1 2023 gross state product to be $645.293 billion, ranking 14th out of the 50 states.", "According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, , the state's seasonally adjusted unemployment rate was estimated at 3.7%.Products and services include automobiles, food products, information technology, aerospace, military equipment, furniture, and mining of copper and iron ore. Michigan is the third-largest grower of Christmas trees with of land dedicated to Christmas tree farming in 2007.The beverage Vernors Ginger Ale was invented in Michigan in 1866, sharing the title of oldest soft drink with Hires Root Beer.", "Faygo was founded in Detroit on November 4, 1907.Two of the top four pizza chains were founded in Michigan and are headquartered there: Domino's Pizza by Tom Monaghan and Little Caesars Pizza by Mike Ilitch.", "Michigan became the 24th right-to-work state in the U.S. in 2012, however, in 2023 this law was repealed.Since 2009, GM, Ford and Chrysler have managed a significant reorganization of their benefit funds structure after a volatile stock market which followed the September 11 attacks and early 2000s recession impacted their respective U.S. pension and benefit funds (OPEB).", "General Motors, Ford, and Chrysler reached agreements with the United Auto Workers Union to transfer the liabilities for their respective health care and benefit funds to a 501(c)(9) Voluntary Employee Beneficiary Association (VEBA).", "Manufacturing in the state grew 6.6% from 2001 to 2006, but the high speculative price of oil became a factor for the U.S. auto industry during the economic crisis of 2008 impacting industry revenues.", "In 2009, GM and Chrysler emerged from Chapter 11 restructurings with financing provided in part by the U.S. and Canadian governments.", "GM began its initial public offering (IPO) of stock in 2010.For 2010, the Big Three domestic automakers have reported significant profits indicating the beginning of rebound., Michigan ranked fourth in the U.S. in high-tech employment with 568,000 high-tech workers, which includes 70,000 in the automotive industry.", "Michigan typically ranks third or fourth in overall research and development (R&D) expenditures in the United States.", "Its research and development, which includes automotive, comprises a higher percentage of the state's overall gross domestic product than for any other U.S. state.", "The state is an important source of engineering job opportunities.", "The domestic auto industry accounts directly and indirectly for one of every ten jobs in the U.S.Michigan was second in the U.S. in 2004 for new corporate facilities and expansions.", "From 1997 to 2004, Michigan was the only state to top the 10,000 mark for the number of major new developments; however, the effects of the late 2000s recession have slowed the state's economy.", "In 2008, Michigan placed third in a site selection survey among the states for luring new business which measured capital investment and new job creation per one million population.", "In August 2009, Michigan and Detroit's auto industry received $1.36 B in grants from the U.S. Department of Energy for the manufacture of electric vehicle technologies which is expected to generate 6,800 immediate jobs and employ 40,000 in the state by 2020.From 2007 to 2009, Michigan ranked 3rd in the U.S. for new corporate facilities and expansions.As leading research institutions, the University of Michigan, Michigan State University, and Wayne State University are important partners in the state's economy and its University Research Corridor.", "Michigan's public universities attract more than $1.5 B in research and development grants each year.", "The National Superconducting Cyclotron Laboratory is at Michigan State University.", "Michigan's workforce is well-educated and highly skilled, making it attractive to companies.", "It has the third highest number of engineering graduates nationally.Detroit Metropolitan Airport is one of the nation's most recently expanded and modernized airports with six major runways, and large aircraft maintenance facilities capable of servicing and repairing a Boeing 747 and is a major hub for Delta Air Lines.", "Michigan's schools and colleges rank among the nation's best.", "The state has maintained its early commitment to public education.", "The state's infrastructure gives it a competitive edge; Michigan has 38 deep water ports.", "In 2007, Bank of America announced that it would commit $25 billion to community development in Michigan following its acquisition of LaSalle Bank in Troy.Michigan led the nation in job creation improvement in 2010.On December 20, 2019, Governor Gretchen Whitmer signed a package of bills into law effectively legalizing online gambling activities in Michigan, which allowed commercial and tribal casinos to apply for internet gaming licenses.===Taxation===Michigan's personal income tax is a flat rate of 4.25%.", "In addition, 22 cities impose income taxes; rates are set at 1% for residents and 0.5% for non-residents in all but four cities.", "Michigan's state sales tax is 6%, though items such as food and medication are exempted.", "Property taxes are assessed on the local level, but every property owner's local assessment contributes six mills (a rate of $6 per $1000 of property value) to the statutory State Education Tax.", "Property taxes are appealable to local boards of review and need the approval of the local electorate to exceed millage rates prescribed by state law and local charters.", "In 2011, the state repealed its business tax and replaced it with a 6% corporate income tax which substantially reduced taxes on business.", "Article IX of the Constitution of the State of Michigan also provides limitations on how much the state can tax.A 6% use tax is levied on goods purchased outside the state (that are brought in and used in state), at parity with the sales tax.", "The use tax applies to internet sales/purchases from outside Michigan and is equivalent to the sales tax.===Agriculture===tart cherries, blueberries, pickling cucumbers, navy beans, and petunias.The world headquarters of Kellogg's in Battle CreekA wide variety of commodity crops, fruits, and vegetables are grown in Michigan, making it second only to California among US states in the diversity of its agriculture.", "The state has 54,800 farms utilizing of land which sold $6.49 billion worth of products in 2010.The most valuable agricultural product is milk.", "Leading crops include corn, soybeans, flowers, wheat, sugar beets, and potatoes.", "Livestock in the state included 78,000 sheep, a million cattle, a million hogs, and more than three million chickens.", "Livestock products accounted for 38% of the value of agricultural products while crops accounted for the majority.Michigan is a leading grower of fruit in the US, including blueberries, tart cherries, apples, grapes, and peaches.", "Plums, pears, and strawberries are also grown in Michigan.", "These fruits are mainly grown in West Michigan due to the moderating effect of Lake Michigan on the climate.", "There is also significant fruit production, especially cherries, but also grapes, apples, and other fruits, in northwest Michigan along Lake Michigan.", "Michigan produces wines, beers and a multitude of processed food products.", "Kellogg's cereal is based in Battle Creek, Michigan and processes many locally grown foods.", "Thornapple Valley, Ball Park Franks, Koegel Meat Company, and Hebrew National sausage companies are all based in Michigan.Michigan is home to very fertile land in the Saginaw Valley and Thumb areas.", "Products grown there include corn, sugar beets, navy beans, and soybeans.", "Sugar beet harvesting usually begins the first of October.", "It takes the sugar factories about five months to process the 3.7 million tons of sugarbeets into 485,000 tons of pure, white sugar.", "Michigan's largest sugar refiner, Michigan Sugar Company is the largest east of the Mississippi River and the fourth largest in the nation.", "Michigan sugar brand names are Pioneer Sugar and the newly incorporated Big Chief Sugar.", "Potatoes are grown in Northern Michigan, and corn is dominant in Central Michigan.", "Alfalfa, cucumbers, and asparagus are also grown.===Tourism===Mackinac Island is well known for cultural events and a wide variety of architectural styles, including the Victorian Grand Hotel.Holland, Michigan, is the home of the Tulip Time Festival, the largest tulip festival in the U.S.As of 2011, Michigan's tourists spent $17.2 billion per year in the state, supporting 193,000 tourism jobs.", "Michigan's tourism website ranks among the busiest in the nation.", "Destinations draw vacationers, hunters, and nature enthusiasts from across the United States and Canada.", "Michigan is over 50% forest land, much of it quite remote.", "The forests, lakes and thousands of miles of beaches are top attractions.", "Event tourism draws large numbers to occasions like the Tulip Time Festival and the National Cherry Festival.In 2006, the Michigan State Board of Education mandated all public schools in the state hold their first day of school after Labor Day, in accordance with the new post-Labor Day school law.", "A survey found 70% of all tourism business comes directly from Michigan residents, and the Michigan Hotel, Motel, & Resort Association claimed the shorter summer between school years cut into the annual tourism season.", "However, a bill introduced in 2023 would cancel this requirement, allowing individual districts to decide when their school year should begin.Tourism in metropolitan Detroit draws visitors to leading attractions, especially The Henry Ford, the Detroit Institute of Arts, the Detroit Zoo, and to sports in Detroit.", "Other museums include the Detroit Historical Museum, the Charles H. Wright Museum of African American History, museums in the Cranbrook Educational Community, and the Arab American National Museum.", "The metro area offers four major casinos, MGM Grand Detroit, Hollywood Casino, Motor City, and Caesars Windsor in Windsor, Ontario, Canada; moreover, Detroit is the largest American city and metropolitan region to offer casino resorts.Hunting and fishing are significant industries in the state.", "Charter boats are based in many Great Lakes cities to fish for salmon, trout, walleye, and perch.", "Michigan ranks first in the nation in licensed hunters (over one million) who contribute $2 billion annually to its economy.", "More than three-quarters of a million hunters participate in white-tailed deer season alone.", "Many school districts in rural areas of Michigan cancel school on the opening day of firearm deer season, because of attendance concerns.Marquette, Michigan, is home to a vast snowmobile trail system.Michigan's Department of Natural Resources manages the largest dedicated state forest system in the nation.", "The forest products industry and recreational users contribute $12 billion and 200,000 associated jobs annually to the state's economy.", "Public hiking and hunting access has also been secured in extensive commercial forests.", "The state has the highest number of golf courses and registered snowmobiles in the nation.The state has numerous historical markers, which can themselves become the center of a tour.", "The Great Lakes Circle Tour is a designated scenic road system connecting all of the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River.With its position in relation to the Great Lakes and the countless ships that have foundered over the many years they have been used as a transport route for people and bulk cargo, Michigan is a world-class scuba diving destination.", "The Michigan Underwater Preserves are 11 underwater areas where wrecks are protected for the benefit of sport divers." ], [ "Culture", "===Arts=======Music====Michigan music is known for three music trends: early punk rock, Motown/soul music and techno music.", "Michigan musicians include Tally Hall, Bill Haley & His Comets, the Supremes, the Marvelettes, the Temptations, the Four Tops, Stevie Wonder, Marvin Gaye \"The Prince of Soul\", Smokey Robinson and the Miracles, Aretha Franklin, Mary Wells, Tommy James and the Shondells, ?", "and the Mysterians, Al Green, The Spinners, Grand Funk Railroad, the Stooges, the MC5, the Knack, Madonna \"The Queen of Pop\", Bob Seger, Jack Scott, Ray Parker Jr., Jackie Wilson, Aaliyah, Eminem, Babytron, Kid Rock, Jack White and Meg White (the White Stripes), Big Sean, Alice Cooper, Greta Van Fleet, Mustard Plug, and Del Shannon.====Performance arts====Major theaters in Michigan include the Fox Theatre, Music Hall, Gem Theatre, Masonic Temple Theatre, the Detroit Opera House, Fisher Theatre, The Fillmore Detroit, Saint Andrew's Hall, Majestic Theater, and Orchestra Hall.The Nederlander Organization, the largest controller of Broadway productions in New York City, originated in Detroit.===Sports===Michigan Stadium in Ann Arbor is the largest stadium in the Western Hemisphere, and the third-largest stadium in the world.Michigan's major-league sports teams include: Detroit Tigers baseball team, Detroit Lions football team, Detroit Red Wings ice hockey team, and the Detroit Pistons men's basketball team.", "All of Michigan's major league teams play in the Metro Detroit area.", "The state also has a professional second-tier (USL Championship) soccer team in Detroit City FC, which plays its home games at Keyworth Stadium in Hamtramck, Michigan.The Pistons played at Detroit's Cobo Arena until 1978 and at the Pontiac Silverdome until 1988 when they moved into The Palace of Auburn Hills.", "In 2017, the team moved to the newly built Little Caesars Arena in downtown Detroit.", "The Detroit Lions played at Tiger Stadium in Detroit until 1974, then moved to the Pontiac Silverdome where they played for 27 years between 1975 and 2002 before moving to Ford Field in Detroit in 2002.The Detroit Tigers played at Tiger Stadium (formerly known as Navin Field and Briggs Stadium) from 1912 to 1999.In 2000 they moved to Comerica Park.", "The Red Wings played at Olympia Stadium before moving to Joe Louis Arena in 1979.They later moved to Little Caesars Arena to join the Pistons as tenants in 2017.Professional hockey got its start in 1903 in Houghton, when the Portage Lakers were formed.Michigan International Speedway in Brooklyn, MichiganThe Michigan International Speedway is the site of NASCAR races and Detroit was formerly the site of a Formula One World Championship Grand Prix race.", "From 1959 to 1961, Detroit Dragway hosted the NHRA's U.S. Nationals.", "Michigan is home to one of the major canoeing marathons: the Au Sable River Canoe Marathon.", "The Port Huron to Mackinac Boat Race is also a favorite.Twenty-time Grand Slam champion Serena Williams was born in Saginaw.", "The 2011 World Champion for Women's Artistic Gymnastics, Jordyn Wieber is from DeWitt.", "Wieber was also a member of the gold medal team at the London Olympics in 2012.Collegiate sports in Michigan are popular in addition to professional sports.", "The state's two largest athletic programs are the Michigan Wolverines and Michigan State Spartans, which play in the NCAA Big Ten Conference.", "Michigan Stadium in Ann Arbor, home to the Michigan Wolverines football team, is the largest stadium in the Western Hemisphere and the third-largest stadium worldwide.The Michigan High School Athletic Association features around 300,000 participants." ], [ "Education", "Cranbrook Kingswood School, one of the leading college preparatory boarding schools in the countryMichigan's education system serves 1.6 million K-12 students in public schools.", "More than 124,000 students attend private schools and an uncounted number are homeschooled under certain legal requirements.", "The public school system had a $14.5 billion budget in 2008–09.From 2009 to 2019, over 200 private schools in Michigan closed, partly due to competition from charter schools.", "In 2022, ''U.S.", "News & World Report'' rated three Michigan high schools among the nation's 100 best: City High Middle School (18th), the International Academy of Macomb (21st), and the International Academy (52nd).", "Washtenaw International High School ranked 107th.The University of Michigan is Michigan's oldest higher educational institution and among the oldest research universities in the nation.", "It was founded in 1817, 20 years before Michigan Territory achieved statehood.", "Kalamazoo College is the state's oldest private liberal arts college, founded in 1833 by a group of Baptist ministers as the Michigan and Huron Institute.", "From 1840 to 1850, the college operated as the Kalamazoo Branch of the University of Michigan.", "Methodist settlers in Spring Arbor Township founded Albion College in 1835.It is the state's second-oldest private liberal arts college.Michigan Technological University is the first post-secondary institution in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan, founded in 1885 as the Michigan Mining School.", "Eastern Michigan University was founded in 1849 as the Michigan State Normal School for the training of teachers.", "It was the nation's fourth-oldest normal school and the first U.S. normal school outside New England.", "In 1899, the Michigan State Normal School became the nation's first normal school to offer a four-year curriculum.", "Michigan State University was founded in 1855 as the nation's first agricultural college.The Carnegie Foundation classifies eight of the state's institutions (Michigan State University, Michigan Technological University, Eastern Michigan University, Wayne State University, Central Michigan University, Western Michigan University, Oakland University, University of Michigan) as research universities." ], [ "Infrastructure", "=== Energy ===Enrico Fermi Nuclear Generating Station on the shore of Lake Erie, near MonroeIn 2020, Michigan consumed 113,740- gigawatt-hours (GWh) of electrical energy and produced 116,700 (GWh) of electrical energy.Coal power is Michigan's leading source of electricity, producing roughly half its supply or 53,100 GWh of electrical energy (12.6 GW total capacity) in 2020.Although Michigan has no active coal mines, coal is easily moved from other states by train and across the Great Lakes by lake freighters.", "The lower price of natural gas is leading to the closure of most coal plants, with Consumer Energy planning to close all of its remaining coal plants by 2025; DTE plans to retire 2100MW of coal power by 2023.The coal-fired Monroe Power Plant in Monroe, on the western shore of Lake Erie, is the nation's 11th-largest electric plant, with a net capacity of 3,400 MW.Nuclear power is also a significant source of electrical power in Michigan, producing roughly one-quarter of the state's supply or 28,000-gigawatt-hours (GWh) of electrical energy (4.3 GW total capacity) in 2020.The three active nuclear power plants supply Michigan with about 26% of its electricity.", "Donald C. Cook Nuclear Plant, just north of Bridgman, is the state's largest nuclear power plant, with a net capacity of 2,213 MW.", "The Enrico Fermi Nuclear Generating Station is the second-largest, with a net capacity of 1,150 MW.", "It is also one of the two nuclear power plants in the Detroit metropolitan area (within a 50-mile radius of Detroit's city center), about halfway between Detroit and Toledo, Ohio, the other being the Davis–Besse Nuclear Power Station, in Ottawa County, Ohio.", "The Palisades Nuclear Power Plant, south of South Haven, closed in May 2022.The Big Rock Point Nuclear Power Plant, Michigan's first nuclear power plant and the nation's fifth, was decommissioned in 1997.=== Transportation ======= International crossings ====Blue Water Bridge, a twin-span bridge across the St. Clair River that links Port Huron and Sarnia, OntarioMichigan has nine international road crossings with Ontario, Canada:* Ambassador Bridge, North America's busiest international border, crossing the Detroit River* Blue Water Bridge, a twin-span bridge (Port Huron, Michigan, and Point Edward, Ontario, but the larger city of Sarnia is usually referred to on the Canadian side)* Blue Water Ferry (Marine City, Michigan, and Sombra, Ontario)* Canadian Pacific Railway tunnel* Detroit–Windsor Truck Ferry (Detroit and Windsor)* Detroit–Windsor Tunnel* International Bridge (Sault Ste.", "Marie, Michigan, and Sault Ste.", "Marie, Ontario)* St. Clair River Railway Tunnel (Port Huron and Sarnia)* Walpole Island Ferry (Algonac, Michigan, and Walpole Island First Nation, Ontario)The Gordie Howe International Bridge, a second international bridge between Detroit and Windsor, is under construction.", "It is expected to be completed in 2024.====Railroads====Michigan is served by four Class I railroads: the Canadian National Railway, the Canadian Pacific Railway, CSX Transportation, and the Norfolk Southern Railway.", "These are augmented by several dozen short line railroads.", "The vast majority of rail service in Michigan is devoted to freight, with Amtrak and various scenic railroads the exceptions.Three Amtrak passenger rail routes serve the state.", "The Pere Marquette from Chicago to Grand Rapids, the Blue Water from Chicago to Port Huron, and the Wolverine from Chicago to Pontiac.", "There are plans for commuter rail for Detroit and its suburbs (see SEMCOG Commuter Rail).====Roadways====U.S.", "Highway 2 (U.S. 2) runs along Lake Michigan from Naubinway to its eastern terminus at St. Ignace.The Mackinac Bridge, a suspension bridge spanning the Straits of Mackinac to connect the Upper and Lower peninsulas of Michigan* Interstate 75 (I-75) is the main thoroughfare between Detroit, Flint, and Saginaw extending north to Sault Ste.", "Marie and providing access to Sault Ste.", "Marie, Ontario.", "The freeway crosses the Mackinac Bridge between the Lower and Upper Peninsulas.", "Auxiliary highways include I-275 and I-375 in Detroit; I-475 in Flint; and I-675 in Saginaw.", "* I-69 enters the state near the Michigan–Ohio–Indiana border, and it extends to Port Huron and provides access to the Blue Water Bridge crossing into Sarnia, Ontario.", "* I-94 enters the western end of the state at the Indiana border, and it travels east to Detroit and then northeast to Port Huron and ties in with I-69.I-194 branches off from this freeway in Battle Creek.", "I-94 is the main artery between Chicago and Detroit.", "* I-96 runs east–west between Detroit and Muskegon.", "I-496 loops through Lansing.", "I-196 branches off from this freeway at Grand Rapids and connects to I-94 near Benton Harbor.", "I-696 branches off from this freeway at Novi and connects to I-94 near St. Clair Shores.", "* U.S. Highway 2 (U.S. 2) enters Michigan at the city of Ironwood and travels east to the town of Crystal Falls, where it turns south and briefly re-enters Wisconsin northwest of Florence.", "It re-enters Michigan north of Iron Mountain and continues through the Upper Peninsula of Michigan to the cities of Escanaba, Manistique, and St. Ignace.", "Along the way, it cuts through the Ottawa and Hiawatha national forests and follows the northern shore of Lake Michigan.", "Its eastern terminus lies at exit 344 on I-75, just north of the Mackinac Bridge.", "* U.S. Highway 23 enters Michigan at the Ohio state line in the suburban spillover of Toledo, Ohio, as a freeway and leads northward to Ann Arbor before merging with I-75 just south of Flint.", "Concurrent with I-75 through Flint, Saginaw, and Bay City, it splits from I-75 at Standish as an intermittently four lane/two-lane surface road closely following the western shore of Lake Huron generally northward through Alpena before turning west to northwest toward Mackinaw City and Interstate 75 again, where it terminates.", "* U.S. Highway 31 enters Michigan as Interstate-quality freeway at the Indiana state line just northwest of South Bend, Indiana, heads north to Interstate 196 near Benton Harbor, and follows the eastern shore of Lake Michigan to Mackinaw City, where it has its northern terminus.", "* U.S. Highway 127 enters Michigan from Ohio south of Hudson as a two-lane, undivided highway and closely follows the Michigan meridian, the principal north–south line used to survey Michigan in the early 19th century.", "It passes north through Jackson and Lansing before terminating south of Grayling at I-75, and is a four-lane freeway for the majority of its course.", "* U.S. Highway 131 has its southern terminus at the Indiana Toll Road roughly one mile south of the Indiana state line as a two-lane surface road.", "It passes through Kalamazoo and Grand Rapids as a freeway of Interstate standard and continues as such to Manton, where it reverts to two-lane surface road to its northern terminus at U.S. 31 in Petoskey.====Intercity bus services====*Amtrak Thruway*Barons Bus Lines*Flixbus*Greyhound Lines*Indian Trails*Megabus====Airports====Detroit Metro Airport (DTW)Detroit Metropolitan Airport in the western suburb of Romulus, was in 2010 the 16th busiest airfield in North America measured by passenger traffic.", "The Gerald R. Ford International Airport in Grand Rapids is the next busiest airport in the state, served by eight airlines to 23 destinations.", "Flint Bishop International Airport is the third largest airport in the state, served by four airlines to several primary hubs.", "Other frequently trafficked airports include Cherry Capital Airport, in Traverse City; Kalamazoo/Battle Creek International Airport, serving the Kalamazoo and Battle Creek region; Capital Region International Airport, located outside of Lansing; and MBS International Airport serving the Midland, Bay City and Saginaw tri-city region.", "Additionally, smaller regional and local airports are located throughout the state including on several islands." ], [ "Government", "===State government===The Michigan State Capitol in Lansing houses the legislative branch of the government of the US state of Michigan.Michigan is governed as a republic, with three branches of government: the executive branch consisting of the Governor of Michigan and the other independently elected constitutional officers; the legislative branch consisting of the House of Representatives and Senate; and the judicial branch.", "The Michigan Constitution allows for the direct participation of the electorate by statutory initiative and referendum, recall, and constitutional initiative and referral (Article II, § 9, defined as \"the power to propose laws and to enact and reject laws, called the initiative, and the power to approve or reject laws enacted by the legislature, called the referendum.", "The power of initiative extends only to laws which the legislature may enact under this constitution\").", "Lansing is the state capital and is home to all three branches of state government.The floor of the Michigan House of RepresentativesThe governor and the other state constitutional officers serve four-year terms and may be re-elected only once.", "The current governor is Gretchen Whitmer.", "Michigan has two official Governor's Residences; one is in Lansing, and the other is on Mackinac Island.", "The other constitutionally elected executive officers are the lieutenant governor, who is elected on a joint ticket with the governor; the secretary of state; and the attorney general.", "The lieutenant governor presides over the Senate (voting only in case of a tie) and is also a member of the cabinet.", "The secretary of state is the chief elections officer and is charged with running many licensure programs including motor vehicles, all of which are done through the branch offices of the secretary of state.The Michigan Legislature consists of a 38-member Senate and 110-member House of Representatives.", "Members of both houses of the legislature are elected through first past the post elections by single-member electoral districts of near-equal population that often have boundaries which coincide with county and municipal lines.", "Senators serve four-year terms concurrent to those of the governor, while representatives serve two-year terms.", "The Michigan State Capitol was dedicated in 1879 and has hosted the executive and legislative branches of the state ever since.Governor Gretchen Whitmer speaking at a National Guard ceremony in 2019The Michigan judiciary consists of two courts with primary jurisdiction (the Circuit Courts and the District Courts), one intermediate level appellate court (the Michigan Court of Appeals), and the Michigan Supreme Court.", "There are several administrative courts and specialized courts.", "District courts are trial courts of limited jurisdiction, handling most traffic violations, small claims, misdemeanors, and civil suits where the amount contended is below $25,000.District courts are often responsible for handling the preliminary examination and for setting bail in felony cases.", "District court judges are elected to terms of six years.", "In a few locations, municipal courts have been retained to the exclusion of the establishment of district courts.", "There are 57 circuit courts in the State of Michigan, which have original jurisdiction over all civil suits where the amount contended in the case exceeds $25,000 and all criminal cases involving felonies.", "Circuit courts are also the only trial courts in the State of Michigan which possess the power to issue equitable remedies.", "Circuit courts have appellate jurisdiction from district and municipal courts, as well as from decisions and decrees of state agencies.", "Most counties have their own circuit court, but sparsely populated counties often share them.", "Circuit court judges are elected to terms of six years.", "State appellate court judges are elected to terms of six years, but vacancies are filled by an appointment by the governor.", "There are four divisions of the Court of Appeals in Detroit, Grand Rapids, Lansing, and Marquette.", "Cases are heard by the Court of Appeals by panels of three judges, who examine the application of the law and not the facts of the case unless there has been grievous error pertaining to questions of fact.", "The Michigan Supreme Court consists of seven members who are elected on non-partisan ballots for staggered eight-year terms.", "The Supreme Court has original jurisdiction only in narrow circumstances but holds appellate jurisdiction over the entire state judicial system.===Law===Michigan Supreme Court at the Hall of JusticeMichigan has had four constitutions, the first of which was ratified on October5 and 6, 1835.There were also constitutions from 1850 and 1908, in addition to the current constitution from 1963.The current document has a preamble, 11 articles, and one section consisting of a schedule and temporary provisions.", "Michigan, like every U.S. state except Louisiana, has a common law legal system.===Politics===Having been a Democratic-leaning state at the presidential level since the 1990s, Michigan has evolved into a swing state after Donald Trump won the state in 2016.Governors since the 1970s have alternated between the Democrats and Republicans, and statewide offices including attorney general, secretary of state, and senator have been held by members of both parties in varying proportion.", "Additionally, from 1994 until 2022, the governor-elect had always come from the party opposite the presidency.", "The Democratic Party has a slim majority of two seats in the Senate of the Michigan Legislature, and the House is currently deadlocked at 54 seats for each party.", "The state's congressional delegation is commonly split, with one party or the other typically holding a narrow majority.Michigan was the home of Gerald Ford, the 38th president of the United States.", "Born in Nebraska, he moved as an infant to Grand Rapids.", "The Gerald R. Ford Museum is in Grand Rapids, and the Gerald R. Ford Presidential Library is on the campus of his alma mater, the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor.In a 2020 study, Michigan was ranked as the 13th easiest state for citizens to vote in." ], [ "State symbols and nicknames", "Dwarf lake irisMichigan is traditionally known as \"The Wolverine State\", and the University of Michigan uses the wolverine as its mascot.", "The association is well and long established: for example, many Detroiters volunteered to fight during the American Civil War and George Armstrong Custer, who led the Michigan Brigade, called them the \"Wolverines\".", "The origins of this association are obscure; it may derive from a busy trade in wolverine furs in Sault Ste.", "Marie in the 18th century or may recall a disparagement intended to compare early settlers in Michigan with the vicious mammal.", "Wolverines are, however, extremely rare in Michigan.", "A sighting in February 2004 near Ubly was the first confirmed sighting in Michigan in 200 years.", "The animal was found dead in 2010.", "* State nicknames: ''Wolverine State'', ''Great Lake State'', ''Mitten State'', ''Water-Winter Wonderland''* State motto: ''Si quaeris peninsulam amoenam circumspice'' (Latin: \"If you seek a pleasant peninsula, look about you\") adopted in 1835 on the coat-of-arms, but never as an official motto.", "This is a paraphrase of the epitaph of British architect Sir Christopher Wren about his masterpiece, St. Paul's Cathedral.", "* State song: \"My Michigan\" (official since 1937, but disputed amongst residents), \"Michigan, My Michigan\" (Unofficial state song, since the civil war)* State bird: American robin (since 1931)* State animal: wolverine (traditional)* State game animal: white-tailed deer (since 1997)* State fish: brook trout (since 1965)* State reptile: painted turtle (since 1995)* State fossil: mastodon (since 2000)* State flower: apple blossom (adopted in 1897, official in 1997)* State wildflower: dwarf lake iris (since 1998) a federally listed threatened species* State tree: white pine (since 1955)* State stone: Petoskey stone (since 1965).", "It is composed of fossilized coral (''Hexagonaria pericarnata'') from long ago when the middle of the continent was covered with a shallow sea.", "* State gem: Isle Royale greenstone (since 1973).", "Also called ''chlorastrolite'' (literally \"green star stone\"), the mineral is found on Isle Royale and the Keweenaw peninsula.", "* State quarter: US coin issued in 2004 with the Michigan motto \"Great Lakes State\".", "* State soil: Kalkaska sand (since 1990), ranges in color from black to yellowish brown, covers nearly in 29 counties." ], [ "Sister regions", "* Shiga Prefecture, Japan* Sichuan Province, People's Republic of China" ], [ "See also", "* Index of Michigan-related articles* Outline of Michigan: organized list of topics about Michigan* USS ''Michigan'', 3 ships" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * State of Michigan government website* Energy Data & Statistics for Michigan* Info Michigan, detailed information on 630 cities* Michigan Historic Markers* Historical Society of Michigan* Clarke Historical Library, Central Michigan University, Bibliographies for Michigan by region, counties, etc..* Michigan State Guide from the Library of Congress* Michigan Official Travel Site* Michigan Official Business Site* Michigan Official Talent Site* Michigan State Fact Sheet from the US Department of Agriculture* The Michigan Municipal League* USGS real-time, geographic, and other scientific resources of Michigan*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Minimum wage" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''minimum wage''' is the lowest remuneration that employers can legally pay their employees—the price floor below which employees may not sell their labor.", "Most countries had introduced minimum wage legislation by the end of the 20th century.", "Because minimum wages increase the cost of labor, companies often try to avoid minimum wage laws by using gig workers, by moving labor to locations with lower or nonexistent minimum wages, or by automating job functions.", "Minimum wage policies can vary significantly between countries or even within a country, with different regions, sectors, or age groups having their own minimum wage rates.", "These variations are often influenced by factors such as the cost of living, regional economic conditions, and industry-specific factors.The movement for minimum wages was first motivated as a way to stop the exploitation of workers in sweatshops, by employers who were thought to have unfair bargaining power over them.", "Over time, minimum wages came to be seen as a way to help lower-income families.", "Modern national laws enforcing compulsory union membership which prescribed minimum wages for their members were first passed in New Zealand in 1894.Although minimum wage laws are now in effect in many jurisdictions, differences of opinion exist about the benefits and drawbacks of a minimum wage.", "Additionally, minimum wage policies can be implemented through various methods, such as directly legislating specific wage rates, setting a formula that adjusts the minimum wage based on economic indicators, or having wage boards that determine minimum wages in consultation with representatives from employers, employees, and the government.Supply and demand models suggest that there may be employment losses from minimum wages; however, minimum wages can increase the efficiency of the labor market in monopsony scenarios, where individual employers have a degree of wage-setting power over the market as a whole.", "Supporters of the minimum wage say it increases the standard of living of workers, reduces poverty, reduces inequality, and boosts morale.", "In contrast, opponents of the minimum wage say it increases poverty and unemployment because some low-wage workers \"will be unable to find work ... and will be pushed into the ranks of the unemployed\"." ], [ "History", "Modern minimum wage laws trace their origin to the Ordinance of Labourers (1349), which was a decree by King Edward III that set a'' maximum wage'' for laborers in medieval England.", "Edward, who was a wealthy landowner, was dependent, like his lords, on serfs to work the land.", "In the autumn of 1348, the Black Plague reached England and decimated the population.", "The severe shortage of labor caused wages to soar and encouraged King Edward III to set a wage ceiling.", "Subsequent amendments to the ordinance, such as the Statute of Labourers (1351), increased the penalties for paying a wage above the set rates.While the laws governing wages initially set a ceiling on compensation, they were eventually used to set a living wage.", "An amendment to the Statute of Labourers in 1389 effectively fixed wages to the price of food.", "As time passed, the Justice of the Peace, who was charged with setting the maximum wage, also began to set formal minimum wages.", "The practice was eventually formalized with the passage of the Act Fixing a Minimum Wage in 1604 by King James I for workers in the textile industry.By the early 19th century, the Statutes of Labourers was repealed as the increasingly capitalistic United Kingdom embraced ''laissez-faire'' policies which disfavored regulations of wages (whether upper or lower limits).", "The subsequent 19th century saw significant labor unrest affect many industrial nations.", "As trade unions were decriminalized during the century, attempts to control wages through collective agreement were made.It was not until the 1890s that the first modern legislative attempts to regulate minimum wages were seen in New Zealand and Australia.", "The movement for a minimum wage was initially focused on stopping sweatshop labor and controlling the proliferation of sweatshops in manufacturing industries.", "The sweatshops employed large numbers of women and young workers, paying them what were considered to be substandard wages.", "The sweatshop owners were thought to have unfair bargaining power over their employees, and a minimum wage was proposed as a means to make them pay fairly.", "Over time, the focus changed to helping people, especially families, become more self-sufficient.In the United States, the late 19th-century ideas for favoring a minimum wage also coincided with the eugenics movement.", "As a consequence, some economists at the time, including Royal Meeker and Henry Rogers Seager, argued for the adoption of a minimum wage not only to support the worker, but to support their desired semi- and skilled laborers while forcing the undesired workers (including the idle, immigrants, women, racial minorities, and the disabled) out of the labor market.", "The result, over the longer term, would be to limit the nondesired workers' ability to earn money and have families, and thereby, remove them from the economists' ideal society." ], [ "Minimum wage laws", "The first modern national minimum wages were enacted by the government recognition of unions which in turn established minimum wage policy among their members, as in New Zealand in 1894, followed by Australia in 1896 and the United Kingdom in 1909.In the United States, statutory minimum wages were first introduced nationally in 1938, and they were reintroduced and expanded in the United Kingdom in 1998.There is now legislation or binding collective bargaining regarding minimum wage in more than 90 percent of all countries.", "In the European Union, 21 out of 27 member states currently have national minimum wages.", "Other countries, such as Sweden, Finland, Denmark, Switzerland, Austria, and Italy, have no minimum wage laws, but rely on employer groups and trade unions to set minimum earnings through collective bargaining.Minimum wage rates vary greatly across many different jurisdictions, not only in setting a particular amount of money—for example $7.25 per hour ($14,500 per year) under certain US state laws (or $2.13 for employees who receive tips, which is known as the tipped minimum wage), $16.28 per hour in the U.S. state of Washington, or £8.91 (for those aged 25+) in the United Kingdom—but also in terms of which pay period (for example Russia and China set monthly minimum wages) or the scope of coverage.", "Currently the United States federal minimum wage is $7.25 per hour, though most states have a higher minimum wage.", "However, some states do not have a minimum wage law, such as Louisiana and Tennessee, and other states have minimum wages below the federal minimum wage such as Georgia and Wyoming, although the federal minimum wage is enforced in those states.", "Some jurisdictions allow employers to count tips given to their workers as credit towards the minimum wage levels.", "India was one of the first developing countries to introduce minimum wage policy in its law in 1948.However, it is rarely implemented, even by contractors of government agencies.", "In Mumbai, as of 2017, the minimum wage was Rs.", "348/day.India also has one of the most complicated systems with more than 1,200 minimum wage rates depending on the geographical region.===Informal minimum wages===Customs, tight labor markets, and extra-legal pressures from governments or labor unions can each produce a ''de facto'' minimum wage.", "So can international public opinion, by pressuring multinational companies to pay Third World workers wages usually found in more industrialized countries.", "The latter situation in Southeast Asia and Latin America was publicized in the 2000s, but it existed with companies in West Africa in the middle of the 20th century.===Setting minimum wage===Among the indicators that might be used to establish an initial minimum wage rate are ones that minimize the loss of jobs while preserving international competitiveness.", "Among these are general economic conditions as measured by real and nominal gross domestic product; inflation; labor supply and demand; wage levels, distribution and differentials; employment terms; productivity growth; labor costs; business operating costs; the number and trend of bankruptcies; economic freedom rankings; standards of living and the prevailing average wage rate.In the business sector, concerns include the expected increased cost of doing business, threats to profitability, rising levels of unemployment (and subsequent higher government expenditure on welfare benefits raising tax rates), and the possible knock-on effects to the wages of more experienced workers who might already be earning the new statutory minimum wage, or slightly more.", "Among workers and their representatives, political considerations weigh in as labor leaders seek to win support by demanding the highest possible rate.", "Other concerns include purchasing power, inflation indexing and standardized working hours.===Impact of minimum wage on income inequality and poverty===Minimum wage policies have been debated for their impact on income inequality and poverty levels.", "Proponents argue that raising the minimum wage can help reduce income disparities, enabling low-income workers to afford basic necessities and contribute to the overall economy.", "Higher minimum wages may also have a ripple effect, pushing up wages for those earning slightly above the minimum wage.However, opponents contend that minimum wage increases can lead to job losses, particularly for low-skilled and entry-level workers, as businesses may be unable to afford higher labor costs and may respond by cutting jobs or hours.", "They also argue that minimum wage increases may not effectively target those living in poverty, as many minimum wage earners are secondary earners in households with higher incomes.", "Some studies suggest that targeted income support programs, such as the Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC) in the United States, may be more effective in addressing poverty.", "The effectiveness of minimum wage policies in reducing income inequality and poverty remains a subject of ongoing debate and research." ], [ "Economic models", "===Supply and demand model===Graph showing the basic supply and demand model of the minimum wage in the labor market.According to the supply and demand model of the labor market shown in many economics textbooks, increasing the minimum wage decreases the employment of minimum-wage workers.", "One such textbook states:A firm's cost is an increasing function of the wage rate.", "The higher the wage rate, the fewer hours an employer will demand of employees.", "This is because, as the wage rate rises, it becomes more expensive for firms to hire workers and so firms hire fewer workers (or hire them for fewer hours).", "The demand of labor curve is therefore shown as a line moving down and to the right.", "Since higher wages increase the quantity supplied, the supply of labor curve is upward sloping, and is shown as a line moving up and to the right.", "If no minimum wage is in place, wages will adjust until the quantity of labor demanded is equal to quantity supplied, reaching equilibrium, where the supply and demand curves intersect.", "Minimum wage behaves as a classical price floor on labor.", "Standard theory says that, if set above the equilibrium price, more labor will be willing to be provided by workers than will be demanded by employers, creating a surplus of labor, i.e.", "unemployment.", "The economic model of markets predicts the same of other commodities (like milk and wheat, for example): Artificially raising the price of the commodity tends to cause an increase in quantity supplied and a decrease in quantity demanded.", "The result is a surplus of the commodity.", "When there is a wheat surplus, the government buys it.", "Since the government does not hire surplus labor, the labor surplus takes the form of unemployment, which tends to be higher with minimum wage laws than without them.The supply and demand model implies that by mandating a price floor above the equilibrium wage, minimum wage laws will cause unemployment.", "This is because a greater number of people are willing to work at the higher wage while a smaller number of jobs will be available at the higher wage.", "Companies can be more selective in those whom they employ thus the least skilled and least experienced will typically be excluded.", "An imposition or increase of a minimum wage will generally only affect employment in the low-skill labor market, as the equilibrium wage is already at or below the minimum wage, whereas in higher skill labor markets the equilibrium wage is too high for a change in minimum wage to affect employment.===Monopsony===monopsonistic and workers lack bargaining power.The supply and demand model predicts that raising the minimum wage helps workers whose wages are raised, and hurts people who are not hired (or lose their jobs) when companies cut back on employment.", "But proponents of the minimum wage hold that the situation is much more complicated than the model can account for.", "One complicating factor is possible monopsony in the labor market, whereby the individual employer has some market power in determining wages paid.", "Thus it is at least theoretically possible that the minimum wage may boost employment.", "Though single employer market power is unlikely to exist in most labor markets in the sense of the traditional 'company town,' asymmetric information, imperfect mobility, and the personal element of the labor transaction give some degree of wage-setting power to most firms.Modern economic theory predicts that although an excessive minimum wage may raise unemployment as it fixes a price above most demand for labor, a minimum wage at a more reasonable level can increase employment, and enhance growth and efficiency.", "This is because labor markets are monopsonistic and workers persistently lack bargaining power.", "When poorer workers have more to spend it stimulates effective aggregate demand for goods and services.===Criticisms of the supply and demand model===The argument that a minimum wage decreases employment is based on a simple supply and demand model of the labor market.", "A number of economists, such as Pierangelo Garegnani, Robert L. Vienneau, and Arrigo Opocher and Ian Steedman, building on the work of Piero Sraffa, argue that that model, even given all its assumptions, is logically incoherent.", "Michael Anyadike-Danes and Wynne Godley argue, based on simulation results, that little of the empirical work done with the textbook model constitutes a potentially falsifiable theory, and consequently empirical evidence hardly exists for that model.", "Graham White argues, partially on the basis of Sraffianism, that the policy of increased labor market flexibility, including the reduction of minimum wages, does not have an \"intellectually coherent\" argument in economic theory.Gary Fields, Professor of Labor Economics and Economics at Cornell University, argues that the standard textbook model for the minimum wage is ambiguous, and that the standard theoretical arguments incorrectly measure only a one-sector market.", "Fields says a two-sector market, where \"the self-employed, service workers, and farm workers are typically excluded from minimum-wage coverage ... and with one sector with minimum-wage coverage and the other without it and possible mobility between the two,\" is the basis for better analysis.", "Through this model, Fields shows the typical theoretical argument to be ambiguous and says \"the predictions derived from the textbook model definitely do not carry over to the two-sector case.", "Therefore, since a non-covered sector exists nearly everywhere, the predictions of the textbook model simply cannot be relied on.", "\"An alternate view of the labor market has low-wage labor markets characterized as monopsonistic competition wherein buyers (employers) have significantly more market power than do sellers (workers).", "This monopsony could be a result of intentional collusion between employers, or naturalistic factors such as segmented markets, search costs, information costs, imperfect mobility and the personal element of labor markets.", "In such a case a simple supply and demand graph would not yield the quantity of labor clearing and the wage rate.", "This is because while the upward sloping aggregate labor supply would remain unchanged, instead of using the upward labor supply curve shown in a supply and demand diagram, monopsonistic employers would use a steeper upward sloping curve corresponding to marginal expenditures to yield the intersection with the supply curve resulting in a wage rate lower than would be the case under competition.", "Also, the amount of labor sold would also be lower than the competitive optimal allocation.Such a case is a type of market failure and results in workers being paid less than their marginal value.", "Under the monopsonistic assumption, an appropriately set minimum wage could increase both wages and employment, with the optimal level being equal to the marginal product of labor.", "This view emphasizes the role of minimum wages as a market regulation policy akin to antitrust policies, as opposed to an illusory \"free lunch\" for low-wage workers.Another reason minimum wage may not affect employment in certain industries is that the demand for the product the employees produce is highly inelastic.", "For example, if management is forced to increase wages, management can pass on the increase in wage to consumers in the form of higher prices.", "Since demand for the product is highly inelastic, consumers continue to buy the product at the higher price and so the manager is not forced to lay off workers.", "Economist Paul Krugman argues this explanation neglects to explain why the firm was not charging this higher price absent the minimum wage.Three other possible reasons minimum wages do not affect employment were suggested by Alan Blinder: higher wages may reduce turnover, and hence training costs; raising the minimum wage may \"render moot\" the potential problem of recruiting workers at a higher wage than current workers; and minimum wage workers might represent such a small proportion of a business' cost that the increase is too small to matter.", "He admits that he does not know if these are correct, but argues that \"the list demonstrates that one can accept the new empirical findings and still be a card-carrying economist.", "\"=== Mathematical models of the minimum wage and frictional labor markets ===The following mathematical models are more quantitative in orientation, and highlight some of the difficulties in determining the impact of the minimum wage on labor market outcomes.", "Specifically, these models focus on labor markets with frictions and may result in positive or negative outcomes from raising the minimum wage, depending on the circumstances.==== Welfare and labor market participation ====Assume that the decision to participate in the labor market results from a trade-off between being an unemployed job seeker and not participating at all.", "All individuals whose expected utility outside the labor market is less than the expected utility of an unemployed person decide to participate in the labor market.", "In the basic search and matching model, the expected utility of unemployed persons and that of employed persons are defined by:Let be the wage, the interest rate, the instantaneous income of unemployed persons, the exogenous job destruction rate, the labor market tightness, and the job finding rate.", "The profits and expected from a filled job and a vacant one are:where is the cost of a vacant job and is the productivity.", "When the ''free entry condition'' is satisfied, these two equalities yield the following relationship between the wage and labor market tightness :If represents a minimum wage that applies to all workers, this equation completely determines the equilibrium value of the labor market tightness .", "There are two conditions associated with the matching function:This implies that is a decreasing function of the minimum wage , and so is the job finding rate .", "A hike in the minimum wage degrades the profitability of a job, so firms post fewer vacancies and the job finding rate falls off.", "Now let's rewrite to be:Using the relationship between the wage and labor market tightness to eliminate the wage from the last equation gives us: By maximizing in this equation, with respect to the labor market tightness, it follows that:where is the elasticity of the matching function:This result shows that the expected utility of unemployed workers is maximized when the minimum wage is set at a level that corresponds to the wage level of the decentralized economy in which the bargaining power parameter is equal to the elasticity .", "The level of the negotiated wage is .If , then an increase in the minimum wage increases participation ''and'' the unemployment rate, with an ambiguous impact on employment.", "When the bargaining power of workers is less than , an increase in the minimum wage improves the welfare of the unemployed – this suggests that minimum wage hikes can improve labor market efficiency, at least up to the point when bargaining power equals .", "On the other hand, if , any increases in the minimum wage entails a decline in labor market participation and an increase in unemployment.==== Job search effort ====In the model just presented, the minimum wage always increases unemployment.", "This result does not necessarily hold when the search effort of workers is endogenous.Consider a model where the intensity of the job search is designated by the scalar , which can be interpreted as the amount of time and/or intensity of the effort devoted to search.", "Assume that the arrival rate of job offers is and that the wage distribution is degenerated to a single wage .", "Denote to be the cost arising from the search effort, with .", "Then the discounted utilities are given by:Therefore, the optimal search effort is such that the marginal cost of performing the search is equation to the marginal return:This implies that the optimal search effort increases as the difference between the expected utility of the job holder and the expected utility of the job seeker grows.", "In fact, this difference actually grows with the wage.", "To see this, take the difference of the two discounted utilities to find:Then differentiating with respect to and rearranging gives us:where is the optimal search effort.", "This implies that a wage increase drives up job search effort and, therefore, the job finding rate.", "Additionally, the unemployment rate at equilibrium is given by:A hike in the wage, which increases the search effort and the job finding rate, decreases the unemployment rate.", "So it is possible that a hike in the minimum wage ''may'', by boosting the search effort of job seekers, boost employment.", "Taken in sum with the previous section, the minimum wage in labor markets with frictions can improve employment and decrease the unemployment rate when it is sufficiently low.", "However, a high minimum wage is detrimental to employment and increases the unemployment rate." ], [ "Empirical studies", "Estimated minimum wage effects on employment from a meta-study of 64 other studies showed insignificant employment effect (both practically and statistically) from minimum-wage raises.", "The most precise estimates were heavily clustered at or near zero employment effects (elasticity = 0).Economists disagree as to the measurable impact of minimum wages in practice.", "This disagreement usually takes the form of competing empirical tests of the elasticities of supply and demand in labor markets and the degree to which markets differ from the efficiency that models of perfect competition predict.Economists have done empirical studies on different aspects of the minimum wage, including:* Employment effects, the most frequently studied aspect* Effects on the distribution of wages and earnings among low-paid and higher-paid workers* Effects on the distribution of incomes among low-income and higher-income families* Effects on the skills of workers through job training and the deferring of work to acquire education* Effects on prices and profits* Effects on on-the-job trainingUntil the mid-1990s, a general consensus existed among economists–both conservative and liberal–that the minimum wage reduced employment, especially among younger and low-skill workers.", "In addition to the basic supply-demand intuition, there were a number of empirical studies that supported this view.", "For example, Edward Gramlich in 1976 found that many of the benefits went to higher income families, and that teenagers were made worse off by the unemployment associated with the minimum wage.Brown et al.", "(1983) noted that time series studies to that point had found that for a 10 percent increase in the minimum wage, there was a decrease in teenage employment of 1–3 percent.", "However, the studies found wider variation, from 0 to over 3 percent, in their estimates for the effect on teenage unemployment (teenagers without a job and looking for one).", "In contrast to the simple supply and demand diagram, it was commonly found that teenagers withdrew from the labor force in response to the minimum wage, which produced the possibility of equal reductions in the supply as well as the demand for labor at a higher minimum wage and hence no impact on the unemployment rate.", "Using a variety of specifications of the employment and unemployment equations (using ordinary least squares vs. generalized least squares regression procedures, and linear vs. logarithmic specifications), they found that a 10 percent increase in the minimum wage caused a 1 percent decrease in teenage employment, and no change in the teenage unemployment rate.", "The study also found a small, but statistically significant, increase in unemployment for adults aged 20–24.CBO table illustrating projections of the effects of minimum wage increases on employment and income, under two scenariosWellington (1991) updated Brown et al.", "'s research with data through 1986 to provide new estimates encompassing a period when the real (i.e., inflation-adjusted) value of the minimum wage was declining, because it had not increased since 1981.She found that a 10% increase in the minimum wage decreased the absolute teenage employment by 0.6%, with no effect on the teen or young adult unemployment rates.Some research suggests that the unemployment effects of small minimum wage increases are dominated by other factors.", "In Florida, where voters approved an increase in 2004, a follow-up comprehensive study after the increase confirmed a strong economy with increased employment above previous years in Florida and better than in the US as a whole.", "When it comes to on-the-job training, some believe the increase in wages is taken out of training expenses.", "A 2001 empirical study found that there is \"no evidence that minimum wages reduce training, and little evidence that they tend to increase training.", "\"''The Economist'' wrote in December 2013: \"A minimum wage, providing it is not set too high, could thus boost pay with no ill effects on jobs....America's federal minimum wage, at 38% of median income, is one of the rich world's lowest.", "Some studies find no harm to employment from federal or state minimum wages, others see a small one, but none finds any serious damage.", "... High minimum wages, however, particularly in rigid labour markets, do appear to hit employment.", "France has the rich world's highest wage floor, at more than 60% of the median for adults and a far bigger fraction of the typical wage for the young.", "This helps explain why France also has shockingly high rates of youth unemployment: 26% for 15- to 24-year-olds.", "\"A 2019 study in the ''Quarterly Journal of Economics'' found that minimum wage increases did not have an impact on the overall number of low-wage jobs in the five years subsequent to the wage increase.", "However, it did find disemployment in 'tradable' sectors, defined as those sectors most reliant on entry level or low skilled labor.A 2018 study published by the university of California agrees with the study in the quarterly journal of economics and discusses how minimum wages actually cause fewer jobs for low skilled workers.", "Within the article it discusses a trade off for low to high skilled workers that when the minimum wage is increased GDP is more highly redistributed to high academia jobs.In another study, which shared authors with the above, published in the ''American Economic Review'' found that a large and persistent increase in the minimum wage in Hungary produced some disemployment with the large majority of additional cost being passed on to consumers.", "The authors also found that firms began substituting capital for labor over time.A 2013 study published in the Science direct journal agrees with the studies above as it describes that there is not a significant employment change due to increases in minimum wage.", "The study illustrates that there is not a-lot of national generalisability for minimum wage effects, studies done on one country often get generalised to others.", "Effect on employment can be low from minimum wage policies but these policies can also benefit welfare and poverty.===David Card and Alan Krueger===In 1992, the minimum wage in New Jersey increased from $4.25 to $5.05 per hour (an 18.8% increase), while in the adjacent state of Pennsylvania it remained at $4.25.David Card and Alan Krueger gathered information on fast food restaurants in New Jersey and eastern Pennsylvania in an attempt to see what effect this increase had on employment within New Jersey.", "A basic supply and demand model predicts that relative employment should have decreased in New Jersey.", "Card and Krueger surveyed employers before the April 1992 New Jersey increase, and again in November–December 1992, asking managers for data on the full-time equivalent staff level of their restaurants both times.", "Based on data from the employers' responses, the authors concluded that the increase in the minimum wage slightly increased employment in the New Jersey restaurants.Card and Krueger expanded on this initial article in their 1995 book ''Myth and Measurement: The New Economics of the Minimum Wage''.", "They argued that the negative employment effects of minimum wage laws are minimal if not non-existent.", "For example, they look at the 1992 increase in New Jersey's minimum wage, the 1988 rise in California's minimum wage, and the 1990–91 increases in the federal minimum wage.", "In addition to their own findings, they reanalyzed earlier studies with updated data, generally finding that the older results of a negative employment effect did not hold up in the larger datasets.===Research after Card's and Krueger's work===A 2010 study published in the ''Review of Economics and Statistics'' compared 288 pairs of contiguous U.S. counties with minimum wage differentials from 1990 to 2006 and found no adverse employment effects from a minimum wage increase.", "Contiguous counties with different minimum wages are in purple.", "All other counties are in white.In 1996, David Neumark and William Wascher reexamined Card's and Krueger's results using administrative payroll records from a sample of large fast food restaurant chains, and reported that minimum wage increases were followed by decreases in employment.", "An assessment of data collected and analyzed by Neumark and Wascher did not initially contradict the Card and Krueger results, but in a later edited version they found a four percent decrease in employment, and reported that \"the estimated disemployment effects in the payroll data are often statistically significant at the 5- or 10-percent level although there are some estimators and subsamples that yield insignificant—although almost always negative\" employment effects.", "Neumark and Wascher's conclusions were subsequently rebutted in a 2000 paper by Card and Krueger.A 2011 paper has reconciled the difference between Card and Krueger's survey data and Neumark and Wascher's payroll-based data.", "The paper shows that both datasets evidence conditional employment effects that are positive for small restaurants, but are negative for large fast-food restaurants.", "A 2014 analysis based on panel data found that the minimum wage reduces employment among teenagers.In 1996 and 1997, the federal minimum wage was increased from $4.25 to $5.15, thereby increasing the minimum wage by $0.90 in Pennsylvania but by just $0.10 in New Jersey; this allowed for an examination of the effects of minimum wage increases in the same area, subsequent to the 1992 change studied by Card and Krueger.", "A study by Hoffman and Trace found the result anticipated by traditional theory: a detrimental effect on employment.Further application of the methodology used by Card and Krueger by other researchers yielded results similar to their original findings, across additional data sets.", "A 2010 study by three economists (Arindrajit Dube of the University of Massachusetts Amherst, William Lester of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, and Michael Reich of the University of California, Berkeley), compared adjacent counties in different states where the minimum wage had been raised in one of the states.", "They analyzed employment trends for several categories of low-wage workers from 1990 to 2006 and found that increases in minimum wages had no negative effects on low-wage employment and successfully increased the income of workers in food services and retail employment, as well as the narrower category of workers in restaurants.However, a 2011 study by Baskaya and Rubinstein of Brown University found that at the federal level, \"a rise in minimum wage have ''sic'' an instantaneous impact on wage rates and a corresponding negative impact on employment\", stating, \"Minimum wage increases boost teenage wage rates and reduce teenage employment.\"", "Another 2011 study by Sen, Rybczynski, and Van De Waal found that \"a 10% increase in the minimum wage is significantly correlated with a 3–5% drop in teen employment.\"", "A 2012 study by Sabia, Hansen, and Burkhauser found that \"minimum wage increases can have substantial adverse labor demand effects for low-skilled individuals\", with the largest effects on those aged 16 to 24.A 2013 study by Meer and West concluded that \"the minimum wage reduces net job growth, primarily through its effect on job creation by expanding establishments ... most pronounced for younger workers and in industries with a higher proportion of low-wage workers.\"", "This study by Meer and West was later critiqued for its trends of assumption in the context of narrowly defined low-wage groups.", "The authors replied to the critiques and released additional data which addressed the criticism of their methodology, but did not resolve the issue of whether their data showed a causal relationship.A 2019 paper published in the ''Quarterly Journal of Economics'' by Cengiz, Dube, Lindner and Zipperer argues that the job losses found using a Meer and West type methodology \"tend to be driven by an unrealistically large drop in the number of jobs at the upper tail of the wage distribution, which is unlikely to be a causal effect of the minimum wage.\"", "Another 2013 study by Suzana Laporšek of the University of Primorska, on youth unemployment in Europe claimed there was \"a negative, statistically significant impact of minimum wage on youth employment.\"", "A 2013 study by labor economists Tony Fang and Carl Lin which studied minimum wages and employment in China, found that \"minimum wage changes have significant adverse effects on employment in the Eastern and Central regions of China, and result in disemployment for females, young adults, and low-skilled workers\".A 2017 study found that in Seattle, increasing the minimum wage to $13 per hour lowered income of low-wage workers by $125 per month, due to the resulting reduction in hours worked, as industries made changes to make their businesses less labor intensive.", "The authors argue that previous research that found no negative effects on hours worked are flawed because they only look at select industries, or only look at teenagers, instead of entire economies.Finally, a study by Overstreet in 2019 examined increases to the minimum wage in Arizona.", "Utilizing data spanning from 1976 to 2017, Overstreet found that a 1% increase in the minimum wage was significantly correlated with a 1.13% increase in per capita income in Arizona.", "This study could show that smaller increases in minimum wage may not distort labor market as significantly as larger increases experienced in other cities and states.", "Thus, the small increases experienced in Arizona may have actually led to a slight increase in economic growth.In 2019, economists from the Georgia Institute of Technology published a study that found a strong correlation between increases to the minimum wage and detectable harm to the financial conditions of small businesses, including a higher rate of bankruptcy, lower hiring rates, lower credit scores, and higher interest payments.", "The researchers noted that these small businesses were also correlated with minority ownership and minority customer bases.In July 2019, the United States Congressional Budget Office published the impact on proposed national $15 per hour legislation.", "It noted that workers who retained full employment would see a modest improvement in take home pay offset by a small decrease in working conditions and non-pecuniary benefits.", "However, this benefit is offset by three primary factors; the reduction in hours worked, the reduction in total employment, and the increased cost of goods and services.", "Those factors result in a decrease of about $33 billion in total income and nearly 1.7–3.7 million lost jobs in the first three years (the CBO also noted this figure increases over time).In response to an April 2016 Council of Economic Advisers (CEA) report advocating the raising of the minimum wage to deter crime, economists used data from the 1998–2016 Uniform Crime Reports (UCR), National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS), and National Longitudinal Study of Youth (NLSY) to assess the impact of the minimum wage on crime.", "They found that increasing the minimum wage resulted in increased property crime arrests among those ages 16 to 24.They estimated that an increase of the Federal minimum wage to $15/hour would \"generate criminal externality costs of nearly $2.4 billion.", "\"Economists in Denmark, relying on a discontinuity in wage rates when a worker turns 18, found that employment fell by 33% and total hours fell by 45% when the minimum wage law was in effect.According to the 2021 study \"''The Effects of Minimum Wage on Employment: New Evidences for Spain''\" by the Bank of Spain, the sudden increase of minimum wage in Spain in 2019 by 22% (from 860 EUR/month, to 1050 EUR/month, projected to 12 annual payments) destroyed between 98,000 and 180,000 jobs, which corresponds to between 6% and 11% of jobs remunerated at minimum wage.A 2021 study \"''Reallocation Effects of the Minimum Wage''\" in the ''Quarterly Journal of Economics'' found that the introduction of a nationwide minimum wage in Germany (8.50 EUR/hour) caused an increase in wages without leading to a reduction in employment.", "However, authors found that the lack of employment responses masks some important structural shifts in the economy: the minimum wage led to a reallocation of workers from smaller to larger, from lower-paying to higher-paying and from less- to more-productive establishments.", "Some small businesses had to exit the market, thus leading to an increment of market concentration and reduced competition among firms in the product market, which can lead to higher prices.", "The study also found that the reallocation of low-wage workers to higher-paying establishments came at the expense of increased commuting time, which might have left some workers worse off despite earning a higher wage.A 2010 work studied the effect of the UK minimum wage on prices.", "The minimum wage did not cause prices to rise faster than normal in the months following an increase.", "But in the longer term, sectors with many such workers saw prices rise faster than other sectors, especially in the four years after the introduction of the minimum wage.A 2012 UK study on the minimum wage from 1997-2007 found it led to reduced wage-inequality and had positive to neutral effects on employment levels.A 2012 UK study found no evidence of \"spill-over\" effects from the minimum wage.", "Analysing 1998-2008 wage brackets, increases in the minimum wage did not cause increases in higher-earning brackets, and this was consistently found despite any changes to the model parameters.A 2016 US study on the 1979-2012 minimum wage found it was associated with reductions in wage inequality.", "It also indicates spill-over effects to higher-earning brackets - though it states this may be due to measurement error.==== Meta-analyses ====In 2013, a meta-analysis of 16 UK studies found no significant effects on employment attributable to the minimum wage.2007 meta-analyses by David Neumark of 96 studies found a consistent, but not always statistically significant, negative effect on employment from increases in the minimum wage.A 2019 meta-analysis of developed countries reported \"a very muted effect of minimum wages on employment, while significantly increasing the earnings of low paid workers.", "\"'''Publication bias amongst meta-analyses:''' In 1995, Card and Krueger analyzed 14 earlier time-series studies on minimum wages and concluded that there was clear evidence of publication bias (in favor of studies that found a statistically significant negative employment effect).", "They point out that later studies, which had more data and lower standard errors, did not show the expected increase in t-statistic (almost all the studies had a t-statistic of about two, just above the level of statistical significance at the .05 level).", "Though a serious methodological indictment, opponents of the minimum wage largely ignored this issue; as Thomas Leonard noted, \"The silence is fairly deafening.\"", "In 2005, T.D.", "Stanley showed that Card's and Krueger's results could signify either publication bias or the absence of a minimum wage effect.", "However, using a different methodology, Stanley concluded that there is evidence of publication bias and that correction of this bias shows no relationship between the minimum wage and unemployment.", "In 2008, Hristos Doucouliagos and T.D.", "Stanley conducted a similar meta-analysis of 64 U.S. studies on disemployment effects and concluded that Card and Krueger's initial claim of publication bias is still correct.", "Moreover, they concluded, \"Once this publication selection is corrected, little or no evidence of a negative association between minimum wages and employment remains.\"" ], [ "Debate over consequences", "Protesters in the United States call for an increased minimum wage as part of the \"upright=1.15Minimum wage laws affect workers in most low-paid fields of employment and have usually been judged against the criterion of reducing poverty.", "Minimum wage laws receive less support from economists than from the general public.", "Despite decades of experience and economic research, debates about the costs and benefits of minimum wages continue today.Various groups have great ideological, political, financial, and emotional investments in issues surrounding minimum wage laws.", "For example, agencies that administer the laws have a vested interest in showing that \"their\" laws do not create unemployment, as do labor unions whose members' finances are protected by minimum wage laws.", "On the other side of the issue, low-wage employers such as restaurants finance the Employment Policies Institute, which has released numerous studies opposing the minimum wage.", "The presence of these powerful groups and factors means that the debate on the issue is not always based on dispassionate analysis.", "Additionally, it is extraordinarily difficult to separate the effects of minimum wage from all the other variables that affect employment.Studies have found that minimum wages have the following positive effects: * Improves functioning of the low-wage labor market which may be characterized by employer-side market power (monopsony).", "*Raises family incomes at the bottom of the income distribution, and lowers poverty.", "*Positive impact on small business owners and industry.", "* Encourages education, resulting in better paying jobs.", "* Increases incentives to take jobs, as opposed to other methods of transferring income to the poor that are not tied to employment (such as food subsidies for the poor or welfare payments for the unemployed).", "* Increased job growth and creation.", "* Encourages efficiency and automation of industry.", "* Removes low paying jobs, forcing workers to train for, and move to, higher paying jobs.", "* Increases technological development.", "Costly technology that increases business efficiency is more appealing as the price of labor increases.", "* Encourages people to join the workforce rather than pursuing money through illegal means, e.g., selling illegal drugsStudies have found the following negative effects:* Minimum wage alone is not effective at alleviating poverty, and in fact produces a net increase in poverty due to disemployment effects.", "* As a labor market analogue of political-economic protectionism, it excludes low cost competitors from labor markets and hampers firms in reducing wage costs during trade downturns.", "This generates various industrial-economic inefficiencies.", "* Reduces quantity demanded of workers, either through a reduction in the number of hours worked by individuals, or through a reduction in the number of jobs.", "* Wage/price spiral* Encourages employers to replace low-skilled workers with computers, such as self-checkout machines.", "* Increases property crime and misery in poor communities by decreasing legal markets of production and consumption in those communities;* Can result in the exclusion of certain groups (ethnic, gender etc.)", "from the labor force.", "* Is less effective than other methods (e.g.", "the Earned Income Tax Credit) at reducing poverty, and is more damaging to businesses than those other methods.", "* Discourages further education among the poor by enticing people to enter the job market.", "* Discriminates against, through pricing out, less qualified workers (including newcomers to the labor market, e.g.", "young workers) by keeping them from accumulating work experience and qualifications, hence potentially graduating to higher wages later.", "* Slows growth in the creation of low-skilled jobs* Results in jobs moving to other areas or countries which allow lower-cost labor.", "* Results in higher long-term unemployment.", "* Results in higher prices for consumers, where products and services are produced by minimum-wage workers (though non-labor costs represent a greater proportion of costs to consumers in industries like fast food and discount retail)A widely circulated argument that the minimum wage was ineffective at reducing poverty was provided by George Stigler in 1949:* Employment may fall more than in proportion to the wage increase, thereby reducing overall earnings;* As uncovered sectors of the economy absorb workers released from the covered sectors, the decrease in wages in the uncovered sectors may exceed the increase in wages in the covered ones;* The impact of the minimum wage on family income distribution may be negative unless the fewer but better jobs are allocated to members of needy families rather than to, for example, teenagers from families not in poverty;* Forbidding employers to pay less than a legal minimum is equivalent to forbidding workers to sell their labor for less than the minimum wage.", "The legal restriction that employers cannot pay less than a legislated wage is equivalent to the legal restriction that workers cannot work at all in the protected sector unless they can find employers willing to hire them at that wage.", "That may be seen as a legal violation of human right to work in its most basic interpretation as \"''a right to engage in productive employment, and not to be prevented from doing so''\".In 2006, the International Labour Organization (ILO) argued that the minimum wage could not be directly linked to unemployment in countries that have suffered job losses.", "In April 2010, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) released a report arguing that countries could alleviate teen unemployment by \"lowering the cost of employing low-skilled youth\" through a sub-minimum training wage.", "A study of U.S. states showed that businesses' annual and average payrolls grow faster and employment grew at a faster rate in states with a minimum wage.", "The study showed a correlation, but did not claim to prove causation.Although strongly opposed by both the business community and the Conservative Party when introduced in the UK in 1999, the Conservatives reversed their opposition in 2000.Accounts differ as to the effects of the minimum wage.", "The Centre for Economic Performance found no discernible impact on employment levels from the wage increases, while the Low Pay Commission found that employers had reduced their rate of hiring and employee hours employed, and found ways to cause current workers to be more productive (especially service companies).", "The Institute for the Study of Labor found prices in minimum wage sectors rose faster than other sectors, especially in the four years after its introduction.", "Neither trade unions nor employer organizations contest the minimum wage, although the latter had especially done so heavily until 1999.In 2014, supporters of minimum wage cited a study that found that job creation within the United States is faster in states that raised their minimum wages.", "In 2014, supporters of minimum wage cited news organizations who reported the state with the highest minimum-wage garnered more job creation than the rest of the United States.In 2014, in Seattle, Washington, liberal and progressive business owners who had supported the city's new $15 minimum wage said they might hold off on expanding their businesses and thus creating new jobs, due to the uncertain timescale of the wage increase implementation.", "However, subsequently at least two of the business owners quoted did expand.With regard to the economic effects of introducing minimum wage legislation in Germany in January 2015, recent developments have shown that the feared increase in unemployment has not materialized, however, in some economic sectors and regions of the country, it came to a decline in job opportunities particularly for temporary and part-time workers, and some low-wage jobs have disappeared entirely.", "Because of this overall positive development, the Deutsche Bundesbank revised its opinion, and ascertained that \"the impact of the introduction of the minimum wage on the total volume of work appears to be very limited in the present business cycle\".A 2019 study published in the ''American Journal of Preventive Medicine'' showed that in the United States, those states that have implemented a higher minimum wage saw a decline in the growth of suicide rates.", "The researchers say that for every one dollar increase, the annual suicide growth rate fell by 1.9%.", "The study covers all 50 states for the years 2006 to 2016.According to a 2020 US study, the cost of 10% minimum wage increases for grocery store workers was fully passed through to consumers as 0.4% higher grocery prices.", "Similarly, a 2021 study that covered 10,000 McDonald's restaurants in the US found that between 2016 and 2020, the cost of 10% minimum wage increases for McDonald's workers were passed through to customers as 1.4% increases in the price of a Big Mac.", "This results in minimum wage workers getting a lesser increase in their \"real wage\" than in their nominal wage, because any goods and services they purchase made with minimum-wage labor have now increased in cost, analogous to an increase in the sales tax.According to a 2019 review of the academic literature by Arindrajit Dube, \"overall, the most up to date body of research from US, UK and other developed countries points to a very muted effect of minimum wages on employment, while significantly increasing the earnings of low paid workers.", "\"According to a 2021 study \"''The Minimum Wage, EITC, and Criminal Recidivism''\" a minimum wage increase of $0.50 reduces the probability an ex-incarcerated individual returns to prison within 3 years by 2.15%; these reductions come mainly from recidivism of property and drug crimes." ], [ "Surveys of economists", "There used to be agreement among economists that the minimum wage adversely affected employment, but that consensus shifted in the early 1990s due to new research findings.", "According to one 2021 assessment, \"there is no consensus on the employment effects of the minimum wage.", "\"According to a 1978 article in the ''American Economic Review'', 90% of the economists surveyed agreed that the minimum wage increases unemployment among low-skilled workers.", "By 1992 the survey found 79% of economists in agreement with that statement, and by 2000, 46% were in full agreement with the statement and 28% agreed with provisos (74% total).", "The authors of the 2000 study also reweighted data from a 1990 sample to show that at that time 62% of academic economists agreed with the statement above, while 20% agreed with provisos and 18% disagreed.", "They state that the reduction on consensus on this question is \"likely\" due to the Card and Krueger research and subsequent debate.A similar survey in 2006 by Robert Whaples polled PhD members of the American Economic Association (AEA).", "Whaples found that 47% respondents wanted the minimum wage eliminated, 38% supported an increase, 14% wanted it kept at the current level, and 1% wanted it decreased.", "Another survey in 2007 conducted by the University of New Hampshire Survey Center found that 73% of labor economists surveyed in the United States believed 150% of the then-current minimum wage would result in employment losses and 68% believed a mandated minimum wage would cause an increase in hiring of workers with greater skills.", "31% felt that no hiring changes would result.Surveys of labor economists have found a sharp split on the minimum wage.", "Fuchs et al.", "(1998) polled labor economists at the top 40 research universities in the United States on a variety of questions in the summer of 1996.Their 65 respondents were nearly evenly divided when asked if the minimum wage should be increased.", "They argued that the different policy views were not related to views on whether raising the minimum wage would reduce teen employment (the median economist said there would be a reduction of 1%), but on value differences such as income redistribution.", "Daniel B. Klein and Stewart Dompe conclude, on the basis of previous surveys, \"the average level of support for the minimum wage is somewhat higher among labor economists than among AEA members.", "\"In 2007, Klein and Dompe conducted a non-anonymous survey of supporters of the minimum wage who had signed the \"Raise the Minimum Wage\" statement published by the Economic Policy Institute.", "95 of the 605 signatories responded.", "They found that a majority signed on the grounds that it transferred income from employers to workers, or equalized bargaining power between them in the labor market.", "In addition, a majority considered disemployment to be a moderate potential drawback to the increase they supported.In 2013, a diverse group of 37 economics professors was surveyed on their view of the minimum wage's impact on employment.", "34% of respondents agreed with the statement, \"Raising the federal minimum wage to $9 per hour would make it noticeably harder for low-skilled workers to find employment.\"", "32% disagreed and the remaining respondents were uncertain or had no opinion on the question.", "47% agreed with the statement, \"The distortionary costs of raising the federal minimum wage to $9 per hour and indexing it to inflation are sufficiently small compared with the benefits to low-skilled workers who can find employment that this would be a desirable policy\", while 11% disagreed." ], [ "Alternatives", "Economists and other political commentators have proposed alternatives to the minimum wage.", "They argue that these alternatives may address the issue of poverty better than a minimum wage, as it would benefit a broader population of low wage earners, not cause any unemployment, and distribute the costs widely rather than concentrating it on employers of low wage workers.===Basic income===A basic income (or negative income tax – NIT) is a system of social security that periodically provides each citizen with a sum of money that is sufficient to live on frugally.", "Supporters of the basic-income idea argue that recipients of the basic income would have considerably more bargaining power when negotiating a wage with an employer, as there would be no risk of destitution for not taking the employment.", "As a result, jobseekers could spend more time looking for a more appropriate or satisfying job, or they could wait until a higher-paying job appeared.", "Alternatively, they could spend more time increasing their skills (via education and training), which would make them more suitable for higher-paying jobs, as well as provide numerous other benefits.", "Experiments on Basic Income and NIT in Canada and the United States show that people spent more time studying while the program was running.Proponents argue that a basic income that is based on a broad tax base would be more economically efficient than a minimum wage, as the minimum wage effectively imposes a high marginal tax on employers, causing losses in efficiency.===Guaranteed minimum income===A guaranteed minimum income is another proposed system of social welfare provision.", "It is similar to a basic income or negative income tax system, except that it is normally conditional and subject to a means test.", "Some proposals also stipulate a willingness to participate in the labor market, or a willingness to perform community services.===Refundable tax credit===A refundable tax credit is a mechanism whereby the tax system can reduce the tax owed by a household to below zero, and result in a net payment to the taxpayer beyond their own payments into the tax system.", "Examples of refundable tax credits include the earned income tax credit and the additional child tax credit in the US, and working tax credits and child tax credits in the UK.", "Such a system is slightly different from a negative income tax, in that the refundable tax credit is usually only paid to households that have earned at least some income.", "This policy is more targeted against poverty than the minimum wage, because it avoids subsidizing low-income workers who are supported by high-income households (for example, teenagers still living with their parents).In the United States, earned income tax credit rates, also known as EITC or EIC, vary by state—some are refundable while other states do not allow a refundable tax credit.", "The federal EITC program has been expanded by a number of presidents including Jimmy Carter, Ronald Reagan, George H.W.", "Bush, and Bill Clinton.", "In 1986, President Reagan described the EITC as \"the best anti poverty, the best pro-family, the best job creation measure to come out of Congress.\"", "The ability of the earned income tax credit to deliver larger monetary benefits to the poor workers than an increase in the minimum wage and at a lower cost to society was documented in a 2007 report by the Congressional Budget Office.The Adam Smith Institute prefers cutting taxes on the poor and middle class instead of raising wages as an alternative to the minimum wage.===Collective bargaining===Italy, Sweden, Norway, Finland, and Denmark are developed nations where legislation stipulates no minimum wage.", "Instead, minimum wage standards in different sectors are set by collective bargaining.Particularly the Scandinavian countries have very high union participation rates.=== Wage subsidies ===Some economists such as Scott Sumner and Edmund Phelps advocate a wage subsidy program.", "A wage subsidy is a payment made by a government for work people do.", "It is based either on an hourly basis or by income earned.", "Wage subsidies lack political support from either major political party in the United States.===Education and training===Providing education or funding apprenticeships or technical training can provide a bridge for low skilled workers to move into wages above a minimum wage.", "For example, Germany has adopted a state funded apprenticeship program that combines on-the-job and classroom training.", "Having more skills makes workers more valuable and more productive, but having a high minimum wage for low-skill jobs reduces the incentive to seek education and training.", "Moving some workers to higher-paying jobs will decrease the supply of workers willing to accept low-skill jobs, increasing the market wage for those low skilled jobs (assuming a stable labor market).", "However, in that solution the wage will still not increase above the marginal return for the role and will likely promote automation or business closure." ], [ "By country", "=== Armenia ===The concept of the national minimum wage emerged in Armenia in 1995.Since then, it has been increasing, on average, every couple of years.", "The longest unchanged streak of the national minimum wage was between 1999 and 2003, when it was set at 5,000 AMD, and between 2015 and 2019 where it was set at 55,000 AMD.", "In November 2022, the national minimum wage was subject to the latest increase.", "It was set at 75,000 AMD.===Lebanon===After two years of constant financial meltdown, Lebanon as of 2021 is ranking as one of the 10 countries in the world with the lowest minimum wages because of the collapse of the local pound following the Lebanese financial crisis that started in August 2019.The minimum monthly wage set at LBP 675,000, which valued USD 450 prior to the crisis, is barely reaching USD 30 nowadays.", "The currency has lost nearly 90% of its value and drove three quarters of residents into poverty.Article 44 of the Lebanese Code of Labor states that, “the minimum pay must be sufficient to meet the essential needs of the wage-earner or salary-earner and his family,” and according to Article 46, “the minimum pay assessed shall be rectified whenever economic circumstances render such review necessary.”===Republic of Ireland===The national minimum wage was introduced in the Republic of Ireland in April 2000.Prior to this, minimum wages were set by industry-specific Joint Labour Committees.", "However, coverage for workers was low and the agreements were poorly enforced and moreover, those who were covered by agreements received low wages.As of April 2000, the government introduced a national minimum wage of €5.58 per hour.", "The minimum wage increased regularly in the period from 2000 to 2007 and reached €8.65 per hour in July 2007.As the global economic downturn hit the country in 2008, there was no further wage increases until 2016 when the minimum wage was increased to 9.15.Before the 2019, there existed specific categories of employees that earned sub-minimum wage rates, expressed as a percentage of the full rate of pay.", "Employees under the age of 18 were eligible to earn 70 per cent of the minimum wage, employees in the first year of employment were eligible to earn 80 per cent, employees in the second year of full employment were eligible to earn 90 per cent and employees in structured training during working hours were eligible to earn 75, 80 or 90 per cent depending on their level of progression.", "This framework has since been abolished in place of a framework based on the age of the employee.As of 1 January 2022, the minimum wage is €10.50.Those aged 20 and over are eligible to receive 100 percent of the minimum wage.", "Those under the age of 18 are eligible to receive 70 percent of the minimum wage, those aged 18 are eligible to receive 80 percent of the minimum wage and those aged 19 are eligible receive 90 percent of the minimum wage.===South Korea====== Spain ===The Spanish government sets the \"Interprofessional Minimum Wage\" (SMI) annually, after consulting with the most representative trade unions and business associations, for both permanent and temporary workers, as well as for domestic employees.", "It takes into account the consumer price index, national average productivity, the increase in labor's share in national income, and the general economic situation.The SMI can be revised semi-annually if the government's predictions about the consumer price index are not met.", "The amount set is a minimum wage, so it can be exceeded by a collective agreement or individual agreement with the company.", "The revision of the SMI does not affect the structure or amount of professional salaries being paid to workers when they are superior to the established minimum wage.", "Finally, the amount of the SMI is non-seizable.The minimum wage was introduced in Spain in 1963 through Decree 55/1963, proposed by Jesús Romeo Gorría, the Minister of Labor during Francisco Franco's IX Government.", "The purpose was to ensure fair remuneration for all workers, adjusting wages to labor and economic conditions and advocating for salary equity.", "It was set at 1,800 pesetas/month (25,200 pesetas/year, 12 monthly payments plus 2 extra payments, as its customary in Spain as to this day), equivalent to 10.80 euros at the time but only 400 euros in today's prices.In the years following Franco's death in 1975, the minimum wage gradually increased, reaching 50.49 euros (8,400 pesetas) that year, which is equivalent to 657.23 euros in today's currency.", "Over the years, the minimum wage continued to rise, with several revisions along the way.", "In 2022, the Spanish government set the minimum wage at 33.33 euros per day or 1,000 euros per month, effective from January 1.This represents a 47% increase from the previous minimum wage set in 2018 at 735.90 euros.There are several debates around the minimum wage in Spain, which focus on its impact on employment and inflation.", "While some argue that increasing the minimum wage can be a useful tool to increase the incomes of low-income families and reduce poverty, others have doubts about its effectiveness in achieving these goals.For instance, an analysis conducted by BCE (Central Bank of Spain, by its initials in spanish) in 2019 on the impact of the 2017 increase in the minimum wage showed a negative effect on the probability of maintaining employment among affected workers, which was particularly significant for older workers.Additionally, the 2022 raise of the minimum wage revived the debate about the relationship between inflation and the SMI, with some arguing that the increase in the minimum wage could potentially contribute to inflation.", "The debate centres on whether it's a useful tool to help maintain the purchasing power of those who retain their jobs, or it's not effective because it adds pressure to the growth of prices and increase the likelihood of inflation becoming entrenched.===United States====== Australia ===In Australia, the Fair Work Commission (FWC) is responsible for determining and setting a national minimum wage as well as the minimum wages in awards setting wage rates for particular occupations and industries.", "''The Fair Work Act 2009'' establishes an Expert panel tasked with providing and maintaining a safety net of a fair minimum wage.", "The Expert panel is made up of the president of the panel, three full time commission members, and three part time commission members.", "All members must have experience in workplace relations, economics, social policy or business, industry and commerce and can inform its decision making through commissioning a range of economic and social research.The legislative framework requires that, in setting minimum wages, the Expert Panel is required to take into account the current state of the economy, including inflation, business competitiveness, productivity and employment growth.", "In addition, the Expert panel must also consider the social goals of the promotion of social inclusion, the standard of living of the low paid, equal remuneration for work of equal or comparable value and reasonable wages for junior employees, employees whose jobs have training requirements and employees with disability.", "See Fair Work Act 2009 for more information.The Expert panel conducts yearly wage reviews, to determine if the minimum wage needs to be adjusted based on the economy's current and projected performance.", "The annual minimum wage review decisions in 2016–17 found, based on research tendered and submissions to the review, that moderate increases to minimum wages do not inhibit workplace participation or result in disemployment.", "This position was carried over to the 2017–18 and 2018–19 decisions and informed the decisions including the 2018–19 decision which delivered a minimum wage increase of 3% when the corresponding headline rate of inflation was 1.3%.", "In the annual minimum wage review decisions of 2019–20 and 2020–21, the FWC was considerably more constrained in setting minimum wages due to uncertain economic conditions during the COVID-19 pandemic and the 2020–21 decision noted the uncertainty of the impact of increases in the minimum wages for youth employment." ], [ "See also", "* Average worker's wage* Economic inequality* Employee benefits* Family wage* ''Garcia v. San Antonio Metropolitan Transit Authority''* Labor law* Minimum Wage Fixing Convention 1970* Negative and positive rights* Price controls* Salary cap* ''Scratch Beginnings''* Thomas Sowell* Walter E. Williams* Working poor" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Burkhauser, R. V. (2014). ''", "Why minimum wage increases are a poor way to help the working poor'' (No.", "86).", "IZA Policy Paper, Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA).", "* Komlos, J.", "(2023). ''", "Foundations of Real-World Economics'' 3rd edition, Abingdon-on-Thames, UK: Routledge.", "Sections 9.1 and 9.3.", "* Osnos, Evan, \"Ruling-Class Rules: How to thrive in the power elite – while declaring it your enemy\", ''The New Yorker'', 29 January 2024" ], [ "External links", "* * Resource Guide on Minimum Wages from the International Labour Organization (a UN agency)* The National Minimum Wage (U.K.) from official UK government website* Find It!", "By Topic: Wages: Minimum Wage U.S. Department of Labor* Characteristics of Minimum Wage Workers: 2009 U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics* History of Changes to the Minimum Wage Law U.S. Department of Labor, Wage and Hour Division* The Effects of a Minimum-wage Increase on Employment and Family Income Congressional Budget Office* Inflation and the Real Minimum Wage: A Fact Sheet Congressional Research Service* Minimum Wages in Central and Eastern Europe Database Central Europe* Prices and Wages – research guide at the University of Missouri libraries'''Support'''* Issues about Minimum Wage from the AFL–CIO* Issue Guide on the Minimum Wage from the Economic Policy Institute* A $15 U.S.", "Minimum Wage: How the Fast-Food Industry Could Adjust Without Shedding Jobs from the Political Economy Research Institute, January 2015.", "'''Opposed'''* Reporting the Minimum Wage from The Cato Institute* The Economic Effects of Minimum Wages from Show-Me Institute* Economics in One Lesson: The Lesson Applied, Chapter 19: Minimum Wage Laws by Henry Hazlitt" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mullet" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Mullet''', '''mullets''', '''The Mullet''' or '''The Mullets''' may refer to:" ], [ "Fish", "* Mullet (fish), or \"grey mullet\", of the family Mugilidae**Flathead grey mullet, or striped mullet, ''Mugil cephalus'', a food fish species in the family Mugilidae* Goatfish, or \"red mullet\", of the family Mullidae; in particular, red mullet of the genus ''Mullus''* Malagasy mountain mullet, ''Acentrogobius therezieni'', a species of fish in the family Gobiidae endemic to Madagascar* Pearl mullet, ''Chalcalburnus tarichi'', a species of ray-finned fish in the family Cyprinidae native to Turkey* Shorthead redhorse, ''Moxostoma macrolepidotum'', a freshwater fish of North America, also known as common mullet, mullet, redhorse mullet" ], [ "Hairstyle", "* Mullet (haircut), a hairstyle that is short in the front, top, and sides, but long in the back" ], [ "Media", "* ''Mullet'' (film), a 2001 Australian film* ''The Mullets'', a UPN TV sitcom*Mullets (comic strip), a short-lived comic strip" ], [ "Places", "* Mullet, Albania, a village in Tirana District, Albania* Mullet Creek, a stream in the Falkland Islands* Mullet Peninsula, aka \"The Mullet\", in the barony of Erris, County Mayo, Ireland* Mullet River, a river in Wisconsin" ], [ "Other", "* Land Mullet, ''Egernia major'', one of the largest members of the skink family (Scincidae) native to Australia* Mullet, a type of star in heraldry* Mullet, a person born in Arundel, Sussex, England due to the presence of mullet fish in the local river* Mullet Festival, annual event held in Niceville, Florida* Norman Mullet, the chief superintendent in the British television show ''A Touch of Frost (TV series)''" ], [ "See also", "* ''American Mullet'', a 2001 documentary film directed by Jennifer Arnold* Mullet Key, a historic island near Crystal River, Florida* ''Mullet Fever'', the fifth album by Canadian grindcore band Fuck the Facts (2001)* Mormons vs. Mullets, 2020 BYU vs. Coastal Carolina football game* Mullett (disambiguation)* Mulet" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Macbeth" ], [ "Introduction", "A poster for a American production of ''Macbeth'', starring Thomas W. Keene.", "Depicted, counter-clockwise from top-left, are: Macbeth and Banquo meet the witches; just after the murder of Duncan; Banquo's ghost; Macbeth duels Macduff; and Macbeth.", "'''''Macbeth''''' (, full title '''''The Tragedie of Macbeth''''') is a tragedy by William Shakespeare.", "It is thought to have been first performed in 1606.It dramatises the damaging physical and psychological effects of political ambition on those who seek power.", "Of all the plays that Shakespeare wrote during the reign of James I, ''Macbeth'' most clearly reflects his relationship with King James, patron of Shakespeare's acting company.", "It was first published in the Folio of 1623, possibly from a prompt book, and is Shakespeare's shortest tragedy.A brave Scottish general named Macbeth receives a prophecy from a trio of witches that one day he will become King of Scotland.", "Consumed by ambition and spurred to action by his wife, Macbeth murders King Duncan and takes the Scottish throne for himself.", "He is then wracked with guilt and paranoia.", "Forced to commit more and more murders to protect himself from enmity and suspicion, he soon becomes a tyrannical ruler.", "The bloodbath and consequent civil war swiftly take Macbeth and Lady Macbeth into the realms of madness and death.Shakespeare's source for the story is the account of Macbeth, King of Scotland, Macduff, and Duncan in ''Holinshed's Chronicles'' (1587), a history of England, Scotland, and Ireland familiar to Shakespeare and his contemporaries, although the events in the play differ extensively from the history of the real Macbeth.", "The events of the tragedy are usually associated with the execution of Henry Garnet for complicity in the Gunpowder Plot of 1605.In the backstage world of theatre, some believe that the play is cursed and will not mention its title aloud, referring to it instead as \"The Scottish Play\".", "The play has attracted some of the most renowned actors to the roles of Macbeth and Lady Macbeth and has been adapted to film, television, opera, novels, comics, and other media." ], [ "Characters", "* Duncanking of Scotland* MalcolmDuncan's elder son* DonalbainDuncan's younger son* Macbetha general in the army of King Duncan; originally Thane of Glamis, then Thane of Cawdor, and later king of Scotland* Lady MacbethMacbeth's wife, and later queen of Scotland* BanquoMacbeth's friend and a general in the army of King Duncan* FleanceBanquo's son* MacduffThane of Fife* Lady MacduffMacduff's wife* Macduff's son* Ross, Lennox, Angus, Menteith, CaithnessScottish thanes* Siwardgeneral of the English forces* Young SiwardSiward's son* SeytonMacbeth's armourer* Hecatequeen of the witches* Three Witches* Captainin the Scottish army* Murderersemployed by Macbeth** Third Murderer* Portergatekeeper at Macbeth's home* DoctorLady Macbeth's doctor* Doctorat the English court* GentlewomanLady Macbeth's caretaker* Lordopposed to Macbeth* First Apparitionarmed head* Second Apparitionbloody child* Third Apparitioncrowned child* Attendants, Messengers, Servants, Soldiers" ], [ "Plot", "===Act I===Macbeth and Banquo encounter the witches for the first time.Amid thunder and lightning, Three Witches decide that their next meeting will be with Macbeth.", "In the following scene, a wounded sergeant reports to King Duncan of Scotland that his generals Banquo and Macbeth, the Thane of Glamis, have just defeated the allied forces of Norway and Ireland, who were led by the traitorous Macdonwald and the Thane of Cawdor.", "Macbeth, the King's kinsman, is praised for his bravery and fighting prowess.In the following scene, Macbeth and Banquo discuss the weather and their victory.", "As they wander onto a heath, the Three Witches enter and greet them with prophecies.", "Though Banquo challenges them first, they address Macbeth, hailing him as \"Thane of Glamis\", \"Thane of Cawdor\", and that he will \"be King hereafter\".", "Macbeth appears to be stunned to silence.", "When Banquo asks of his own fortunes, the witches respond that he will father a line of kings, though he himself will ''not'' be one.", "While the two men wonder at these pronouncements, the witches vanish, and another thane, Ross, arrives and informs Macbeth of his newly bestowed title: Thane of Cawdor.", "The first prophecy is thus fulfilled, and Macbeth, previously sceptical, immediately begins to harbour ambitions of becoming king.King Duncan welcomes and praises Macbeth and Banquo, and Duncan declares that he will spend the night at Macbeth's castle at Inverness; Duncan also names his son Malcolm as his heir.", "Macbeth sends a message ahead to his wife, Lady Macbeth, telling her about the witches' prophecies.", "Lady Macbeth suffers none of her husband's uncertainty and wishes him to murder Duncan in order to obtain kingship.", "When Macbeth arrives at Inverness, she overrides all of her husband's objections by challenging his manhood and successfully persuades him to kill the king that very night.", "He and Lady Macbeth plan to get Duncan's two chamberlains drunk so that they will black out; the next morning they will frame the chamberlains for the murder.", "Since the chamberlains would remember nothing whatsoever, they would be blamed for the deed.===Act II===While Duncan is asleep, Macbeth stabs him, despite his doubts and a number of supernatural portents, including a hallucination of a bloody dagger.", "He is so shaken that Lady Macbeth has to take charge.", "In accordance with her plan, she frames Duncan's sleeping servants for the murder by placing bloody daggers on them.", "Early the next morning, Lennox, a Scottish nobleman, and Macduff, the loyal Thane of Fife, arrive.", "A porter opens the gate and Macbeth leads them to the king's chamber, where Macduff discovers Duncan's body.", "Macbeth murders the guards to prevent them from professing their innocence, but claims he did so in a fit of anger over their misdeeds.", "Duncan's sons Malcolm and Donalbain flee to England and Ireland, respectively, fearing that whoever killed Duncan desires their demise as well.", "The rightful heirs' flight makes them suspects and Macbeth assumes the throne as the new King of Scotland as a kinsman of the dead king.", "Banquo reveals this to the audience, and while sceptical of the new King Macbeth, he remembers the witches' prophecy about how his own descendants would inherit the throne; this makes him suspicious of Macbeth.===Act III===Despite his success, Macbeth, also aware of this part of the prophecy, remains uneasy.", "Macbeth invites Banquo to a royal banquet, where he discovers that Banquo and his young son, Fleance, will be riding out that night.", "Fearing Banquo's suspicions, Macbeth arranges to have him murdered, by hiring two men to kill them, later sending a third murderer, presumably to ensure that the deed is completed.", "The assassins succeed in killing Banquo, but Fleance escapes.", "Macbeth becomes furious: he fears that his power remains insecure as long as an heir of Banquo remains alive.At the banquet, Macbeth invites his lords and Lady Macbeth to a night of drinking and merriment.", "Banquo's ghost enters and sits in Macbeth's place.", "Macbeth raves fearfully, startling his guests, as the ghost is visible only to him.", "The others panic at the sight of Macbeth raging at an empty chair, until a desperate Lady Macbeth tells them that her husband is merely afflicted with a familiar and harmless malady.", "The ghost departs and returns once more, causing the same riotous anger and fear in Macbeth.", "This time, Lady Macbeth tells the visitors to leave, and they do so.", "At the end Hecate, queen of the witches, scolds the three weird sisters for helping Macbeth, especially without consulting her.", "Hecate instructs the Witches to give Macbeth false security.", "Some scholars believe the Hecate scene was added in later.===Act IV===Johann Heinrich FüssliMacbeth, disturbed, visits the three witches once more and asks them to reveal the truth of their prophecies to him.", "To answer his questions, they summon horrible apparitions, each of which offers predictions and further prophecies to put Macbeth's fears at rest.", "First, they conjure an armoured head, which tells him to beware of Macduff (IV.i.72).", "Second, a bloody child tells him that no one born of a woman will be able to harm him.", "Thirdly, a crowned child holding a tree states that Macbeth will be safe until Great Birnam Wood comes to Dunsinane Hill.", "Macbeth is relieved and feels secure because he knows that all men are born of women and forests cannot possibly move.Macbeth also asks whether Banquo's sons will ever reign in Scotland, to which the witches conjure a procession of eight crowned kings, all similar in appearance to Banquo, and the last carrying a mirror that reflects even ''more'' kings.", "Macbeth realises that these are all Banquo's descendants having acquired kingship in numerous countries.After the witches perform a mad dance and leave, Lennox enters and tells Macbeth that Macduff has fled to England.", "Macbeth orders Macduff's castle be seized, and, most cruelly, sends murderers to slaughter Macduff, as well as Macduff's wife and children.", "Although Macduff is no longer in the castle, everyone in Macduff's castle is put to death, including Lady Macduff and their young son.===Act V===Johann Heinrich FüssliLady Macbeth becomes racked with guilt from the crimes she and her husband have committed.", "At night, in the king's palace at Dunsinane, a doctor and a gentlewoman discuss Lady Macbeth's strange habit of sleepwalking.", "Suddenly, Lady Macbeth enters in a trance with a candle in her hand.", "Bemoaning the murders of Duncan, Lady Macduff, and Banquo, she tries to wash off imaginary bloodstains from her hands, all the while speaking of the terrible things she knows she pressed her husband to do.", "She leaves, and the doctor and gentlewoman marvel at her descent into madness.In England, Macduff is informed by Ross that his \"castle is surprised; wife and babes / Savagely slaughter'd\" (IV.iii.204–205).", "When this news of his family's execution reaches him, Macduff is stricken with grief and vows revenge.", "Prince Malcolm, Duncan's son, has succeeded in raising an army in England, and Macduff joins him as he rides to Scotland to challenge Macbeth's forces.", "The invasion has the support of the Scottish nobles, who are appalled and frightened by Macbeth's tyrannical and murderous behaviour.", "Malcolm leads an army, along with Macduff and Englishmen Siward (the Elder), the Earl of Northumberland, against Dunsinane Castle.", "While encamped in Birnam Wood, the soldiers are ordered to cut down and carry tree branches to camouflage their numbers.Before Macbeth's opponents arrive, he receives news that Lady Macbeth has killed herself, causing him to sink into a deep and pessimistic despair and deliver his \"To-morrow, and to-morrow, and to-morrow\" soliloquy (V.v.17–28).", "Though he reflects on the brevity and meaninglessness of life, he nevertheless awaits the English and fortifies Dunsinane.", "He is certain that the witches' prophecies guarantee his invincibility, but is struck with fear when he learns that the English army is advancing on Dunsinane shielded with boughs cut from Birnam Wood, in apparent fulfillment of one of the prophecies.A battle culminates in Macduff's confrontation with Macbeth, who kills Young Siward in combat.", "The English forces overwhelm his army and castle.", "Macbeth boasts that he has no reason to fear Macduff, for he cannot be killed by any man born of woman.", "Macduff declares that he was \"from his mother's womb / Untimely ripp'd\" (V.8.15–16), (i.e., born by Caesarean section and not a natural birth) and is not \"of woman born\", fulfilling the second prophecy.", "Macbeth realises too late that he has misinterpreted the witches' words.", "Though he realises that he is doomed, and despite Macduff urging him to yield, he is unwilling to surrender and continues fighting.", "Macduff kills and beheads him, thus fulfilling the remaining prophecy.Macduff carries Macbeth's head onstage and Malcolm discusses how order has been restored.", "His last reference to Lady Macbeth, however, reveals tis thought, by self and violent hands / Took off her life\" (V.ix.71–72).", "Malcolm, now the King of Scotland, declares his benevolent intentions for the country and invites all to see him crowned at Scone.", "(Although Malcolm, and ''not'' Fleance, is placed on the throne, the witches' prophecy concerning Banquo (\"Thou shalt get kings\") was known to the audience of Shakespeare's time to be true: James VI of Scotland (later also James I of England) was supposedly a descendant of Banquo.)" ], [ "Sources for the play", "Title page of a 1603 reprinting of ''Daemonologie''The first edition of Raphael Holinshed's ''Chronicles of England, Scotlande, and Irelande'', printed in 1577''Macbeth and Banquo encountering the witches'' from ''Holinshed's Chronicles'' (1577)A principal source comes from the ''Daemonologie'' of King James published in 1597 which included a news pamphlet titled ''Newes from Scotland'' that detailed the famous North Berwick witch trials of 1590.The publication of ''Daemonologie'' came just a few years before the tragedy of ''Macbeth'' with the themes and setting in a direct and comparative contrast with King James' personal obsessions with witchcraft, which developed following his conclusion that the stormy weather that threatened his passage from Denmark to Scotland was a targeted attack.", "Not only did the subsequent trials take place in Scotland, the women accused were recorded, under torture, of having conducted rituals with the same mannerisms as the three witches.", "One of the evidenced passages is referenced when the women under trial confessed to attempt the use of witchcraft to raise a tempest and sabotage the boat King James and his queen were on board during their return trip from Denmark.", "The three witches discuss the raising of winds at sea in the opening lines of Act 1 Scene 3.", "''Macbeth'' has been compared to Shakespeare's ''Antony and Cleopatra.''", "As characters, both Antony and Macbeth seek a new world, even at the cost of the old one.", "Both fight for a throne and have a 'nemesis' to face to achieve that throne.", "For Antony, the nemesis is Octavius; for Macbeth, it is Banquo.", "At one point Macbeth even compares himself to Antony, saying \"under Banquo / My Genius is rebuk'd, as it is said / Mark Antony's was by Caesar.\"", "Lastly, both plays contain powerful and manipulative female figures: Cleopatra and Lady Macbeth.Shakespeare borrowed the story from several tales in ''Holinshed's Chronicles'', a popular history of the British Isles well known to Shakespeare and his contemporaries.", "In ''Chronicles'', a man named Donwald finds several of his family put to death by his king, Duff, for dealing with witches.", "After being pressured by his wife, he and four of his servants kill the king in his own house.", "In ''Chronicles'', Macbeth is portrayed as struggling to support the kingdom in the face of King Duncan's ineptitude.", "He and Banquo meet the three witches, who make exactly the same prophecies as in Shakespeare's version.", "Macbeth and Banquo then together plot the murder of Duncan, at Lady Macbeth's urging.", "Macbeth has a long, ten-year reign before eventually being overthrown by Macduff and Malcolm.", "The parallels between the two versions are clear.", "However, some scholars think that George Buchanan's ''Rerum Scoticarum Historia'' matches Shakespeare's version more closely.", "Buchanan's work was available in Latin in Shakespeare's day.No medieval account of the reign of Macbeth mentions the Weird Sisters, Banquo, or Lady Macbeth, and with the exception of the latter none actually existed.", "The characters of Banquo, the Weird Sisters, and Lady Macbeth were first mentioned in 1527 by a Scottish historian Hector Boece in his book ''Historia Gentis Scotorum'' (''History of the Scottish People'') who wanted to denigrate Macbeth in order to strengthen the claim of the House of Stewart to the Scottish throne.", "Boece portrayed Banquo as an ancestor of the Stewart kings of Scotland, adding in a \"prophecy\" that the descendants of Banquo would be the rightful kings of Scotland while the Weird Sisters served to give a picture of King Macbeth as gaining the throne via dark supernatural forces.", "Macbeth did have a wife, but it is not clear if she was as power-hungry and ambitious as Boece portrayed her, which served his purpose of having even Macbeth realise he lacked a proper claim to the throne, and only took it at the urging of his wife.", "Holinshed accepted Boece's version of Macbeth's reign at face value and included it in his ''Chronicles''.", "Shakespeare saw the dramatic possibilities in the story as related by Holinshed, and used it as the basis for the play.No other version of the story has Macbeth kill the king in Macbeth's own castle.", "Scholars have seen this change of Shakespeare's as adding to the darkness of Macbeth's crime as the worst violation of hospitality.", "Versions of the story that were common at the time had Duncan being killed in an ambush at Inverness, not in a castle.", "Shakespeare conflated the story of Donwald and King Duff in what was a significant change to the story.Shakespeare made another important change.", "In ''Chronicles'', Banquo is an accomplice in Macbeth's murder of King Duncan, and plays an important part in ensuring that Macbeth, not Malcolm, takes the throne in the coup that follows.", "In Shakespeare's day, Banquo was thought to be an ancestor of the Stuart King James I.", "(In the 19th century it was established that Banquo is an unhistorical character; the Stuarts are actually descended from a Breton family which migrated to Scotland slightly later than Macbeth's time.)", "The Banquo portrayed in earlier sources is significantly different from the Banquo created by Shakespeare.", "Critics have proposed several reasons for this change.", "First, to portray the king's ancestor as a murderer would have been risky.", "Other authors of the time who wrote about Banquo, such as Jean de Schelandre in his ''Stuartide'', also changed history by portraying Banquo as a noble man, not a murderer, probably for the same reasons.", "Second, Shakespeare may have altered Banquo's character simply because there was no dramatic need for another accomplice to the murder; there was, however, a need to give a dramatic contrast to Macbeth—a role which many scholars argue is filled by Banquo.Other scholars maintain that a strong argument can be made for associating the tragedy with the Gunpowder Plot of 1605.As presented by Harold Bloom in 2008: \"Scholars cite the existence of several topical references in ''Macbeth'' to the events of that year, namely the execution of the Father Henry Garnet for his alleged complicity in the Gunpowder Plot of 1605, as referenced in the porter's scene.\"", "Those arrested for their role in the Gunpowder Plot refused to give direct answers to the questions posed to them by their interrogators, which reflected the influence of the Jesuit practice of equivocation.", "Shakespeare, by having Macbeth say that demons \"palter...in a double sense\" and \"keep the promise to our ear/And break it to our hope\", confirmed James's belief that equivocation was a \"wicked\" practice, which reflected in turn the \"wickedness\" of the Catholic Church.", "Garnet had in his possession ''A Treatise on Equivocation'', and in the play the Weird Sisters often engage in equivocation, for instance telling Macbeth that he could never be overthrown until \"Great Birnan wood to high Dunsinane hill/Shall Come\".", "Macbeth interprets the prophecy as meaning never, but in fact, the Three Sisters refer only to branches of the trees of Great Birnam coming to Dunsinane hill.", "The inspiration for this prophecy may have originated with the Battle of Droizy; both that battle and ''Macbeth'' may have, in turn, inspired J. R. R. Tolkien's tree herders, the Ents in his novels ''The Lord of the Rings''." ], [ "Date and text", "Silver coin struck in Holland to commemorate King James' survival of the Gunpowder Plot.", "The coin reads DETECTVS·QVI·LATVIT·S·C· (the concealed one is discovered) with a snake, representing the Catholic Society of Jesus, whom the Protestants accused of the plot.", "''Macbeth'' cannot be dated precisely, but it is usually taken to be contemporaneous to the other canonical tragedies: ''Hamlet'', ''Othello'', and ''King Lear''.", "While some scholars have placed the original writing of the play as early as 1599, most believe that the play is unlikely to have been composed earlier than 1603 as the play is widely seen to celebrate King James' ancestors and the Stuart accession to the throne in 1603 (James believed himself to be descended from Banquo), suggesting that the parade of eight kings—which the witches show Macbeth in a vision in Act IV—is a compliment to King James.", "Many scholars think the play was written in 1606 in the aftermath of the Gunpowder Plot, citing possible internal allusions to the 1605 plot and its ensuing trials.", "In fact, there are a great number of allusions and possible pieces of evidence alluding to the Plot, and, for this reason, a great many critics agree that ''Macbeth'' was written in the year 1606.Lady Macbeth's instructions to her husband, \"Look like the innocent flower, but be the serpent under't\" (1.5.74–75), may be an allusion to a medal that was struck in 1605 to commemorate King James' escape that depicted a serpent hiding among lilies and roses.Particularly, the Porter's speech (2.3.1–21) in which he welcomes an \"equivocator\", a farmer, and a tailor to hell (2.3.8–13), has been argued to be an allusion to the 28 March 1606 trial and execution on 3 May 1606 of the Jesuit Henry Garnet, who used the alias \"Farmer\", with \"equivocator\" referring to Garnet's defence of \"equivocation\".", "The porter says that the equivocator \"committed treason enough for God's sake\" (2.3.9–10), which specifically connects equivocation and treason and ties it to the Jesuit belief that equivocation was only lawful when used \"for God's sake\", strengthening the allusion to Garnet.", "The porter goes on to say that the equivocator \"yet could not equivocate to heaven\" (2.3.10–11), echoing grim jokes that were current on the eve of Garnet's execution: i.e.", "that Garnet would be \"hanged without equivocation\" and at his execution he was asked \"not to equivocate with his last breath\".", "The \"English tailor\" the porter admits to hell (2.3.13), has been seen as an allusion to Hugh Griffin, a tailor who was questioned by the Archbishop of Canterbury on 27 November and 3 December 1607 for the part he played in Garnet's \"miraculous straw\", an infamous head of straw that was stained with Garnet's blood that had congealed into a form resembling Garnet's portrait, which was hailed by Catholics as a miracle.", "The tailor Griffin became notorious and the subject of verses published with his portrait on the title page.When James became king of England, a feeling of uncertainty settled over the nation.", "James was a Scottish king and the son of Mary, Queen of Scots, a staunch Catholic and English traitor.", "In the words of critic Robert Crawford, \"''Macbeth'' was a play for a post-Elizabethan England facing up to what it might mean to have a Scottish king.", "England seems comparatively benign, while its northern neighbour is mired in a bloody, monarch-killing past.", "... ''Macbeth'' may have been set in medieval Scotland, but it was filled with material of interest to England and England's ruler.\"", "Critics argue that the content of the play is clearly a message to James, the new Scottish King of England.", "Likewise, the critic Andrew Hadfield noted the contrast the play draws between the saintly King Edward the Confessor of England who has the power of the royal touch to cure scrofula and whose realm is portrayed as peaceful and prosperous vs. the bloody chaos of Scotland.", "James in his 1598 book ''The Trew Law of Free Monarchies'' had asserted that kings are always right, if not just, and his subjects owe him total loyalty at all times, writing that even if a king is a tyrant, his subjects must never rebel and just endure his tyranny for their own good.", "James had argued that the tyranny was preferable to the problems caused by rebellion which were even worse; Shakespeare by contrast in ''Macbeth'' argued for the right of the subjects to overthrow a tyrant king, in what appeared to be an implied criticism of James's theories if applied to England.", "Hadfield also noted a curious aspect of the play in that it implies that primogeniture is the norm in Scotland, but Duncan has to nominate his son Malcolm to be his successor while Macbeth is accepted without protest by the Scottish lairds as their king despite being an usurper.", "Hadfield argued this aspect of the play with the thanes apparently choosing their king was a reference to the Stuart claim to the English throne, and the attempts of the English Parliament to block the succession of James's Catholic mother, Mary, Queen of Scots, from succeeding to the English throne.", "Hadfield argued that Shakespeare implied that James was indeed the rightful king of England, but owed his throne not to divine favour as James would have it, but rather due to the willingness of the English Parliament to accept the Protestant son of the Catholic Mary, Queen of Scots, as their king.Garry Wills provides further evidence that ''Macbeth'' is a Gunpowder Play (a type of play that emerged immediately following the events of the Gunpowder Plot).", "He points out that every Gunpowder Play contains \"a necromancy scene, regicide attempted or completed, references to equivocation, scenes that test loyalty by use of deceptive language, and a character who sees through plots—along with a vocabulary similar to the Plot in its immediate aftermath (words like ''train, blow, vault'') and an ironic recoil of the Plot upon the Plotters (who fall into the pit they dug).", "\"The play utilizes a few key words that the audience at the time would recognize as allusions to the Plot.", "In one sermon in 1605, Lancelot Andrewes stated, regarding the failure of the Plotters on God's day, \"Be they fair or foul, glad or sad (as the poet calleth Him) the great Diespiter, 'the Father of days' hath made them both.\"", "Shakespeare begins the play by using the words \"fair\" and \"foul\" in the first speeches of the witches and Macbeth.", "In the words of Jonathan Gil Harris, the play expresses the \"horror unleashed by a supposedly loyal subject who seeks to kill a king and the treasonous role of equivocation.", "The play even echoes certain keywords from the scandal—the 'vault' beneath the House of Parliament in which Guy Fawkes stored thirty kegs of gunpowder and the 'blow' about which one of the conspirators had secretly warned a relative who planned to attend the House of Parliament on 5 November...Even though the Plot is never alluded to directly, its presence is everywhere in the play, like a pervasive odor.", "\"The first page of ''Macbeth'', printed in the Second Folio of 1632Scholars also cite an entertainment seen by King James at Oxford in the summer of 1605 that featured three \"sibyls\" like the weird sisters; Kermode surmises that Shakespeare could have heard about this and alluded to it with the weird sisters.", "However, A. R. Braunmuller in the New Cambridge edition finds the 1605–06 arguments inconclusive, and argues only for an earliest date of 1603.One suggested allusion supporting a date in late 1606 is the first witch's dialogue about a sailor's wife: \"'Aroint thee, witch!'", "the rump-fed ronyon cries./Her husband's to Aleppo gone, master o' the ''Tiger''\" (1.3.6–7).", "This has been thought to allude to the ''Tiger'', a ship that returned to England 27 June 1606 after a disastrous voyage in which many of the crew were killed by pirates.", "A few lines later the witch speaks of the sailor, \"He shall live a man forbid:/Weary se'nnights nine times nine\" (1.3.21–22).", "The real ship was at sea 567 days, the product of 7x9x9, which has been taken as a confirmation of the allusion, which if correct, confirms that the witch scenes were either written or amended later than July 1606.The play is not considered to have been written any later than 1607, since, as Kermode notes, there are \"fairly clear allusions to the play in 1607\".", "One notable reference is in Francis Beaumont's ''Knight of the Burning Pestle'', first performed in 1607.The following lines (Act V, Scene 1, 24–30) are, according to scholars, a clear allusion to the scene in which Banquo's ghost haunts Macbeth at the dinner table:When thou art at thy table with thy friends,Merry in heart, and filled with swelling wine,I'll come in midst of all thy pride and mirth,Invisible to all men but thyself,And whisper such a sad tale in thine earShall make thee let the cup fall from thy hand,And stand as mute and pale as death itself.", "''Macbeth'' was first printed in the First Folio of 1623 and the Folio is the only source for the text.", "Some scholars contend that the Folio text was abridged and rearranged from an earlier manuscript or prompt book.", "Often cited as interpolation are stage cues for two songs, whose lyrics are not included in the Folio but are included in Thomas Middleton's play ''The Witch'', which was written between the accepted date for ''Macbeth'' (1606) and the printing of the Folio.", "Many scholars believe these songs were editorially inserted into the Folio, though whether they were Middleton's songs or preexisting songs is not certain.", "It is also widely believed that the character of Hecate, as well as some lines of the First Witch (4.1 124–131), were not part of Shakespeare's original play but were added by the Folio editors and possibly written by Middleton, though \"there is no completely objective proof\" of such interpolation." ], [ "Themes and motifs", "''Macbeth'' is an anomaly among Shakespeare's tragedies in certain critical ways.", "It is short: more than a thousand lines shorter than ''Othello'' and ''King Lear'', and only slightly more than half as long as ''Hamlet''.", "This brevity has suggested to many critics that the received version is based on a heavily cut source, perhaps a prompt-book for a particular performance.", "This would reflect other Shakespeare plays existing in both Quarto and the Folio, where the Quarto versions are usually longer than the Folio versions.", "''Macbeth'' was first printed in the First Folio, but has no Quarto version – if there were a Quarto, it would probably be longer than the Folio version.", "That brevity has also been connected to other unusual features: the fast pace of the first act, which has seemed to be \"stripped for action\"; the comparative flatness of the characters other than Macbeth; and the oddness of Macbeth himself compared with other Shakespearean tragic heroes.", "A. C. Bradley, in considering this question, concluded the play \"always was an extremely short one\", noting the witch scenes and battle scenes would have taken up some time in performance, remarking, \"I do not think that, in reading, we ''feel'' ''Macbeth'' to be short: certainly we are astonished when we hear it is about half as long as ''Hamlet''.", "Perhaps in the Shakespearean theatre too it seemed to occupy a longer time than the clock recorded.", "\"===As a tragedy of character===At least since the days of Alexander Pope and Samuel Johnson, analysis of the play has centred on the question of Macbeth's ambition, commonly seen as so dominant a trait that it defines the character.", "Johnson asserted that Macbeth, though esteemed for his military bravery, is wholly reviled.This opinion recurs in critical literature, and, according to Caroline Spurgeon, is supported by Shakespeare himself, who apparently intended to degrade his hero by vesting him with clothes unsuited to him and to make Macbeth look ridiculous by several exaggerations he applies: his garments seem either too big or too small for him – as his ambition is too big and his character too small for his new and unrightful role as king.", "After Macbeth is unexpectedly greeted with his new title as Thane of Cawdor as prophesied by the witches, Banquo comments:And, at the end, when the tyrant is at bay at Dunsinane, Caithness sees him as a man trying in vain to fasten a large garment on him with too small a belt:while Angus sums up what everybody thinks ever since Macbeth's accession to power:Like Richard III, but without that character's perversely appealing exuberance, Macbeth wades through blood until his inevitable fall.", "As Kenneth Muir writes, \"Macbeth has not a predisposition to murder; he has merely an inordinate ambition that makes murder itself seem to be a lesser evil than failure to achieve the crown.\"", "Some critics, such as E. E. Stoll, explain this characterisation as a holdover from Senecan or medieval tradition.", "Shakespeare's audience, in this view, expected villains to be wholly bad, and Senecan style, far from prohibiting a villainous protagonist, all but demanded it.Yet for other critics, it has not been so easy to resolve the question of Macbeth's motivation.", "Robert Bridges, for instance, perceived a paradox: a character able to express such convincing horror before Duncan's murder would likely be incapable of committing the crime.", "For many critics, Macbeth's motivations in the first act appear vague and insufficient.", "John Dover Wilson hypothesised that Shakespeare's original text had an extra scene or scenes where husband and wife discussed their plans.", "This interpretation is not fully provable; however, the motivating role of ambition for Macbeth is universally recognised.", "The evil actions motivated by his ambition seem to trap him in a cycle of increasing evil, as Macbeth himself recognises:While working on Russian translations of Shakespeare's works, Boris Pasternak compared Macbeth to Raskolnikov, the protagonist of ''Crime and Punishment'' by Fyodor Dostoevsky.", "Pasternak argues that \"neither Macbeth or Raskolnikov is a born criminal or a villain by nature.", "They are turned into criminals by faulty rationalizations, by deductions from false premises.\"", "He goes on to argue that Lady Macbeth is \"feminine ... one of those active, insistent wives\" who becomes her husband's \"executive, more resolute and consistent than he is himself\".", "According to Pasternak, she is only helping Macbeth carry out his own wishes, to her own detriment.===As a tragedy of moral order===The disastrous consequences of Macbeth's ambition are not limited to him.", "Almost from the moment of the murder, the play depicts Scotland as a land shaken by inversions of the natural order.", "Shakespeare may have intended a reference to the great chain of being, although the play's images of disorder are mostly not specific enough to support detailed intellectual readings.", "He may also have intended an elaborate compliment to James's belief in the divine right of kings, although this hypothesis, outlined at greatest length by Henry N. Paul, is not universally accepted.", "As in ''Julius Caesar'', though, perturbations in the political sphere are echoed and even amplified by events in the material world.", "Among the most often depicted of the inversions of the natural order is sleep.", "Macbeth's announcement that he has \"murdered sleep\" is figuratively mirrored in Lady Macbeth's sleepwalking.", "''Macbeth''s generally accepted indebtedness to medieval tragedy is often seen as significant in the play's treatment of moral order.", "Glynne Wickham connects the play, through the Porter, to a mystery play on the harrowing of hell.", "Howard Felperin argues that the play has a more complex attitude toward \"orthodox Christian tragedy\" than is often admitted; he sees a kinship between the play and the tyrant plays within the medieval liturgical drama.The theme of androgyny is often seen as a special aspect of the theme of disorder.", "Inversion of normative gender roles is most famously associated with the witches and with Lady Macbeth as she appears in the first act.", "Whatever Shakespeare's degree of sympathy with such inversions, the play ends with a thorough return to normative gender values.", "Some feminist psychoanalytic critics, such as Janet Adelman, have connected the play's treatment of gender roles to its larger theme of inverted natural order.", "In this light, Macbeth is punished for his violation of the moral order by being removed from the cycles of nature (which are figured as female); nature itself (as embodied in the movement of Birnam Wood) is part of the restoration of moral order.===As a poetic tragedy===Critics in the early twentieth century reacted against what they saw as an excessive dependence on the study of character in criticism of the play.", "This dependence, though most closely associated with Andrew Cecil Bradley, is clear as early as the time of Mary Cowden Clarke, who offered precise, if fanciful, accounts of the predramatic lives of Shakespeare's female leads.", "She suggested, for instance, that the child Lady Macbeth refers to in the first act died during a foolish military action.===Witchcraft and evil===''Macbeth and Banquo with the Witches'' by Henry FuseliIn the play, the Three Witches represent darkness, chaos, and conflict, while their role is as agents and witnesses.", "Their presence communicates treason and impending doom.", "During Shakespeare's day, witches were seen as worse than rebels, \"the most notorious traytor and rebell that can be\".", "They were not only political traitors, but spiritual traitors as well.", "Much of the confusion that springs from them comes from their ability to straddle the play's borders between reality and the supernatural.", "They are so deeply entrenched in both worlds that it is unclear whether they control fate, or whether they are merely its agents.", "They defy logic, not being subject to the rules of the real world.", "The witches' lines in the first act: \"Fair is foul, and foul is fair: Hover through the fog and filthy air\" are often said to set the tone for the rest of the play by establishing a sense of confusion.", "Indeed, the play is filled with situations where evil is depicted as good, while good is rendered evil.", "The line \"Double, double toil and trouble,\" communicates the witches' intent clearly: they seek only trouble for the mortals around them.", "The witches' spells are remarkably similar to the spells of the witch Medusa in Anthony Munday's play ''Fidele and Fortunio'' published in 1584, and Shakespeare may have been influenced by these.While the witches do not tell Macbeth directly to kill King Duncan, they use a subtle form of temptation when they tell Macbeth that he is destined to be king.", "By placing this thought in his mind, they effectively guide him on the path to his own destruction.", "This follows the pattern of temptation used at the time of Shakespeare.", "First, they argued, a thought is put in a man's mind, then the person may either indulge in the thought or reject it.", "Macbeth indulges in it, while Banquo rejects.According to J.", "A. Bryant Jr., ''Macbeth'' also makes use of Biblical parallels, notably between King Duncan's murder and the murder of Christ:" ], [ "Superstition and \"The Scottish Play\"", "While many today would say that any misfortune surrounding a production is mere coincidence, actors and others in the theatre industry often consider it bad luck to mention ''Macbeth'' by name while inside a theatre, and sometimes refer to it indirectly, for example as \"The Scottish Play\", or \"MacBee\", or when referring to the characters and not the play, \"Mr. and Mrs. M\", or \"The Scottish King\".This is because Shakespeare (or the play's revisers) is said to have used the spells of real witches in his text, purportedly angering the witches and causing them to curse the play.", "Thus, to say the name of the play inside a theatre is believed to doom the production to failure, and perhaps cause physical injury or death to cast members.", "There are stories of accidents, misfortunes and even deaths taking place during runs of ''Macbeth''.According to the actor Sir Donald Sinden, in his Sky Arts TV series ''Great West End Theatres''contrary to popular myth, Shakespeare's tragedy ''Macbeth'' is not the unluckiest play as superstition likes to portray it.", "Exactly the opposite!", "The origin of the unfortunate moniker dates back to repertory theatre days when each town and village had at least one theatre to entertain the public.", "If a play was not doing well, it would invariably get 'pulled' and replaced with a sure-fire audience pleaser – ''Macbeth'' guaranteed full-houses.", "So when the weekly theatre newspaper, ''The Stage'' was published, listing what was on in each theatre in the country, it was instantly noticed what shows had ''not'' worked the previous week, as they had been replaced by a definite crowd-pleaser.", "More actors have died during performances of Hamlet than in the \"Scottish play\" as the profession still calls it.", "It is forbidden to quote from it backstage as this could cause the current play to collapse and have to be replaced, causing possible unemployment.Several methods exist to dispel the curse, depending on the actor.", "One, attributed to Michael York, is to immediately leave the building the stage is in with the person who uttered the name, walk around it three times, spit over their left shoulders, say an obscenity then wait to be invited back into the building.", "A related practice is to spin around three times as fast as possible on the spot, sometimes accompanied by spitting over their shoulder, and uttering an obscenity.", "Another popular \"ritual\" is to leave the room, knock three times, be invited in, and then quote a line from ''Hamlet''.", "Yet another is to recite lines from ''The Merchant of Venice'', thought to be a lucky play.Sir Patrick Stewart, on the radio program ''Ask Me Another'', asserted \"if you have played the role of the Scottish thane, then you are allowed to say the title, any time anywhere\"." ], [ "Performance history", "===Shakespeare's day to the Interregnum===The only eyewitness account of ''Macbeth'' in Shakespeare's lifetime was recorded by Simon Forman, who saw a performance at the Globe on 20 April 1610.Scholars have noted discrepancies between Forman's account and the play as it appears in the Folio.", "For example, he makes no mention of the apparition scene, or of Hecate, of the man not of woman born, or of Birnam Wood.", "However, Clark observes that Forman's accounts were often inaccurate and incomplete (for instance omitting the statue scene from ''The Winter's Tale'') and his interest did not seem to be in \"giving full accounts of the productions\".As mentioned above, the Folio text is thought by some to be an alteration of the original play.", "This has led to the theory that the play as we know it from the Folio was an adaptation for indoor performance at the Blackfriars Theatre (which was operated by the King's Men from 1608) – and even speculation that it represents a specific performance before King James.", "The play contains more musical cues than any other play in the canon as well as a significant use of sound effects.===Restoration and eighteenth century===All theatres were closed down by the Puritan government on 6 September 1642.Upon the restoration of the monarchy in 1660, two patent companies (the King's Company and the Duke's Company) were established, and the existing theatrical repertoire divided between them.", "Sir William Davenant, founder of the Duke's Company, adapted Shakespeare's play to the tastes of the new era, and his version would dominate on stage for around eighty years.", "Among the changes he made were the expansion of the role of the witches, introducing new songs, dances and 'flying', and the expansion of the role of Lady Macduff as a foil to Lady Macbeth.", "There were, however, performances outside the patent companies: among the evasions of the Duke's Company's monopoly was a puppet version of ''Macbeth''.", "''Macbeth'' was a favourite of the seventeenth-century diarist Samuel Pepys, who saw the play on 5 November 1664 (\"admirably acted\"), 28 December 1666 (\"most excellently acted\"), ten days later on 7 January 1667 (\"though I saw it lately, yet it appears a most excellent play in all respects\"), on 19 April 1667 (\"one of the best plays for a stage ... that ever I saw\"), again on 16 October 1667 (\"was vexed to see Young, who is but a bad actor at best, act Macbeth in the room of Betterton, who, poor man!", "is sick\"), and again three weeks later on 6 November 1667 (\"at ''Macbeth'', which we still like mightily\"), yet again on 12 August 1668 (\"saw ''Macbeth'', to our great content\"), and finally on 21 December 1668, on which date the king and court were also present in the audience.The first professional performances of ''Macbeth'' in North America were probably those of The Hallam Company.In 1744, David Garrick revived the play, abandoning Davenant's version and instead advertising it \"as written by Shakespeare\".", "In fact this claim was largely false: he retained much of Davenant's more popular business for the witches, and himself wrote a lengthy death speech for Macbeth.", "And he cut more than 10% of Shakespeare's play, including the drunken porter, the murder of Lady Macduff's son, and Malcolm's testing of Macduff.", "Hannah Pritchard was his greatest stage partner, having her premiere as his Lady Macbeth in 1747.He would later drop the play from his repertoire upon her retirement from the stage.", "Mrs. Pritchard was the first actress to achieve acclaim in the role of Lady Macbeth – at least partly due to the removal of Davenant's material, which made irrelevant moral contrasts with Lady Macduff.", "Garrick's portrayal focused on the inner life of the character, endowing him with an innocence vacillating between good and evil, and betrayed by outside influences.", "He portrayed a man capable of observing himself, as if a part of him remained untouched by what he had done, the play moulding him into a man of sensibility, rather than him descending into a tyrant.John Philip Kemble first played Macbeth in 1778.Although usually regarded as the antithesis of Garrick, Kemble nevertheless refined aspects of Garrick's portrayal into his own.", "However it was the \"towering and majestic\" Sarah Siddons (Kemble's sister) who became a legend in the role of Lady Macbeth.", "In contrast to Hannah Pritchard's savage, demonic portrayal, Siddons' Lady Macbeth, while terrifying, was nevertheless – in the scenes in which she expresses her regret and remorse – tenderly human.", "And in portraying her actions as done out of love for her husband, Siddons deflected from him some of the moral responsibility for the play's carnage.", "Audiences seem to have found the sleepwalking scene particularly mesmerising: Hazlitt said of it that \"all her gestures were involuntary and mechanical ... She glided on and off the stage almost like an apparition.", "\"In 1794, Kemble dispensed with the ghost of Banquo altogether, allowing the audience to see Macbeth's reaction as his wife and guests see it, and relying upon the fact that the play was so well known that his audience would already be aware that a ghost enters at that point.Ferdinand Fleck, notable as the first German actor to present Shakespeare's tragic roles in their fullness, played Macbeth at the Berlin National Theatre from 1787.Unlike his English counterparts, he portrayed the character as achieving his stature after the murder of Duncan, growing in presence and confidence: thereby enabling stark contrasts, such as in the banquet scene, which he ended babbling like a child.===Nineteenth century===Performances outside the patent theatres were instrumental in bringing the monopoly to an end.", "Robert Elliston, for example, produced a popular adaptation of ''Macbeth'' in 1809 at the Royal Circus described in its publicity as \"this matchless piece of pantomimic and choral performance\", which circumvented the illegality of speaking Shakespeare's words through mimed action, singing, and doggerel verse written by J. C. Cross.Ellen Kean and Charles Kean as the Macbeths, in historically accurate costumes, for an 1858 productionA print of William Charles Macready playing Macbeth, from a mid-19th century performanceIn 1809, in an unsuccessful attempt to take Covent Garden upmarket, Kemble installed private boxes, increasing admission prices to pay for the improvements.", "The inaugural run at the newly renovated theatre was ''Macbeth'', which was disrupted for over two months with cries of \"Old prices!\"", "and \"No private boxes!\"", "until Kemble capitulated to the protestors' demands.Edmund Kean at Drury Lane gave a psychological portrayal of the central character, with a common touch, but was ultimately unsuccessful in the role.", "However he did pave the way for the most acclaimed performance of the nineteenth century, that of William Charles Macready.", "Macready played the role over a 30-year period, firstly at Covent Garden in 1820 and finally in his retirement performance.", "Although his playing evolved over the years, it was noted throughout for the tension between the idealistic aspects and the weaker, venal aspects of Macbeth's character.", "His staging was full of spectacle, including several elaborate royal processions.In 1843 the Theatres Regulation Act finally brought the patent companies' monopoly to an end.", "From that time until the end of the Victorian era, London theatre was dominated by the actor-managers, and the style of presentation was \"pictorial\" – proscenium stages filled with spectacular stage-pictures, often featuring complex scenery, large casts in elaborate costumes, and frequent use of tableaux vivant.", "Charles Kean (son of Edmund), at London's Princess's Theatre from 1850 to 1859, took an antiquarian view of Shakespeare performance, setting his ''Macbeth'' in a historically accurate eleventh-century Scotland.", "His leading lady, Ellen Tree, created a sense of the character's inner life: ''The Times'' critic saying \"The countenance which she assumed ... when luring on Macbeth in his course of crime, was actually appalling in intensity, as if it denoted a hunger after guilt.\"", "At the same time, special effects were becoming popular: for example in Samuel Phelps' ''Macbeth'' the witches performed behind green gauze, enabling them to appear and disappear using stage lighting.In 1849, rival performances of the play sparked the Astor Place riot in Manhattan.", "The popular American actor Edwin Forrest, whose Macbeth was said to be like \"the ferocious chief of a barbarous tribe\" played the central role at the Broadway Theatre to popular acclaim, while the \"cerebral and patrician\" English actor Macready, playing the same role at the Astor Place Opera House, suffered constant heckling.", "The existing enmity between the two men (Forrest had openly hissed Macready at a recent performance of ''Hamlet'' in Britain) was taken up by Forrest's supporters – formed from the working class and lower middle class and anti-British agitators, keen to attack the upper-class pro-British patrons of the Opera House and the colonially-minded Macready.", "Nevertheless, Macready performed the role again three days later to a packed house while an angry mob gathered outside.", "The militia tasked with controlling the situation fired into the mob.", "In total, 31 rioters were killed and over 100 injured.Charlotte Cushman is unique among nineteenth century interpreters of Shakespeare in achieving stardom in roles of both genders.", "Her New York debut was as Lady Macbeth in 1836, and she would later be admired in London in the same role in the mid-1840s.", "Helen Faucit was considered the embodiment of early-Victorian notions of femininity.", "But for this reason she largely failed when she eventually played Lady Macbeth in 1864: her serious attempt to embody the coarser aspects of Lady Macbeth's character jarred harshly with her public image.", "Adelaide Ristori, the great Italian actress, brought her Lady Macbeth to London in 1863 in Italian, and again in 1873 in an English translation cut in such a way as to be, in effect, Lady Macbeth's tragedy.Photograph of Ellen Terry as Lady Macbeth, an 1888 productionHenry Irving was the most successful of the late-Victorian actor-managers, but his ''Macbeth'' failed to curry favour with audiences.", "His desire for psychological credibility reduced certain aspects of the role: He described Macbeth as a brave soldier but a moral coward, and played him untroubled by conscience – clearly already contemplating the murder of Duncan before his encounter with the witches.", "Irving's leading lady was Ellen Terry, but her Lady Macbeth was unsuccessful with the public, for whom a century of performances influenced by Sarah Siddons had created expectations at odds with Terry's conception of the role.Late nineteenth-century European Macbeths aimed for heroic stature, but at the expense of subtlety: Tommaso Salvini in Italy and Adalbert Matkowsky in Germany were said to inspire awe, but elicited little pity.===20th century to present===Two developments changed the nature of ''Macbeth'' performance in the 20th century: first, developments in the craft of acting itself, especially the ideas of Stanislavski and Brecht; and second, the rise of the dictator as a political icon.", "The latter has not always assisted the performance: it is difficult to sympathise with a Macbeth based on Hitler, Stalin, or Idi Amin.Barry Jackson, at the Birmingham Repertory Theatre in 1923, was the first of the 20th-century directors to costume ''Macbeth'' in modern dress.Jack Carter and Edna Thomas in the Federal Theatre Project production that came to be known as the ''Voodoo Macbeth'' (1936)In 1936, a decade before his film adaptation of the play, Orson Welles directed ''Macbeth'' for the Negro Theatre Unit of the Federal Theatre Project at the Lafayette Theatre in Harlem, using black actors and setting the action in Haiti: with drums and Voodoo rites to establish the Witches scenes.", "The production, dubbed ''The Voodoo Macbeth'', proved inflammatory in the aftermath of the Harlem riots, accused of making fun of black culture and as \"a campaign to burlesque negroes\" until Welles persuaded crowds that his use of black actors and voodoo made important cultural statements.Fort St. Catherine's, Bermuda, the site of a 1953 outdoor productionA performance which is frequently referenced as an example of the play's curse was the outdoor production directed by Burgess Meredith in 1953 in the British colony of Bermuda, starring Charlton Heston.", "Using the imposing spectacle of Fort St. Catherine as a key element of the set, the production was plagued by a host of mishaps, including Charlton Heston being burned when his tights caught fire.The critical consensus is that there have been three great Macbeths on the English-speaking stage in the 20th century, all of them commencing at Stratford-upon-Avon: Laurence Olivier in 1955, Ian McKellen in 1976 and Antony Sher in 1999.Olivier's portrayal (directed by Glen Byam Shaw, with Vivien Leigh as Lady Macbeth) was immediately hailed as a masterpiece.", "Kenneth Tynan expressed the view that it succeeded because Olivier built the role to a climax at the end of the play, whereas most actors spend all they have in the first two acts.The play caused grave difficulties for the Royal Shakespeare Company, especially at the (then) Shakespeare Memorial Theatre.", "Peter Hall's 1967 production was (in Michael Billington's words) \"an acknowledged disaster\" with the use of real leaves from Birnham Wood getting unsolicited first-night laughs, and Trevor Nunn's 1974 production was (Billington again) \"an over-elaborate religious spectacle\".But Nunn achieved success for the RSC in his 1976 production at the intimate Other Place, with Ian McKellen and Judi Dench in the central roles.", "A small cast worked within a simple circle, and McKellen's Macbeth had nothing noble or likeable about him, being a manipulator in a world of manipulative characters.", "They were a young couple, physically passionate, \"not monsters but recognisable human beings\", but their relationship atrophied as the action progressed.The RSC again achieved critical success in Gregory Doran's 1999 production at The Swan, with Antony Sher and Harriet Walter in the central roles, once again demonstrating the suitability of the play for smaller venues.", "Doran's witches spoke their lines to a theatre in absolute darkness, and the opening visual image was the entrance of Macbeth and Banquo in the berets and fatigues of modern warfare, carried on the shoulders of triumphant troops.", "In contrast to Nunn, Doran presented a world in which king Duncan and his soldiers were ultimately benign and honest, heightening the deviance of Macbeth (who seems genuinely surprised by the witches' prophecies) and Lady Macbeth in plotting to kill the king.", "The play said little about politics, instead powerfully presenting its central characters' psychological collapse.", "''Macbeth'' returned to the RSC in 2018, when Christopher Eccleston played the title role, with Niamh Cusack as his wife, Lady Macbeth.", "The play later transferred to the Barbican in London.In Soviet-controlled Prague in 1977, faced with the illegality of working in theatres, Pavel Kohout adapted ''Macbeth'' into a 75-minute abridgement for five actors, suitable for \"bringing a show in a suitcase to people's homes\".Spectacle was unfashionable in Western theatre throughout the 20th century.", "In East Asia, however, spectacular productions have achieved great success, including Yukio Ninagawa's 1980 production with Masane Tsukayama as Macbeth, set in the 16th century Japanese Civil War.", "The same director's tour of London in 1987 was widely praised by critics, even though (like most of their audience) they were unable to understand the significance of Macbeth's gestures, the huge Buddhist altar dominating the set, or the petals falling from the cherry trees.Xu Xiaozhong's 1980 Central Academy of Drama production in Beijing made every effort to be unpolitical (necessary in the aftermath of the Cultural Revolution): yet audiences still perceived correspondences between the central character (whom the director had actually modelled on Louis Napoleon) and Mao Zedong.", "Shakespeare has often been adapted to indigenous theatre traditions, for example the ''Kunju Macbeth'' of Huang Zuolin performed at the inaugural Chinese Shakespeare Festival of 1986.Similarly, B. V. Karanth's ''Barnam Vana'' of 1979 had adapted ''Macbeth'' to the Yakshagana tradition of Karnataka, India.", "In 1997, Lokendra Arambam created ''Stage of Blood'', merging a range of martial arts, dance and gymnastic styles from Manipur, performed in Imphal and in England.", "The stage was literally a raft on a lake.", "''Throne of Blood'' (蜘蛛巣城 Kumonosu-jō, ''Spider Web Castle'') is a 1957 Japanese samurai film co-written and directed by Akira Kurosawa.", "The film transposes ''Macbeth'' from Medieval Scotland to feudal Japan, with stylistic elements drawn from Noh drama.", "Kurosawa was a fan of the play and planned his own adaptation for several years, postponing it after learning of Orson Welles' ''Macbeth'' (1948).", "The film won two Mainichi Film Awards.The play has been translated and performed in various languages in different parts of the world, and ''Media Artists'' was the first to stage its Punjabi adaptation in India.", "The adaptation by Balram and the play directed by Samuel John have been universally acknowledged as a milestone in Punjabi theatre.", "The unique attempt involved trained theatre experts and the actors taken from a rural background in Punjab.", "Punjabi folk music imbued the play with the native ethos as the Scottish setting of Shakespeare's play was transposed into a Punjabi milieu.In 2021, Saoirse Ronan starred in ''The Tragedy of Macbeth'' at the Almeida Theatre in London.", "The following year a revival production opened on Broadway with Daniel Craig and Ruth Negga to middling reviews.=== Operas ===''Macbeth'' was adapted into an Italian opera (''Macbeth'') by composer Giuseppe Verdi and librettist Francesco Maria Piave in 1847 (revised in French in 1865).", "An English opera adaptation of the play was created by Lawrance Collingwood in 1927.Contemporary opera adaptations include Luke Styles's ''Macbeth'' (2015) and Pascal Dusapin's ''Macbeth Underworld'' (2019).An indirect adaptation is Dmitri Shostakovich's ''Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk'' (1934), based on the novella of the same name by Nikolai Leskov." ], [ "See also", "* Cultural references to ''Macbeth''" ], [ "Notes and references" ], [ "References", "All references to ''Macbeth'', unless otherwise specified, are taken from the Arden Shakespeare, second series edition edited by Kenneth Muir.", "Under their referencing system, III.I.55 means act 3, scene 1, line 55.All references to other Shakespeare plays are to The Oxford Shakespeare ''Complete Works of Shakespeare'' edited by Stanley Wells and Gary Taylor." ], [ "Sources", "===Editions of ''Macbeth''===********===Secondary sources===*****************************************************************************************" ], [ "External links", "* ''Macbeth'', eds.", "Barbara Mowat, Paul Werstine, Michael Poston, and Rebecca Niles.", "Folger Shakespeare Library.", "* Performances and Photographs from London and Stratford performances of ''Macbeth'' 1960–2000 – From the Designing Shakespeare resource* * \"Macbeth\" Complete Annotated Text on One Page Without Ads or Images* ''Macbeth'' at the British Library* ''Macbeth'' on Film* PBS Video directed by Rupert Goold starring Sir Patrick Stewart* Annotated Text at The Shakespeare Project – annotated HTML version of ''Macbeth.", "''* ''Macbeth'' Navigator – searchable, annotated HTML version of ''Macbeth.", "''* * ''Macbeth'' Analysis and Textual Notes* Annotated Bibliography of ''Macbeth'' Criticism* '' Macbeth'' – full annotated text aligned to Common Core Standards* ''Shakespeare and the Uses of Power'' by Steven Greenblatt" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Minor Threat" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Minor Threat''' was an American hardcore punk band, formed in 1980 in Washington, D.C., by vocalist Ian MacKaye and drummer Jeff Nelson.", "MacKaye and Nelson had played in several other bands together, and recruited bassist Brian Baker and guitarist Lyle Preslar to form Minor Threat.", "They added a fifth member, Steve Hansgen, in 1982, playing bass, while Baker switched to second guitar.The band was relatively short-lived, disbanding after only three years together, but had a strong influence in the emerging American hardcore punk scene, both stylistically and in helping to further establish the \"do it yourself\" ethic for music distribution and concert promotion.", "Minor Threat's song \"Straight Edge\" was the basis of the straight edge movement, which emphasized a lifestyle without alcohol or other drugs, or promiscuous sex.", "AllMusic described Minor Threat's music as \"iconic\" and noted that their groundbreaking music \"has held up better than that of most of their contemporaries.", "\"Along with the fellow Washington, D.C. hardcore band Bad Brains and California band Black Flag, Minor Threat set the standard for many hardcore punk bands in the 1980s and 1990s.", "All of Minor Threat's recordings were released on MacKaye's and Nelson's own label, Dischord Records.", "The ''Minor Threat'' EP and their only full-length studio album ''Out of Step'' have received a number of accolades and are cited as landmarks of the hardcore punk genre." ], [ "History", "===Formation and early years===The band logoPrior to forming Minor Threat in 1980, vocalist Ian MacKaye and drummer Jeff Nelson had played bass and drums respectively in the Teen Idles while attending what was then Wilson High School.", "During their two-year career within the flourishing Washington D.C. hardcore punk scene, the Teen Idles had gained a following of around one hundred fans (a sizable amount at the time), and were seen as only second within the scene to the contemporary Bad Brains.", "MacKaye and Nelson were strong believers in the DIY mentality and an independent, underground music scene.", "After the breakup of the Teen Idles, they used the money earned through the band to create Dischord Records, an independent record label that would host the releases of the Teen Idles, Minor Threat, and numerous other D.C. punk bands.Eager to start a new band after the Teen Idles, MacKaye and Nelson recruited guitarist Lyle Preslar and bassist Brian Baker.", "They played their first performance in December 1980 to fifty people in a basement, opening for Bad Brains, The Untouchables, Black Market Baby and S.O.A., all D.C. bands.The band's first 7-inch EPs, ''Minor Threat'' and ''In My Eyes'', were released in 1981.The group became popular regionally and toured the east coast and Midwest.", "\"Straight Edge,\" a song from the band's first EP, helped to inspire the straight edge movement.", "The lyrics of the song relay MacKaye's first-person perspective of his personal choice of abstinence from alcohol and other drugs, a novel ideology for rock musicians which initially found a small but dedicated following.", "Other prominent groups that subsequently advocated the straight edge stance include SS Decontrol and 7 Seconds.", "Although the original song was not written as a manifesto or a \"set of rules,\" many later bands inspired by this idea used it as such, and over the years since its release, the song and the term \"straight edge\" became the zeitgeist for an entire subculture, and indeed the basis for a paradigm shift that has persisted and grown consistently throughout the world.", "The term comes as the point of the story—he doesn't want to do drugs or drink, so therefore the writer has an edge over those who do—a straight edge.", "\"Out of Step\", a Minor Threat song from their second EP, further demonstrates the said belief: \"Don't smoke/Don't drink/Don't fuck/At least I can fucking think/I can't keep up/I'm out of step with the world.\"", "The \"I\" in the lyrics was usually only implied, mainly because it did not quite fit the rhythm of the song.", "Some of the other members of Minor Threat, Jeff Nelson in particular, took exception to what they saw as MacKaye's imperious attitude on the song.Minor Threat's song \"Guilty of Being White\" led some critics to accuse the band of racism, but MacKaye has strongly denied such intentions and said that some listeners misinterpreted his words.", "He claims that his experiences attending Wilson High School, whose student population was 70 percent Black, inspired the song.", "There, many students bullied MacKaye and his friends.", "In an interview, MacKaye stated that he was offended that some perceived racist overtones in the lyrics, saying, \"To me, at the time and now, it seemed clear it's an anti-racist song.", "Of course, it didn't occur to me at the time I wrote it that anybody outside of my twenty or thirty friends who I was singing to would ever have to actually ponder the lyrics or even consider them.\"", "Thrash metal band Slayer later covered the song, with the last iteration of the lyric \"guilty of being white\" changed to \"guilty of being right.", "\"===Hiatus===In the time between the release of the band's second seven-inch EP and the ''Out of Step'' record, the band briefly split when guitarist Lyle Preslar moved to Illinois to attend college for a semester at Northwestern University.", "Preslar was a member of Big Black for a few tempestuous rehearsals.", "During that period, MacKaye and Nelson put together a studio-only project called Skewbald/Grand Union; in a reflection of the slowly increasing disagreements between the two musicians, they were unable to decide on one name.", "The group recorded three untitled songs, which would be released posthumously as Dischord's 50th release.", "During Minor Threat's inactive period, Brian Baker also briefly played guitar for Government Issue and appeared on the ''Make an Effort'' EP.In March 1982, at the urging of Bad Brains' H.R., Preslar left college to reform Minor Threat.", "The reunited band featured an expanded lineup: Steve Hansgen joined as the band's bassist and Baker switched to second guitar.When the \"Out of Step\" was re-recorded for the LP ''Out of Step,'' MacKaye clearly sang \"I don't drink/smoke/fuck\", as was the intent of his words all along, in response to the what many saw as his imperious attitude on the song.", "The band also inserted an overdubbed spoken section into the instrumental break before the last chorus with MacKaye stating, \"This is not a set of rules, I'm not telling you what to do...\" Recording engineer Don Zientara had inadvertently recorded an argument between drummer Nelson and lyricist/singer MacKaye that captured the message perfectly, so this was used.", "According to Mark Andersen and Mark Jenkins' ''Dance of Days: Two Decades of Punk in the Nation's Capital'', this argument was over exactly what would be said in the message that Nelson wanted MacKaye to record, stating essentially what he said without knowing it was being recorded.", "An ideological door had already been opened, however, and by 1983, some straight-edge punks, such as followers of the band SS Decontrol, were swatting beers out of people's hands at clubs.===Breakup===Poster promoting what would be Minor Threat's final show.Minor Threat broke up in 1983.A contributing factor was disagreement over musical direction.", "MacKaye was skipping rehearsal sessions towards the end of the band's career, and he wrote the lyrics to the songs on the ''Salad Days'' EP in the studio.", "That was quite a contrast with the earlier recordings, as he had written and co-written the music for much of the band's early material.", "Minor Threat, which had returned to being a four-piece group with the departure of Hansgen, played its final show on September 23, 1983, at the Lansburgh Cultural Center in Washington, D.C., sharing the bill with go-go band Trouble Funk, and Austin, Texas punk funk act the Big Boys.", "In a meaningful way, Minor Threat ended their final set with \"Last Song\", a tune whose name was also the original title of the band's song \"Salad Days\".Following the breakup, MacKaye stated that he did not \"check out\" on hardcore, but in fact hardcore \"checked out\".", "Explaining this, he stated that at a 1984 Minutemen show, a fan struck MacKaye's younger brother Alec in the face, and he punched the fan back, then realizing that the violence was \"stupid,\" and that he saw his role in the stupidity.", "MacKaye claimed that immediately after this he decided to leave the hardcore scene.===Subsequent activities===In March 1984, six months after the band broke up, the EPs ''Minor Threat'' and ''In My Eyes'' were compiled together and re-released as the ''Minor Threat'' album.", "The ''Complete Discography'' archival compilation would follow in 1989, with the additional release of ''First Demo Tape'' in 2003.Two previously unreleased songs were featured on the ''20 Years of Dischord'' compilation in 2002.MacKaye went on to found Embrace with former members of the Faith, Egg Hunt with Jeff Nelson, and later Fugazi, the Evens, and Coriky, as well as collaborating on Pailhead.Baker went on to play in Junkyard, the Meatmen, Dag Nasty and Government Issue.", "Since 1994, Baker has been a member of Bad Religion.Preslar was briefly a member of Glenn Danzig's Samhain, and his playing appears on a few songs on the band's first record.", "He joined The Meatmen in 1984, along with fellow Minor Threat member Brian Baker.", "He later ran Caroline Records, signing and working with (among others) Peter Gabriel, Ben Folds, Chemical Brothers, and Idaho, and ran marketing for Sire Records.", "He graduated from Rutgers University School of Law and lives in New Jersey.Nelson played less-frantic alternative rock with Three and The High-Back Chairs before retiring from live performance.", "He runs his own label, Adult Swim Records, distributed by Dischord, and is a graphic artist and a political activist in Toledo, Ohio.", "The band's own Dischord Records released material by many bands from the Washington, D.C., area, such as Government Issue, Void, Scream, Fugazi, Artificial Peace, Rites of Spring, Gray Matter, and Dag Nasty, and has become a respected independent record label.Hansgen formed Second Wind with Rich Moore, a former Minor Threat roadie and drummer for the Untouchables.", "In 1992, he worked as a producer on the first Tool EP ''Opiate''." ], [ "Copyright issues", "===\"Major Threat\"===In 2005, a mock-up of the cover of Minor Threat's first EP (also used on the ''Minor Threat'' LP and ''Complete Discography'' CD) was copied by athletic footwear manufacturer Nike for use on a promotional poster for a skateboarding tour called \"Major Threat\".", "Nike also altered Minor Threat's logo (designed by Jeff Nelson) for the same campaign, as well as featuring Nike shoes in the new picture, rather than the combat boots worn by Ian MacKaye's younger brother Alec on the original.MacKaye issued a press statement condemning Nike's actions and said that he would discuss legal options with the other members of the band.", "Meanwhile, fans, at the encouragement of Dischord, organized a letter-writing campaign protesting Nike's infringement.", "On June 27, 2005, Nike issued a statement apologizing to Minor Threat, Dischord Records, and their fans for the \"Major Threat\" campaign and said that all promotional artwork (print and digital) that they could acquire were destroyed.===\"Salad Days\"===On October 29, 2005, Fox played the first few seconds of Minor Threat's \"Salad Days\" during an NFL broadcast.", "Use of the song was not cleared by Dischord Records or any of the members of Minor Threat.", "Fox claimed that the clip was too short to have violated any copyrights.===Wheelhouse Pickles===In 2007, Brooklyn-based company Wheelhouse Pickles marketed a pepper sauce named \"Minor Threat Sauce\".", "Requesting only that the original label design (which was based on the \"Bottled Violence\" artwork) be amended, Ian MacKaye gave the product his endorsement.", "A small mention of this was made, where MacKaye commented, \"I don't have an occasion to eat a lot of hot sauce, but I also thought the Minor Threat stuff was nice.", "\"=== Urban Outfitters ===In 2013, Minor Threat shirts began appearing in Urban Outfitters stores.", "Ian MacKaye confirmed that the shirts were officially licensed.", "Having spent what he described as \"a complete waste of time\" trying to track down bootlegged Minor Threat merchandise, MacKaye and Dischord made arrangements with a merchandise company in California to manage licensing of the band's shirts, as well as working to ensure that bootleg manufacturers of the shirts were curtailed.", "In comments that appeared in ''Rolling Stone'', MacKaye called it \"absurd\" for the shirts to be sold for $28 but concluded that \"my time is better spent doing other things\" than dealing with shirts.", "Dischord had previously taken action against Forever 21 in 2009 for marketing unlicensed Minor Threat shirts." ], [ "Members", "* Ian MacKaye – lead vocals (1980–1983)* Lyle Preslar – guitar (1980–1983)* Brian Baker – bass (1980–1982, 1983); guitar (1982–1983)* Jeff Nelson – drums (1980–1983)* Steve Hansgen – bass (1982–1983)" ], [ "Discography", "===Original material===* ''Minor Threat'' (EP, 1981)* ''In My Eyes'' (EP, 1981)* ''Out of Step'' (studio album, 1983)* ''Salad Days'' (EP, 1985)===Compilation albums===* ''Minor Threat'' (1984)* ''Complete Discography'' (1989)* ''First Demo Tape'' (2003)* ''Out of Step Outtakes'' (2023)===Compilation appearances===* ''Flex Your Head'' (1982) – \"Stand Up\", \"12XU\"* ''Dischord 1981: The Year in Seven Inches'' (1995) contains the first two EPs* ''20 Years of Dischord'' (2002) – \"Screaming at a Wall\", \"Straight Edge\" (live), \"Understand\", \"Asshole Dub\"" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Andersen, Mark; Jenkins, Mark (Soft Skull Press, 2001).", "''Dance of Days: Two Decades of Punk in the Nation's Capital''.", "Fourth ed., 2009.Brooklyn, New York: Akashic Books.", ".", "* Azerrad, Michael (2001), ''Our Band Could Be Your Life: Scenes From the American Indie Underground, 1981–1991'', Boston, MA: Little Brown, .", "* Connolly, Cynthia; Clague, Leslie & Cheslow, Sharon (1988), ''Banned in DC: Photos and Anecdotes from the DC Punk Underground 1979-85'', Washington, D.C: Sun Dog Propaganda, ." ], [ "External links", "* * * ''Washington Post Express'' interview with Brian Baker, 2007* from ''If This Goes On'' by Sharon Cheslow and Colin Sears" ] ]
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[ [ "Mental event" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''mental event''' is any event that happens within the mind of a conscious individual.", "Examples include thoughts, feelings, decisions, dreams, and realizations.", "These events often make up the conscious life that are associated with cognitive function.Some believe that mental events are not limited to human thought but can be associated with animals and artificial intelligence as well.", "Whether mental events are identical to complex physical events, or whether such an identity even makes sense, is central to the mind–body problem." ], [ "Relation to mind–body problem", "Some state that the mental and the physical are the very same property which cause any event(s).", "This view is known as substance monism.", "An opposing view is substance dualism, which claims that the mental and physical are fundamentally different and can exist independently.", "A third approach is Donald Davidson's ''anomalous monism''.", "The Philosophy of Action states that every action is caused by prior thoughts or feelings, and understanding those mental events would in turn explain behavior.Physicalism, a form of substance monism, states that everything that exists is either physical or depends on that which is physical.", "The existence of mental events has been used by philosophers as an argument against physicalism.", "For example, in his 1974 paper ''What Is it Like to Be a Bat?", "'', Thomas Nagel argues that physicalist theories of mind cannot explain an organism's subjective experience because they cannot account for its mental events.Epiphenomenalism, according to Stanford, \"Is the view that mental events are caused by physical events in the brain, but have no effect upon any physical events.\"", "This stance then brings up the idea of introspection.", "According to David Lieberman, introspection is the ability for a person to observe his or her own mental state or events.", "Mental events can happen consciously and subconsciously at any given point.", "All mental events take place due to external stimuli.", "Which then must be processed via working memory." ], [ "Mental Events and Working Memory", "Mental events must occur in the working memory of short term-store.", "Both working memory and short-term memory are essential to mental events and cognition.", "According to Lieberman (2021), Baddeley and Hitch (1974) proposed that working memory consists of three distinct subsystems: what are called a phonological loop, a visuo-spatial sketchpad, and central executive.", "The phenological loop is responsible for holding speech-based sounds while the visuo-spatial sketchpad holds visual concepts in the mind.", "Both work independent of each other.", "Whereas the central executive is responsible for controlling both systems.", "The central executive is also responsible for aiding in tasks such as reasoning and understanding language.", "In order for mental events to occur, in Homo sapiens, situations and events must be processed through working memory in order to be perceived as a mental event.", "Without this system of memory, situations cannot be stored as mental events.", "All thoughts, feelings, decisions, dreams, and realizations must cycle through this process indefinitely." ], [ "Examples", "* Mary is walking through a park and she sees and recognizes City Hall.", "This instance of seeing and recognizing City Hall is an instance of perception—something that happens in Mary's mind.", "That instance of perception is a mental event.", "It is an ''event'' because it is something that happens, and it is ''mental'' because it happens in Mary's mind.", "* Mary feels happy after doing well on an exam and she smiles.", "This thought is a mental event.", "The smile is a physical event.", "* An orca recognized a feeling of hunger.", "It eats a fish.", "The recognition of the feeling of hunger is a mental event.", "Eating the fish is the physical event.", "* Mary is listening to her friend talk while admiring a painting she is looking at.", "Her visuo-spatial sketchpad is allowing her to think about the painting she likes, creating a mental event.", "Simultaneously, her phonological loop is allowing her to understand the conversation.", "Both systems are being operated by the central executive." ], [ "See also", "* Mental function* Mental operations* Mental rotation* Functional neuroimaging* Noumenon* Psychedelic experience* Synchronicity* Working memory* Vertiginous question" ], [ "Further reading", "* ''The Mental Life of Plants and Worms, Among Others'' Oliver Sacks April 24, 2014 issue New York Review of Books" ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "Monopoly" ], [ "Introduction", "''''A '''monopoly''' (from Greek and ), as described by Irving Fisher, is a market with the \"absence of competition\", creating a situation where a specific person or enterprise is the only supplier of a particular thing.", "This contrasts with a monopsony which relates to a single entity's control of a market to purchase a good or service, and with oligopoly and duopoly which consists of a few sellers dominating a market.", "Monopolies are thus characterised by a lack of economic competition to produce the good or service, a lack of viable substitute goods, and the possibility of a high monopoly price well above the seller's marginal cost that leads to a high monopoly profit.", "The verb ''monopolise'' or ''monopolize'' refers to the ''process'' by which a company gains the ability to raise prices or exclude competitors.", "In economics, a monopoly is a single seller.", "In law, a monopoly is a business entity that has significant market power, that is, the power to charge overly high prices, which is associated with a decrease in social surplus.", "Although monopolies may be big businesses, size is not a characteristic of a monopoly.", "A small business may still have the power to raise prices in a small industry (or market).A monopoly may also have monopsony control of a sector of a market.", "Likewise, a monopoly should be distinguished from a cartel (a form of oligopoly), in which several providers act together to coordinate services, prices or sale of goods.", "Monopolies, monopsonies and oligopolies are all situations in which one or a few entities have market power and therefore interact with their customers (monopoly or oligopoly), or suppliers (monopsony) in ways that distort the market.Monopolies can be formed by mergers and integrations, form naturally, or be established by a government.", "In many jurisdictions, competition laws restrict monopolies due to government concerns over potential adverse effects.", "Holding a dominant position or a monopoly in a market is often not illegal in itself; however, certain categories of behavior can be considered abusive and therefore incur legal sanctions when business is dominant.", "A government-granted monopoly or ''legal monopoly'', by contrast, is sanctioned by the state, often to provide an incentive to invest in a risky venture or enrich a domestic interest group.", "Patents, copyrights, and trademarks are sometimes used as examples of government-granted monopolies.", "The government may also reserve the venture for itself, thus forming a government monopoly, for example with a state-owned company.Monopolies may be naturally occurring due to limited competition because the industry is resource intensive and requires substantial costs to operate (e.g., certain railroad systems)." ], [ "Market structures", "Market structure is determined by following factors:* ''Barriers to entry'': Competition within the market will determine the firm's future profits, and future profits will determine the entry and exit barriers to the market.", "Estimating entry, exit and profits are decided by three factors: the intensity of competition in short-term prices, the magnitude of sunk costs of entry faced by potential entrants, and the magnitude of fixed costs faced by incumbents.", "* ''The number of companies in the market'': If the number of firms in the market increases, the value of firms remaining and entering the market will decrease, leading to a high probability of exit and a reduced likelihood of entry.", "* ''Product substitutability'': Product substitution is the phenomenon where customers can choose one over another.", "This is the main way to distinguish a monopolistic competition market from a perfect competition market.In economics, the idea of monopolies is important in the study of management structures, which directly concerns normative aspects of economic competition, and provides the basis for topics such as industrial organization and economics of regulation.", "There are four basic types of market structures in traditional economic analysis: perfect competition, monopolistic competition, oligopoly and monopoly.", "A monopoly is a structure in which a single supplier produces and sells a given product or service.", "If there is a single seller in a certain market and there are no close substitutes for the product, then the market structure is that of a \"pure monopoly\".", "Sometimes, there are many sellers in an industry or there exist many close substitutes for the goods being produced, but nevertheless, companies retain some market power.", "This is termed \"monopolistic competition\", whereas in an oligopoly, the companies interact strategically.In general, the main results from this theory compare the price-fixing methods across market structures, analyze the effect of a certain structure on welfare, and vary technological or demand assumptions in order to assess the consequences for an abstract model of society.", "Most economic textbooks follow the practice of carefully explaining the \"perfect competition\" model, mainly because this helps to understand departures from it (the so-called \"imperfect competition\" models).The boundaries of what constitutes a market and what does not are relevant distinctions to make in economic analysis.", "In a general equilibrium context, a good is a specific concept including geographical and time-related characteristics.", "Most studies of market structure relax a little their definition of a good, allowing for more flexibility in the identification of substitute goods." ], [ "Characteristics", "A monopoly has at least one of these five characteristics:* ''Profit maximizer'': monopolists will choose the price or output to maximise profits at where MC=MR.This output will be somewhere over the price range, where demand is price elastic.", "If the total revenue is higher than total costs, the monopolists will make abnormal profits.", "* ''Price maker'': Decides the price of the good or product to be sold, but does so by determining the quantity in order to demand the price desired by the firm.", "* ''High barriers to entry'': Other sellers are unable to enter the market of the monopoly.", "* ''Single seller'': In a monopoly, there is one seller of the good, who produces all the output.", "Therefore, the whole market is being served by a single company, and for practical purposes, the company is the same as the industry.", "* ''Price discrimination'': A monopolist can change the price or quantity of the product.", "They sell higher quantities at a lower price in a very elastic market, and sell lower quantities at a higher price in a less elastic market." ], [ "Sources of monopoly power", "Monopolies derive their market power from barriers to entry – circumstances that prevent or greatly impede a potential competitor's ability to compete in a market.", "There are three major types of barriers to entry: economic, legal, and deliberate.", "* ''Elasticity of demand'': In a complete monopolistic market, the demand curve for the product is the market demand curve.", "There is only one firm within the industry.", "The monopolist is the sole seller, and its demand is the demand of the entire market.", "A monopolist is the price setter, but it is also limited by the law of market demand.", "If he/she sets a high price, the sales volume will inevitably decline, if expand the sales volume, the price must be lowered, which means that the demand and price in the monopoly market move in opposite directions.", "Therefore, the demand curve faced by a monopoly is a downward-sloping curve or a negative slope.", "Since monopolists control the supply of the entire industry, they also control the price of the entire industry and become price setters.", "A monopolistic firm can have two business decisions: sell less output at a higher price or sell more output at a lower price.", "There are no close substitutes for the products of a monopolistic firm.", "Otherwise, other firms can produce substitutes to replace the monopoly firm's products, and a monopolistic firm cannot become the only supplier in the market.", "So consumers have no other choice.", "* ''Economic barriers'': Economic barriers include economies of scale, capital requirements, cost advantages, and technological superiority.", "* ''Economies of scale'': Decreasing unit costs for larger volumes of production.", "Decreasing costs coupled with large initial costs, If for example, the industry is large enough to support one company of minimum efficient scale then other companies entering the industry will operate at a size that is less than MES, and so cannot produce at an average cost that is competitive with the dominant company.", "And if the long-term average cost of the dominant company is constantly decreasing, then that company will continue to have the least cost method to provide a good or service.", "* ''Capital requirements'': Production processes that require large investments of capital, perhaps in the form of large research and development costs or substantial sunk costs, limit the number of companies in an industry: this is an example of economies of scale.", "* ''Technological superiority'': A monopoly may be better able to acquire, integrate, and use the best possible technology in producing its goods while entrants either do not have the expertise or are unable to meet the high fixed costs (see above) needed for the most efficient technology.", "Thus one large company can often produce goods cheaper than several small companies.", "* ''No substitute goods'': A monopoly sells a good for which there is no close substitute.", "The absence of substitutes makes the demand for that good relatively inelastic, enabling monopolies to extract positive profits.", "* ''Control of natural resources'': A prime source of monopoly power is the control of resources (such as raw materials) that are critical to the production of a final good.", "* ''Network externalities'': The use of a product by a person can affect the value of that product to other people.", "This is the network effect.", "There is a direct relationship between the proportion of people using a product and the demand for that product.", "In other words, the more people who are using a product, the greater the probability that another individual will start to use the product.", "This reflects fads, and fashion trends, social networks etc.", "It also can play a crucial role in the development or acquisition of market power.", "The most famous current example is the market dominance of the Microsoft Office suite and operating system in personal computers.", "* ''Legal barriers'': Legal rights can provide the opportunity to monopolize the market in a good.", "Intellectual property rights, including patents and copyrights, give a monopolist exclusive control of the production and selling of certain goods.", "Property rights may give a company exclusive control of the materials necessary to produce a good.", "* ''Advertising'': Advertising and brand names with a high degree of consumer loyalty may prove a difficult obstacle to overcome.", "* ''Manipulation'': A company wanting to monopolize a market may engage in various types of deliberate action to exclude competitors or eliminate competition.", "Such actions include collusion, lobbying governmental authorities, and force (see anti-competitive practices).", "* ''First-mover advantage'': In some industries such as electronics, the pace of product innovation is so rapid that the existing firms will be working on the next generation of products whilst launching the current ranges.", "New entrants are destined to fail unless they have original ideas or can exploit a new market segment.", "* ''Monopolistic price'': It may be possible for existing firms to ride the existence of abnormal profit by what is called entry limit pricing.", "This involves deliberately setting a low price and temporarily abandoning profit maximization in order to force new entrants out of the market.In addition to barriers to entry and competition, barriers to exit may be a source of market power.", "Barriers to exit are market conditions that make it difficult or expensive for a company to end its involvement with a market.", "High liquidation costs are a primary barrier to exiting.", "Market exit and shutdown are sometimes separate events.", "The decision of whether to shut down or operate is not affected by exit barriers.", "A company will shut down if the price falls below minimum average variable costs." ], [ "Monopoly versus competitive markets", "This 1879 anti-monopoly cartoon depicts powerful railroad barons controlling the entire rail system.While monopoly and perfect competition mark the extremes of market structures there is some similarity.", "The cost functions are the same.", "Both monopolies and perfectly competitive (PC) companies minimize cost and maximize profit.", "The shutdown decisions are the same.", "Both are assumed to have perfectly competitive factors markets.", "There are distinctions, some of the most important distinctions are as follows:* ''Marginal revenue and price'': In a perfectly competitive market, price equals marginal cost.", "In a monopolistic market, however, price is set above marginal cost.", "The price equal marginal revenue in this case.", "* ''Product differentiation'': There is no product differentiation in a perfectly competitive market.", "Every product is perfectly homogeneous and a perfect substitute for any other.", "With a monopoly, there is great to absolute product differentiation in the sense that there is no available substitute for a monopolized good.", "The monopolist is the sole supplier of the good in question.", "A customer either buys from the monopolizing entity on its terms or does without.", "* ''Number of competitors'': PC markets are populated by a large number of buyers and sellers.", "A monopoly involves a single seller.", "* ''Barriers to entry'': Barriers to entry are factors and circumstances that prevent entry into market by would-be competitors and limit new companies from operating and expanding within the market.", "PC markets have free entry and exit.", "There are no barriers to entry, or exit competition.", "Monopolies have relatively high barriers to entry.", "The barriers must be strong enough to prevent or discourage any potential competitor from entering the market* ''Elasticity of demand'': The price elasticity of demand is the percentage change of demand caused by a one percent change of relative price.", "A successful monopoly would have a relatively inelastic demand curve.", "A low coefficient of elasticity is indicative of effective barriers to entry.", "A PC company has a perfectly elastic demand curve.", "The coefficient of elasticity for a perfectly competitive demand curve is infinite.", "* ''Excess profits'': Excess or positive profits are profit more than the normal expected return on investment.", "A PC company can make excess profits in the short term but excess profits attract competitors, which can enter the market freely and decrease prices, eventually reducing excess profits to zero.", "A monopoly can preserve excess profits because barriers to entry prevent competitors from entering the market.", "* ''Profit maximization'': A PC company maximizes profits by producing such that price equals marginal costs.", "A monopoly maximises profits by producing where marginal revenue equals marginal costs.", "The rules are not equivalent.", "The demand curve for a PC company is perfectly elastic – flat.", "The demand curve is identical to the average revenue curve and the price line.", "Since the average revenue curve is constant the marginal revenue curve is also constant and equals the demand curve, Average revenue is the same as price ().", "Thus the price line is also identical to the demand curve.", "In sum, .", "* ''P-Max quantity, price and profit'': If a monopolist obtains control of a formerly perfectly competitive industry, the monopolist would increase prices, reduce production, incur deadweight loss, and realise positive economic profits.", "* ''Supply curve'': in a perfectly competitive market there is a well defined supply function with a one-to-one relationship between price and quantity supplied.", "In a monopolistic market no such supply relationship exists.", "A monopolist cannot trace a short-term supply curve because for a given price there is not a unique quantity supplied.", "As Pindyck and Rubenfeld note, a change in demand \"can lead to changes in prices with no change in output, changes in output with no change in price or both\".", "Monopolies produce where marginal revenue equals marginal costs.", "For a specific demand curve the supply \"curve\" would be the price-quantity combination at the point where marginal revenue equals marginal cost.", "If the demand curve shifted the marginal revenue curve would shift as well and a new equilibrium and supply \"point\" would be established.", "The locus of these points would not be a supply curve in any conventional sense.The most significant distinction between a PC company and a monopoly is that the monopoly has a downward-sloping demand curve rather than the \"perceived\" perfectly elastic curve of the PC company.", "Practically all the variations mentioned above relate to this fact.", "If there is a downward-sloping demand curve then by necessity there is a distinct marginal revenue curve.", "The implications of this fact are best made manifest with a linear demand curve.", "Assume that the inverse demand curve is of the form .", "Then the total revenue curve is and the marginal revenue curve is thus .", "From this several things are evident.", "First, the marginal revenue curve has the same -intercept as the inverse demand curve.", "Second, the slope of the marginal revenue curve is twice that of the inverse demand curve.", "What is not quite so evident is that the marginal revenue curve is below the inverse demand curve at all points ().", "Since all companies maximise profits by equating and it must be the case that at the profit-maximizing quantity MR and MC are less than price, which further implies that a monopoly produces less quantity at a higher price than if the market were perfectly competitive.The fact that a monopoly has a downward-sloping demand curve means that the relationship between total revenue and output for a monopoly is much different from that of competitive companies.", "Total revenue equals price times quantity.", "A competitive company has a perfectly elastic demand curve meaning that total revenue is proportional to output.", "Thus the total revenue curve for a competitive company is a ray with a slope equal to the market price.", "A competitive company can sell all the output it desires at the market price.", "For a monopoly to increase sales it must reduce price.", "Thus the total revenue curve for a monopoly is a parabola that begins at the origin and reaches a maximum value then continuously decreases until total revenue is again zero.", "Total revenue has its maximum value when the slope of the total revenue function is zero.", "The slope of the total revenue function is marginal revenue.", "So the revenue maximizing quantity and price occur when .", "For example, assume that the monopoly's demand function is .", "The total revenue function would be and marginal revenue would be .", "Setting marginal revenue equal to zero we have: : : So the revenue maximizing quantity for the monopoly is 12.5 units and the revenue-maximizing price is 25.A company with a monopoly does not experience price pressure from competitors, although it may experience pricing pressure from potential competition.", "If a company increases prices too much, then others may enter the market if they are able to provide the same good, or a substitute, at a lesser price.", "The idea that monopolies in markets with easy entry need not be regulated against is known as the \"revolution in monopoly theory\".A monopolist can extract only one premium, and getting into complementary markets does not pay.", "That is, the total profits a monopolist could earn if it sought to leverage its monopoly in one market by monopolizing a complementary market are equal to the extra profits it could earn anyway by charging more for the monopoly product itself.", "However, the one monopoly profit theorem is not true if customers in the monopoly good are stranded or poorly informed, or if the tied good has high fixed costs.A pure monopoly has the same economic rationality of perfectly competitive companies, i.e.", "to optimise a profit function given some constraints.", "By the assumptions of increasing marginal costs, exogenous inputs' prices, and control concentrated on a single agent or entrepreneur, the optimal decision is to equate the marginal cost and marginal revenue of production.", "Nonetheless, a pure monopoly can – unlike a competitive company – alter the market price for its own convenience: a decrease of production results in a higher price.", "In the economics' jargon, it is said that pure monopolies have \"a downward-sloping demand\".", "An important consequence of such behaviour is that typically a monopoly selects a higher price and lesser quantity of output than a price-taking company; again, less is available at a higher price." ], [ "Inverse elasticity rule", "A monopoly chooses that price that maximizes the difference between total revenue and total cost.", "The basic markup rule (as measured by the Lerner index) can be expressed as,where is the price elasticity of demand the firm faces.", "The markup rules indicate that the ratio between profit margin and the price is inversely proportional to the price elasticity of demand.", "The implication of the rule is that the more elastic the demand for the product the less pricing power the monopoly has.=== Market power ===Market power is the ability to increase the product's price above marginal cost without losing all customers.", "Perfectly competitive (PC) companies have zero market power when it comes to setting prices.", "All companies of a PC market are price takers.", "The price is set by the interaction of demand and supply at the market or aggregate level.", "Individual companies simply take the price determined by the market and produce that quantity of output that maximizes the company's profits.", "If a PC company attempted to increase prices above the market level all its customers would abandon the company and purchase at the market price from other companies.", "A monopoly has considerable although not unlimited market power.", "A monopoly has the power to set prices or quantities although not both.", "A monopoly is a price maker.", "The monopoly is the market and prices are set by the monopolist based on their circumstances and not the interaction of demand and supply.", "The two primary factors determining monopoly market power are the company's demand curve and its cost structure.Market power is the ability to affect the terms and conditions of exchange so that the price of a product is set by a single company (price is not imposed by the market as in perfect competition).", "Although a monopoly's market power is great it is still limited by the demand side of the market.", "A monopoly has a negatively sloped demand curve, not a perfectly inelastic curve.", "Consequently, any price increase will result in the loss of some customers." ], [ "Price discrimination", "Price discrimination allows a monopolist to increase its profit by charging higher prices for identical goods to those who are willing or able to pay more.", "For example, most economic textbooks cost more in the United States than in developing countries like Ethiopia.", "In this case, the publisher is using its government-granted copyright monopoly to price discriminate between the generally wealthier American economics students and the generally poorer Ethiopian economics students.", "Similarly, most patented medications cost more in the U.S. than in other countries with a (presumed) poorer customer base.", "Typically, a high general price is listed, and various market segments get varying discounts.", "This is an example of framing to make the process of charging some people higher prices more socially acceptable.", "Perfect price discrimination would allow the monopolist to charge each customer the exact maximum amount they would be willing to pay.", "This would allow the monopolist to extract all the consumer surplus of the market.", "A domestic example would be the cost of airplane flights in relation to their takeoff time; the closer they are to flight, the higher the plane tickets will cost, discriminating against late planners and often business flyers.", "While such perfect price discrimination is a theoretical construct, advances in information technology and micromarketing may bring it closer to the realm of possibility.Partial price discrimination can cause some customers who are inappropriately pooled with high price customers to be excluded from the market.", "For example, a poor student in the U.S. might be excluded from purchasing an economics textbook at the U.S. price, which the student may have been able to purchase at the Ethiopian price.", "Similarly, a wealthy student in Ethiopia may be able to or willing to buy at the U.S. price, though naturally would hide such a fact from the monopolist so as to pay the reduced third world price.", "These are deadweight losses and decrease a monopolist's profits.", "Deadweight loss is considered detrimental to society and market participation.", "As such, monopolists have substantial economic interest in improving their market information and ''market segmenting''.There is important information for one to remember when considering the monopoly model diagram (and its associated conclusions) displayed here.", "The result that monopoly prices are higher, and production output lesser, than a competitive company follow from a requirement that the monopoly not charge different prices for different customers.", "That is, the monopoly is restricted from engaging in price discrimination (this is termed first degree price discrimination, such that all customers are charged the same amount).", "If the monopoly were permitted to charge individualised prices (this is termed third degree price discrimination), the quantity produced, and the price charged to the ''marginal'' customer, would be identical to that of a competitive company, thus eliminating the deadweight loss; however, all gains from trade (social welfare) would accrue to the monopolist and none to the consumer.", "In essence, every consumer would be indifferent between going completely without the product or service and being able to purchase it from the monopolist.As long as the price elasticity of demand for most customers is less than one in absolute value, it is advantageous for a company to increase its prices: it receives more money for fewer goods.", "With a price increase, price elasticity tends to increase, and in the optimum case above it will be greater than one for most customers.A company maximizes profit by selling where marginal revenue equals marginal cost.", "A company that does not engage in price discrimination will charge the profit maximizing price, , to all its customers.", "In such circumstances there are customers who would be willing to pay a higher price than and those who will not pay but would buy at a lower price.", "A price discrimination strategy is to charge less price sensitive buyers a higher price and the more price sensitive buyers a lower price.", "Thus additional revenue is generated from two sources.", "The basic problem is to identify customers by their willingness to pay.The purpose of price discrimination is to transfer consumer surplus to the producer.", "Consumer surplus is the difference between the value of a good to a consumer and the price the consumer must pay in the market to purchase it.", "Price discrimination is not limited to monopolies.Market power is a company's ability to increase prices without losing all its customers.", "Any company that has market power can engage in price discrimination.", "Perfect competition is the only market form in which price discrimination would be impossible (a perfectly competitive company has a perfectly elastic demand curve and has no market power).There are three forms of price discrimination.", "First degree price discrimination charges each consumer the maximum price the consumer is willing to pay.", "Second degree price discrimination involves quantity discounts.", "Third degree price discrimination involves grouping consumers according to willingness to pay as measured by their price elasticities of demand and charging each group a different price.", "Third degree price discrimination is the most prevalent type.There are three conditions that must be present for a company to engage in successful price discrimination.", "First, the company must have market power.", "Second, the company must be able to sort customers according to their willingness to pay for the good.", "Third, the firm must be able to prevent resell.A company must have some degree of market power to practice price discrimination.", "Without market power a company cannot charge more than the market price.", "Any market structure characterized by a downward sloping demand curve has market power – monopoly, monopolistic competition and oligopoly.", "The only market structure that has no market power is perfect competition.A company wishing to practice price discrimination must be able to prevent middlemen or brokers from acquiring the consumer surplus for themselves.", "The company accomplishes this by preventing or limiting resale.", "Many methods are used to prevent resale.", "For instance, persons are required to show photographic identification and a boarding pass before boarding an airplane.", "Most travelers assume that this practice is strictly a matter of security.", "However, a primary purpose in requesting photographic identification is to confirm that the ticket purchaser is the person about to board the airplane and not someone who has repurchased the ticket from a discount buyer.The inability to prevent resale is the largest obstacle to successful price discrimination.", "Companies have, however, developed numerous methods to prevent resale.", "For example, universities require that students show identification before entering sporting events.", "Governments may make it illegal to resell tickets or products.", "In Boston, Red Sox baseball tickets can only be resold legally to the team.The three basic forms of price discrimination are first, second and third degree price discrimination.", "In ''first degree price discrimination'' the company charges the maximum price each customer is willing to pay.", "The maximum price a consumer is willing to pay for a unit of the good is the reservation price.", "Thus for each unit the seller tries to set the price equal to the consumer's reservation price.", "Direct information about a consumer's willingness to pay is rarely available.", "Sellers tend to rely on secondary information such as where a person lives (postal codes); for example, catalog retailers can use mail high-priced catalogs to high-income postal codes.", "First degree price discrimination most frequently occurs in regard to professional services or in transactions involving direct buyer-seller negotiations.", "For example, an accountant who has prepared a consumer's tax return has information that can be used to charge customers based on an estimate of their ability to pay.In ''second degree price discrimination'' or quantity discrimination customers are charged different prices based on how much they buy.", "There is a single price schedule for all consumers but the prices vary depending on the quantity of the good bought.", "The theory of second degree price discrimination is a consumer is willing to buy only a certain quantity of a good at a given price.", "Companies know that consumer's willingness to buy decreases as more units are purchased.", "The task for the seller is to identify these price points and to reduce the price once one is reached in the hope that a reduced price will trigger additional purchases from the consumer.", "For example, sell in unit blocks rather than individual units.In ''third degree price discrimination'' or multi-market price discrimination the seller divides the consumers into different groups according to their willingness to pay as measured by their price elasticity of demand.", "Each group of consumers effectively becomes a separate market with its own demand curve and marginal revenue curve.", "The firm then attempts to maximize profits in each segment by equating MR and MC, Generally the company charges a higher price to the group with a more price inelastic demand and a relatively lesser price to the group with a more elastic demand.", "Examples of third degree price discrimination abound.", "Airlines charge higher prices to business travelers than to vacation travelers.", "The reasoning is that the demand curve for a vacation traveler is relatively elastic while the demand curve for a business traveler is relatively inelastic.", "Any determinant of price elasticity of demand can be used to segment markets.", "For example, seniors have a more elastic demand for movies than do young adults because they generally have more free time.", "Thus theaters will offer discount tickets to seniors.=== Example ===Assume that by a uniform pricing system the monopolist would sell five units at a price of $10 per unit.", "Assume that his marginal cost is $5 per unit.", "Total revenue would be $50, total costs would be $25 and profits would be $25.If the monopolist practiced price discrimination he would sell the first unit for $17 the second unit for $14 and so on which is listed in the table below.", "Total revenue would be $55, his total cost would be $25 and his profit would be $30.Several things are worth noting.", "The monopolist acquires all the consumer surplus and eliminates practically all the deadweight loss because he is willing to sell to anyone who is willing to pay at least the marginal cost.", "Thus the price discrimination promotes efficiency.", "Secondly, by the pricing scheme price = average revenue and equals marginal revenue.", "That is the monopolist behaving like a perfectly competitive company.", "Thirdly, the discriminating monopolist produces a larger quantity than the monopolist operating by a uniform pricing scheme.Qd Price 1 $17 2 $14 3 $11 4 $8 5 $5=== Classifying customers ===Successful price discrimination requires that companies separate consumers according to their willingness to buy.", "Determining a customer's willingness to buy a good is difficult.", "Asking consumers directly is fruitless: consumers do not know, and to the extent they do they are reluctant to share that information with marketers.", "The two main methods for determining willingness to buy are observation of personal characteristics and consumer actions.", "As noted information about where a person lives (postal codes), how the person dresses, what kind of car he or she drives, occupation, and income and spending patterns can be helpful in classifying." ], [ "Monopoly and efficiency", "Surpluses and deadweight loss created by monopoly price settingAccording to the standard model, in which a monopolist sets a single price for all consumers, the monopolist will sell a lesser quantity of goods at a higher price than would companies by perfect competition.", "Because the monopolist ultimately forgoes transactions with consumers who value the product or service less than its price, monopoly pricing creates a deadweight loss referring to potential gains that went neither to the monopolist nor to consumers.", "Deadweight loss is the cost to society because it is inefficient.", "Given the presence of this deadweight loss, the combined surplus (or wealth) for the monopolist and consumers is necessarily less than the total surplus obtained by consumers by perfect competition.", "Where efficiency is defined by the total gains from trade, the monopoly setting is less efficient than perfect competition.It is often argued that monopolies tend to become less efficient and less innovative over time, becoming \"complacent\", because they do not have to be efficient or innovative to compete in the marketplace.", "Sometimes this very loss of psychological efficiency can increase a potential competitor's value enough to overcome market entry barriers, or provide incentive for research and investment into new alternatives.", "The theory of contestable markets argues that in some circumstances (private) monopolies are forced to behave ''as if'' there were competition because of the risk of losing their monopoly to new entrants.", "This is likely to happen when a market's barriers to entry are low.", "It might also be because of the availability in the longer term of substitutes in other markets.", "For example, a canal monopoly, while worth a great deal during the late 18th century United Kingdom, was worth much less during the late 19th century because of the introduction of railways as a substitute.Contrary to common misconception, monopolists do not try to sell items for the highest possible price, nor do they try to maximize profit per unit, but rather they try to maximize total profit.=== Natural monopoly ===A natural monopoly is an organization that experiences increasing returns to scale over the relevant range of output and relatively high fixed costs.", "A natural monopoly occurs where the average cost of production \"declines throughout the relevant range of product demand\".", "The relevant range of product demand is where the average cost curve is below the demand curve.", "When this situation occurs, it is always more efficient for one large company to supply the market than multiple smaller companies; in fact, absent government intervention in such markets, will naturally evolve into a monopoly.", "Often, a natural monopoly is the outcome of an initial rivalry between several competitors.", "An early market entrant that takes advantage of the cost structure and can expand rapidly can exclude smaller companies from entering and can drive or buy out other companies.", "A natural monopoly suffers from the same inefficiencies as any other monopoly.", "Left to its own devices, a profit-seeking natural monopoly will produce where marginal revenue equals marginal costs.", "Regulation of natural monopolies is problematic.", "Fragmenting such monopolies is by definition inefficient.", "The most frequently used methods dealing with natural monopolies are government regulations and public ownership.", "Government regulation generally consists of regulatory commissions charged with the principal duty of setting prices.", "Natural monopolies are synonymous with what is called \"single-unit enterprise\", a term which was used in the 1914 book ''Social Economics'' written by Friedrich von Wieser.", "As mentioned, government regulations are frequently used with natural monopolies to help control prices.", "An example that can illustrate this can be found when looking at the United States Postal Service, which has a monopoly over types of mail.", "According to Wieser, the idea of a competitive market within the postal industry would lead to extreme prices and unnecessary spending, and this highlighted why government regulation in the form of price control is necessary as it helped efficient market.To reduce prices and increase output, regulators often use average cost pricing.", "By average cost pricing, the price and quantity are determined by the intersection of the average cost curve and the demand curve.", "This pricing scheme eliminates any positive economic profits since price equals average cost.", "Average-cost pricing is not perfect.", "Regulators must estimate average costs.", "Companies have a reduced incentive to lower costs.", "Regulation of this type has not been limited to natural monopolies.", "Average-cost pricing does also have some disadvantages.", "By setting price equal to the intersection of the demand curve and the average total cost curve, the firm's output is allocatively inefficient as the price is less than the marginal cost (which is the output quantity for a perfectly competitive and allocatively efficient market).In 1848, J.S.", "Mill was the first individual to describe monopolies with the adjective \"natural\".", "He used it interchangeably with \"practical\".", "At the time, Mill gave the following examples of natural or practical monopolies: gas supply, water supply, roads, canals, and railways.", "In his ''Social Economics'', Friedrich von Wieser demonstrated his view of the postal service as a natural monopoly: \"In the face of such single-unit administration, the principle of competition becomes utterly abortive.", "The parallel network of another postal organization, beside the one already functioning, would be economically absurd; enormous amounts of money for plant and management would have to be expended for no purpose whatever.", "\"Overall, most monopolies are man-made monopolies, or unnatural monopolies, not natural ones.=== Government-granted monopoly ===A government-granted monopoly (also called a \"''de jure'' monopoly\") is a form of ''coercive monopoly'', in which a government grants exclusive privilege to a private individual or company to be the sole provider of a commodity.", "Monopoly may be granted explicitly, as when potential competitors are excluded from the market by a specific law, or implicitly, such as when the requirements of an administrative regulation can only be fulfilled by a single market player, or through some other legal or procedural mechanism, such as patents, trademarks, and copyright.", "These monopolies can also be the result of \"rent-seeking\" behavior, where firms will try to get the prize of having a monopoly, and the increase of profits in acquiring one from a competitive market in their sector." ], [ "Monopolist shutdown rule", "A monopolist should shut down when price is less than average variable cost for every output level – in other words where the demand curve is entirely below the average variable cost curve.", "Under these circumstances at the profit maximum level of output (MR = MC) average revenue would be less than average variable costs and the monopolists would be better off shutting down in the short term." ], [ "Breaking up monopolies", "In an unregulated market, monopolies can potentially be ended by new competition, breakaway businesses, or consumers seeking alternatives.", "In a regulated market, a government will often either regulate the monopoly, convert it into a publicly owned monopoly environment, or forcibly fragment it (see Antitrust law and trust busting).", "Public utilities, often being naturally efficient with only one operator and therefore less susceptible to efficient breakup, are often strongly regulated or publicly owned.", "American Telephone & Telegraph (AT&T) and Standard Oil are often cited as examples of the breakup of a private monopoly by government.", "The Bell System, later AT&T, was protected from competition first by the Kingsbury Commitment, and later by a series of agreements between AT&T and the Federal Government.", "In 1984, decades after having been granted monopoly power by force of law, AT&T was broken up into various components, MCI, Sprint, who were able to compete effectively in the long-distance phone market.", "These breakups are due to the presence of deadweight loss and inefficiency in a monopolistic market, causing the Government to intervene on behalf of consumers and society in order to incite competition.", "While the sentiment among regulators and judges has generally recommended that breakups are not as remedies for antitrust enforcement, recent scholarship has found that this hostility to breakups by administrators is largely unwarranted.''''''", "In fact, some scholars have argued breakups, even if incorrectly targeted, could arguably still encourage collaboration, innovation, and efficiency.''''''" ], [ "Law", "A 1902 anti-monopoly cartoon depicts the challenges that monopolies may create for workers.The law regulating dominance in the European Union is governed by Article 102 of the ''Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union'' which aims at enhancing the consumer's welfare and also the efficiency of allocation of resources by protecting competition on the downstream market.", "The existence of a very high market share does not always mean consumers are paying excessive prices since the threat of new entrants to the market can restrain a high-market-share company's price increases.", "Competition law does not make merely having a monopoly illegal, but rather abusing the power a monopoly may confer, for instance through exclusionary practices (i.e.", "pricing high just because it is the only one around).", "It may also be noted that it is illegal to try to obtain a monopoly, by practices of buying out the competition, or equal practices.", "If one occurs naturally, such as a competitor going out of business, or lack of competition, it is not illegal until such time as the monopoly holder abuses the power.=== Establishing dominance ===First it is necessary to determine whether a company is dominant, or whether it behaves \"to an appreciable extent independently of its competitors, customers and ultimately of its consumer\".", "Establishing dominance is a two-stage test.", "The first thing to consider is market definition which is one of the crucial factors of the test.", "It includes relevant product market and relevant geographic market.==== Relevant product market ====As the definition of the market is of a matter of interchangeability, if the goods or services are regarded as interchangeable then they are within the same product market.", "For example, in the case of ''United Brands v Commission'', it was argued in this case that bananas and other fresh fruit were in the same product market and later on dominance was found because the special features of the banana made it could only be interchangeable with other fresh fruits in a limited extent and other and is only exposed to their competition in a way that is hardly perceptible.", "The demand substitutability of the goods and services will help in defining the product market and it can be access by the 'hypothetical monopolist' test or the 'SSNIP' test.==== Relevant geographic market ====It is necessary to define it because some goods can only be supplied within a narrow area due to technical, practical or legal reasons and this may help to indicate which undertakings impose a competitive constraint on the other undertakings in question.", "Since some goods are too expensive to transport where it might not be economic to sell them to distant markets in relation to their value, therefore the cost of transporting is a crucial factor here.", "Other factors might be legal controls which restricts an undertaking in a Member States from exporting goods or services to another.Market definition may be difficult to measure but is important because if it is defined too narrowly, the undertaking may be more likely to be found dominant and if it is defined too broadly, the less likely that it will be found dominant.==== Market shares ====As with collusive conduct, market shares are determined with reference to the particular market in which the company and product in question is sold.", "It does not in itself determine whether an undertaking is dominant but work as an indicator of the states of the existing competition within the market.", "The Herfindahl–Hirschman Index (HHI) is sometimes used to assess how competitive an industry is.", "It sums up the squares of the individual market shares of all of the competitors within the market.", "The lower the total, the less concentrated the market and the higher the total, the more concentrated the market.", "In the US, the merger guidelines state that a post-merger HHI below 1000 is viewed as not concentrated while HHIs above that will provoke further review.By European Union law, very large market shares raise a presumption that a company is dominant, which may be rebuttable.", "A market share of 100% may be very rare but it is still possible to be found and in fact it has been identified in some cases, for instance the ''AAMS v Commission'' case.", "Undertakings possessing market share that is lower than 100% but over 90% had also been found dominant, for example, Microsoft v Commission case.", "In the ''AKZO v Commission'' case, the undertaking is presumed to be dominant if it has a market share of 50%.", "There are also findings of dominance that are below a market share of 50%, for instance, ''United Brands v Commission'', it only possessed a market share of 40% to 45% and still to be found dominant with other factors.", "The lowest yet market share of a company considered \"dominant\" in the EU was 39.7%.", "If a company has a dominant position, then there is a special responsibility not to allow its conduct to impair competition on the common market; however, these will all falls away if it is not dominant.When considering whether an undertaking is dominant, it involves a combination of factors.", "Each of them cannot be taken separately as if they are, they will not be as determinative as they are when they are combined.", "Also, in cases where an undertaking has previously been found dominant, it is still necessary to redefine the market and make a whole new analysis of the conditions of competition based on the available evidence at the appropriate time.==== Other related factors ====According to the Guidance, there are three more issues that must be examined.", "They are actual competitors that relates to the market position of the dominant undertaking and its competitors, potential competitors that concerns the expansion and entry and lastly the countervailing buyer power.", "* '''Actual Competitors'''Market share may be a valuable source of information regarding the market structure and the market position when it comes to accessing it.", "The dynamics of the market and the extent to which the goods and services differentiated are relevant in this area.", "* '''Potential Competitors'''It concerns with the competition that would come from other undertakings which are not yet operating in the market but will enter it in the future.", "So, market shares may not be useful in accessing the competitive pressure that is exerted on an undertaking in this area.", "The potential entry by new firms and expansions by an undertaking must be taken into account, therefore the barriers to entry and barriers to expansion is an important factor here.", "* '''Countervailing buyer power'''Competitive constraints may not always come from actual or potential competitors.", "Sometimes, it may also come from powerful customers who have sufficient bargaining strength which come from its size or its commercial significance for a dominant firm.=== Types of abuses ===There are three main types of abuses which are exploitative abuse, exclusionary abuse and single market abuse.", "* '''Exploitative abuse'''It arises when a monopolist has such significant market power that it can restrict its output while increasing the price above the competitive level without losing customers.", "This type is less concerned by the Commission than other types.", "* '''Exclusionary abuse'''This is most concerned about by the Commissions because it is capable of causing long-term consumer damage and is more likely to prevent the development of competition.", "An example of it is exclusive dealing agreements.", "* '''Single market abuse'''It arises when a dominant undertaking carrying out excess pricing which would not only have an exploitative effect but also prevent parallel imports and limits intra-brand competition.=== Examples of abuses ===* Limiting supply* Predatory pricing or undercutting* Price discrimination* Refusal to deal and exclusive dealing* Tying (commerce) and product bundlingDespite wide agreement that the above constitute abusive practices, there is some debate about whether there needs to be a causal connection between the dominant position of a company and its actual abusive conduct.", "Furthermore, there has been some consideration of what happens when a company merely attempts to abuse its dominant position.To provide a more specific example, economic and philosophical scholar Adam Smith cites that trade to the East India Company has, for the most part, been subjected to an exclusive company such as that of the English or Dutch.", "Monopolies such as these are generally established against the nation in which they arose out of.", "The profound economist goes on to state how there are two types of monopolies.", "The first type of monopoly is one which tends to always attract to the particular trade where the monopoly was conceived, a greater proportion of the stock of the society than what would go to that trade originally.", "The second type of monopoly tends to occasionally attract stock towards the particular trade where it was conceived, and sometimes repel it from that trade depending on varying circumstances.", "Rich countries tended to repel while poorer countries were attracted to this.", "For example, The Dutch company would dispose of any excess goods not taken to the market in order to preserve their monopoly while the English sold more goods for better prices.", "Both of these tendencies were extremely destructive as can be seen in Adam Smith's writings." ], [ "Historical monopolies", "=== Origin ===The term \"monopoly\" first appears in Aristotle's ''Politics''.", "Aristotle describes Thales of Miletus's cornering of the market in olive presses as a monopoly (''μονοπώλιον'').", "Another early reference to the concept of \"monopoly\" in a commercial sense appears in tractate Demai of the Mishna (2nd century CE), regarding the purchasing of agricultural goods from a dealer who has a monopoly on the produce (chapter 5; 4).", "The meaning and understanding of the English word 'monopoly' has changed over the years.=== Monopolies of resources ======= Salt ====Vending of common salt (sodium chloride) was historically a natural monopoly.", "Until recently, a combination of strong sunshine and low humidity or an extension of peat marshes was necessary for producing salt from the sea, the most plentiful source.", "Changing sea levels periodically caused salt \"famines\" and communities were forced to depend upon those who controlled the scarce inland mines and salt springs, which were often in hostile areas (e.g.", "the Sahara) requiring well-organised security for transport, storage, and distribution.The Salt Commission was a legal monopoly in China.", "Formed in 758, the commission controlled salt production and sales in order to raise tax revenue for the Tang dynasty.The \"Gabelle\" was a notoriously high tax levied upon salt in the Kingdom of France.", "The much-hated levy had a role in the beginning of the French Revolution, when strict legal controls specified who was allowed to sell and distribute salt.", "First instituted in 1286, the Gabelle was not permanently abolished until 1945.==== Coal ====Robin Gollan argues in ''The Coalminers of New South Wales'' that anti-competitive practices developed in the coal industry of Australia's Newcastle as a result of the business cycle.", "The monopoly was generated by formal meetings of the local management of coal companies agreeing to fix a minimum price for sale at dock.", "This collusion was known as \"The Vend\".", "The Vend ended and was reformed repeatedly during the late 19th century, ending by recession in the business cycle.", "\"The Vend\" was able to maintain its monopoly due to trade union assistance, and material advantages (primarily coal geography).", "During the early 20th century, as a result of comparable monopolistic practices in the Australian coastal shipping business, the Vend developed as an informal and illegal collusion between the steamship owners and the coal industry, eventually resulting in the High Court case ''Adelaide Steamship Co. Ltd v. R. & AG''.==== Persian filoselle (raw silk) ====In the 17th century, Shah Abbas established New Julfa (a suburb in the capital of Isfahan) to concentrate Armenian financial capital in Iran.", "Accordingly, he gave Armenians various privileges, including the monopoly to trade Persian filoselle (raw silk).", "Armenians exported it all over the world, including Asia, Europe, and America.", "By the 1750s, Armenia already controlled 75% of the total silk trade in the area.", "This resulted in a boom in Armenian commerce, which lasted for the next 150 years.", "At present, as it happens, Armenia's own economy is itself highly monopolized; in fact, with 19% of its economy monopolized, Armenia was the most monopolized country in Eastern Europe and Central Asia in 2009.==== Petroleum ====Standard Oil was an American oil producing, transporting, refining, and marketing company.", "Established in 1870, it became the largest oil refiner in the world.", "John D. Rockefeller was a founder, chairman and major shareholder.", "The company was an innovator in the development of the business trust.", "The Standard Oil trust streamlined production and logistics, lowered costs, and undercut competitors.", "\"Trust-busting\" critics accused Standard Oil of using aggressive pricing to destroy competitors and form a monopoly that threatened consumers.", "Its controversial history as one of the world's first and largest multinational corporations ended in 1911, when the United States Supreme Court ruled that Standard was an illegal monopoly.", "The Standard Oil trust was dissolved into 33 smaller companies; two of its surviving \"child\" companies are ExxonMobil and the Chevron Corporation.==== Steel ====U.S.", "Steel has been accused of being a monopoly.", "J. P. Morgan and Elbert H. Gary founded U.S. Steel in 1901 by combining Andrew Carnegie's Carnegie Steel Company with Gary's Federal Steel Company and William Henry \"Judge\" Moore's National Steel Company.", "At one time, U.S. Steel was the largest steel producer and largest corporation in the world.", "In its first full year of operation, U.S. Steel made 67 percent of all the steel produced in the United States.", "However, U.S. Steel's share of the expanding market slipped to 50 percent by 1911, and antitrust prosecution that year failed.==== Diamonds ====De Beers settled charges of price-fixing in the diamond trade in the 2000s.", "De Beers is well known for its monopoloid practices throughout the 20th century, whereby it used its dominant position to manipulate the international diamond market.", "The company used several methods to exercise this control over the market.", "Firstly, it convinced independent producers to join its single channel monopoly, it flooded the market with diamonds similar to those of producers who refused to join the cartel, and lastly, it purchased and stockpiled diamonds produced by other manufacturers in order to control prices through limiting supply.In 2000, the De Beers business model changed due to factors such as the decision by producers in Russia, Canada and Australia to distribute diamonds outside the De Beers channel, as well as rising awareness of blood diamonds that forced De Beers to \"avoid the risk of bad publicity\" by limiting sales to its own mined products.", "De Beers' market share by value fell from as high as 90% in the 1980s to less than 40% in 2012, having resulted in a more fragmented diamond market with more transparency and greater liquidity.In November 2011, the Oppenheimer family announced its intention to sell the entirety of its 40% stake in De Beers to Anglo American plc thereby increasing Anglo American's ownership of the company to 85%.30 The transaction was worth £3.2 billion ($5.1 billion) in cash and ended the Oppenheimer dynasty's 80-year ownership of De Beers.=== Utilities ===A public utility (or simply \"utility\") is an organization or company that maintains the infrastructure for a public service or provides a set of services for public consumption.", "Common examples of utilities are electricity, natural gas, water, sewage, cable television, and telephone.", "In the United States, public utilities are often natural monopolies because the infrastructure required to produce and deliver a product such as electricity or water is very expensive to build and maintain.Western Union was criticized as a \"price gouging\" monopoly in the late 19th century.", "American Telephone & Telegraph was a telecommunications giant.", "AT&T was broken up in 1984.In the case of Telecom New Zealand, local loop unbundling was enforced by central government.Telkom is a semi-privatised, part state-owned South African telecommunications company.", "Deutsche Telekom is a former state monopoly, still partially state owned.", "Deutsche Telekom currently monopolizes high-speed VDSL broadband network.", "The Long Island Power Authority (LIPA) provided electric service to over 1.1 million customers in Nassau and Suffolk counties of New York, and the Rockaway Peninsula in Queens.The Comcast Corporation is the largest mass media and communications company in the world by revenue.", "It is the largest cable company and home Internet service provider in the United States, and the nation's third largest home telephone service provider.", "Comcast has a monopoly in Boston, Philadelphia, and many small towns across the US.=== Transportation ===The United Aircraft and Transport Corporation was an aircraft manufacturer holding company that was forced to divest itself of airlines in 1934.Iarnród Éireann, the Irish Railway authority, is a current monopoly as Ireland does not have the size for more companies.The Long Island Rail Road (LIRR) was founded in 1834, and since the mid-1800s has provided train service between Long Island and New York City.", "In the 1870s, LIRR became the sole railroad in that area through a series of acquisitions and consolidations.", "In 2013, the LIRR's commuter rail system is the busiest commuter railroad in North America, serving nearly 335,000 passengers daily.=== Foreign trade ===Dutch East India Company was created as a legal trading monopoly in 1602.The ''Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie'' enjoyed huge profits from its spice monopoly through most of the 17th century.The British East India Company was created as a legal trading monopoly in 1600.The East India Company was formed for pursuing trade with the East Indies but ended up trading mainly with the Indian subcontinent, North-West Frontier Province, and Balochistan.", "The Company traded in basic commodities, which included cotton, silk, indigo dye, salt, saltpetre, tea and opium.=== Professional sports ======= Baseball ====In 1922, the US Supreme Court ruled in Federal Baseball Club v. National League that baseball was not the kind of commerce intended to be affected by federal antitrust, thus making baseball exempt from antitrust laws.", "The Supreme Court maintained their original ruling in both 1953 and 1972 when the issue was brought up in court.", "As a legal monopoly, the MLB has not had any competition in the American market since the early 1960s, from the defunct Continental League.==== American Football ====After mergers in 1949 with the AAFC and 1970 with the AFL, the National Football League was facing competition USFL following their successful first season in 1983.The USFL initially operated as a spring league, beginning their season approximately one month after the NFL season had concluded and would finish the season approximately one month prior to the start of NFL preseason games.", "With an increasing popularity and ability to sign big names, such as the 1982-84 Heisman Trophy winners Herschel Walker, Mike Rozier and Doug Flutie, the New Jersey Generals owner Donald Trump persuaded other owners to move the season so it directly competed with the NFL's.", "At the same time an antitrust lawsuit was filed against the NFL as it convinced the 3 major American television channels against broadcasting any USFL games.", "The trial lasted 42 days and the jury found the NFL has indeed acted monopolistically and violated antitrust laws but as the NFL was not directly responsible for the financial difficulties of the league, the USFL was awarded $1 in damages, which was tripled to $3 due to it being an antitrust case.", "The USFL announced it would forego the 1986 altogether to appeal the decision; however, the league would fold within a week of the trial ending.", "The US Supreme Court would, four years later, allow the original ruling to stand and order the NFL to pay damages and to include interest, bringing the total to $3.76.The NFL did previously survive an antitrust lawsuit in the 1960s.=== Other examples of monopolies ===* Microsoft has been the defendant in multiple antitrust suits on strategy ''embrace, extend and extinguish''.", "They settled antitrust litigation in the U.S. in 2001.In 2004 Microsoft was fined 493 million euros by the European Commission which was upheld for the most part by the Court of First Instance of the European Communities in 2007.The fine was US$1.35 billion in 2008 for noncompliance with the 2004 rule.", "* Monsanto has been sued by competitors for antitrust and monopolistic practices.", "They have between 70% and 100% of the commercial GMO seed market in a small number of crops.", "* AAFES has a monopoly on retail sales at overseas U.S. military installations.", "* The State retail alcohol monopolies of Norway (Vinmonopolet), Sweden (Systembolaget), Finland (Alko), Iceland (Vínbúð), Ontario (LCBO), Quebec (SAQ), British Columbia (Liquor Distribution Branch), among others.", "* The Walt Disney Company is one of the largest mass media and entertainment conglomerates in the world, and has acquired huge amounts of assets, companies and corporations – both national and international.", "The 2019 purchase of the majority of 20th Century Fox's assets sparked controversy." ], [ "See also" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "*" ], [ "Further reading", "* Guy Ankerl, ''Beyond Monopoly Capitalism and Monopoly Socialism''.", "Cambridge, Massachusetts: Schenkman Pbl., 1978..* Bryce Covert, \"The Visible Hand: How monopolies define everyday life in the United States\" (review of David Dayen, ''Monopolized: Life in the Age of Corporate Power'', The New Press, 2020, 336 pp.", "), ''The Nation'', pp.", "38, 40–42." ], [ "External links", "* * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Massachusetts Institute of Technology" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Massachusetts Institute of Technology''' ('''MIT''') is a private land-grant research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts.", "Established in 1861, MIT has played a significant role in the development of many areas of modern technology and science.", "Founded in response to the increasing industrialization of the United States, MIT adopted a European polytechnic university model and stressed laboratory instruction in applied science and engineering.", "MIT is one of three private land-grant universities in the United States, the others being Cornell University and Tuskegee University.", "The institute has an urban campus that extends more than a mile (1.6 km) alongside the Charles River, and encompasses a number of major off-campus facilities such as the MIT Lincoln Laboratory, the Bates Center, and the Haystack Observatory, as well as affiliated laboratories such as the Broad and Whitehead Institutes., 101 Nobel laureates, 26 Turing Award winners, and 8 Fields Medalists have been affiliated with MIT as alumni, faculty members, or researchers.", "In addition, 58 National Medal of Science recipients, 29 National Medals of Technology and Innovation recipients, 50 MacArthur Fellows, 83 Marshall Scholars, 41 astronauts, 16 Chief Scientists of the US Air Force, and various heads of states have been affiliated with MIT.", "The institute also has a strong entrepreneurial culture and MIT alumni have founded or co-founded many notable companies.", "MIT is a member of the Association of American Universities." ], [ "History", "=== Foundation and vision ===Stereographic card showing an MIT mechanical drafting studio, 19th century (photo by E. L. Allen, left/right inverted)Rogers Building, Back Bay, Boston, In 1859, a proposal was submitted to the Massachusetts General Court to use newly filled lands in Back Bay, Boston for a \"Conservatory of Art and Science\", but the proposal failed.", "A charter for the incorporation of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, proposed by William Barton Rogers, was signed by John Albion Andrew, the governor of Massachusetts, on April 10, 1861.Rogers, a former student of the College of William and Mary and professor at the University of Virginia, wanted to establish an institution to address rapid scientific and technological advances.", "He did not wish to found a professional school, but a combination with elements of both professional and liberal education, proposing that:The true and only practicable object of a polytechnic school is, as I conceive, the teaching, not of the minute details and manipulations of the arts, which can be done only in the workshop, but the inculcation of those scientific principles which form the basis and explanation of them, and along with this, a full and methodical review of all their leading processes and operations in connection with physical laws.The Rogers Plan reflected the German research university model, emphasizing an independent faculty engaged in research, as well as instruction oriented around seminars and laboratories.=== Early developments ===A 1905 map of MIT's Boston campusCambridge campus, completed in 1916.Harvard Bridge, named after John Harvard, the founder of Harvard University, is in the foreground, connecting Boston to Cambridge.Two days after MIT was chartered, the first battle of the Civil War broke out.", "After a long delay through the war years, MIT's first classes were held in the Mercantile Building in Boston in 1865.The new institute was founded as part of the Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act to fund institutions \"to promote the liberal and practical education of the industrial classes\" and was a land-grant school.", "In 1863 under the same act, the Commonwealth of Massachusetts founded the Massachusetts Agricultural College, which developed as the University of Massachusetts Amherst.", "In 1866, the proceeds from land sales went toward new buildings in the Back Bay.MIT was informally called \"Boston Tech\".", "The institute adopted the European polytechnic university model and emphasized laboratory instruction from an early date.", "Despite chronic financial problems, the institute saw growth in the last two decades of the 19th century under President Francis Amasa Walker.", "Programs in electrical, chemical, marine, and sanitary engineering were introduced, new buildings were built, and the size of the student body increased to more than one thousand.The curriculum drifted to a vocational emphasis, with less focus on theoretical science.", "The fledgling school still suffered from chronic financial shortages which diverted the attention of the MIT leadership.", "During these \"Boston Tech\" years, MIT faculty and alumni rebuffed Harvard University president (and former MIT faculty) Charles W. Eliot's repeated attempts to merge MIT with Harvard College's Lawrence Scientific School.", "There would be at least six attempts to absorb MIT into Harvard.", "In its cramped Back Bay location, MIT could not afford to expand its overcrowded facilities, driving a desperate search for a new campus and funding.", "Eventually, the MIT Corporation approved a formal agreement to merge with Harvard, over the vehement objections of MIT faculty, students, and alumni.", "However, a 1917 decision by the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court effectively put an end to the merger scheme.Plaque in Building 6 honoring George Eastman, founder of Eastman Kodak, who was revealed as the anonymous \"Mr. Smith\" who helped maintain MIT's independenceIn 1916, the MIT administration and the MIT charter crossed the Charles River on the ceremonial barge ''Bucentaur'' built for the occasion, to signify MIT's move to a spacious new campus largely consisting of filled land on a one mile-long (1.6 km) tract along the Cambridge side of the Charles River.", "The neoclassical \"New Technology\" campus was designed by William W. Bosworth and had been funded largely by anonymous donations from a mysterious \"Mr. Smith\", starting in 1912.In January 1920, the donor was revealed to be the industrialist George Eastman of Rochester, New York, who had invented methods of film production and processing, and founded Eastman Kodak.", "Between 1912 and 1920, Eastman donated $20 million ($ million in 2015 dollars) in cash and Kodak stock to MIT.=== Curricular reforms ===In the 1930s, President Karl Taylor Compton and Vice-President (effectively Provost) Vannevar Bush emphasized the importance of pure sciences like physics and chemistry and reduced the vocational practice required in shops and drafting studios.", "The Compton reforms \"renewed confidence in the ability of the Institute to develop leadership in science as well as in engineering\".", "Unlike Ivy League schools, MIT catered more to middle-class families, and depended more on tuition than on endowments or grants for its funding.", "The school was elected to the Association of American Universities in 1934.Still, as late as 1949, the Lewis Committee lamented in its report on the state of education at MIT that \"the Institute is widely conceived as basically a vocational school\", a \"partly unjustified\" perception the committee sought to change.", "The report comprehensively reviewed the undergraduate curriculum, recommended offering a broader education, and warned against letting engineering and government-sponsored research detract from the sciences and humanities.", "The School of Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences and the MIT Sloan School of Management were formed in 1950 to compete with the powerful Schools of Science and Engineering.", "Previously marginalized faculties in the areas of economics, management, political science, and linguistics emerged into cohesive and assertive departments by attracting respected professors and launching competitive graduate programs.", "The School of Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences continued to develop under the successive terms of the more humanistically oriented presidents Howard W. Johnson and Jerome Wiesner between 1966 and 1980.=== Defense research ===ROTC students celebrate Veterans Day at MIT in 2019.MIT's involvement in military science surged during World War II.", "In 1941, Vannevar Bush was appointed head of the federal Office of Scientific Research and Development and directed funding to only a select group of universities, including MIT.", "Engineers and scientists from across the country gathered at MIT's Radiation Laboratory, established in 1940 to assist the British military in developing microwave radar.", "The work done there significantly affected both the war and subsequent research in the area.", "Other defense projects included gyroscope-based and other complex control systems for gunsight, bombsight, and inertial navigation under Charles Stark Draper's Instrumentation Laboratory; the development of a digital computer for flight simulations under Project Whirlwind; and high-speed and high-altitude photography under Harold Edgerton.", "By the end of the war, MIT became the nation's largest wartime R&D contractor (attracting some criticism of Bush), employing nearly 4000 in the Radiation Laboratory alone and receiving in excess of $100 million ($ billion in 2015 dollars) before 1946.Work on defense projects continued even after then.", "Post-war government-sponsored research at MIT included SAGE and guidance systems for ballistic missiles and Project Apollo.These activities affected MIT profoundly.", "A 1949 report noted the lack of \"any great slackening in the pace of life at the Institute\" to match the return to peacetime, remembering the \"academic tranquility of the prewar years\", though acknowledging the significant contributions of military research to the increased emphasis on graduate education and rapid growth of personnel and facilities.", "The faculty doubled and the graduate student body quintupled during the terms of Karl Taylor Compton, president of MIT between 1930 and 1948; James Rhyne Killian, president from 1948 to 1957; and Julius Adams Stratton, chancellor from 1952 to 1957, whose institution-building strategies shaped the expanding university.", "By the 1950s, MIT no longer simply benefited the industries with which it had worked for three decades, and it had developed closer working relationships with new patrons, philanthropic foundations and the federal government.In late 1960s and early 1970s, student and faculty activists protested against the Vietnam War and MIT's defense research.", "In this period MIT's various departments were researching helicopters, smart bombs and counterinsurgency techniques for the war in Vietnam as well as guidance systems for nuclear missiles.", "The Union of Concerned Scientists was founded on March 4, 1969 during a meeting of faculty members and students seeking to shift the emphasis on military research toward environmental and social problems.", "MIT ultimately divested itself from the Instrumentation Laboratory and moved all classified research off-campus to the MIT Lincoln Laboratory facility in 1973 in response to the protests.", "The student body, faculty, and administration remained comparatively unpolarized during what was a tumultuous time for many other universities.", "Johnson was seen to be highly successful in leading his institution to \"greater strength and unity\" after these times of turmoil.", "However six MIT students were sentenced to prison terms at this time and some former student leaders, such as Michael Albert and George Katsiaficas, are still indignant about MIT's role in military research and its suppression of these protests.", "(Richard Leacock's film, ''November Actions'', records some of these tumultuous events.", ")In the 1980s, there was more controversy at MIT over its involvement in SDI (space weaponry) and CBW (chemical and biological warfare) research.", "More recently, MIT's research for the military has included work on robots, drones and 'battle suits'.=== Recent history ===The MIT Media Lab houses researchers developing novel uses of computer technology and shown here is the 1985 building, designed by I.M.", "Pei, with an extension (right of photo) designed by Fumihiko Maki opened in March 2010.MIT has kept pace with and helped to advance the digital age.", "In addition to developing the predecessors to modern computing and networking technologies, students, staff, and faculty members at Project MAC, the Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, and the Tech Model Railroad Club wrote some of the earliest interactive computer video games like ''Spacewar!''", "and created much of modern hacker slang and culture.", "Several major computer-related organizations have originated at MIT since the 1980s: Richard Stallman's GNU Project and the subsequent Free Software Foundation were founded in the mid-1980s at the AI Lab; the MIT Media Lab was founded in 1985 by Nicholas Negroponte and Jerome Wiesner to promote research into novel uses of computer technology; the World Wide Web Consortium standards organization was founded at the Laboratory for Computer Science in 1994 by Tim Berners-Lee; the OpenCourseWare project has made course materials for over 2,000 MIT classes available online free of charge since 2002; and the One Laptop per Child initiative to expand computer education and connectivity to children worldwide was launched in 2005.MIT was named a sea-grant college in 1976 to support its programs in oceanography and marine sciences and was named a space-grant college in 1989 to support its aeronautics and astronautics programs.", "Despite diminishing government financial support over the past quarter century, MIT launched several successful development campaigns to significantly expand the campus: new dormitories and athletics buildings on west campus; the Tang Center for Management Education; several buildings in the northeast corner of campus supporting research into biology, brain and cognitive sciences, genomics, biotechnology, and cancer research; and a number of new \"backlot\" buildings on Vassar Street including the Stata Center.", "Construction on campus in the 2000s included expansions of the Media Lab, the Sloan School's eastern campus, and graduate residences in the northwest.", "In 2006, President Hockfield launched the MIT Energy Research Council to investigate the interdisciplinary challenges posed by increasing global energy consumption.In 2001, inspired by the open source and open access movements, MIT launched OpenCourseWare to make the lecture notes, problem sets, syllabi, exams, and lectures from the great majority of its courses available online for no charge, though without any formal accreditation for coursework completed.", "While the cost of supporting and hosting the project is high, OCW expanded in 2005 to include other universities as a part of the OpenCourseWare Consortium, which currently includes more than 250 academic institutions with content available in at least six languages.", "In 2011, MIT announced it would offer formal certification (but not credits or degrees) to online participants completing coursework in its \"MITx\" program, for a modest fee.", "The \"edX\" online platform supporting MITx was initially developed in partnership with Harvard and its analogous \"Harvardx\" initiative.", "The courseware platform is open source, and other universities have already joined and added their own course content.", "In March 2009 the MIT faculty adopted an open-access policy to make its scholarship publicly accessible online.MIT has its own police force.", "Three days after the Boston Marathon bombing of April 2013, MIT Police patrol officer Sean Collier was fatally shot by the suspects Dzhokhar and Tamerlan Tsarnaev, setting off a violent manhunt that shut down the campus and much of the Boston metropolitan area for a day.", "One week later, Collier's memorial service was attended by more than 10,000 people, in a ceremony hosted by the MIT community with thousands of police officers from the New England region and Canada.", "On November 25, 2013, MIT announced the creation of the Collier Medal, to be awarded annually to \"an individual or group that embodies the character and qualities that Officer Collier exhibited as a member of the MIT community and in all aspects of his life\".", "The announcement further stated that \"Future recipients of the award will include those whose contributions exceed the boundaries of their profession, those who have contributed to building bridges across the community, and those who consistently and selflessly perform acts of kindness\".In September 2017, the school announced the creation of an artificial intelligence research lab called the MIT-IBM Watson AI Lab.", "IBM will spend $240 million over the next decade, and the lab will be staffed by MIT and IBM scientists.", "In October 2018 MIT announced that it would open a new Schwarzman College of Computing dedicated to the study of artificial intelligence, named after lead donor and The Blackstone Group CEO Stephen Schwarzman.", "The focus of the new college is to study not just AI, but interdisciplinary AI education, and how AI can be used in fields as diverse as history and biology.", "The cost of buildings and new faculty for the new college is expected to be $1 billion upon completion.The Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO) was designed and constructed by a team of scientists from California Institute of Technology, MIT, and industrial contractors, and funded by the National Science Foundation.", "It was designed to open the field of gravitational-wave astronomy through the detection of gravitational waves predicted by general relativity.", "Gravitational waves were detected for the first time by the LIGO detector in 2015.For contributions to the LIGO detector and the observation of gravitational waves, two Caltech physicists, Kip Thorne and Barry Barish, and MIT physicist Rainer Weiss won the Nobel Prize in physics in 2017.Weiss, who is also an MIT graduate, designed the laser interferometric technique, which served as the essential blueprint for the LIGO." ], [ "Campus", "Massachusetts Avenue and the Charles River.", "Left of center is the Great Dome overlooking Killian Court, with Kendall Square to the upper right.MIT's Building 10 and Great Dome overlooking Killian CourtMIT's campus in the city of Cambridge spans approximately a mile along the north side of the Charles River basin.", "The campus is divided roughly in half by Massachusetts Avenue, with most dormitories and student life facilities to the west and most academic buildings to the east.", "The bridge closest to MIT is the Harvard Bridge, which is known for being marked off in a non-standard unit of length – the smoot.The Kendall/MIT MBTA Red Line station is located on the northeastern edge of the campus, in Kendall Square.", "The Cambridge neighborhoods surrounding MIT are a mixture of high tech companies occupying both modern office and rehabilitated industrial buildings, as well as socio-economically diverse residential neighborhoods.", "In early 2016, MIT presented its updated Kendall Square Initiative to the City of Cambridge, with plans for mixed-use educational, retail, residential, startup incubator, and office space in a dense high-rise transit-oriented development plan.", "The MIT Museum has moved immediately adjacent to a Kendall Square subway entrance, joining the List Visual Arts Center on the eastern end of the campus.Each building at MIT has a number (possibly preceded by a ''W'', ''N'', ''E'', or ''NW'') designation, and most have a name as well.", "Typically, academic and office buildings are referred to primarily by number while residence halls are referred to by name.", "The organization of building numbers roughly corresponds to the order in which the buildings were built and their location relative (north, west, and east) to the original center cluster of Maclaurin buildings.", "Many of the buildings are connected above ground as well as through an extensive network of tunnels, providing protection from the Cambridge weather as well as a venue for roof and tunnel hacking.MIT's on-campus nuclear reactor is one of the most powerful university-based nuclear reactors in the United States.", "The prominence of the reactor's containment building in a densely populated area has been controversial, but MIT maintains that it is well-secured.", "In 1999 Bill Gates donated US$20 million to MIT for the construction of a computer laboratory named the \"William H. Gates Building\", and designed by architect Frank Gehry.", "While Microsoft had previously given financial support to the institution, this was the first personal donation received from Gates.MIT Nano, also known as Building 12, is an interdisciplinary facility for nanoscale research.", "Its cleanroom and research space, visible through expansive glass facades, is the largest research facility of its kind in the nation.", "With a cost of US$400 million, it is also one of the costliest buildings on campus.", "The facility also provides state-of-the-art nanoimaging capabilities with vibration damped imaging and metrology suites sitting atop a slab of concrete underground.Other notable campus facilities include a pressurized wind tunnel for testing aerodynamic research, a towing tank for testing ship and ocean structure designs, and previously Alcator C-Mod, which was the largest fusion device operated by any university.", "MIT's campus-wide wireless network was completed in the fall of 2005 and consists of nearly 3,000 access points covering of campus.In 2001, the Environmental Protection Agency sued MIT for violating the Clean Water Act and the Clean Air Act with regard to its hazardous waste storage and disposal procedures.", "MIT settled the suit by paying a $155,000 fine and launching three environmental projects.", "In connection with capital campaigns to expand the campus, the Institute has also extensively renovated existing buildings to improve their energy efficiency.", "MIT has also taken steps to reduce its environmental impact by running alternative fuel campus shuttles, subsidizing public transportation passes, and building a low-emission cogeneration plant that serves most of the campus electricity, heating, and cooling requirements.MIT has substantial commercial real estate holdings in Cambridge on which it pays property taxes, plus an additional voluntary payment in lieu of taxes (PILOT) on academic buildings which are legally tax-exempt.", ", it is the largest taxpayer in the city, contributing approximately 14% of the city's annual revenues.", "Holdings include Technology Square, parts of Kendall Square, and many properties in Cambridgeport and Area 4 neighboring the educational buildings.", "The land is held for investment purposes and potential long-term expansion.=== Architecture ===The Stata Center houses CSAIL, LIDS, and the Department of Linguistics and Philosophy.MIT's School of Architecture, founded in 1865 and now called the School of Architecture and Planning, was the first formal architecture program in the United States, and it has a history of commissioning progressive buildings.", "The first buildings constructed on the Cambridge campus, completed in 1916, are sometimes called the \"Maclaurin buildings\" after Institute president Richard Maclaurin who oversaw their construction.", "Designed by William Welles Bosworth, these imposing buildings were built of reinforced concrete, a first for a non-industrial – much less university – building in the US.", "Bosworth's design was influenced by the City Beautiful Movement of the early 1900s and features the Pantheon-esque Great Dome housing the Barker Engineering Library.", "The Great Dome overlooks Killian Court, where graduation ceremonies are held each year.", "The friezes of the limestone-clad buildings around Killian Court are engraved with the names of important scientists and philosophers.", "The spacious Building 7 atrium at 77 Massachusetts Avenue is regarded as the entrance to the Infinite Corridor and the rest of the campus.Alvar Aalto's Baker House (1947), Eero Saarinen's MIT Chapel and Kresge Auditorium (1955), and I.M.", "Pei's Green, Dreyfus, Landau, and Wiesner buildings represent high forms of post-war modernist architecture.", "More recent buildings like Frank Gehry's Stata Center (2004), Steven Holl's Simmons Hall (2002), Charles Correa's Building 46 (2005), and Fumihiko Maki's Media Lab Extension (2009) stand out among the Boston area's classical architecture and serve as examples of contemporary campus \"starchitecture\".", "These buildings have not always been well received; in 2010, ''The Princeton Review'' included MIT in a list of twenty schools whose campuses are \"tiny, unsightly, or both\".=== Housing ===Simmons Hall undergrad dormitory was completed in 2002.Undergraduates are guaranteed four-year housing in one of MIT's 11 undergraduate dormitories.", "Those living on campus can receive support and mentoring from live-in graduate student tutors, resident advisors, and faculty housemasters.", "Because housing assignments are made based on the preferences of the students themselves, diverse social atmospheres can be sustained in different living groups; for example, according to the ''Yale Daily News'' staff's ''The Insider's Guide to the Colleges, 2010'', \"The split between East Campus and West Campus is a significant characteristic of MIT.", "East Campus has gained a reputation as a thriving counterculture.\"", "MIT also has 5 dormitories for single graduate students and 2 apartment buildings on campus for married student families.MIT has an active Greek and co-op housing system, including thirty-six fraternities, sororities, and independent living groups (FSILGs).", ", 98% of all undergraduates lived in MIT-affiliated housing; 54% of the men participated in fraternities and 20% of the women were involved in sororities.", "Most FSILGs are located across the river in Back Bay near where MIT was founded, and there is also a cluster of fraternities on MIT's West Campus that face the Charles River Basin.", "After the 1997 alcohol-related death of Scott Krueger, a new pledge at the Phi Gamma Delta fraternity, MIT required all freshmen to live in the dormitory system starting in 2002.Because FSILGs had previously housed as many as 300 freshmen off-campus, the new policy could not be implemented until Simmons Hall opened in that year.In 2013–2014, MIT abruptly closed and then demolished undergrad dorm Bexley Hall, citing extensive water damage that made repairs infeasible.", "In 2017, MIT shut down Senior House after a century of service as an undergrad dorm.", "That year, MIT administrators released data showing just 60% of Senior House residents had graduated in four years.", "Campus-wide, the four-year graduation rate is 84% (the cumulative graduation rate is significantly higher)." ], [ "{{anchor|MIT Corporation}}Organization and administration", "Massachusetts Avenue is regarded as the main entrance to campus.MIT is chartered as a non-profit organization and is owned and governed by a privately appointed board of trustees known as the MIT Corporation.", "The current board consists of 43 members elected to five-year terms, 25 life members who vote until their 75th birthday, 3 elected officers (President, Treasurer, and Secretary), and 4 ''ex officio'' members (the president of the alumni association, the Governor of Massachusetts, the Massachusetts Secretary of Education, and the Chief Justice of the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court).", "The board is chaired by Diane Greene SM ’78, co-founder and former CEO of VMware and former CEO of Google Cloud.", "The Corporation approves the budget, new programs, degrees and faculty appointments, and elects the President to serve as the chief executive officer of the university and preside over the Institute's faculty.", "MIT's endowment and other financial assets are managed through a subsidiary called MIT Investment Management Company (MITIMCo).", "Valued at $16.4 billion in 2018, MIT's endowment was then the sixth-largest among American colleges and universities.MIT has five schools (Science, Engineering, Architecture and Planning, Management, and Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences) and one college (Schwarzman College of Computing), but no schools of law or medicine.", "While faculty committees assert substantial control over many areas of MIT's curriculum, research, student life, and administrative affairs, the chair of each of MIT's 32 academic departments reports to the dean of that department's school, who in turn reports to the Provost under the President.", "The current president is Sally Kornbluth, a cell biologist and former provost at Duke University.", "She became MIT's 18th president in January 2023.She was preceded by L. Rafael Reif, who had served as provost under President Susan Hockfield, the first woman to hold the post." ], [ "Academics", "+ Fall first-time freshman admission statistics   2022 2021 2020 2019 2018 2017Applicants33,767 33,240 20,075 21,312 21,706 20,247Admits1,337 1,365 1,457 1,427 1,464 1,452Enrolls1,136 1,177 1,070 1,102 1,114 1,097Admit rate4.0% 4.1% 7.3% 6.7% 6.7% 7.2%Yield rate85.0% 86.2% 73.4% 77.2% 76.1% 75.5%SAT composite*1520⁠–1570(78%†) 1510⁠–1570(70%†) 1510⁠–1570(77%†) 1510⁠–1570(76%†) 1500⁠–1570(75%†) 1490⁠–1570(72%†) ACT composite*35–36(32%†) 34–36(34%†) 34–36(42%†) 34–36(45%†) 34–36(48%†) 33–35(55%†) * middle 50% range † percentage of first-time freshmen who chose to submitMIT is a large, highly residential, research university with a majority of enrollments in graduate and professional programs.", "The university has been accredited by the New England Association of Schools and Colleges since 1929.MIT operates on a 4–1–4 academic calendar with the fall semester beginning after Labor Day and ending in mid-December, a 4-week \"Independent Activities Period\" in the month of January, and the spring semester commencing in early February and ceasing in late May.MIT students refer to both their majors and classes using numbers or acronyms alone.", "Departments and their corresponding majors are numbered in the approximate order of their foundation; for example, Civil and Environmental Engineering is , while Linguistics and Philosophy is .", "Students majoring in Electrical Engineering and Computer Science (EECS), the most popular department, collectively identify themselves as \"Course 6\".", "MIT students use a combination of the department's course number and the number assigned to the class to identify their subjects; for instance, the introductory calculus-based classical mechanics course is simply \"8.01\" (pronounced ''eight-oh-one'') at MIT.=== Undergraduate program ===+ Enrollment in MIT (2017–2023) Academic Year Undergraduates Graduate Total Enrollment 2017–20184,547 6,919 11,466 2018–20194,602 6,972 11,574 2019–20204,530 6,990 11,520 2020–20214,361 6,893 11,254 2021–20224,638 7,296 11,934 2022–20234,657 7,201 11,858The four-year, full-time undergraduate program maintains a balance between professional majors and those in the arts and sciences.", "In 2010, it was dubbed \"most selective\" by ''U.S.", "News'', admitting few transfer students and 4.1% of its applicants in the 2020–2021 admissions cycle.", "It is need-blind for both domestic and international applicants.", "MIT offers 44 undergraduate degrees across its five schools.", "In the 2017–2018 academic year, 1,045 Bachelor of Science degrees (abbreviated \"SB\") were granted, the only type of undergraduate degree MIT now awards.", "In the 2011 fall term, among students who had designated a major, the School of Engineering was the most popular division, enrolling 63% of students in its 19 degree programs, followed by the School of Science (29%), School of Humanities, Arts, & Social Sciences (3.7%), Sloan School of Management (3.3%), and School of Architecture and Planning (2%).", "The largest undergraduate degree programs were in Electrical Engineering and Computer Science (), Computer Science and Engineering (), Mechanical Engineering (), Physics (), and Mathematics ().The Infinite Corridor is the primary passageway through campus.All undergraduates are required to complete a core curriculum called the General Institute Requirements (GIRs).", "The Science Requirement, generally completed during freshman year as prerequisites for classes in science and engineering majors, comprises two semesters of physics, two semesters of calculus, one semester of chemistry, and one semester of biology.", "There is a Laboratory Requirement, usually satisfied by an appropriate class in a course major.", "The Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences (HASS) Requirement consists of eight semesters of classes in the humanities, arts, and social sciences, including at least one semester from each division as well as the courses required for a designated concentration in a HASS division.", "Under the Communication Requirement, two of the HASS classes, plus two of the classes taken in the designated major must be \"communication-intensive\", including \"substantial instruction and practice in oral presentation\".", "Finally, all students are required to complete a swimming test; non-varsity athletes must also take four quarters of physical education classes.Most classes rely on a combination of lectures, recitations led by associate professors or graduate students, weekly problem sets (\"p-sets\"), and periodic quizzes or tests.", "While the pace and difficulty of MIT coursework has been compared to \"drinking from a fire hose\", the freshmen retention rate at MIT is similar to other research universities.", "The \"pass/no-record\" grading system relieves some pressure for first-year undergraduates.", "For each class taken in the fall term, freshmen transcripts will either report only that the class was passed, or otherwise not have any record of it.", "In the spring term, passing grades (A, B, C) appear on the transcript while non-passing grades are again not recorded.", "(Grading had previously been \"pass/no record\" all freshman year, but was amended for the Class of 2006 to prevent students from gaming the system by completing required major classes in their freshman year.)", "Also, freshmen may choose to join alternative learning communities, such as Experimental Study Group, Concourse, or Terrascope.In 1969, Margaret MacVicar founded the Undergraduate Research Opportunities Program (UROP) to enable undergraduates to collaborate directly with faculty members and researchers.", "Students join or initiate research projects (\"UROPs\") for academic credit, pay, or on a volunteer basis through postings on the UROP website or by contacting faculty members directly.", "A substantial majority of undergraduates participate.", "Students often become published, file patent applications, and/or launch start-up companies based upon their experience in UROPs.In 1970, the then-Dean of Institute Relations, Benson R. Snyder, published ''The Hidden Curriculum,'' arguing that education at MIT was often slighted in favor of following a set of unwritten expectations and that graduating with good grades was more often the product of figuring out the system rather than a solid education.", "The successful student, according to Snyder, was the one who was able to discern which of the formal requirements were to be ignored in favor of which unstated norms.", "For example, organized student groups had compiled \"course bibles\"—collections of problem-set and examination questions and answers for later students to use as references.", "This sort of gamesmanship, Snyder argued, hindered development of a creative intellect and contributed to student discontent and unrest.=== Graduate program ===MIT's graduate program has high coexistence with the undergraduate program, and many courses are taken by qualified students at both levels.", "MIT offers a comprehensive doctoral program with degrees in the humanities, social sciences, and STEM fields as well as professional degrees, including the Master of Business Administration (MBA).", "The Institute offers graduate programs leading to academic degrees such as the Master of Science (which is abbreviated as MS at MIT), various Engineer's Degrees, Doctor of Philosophy (PhD), and Doctor of Science (DSc) and interdisciplinary graduate programs such as the MD-PhD (with Harvard Medical School) and a joint program in oceanography with Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution.Admission to graduate programs is decentralized; applicants apply directly to the department or degree program.", "More than 90% of doctoral students are supported by fellowships, research assistantships (RAs), or teaching assistantships (TAs).=== MIT Bootcamps ===MIT Bootcamps are intense week-long innovation and leadership programs that challenge participants to develop a venture in a week.", "Each Bootcamp centers around a particular topic, specific to an industry, leadership skill set, or emerging technology.", "Cohorts are organized into small teams who work on an entrepreneurial project together, in addition to individual learning and team coaching.", "The program includes a series of online seminars with MIT faculty, practitioners, and industry experts, innovation workshops with bootcamp instructors focused on putting the theory participants have learned into practice, coaching sessions, and informal office hours for learners to exchange ideas freely.", "Bootcampers are tasked with weekly \"deliverables\", which are key elements of a business plan, to help guide the group through the decision-making process involved in building an enterprise.", "The experience culminates in a final pitch session, judged by a panel of experts.MIT Bootcamp instructors include Eric von Hippel, Sanjay Sarma, Erdin Beshimov, and Bill Aulet.", "MIT Bootcamps were founded by Erdin Beshimov.=== Rankings ===MIT places among the top five in many overall rankings of universities (see table right) and rankings based on students' revealed preferences.", "For several years, ''U.S.", "News & World Report'', the QS World University Rankings, and the Academic Ranking of World Universities have ranked MIT's School of Engineering first, as did the 1995 National Research Council report.", "In the same lists, MIT's strongest showings apart from in engineering are in computer science, the natural sciences, business, architecture, economics, linguistics, mathematics, and, to a lesser extent, political science and philosophy.Times Higher Education has recognized MIT as one of the world's \"six super brands\" on its ''World Reputation Rankings'', along with Berkeley, Cambridge, Harvard, Oxford, and Stanford.", "In 2019, it was ranked #3 among the universities around the world by SCImago Institutions Rankings.", "In 2017, the Times Higher Education World University Rankings also rated MIT the #2 university for arts and humanities.", "MIT was ranked #7 in 2015 and #6 in 2017 of the Nature Index Annual Tables, which measure the largest contributors to papers published in 82 leading journals.", "Georgetown University researchers ranked MIT #3 in the US for 20-year return on investment.=== Collaborations ===Eero Saarinen's Kresge Auditorium (1955) is a classic example of post-war architecture.The university historically pioneered research and training collaborations between academia, industry and government.", "In 1946, President Compton, Harvard Business School professor Georges Doriot, and Massachusetts Investor Trust chairman Merrill Grisswold founded American Research and Development Corporation, the first American venture-capital firm.", "In 1948, Compton established the MIT Industrial Liaison Program.", "Throughout the late 1980s and early 1990s, American politicians and business leaders accused MIT and other universities of contributing to a declining economy by transferring taxpayer-funded research and technology to international – especially Japanese – firms that were competing with struggling American businesses.", "On the other hand, MIT's extensive collaboration with the federal government on research projects has led to several MIT leaders serving as presidential scientific advisers since 1940.MIT established a Washington Office in 1991 to continue effective lobbying for research funding and national science policy.The US Justice Department began an investigation in 1989, and in 1991 filed an antitrust suit against MIT, the eight Ivy League colleges, and eleven other institutions for allegedly engaging in price-fixing during their annual \"Overlap Meetings\", which were held to prevent bidding wars over promising prospective students from consuming funds for need-based scholarships.", "While the Ivy League institutions settled, MIT contested the charges, arguing that the practice was not anti-competitive because it ensured the availability of aid for the greatest number of students.", "MIT ultimately prevailed when the Justice Department dropped the case in 1994.Walker Memorial is a monument to MIT's fourth president, Francis Amasa Walker.MIT main campus seen from Vassar Street, as The Great Dome is visible in the distance and the Stata Center is at rightMIT's proximity to Harvard University (\"the other school up the river\") has led to a substantial number of research collaborations such as the Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology and the Broad Institute.", "In addition, students at the two schools can cross-register for credits toward their own school's degrees without any additional fees.", "A cross-registration program between MIT and Wellesley College has also existed since 1969, and in 2002 the Cambridge–MIT Institute launched an undergraduate exchange program between MIT and the University of Cambridge.", "MIT also has a long-term partnership with Imperial College London, for both student exchanges and research collaboration.", "More modest cross-registration programs have been established with Boston University, Brandeis University, Tufts University, Massachusetts College of Art, and the School of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.MIT maintains substantial research and faculty ties with independent research organizations in the Boston area, such as the Charles Stark Draper Laboratory, the Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, and the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution.", "Ongoing international research and educational collaborations include the Amsterdam Institute for Advanced Metropolitan Solutions (AMS Institute), Singapore-MIT Alliance, MIT-Politecnico di Milano, MIT-Zaragoza International Logistics Program, and projects in other countries through the MIT International Science and Technology Initiatives (MISTI) program.The mass-market magazine ''Technology Review'' is published by MIT through a subsidiary company, as is a special edition that also serves as an alumni magazine.", "The MIT Press is a major university press, publishing over 200 books and 30 journals annually, emphasizing science and technology as well as arts, architecture, new media, current events, and social issues.MIT Microphotonics Center and PhotonDelta founded the global roadmap for integrated photonics: Integrated Photonics Systems Roadmap – International (IPSR-I).", "The first edition has been published in 2020.The roadmap is an amalgamation of two previously independent roadmaps: the IPSR roadmap of MIT Microphotonics Center and AIM Photonics in the United States, and the WTMF (World Technology Mapping Forum) of PhotonDelta in Europe.=== Libraries, collections, and museums ===The MIT library system consists of five subject libraries: Barker (Engineering), Dewey (Economics), Hayden (Humanities and Science), Lewis (Music), and Rotch (Arts and Architecture).", "There are also various specialized libraries and archives.", "The libraries contain more than 2.9 million printed volumes, 2.4 million microforms, 49,000 print or electronic journal subscriptions, and 670 reference databases.", "The past decade has seen a trend of increased focus on digital over print resources in the libraries.", "Notable collections include the Lewis Music Library with an emphasis on 20th and 21st-century music and electronic music, the List Visual Arts Center's rotating exhibitions of contemporary art, and the Compton Gallery's cross-disciplinary exhibitions.", "MIT allocates a percentage of the budget for all new construction and renovation to commission and support its extensive public art and outdoor sculpture collection.The MIT Museum was founded in 1971 and collects, preserves, and exhibits artifacts significant to the culture and history of MIT.", "The museum now engages in significant educational outreach programs for the general public, including the annual Cambridge Science Festival, the first celebration of this kind in the United States.", "Since 2005, its official mission has been, \"to engage the wider community with MIT's science, technology and other areas of scholarship in ways that will best serve the nation and the world in the 21st century\".=== Research ===MIT was elected to the Association of American Universities in 1934 and is classified among \"R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity\"; research expenditures totaled $952 million in 2017.The federal government was the largest source of sponsored research, with the Department of Health and Human Services granting $255.9 million, Department of Defense $97.5 million, Department of Energy $65.8 million, National Science Foundation $61.4 million, and NASA $27.4 million.", "MIT employs approximately 1300 researchers in addition to faculty.", "In 2011, MIT faculty and researchers disclosed 632 inventions, were issued 153 patents, earned $85.4 million in cash income, and received $69.6 million in royalties.", "Through programs like the Deshpande Center, MIT faculty leverage their research and discoveries into multi-million-dollar commercial ventures.In electronics, magnetic-core memory, radar, single-electron transistors, and inertial guidance controls were invented or substantially developed by MIT researchers.", "Harold Eugene Edgerton was a pioneer in high-speed photography and sonar.", "Claude E. Shannon developed much of modern information theory and discovered the application of Boolean logic to digital circuit design theory.", "In the domain of computer science, MIT faculty and researchers made fundamental contributions to cybernetics, artificial intelligence, computer languages, machine learning, robotics, and cryptography.", "At least nine Turing Award laureates and seven recipients of the Draper Prize in engineering have been or are currently associated with MIT.Current and previous physics faculty have won eight Nobel Prizes, four ICTP Dirac Medals, and three Wolf Prizes predominantly for their contributions to subatomic and quantum theory.", "Members of the chemistry department have been awarded three Nobel Prizes and one Wolf Prize for the discovery of novel syntheses and methods.", "MIT biologists have been awarded six Nobel Prizes for their contributions to genetics, immunology, oncology, and molecular biology.", "Professor Eric Lander was one of the principal leaders of the Human Genome Project.", "Positronium atoms, synthetic penicillin, synthetic self-replicating molecules, and the genetic bases for Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (also known as ALS or Lou Gehrig's disease) and Huntington's disease were first discovered at MIT.", "Jerome Lettvin transformed the study of cognitive science with his paper \"What the frog's eye tells the frog's brain\".", "Researchers developed a system to convert MRI scans into 3D printed physical models.In the domain of humanities, arts, and social sciences, as of October 2019 MIT economists have been awarded seven Nobel Prizes and nine John Bates Clark Medals.", "Linguists Noam Chomsky and Morris Halle authored seminal texts on generative grammar and phonology.", "The MIT Media Lab, founded in 1985 within the School of Architecture and Planning and known for its unconventional research, has been home to influential researchers such as constructivist educator and Logo creator Seymour Papert.Spanning many of the above fields, MacArthur Fellowships (the so-called \"Genius Grants\") have been awarded to 50 people associated with MIT.", "Five Pulitzer Prize–winning writers currently work at or have retired from MIT.", "Four current or former faculty are members of the American Academy of Arts and Letters.Allegations of research misconduct or improprieties have received substantial press coverage.", "Professor David Baltimore, a Nobel Laureate, became embroiled in a misconduct investigation starting in 1986 that led to Congressional hearings in 1991.Professor Ted Postol has accused the MIT administration since 2000 of attempting to whitewash potential research misconduct at the Lincoln Lab facility involving a ballistic missile defense test, though a final investigation into the matter has not been completed.", "Associate Professor Luk Van Parijs was dismissed in 2005 following allegations of scientific misconduct and found guilty of the same by the United States Office of Research Integrity in 2009.In 2019, Clarivate Analytics named 54 members of MIT's faculty to its list of \"Highly Cited Researchers\".", "That number places MIT eighth among the world's universities." ], [ "Discoveries and innovation", "=== Natural sciences ===*Oncogene – Robert Weinberg discovered genetic basis of human cancer.", "*Reverse transcription – David Baltimore independently isolated, in 1970 at MIT, two RNA tumor viruses: R-MLV and again RSV.", "*Thermal death time – Samuel Cate Prescott and William Lyman Underwood from 1895 to 1898.Done for canning of food.", "Applications later found useful in medical devices, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetics.", "*Electroweak interaction – Steven Weinberg proposed the electroweak unification theory, which gave rise to the modern formulation of the Standard Model, in 1967 at MIT.=== Computer and applied sciences ===*Akamai Technologies – Daniel Lewin and Tom Leighton developed a faster content delivery network, now one of the world's largest distributed computing platforms, responsible for serving between 15 and 30 percent of all web traffic.", "*Cryptography – MIT researchers Ron Rivest, Adi Shamir and Leonard Adleman developed one of the first practical public-key cryptosystems, the RSA cryptosystem, and started a company, RSA Security.", "*Digital circuits – Claude Shannon, while a master's degree student at MIT, developed the digital circuit design theory which paved the way for modern computers.", "*Electronic ink – developed by Joseph Jacobson at MIT Media Lab.", "*Emacs (text editor) – development began during the 1970s at the MIT AI Lab.", "*Flight recorder (black box) – Charles Stark Draper developed the black box at MIT's Instrumentation Laboratory.", "That lab later made the Apollo Moon landings possible through the Apollo Guidance Computer it designed for NASA.", "*GNU Project – Richard Stallman formally founded the free software movement in 1983 by launching the GNU Project at MIT.", "*Julia (programming language) – Development was started in 2009, by Jeff Bezanson, Stefan Karpinski, Viral B. Shah, and Alan Edelman, all at MIT at that time, and continued with the contribution of a dedicated MIT Julia Lab*Lisp (programming language) – John McCarthy invented Lisp at MIT in 1958.", "*Lithium-ion battery efficiencies – Yet-Ming Chiang and his group at MIT showed a substantial improvement in the performance of lithium batteries by boosting the material's conductivity by doping it with aluminium, niobium and zirconium.", "*Macsyma, one of the oldest general-purpose computer algebra systems; the GPL-licensed version Maxima remains in wide use.", "*MIT OpenCourseWare – the OpenCourseWare movement started in 1999 when the University of Tübingen in Germany published videos of lectures online for its ''timms'' initiative (Tübinger Internet Multimedia Server).", "The OCW movement only took off, however, with the launch of MIT OpenCourseWare and the Open Learning Initiative at Carnegie Mellon University in October 2002.The movement was soon reinforced by the launch of similar projects at Yale, Utah State University, the University of Michigan and the University of California Berkeley.", "*Perdix micro-drone – autonomous drone that uses artificial intelligence to swarm with many other Perdix drones.", "*Project MAC – groundbreaking research in operating systems, artificial intelligence, and the theory of computation.", "DARPA funded project.", "*Radar – developed at MIT's Radiation Laboratory during World War II.", "*SKETCHPAD – invented by Ivan Sutherland at MIT (presented in his PhD thesis).", "It pioneered the way for human–computer interaction (HCI).", "Sketchpad is considered to be the ancestor of modern computer-aided design (CAD) programs as well as a major breakthrough in the development of computer graphics in general.", "*VisiCalc – first spreadsheet computer program for personal computers, originally released for the Apple II by VisiCorp.", "MIT alumni Dan Bricklin and Bob Frankston rented time sharing at night on an MIT mainframe computer (that cost $1/hr for use).", "*World Wide Web Consortium – founded in 1994 by Tim Berners-Lee, (W3C) is the main international standards organization for the World Wide Web*X Window System – pioneering architecture-independent system for graphical user interfaces that has been widely used for Unix and Linux systems.=== Companies and entrepreneurship ===MIT alumni and faculty have founded numerous companies, some of which are shown below:*Analog Devices, 1965, co-founders Ray Stata, (SB, SM) and Matthew Lorber (SB)*BlackRock, 1988, co-founder Bennett Golub, (SB, SM, PhD)*Bose Corporation, 1964, founder Amar Bose (SB, PhD)*Buzzfeed, 2006, co-founder Jonah Peretti (SM)*Dropbox, 2007, founders Drew Houston (SB) and Arash Ferdowsi (drop-out)*Hewlett-Packard, 1939, co-founder William R. Hewlett (SM)*''HuffPost,'' 2005, co-founder Jonah Peretti (SM)*Intel, 1968, co-founder Robert Noyce (PhD)*Khan Academy, 2008, founder Salman Khan (SB, SM)*Koch Industries, 1940, founder Fred C. Koch (SB), sons William (SB, PhD), David (SB)*Qualcomm, 1985, co-founders Irwin M. Jacobs (SM, PhD) and Andrew Viterbi (SB, SM)*Raytheon, 1922, co-founder Vannevar Bush (DEng, Professor)*Renaissance Technologies, 1982, founder James Simons (SB)*Texas Instruments, 1930, founder Cecil Howard Green (SB, SM)*TSMC, 1987, founder Morris Chang (SB, SM)*VMware, 1998, co-founder Diane Greene (SM)" ], [ "Traditions and student activities", "The faculty and student body place a high value on meritocracy and on technical proficiency.", "MIT has never awarded an honorary degree, nor does it award athletic scholarships, ''ad eundem'' degrees, or Latin honors upon graduation.", "However, MIT has twice awarded honorary professorships: to Winston Churchill in 1949 and Salman Rushdie in 1993.Many upperclass students and alumni wear a large, heavy, distinctive class ring known as the \"Brass Rat\".", "Originally created in 1929, the ring's official name is the \"Standard Technology Ring\".", "The undergraduate ring design (a separate graduate student version exists as well) varies slightly from year to year to reflect the unique character of the MIT experience for that class, but always features a three-piece design, with the MIT seal and the class year each appearing on a separate face, flanking a large rectangular bezel bearing an image of a beaver.", "The initialism IHTFP, representing the informal school motto \"I Hate This Fucking Place\" and jocularly euphemized as \"I Have Truly Found Paradise\", \"Institute Has The Finest Professors\", \"Institute of Hacks, TomFoolery and Pranks\", \"It's Hard to Fondle Penguins\", and other variations, has occasionally been featured on the ring given its historical prominence in student culture.=== Caltech Rivalry ===MIT also shares a well-known rivalry with the California Institute of Technology (Caltech), stemming from both institutions' reputations as two of the highest ranked and most highly recognized science and engineering schools in the world.", "The rivalry is an unusual college rivalry given its focus on academics and pranks instead of sports, and due to the geographic distance between the two (their campuses are separated by about 2580 miles and are on opposite coasts of the United States).", "In 2005, Caltech students pranked MIT's Campus Preview Weekend by distributing t-shirts that read \"MIT\" on the front, and \"...because not everyone can go to Caltech\" on the back.", "Additionally, the word Massachusetts in the \"Massachusetts Institute of Technology\" engraving on the exterior of the Lobby 7 dome was covered with a banner so that it read \"That Other Institute of Technology\".", "In 2006, MIT retaliated by posing as contractors and stealing the 1.7-ton, 130-year-old Fleming cannon, a Caltech landmark.", "The cannon was relocated to Cambridge, where it was displayed in front of the Green Building during the 2006 Campus Preview Weekend.", "In September 2010, MIT students unsuccessfully tried to place a life-sized model of the TARDIS time machine from the ''Doctor Who'' (1963–present) television series on top of Baxter Hall at Caltech.", "A few months later, Caltech students collaborated to help MIT students place the TARDIS on top of their originally planned destination.", "The rivalry has continued, most recently in 2014, when a group of Caltech students gave out mugs sporting the MIT logo on the front and the words \"The Institute of Technology\" on the back.", "When heated, the mugs turned orange and read, \"Caltech, The Hotter Institute of Technology\".=== Activities ===The start of the MIT Mystery Hunt in 2007MIT has over 500 recognized student activity groups, including a campus radio station, ''The Tech'' student newspaper, an annual entrepreneurship competition, a crime club, and weekly screenings of popular films by the Lecture Series Committee.", "Less traditional activities include the \"world's largest open-shelf collection of science fiction\" in English, a model railroad club, and a vibrant folk dance scene.", "Students, faculty, and staff are involved in over 50 educational outreach and public service programs through the MIT Museum, Edgerton Center, and MIT Public Service Center.Fraternities and sororities provide a base of activities in addition to housing.", "Approximately 1,000 undergrads, 48% of men and 30% of women, participate in one of several dozen Greek Life men's, women's and co-ed chapters on the campus.The Independent Activities Period is a four-week-long \"term\" offering hundreds of optional classes, lectures, demonstrations, and other activities throughout the month of January between the Fall and Spring semesters.", "Some of the most popular recurring IAP activities are Autonomous Robot Design (course 6.270), Robocraft Programming (6.370), and MasLab competitions, the annual \"mystery hunt\", and Charm School.", "More than 250 students pursue externships annually at companies in the US and abroad.Many MIT students also engage in \"hacking\", which encompasses both the physical exploration of areas that are generally off-limits (such as rooftops and steam tunnels), as well as elaborate practical jokes.", "Examples of high-profile hacks have included the abduction of Caltech's cannon, reconstructing a Wright Flyer atop the Great Dome, and adorning the John Harvard statue with the Master Chief's Mjölnir Helmet.=== Athletics ===The Zesiger Sports and Fitness Center houses a two-story fitness center as well as swimming and diving pools.MIT sponsors 31 varsity sports and has one of the three broadest NCAA Division III athletic programs.", "MIT participates in the NCAA's Division III, the New England Women's and Men's Athletic Conference, the New England Football Conference, NCAA's Division I Patriot League for women's crew, and the Collegiate Water Polo Association (CWPA) for Men's Water Polo.", "Men's crew competes outside the NCAA in the Eastern Association of Rowing Colleges (EARC).", "The intercollegiate sports teams, called the MIT Engineers won 22 Team National Championships, 42 Individual National Championships.", "MIT is the all-time Division III leader in producing Academic All-Americas (302) and rank second across all NCAA Divisions only behind the University of Nebraska.", "MIT Athletes won 13 Elite 90 awards and ranks first among NCAA Division III programs, and third among all divisions.", "In April 2009, budget cuts led to MIT eliminating eight of its 41 sports, including the mixed men's and women's teams in alpine skiing and pistol; separate teams for men and women in ice hockey and gymnastics; and men's programs in golf and wrestling." ], [ "People", "=== Students ===Student body composition as of May 2, 2022 Race and ethnicityTotal Asian White Hispanic Foreign national Other Black Economic diversity Low-income Affluent MIT enrolled 4,602 undergraduates and 6,972 graduate students in 2018–2019.Undergraduate and graduate students came from all 50 US states as well as from 115 foreign countries.MIT received 33,240 applications for admission to the undergraduate Class of 2025: it admitted 1,365 (4.1 percent).", "In 2019, 29,114 applications were received for graduate and advanced degree programs across all departments; 3,670 were admitted (12.6 percent) and 2,312 enrolled (63 percent).Undergraduate tuition and fees for 2019–2020 was $53,790 for nine months.", "59% of students were awarded a need-based MIT scholarship.", "Graduate tuition and fees for 2019–2020 was also $53,790 for nine months, and summer tuition was $17,800.Financial support for graduate students are provided in large part by individual departments.", "They include fellowships, traineeships, teaching and research assistantships, and loans.", "The annual increase in expenses had led to a student tradition (dating back to the 1960s) of tongue-in-cheek \"tuition riots\".MIT has been nominally co-educational since admitting Ellen Swallow Richards in 1870.Richards also became the first female member of MIT's faculty, specializing in sanitary chemistry.", "Female students remained a small minority prior to the completion of the first wing of a women's dormitory, McCormick Hall, in 1963.Between 1993 and 2009 the proportion of women rose from 34 percent to 45 percent of undergraduates and from 20 percent to 31 percent of graduate students.", ", women outnumbered men in Biology, Brain & Cognitive Sciences, Architecture, Urban Planning, and Biological Engineering.=== Faculty and staff ===Institute Professors Emeriti and Nobel Laureates (from left to right) Franco Modigliani (deceased), Paul Samuelson (also deceased), and Robert Solow (picture taken in 2000), MIT had 1,069 faculty members.", "Faculty are responsible for lecturing classes, for advising both graduate and undergraduate students, and for sitting on academic committees, as well as for conducting original research.", "Between 1964 and 2009 a total of seventeen faculty and staff members affiliated with MIT won Nobel Prizes (thirteen of them in the latter 25 years).", "As of October 2020, 37 MIT faculty members, past or present, have won Nobel Prizes, the majority in Economics or Physics., current faculty and teaching staff included 67 Guggenheim Fellows, 6 Fulbright Scholars, and 22 MacArthur Fellows.", "Faculty members who have made extraordinary contributions to their research field as well as the MIT community are granted appointments as Institute Professors for the remainder of their tenures.", "Susan Hockfield, a molecular neurobiologist, served as MIT's president from 2004 to 2012.She was the first woman to hold the post.MIT faculty members have often been recruited to lead other colleges and universities.", "Founding faculty-member Charles W. Eliot became president of Harvard University in 1869, a post he would hold for 40 years, during which he wielded considerable influence both on American higher education and on secondary education.", "MIT alumnus and faculty member George Ellery Hale played a central role in the development of the California Institute of Technology (Caltech), and other faculty members have been key founders of Franklin W. Olin College of Engineering in nearby Needham, Massachusetts.", "former provost Robert A.", "Brown served as president of Boston University; former provost Mark Wrighton is chancellor of Washington University in St. Louis; former associate provost Alice Gast is president of Lehigh University; and former professor Suh Nam-pyo is president of KAIST.", "Former dean of the School of Science Robert J. Birgeneau was the chancellor of the University of California, Berkeley (2004–2013); former professor John Maeda was president of Rhode Island School of Design (RISD, 2008–2013); former professor David Baltimore was president of Caltech (1997–2006); and MIT alumnus and former assistant professor Hans Mark served as chancellor of the University of Texas system (1984–1992).In addition, faculty members have been recruited to lead governmental agencies; for example, former professor Marcia McNutt is president of the National Academy of Sciences, urban studies professor Xavier de Souza Briggs served as the associate director of the White House Office of Management and Budget, and biology professor Eric Lander was a co-chair of the President's Council of Advisors on Science and Technology.", "In 2013, faculty member Ernest Moniz was nominated by President Obama and later confirmed as United States Secretary of Energy.", "Former professor Hans Mark served as Secretary of the Air Force from 1979 to 1981.Alumna and Institute Professor Sheila Widnall served as Secretary of the Air Force between 1993 and 1997, making her the first female Secretary of the Air Force and first woman to lead an entire branch of the US military in the Department of Defense.", "A 1999 report, met by promises of change by President Charles Vest, found that senior female faculty in the School of Science were often marginalized, and in return for equal professional accomplishments received reduced \"salary, space, awards, resources, and response to outside offers\"., MIT was the second-largest employer in the city of Cambridge.", "Based on feedback from employees, MIT was ranked No.", "7 as a place to work, among US colleges and universities .", "Surveys cited a \"smart\", \"creative\", \"friendly\" environment, noting that the work-life balance tilts towards a \"strong work ethic\" but complaining about \"low pay\" compared to an industry position.=== Notable alumni ===Many of MIT's over 120,000 alumni have achieved considerable success in scientific research, public service, education, and business.", ", 41 MIT alumni have won Nobel Prizes, 48 have been selected as Rhodes Scholars, 61 have been selected as Marshall Scholars, and 3 have been selected as Mitchell Scholars.Alumni in United States politics and public service include former Chairman of the Federal Reserve Ben Bernanke, former MA-1 Representative John Olver, former CA-13 Representative Pete Stark, Representative Thomas Massie, Senator Alex Padilla, former National Economic Council chairman Lawrence H. Summers, and former Council of Economic Advisers chairman Christina Romer.", "MIT alumni in international politics include Foreign Affairs Minister of Iran Ali Akbar Salehi, Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu, President of Colombia Virgilio Barco Vargas, President of the European Central Bank Mario Draghi, former Governor of the Reserve Bank of India Raghuram Rajan, former British Foreign Minister David Miliband, former Greek Prime Minister Lucas Papademos, former UN Secretary General Kofi Annan, former Iraqi Deputy Prime Minister Ahmed Chalabi, former Minister of Education and Culture of The Republic of Indonesia Yahya Muhaimin, former Jordanian Minister of Education, Higher Education and Scientific Research and former Jordanian Minister of Energy and Mineral Resources Khaled Toukan.", "Alumni in sports have included Olympic fencing champion Johan Harmenberg.MIT alumni founded or co-founded many notable companies, such as Intel, McDonnell Douglas, Texas Instruments, 3Com, Qualcomm, Bose, Raytheon, Apotex, Koch Industries, Rockwell International, Genentech, Dropbox, and Campbell Soup.", "According to the British newspaper ''The Guardian'', \"a survey of living MIT alumni found that they have formed 25,800 companies, employing more than three million people including about a quarter of the workforce of Silicon Valley.", "Those firms collectively generate global revenues of about $1.9 trillion (£1.2 trillion) a year\".", "If the companies founded by MIT alumni were a country, they would have the 11th-highest GDP of any country in the world.MIT alumni have led prominent institutions of higher education, including the University of California system, Harvard University, the New York Institute of Technology, Johns Hopkins University, Carnegie Mellon University, Tufts University, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rhode Island School of Design (RISD), UC Berkeley College of Environmental Design, the New Jersey Institute of Technology, Northeastern University, Tel Aviv University, Lahore University of Management Sciences, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Tecnológico de Monterrey, Purdue University, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, KAIST, and Quaid-e-Azam University.", "Berklee College of Music, the largest independent college of contemporary music in the world, was founded and led by MIT alumnus Lawrence Berk for more than three decades.More than one third of the United States' crewed spaceflights have included MIT-educated astronauts, a contribution exceeding that of any university excluding the United States service academies.", "Of the 12 people who have set foot on the Moon , four graduated from MIT (among them Apollo 11 Lunar Module Pilot Buzz Aldrin).", "Alumnus and former faculty member Qian Xuesen led the Chinese nuclear-weapons program and became instrumental in Chinese rocket-program.MIT alumni played a significant role in the creation of the Atomic Energy Commission and Department of Energy.", "Carroll Wilson (a student and professor at MIT) served as the first General Manager of the Atomic Energy Commission.", "John Deutch served as Under Secretary of Energy for President Carter; William F. Martin served as Deputy Secretary of Energy for Ronald Reagan and Ernest Moniz served as Secretary of Energy for President Obama.", "Indeed, modern post World War II history has been influenced by MIT and its alumni in the fields of nuclear energy and high energy physics.", "Noted alumni in non-scientific fields include author Hugh Lofting, sculptor Daniel Chester French, guitarist Tom Scholz of the band Boston, the British ''BBC'' and ''ITN'' correspondent and political advisor David Walter, ''The New York Times'' columnist and Nobel Prize-winning economist Paul Krugman, ''The Bell Curve'' author Charles Murray, United States Supreme Court building architect Cass Gilbert,Pritzker Prize-winning architects I.M.", "Pei and Gordon Bunshaft.Buzz Aldrin.jpg|Apollo 11 astronaut Buzz Aldrin, ScD 1963 (MIT Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics)Kofi Annan.jpg|Former UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan, SM 1972 (MIT Sloan School of Management)President Virgilio Barco.png|President of Colombia (1986–1990) Virgilio Barco Vargas, SB 1943 (MIT Civil and Environmental Engineering)Ben Bernanke official portrait.jpg|Former Federal Reserve Bank chairman and 2022 Nobel Laureate Ben Bernanke, PhD 1979 (MIT Department of Economics)Esther Duflo - Pop!Tech 2009 - 001 (cropped).jpg|Economics Nobel laureate Esther Duflo, PhD 1999 (MIT Department of Economics), also an MIT professorRichard Feynman Nobel.jpg|Physicist and Nobel laureate Richard Feynman, SB 1939 (MIT Department of Physics)Edward Michael Fincke.jpg|Astronaut and USAF Colonel Michael Fincke, SB 1989 (MIT Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics), SB 1989 (MIT Department of Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences)Daniel Chester French 1902 crop.jpg|Sculptor Daniel Chester French, Did not graduatePaul Krugman-press conference Dec 07th, 2008-8.jpg|Economics Nobel laureate Paul Krugman, PhD 1977 (MIT Department of Economics)Ronald mcnair.jpg|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' astronaut and physicist Ronald McNair, PhD 1976 (MIT Department of Physics)Benjamin Netanyahu.jpg|Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu, SB 1975 (MIT Architecture), SM 1976 (MIT Sloan School of Management)I.M.", "Pei.JPG|Architect I. M. Pei, BArch 1940 (MIT Architecture)ClaudeShannon MFO3807.jpg|Claude Shannon, PhD 1940 (MIT Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science)Alfred P. Sloan on the cover of TIME Magazine, December 27, 1926.jpg|CEO of General Motors Alfred P. Sloan, SB 1895 (MIT Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science)TomScholz.JPG|\"Boston\" guitarist Tom Scholz, SB 1969, SM 1970 (MIT Department of Mechanical Engineering)Michael Massimino.jpg|Astronaut and engineer Mike Massimino, PhD 1992 (MIT Department of Mechanical Engineering)Robert Woodward Nobel.jpg|Chemist and Nobel laureate Robert Burns Woodward, SB 1936, PhD 1937" ], [ "See also", "*Massachusetts Institute of Technology School of Engineering*Whitehead Institute*Eli and Edythe L. Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard*Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research*The Coop, campus bookstore" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Sources ===: ''Also see the bibliography maintained by MIT's Institute Archives & Special Collections and Written Works in MIT in popular culture.", "''************Nelkin, Dorothy.", "(1972).", "''The University and Military Research: Moral politics at MIT (science, technology and society)''.", "New York: Cornell University Press.", ".", "*** Postle, Denis.", "(1965).", "''How to be First''.", "BBC documentary on MIT available at reidplaza.com*Renehan, Colm.", "(2007).", "''Peace Activism at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology from 1975 to 2001: A case study'', PhD thesis, Boston: Boston College.", "*******" ], [ "External links", "**" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Monopolistic competition" ], [ "Introduction", "Short-run equilibrium of the company under monopolistic competition.", "The company maximises its profits and produces a quantity where the company's marginal revenue (MR) is equal to its marginal cost (MC).", "The company is able to collect a price based on the average revenue (AR) curve.", "The difference between the company's average revenue and average cost, multiplied by the quantity sold (Qs), gives the total profit.", "A short-run monopolistic competition equilibrium graph has the same properties of a monopoly equilibrium graph.Long-run equilibrium of the firm under monopolistic competition.", "The company still produces where marginal cost and marginal revenue are equal; however, the demand curve (MR and AR) has shifted as other companies entered the market and increased competition.", "The company no longer sells its goods above average cost and can no longer claim an economic profit.", "'''Monopolistic competition''' is a type of imperfect competition such that there are many producers competing against each other, but selling products that are differentiated from one another (e.g.", "by branding or quality) and hence are not perfect substitutes.", "In monopolistic competition, a company takes the prices charged by its rivals as given and ignores the impact of its own prices on the prices of other companies.", "If this happens in the presence of a coercive government, monopolistic competition will fall into government-granted monopoly.", "Unlike perfect competition, the company maintains spare capacity.", "Models of monopolistic competition are often used to model industries.", "Textbook examples of industries with market structures similar to monopolistic competition include restaurants, cereals, clothing, shoes, and service industries in large cities.", "The \"founding father\" of the theory of monopolistic competition is Edward Hastings Chamberlin, who wrote a pioneering book on the subject, ''Theory of Monopolistic Competition'' (1933).", "Joan Robinson published a book ''The Economics of Imperfect Competition'' with a comparable theme of distinguishing perfect from imperfect competition.", "Further work on monopolistic competition was undertaken by Dixit and Stiglitz who created the Dixit-Stiglitz model which has proved applicable used in the sub fields of international trade theory, macroeconomics and economic geography.Monopolistically competitive markets have the following characteristics:*There are many producers and many consumers in the market, and no business has total control over the market price.", "*Consumers perceive that there are non-price differences among the competitors' products.", "*Companies operate with the knowledge that their actions will not affect other companies' actions.", "*There are few barriers to entry and exit.", "*Producers have a degree of control over price.", "*The principal goal of the company is to maximise its profits.", "*Factor prices and technology are given.", "*A company is assumed to behave as if it knew its demand and cost curves with certainty.", "*The decision regarding price and output of any company does not affect the behaviour of other companies in a group, i.e., impact of the decision made by a single company is spread sufficiently evenly across the entire group.", "Thus, there is no conscious rivalry among the company.", "*Each company earns only normal profit in the long run.", "*Each company spends substantial amount on advertisement.", "The publicity and advertisement costs are known as selling costs.The long-run characteristics of a monopolistically competitive market are almost the same as a perfectly competitive market.", "Two differences between the two are that monopolistic competition produces heterogeneous products and that monopolistic competition involves a great deal of non-price competition, which is based on subtle product differentiation.", "A firm making profits in the short run will nonetheless only break even in the long run because demand will decrease and average total cost will increase.", "This means in the long run, a monopolistically-competitive company will make zero economic profit.", "This illustrates the amount of influence the company has over the market; because of brand loyalty, it can raise its prices without losing all of its customers.", "This means that an individual company's demand curve is downward sloping, in contrast to perfect competition, which has a perfectly elastic demand schedule." ], [ "Characteristics", "There are eight characteristics of monopolistic competition (MC):*Firms are price takers*Free movement of resources from one firm to another*Product differentiation*Many companies*Freedom of entry and exit\t*Independent decision making*Some degree of market power*Buyers and sellers do not have perfect information===Product differentiation===MC companies sell products that have real or perceived non-price differences.", "Examples of these differences could include physical aspects of the product, location from which it sells the product or intangible aspects of the product, among others.", "However, the differences are not so great as to eliminate other goods as substitutes.", "Technically, the cross price elasticity of demand between goods in such a market is positive.", "In fact, the cross elasticity of demand would be high.", "MC goods are best described as close but imperfect substitutes.", "The goods perform the same basic functions but have differences in qualities such as type, style, quality, reputation, appearance, and location that tend to distinguish them from each other.", "For example, the basic function of motor vehicles is the same—to move people and objects from point to point in reasonable comfort and safety.", "Yet there are many different types of motor vehicles such as motor scooters, motor cycles, trucks and cars, and many variations even within these categories.===Many companies===There are many companies in each MC product group and many companies on the side lines prepared to enter the market.", "A product group is a \"collection of similar products\".", "The fact that there are \"many companies\" means that each company has a small market share.", "This gives each MC company the freedom to set prices without engaging in strategic decision making regarding the prices of other companies (no mutual independence) and each company's actions have a negligible impact on the market.", "For example, a company could cut prices and increase sales without fear that its actions will prompt retaliatory responses from competitors.The number of companies that an MC market structure will support at market equilibrium depends on factors such as fixed costs, economies of scale, and the degree of product differentiation.", "For example, the higher the fixed costs, the fewer companies the market will support.===Freedom of entry and exit===Like perfect competition, under monopolistic competition also, the companies can enter or exit freely.", "The companies will enter when the existing companies are making super-normal profits.", "With the entry of new companies, the supply would increase which would reduce the price and hence the existing companies will be left only with normal profits.", "Similarly, if the existing companies are sustaining losses, some of the marginal firms will exit.", "It will reduce the supply due to which price would rise and the existing firms will be left only with normal profit.===Independent decision making===Each MC company independently sets the terms of exchange for its product.", "The company gives no consideration to what effect its decision may have on its competitors.", "The theory is that any action will have such a negligible effect on the overall market demand that an MC company can act without fear of prompting heightened competition.", "In other words, each company feels free to set prices as if it were a monopoly rather than an oligopoly.===Market power===MC companies have some degree of market power, although relatively low.", "Market power means that the company has control over the terms and conditions of exchange.", "All MC companies are price makers.", "An MC companies can raise its prices without losing all its customers.", "The company can also lower prices without triggering a potentially ruinous price war with competitors.", "The source of an MC company's market power is not barriers to entry since they are low.", "Rather, an MC company has market power because it has relatively few competitors, those competitors do not engage in strategic decision making and the companies sells differentiated product.", "Market power also means that an MC company faces a downward sloping demand curve.", "In the long run, the demand curve is highly elastic, meaning that it is sensitive to price changes although it is not completely \"flat\".", "In the short run, economic profit is positive, but it approaches zero in the long run.===Imperfect information===No other sellers or buyers have complete market information, like market demand or market supply.+''' Market structure comparison'''Market Structure Number of firms Market power Elasticity of demand Product differentiation Excess profits Efficiency Profit maximization condition Pricing power Perfect competition Infinite None Perfectly elastic None Yes/no (short/long) Yes P=MR=MC Price taker Monopolistic competition Many Low Highly elastic (long run) High Yes/No (Short/Long) No MR=MC Price setter Monopoly One High Relatively inelastic Absolute (across industries) Yes No MR=MC Price setter" ], [ "Inefficiency", "There are two sources of inefficiency in the MC market structure.", "The first source of inefficiency is that, at its optimum output, the company charges a price that exceeds marginal costs.", "The MC company maximises profits where marginal revenue equals marginal cost.", "Since the MC company's demand curve is downwards-sloping, the company will charge a price that exceeds marginal costs.", "The monopoly power possessed by a MC company means that at its profit-maximising level of production, there will be a net loss of consumer (and producer) surplus.", "The second source of inefficiency is the fact that MC companies operate with excess capacity.", "That is that the MC company's profit-maximising output is less than the output associated with minimum average cost.", "Both an MC and PC company will operate at a point where demand or price equals average cost.", "For a PC company, this equilibrium condition occurs where the perfectly elastic demand curve equals minimum average cost.", "A MC company's demand curve is not flat but is downwards-sloping.", "Thus, the demand curve will be tangential to the long-run average cost curve at a point to the left of its minimum.", "The result is excess capacity.===Socially-undesirable aspects compared to perfect competition===* ''Selling costs'': Producers under monopolistic competition often spend substantial amounts on advertising and publicity.", "Much of this expenditure is wasteful from the social point of view.", "The producer can reduce the price of the product instead of spending on publicity.", "* ''Excess capacity'': Under Imperfect competition, the installed capacity of every firm is large, but not fully used.", "Total output is, therefore, less than the output which is socially desirable.", "Since production capacity is not fully used, the resources lie idle.", "Therefore, the production under monopolistic competition is below the full capacity level.", "* ''Unemployment'': Idle capacity under monopolistic competition expenditure leads to unemployment.", "In particular, unemployment of workers leads to poverty and misery in the society.", "If idle capacity is fully used, the problem of unemployment can be solved to some extent.", "* ''Cross transport'': Under monopolistic competition expenditure is incurred on cross transportation.", "If the goods are sold locally, wasteful expenditure on cross transport could be avoided.", "* ''Lack of specialisation'': Under monopolistic competition, there is little scope for specialisation or standardisation.", "Product differentiation practised under this competition leads to wasteful expenditure.", "It is argued that instead of producing too many similar products, only a few standardised products may be produced.", "This would ensure better allocation of resources and would promote the economic success of the society.", "* ''Inefficiency'': Under perfect competition, an inefficient company is thrown out of the industry.", "But under monopolistic competition, inefficient companies continue to survive." ], [ "Problems", "Monopolistically-competitive companies are inefficient, it is usually the case that the costs of regulating prices for products sold in monopolistic competition exceed the benefits of such regulation.", "A monopolistically-competitive company might be said to be marginally inefficient because the company produces at an output where average total cost is not a minimum.", "A monopolistically-competitive market is productively inefficient market structure because marginal cost is less than price in the long run.", "Monopolistically-competitive markets are also allocative-inefficient, as the company charges prices that exceed marginal cost.", "Product differentiation increases total utility by better meeting people's wants than homogenous products in a perfectly competitive market.Another concern is that monopolistic competition fosters advertising.", "There are two main ways to conceive how advertising works under a monopolistic competition framework.", "Advertising can either cause a company's perceived demand curve to become more inelastic; or advertising causes demand for the company's product to increase.", "In either case, a successful advertising campaign may allow a company to sell a greater quantity or to charge a higher price, or both, and thus increase its profits.", "This allows the creation of brand names.", "Advertising induces customers into spending more on products because of the name associated with them rather than because of rational factors.", "Defenders of advertising dispute this, arguing that brand names can represent a guarantee of quality and that advertising helps reduce the cost to consumers of weighing the trade-offs of numerous competing brands.", "There are unique information and information processing costs associated with selecting a brand in a monopolistically competitive environment.", "In a monopoly market, the consumer is faced with a single brand, making information gathering relatively inexpensive.", "In a perfectly competitive industry, the consumer is faced with many brands, but because the brands are virtually identical information gathering is also relatively inexpensive.", "In a monopolistically competitive market, the consumer must collect and process information on a large number of different brands to be able to select the best of them.", "In many cases, the cost of gathering information necessary to selecting the best brand can exceed the benefit of consuming the best brand instead of a randomly selected brand.", "The result is that the consumer is confused.", "Some brands gain prestige value and can extract an additional price for that.Evidence suggests that consumers use information obtained from advertising not only to assess the single brand advertised, but also to infer the possible existence of brands that the consumer has, heretofore, not observed, as well as to infer consumer satisfaction with brands similar to the advertised brand." ], [ "Examples", "In many markets, such as toothpaste, soap, air conditioning, smartphones and toilet paper,food, producers practice product differentiation by altering the physical composition of products, using special packaging, or simply claiming to have superior products based on brand images or advertising ." ], [ "See also", "* Atomistic market* Business oligarch* Government-granted monopoly* Imperfect competition* Microeconomics* Monopolistic competition in international trade* Monopoly* Natural monopoly* Oligopoly* Perfect competition" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "External links", "* Monopolistic Competition by Elmer G. Wiens*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mathematical induction" ], [ "Introduction", "falling dominoes.", "'''Mathematical induction''' is a method for proving that a statement is true for every natural number , that is, that the infinitely many cases   all hold.", "This is done by first proving a simple case, then also showing that if we assume the claim is true for a given case, then the next case is also true.", "Informal metaphors help to explain this technique, such as falling dominoes or climbing a ladder:A '''proof by induction''' consists of two cases.", "The first, the '''base case''', proves the statement for without assuming any knowledge of other cases.", "The second case, the '''induction step''', proves that ''if'' the statement holds for any given case , ''then'' it must also hold for the next case .", "These two steps establish that the statement holds for every natural number .", "The base case does not necessarily begin with , but often with , and possibly with any fixed natural number , establishing the truth of the statement for all natural numbers .The method can be extended to prove statements about more general well-founded structures, such as trees; this generalization, known as structural induction, is used in mathematical logic and computer science.", "Mathematical induction in this extended sense is closely related to recursion.", "Mathematical induction is an inference rule used in formal proofs, and is the foundation of most correctness proofs for computer programs.Although its name may suggest otherwise, mathematical induction should not be confused with inductive reasoning as used in philosophy (see Problem of induction).", "The mathematical method examines infinitely many cases to prove a general statement, but does so by a finite chain of deductive reasoning involving the variable , which can take infinitely many values." ], [ "History", "In 370 BC, Plato's Parmenides may have contained traces of an early example of an implicit inductive proof.The earliest implicit proof by mathematical induction was written by al-Karaji around 1000 AD, who applied it to arithmetic sequences to prove the binomial theorem and properties of Pascal's triangle.", "Whilst the original work was lost, it was later referenced by Al-Samawal al-Maghribi in his treatise ''al-Bahir fi'l-jabr (The Brilliant in Algebra)'' in around 1150 AD.Katz says in his history of mathematics In India, early implicit proofs by mathematical induction appear in Bhaskara's \"cyclic method\".None of these ancient mathematicians, however, explicitly stated the induction hypothesis.", "Another similar case (contrary to what Vacca has written, as Freudenthal carefully showed) was that of Francesco Maurolico in his ''Arithmeticorum libri duo'' (1575), who used the technique to prove that the sum of the first odd integers is .The earliest rigorous use of induction was by Gersonides (1288–1344).", "The first explicit formulation of the principle of induction was given by Pascal in his ''Traité du triangle arithmétique'' (1665).", "Another Frenchman, Fermat, made ample use of a related principle: indirect proof by infinite descent.The induction hypothesis was also employed by the Swiss Jakob Bernoulli, and from then on it became well known.", "The modern formal treatment of the principle came only in the 19th century, with George Boole, Augustus De Morgan, Charles Sanders Peirce, Giuseppe Peano, and Richard Dedekind." ], [ "Description", "The simplest and most common form of mathematical induction infers that a statement involving a natural number (that is, an integer or 1) holds for all values of .", "The proof consists of two steps:# The '''''' (or '''initial case'''): prove that the statement holds for 0, or 1.# The '''''' (or '''inductive step''', or '''step case'''): prove that for every , if the statement holds for , then it holds for .", "In other words, assume that the statement holds for some arbitrary natural number , and prove that the statement holds for .The hypothesis in the induction step, that the statement holds for a particular , is called the '''induction hypothesis''' or '''inductive hypothesis'''.", "To prove the induction step, one assumes the induction hypothesis for and then uses this assumption to prove that the statement holds for .Authors who prefer to define natural numbers to begin at 0 use that value in the base case; those who define natural numbers to begin at 1 use that value." ], [ "Examples", "=== Sum of consecutive natural numbers ===Mathematical induction can be used to prove the following statement for all natural numbers .This states a general formula for the sum of the natural numbers less than or equal to a given number; in fact an infinite sequence of statements: , , , etc.'''Proposition.'''", "For every , '''Proof.'''", "Let be the statement We give a proof by induction on .", "''Base case:'' Show that the statement holds for the smallest natural number .", "is clearly true: ''Induction step:'' Show that for every , if holds, then also holds.Assume the induction hypothesis that for a particular , the single case holds, meaning is true:It follows that:Algebraically, the right hand side simplifies as:Equating the extreme left hand and right hand sides, we deduce that: That is, the statement also holds true, establishing the induction step.", "''Conclusion:'' Since both the base case and the induction step have been proved as true, by mathematical induction the statement holds for every natural number .", "Q.E.D.=== A trigonometric inequality ===Induction is often used to prove inequalities.", "As an example, we prove that for any real number and natural number .At first glance, it may appear that a more general version, for any ''real'' numbers , could be proven without induction; but the case shows it may be false for non-integer values of .", "This suggests we examine the statement specifically for ''natural'' values of , and induction is the readiest tool.'''Proposition.'''", "For any and , .", "'''Proof.'''", "Fix an arbitrary real number , and let be the statement .", "We induce on .", "''Base case:'' The calculation verifies .", "''Induction step:'' We show the implication for any natural number .", "Assume the induction hypothesis: for a given value , the single case is true.", "Using the angle addition formula and the triangle inequality, we deduce:The inequality between the extreme left-hand and right-hand quantities shows that is true, which completes the induction step.", "''Conclusion:'' The proposition holds for all natural numbers Q.E.D." ], [ "Variants", "In practice, proofs by induction are often structured differently, depending on the exact nature of the property to be proven.All variants of induction are special cases of transfinite induction; see below.=== Base case other than 0 or 1 ===If one wishes to prove a statement, not for all natural numbers, but only for all numbers greater than or equal to a certain number , then the proof by induction consists of the following:# Showing that the statement holds when .# Showing that if the statement holds for an arbitrary number , then the same statement also holds for .This can be used, for example, to show that for .In this way, one can prove that some statement holds for all , or even for all .", "This form of mathematical induction is actually a special case of the previous form, because if the statement to be proved is then proving it with these two rules is equivalent with proving for all natural numbers with an induction base case .==== Example: forming dollar amounts by coins ====Assume an infinite supply of 4- and 5-dollar coins.", "Induction can be used to prove that any whole amount of dollars greater than or equal to can be formed by a combination of such coins.", "Let denote the statement \" dollars can be formed by a combination of 4- and 5-dollar coins\".", "The proof that is true for all can then be achieved by induction on as follows:''Base case:'' Showing that holds for is simple: take three 4-dollar coins.", "''Induction step:'' Given that holds for some value of (''induction hypothesis''), prove that holds, too.", "Assume is true for some arbitrary .", "If there is a solution for dollars that includes at least one 4-dollar coin, replace it by a 5-dollar coin to make dollars.", "Otherwise, if only 5-dollar coins are used, must be a multiple of 5 and so at least 15; but then we can replace three 5-dollar coins by four 4-dollar coins to make dollars.", "In each case, is true.Therefore, by the principle of induction, holds for all , and the proof is complete.In this example, although also holds for , the above proof cannot be modified to replace the minimum amount of dollar to any lower value .", "For , the base case is actually false; for , the second case in the induction step (replacing three 5- by four 4-dollar coins) will not work; let alone for even lower .=== Induction on more than one counter ===It is sometimes desirable to prove a statement involving two natural numbers, and , by iterating the induction process.", "That is, one proves a base case and an induction step for , and in each of those proves a base case and an induction step for .", "See, for example, the proof of commutativity accompanying ''addition of natural numbers''.", "More complicated arguments involving three or more counters are also possible.=== Infinite descent ===The method of infinite descent is a variation of mathematical induction which was used by Pierre de Fermat.", "It is used to show that some statement is false for all natural numbers .", "Its traditional form consists of showing that if is true for some natural number , it also holds for some strictly smaller natural number .", "Because there are no infinite decreasing sequences of natural numbers, this situation would be impossible, thereby showing (by contradiction) that cannot be true for any .The validity of this method can be verified from the usual principle of mathematical induction.", "Using mathematical induction on the statement defined as \" is false for all natural numbers less than or equal to \", it follows that holds for all , which means that is false for every natural number .=== Limited mathematical induction ===If one wishes to prove that a property holds for all natural numbers less than or equal to , proving satisfies the following conditions suffices:# holds for 0,# For any natural number less than , if holds for , then holds for === Prefix induction ===The most common form of proof by mathematical induction requires proving in the induction step thatwhereupon the induction principle \"automates\" applications of this step in getting from to .", "This could be called \"predecessor induction\" because each step proves something about a number from something about that number's predecessor.A variant of interest in computational complexity is \"prefix induction\", in which one proves the following statement in the induction step:or equivalentlyThe induction principle then \"automates\" log2 ''n'' applications of this inference in getting from to .", "In fact, it is called \"prefix induction\" because each step proves something about a number from something about the \"prefix\" of that number — as formed by truncating the low bit of its binary representation.", "It can also be viewed as an application of traditional induction on the length of that binary representation.If traditional predecessor induction is interpreted computationally as an -step loop, then prefix induction would correspond to a log--step loop.", "Because of that, proofs using prefix induction are \"more feasibly constructive\" than proofs using predecessor induction.Predecessor induction can trivially simulate prefix induction on the same statement.", "Prefix induction can simulate predecessor induction, but only at the cost of making the statement more syntactically complex (adding a bounded universal quantifier), so the interesting results relating prefix induction to polynomial-time computation depend on excluding unbounded quantifiers entirely, and limiting the alternation of bounded universal and existential quantifiers allowed in the statement.One can take the idea a step further: one must provewhereupon the induction principle \"automates\" applications of this inference in getting from to .", "This form of induction has been used, analogously, to study log-time parallel computation.=== Complete (strong) induction ===Another variant, called '''complete induction''', '''course of values induction''' or '''strong induction''' (in contrast to which the basic form of induction is sometimes known as '''weak induction'''), makes the induction step easier to prove by using a stronger hypothesis: one proves the statement under the assumption that holds for ''all'' natural numbers less than ; by contrast, the basic form only assumes .", "The name \"strong induction\" does not mean that this method can prove more than \"weak induction\", but merely refers to the stronger hypothesis used in the induction step.In fact, it can be shown that the two methods are actually equivalent, as explained below.", "In this form of complete induction, one still has to prove the base case, , and it may even be necessary to prove extra-base cases such as before the general argument applies, as in the example below of the Fibonacci number .Although the form just described requires one to prove the base case, this is unnecessary if one can prove (assuming for all lower ) for all .", "This is a special case of transfinite induction as described below, although it is no longer equivalent to ordinary induction.", "In this form the base case is subsumed by the case , where is proved with no other assumed; this case may need to be handled separately, but sometimes the same argument applies for and , making the proof simpler and more elegant.In this method, however, it is vital to ensure that the proof of does not implicitly assume that , e.g.", "by saying \"choose an arbitrary \", or by assuming that a set of elements has an element.====Equivalence with ordinary induction====Complete induction is equivalent to ordinary mathematical induction as described above, in the sense that a proof by one method can be transformed into a proof by the other.", "Suppose there is a proof of by complete induction.", "Then, this proof can be transformed into an ordinary induction proof by assuming a stronger inductive hypothesis.", "Let be the statement \" holds for all such that \"—this becomes the inductive hypothesis for ordinary induction.", "We can then show and for assuming only and show that implies .If, on the other hand, had been proven by ordinary induction, the proof would already effectively be one by complete induction: is proved in the base case, using no assumptions, and is proved in the induction step, in which one may assume all earlier cases but need only use the case .==== Example: Fibonacci numbers ====Complete induction is most useful when several instances of the inductive hypothesis are required for each induction step.", "For example, complete induction can be used to show thatwhere is the -th Fibonacci number, and (the golden ratio) and are the roots of the polynomial .", "By using the fact that for each , the identity above can be verified by direct calculation for if one assumes that it already holds for both and .", "To complete the proof, the identity must be verified in the two base cases: and .==== Example: prime factorization ====Another proof by complete induction uses the hypothesis that the statement holds for ''all'' smaller more thoroughly.", "Consider the statement that \"every natural number greater than 1 is a product of (one or more) prime numbers\", which is the \"existence\" part of the fundamental theorem of arithmetic.", "For proving the induction step, the induction hypothesis is that for a given the statement holds for all smaller .", "If is prime then it is certainly a product of primes, and if not, then by definition it is a product: , where neither of the factors is equal to 1; hence neither is equal to , and so both are greater than 1 and smaller than .", "The induction hypothesis now applies to and , so each one is a product of primes.", "Thus is a product of products of primes, and hence by extension a product of primes itself.==== Example: dollar amounts revisited ====We shall look to prove the same example as above, this time with ''strong induction''.", "The statement remains the same:However, there will be slight differences in the structure and the assumptions of the proof, starting with the extended base case.'''Proof.", "'''''Base case:'' Show that holds for .The base case holds.", "''Induction step:'' Given some , assume holds for all with .", "Prove that holds.Choosing , and observing that shows that holds, by the inductive hypothesis.", "That is, the sum can be formed by some combination of and dollar coins.", "Then, simply adding a dollar coin to that combination yields the sum .", "That is, holds Q.E.D.=== Forward-backward induction ===Sometimes, it is more convenient to deduce backwards, proving the statement for , given its validity for .", "However, proving the validity of the statement for no single number suffices to establish the base case; instead, one needs to prove the statement for an infinite subset of the natural numbers.", "For example, Augustin Louis Cauchy first used forward (regular) induction to prove theinequality of arithmetic and geometric means for all powers of 2, and then used backwards induction to show it for all natural numbers." ], [ "Example of error in the induction step", "The induction step must be proved for all values of .", "To illustrate this, Joel E. Cohen proposed the following argument, which purports to prove by mathematical induction that all horses are of the same color:''Base case:'' in a set of only ''one'' horse, there is only one color.", "''Induction step:'' assume as induction hypothesis that within any set of horses, there is only one color.", "Now look at any set of horses.", "Number them: .", "Consider the sets and .", "Each is a set of only horses, therefore within each there is only one color.", "But the two sets overlap, so there must be only one color among all horses.The base case is trivial, and the induction step is correct in all cases .", "However, the argument used in the induction step is incorrect for , because the statement that \"the two sets overlap\" is false for and ." ], [ "Formalization {{anchor|Axiom of induction}}", "In '''second-order logic''', one can write down the \"axiom of induction\" as follows:where is a variable for predicates involving one natural number and and are variables for natural numbers.In words, the base case and the induction step (namely, that the induction hypothesis implies ) together imply that for any natural number .", "The axiom of induction asserts the validity of inferring that holds for any natural number from the base case and the induction step.The first quantifier in the axiom ranges over ''predicates'' rather than over individual numbers.", "This is a second-order quantifier, which means that this axiom is stated in second-order logic.", "Axiomatizing arithmetic induction in first-order logic requires an axiom schema containing a separate axiom for each possible predicate.", "The article Peano axioms contains further discussion of this issue.The axiom of structural induction for the natural numbers was first formulated by Peano, who used it to specify the natural numbers together with the following four other axioms:# 0 is a natural number.# The successor function of every natural number yields a natural number .# The successor function is injective.# 0 is not in the range of .In '''first-order ZFC set theory''', quantification over predicates is not allowed, but one can still express induction by quantification over sets: may be read as a set representing a proposition, and containing natural numbers, for which the proposition holds.", "This is not an axiom, but a theorem, given that natural numbers are defined in the language of ZFC set theory by axioms, analogous to Peano's.", "See construction of the natural numbers using the axiom of infinity and axiom schema of specification." ], [ "Transfinite induction", "One variation of the principle of complete induction can be generalized for statements about elements of any well-founded set, that is, a set with an irreflexive relation < that contains no infinite descending chains.", "Every set representing an ordinal number is well-founded, the set of natural numbers is one of them.Applied to a well-founded set, transfinite induction can be formulated as a single step.", "To prove that a statement holds for each ordinal number:# Show, for each ordinal number , that if holds for all , then also holds.This form of induction, when applied to a set of ordinal numbers (which form a well-ordered and hence well-founded class), is called ''transfinite induction''.", "It is an important proof technique in set theory, topology and other fields.Proofs by transfinite induction typically distinguish three cases:# when is a minimal element, i.e.", "there is no element smaller than ;# when has a direct predecessor, i.e.", "the set of elements which are smaller than has a largest element;# when has no direct predecessor, i.e.", "is a so-called limit ordinal.Strictly speaking, it is not necessary in transfinite induction to prove a base case, because it is a vacuous special case of the proposition that if is true of all , then is true of .", "It is vacuously true precisely because there are no values of that could serve as counterexamples.", "So the special cases are special cases of the general case." ], [ "Relationship to the well-ordering principle{{anchor|Proof of mathematical induction}}", "The principle of mathematical induction is usually stated as an axiom of the natural numbers; see Peano axioms.", "It is strictly stronger than the well-ordering principle in the context of the other Peano axioms.", "Suppose the following:* The trichotomy axiom: For any natural numbers and , is less than or equal to if and only if is not less than .", "* For any natural number , is greater .", "* For any natural number , no natural number is and .", "* No natural number is less than zero.It can then be proved that induction, given the above-listed axioms, implies the well-ordering principle.", "The following proof uses complete induction and the first and fourth axioms.'''Proof.'''", "Suppose there exists a non-empty set, , of natural numbers that has no least element.", "Let be the assertion that is not in .", "Then is true, for if it were false then 0 is the least element of .", "Furthermore, let be a natural number, and suppose is true for all natural numbers less than .", "Then if is false is in , thus being a minimal element in , a contradiction.", "Thus is true.", "Therefore, by the complete induction principle, holds for all natural numbers ; so is empty, a contradiction.", "Q.E.D.", "\"Number line\" for the set .", "Numbers refer to the second component of pairs; the first can be obtained from color or location.On the other hand, the set , shown in the picture, is well-ordered by the lexicographic order.Moreover, except for the induction axiom, it satisfies all Peano axioms, where Peano's constant 0 is interpreted as the pair (0, 0), and Peano's ''successor'' function is defined on pairs by for all and .As an example for the violation of the induction axiom, define the predicate as or for some and .", "Then the base case is trivially true, and so is the induction step: if , then .", "However, is not true for all pairs in the set.Peano's axioms with the induction principle uniquely model the natural numbers.", "Replacing the induction principle with the well-ordering principle allows for more exotic models that fulfill all the axioms.It is mistakenly printed in several books and sources that the well-ordering principle is equivalent to the induction axiom.", "In the context of the other Peano axioms, this is not the case, but in the context of other axioms, they are equivalent; specifically, the well-ordering principle implies the induction axiom in the context of the first two above listed axioms and* Every natural number is either 0 or for some natural number .A common mistake in many erroneous proofs is to assume that is a unique and well-defined natural number, a property which is not implied by the other Peano axioms." ], [ "See also", "* Combinatorial proof* Induction puzzles* Proof by exhaustion* Recursion* Recursion (computer science)* Structural induction* Transfinite induction" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Introduction ===* (Ch.", "8.", ")* * * (Section 1.2.1: Mathematical Induction, pp. 11–21.", ")* (Section 3.8: Transfinite induction, pp. 28–29.", ")=== History ===* * * * * * * Reprinted (CP 3.252–288), (W 4:299–309)* * * * * * * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Matrix" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Matrix''' (: '''matrices''' or '''matrixes''') most commonly refers to:* Matrix (mathematics), a rectangular array of numbers, symbols or expressions* ''The Matrix'' (franchise), an American media franchise developed from** ''The Matrix'', a 1999 science-fiction action film** \"The Matrix\", a fictional setting, a virtual reality environment, within the franchise'''Matrix''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Science and mathematics", "* Matrix (mathematics), algebraic structure, extension of vector into 2 dimensions* Matrix (logic), part of a formula in prenex normal form* Matrix (biology), the material in between a eukaryotic organism's cells* Matrix (chemical analysis), the non-analyte components of a sample* Matrix (geology), the fine-grained material in which larger objects are embedded* Matrix (composite), the constituent of a composite material* Hair matrix, produces hair* Nail matrix, part of the nail in anatomy" ], [ "Technology", "* Matrix (mass spectrometry), a compound that promotes the formation of ions* Matrix (numismatics), a tool used in coin manufacturing* Matrix (printing), a mould for casting letters* Matrix (protocol), an open standard for real-time communication* Matrix (record production), or master, a disc used in the production of phonograph records** Matrix number, of a gramophone record* Diode matrix, a two-dimensional grid of intersecting diodes* Display matrix, picture elements of an information display arranged as a matrix* Keyboard matrix circuit, a wire grid for determining which key has been pressed on a keyboard* Variable-message sign, known as ''matrix signs'' in the UK" ], [ "Arts and entertainment", "=== Fictional entities ===* Matrix (comics), two comic book characters* Matrix (''Doctor Who''), a computer system on the planet Gallifrey* Matrix, a character from the Canadian animated TV series ''ReBoot''* Matrix (''Neuromancer''), a virtual-reality dataspace from the novel* John Matrix, hero of the 1985 film ''Commando''* Irving Joshua Matrix, a fictitious creation of Martin Gardner=== Film and television ===* ''Matrix'' (TV series), a 1993 Canadian fantasy series* ''The Matrix'', a 1999 science fiction action film* ''Matrix'' (talk show), a 2005–2012 Italian news and talk show* Matrix of Leadership, in the ''Transformers'' franchise=== Games ===* ''The Matrix: Path of Neo'', a 2005 action-adventure video game* ''The Matrix Online'', a 2005 online multiplayer video game=== Literature ===* ''Matrix'' (Perry and Tucker novel), a 1998 ''Doctor Who'' novel by Robert Perry and Mike Tucker* ''Matrix'' (Groff novel), a 2021 novel by Lauren Groff* ''The Matrix'' (magazine), published by the Association for Women in Communications* ''The Matrix'', a 1994 novel by Denis MacEoin as Jonathan Aycliffe* ''Matrix'' (journal), a journal on printing published by Whittington Press=== Music ===* Matrix (band), an American jazz-fusion ensemble* Matrix (musician), a British producer and DJ* Matrix (music), an element in musical variations that remains unchanged* ''matrix'', a 2000 album by Ryoji Ikeda* ''Matrix'' (EP), by B.A.P, 2015* \"Matrix\", a song by Chick Corea from the 1968 album ''Now He Sings, Now He Sobs''* \"Matrix\", a song by Kate Pierson from the 2015 album ''Guitars and Microphones''* The Matrix (production team), a pop-music production team** ''The Matrix'' (album), 2009" ], [ "Businesses and organisations", "* Matrix Business Technologies or Matrix Telecom, Inc., an American telecommunications firm* Matrix Chambers, a set of barristers' chambers in London and Geneva* Matrix Feminist Design Co-operative, a London-based architectural collective, 1980–1994* Matrix Games, an American video game publisher* Matrix Partners, an American private equity investment firm* Matrix Software, or Matrix Corporation, a Japanese video game developer* Matrix (club), a Berlin nightclub opened in 1996* The Matrix (club), a San Francisco nightclub, 1965–1972* The Matrix Theatre Company, in Los Angeles, California, US* Matrix Concepts, a Malaysian property developer" ], [ "People", "* David Krejčí (born 1986), Czech ice hockey player nicknamed \"The Matrix\"* Shawn Marion (born 1978), American basketball player nicknamed \"The Matrix\"* Marco Materazzi (born 1973), Italian footballer nicknamed \"Matrix\"" ], [ "Transportation", "* Hyundai Matrix, a multi-purpose road vehicle* Toyota Matrix, a compact hatchback car* PA-46R-350T Matrix, a version of the Piper PA-46 aircraft" ], [ "Other uses", "* Multistate Anti-Terrorism Information Exchange (MATRIX), an American data mining system* Matrix (magic trick), a close-up magic coin and card trick* Matrix, a brand name of veterinary progestin altrenogest* Oberheim Matrix synthesizers, music keyboards* Castle Matrix, near Rathkeale, County Limerick, Ireland" ], [ "See also", "* * * * * * Matrice (disambiguation)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Morton Downey Jr." ], [ "Introduction", "''' Morton Downey Jr.''' (December 9, 1932 – March 12, 2001) was an American television talk show host and actor who pioneered the \"trash TV\" format in the late-1980s on his program ''The Morton Downey Jr. Show''." ], [ "Early life", "Downey's roots were in show business; his father, Morton Downey, was a popular singer, and his mother, Barbara Bennett, was a stage and film actress and singer and dancer.", "Downey did not use his legal first name (Sean) in his stage name.", "His aunts included Hollywood film stars Constance and Joan Bennett, from whom he was estranged, and his maternal grandfather was celebrated matinée idol Richard Bennett.", "Born into a wealthy family, he was raised during the summers next door to the Kennedy compound in Hyannis Port, Massachusetts.", "Downey attended New York University." ], [ "Career", "He was a program director and announcer at radio station WPOP in Hartford, Connecticut, in the 1950s.", "He went on to work as a disc jockey, sometimes using the moniker \"Doc\" Downey, in various markets around the U.S., including Phoenix (KRIZ), Miami (WFUN), Kansas City (KUDL), San Diego (KDEO) and Seattle (KJR).", "He had to resign from WFUN after drawing ire from the FCC for announcing a competing disc jockey's home phone number on the air and insulting his wife.", "Like his father, Downey pursued a career in music, recording in both pop and country styles.", "He sang on a few records and then began to write songs, several of which were popular in the 1950s and 1960s.", "He joined ASCAP as a result.", "In 1958, he recorded \"Boulevard of Broken Dreams\", which he sang on national television on a set that resembled a dark street with one street light.", "In 1981, \"Green Eyed Girl\" charted on the ''Billboard'' country chart, peaking at No.", "95.In the 1980s, Downey was a talk show host at KFBK-AM in Sacramento, California, where he employed his abrasive style.", "He was fired in 1984, and was subsequently replaced by Rush Limbaugh.", "He also had a stint on WMAQ-AM in Chicago where he unsuccessfully tried to get other on air radio personalities to submit to drug testing.", "Downey's largest effect on American culture came from his popular, yet short-lived, syndicated late 1980s television talk show, ''The Morton Downey Jr. Show''.===Anti-abortion activism===On January 22, 1980, Downey, a devoted anti-abortion movement activist, hosted the California State Rally for Life at the invitation of the California ProLife Council and United Students for Life.", "At that time, he was also running for President of the United States, as a Democrat.", "The United Students for Life, at California State University, Sacramento helped organize his California presidential rallies.", "Downey worked to help promote anti-abortion candidates in California and around the country.===Television===Downey headed to Secaucus, New Jersey, where his highly controversial television program ''The Morton Downey Jr. Show'' was taped.", "Starting as a local program on New York–New Jersey superstation WWOR-TV in October 1987, it expanded into national syndication in early 1988.The program featured screaming matches among Downey, his guests, and audience members.", "Using a large silver bowl for an ashtray, he would chainsmoke during the show and blow smoke in his guests' faces.", "Downey's fans became known as \"Loudmouths\", patterned after the studio lecterns decorated with gaping cartoon mouths, from which Downey's guests would go head-to-head against each other on their respective issues.Downey's signature phrases \"pablum puking liberal\" (in reference to left-liberals) and \"zip it!\"", "briefly enjoyed some popularity in the contemporary vernacular.", "He particularly enjoyed making his guests angry with each other, which on a few occasions resulted in physical confrontations.", "One such incident occurred on a 1988 show taped at the Apollo Theater, involving Al Sharpton and CORE National Chairman Roy Innis.", "The exchange between the two men culminated in Innis shoving Sharpton into his chair, knocking him to the floor and Downey intervening to separate the pair.Downey briefly took his show on the road in 1989 holding concert-like events across the country.Because of the controversial format and content of the show, distributor MCA Television had problems selling the show to a number of stations and advertisers.", "Even Downey's affiliates, many of which were low-rated independent television stations in small to medium markets, were so fearful of advertiser and viewer backlash that they would air one or even two local disclaimers during the broadcast.During one controversial episode Downey introduced his gay brother, Tony Downey, to his studio audience and informed them Tony was HIV positive.", "During the episode Downey stated he was afraid his audience would abandon him if they knew he had a gay brother, but then said he did not care.", "''The Washington Post'' wrote about him, \"Suppose a maniac got hold of a talk show.", "Or need we suppose?\"", "David Letterman said, \"I'm always amazed at what people will fall for.", "We see this every ten or twelve years, an attempt at this, and I guess from that standpoint I don't quite understand why everybody's falling over backwards over the guy.", "\"===Celebrity, cancellation, and bankruptcy===The success of the show made Downey a pop culture celebrity, leading to appearances on ''Saturday Night Live'' in 1988, WrestleMania V in 1989 in which he traded insults with Roddy Piper and Brother Love on ''Piper's Pit'', and later roles in movies such as ''Predator 2'' and ''Revenge of the Nerds III: The Next Generation''.", "He was also cast in several television roles, often playing tabloid TV hosts or other obnoxious media types.", "Downey notably starred in the ''Tales from the Crypt'' episode \"Television Terror\" which utilized several scenes shot by characters within the story, a format which became popular in horror films a decade later with the found footage genre.In 1989, Downey released an album of songs based on his show entitled ''Morton Downey Jr.", "Sings''.", "The album's single, \"Zip It!\"", "(a catch-phrase from the TV show, used to quiet an irate guest), became a surprise hit on some college radio stations.", "Over the course of the 1988–89 television season, his TV show suffered a decline in viewership, resulting from many markets downgrading its time slot; even flagship station WWOR moved Downey's program from its original 9:00 PM slot to 11:30 PM in the fall of 1988.Beginning in January 1989, the time slot immediately following Downey's program was given to the then-new ''Arsenio Hall Show''.", "Following Hall's strong early ratings, however, the two series swapped time slots several weeks later, thus relegating Downey to 12:30 AM in the number-one television market.", "In late April 1989, he was involved in an incident in a San Francisco International Airport restroom in which he claimed to have been attacked by neo-Nazis who painted a swastika on his face and attempted to shave his head.", "Some inconsistencies in Downey's account (e.g., the swastika was painted in reverse, suggesting that Downey had drawn it himself in a mirror), and the failure of the police to find supportive evidence, led many to suspect the incident was a hoax and a ploy for attention.", "In July 1989, his show was canceled, with the owners of the show announcing that the last episode had been taped on June 30, and that no new shows would air after September 15, 1989.At the time of its cancellation, the show was airing on a total of 70 stations across the country, and its advertisers had been reduced primarily to \"direct-response\" ads (such as 900 chat line and phone sex numbers).", "In February 1990, Downey filed for bankruptcy in the US Bankruptcy Court for the District of New Jersey.===Later career===In 1990, Downey resurfaced on CNBC with an interview program called ''Showdown'', which was followed by three attempted talk radio comebacks: first in 1992 on Washington, D.C. radio station WWRC; then in 1993 on Dallas radio station KGBS, where he would scream insults at his callers.", "He was also hired as the station's VP of Operations.", "The following year, he returned to CNBC with a short-lived television show, ''Downey''; in one episode, Downey claimed to have had a psychic communication with O.J.", "Simpson's murdered ex-wife, Nicole Brown Simpson.His third – and final – attempt at a talk radio comeback occurred in 1997 on Cleveland radio station WTAM in a late evening time slot.", "It marked his return to the Cleveland market, where Downey had been a host for crosstown radio station WERE in the early 1980s prior to joining KFBK.", "This stint came shortly after the surgery for lung cancer that removed one of his lungs.", "At WTAM, Downey abandoned the confrontational schtick of his TV and previous radio shows, and conducted this program in a much more conversational and jovial manner.On August 30, 1997, Downey quit his WTAM show to focus on pursuing legal action against Howard Stern.", "Downey had accused Stern of spreading rumors that he had resumed his smoking habit, to which publicist Les Schecter retorted, \"He hasn't picked up a cigarette.\"", "His replacement was former WERE host Rick Gilmour.Following his death, news reports and obituaries incorrectly (according to the ''Orange County Register'') credited him as the composer of \"Wipe Out.\"", "As of 2008, Downey's official website (and others) continue to make this claim.", "Prior to Downey's death, ''Spin'' in April 1989 had identified the ''Wipe Out'' authorship as a myth.===Controversies===In 1984, at KFBK radio, Downey used the word \"Chinaman\" while telling a joke.", "His use of the word upset portions of the sizable Asian community in Sacramento.", "One Asian-American city councilman called for an apology and pressured the station for Downey's resignation.", "Downey refused to apologize and was forced to resign.Downey was sued for allegedly appropriating the words and music to his theme song from two songwriters.", "He was sued for $40 million after bringing then-stripper Kellie Everts onto the show and calling her a \"slut\", a \"pig\", a \"hooker\", and a \"tramp\", saying she had venereal diseases, and banging his pelvis against hers.In April 1988, he was arraigned on criminal charges for allegedly attacking a gay guest on his show, in a never-aired segment.", "In another lawsuit, he was accused of slandering a newscaster (a former colleague), and of indecently exposing himself to her and slapping her.", "Downey punched Stuttering John during an interview done for ''The Howard Stern Show'', while also shouting verbal insults at John, referring to him as an \"uneducated slob\".", "The situation then began to evolve into a brawl between the two until Downey had to be pulled off of John by security; the entire incident was caught on camera.", "When an ''Inside Edition'' camera crew approached Downey in 1989 to question him about his involvement in an alleged business scam, Downey grabbed the boom mike and struck the soundman's head with it.In his later years, Downey expressed remorse for some of the extreme theatrics of his TV show, as well as various incidents outside the studio, including the ''Inside Edition'' confrontation.", "However, he also said his show was of a higher quality than and not as \"sleazy\" as Jerry Springer's show." ], [ "Personal life", "Downey was married four times and had four children from three of those marriages.", "With wife Helen, he had daughter Melissa; with Joan, he had daughters Tracey and Kelli; and, with fourth wife Lori, he had daughter Seanna Micaela.", "He and Lori met when she appeared as a dancer in a show he attended in Atlantic City.", "According to Terry Pluto's book, ''Loose Balls'', Downey was one of the owners of the New Orleans Buccaneers basketball team in the American Basketball Association in the late 1960s.", "He was also president and co-founder of the proposed World Baseball Association in 1974." ], [ "Legacy", "In 1998, a Golden Palm Star on the Palm Springs, California, Walk of Stars was dedicated to him." ], [ "Death", "In June 1996, Downey was diagnosed with lung cancer, while being treated for pneumonia, and had one of his lungs removed.", "His views on tobacco use changed substantially, going from a one-time member of the National Smokers Alliance to a staunch anti-smoking activist.", "He continued to speak against smoking until his death from lung cancer and pneumonia on March 12, 2001.After being diagnosed with lung cancer, he commented: He also blamed tobacco companies for lying to consumers about cigarettes." ], [ "''Évocateur: The Morton Downey Jr. Movie''", "Released in 2012, the documentary film ''Évocateur: The Morton Downey Jr. Movie'' touches upon Downey's upbringing and formative years in radio and politics before launching into the history of ''The Morton Downey Jr. Show'' and Downey's influence on trash TV.", "The film also looks at Downey's relationship with Al Sharpton and other important 80s figures." ], [ "Filmography", "*1978: ''Born Again'' as Classroom Guard*1990: ''Predator 2'' as Tony Pope*1990: ''Tales from the Crypt'' (Episode: \"Television Terror\") as Horton Rivers*1991: ''Monsters'' (Episode: \"A Face for Radio\") as Ray Bright*1991: ''Driving Me Crazy'' as Taj*1991: ''Legal Tender'' as Mal Connery*1992: ''Revenge of the Nerds III: The Next Generation'' as Orrin Price*1992: ''Body Chemistry II: The Voice of a Stranger'' as Big Chuck*1992: ''The Silencer'' as Michael Keating*1997: ''Meet Wally Sparks'' as himself*1999: ''Palmer's Pick-Up'' as Dick Cash (final film role)" ], [ "See also" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "List of male singles tennis players" ], [ "Introduction", "This is a list of top international male singles tennis players, both past and present.It includes players who have met one or more of the following criteria in singles:* Officially ranked among the top 25 players by the Association of Tennis Professionals (since 1973)* Ranked among the top 10 by an expert (e.g.", "A. Wallis Myers) before 1973* Reached the quarterfinals of a Grand Slam tournament* Reached the finals of year-end championships* Won a medal at the Olympic GamesPlayers who have won at least one Grand Slam singles title or have been ranked world no.", "1 in singles are in '''bold'''.", "Players who are still active on the tour are in ''italics''." ], [ "List", "* Active players shown in ''italics''NameBirthDeathNationalityRankHighest inclusion criteria1920 1949 French Championships quarterfinalist1982– Argentina 20 Ranking in 200619212010 Hungary 1947 French Championships quarterfinalist''''''1970 2011 '''1''' Winner of 8 Grand Slam titles and a '''career Golden Grand Slam''' completed in 1999 + 1 Olympic gold medal → '''1992 Wimbledon champion''' • '''1994/1999 US Open champion''' • '''1995/2000/2001/2003 Australian Open champion''' • '''1999 French Open champion''' • '''1996 Olympic gold medalist''' • 1990 ATP Tour World Championships winner • '''Year-End No.", "1''' in 1999 • ranking '''world no.", "1''' for 101 weeks1964– Haiti 22 1989 French Open quarterfinalist • ranking in 19891962– Spain 7 Ranking in 19841973 25 Ranking in 2000''''''''''2003– Spain '''1''' '''2022 U.S. Open champion''' • '''2023 Wimbledon Champion''' • 2023 French Open semifinalist • '''Year-End No.", "1''' in 2022 '''• ranking world no.", "1''' '''for 36 weeks''' in 2022 and 2023.18801969 United States 1961 Winner of 1 Grand Slam title → '''1908 Australasian Championships winner (Now known as the Australian Open)''' 1951– Australia 8 1977 (December) Australian Open semifinalist • ranking in 197519041977 United States 1963 4 Winner of 1 Grand Slam title → '''1935 United States champion''', 1934 finalist • 1930 Wimbledon finalist • ranking in 1932 and 19351985 9 2008/2010/2012 French Open quarterfinalist •2013 Australian Open quarterfinalist• ranking in 201118951984 Spain 1977 5 1921 Wimbledon semifinalist • rated world no.", "5 in 192719201997 Philippines 1952, 1953 French Championships quarterfinalist1953 16 1973 and 1981 Wimbledon quarterfinalist • 1973 and 1974 U.S. Open quarterfinalist • ranking in 19801984 7 2004 Wimbledon semifinalist • ranking in 2006''''''18941973 Australia 2013 3 Winner of 3 Grand Slam titles → '''1922, 1924 and 1925 Australasian champion''' • rated world no.", "3 in 1924 and 1925''''1986– South Africa 5 2018 Wimbledon finalist • 2017 US Open finalist • ranking in 20181935– Australia 2000 2 Winner of 1 Grand Slam title → '''1957 United States champion''' • rated amateur world no.", "2 in 1957 and 19581983 18 2007 French Open quarterfinalist • ranking in 20081952 1975 French Open quarterfinalist1963 23 Ranking in 19861963 12 1984 Wimbledon quarterfinalist • Ranking in 19861973 22 1997 and 1998 French Open quarterfinalist • 2000 and 2004 Australian Open quarterfinalist • ranking in 20011964 5 1983 U.S. Open semifinalist • ranking in 19841964 23 1992 Olympic silver medalist • ranking in 199119171986 Hungary Winner of 1 Grand Slam title → '''1947 French champion''' • 1948 Wimbledon semifinalist''''''1943 1985 2 Winner of 3 Grand Slam titles → '''1968 U.S. Open champion''' • '''1970 Australian Open champion''' • '''1975 Wimbledon champion''' • ranking in 1975''''2000 6 2021 U.S. Open semifinalist • 2022 Australian Open quarterfinalist • 2021 Wimbledon quarterfinalist • Ranking in 2022 19062000 Great Britain 1997 2 1932 and 1938 Wimbledon finalist • 1937 French finalist • amateur ranking in 19311932 5 1958 and 1960 French finalist • ranking in 1958''''''18721929 Great Britain 2013 Winner of 3 Grand Slam titles → '''1891, 1892 and 1895 Wimbledon champion''', 1893, 1894 and 1896 runner-up1985 8 2006 Australian Open finalist • 2006 Wimbledon semifinalist • ranking in 20061953 7 1977 U.S. Open semifinalist • 1978 French Open semifinalist • ranking in 197818731943 Great Britain 1908, 1909 and 1911 Wimbledon finalist1941 Ranked a world top-20 player for 1971''''1992– Georgia 16 Ranking in 2019''''1988– Spain 9 Ranking in 2020 • 2016 Olympics quarterfinals • 2019 Wimbledon semifinalist18791944 Great Britain 1912 Australasian championships finalist''''''1967– West Germany/Germany 2003 '''1''' Winner of 6 Grand Slam titles → '''1985/1986/1989 Wimbledon champion''' • '''1989 U.S. Open champion''' • '''1991/1996 Australian Open champion''' • 1988 Masters Grand Prix champion; 1992/1995 ATP Tour World champion • '''ranking world no.", "1 for 12 weeks''' in 19911885 1969 1906 U.S. Championship finalist1945 1968 Australian Championships quarterfinalist18751947 United States 1904 Olympic bronze medalist''''1987– Brazil 21 Ranking in 20101959– Argentina 21 Ranking in 19871981 25 2006 French Open quarterfinalist • ranking in 20141973– Spain 7 1994 French Open finalist • ranking in 19941985– Czech Republic 4 2010 Wimbledon finalist • 2011 Tour Finals semifinalist • ranking in 201519252008 Sweden 1946/1948/1951 Wimbledon quarterfinalist1966 7 1989 U.S. Open quarterfinalist • 1989 French Open quarterfinalist • ranking in 19901967– Sweden 1993 Australian Open quarterfinalist1914 Winner of 1 Grand Slam title → 1946 '''French Championships champion'''''''1996– Italy 6 2021 Wimbledon finalist • 2019 U.S. Open semifinalist • Ranking in 20221951– Italy 12 1973 French Open quarterfinalist • ranking in 197319091980 Great Britain 1939 French Championships quarterfinalist1972– Sweden 4 1997 U.S. Open semifinalist • 2006 Wimbledon semifinalist • ranking in 19971969– Zimbabwe 22 1995 U.S. Open quarterfinalist • 2000 Wimbledon quarterfinalist • ranking in 19961979 4 2005/2006 U.S. Open quarterfinalist • 2008 Australian Open quarterfinalist • 2006 Tour Finals finalist • ranking in 20061976– Spain 1997 French Open quarterfinalist1969 12 Ranking in 199618701958 Great Britain 1896 Olympic gold medalist''''''1956– Sweden 1987 '''1''' Winner of 11 Grand Slam titles → '''1974/1975/1978/1979/1980/1981 French Open champion''' • '''1976/1977/1978/1979/1980 Wimbledon champion''' • 1979/1980 Masters Grand Prix champion • '''Year-End No.", "1''' in 1979 and 1980 • ranking '''world no.", "1''' for 109 weeks → for 1 week in 1977, 32 in 1979, 49 in 1980 and 27 in 1981''''''1898 1976 2 Winner of 5 Grand Slam titles → '''1924 and 1931 French champion''' • '''1924 and 1926 Wimbledon champion''' • '''1928 Australian champion''' • ranking in 19261949 25 Ranking in 19771943– Australia Winner of 1 Grand Slam title → '''1968 Australian champion'''1908 1931 French Championships finalist, 1928 Wimbledon semifinalist19302011 Belgium 1958 French Championships semifinalist18641939 United States 1885 U.S. Championships finalist''''''19181999 Australia 1984 2 Winner of 2 Grand Slam titles → '''1939 and 1946 Australian champion''' • ranking in 1939''''''18771968 Australia 1977 Winner of 3 Grand Slam titles → '''1907 and 1914 Wimbledon champion''' • '''1911 Australasian champion'''19242001 Great Britain 3 1946 Wimbledon finalist • amateur ranking in 19461922 1946 United States finalist • 1947 Wimbledon finalist18951976 9 1926 Wimbledon semifinalist • rated world no.", "9 in 1927''''''1971– Spain 3 Winner of 2 Grand Slam titles → 1993/1994 '''French Open champion''' • 1996 Olympic silver medalist • ranking in 1994''''1997– Kazakhstan 25 Ranking in 20231940– 2005 5 1960 U.S. National semifinalist • ranking in 1960''''''1915 1964 '''1''' Winner of 6 Grand Slam titles → '''1937 and 1938 Wimbledon champion''' • '''1937 and 1938 United States champion''' • '''1938 French champion''' • '''1938 Australian champion''' • '''rated amateur world no.", "1 for 2 years''', 1937 through 19381965 22 Ranking in 1989 • 1988 U.S. Open semifinalist ''''''18711953 United States 1955 Winner of 3 Grand Slam titles → '''1890, 1891 and 1892 United States champion''' 1976 16 Ranking in 20031968 18 Ranking in 19921963 21 Ranking in 19851977 8 Ranking in 2005 ◌ 2002/2005/2007 French Open quarterfinalist1970 1991 Australian Open quarterfinalist18691937 Great Britain 1903 Wimbledon semifinalist • 1908 Olympic indoor silver medalist1968 6 Ranking in 1988''''1991 10 Ranking in 2017 • 2017/2020 U.S. Open semifinalist • 2021 Olympic bronze medalist1951 13 Ranking in 1976 ◌ 1974 Australian Open semifinalist ''''''1965 4 Winner of 1 Grand Slam title → '''1987 Wimbledon champion''' • ranking in 1988''''1992– Italy 16 2018 French Open semifinalist • ranking in 201919171965 Czechoslovakia 1937, 1938 French Championships quarterfinalist • 1938 Wimbledon quarterfinalist''''1998 19 Ranking in 20231875 1961 1894 United States semifinalist 1966 1990 French Open quarterfinalist • 1991 Wimbledon quarterfinalist''''''1972 2008 2 Winner of 1 Grand Slam title → '''1989 French Open champion''' • ranking in 1996''''1987 25 2013 Australian Open quarterfinalist • ranking in 20131979 15 2004/2011 French Open quarterfinalist • 2007 US Open quarterfinalist • ranking in 20041970– Soviet Union/ 13 1990 Australian Open quarterfinalist • 1990 U.S. Open quarterfinalist • 1992 Olympic bronze medalist • ranking in 19911966– Soviet Union/ 9 1989 French Open semifinalist • ranking in 199118501903 Great Britain 1884 Wimbledon semifinalist''''''''''1988– 3 '''2014 U.S. Open champion''' • 2017 Wimbledon finalist • 2018 Australian Open finalist • 2022 French open semifinalist • 2010 Australian Open semifinalist • ranking in 201818591937 United States1983 1882 U.S. Championship finalist18611956 United States1955 1885/1886/1887 U.S. Championship semifinalist1968 18 Ranking in 19921977 10 2001 Australian Open finalist • ranking in 20011958 4 1981 and 1982 French Open semifinalist • ranking in 198118811962 United States 1956 Winner of 1 Grand Slam title → '''1906 United States champion'''''''''1901 1976 '''1''' Winner of 7 Grand Slam titles → '''1926, 1928, 1930 and 1932 French champion''' • '''1927 and 1929 Wimbledon champion''' • '''1928 United States champion''' • 1924 Olympic silver medalist • '''rated world no.", "1 amateur for 3 years''', 1928 through 1930 ''''''1952 1998 '''1''' Winner of 8 Grand Slam titles → '''1974 Australian Open champion''', 1975 finalist • '''1974 and 1982 Wimbledon champion''' • '''1974, 1976, 1978, 1982 and 1983 U.S. Open champion''' • 1977 Masters Grand Prix champion • '''Year-End No.", "1''' from 1974 to 1978 • '''ranking world no.", "1 for 268 weeks''' → 22 weeks in 1974, 52 weeks in 1975, 52 weeks in 1976, 51 weeks in 1977, 52 weeks in 1978, 22 weeks in 1979, 8 weeks in 1982 and 9 weeks in 198319132004 United States 1939 Wimbledon finalist ''''''1936 1991 '''1''' Winner of 4 Grand Slam titles → '''1957 and 1958 Australian champion''' • '''1958 Wimbledon champion''' • '''1958 United States champion''' • '''amateur ranking no.", "1''' for 1957 and 19581946 1971 and 1972 Australian Open quarterfinalist1944 1974 French Open quarterfinalist1982 3 2004 French Open finalist • ranking in 2004''''1996 12 2020 US Open quarterfinalist • ranking in 20181974 2 1998/2001 French Open finalist • 1998 Masters champion • ranking in 1999''''''1975 6 Winner of 1 Grand Slam title → '''2002 French Open champion''' • ranking in 20021968 10 Ranking in 1992''''''1970 2005 '''1''' Winner of 4 Grand Slam titles → '''1991 and 1992 French Open champion''' • '''1992 and 1993 Australian Open champion''' • '''Year-End No.", "1''' in 1992 • ranking '''world no.", "1''' for 58 weeks in 19921943– Great Britain 13 1971 Australian Open quarterfinalist • ranking in 1977''''''19091976/ Germany 1977 Winner of 2 Grand Slam titles → 1934/1936 '''French champion''', 1935 finalist • 1935/1936/1937 Wimbledon finalist • 1937 U.S. finalist''''''19081991 1979 '''1''' Winner of 6 Grand slam titles → '''1931, 1932, 1933 and 1935 Australian champion''' • '''1933 French champion''' • '''1933 Wimbledon champion''' • '''amateur ranking''', 19331944 1970 Australian Open finalist19161977 Italy 1947, 1948 and 1949 French Championships quarterfinalist''''1986– Uruguay 19 Ranking in 20161958– South Africa/ 5 1984 Australian Open finalist • 1985 Wimbledon finalist • ranking in 1985''''1999– Spain 24 Ranking in 2023 • 2021 French Open quarterfinalist19432010 8 1966 Wimbledon semifinalist • ranking in 196719282008 Sweden 2007 Winner of 1 Grand slam title → '''1957 French champion'''1879 1956 1898 United States finalist1962 11 1984 Australian Open quarterfinalist • ranking in 19851970– Argentina 1991 French Open quarterfinalist1981– Russia 3 2005/2007 French Open semifinalist • 2006/2007 U.S. Open semifinalist • 2009 Tour Finals champion • ranking in 20061882 1911, 1912 Wimbledon semifinalist • 1906 Olympic gold medalist (Intercalated Games)19382009 1961 U.S. Championship quarterfinalist''''''1988– Argentina 3 Winner of 1 Grand Slam title → '''2009 U.S. Open champion''' • 2009 Tour finals finalist • 2012 Olympic bronze medalist • 2016 Olympics silver medalist • ranking in 2018''''1999– Australia 18 2020 US Open quarterfinalist • ranking in 20191950– Australia 17 1974 Australian Open finalist • ranking in 19771981 21 Ranking in 20051956 12 1981 and 1982 Australian Open finalist • ranking in 19831917 1937 French Championships semifinalist1972– Belgium 1997 French Open semifinalist1944– Australia 1979 Australian Open semifinalist1951 5 1975 and 1976 French Open semifinalist • ranking in 19781959 1983 U.S. Open quarterfinalist1942– South Africa 1965 Wimbledon quarterfinalist''''1991– Bulgaria 3 2014 Wimbledon semifinalist • 2017 Australian Open semifinalist • 2019 US Open semifinalist • ranking in 2017 • 2017 '''Tour Finals champion'''18731939 Great Britain 6 1901, 1911 Wimbledon finalist • 1912 Olympic indoor silver medalist • rated world no.", "6 in 1913 1979 2000 Olympic bronze medalist''''''''''1987– Serbia '''1''' Winner of 24 Grand Slam titles including a triple Career Grand Slam in 2016, 2021 and 2023 → 2008/2011/2012/2013/2015/2016/2019/2020/2021/2023 '''Australian Open champion (10)''' • 2011/2014/2015/2018/2019/2021/2022 '''Wimbledon champion (7)''' • 2011/2015/2018/2023 '''U.S.", "Open champion (4)''' • 2016/2021/2023 '''French Open champion (3)''' • 2008/12/13/14/15/22/23 '''Tour finals champion (7)''' • 2008 Olympic bronze medalist • '''Year-End no.", "1''' in 2011, 2012, 2014, 2015, 2018, 2020 and 2021 • ranking '''world no.", "1''' at a record of 390 weeks (2011–2023)1908 1962 '''1930 United States champion''' ''''''18751919 Great Britain 1980 Winner of 6 Grand Slam titles and 1 Olympic gold medal → '''1902, 1903, 1904, 1905 and 1906 Wimbledon champion''' • '''1903 United States champion''' • '''1900 Olympic gold medalist'''''''''18721910 Great Britain 1980 Winner of 4 Grand Slam titles → '''1897, 1898, 1899 and 1900 Wimbledon champion''' • 1902 United States runner-up • 1900 Olympic bronze medalist1988– Ukraine 13 2011 Australian Open quarterfinalist • ranking in 20121926 1950 French Championships quarterfinalist1970– Czech Republic 1999 U.S. Open quarterfinalist18791961 Australia 1913 Wimbledon finalist1975– West Germany 1994 French Open quarterfinalist19582013 Australia 1975 Australian Open quarterfinalist''''''19212001/Czechoslovakia/Egypt 1983 Winner of 3 Grand Slam titles → '''1951 and 1952 French champion''' • '''1954 Wimbledon champion'''1941– South Africa 2013 13 1968 U.S. Open quarterfinalist • 1969 Wimbledon quarterfinalist • 1971 Australian Open quarterfinalist • ranking in 19741952– Great Britain 1977 (December) Australian Open quarterfinalist1954 14 1979 Wimbledon semifinalist • ranking in 1980''''''1852 1955 1883 U.S. Championship finalist18671920 Great Britain 1895, 1896, 1897 Wimbledon finalist • 1897(Ch) U.S. Championships finalist • 1908 Olympic outdoor bronze medalist''''''1966– Sweden 2004 '''1''' Winner of 6 Grand Slam titles → '''1985 and 1987 Australian Open champion''' • '''1988 and 1990 Wimbledon champion''' • '''1991 and 1992 U.S. Open champion''' • 1989 Masters Grand Prix champion • 1988 Olympic bronze medalist • '''Year-End No.", "1''' in 1990 and 1991 • '''ranking no.", "1 for 72 weeks''' → 21 weeks in 1990, 40 in 1991 and 11 in 1992''''''1954– Australia 15 Winner of 1 Grand slam title → '''1976 Australian Open champion''' • ranking in 1982''''1995– Great Britain 14 2018 Australian Open semifinalist • ranking in 20181971– Morocco 14 2000 and 2003 Australian Open quarterfinalist • 2002 and 2003 U.S. Open quarterfinalist • ranking in 20031947– Egypt 1974 Wimbledon quarterfinalist1970– Netherlands 19 1995 Australian Open quarterfinalist, 1995 Wimbledon quarterfinalist • ranking in 1995.", "''''''1936– Australia 1982 '''1''' Winner of 12 Grand Slam titles → '''1961, 1963, 1964, 1965, 1966 and 1967 Australian champion''' • '''1961 and 1964 United States champion''' • '''1963 and 1967 French champion''' • '''1964 and 1965 Wimbledon champion''' • '''ranking world no.", "1 amateur for two years''', 1964 and 19651974– Sweden 4 1999 Australian Open finalist, 1996 quarterfinalist • 2001 Wimbledon quarterfinalist • ranking in 19991976 17 1998 Australian Open semifinalist • ranking in 200018571916 Great Britain 1878 Wimbledon All Comers finalist''''1999– Argentina 2023 French Open quarterfinalist''''1996 2023 Wimbledon quarterfinalist''''1990– Great Britain 21 Ranking in 20211961 1987 Australian Open quarterfinalist1948 24 Ranking in 19731926 1974 Winner of 1 Grand Slam title → '''1948 Wimbledon champion'''''''''1981 '''1''' Winner of 20 Grand Slam titles and a '''career Grand Slam''' completed in 2009 ◌ '''2003/2004/2005/2006/2007/2009/2012/2017 Wimbledon champion (8)''' • '''2004/2006/2007/2010/2017/2018 Australian Open champion (6)''' • '''2004/2005/2006/2007/2008 U.S. Open champion (5)''' • '''2009 French Open champion''' • '''2003/2004/2006/2007/2010/2011 Tour Finals champion (6)''' • 2012 Olympics silver medalist • '''Year-End No.", "1''' in between 2004 and 2007 and in 2009 • Ranking: '''world no.", "1 for 310 weeks''' (2004–2018) of which 237 consecutive (also a record) (2004–2008)1951– Austria 1978 Australian Open quarterfinalist1971–/ South Africa 6 1992 and 2003 Australian Open semifinalist • ranking in 19951982 3 2013 French Open finalist • 2007 Tour Finals finalist • ranking in 2013''''''1980 '''1''' Winner of 1 Grand Slam title → '''2003 French Open champion''' • 2002 Tour Finals finalist, 2001 semifinalist • '''ranking world no.", "1 for 8 weeks''', in 20031952 10 1977 and 1980 French Open quarterfinalist • 1980 Wimbledon quarterfinalist • 1980 U.S. Open quarterfinalist • ranking in 19771967– Uruguay 1999 French Open quarterfinalist1946– Chile 14 1975 U.S. Open quarterfinalist • ranking in 19741981 7 2007 Australian Open quarterfinalist • 2008 U.S. Open quarterfinalist • 2011 Wimbledon quarterfinalist • 2004 Olympic single silver medalist • ranking in 20111960– Australia 25 Ranking in 1988 1928 5 1950 United States finalist • 1957 French finalist • ranking in 19571955 8 1980 Wimbledon quarterfinalist • ranking in 1980''''1987 9 2011 French Open quarterfinalist • ranking in 201919342020 South Africa 1962 United States quarterfinalist1965 4 1991 and 1993 Australian Open quarterfinalist • 1991, 1992 and 1994 Wimbledon quarterfinalist • ranking in 19911947– Yugoslavia 8 1970 French Open finalist • ranking in 1991''''''1933– Australia 1984 '''1''' Winner of 3 Grand Slam titles → '''1959 and 1960 United States champion''' • '''1960 Wimbledon champion''' • '''amateur No.", "1 ranking''', 1959 and 19601952– Australia 1979 Australian Open quarterfinalist''''1997 7 2022 Wimbledon quarterfinalist • 2022 Tour Finals semifinalist • Ranking in 20231942 1971 French Open semifinalist18841962 Germany 1914 Wimbledon finalist • 1908 Olympic outdoor silver medalist 1970– Australia 24 Ranking in 19901970– Italy 19 1995 French Open quarterfinalist • ranking in 19961977 14 2004 Wimbledon quarterfinalist • ranking in 2001''''1983– Spain 23 Ranking in 2011''''1996– Chile 17 2022 Wimbledon quarterfinalist • Ranking in 202118981971 United States1969 1919, 1920 Wimbledon semifinalist ''''1986 7 2007 and 2015 Wimbledon semifinalist • 2013 US Open semifinalist • ranking in 2007 1973– Italy 18 Ranking in 1995''''''1978– Argentina 5 Winner of 1 Grand Slam title → '''2004 French Open champion''' • 2005 Tour Finals semifinalist • ranking in 20051882 1914 Wimbledon quarterfinalist • 1906 Olympic silver medalist (Intercalated Games)''''''1954 3 Winner of 1 Grand Slam title → '''1977(December) Australian Open champion''' • 1979 and 1981 Masters Grand Prix finalist • ranking in 1978 1934 1955 U.S. Championships quarterfinalist1963 1982 Australian Open quarterfinalist1949– Australia 16 Ranking in 1974 ◌ 1977(December) Australian Open semifinalist1982 15 Ranking in 2005 ◌ 2005 U.S. Open semifinalist''''''19382019 Spain 2009 10 Winner of one Grand Slam titles → 1972 '''French champion''' • ranking amateur in 1969 1942–/ Spain 1968 Australian Championships finalist1958 1982 Australian Open quarterfinalist1961 4 Ranking in 1990 ◌ 1987 U.S. Open quarterfinalist • 1990 Wimbledon quarterfinalist • 1988 Olympics bronze medalist1956– Chile 12 Ranking in 1980 ◌ 1978/1979/1980 French Open quarterfinalist1958– Israel 22 Ranking in 1982 ◌ 1981 Australian Open quarterfinalist18601939 United States 1881 U.S. Championships finalist1890 3 1912 Wimbledon finalist • 1912 Olympic indoor gold medalist • rated world no.", "3 in 1919 ''''1990– Belgium 7 2016 French Open quarterfinalist • 2017 Australian Open quarterfinalist • 2019 Wimbledon quarterfinalist • 2017 Tour Finals finalist • ranking in 20171963 1989 Wimbledon quarterfinalist1973 22 Ranking in 1999''''''1960– Ecuador 4 Winner of 1 Grand Slam title → '''1990 French Open champion''', 1984, 1986 and 1987 quarterfinalist • 1984 Wimbledon quarterfinalist • 1984 U.S. Open quarterfinalist • ranking in 1990''''''1928 1968 Winner of 2 Grand Slam titles → '''1948 and 1949 United States champion''' • 1968 French Open semifinalist • 1968 U.S. Open quarterfinalist • '''rated world no.", "1 for 8 years''', 1952, 1954, 1955, 1956, 1957, 1958, 1959 and (as co-no.1) 19601980– Chile 5 2007 Australian Open finalist • 2008 Olympic silver medalist, 2004 bronze medalist • ranking in 2007 18531909 Ireland 1879 Wimbledon finalist''''''18681928 Great Britain 2006 '''1''' Winner of 3 Grand Slam titles → '''1900, 1901 and 1909 Wimbledon champion''' • 1908 Olympic indoor gold medallist • rated world no.", "1 in 190118501906 Great Britain Winner of 1 Grand Slam title → '''1877 Wimbledon champion''', 1878 finalist1946 8 1971 Wimbledon semifinalist • 1972 U.S. Open semifinalist • 1973 French Open semifinalist • ranking in 19731952 3 1977 French Open finalist • ranking in 19771948 1970 French Open semifinalist1943 7 1967 United States finalist • ranking in 1968 1910 1972 6 1935 U.S. Open semifinalist • ranking in 193719031959 Great Britain Winner of 1 Grand Slam title → '''1929 Australian champion'''1920 1942, 1943, 1944, and 1945 U.S. National Championships quarterfinalist''Tallon Griekspoor''1996– Netherlands 24 Ranking in 202318881973 United States1970 1916 U.S. Championship semifinalist18601930 Great Britain Finalist in 1884 Wimbledon Championships – Gentlemen's singles1978 4 2001 Australian Open semifinalist • 2001 French Open semifinalist • 2003 and 2004 Wimbledon semifinalist • 2001 Tennis Masters Cup finalist • winner of 1 ATP Masters Series event • ranking in 2002''''1988– Latvia 10 2014 French Open semifinalist• ranking in 20141951 15 1979 Wimbledon quarterfinalist • ranking in 19791951 1982 U.S. Open quarterfinalist19312000 Hungary 1966 French finalist, 1971 quarterfinalist1962– Sweden 25 1989 Australian Open semifinalist • ranking in 19851959– Switzerland 22 1985 Wimbledon quarterfinalist • 1985 U.S. Open quarterfinalist • ranking in 19861967– Sweden 10 1994 Australian Open quarterfinalist • ranking in 19911966– Netherlands 18 1991 U.S. Open quarterfinalist • ranking in 1995 1978– Germany 2 2000 Olympic silver medalist • 1999/2002/2007 Australian Open semifinalist • 2009 Wimbledon semifinalist • ranking in 200218781937 United States 1961 1906 United quarterfinalist18551946 Great Britain Winner of 1 Grand Slam title → '''1878 Wimbledon champion''', 1879 runner-up18721932 United States 1892 U.S. Championships semifinalist18671934 United States 1891 U.S. Championships semifinalist 18641943 Ireland Winner of 1 Grand Slam title → '''1890 Wimbledon champion''', 1889 semifinalist 1981– Romania 2005 French Open quarterfinalist19151996 Great Britain 1937 French Championships quarterfinalist, 1937 U.S. Championships quarterfinalist1961 1982 U.S. Open quarterfinalist''''''18491935 Great Britain Winner of 2 Grand Slam titles → '''1879 and 1880 Wimbledon champion''', 1881 runner-up18991990 Australia Winner of 1 Grand Slam title → 1926 '''Australasian champion''' • 1928 French Championships semifinalist ''''''18841936 Australia Winner of 2 Grand Slam titles → 1905/1910 Australian champion18411915 Great Britain 1877 Wimbledon All-Comers semifinalist19151943/ Germany Winner of 1 Grand Slam title → 1937 '''French champion''' • 1938, 1939 Wimbledon semifinalist1974– Great Britain 4 1998, 1999, 2001 and 2002 Wimbledon semifinalist • 2004 French Open semifinalist • 2004 U.S. Open semifinalist • ranking in 20021900 8 Ranking in 1927 and 1928 1940– Australia/ South Africa 6 1960, 1962 and 1963 Australian semifinalist • ranking amateur, 1967''''''1981– Australia 2022 '''1''' Winner of 2 Grand Slam titles → '''2001 U.S. Open champion''' • '''2002 Wimbledon champion''' • 2001/2002 Tour Finals champion • '''Year-End No.", "1''' in 2001 and 2002 • '''ranking no.", "1 for 80 weeks'''1953– Spain 6 1982 and 1983 French Open semifinalist, 1977 and 1979 quarterfinalist – ranking in 19831964– Switzerland 22 1991 French Open quarterfinalist • ranking in 1985''''''19341994 Australia 1980 '''1''' Winner of 4 Grand Slam titles → '''1956 and 1957 Wimbledon champion''' • '''1956 French champion''' • '''1956 Australian champion''' • '''ranking world no.", "1 amateur for 2 years''', 1953, 1956.", "'''ranking world no.", "1 professional 1959 Ampol points'''1870 1891, 1905 U.S. Championships finalist • 1898 Wimbledon semifinalist1968– Sweden 17 Ranking in 19931938 7 1959 U.S. Championships semifinalist • 1961 French Championships quarterfinalist • ranking in 19601963 22 Ranking in 19851958 17 Ranking in 198219061985 1978 1930, 1931 and 1932 Australian Championships finalist 1868 1974 '''1895 United States champion''', 1896 finalist1978– Slovakia 12 1999 French Open semifinalist • ranking in 20041950– Czechoslovakia 25 Ranking in 197419021997 Great Britain 1931 French Championships semifinalist''''1998 25 Ranking in 20211919 1966 Winner of 1 Grand Slam title → '''1943 U.S. champion'''1894 1961 1923 Wimbledon finalist • 1928 and 1929 United States finalist''''1997– Poland 9 2021 Wimbledon semifinalist • ranking in 2021''''1985 8 2018 Wimbledon semifinalist • 2011/2018 U.S. Open quarterfinalist • ranking in 2018''''''1971– Yugoslavia / Croatia2020 2 Winner of 1 Grand Slam title → '''2001 Wimbledon champion''' • 1996 U.S. Open semifinalist • 1992 Olympic bronze medalist • ranking in 199418791977 India 1925 French Championships semifinalist, 1925 Wimbledon quarterfinalist1964– Argentina 10 1985 French Open quarterfinalist • ranking in 1990''''1990– Poland 14 2013 Wimbledon semifinalist • ranking in 20131942 20 1974 French Open semifinalist • 1966 French Championships semifinalist • ranking in 1974''Nicolas Jarry''1995– Chile24Ranking in 20231961– Sweden 5 1985 Wimbledon semifinalist • ranking in 19851982– Sweden 9 2004 U.S. Open semifinalist • ranking in 2005''''''1975– Sweden 7 Winner of 1 Grand Slam title → '''2002 Australian Open champion''' • 2005 Wimbledon semifinalist • 1998/2000 US Open quarterfinalist • ranking in 2002''''1989 21 Ranking in 2016 • 2016 Olympics quarterfinalist''''''1894 1958 '''1''' Winner of 3 Grand Slam titles → '''1915 and 1919 United States champion''' • '''1923 Wimbledon champion''' (results incomplete as tournament drawsheets unavailable) • co-ranking '''world no.", "1 for 1919''' 19392023 Yugoslavia 1968 French Open quarterfinalist''''''1974– Russia 2019 '''1''' Winner of 2 Grand Slam titles and 1 Olympic gold medal → '''1996 French Open champion''' • '''1999 Australian Open champion''' • '''2000 Olympic gold medalist''' • '''ranking no.", "1 for 6 weeks''', in 1999 ''''1993– Russia 14 2021 Australian Open semifinalist • ranking in 20211968– West Germany 22 1996 French Open quarterfinalist • 1996 U.S. Open quarterfinalist • ranking in 1995''''1979 14 2009 Wimbledon quarterfinalist • Ranking in 200818721931 Greece 1896 Olympic silver medalist18911937 Hungary 1926/1929 French Championships quarterfinalist • 1929 Wimbledon quarterfinalist''''1996– Russia 8 2023 Australian Open semifinalist • 2022 U.S. Open semifinalist • 2019/2023 French Open quarterfinalist • 2020 Olympic silver medalist • Ranking in 20191977– Germany 4 2006 Australian Open semifinalist • 1997 Wimbledon quarterfinalist • 2000 U.S. Open quarterfinalist • 1999 Tour Finals semifinalist • Ranking in 20001899 1926 Wimbledon finalist18881964 Great Britain Winner of 1 Grand Slam title → '''1919 Australian champion''' • 1919 Wimbledon finalist19111994 South Africa 1934 U.S. Championships semifinalist • 1934 Wimbledon quarterfinalist18741951 South Africa 1912 Olympic silver medalist''''1989– Slovakia 24 Ranking in 201518631917 United States 1885, 1890 U.S. Championships finalist1935– Great Britain 1959 French quarterfinalist1945– Brazil 24 1969 French Open quarterfinalist • ranking in 1974 ''''''1946– Czechoslovakia 1990 Winner of 3 Grand Slam titles → '''1970 and 1971 French Open champion''' • '''1973 Wimbledon champion'''''''1983– Germany 16 2012 Wimbledon quarterfinalist • ranking in 2012''''''1968– Czechoslovakia / Czech Republic 2 Winner of 1 Grand Slam title → '''1998 Australian Open champion''' • ranking in 1998''''2000– United States 23 2023 Australian Open quarterfinalist • ranking in 20231977– Austria 20 2002 Australian Open quarterfinalist • ranking in 200019041979 Czechoslovakia 1926 and 1927 Wimbledon quarterfinalist''''''18951950 Czechoslovakia 2006 '''Rated professional world no.", "1 for four years''', 1926, 1927, 1928 and 1929''''''1971– Netherlands 4 Winner of 1 Grand Slam title → '''1996 Wimbledon champion''' • ranking in 1999''''''1921 1968 Winner of 3 Grand Slam titles → '''1946 and 1947 United States champion''' • '''1947 Wimbledon champion''' • '''rated world no.", "1 for 5 years''' → 1947, 1948, 1949, 1950 and 195118871968 Germany 1913 Wimbledon semifinalist • 1912 Olympic bronze medalist 1967 6 1989 U.S. Open semifinalist • 1995 Australian Open semifinalist • ranking in 1990''''''1958– South Africa / 7 Winner of 2 Grand Slam titles → '''1981 and 1982 Australian Open champion''' • ranking in 19841937– India 1960 and 1961 Wimbledon semifinalist1961– India 23 1981 and 1987 U.S. Open quarterfinalist • 1986 Wimbledon quarterfinalist • ranking in 19851954– Australia 1978 Australian Open quarterfinalist''''1982– Poland 2013 Wimbledon quarterfinalist''''''1976– Brazil 2012 '''1''' Winner of 3 Grand Slam titles → '''1997/2000/2001 French Open champion''' • 2000 Tennis Masters Cup champion • '''Year-End No.", "1''' in 2000 • '''ranking no.", "1 for 43 weeks'''in 2000–20011974 6 1998 Australian Open semifinalist • ranking in 19981966– Germany 1988 Wimbledon quarterfinalist1971– Sweden 1992 French Open quarterfinalist18901968 Japan 1918 U.S. Championships semifinalist • 1920 Olympics silver medalist''''1995– Australia 13 2022 Wimbledon finalist • 2022 U.S. Open quarterfinalist • 2015 Australian Open quarterfinalist • 2014 Wimbledon quarterfinalist • Ranking in 2016''''''1904 1976 '''1''' Winner of 7 Grand Slam titles → '''1925, 1927 and 1929 French champion''', 1926 and 1928 finalist • '''1925 and 1928 Wimbledon champion''', 1924 finalist, 1927 semifinalist • '''1926 and 1927 United States champion''' • '''rated world no.", "1 for 2 years'''''''1990– Serbia 23 Ranking in 20191976– Ecuador 6 1999 Australian Open semifinalist • ranking in 1999''''''18721926 United States 1956 Winner of 7 Grand Slam titles → '''1901, 1902, 1907, 1908, 1909, 1910 and 1911 United States champion''', 1900 and 1903 finalist • '''rated world no.", "1 for 5 years''' → 1901 and 1902 (co-rated), 1908, 1909 and 191019252012 United States 1969 Winner of 1 Grand Slam title → '''1950 United States champion''', 1954 finalist1970– Sweden 10 1994 French Open semifinalist • ranking in 1995''''''1938– Australia 1981 Winner of 11 Grand Slam titles → '''1960 and 1962 Australian champion'''; '''1969 Australian Open champion''' • '''1962 French champion'''; '''1969 French Open champion''', 1968 finalist • '''1961, 1962, 1968 and 1969 Wimbledon champion''' • '''1962 United States champion'''; '''1969 U.S. Open champion''' • 1970 Masters Grand Prix finalist • '''rated world no.", "1 for 7 years''' → 1964 (co-rated), 1965, 1966, 1967, 1968, 1969 and 1970 (co-rated) 18511925 Great Britain 2006 Winner of 1 Grand Slam title → '''1887 Wimbledon champion''', 1880, 1884, 1885, 1886 and 1888 finalist, 1878, 1881 and 1882 and All-Comers semifinalist1963 5 1988 French Open finalist • ranking in 198619071998 Great Britain 1933 French Championships semifinalist''''2001– Czech Republic 2023 Australian Open quarterfinalist''''''1960– Czechoslovakia/ 2001 '''1''' winner of 8 Grand Slam titles → '''1984, 1986 and 1987 French Open champion''' • '''1985, 1986 and 1987 U.S. Open champion''' • '''1989 and 1990 Australian Open champion''' • 1981, 1982, 1985, 1986 and 1987 Masters Grand Prix champion • '''Year-End No.", "1''' in 1985, 1986, 1987 and 1989 • '''ranking no.", "1 for 270 weeks''' → 17 weeks in 1983, 15 in 1984, 17 in 1985, 52 in 1986, 52 in 1987, 37 in 1988, 48 in 1989 and 32 in 199018811948 United States 1904 U.S. Championship semifinalist • 1904 Olympic bronze medalist18851946 United States 1907 U.S. Championship finalist • 1904 Olympic silver medalist18671930 Great Britain 1886, 1888, 1892, 1894 Wimbledon finalist1957 19 1983 Wimbledon finalist • ranking in 19791979– Croatia 3 2006 French Open semifinalist • ranking in 20061980 21 Ranking in 20111954– Great Britain 1977 (December) Australian Open finalist''''1981– Spain 12 2005/2008/2011 Wimbledon quarterfinalist • 2015 US Open quarterfinalist • ranking in 20151906 1964 1931 United States finalist 18841972 Great Britain Winner of 1 Grand Slam title → 1915 '''Australian champion''' • 1911, 1923 Wimbledon semifinalist''''1983– Chinese Taipei 2010 Wimbledon quarterfinalist1965– Sweden 25 Ranking in 19871937– Sweden 3 1961, 1964 French Championships semifinalist • ranking in 19641949 7 1970 Australian Open semifinalist • ranking in 197218861935 Great Britain 1922 Wimbledon finalist, 1905 Australian semifinalist19061963 Great Britain 1930, 1932 French Championships quarterfinalist1935 1959 Wimbledon semifinalist • 1959 Australian semifinalist 18671905 Great Britain Winner of 1 Grand Slam title → '''1896 Wimbledon champion''' • 1900 Olympics silver medalist19162013 United States 1973 9 1938 United States finalist • ranking in 19381980– Belgium 19 2002 Wimbledon semifinalist • ranking in 2002 19161960 Switzerland 1936 French Championships quarterfinalist1965– Israel 18 1992 Australian Open quarterfinalist • ranking in 19871969– Argentina 8 1989 French Open quarterfinalist • ranking in 198919071978 United States 1928, 1930, 1933, 1935, 1926 U.S. Championships quarterfinalist • 1930 Wimbledon quarterfinalist • 1933 French Championships quarterfinalist''''1988 22 Ranking in 20181956 1981 U.S. Open quarterfinalist1974– Spain 10 1998 French Open semifinalist • ranking in 19981952– Australia 1978 Australian Open finalist18491921 Great Britain 1877 Wimbledon runner-up1956 1977 Wimbledon quarterfinalist 1970 4 1994 Australian Open finalist • 1999 U.S. Open finalist • ranking in 1999 1979– Chile 9 Winner of 2 Olympic gold medals ◌ '''2004 Olympic gold medalist''' • ranking in 20041950– Australia 1974 Australian Open quarterfinalist1963– Australia 15 1987 Australian Open semifinalist • 1993 U.S. Open semifinalist • ranking in 19931982 12 Ranking in 20081967– Japan 1995 Wimbledon quarterfinalist1958– West Germany 24 Ranking in 198618831941 Great Britain 1909/1914/1920 Wimbledon semifinalist1983– Germany 18 2004/2012 Wimbledon quarterfinalist • ranking in 20111956 4 1980 and 1982 Wimbledon quarterfinalist • 1982 and 1984 U.S. Open quarterfinalist • ranking in 1980 ''''1987– Argentina 21 Ranking in 20151952 7 1973 Wimbledon semifinalist • ranking in 1982 1960 7 1983 Australian Open semifinalist • 1982 Wimbledon semifinalist • 1988 Olympic silver medalist • ranking in 1988''''''1959 1999 '''1''' Winner of 7 Grand Slam titles → '''1979, 1980, 1981 and 1984 U.S. Open champion''' • '''1981, 1983 and 1984 Wimbledon champion''' • 1978, 1983 and 1984 Masters Grand Prix champion • '''Year-End No.", "1''' from 1981 to 1984 • '''ranking no.", "1 for 170 weeks''' → 4 weeks in 1980, 23 in 1981, 45 in 1982, 26 in 1983, 37 in 1984, 35 in 1985 • ranking no.", "1 for 267 weeks → 37 weeks in 1979, 52 in 1980, 41 in 1981, 48 in 1982, 52 in 1983, 37 in 19841966 1991 Australian Open semifinalist19161978 Australia Winner of 1 Grand Slam title → '''1927 Australian champion'''19292007 Australia 1999 3 Winner of 1 Grand Slam title → '''1952 Australian champion''' • ranking in 19521941 1986 2 Winner of 1 Grand Slam title → '''1963 Wimbledon champion''' • ranking in 1963''''''18901957 United States 1957 '''1''' Winner of 2 Grand Slam titles → '''1912 and 1913 United States champion''', 1911, 1914 and 1915 finalist • 1913 Wimbledon finalist (results likely incomplete as most drawsheets are unavailable) • '''rated world no.", "1 for 1 year''', 1914 19552019 Australia 7 1980 Australian Open semifinalist • ranking in 1983 1954– Australia 24 Ranking in 19861918 1965 Winner of 2 Grand Slam titles → '''1939 French champion, 1940 United States champion'''1942– South Africa 1992 Quarterfinalist 1972 US Open1964– Czechoslovakia 4 1988 '''Olympic gold medalist''' • 1986 US Open finalist • 1989 Australian Open finalist • ranking in 19881974– Soviet Union / Ukraine 4 1999 French Open finalist • ranking in 1994''''''''''1996– Russia '''1''' '''2021 US Open Champion''' • '''2020 Tour finals champion''' • 2019/2023 US Open Finalist • 2021/2022 Australian Open Finalist • 2020 US Open semifinalist • Ranking in 2022 • '''World no.", "1 for 16 weeks (2022)'''18481928 Great Britain 1889 U.S. Championships semifinalist • 1895 Wimbledon semifinalist19492014 West Germany 20 Ranking in 19731971– Brazil 25 1999 French Open semifinalist • ranking in 19991981– Austria 8 2010 French Open semifinalist • ranking in 201119071987 Czechoslovakia 1938 French Championships finalist 19272019 Italy 1955, 1956 French Championships semifinalist1944– Soviet Union 1972 French Open semifinalist • 1972 Australian Open semifinalist1977– Belarus 18 2002 US Open quarterfinalist • ranking in 2003 19171986 Yugoslavia 1938, 1946, 1949 French Championships quarterfinalist1984– Argentina 10 Ranking in 2012''''1986 6 2008 French Open semifinalist • 2016 US Open semifinalist • ranking in 20161980– Spain 22 Ranking in 201019041976 Australia '''1930 Australian champion'''1946– South Africa 1977 US Open quarterfinalist19202006 Argentina 1953, 1954 French Championships semifinalist18961961 Italy 8 1930 French Championships semifinalist • 1924 Olympic bronze medalist • rated world no.", "8 in 19301955– Great Britain 15 Ranking in 1983''''''1976– Spain '''1''' Winner of 1 Grand Slam title → 1998 '''French Open champion''' • 1998 Tour Finals finalist, 1997/2002 semifinalist • ranking '''world no.", "1''' for 2 weeks in 19991940– Australia 1962 Wimbledon finalist19132016 United States 1972 7 1952 U.S. finalist • ranking in 19521983– Luxembourg 2008 U.S. Open quarterfinalist''''''''''1987– Great Britain '''1''' Winner of 3 Grand Slam titles → '''2012 US Open champion''' •'''2013 and 2016 Wimbledon Champion''' • '''2016 Tour Finals champion''' • winner of 2 Olympic gold medals → 2012 and 2016 '''Olympic gold medalist''' • '''Year-End no.", "1''' in 2016 • '''ranking world no.", "1 for 41 weeks (2016–17)'''18921970 United States 1958 1917/1918 '''U.S.", "champion'''''''2002– Italy 15 Ranking in 2022''''''1967– Austria '''1''' Winner of 1 Grand Slam title → 1995 '''French Open champion''' • ranking '''world no.", "1''' for 6 weeks''''''''''1986– Spain '''1''' Winner of 22 Grand Slam titles including a '''career Grand Slam''' achieved in 2010 and 2 Olympic gold medals → 2005/2006/2007/2008/2010/2011/2012/2013/2014/2017/2018/2019/2020/2022 '''French Open champion (14)''' • 2008/2010 '''Wimbledon champion (2)''' • 2010/2013/2017/2019 '''US Open champion (4)''' • 2009/2022 '''Australian Open champion''' • 2010/2013 Tour Finals finalist, 2006/2007/2015/2020 semifinalist • 2008 '''Olympic single gold medalist''' • '''Year-End No.", "1''' in 2008, 2010, 2013, 2017 and 2019 • '''world no.", "1 for 209 weeks (2008–2020)'''1982– Argentina 3 2002 Wimbledon finalist • 2005 '''Tour Finals champion''', 2006 semifinalist • ranking in 2006''''''1946– Romania 1991 '''1''' Winner of 2 Grand Slam titles → 1972 '''US Open champion''' • 1973 '''French Open champion''' • 1971/1972/1973/1975 '''Masters champion''', 1974 finalist • '''Year-End No.", "1''' in 1973 • ranking '''world no.", "1''' for 40 weeks and for 197318731949 United States 1895, 1896 U.S. Championships semifinalist''''''1944– Australia 1986 '''1''' Winner of 7 Grand Slam titles → 1967/1970/1971 '''Wimbledon champion''' • 1967/1973 '''US Open champion''' • 1973/1975 '''Australian Open champion''' • ranking '''world no.", "1'''19302011 Denmark 1953/1955 Wimbledon finalist1981– Finland 13 2005 U.S. Open quarterfinalist • 2006 Wimbledon quarterfinalist • 2008 Australian Open quarterfinalist • ranking in 200618861932 United States 1917 U.S. Championships finalist18731937 Great Britain 1897 U.S. Championships finalist''''1989– Japan 4 2014 US Open finalist • 2012/2015/2016/2019 Australian Open quarterfinalist • 2015/2017/2019 French Open quarterfinalist • 2018/2019 Wimbledon quarterfinalist • 2014,2016 Tour finals semifinalist • 2016 Olympic bronze medalist • ranking in 2015''''1995– Japan 24 Ranking in 2023''''''1960– France 2005 3 Winner of 1 Grand Slam title → 1983 '''French Open champion''' • ranking in 19861976– Sweden 2 2000 French Open finalist • Ranking in 2000''''1996 8 Ranking in 2022 • 2022 Wimbledon semifinalist 1900 Olympic bronze medalist18991956 South Africa 1921 Wimbledon finalist 1965– Czechoslovakia / Czech Republic 1994 US Open semifinalist • 1987/1993 French Open quarterfinalist1975– Czech Republic 5 2002 Australian Open semifinalist • ranking in 2002''''''19101991 / Germany 2006 '''1''' Ranking in 1933 and 19341963– Sweden 7 Ranking in 1986''''''18911961 Australia 1986 7 Winner of 2 Grand Slam titles → 1920/1923 Australian champion • rated world no.", "7 in 19221944 1968 US Open finalist, 1971 semifinalist • 1969 French Open semifinalist, 1973 quarterfinalist • 1971 Australian Open semifinalist, 1970 quarterfinalist • 1978 Wimbledon semifinalist, 1968/1969/1975/1979 quarterfinalist ''''''19362020 Peru / 1987 Winner of 2 Grand Slam titles → 1959 '''Australian champion''' • 1959 '''Wimbledon champion''' • 1959 U.S. finalist''''1997 23 Ranking in 2021''''''1949–/ 2012 Winner of 1 Grand Slam title → 1975 '''US Open champion''', 1976/1977 quarterfinalist • 1974 French Open finalist, 1972 semifinalist, 1976/1978 quarterfinalist • 1972 Wimbledon semifinalist • 1968 Australian Open quarterfinalist • 1976 '''Masters champion'''1945 1971 U.S. Open quarterfinalist1938 1979 '''1''' Winner of 1 Grand Slam title → 1963 '''U.S.", "Open champion''' • ranking no.", "1 in 19631973– India 1996 Olympic bronze medalist19211986 Australia Winner of 1 Grand Slam title → 1946 '''Australian champion''', 1947 finalist • 1947 Wimbledon semifinalist, 1946 quarterfinalist''''1989 18 Ranking in 201619121994 Yugoslavia 1938 French Championships semifinalist1936 1965 U.S. Championships quarterfinalist''''''1950– Italy 4 Winner of 1 Grand Slam title → 1976 '''French Open champion''' • 1976 '''Davis Cup champion''' • ranking in 19761870 1899 U.S. Championships finalist18811946 Great Britain Winner of 1 Grand Slam title → 1912 '''Australian champion'''''''''19161997 United States 1966 Winner of 4 Grand Slam titles → 1944, 1945 '''U.S.", "champion''', 1948, 1949 '''French champion''' • 1937 Wimbledon semifinalist18471928 Great Britain 1879 Wimbledon All-Comers semifinalist1947 1973 Australian Open finalist 1944 2013 1965 U.S. quarterfinalist • 1976 Wimbledon quarterfinalist18781903 Greece 1896 Olympic bronze medalist1962 18 Ranking in 1987''''''18951967 Australia 1989 '''1''' Winner of 3 Grand Slam titles → 1919/1922 Wimbledon champion • 1927 Australian champion • Rated co-'''world no.", "1''' in 1919 with ''\"Little Bill\" Johnston''1949 24 Ranking in 1974''''''1924 1977 '''1''' Winner of 2 Grand Slam titles → 1950 '''French champion''' • 1950 '''Wimbledon champion''' • ranking in 1950''''1997 14 Ranking in 2023 • 2023 Australian Open semifinalist1974– Romania 13 2002 French Open quarterfinalist • ranking in 20041955– Paraguay 9 Ranking in 198018791967 United States 1966 1915 United States semifinalist''''1990– Argentina 20 Ranking in 2019 • 2019 Wimbledon quarterfinalist1917 1946 Wimbledon quarterfinalist1969– Argentina 13 Ranking in 19881963– Sweden 10 1986 French Open finalist • 1990 Australian Open quarterfinalist • ranking in 1986''''''19091995 Great Britain 1975 '''1''' Winner of 8 Grand Slam titles, including a Career Slam → 1933/1934/1936 '''U.S.", "champion''' • 1934/1935/1936 '''Wimbledon champion''' • 1934 '''Australian champion''' • 1935 '''French champion''' • rated '''world no.", "1''' for 5 years19162016 Winner of 1 Grand Slam title → 1946 '''Wimbledon champion'''1953 19 1978/1981/1982 Australian Open semifinalist • ranking in 19831976– Australia 8 1998 US Open finalist • 2003 Wimbledon finalist • ranking in 199919372023 Australia 1968 Australian Championships semifinalist''''''1933– Italy 1986 3 Winner of 2 Grand Slam titles → 1959 and 1960 French Open champion • ranking in 19591939– Yugoslavia 1973 French Open finalist''''''18691942 Ireland Winner of 2 Grand Slam titles → 1893, 1894 '''Wimbledon champion'''1963– Czechoslovakia 21 Ranking in 19851954– West Germany 23 Ranking in 19791969 1993 US Open finalist • 1997 Wimbledon finalist • 1998 French Open semifinalist1947 1974 French Open quarterfinalist1976– Germany 2000/2003 Wimbledon quarterfinalist''''1990 25 2015 Wimbledon quarterfinalist • ranking in 2014''''1994 10 2016 Wimbledon quarterfinalist • 2016 U.S. Open quarterfinalist • Ranking in 20181964– Croatia 16 1991 Australian Open quarterfinalist • 1993 French Open quarterfinalist • Ranking in 19911949 23 1973 French Open finalist • Ranking in 19731978– Argentina 9 2005 French Open finalist • Ranking in 200519131985 Yugoslavia 1938 French Championships semifinalist • 1938/1939 Wimbledon semifinalist1959 21 Ranking in 19801987 11 2017 Wimbledon semifinalist • 2017 U.S. Open quarterfinalist • Ranking in 2018''''''19131991 Australia 1984 Winner of 3 Grand Slam titles → 1936/1940/1948 '''Australian champion''' ''''''1972– Australia 2006 '''1''' Winner of 2 Grand Slam titles → 1997/1998 '''U.S.", "Open champion''' • 2000/2001 Wimbledon finalist • 1997 French Open semifinalist • 2001 Australian Open semifinalist • Ranking '''world no.", "1''' for 1 week1942 1987 5 1966 Wimbledon finalist • Ranking in 19661953– Mexico 4 Ranking in 1976 ''''1988– Spain 17 French Open quarterfinalist • Ranking in 2016''''1990 3 2016 Wimbledon finalist • 2016 Tour Finals semifinalist • Ranking in 201618951962 South Africa 1924 Wimbledon semifinalist • '''1920 Olympic gold medalist'''1965 20 Ranking in 1991 1958 1980 Australian Open quarterfinalist''''''18611899 Great Britain 1983 Winner of 1 Grand Slam title → 1888 '''Wimbledon champion''' ''''''18611904 Great Britain 1983 Winner of 7 Grand Slam titles → 1881/1882/1883/1884/1885/1886/1889 '''Wimbledon champion'''19211992 United States 1942 U.S. National Championships quarterfinalist19031959 United States 1961 2 1922/1924/1925/1926 U.S. Championship semifinalist • 1926 French Championships semifinalist • '''1924 Olympic gold medalist''' • rated world no.", "2 in 1924 1946 16 1970/1972 U.S. Open semifinalist • Ranking in 1973''''''19181995 United States 1967 Winner of 3 Grand Slam titles → 1939 '''Wimbledon champion''' • 1939/1941 '''U.S.", "champion''' • Ranked '''world no.", "1''' for 3 years1941 11 1971 Australian Open quarterfinalist • 1971 U.S. Open quarterfinalist • Ranking in 1974''''''1975– Chile '''1''' 1998 Australian Open finalist • Ranking '''world no.", "1''' for 6 weeks in 199818771959 Great Britain 1903(Ch)/1904(Ch)/1906(Ch) Wimbledon finalist18701955 Great Britain 1902/1903/1904/1909(Ch) Wimbledon finalist • 1908 Olympic outdoor gold medalist • 1908 Olympic indoor bronze medalist''''1982– Spain 5 2007 Australian Open quarterfinalist • 2003/2005/2007/2009/2013 French Open quarterfinalist • 2013 U.S. Open quarterfinalist • Ranking in 2006''''''1945– Australia 1986 2 1966 '''French champion''' • Ranking in 19691981– Belgium 24 Ranking in 2005''''''19822017 '''1''' Winner of 1 Grand Slam title • 2003 '''U.S.", "Open champion''' • 2003/2004/2007 Masters semifinalist • '''Year-End No.", "1''' in 2003 • Ranking '''world no.", "1''' for 13 weeks in 2003–20041957 1983 French Open semifinalist''''''19302017 Australia 2001 3 Winner of 2 Grand Slam titles • 1954 '''Australian champion''' • 1958 '''French champion''' • Ranking in 1958''''''1934– Australia 1980 '''1''' Winner of 8 Grand Slam titles • 1953/1955/1971(O)/1972(O) '''Australian (Open) champion''' • 1953/1968(O) '''French (Open) champion''' • 1956/1970(O) '''US (Open) champion''' • Ranking in 19611970– Switzerland 9 1992 '''Olympic gold medalist''' • 1996 French Open semifinalist • Ranking in 19951965 13 1988 U.S. Open quarterfinalist • Ranking in 1991''''1997– Russia 5 2017/2020/2022 U.S. Open quarterfinalist • 2020 French Open quarterfinalist • 2021 Australian Open quarterfinalist • 2022 Tour Finals semifinalist • Ranking in 2021 1946– Australia 1969/1975 Australian Open semifinalist''''2003– Denmark 7 2022 French Open quarterfinalist • Ranking in 20231973– Great Britain 4 1997 U.S. Open finalist • Ranking in 199719161977 Argentina 1942/1945 U.S. National Championships quarterfinalist''''1998– Norway 2 2022 U.S. Open finalist • 2022/2023 French Open finalist • Ranking in 20221978– Brazil 2002 Wimbledon quarterfinalist1956– United States 14 Ranking in 1980''''''1980– Russia2016 '''1''' Winner of 2 Grand Slam titles → 2000 '''US Open champion''' • 2005 '''Australian Open champion''' • 2000/2004 Masters semifinalist • Ranking '''world no.", "1''' for 9 weeks''''1997– Russia 2023 Wimbledon quarterfinalist''''''1971– United States 2007 '''1''' Winner of 14 Grand Slam titles → 1990/1993/1995/1996/2002 '''US Open champion''' • 1993/1994/1995/1997/1998/1999/2000 '''Wimbledon champion''' • 1994/1997 '''Australian Open champion''' • 1991/1994/1996/1997/1999 '''Masters champion''' • '''Year-End No.", "1''' from 1993 to 1998 '''•''' Ranking '''world no.", "1''' for 286 weeks1965– Spain 7 1988 French Open quarterfinalist • 1988 U.S. Open quarterfinalist • Ranking in 19901968– Spain 23 1991/1996 U.S. Open quarterfinalist • Ranking in 1994''''1991– United States 2018/2020 Australian Open quarterfinalist''''''19382021 Spain 1984 '''1''' Winner of 4 Grand Slam titles → 1961/1964 '''French champion''' • 1965 '''U.S.", "champion''' • 1966 '''Wimbledon champion''' • Ranking '''world no.", "1''' amateur in 1966 1972– France 17 2006 Australian Open quarterfinalist • Ranking in 2001 19081934 Japan 3 1931/1933 French championship semifinalist • 1932 Australian championship semifinalist • 1932/1933 Wimbledon semifinalist • Ranking in 1933''''''19272023 United States 1976 2 Winner of 2 Grand Slam titles → 1951 '''Wimbledon champion''' • 1951 '''Australian champion''' • Ranking in 195119562021 United States 9 Ranking in 19841976– Netherlands 11 2002 U.S. Open semifinalist • Ranking in 20031959– Netherlands 25 1985/1988 Australian Open quarterfinalist • Ranking in 198819001968 Australia 1924/1929 Australian Championships finalist ''''''1921 1966 Winner of 2 Grand Slam titles → 1942 '''U.S.", "champion''' • 1949 '''Wimbledon champion''' 1976– Germany 5 2003 Australian Open finalist • 2003 Masters semifinalist • Ranking in 2003''''1992– Argentina 8 2020 French Open semifinalist • 2017/2019 U.S. Open quarterfinalist • Ranking in 202019372008 1967 U.S. Championship semifinalist''''''18611943 United States 1955 Winner of 7 Grand Slam titles • 1881–1887 '''U.S.", "champion''' ''''''1927– Australia 1979 '''1''' Winner of 5 Grand Slam titles • 1949/1950 '''Australian champion''' • 1951/1952 '''U.S.", "champion''' • 1952 '''Wimbledon champion''' • Considered '''world no.", "1''' amateur for 195219302016 South Africa 1964 Wimbledon quarterfinalist''''''1921 1984 1942/1943/1944/1945/1946/1947 U.S. semifinalist • Considered '''world no.", "1''' professional for 1950/1952''''''1923 1971 Winner of 2 Grand Slam titles • 1953 '''Wimbledon champion''' • 1954 '''U.S.", "champion'''''''1984– Italy 18 Ranking in 2013''''1999 10 2022 Australian Open quarterfinalist • 2020 U.S. Open quarterfinalist • Ranking in 202018691960 United States 1889 U.S Championships finalist''''2002 15 2023 Australian Open quarterfinalist • 2023 US Open semifinalist1909 1964 1930 U.S. Championships finalist • 1931 Wimbledon finalist18911977 Japan 1920 Wimbledon (challenge round) finalist1920 2021 Australia 10 1948–1950 Australian Championships semifinalist – Ranking in 19491970– Netherlands 14 1998 Wimbledon quarterfinalist • Ranking in 1998''''1984 6 2009 Australian Open quarterfinalist • 2015 Wimbledon quarterfinalist • 2008 Masters semifinalist • Ranking in 2009''''2001– Italy 9 2023 Wimbledon semifinalist • Ranking in 202119281995 Italy 1960 French Championships semifinalist 1906 Ranked no.", "2 in professional tennis in 194119682008 Austria 18 Ranking in 1990''''''18621949 United States 1955 Winner of 2 Grand Slam titles • 1888/1889 '''U.S.", "champion'''1955– Czechoslovakia 12 Ranking in 19841956– Czechoslovakia 11 Ranking in 1984''''''1946 1987 '''1''' Winner of 2 Grand Slam titles • 1971 '''U.S.", "Open champion''' • 1972 '''Wimbledon champion''' • 1970 '''Masters champion''' • Ranking '''world no.", "1''' for 1972 (year-end)18721947 Great Britain 1899/1900(Ch)/1905 Wimbledon finalist''''1992 8 Ranking in 20171984– Sweden 4 2009/2010 French Open finalist • 2009 Masters semifinalist • Ranking in 20101952 5 Ranking in 1980''''1995– Italy 23 Ranking in 20211974 18 1999 Australian Open quarterfinalist • Ranking in 200518721947 South Africa 1927 French Championships semifinalist1975– Argentina 11 2000 French Open semifinalist • Ranking in 20001963– Czechoslovakia 23 1986 U.S. Open quarterfinalist • Ranking in 19861979– Thailand 9 Ranking in 20031967–/ 14 Ranking in 199019041992 Italy 1932 French Championships finalist1967– Sweden 23 Ranking in 19871978– Czech Republic 8 2006 Wimbledon quarterfinalist • Ranking in 20061969 1993 Australian Open quarterfinalist''''''1968– Germany 2018 2 Winner of 1 Grand Slam title • 1991 '''Wimbledon champion''' • 1993 '''Masters champion'''1951 1974 Wimbledon semifinalist 1911 1934 U.S. Championships semifinalist''''''1938– Australia 1985 2 Winner of 2 Grand Slam titles • 1965 '''French champion'''• 1966 '''U.S.", "champion'''1970– Australia 19 1996 Wimbledon semifinalist • Ranking in 19941945– Australia 1972 Australian Open semifinalist ''''1990– Germany 21 Ranking in 202319202004 South Africa 6 1947/1951 French Championships finalist, 1948 U.S. Championships finalist • Ranking in 19481964– Sweden 6 1984 French Open quarterfinalist • Ranking in 19841966– Sweden 10 1988 French Open semifinalist • Ranking in 199119111976 Hungary 1939 French Championships semifinalist19181999 United States 1967 1944/1945 U.S. Championships finalist''''''1951 4 Winner of 1 Grand Slam title • 1977 '''Australian Open champion''' • Ranking in 197918721949 1896 Olympic bronze medalist1954– Hungary 13 1976/1981 French Open quarterfinalist • Ranking in 198218651920 United States 1884(Ch)/1886/1887/1888 U.S. Championships finalist1941– Great Britain 11 Ranking in 1973''''''1954 7 Winner of 1 Grand Slam title • 1980 '''Australian Open champion''' • Ranking in 19811959 6 Ranking in 19821962 22 Ranking in 1984''''''''''1993– Austria 3 '''2020 U.S. Open Champion''' • 2020 Australian Open finalist • 2018/2019 French Open finalist • 2019/2020 Tour Finals finalist • Ranking in 2020''''1998 11 2022 U.S. Open semifinalist • 2019 Australian Open quarterfinalist • Ranking in 2022''''''1893 1959 '''1''' Winner of 10 Grand Slam titles • 1920/1921/1922/1923/1924/1925/1929 '''U.S.", "champion''' • 1920/1921/1930 '''Wimbledon champion''' • 7 times '''world no.", "1'''1972– Sweden 1996 Australian Open quarterfinalist19041998 Netherlands 1927/1929 Wimbledon quarterfinalist 1984– Serbia 8 2011/2012 US Open quarterfinalist • Ranking in 20121939– Romania 2013 1968 French Open quarterfinalist19112000 Poland 1939 French Championships quarterfinalist''''1992– Australia 17 2011 Wimbledon quarterfinalist • Ranking in 2016''''''1930 1970 1 Winner of 5 Grand Slam titles • 1953/1955 '''U.S.", "champion''' • 1954/1955 '''French champion''' • 1955 '''Wimbledon champion''' • Ranking world number 1 amateur in 19531986– Serbia 12 Ranking in 2011''''1998– Greece 3 2021 French Open finalist • 2023 Australian Open finalist • 2019/2021/2022 Australian Open semifinalist • '''2019 Tour Finals champion''' • Ranking in 20211985 5 2008 Australian Open finalist • 2011 Tour Finals finalist • ranking in 20121963 10 Ranking in 19861982 20 Ranking in 200619051999 United States 1963 8 1929/1930/1931/1936/1937 U.S. Championship quarterfinalist • rated world no.", "8 in 19291959 25 Ranking in 1983''''1983– Spain 7 2009 Australian Open semifinalist • Ranking in 20091978– Netherlands 14 2003 French Open finalist • Ranking in 20031933– South Africa 10 1959 French Championships finalist • Ranking in 19591925– Brazil 1951 Wimbledon quarterfinalist''''''1952– Argentina 1991 2 Winner of 4 Grand Slam titles • 1977 '''French Open champion''' • 1977 '''U.S.", "Open champion''' • 1978/1979 '''Australian Open champion''' • 1974 '''Masters champion'''''''''19111994 United States 1962 '''1''' Winner of 3 Grand Slam titles • 1931/1932 '''U.S.", "Champion''' • 1932 '''Wimbledon Champion''' • Rated '''world no 1''' for 4 years (1932/1935/1936/1937)1974– Romania 1995 French Open quarterfinalist1981– Italy 25 Ranking in 200719672019 Russia 14 1993 US Open semifinalist • Ranking in 19941955 1978 U.S. Open quarterfinalist1878 1956 Winner of 1 Grand Slam title • 1904 '''U.S.", "champion''' 1876 1897/1898/1899/1901 U.S. semifinalist 1952 15 1980 Australian Open finalist • Ranking in 198118941973 United States1965 1911/1912/1913/1916/1920 U.S. Championship quarterfinalist19242015 Belgium 1957 French Championships quarterfinalist1969 11 1996 Wimbledon finalist • 1994 Australian Open quarterfinalist • Ranking in 1992''''''''''1985 3 Winner of 3 Grand Slam singles titles • '''2014 Australian Open champion''' • '''2015 French Open champion''' • '''2016 US Open champion''' • 2013/2014/2015 Tour Finals semifinalist • Ranking in 2014 1969 12 1991 Wimbledon semifinalist • Ranking in 1992''''''1877 1955 Winner of 3 Grand Slam titles • 1898/1899/1900 '''US champion''' ''''''1964 2002 '''1''' Winner of 7 Grand Slam titles • 1982/1985/1988 '''French Open champion''' • 1983/1984/1988 '''Australian Open champion''' • 1988 '''U.S.", "Open champion''' • 1987 Masters finalist • '''Year-End No.", "1''' in 1988 • Ranking '''world no.", "1''' for 20 weeks ''''''1883 1978 '''1''' Winner of 6 Grand Slam titles → 1906/1909 '''Australian champion''' • 1910/1911/1912/1913 '''Wimbledon champion''' • Ranking in 1913 1912 • Olympic indoor bronze medalist''''''18911957 5 1914, 1916 '''US champion''' • Ranking in 19131959 23 1986 US Open quarterfinalist • Ranking in 198619352020 Great Britain 1958/1959/1961/1963 Wimbledon quarterfinalist • 1960/1963 U.S. National quarterfinalist • 1963 French Championships quarterfinalist18881963 South Africa 1912 Olympic gold medalist • 1920 Olympic bronze medalist1963 1988 Australian Open quarterfinalist1911 1964 Winner of 1 Grand Slam title → 1931 '''Wimbledon champion''' • 1935 U.S. Championships finalist 1971 2010 19 Ranking in 1997 1965 2010 19 Ranking in 1996 1973 2000 Australian Open quarterfinalist''''''1873 1955 Winner of 4 Grand Slam titles → 1893, 1894, 1896 and 1897 '''US champion'''1865 1900 U.S. Championships finalist''''''1879 1956 Winner of 1 Grand Slam title → 1905 '''US champion''' • Winner of 1 Olympic gold medal → 19041982 8 2006/2010 US Open semifinalist • Ranking in 20081967 18 1991 Australian Open quarterfinalist • 1994 U.S. Open quarterfinalist • Ranking in 19891978– Argentina 20 2001 U.S. Open quarterfinalist • Ranking in 20001947– Czechoslovakia 1973 Australian Open quarterfinalist1963– Yugoslavia 19 1985 Australian Open semifinalist • 1986 Wimbledon semifinalist • Ranking in 1987''''1997– Germany 2 2020 U.S. Open finalist • 2021/2022/2023 French Open semifinalist • 2020 Australian Open semifinalist • '''2018/2021 Tour Finals champion''' • 2020 Olympic gold medalist • Ranking in 2022''''1987– Germany 25 2017 Australian Open quarterfinalist • Ranking in 2017" ], [ "See also", "* List of male doubles tennis players* List of female tennis players* Lists of tennis players* Lists of sportspeople* List of ATP number 1 ranked singles tennis players* World number 1 ranked male tennis players* Top ten ranked male tennis players* Top ten ranked male tennis players (1912–1972)* List of Grand Slam men's singles champions" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Metaphilosophy" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Metaphilosophy''', sometimes called '''the philosophy of philosophy''', is \"the investigation of the nature of philosophy\".", "Its subject matter includes the aims of philosophy, the boundaries of philosophy, and its methods.", "Thus, while philosophy characteristically inquires into the nature of being, the reality of objects, the possibility of knowledge, the nature of truth, and so on, metaphilosophy is the self-reflective inquiry into the nature, aims, and methods of the activity that makes these kinds of inquiries, by asking what ''is'' philosophy itself, what sorts of questions it should ask, how it might pose and answer them, and what it can achieve in doing so.", "It is considered by some to be a subject prior and preparatory to philosophy, while others see it as inherently a part of philosophy, or automatically a part of philosophy while others adopt some combination of these views.The interest in metaphilosophy led to the establishment of the journal ''Metaphilosophy'' in January 1970.Many sub-disciplines of philosophy have their own branch of 'metaphilosophy', examples being meta-aesthetics, meta-epistemology, meta-ethics, and metametaphysics (meta-ontology).Although the ''term'' metaphilosophy and explicit attention to metaphilosophy as a specific domain within philosophy arose in the 20th century, the topic is likely as old as philosophy itself, and can be traced back at least as far as the works of Ancient Greeks and Ancient Indian Nyaya." ], [ "Relationship to philosophy", "Some philosophers consider metaphilosophy to be a subject apart from philosophy, above or beyond it, while others object to that idea.", "Timothy Williamson argues that the philosophy of philosophy is \"automatically part of philosophy\", as is the philosophy of anything else.", "Nicholas Bunnin and Jiyuan Yu write that the separation of first- from second-order study has lost popularity as philosophers find it hard to observe the distinction.", "As evidenced by these contrasting opinions, debate persists as to whether the evaluation of the nature of philosophy is 'second-order philosophy' or simply 'plain philosophy'.Many philosophers have expressed doubts over the value of metaphilosophy.", "Among them is Gilbert Ryle: \"preoccupation with questions about methods tends to distract us from prosecuting the methods themselves.", "We run as a rule, worse, not better, if we think a lot about our feet.", "So let us ... not speak of it all but just do it.\"" ], [ "Terminology", "The designations ''metaphilosophy'' and ''philosophy of philosophy'' have a variety of meanings, sometimes taken to be synonyms, and sometimes seen as distinct.Morris Lazerowitz claims to have coined the term 'metaphilosophy' around 1940 and used it in print in 1942.Lazerowitz proposed that metaphilosophy is 'the investigation of the nature of philosophy'.", "Earlier uses have been found in translations from French.", "The term is derived from Greek word ''meta'' μετά (\"after\", \"beyond\", \"with\") and ''philosophía'' φιλοσοφία (\"love of wisdom\").The term 'metaphilosophy' is used by Paul Moser in the sense of a 'second-order' or more fundamental undertaking than philosophy itself, in the manner suggested by Charles Griswold:Some other philosophers treat the prefix ''meta'' as simply meaning '''about...''', rather than as referring to a metatheoretical 'second-order' form of philosophy, among them Rescher and Double.", "Others, such as Williamson, prefer the term '''philosophy of philosophy''' instead of 'metaphilosophy' as it avoids the connotation of a 'second-order' discipline that looks down on philosophy, and instead denotes something that is a part of it.", "Joll suggests that to take metaphilosophy as 'the application of the methods of philosophy to philosophy itself' is too vague, while the view that sees metaphilosophy as a 'second-order' or more abstract discipline, outside philosophy, \"is narrow and tendentious\".In the analytic tradition, the term \"metaphilosophy\" is mostly used to tag commenting and research on previous works as opposed to original contributions towards solving philosophical problems." ], [ "Writings", "Ludwig Wittgenstein wrote about the nature of philosophical puzzles and philosophical understanding.", "He suggested philosophical errors arose from confusions about the nature of philosophical inquiry.", "C. D. Broad distinguished Critical from Speculative philosophy in his \"The Subject-matter of Philosophy, and its Relations to the special Sciences\", in ''Introduction to Scientific Thought'', 1923.Curt Ducasse, in ''Philosophy as a Science'', examines several views of the nature of philosophy, and concludes that philosophy has a distinct subject matter: appraisals.", "Ducasse's view has been among the first to be described as 'metaphilosophy'.Henri Lefebvre in ''Métaphilosophie'' (1965) argued, from a Marxian standpoint, in favor of an \"ontological break\", as a necessary methodological approach for critical social theory (whilst criticizing Louis Althusser's \"epistemological break\" with subjective Marxism, which represented a fundamental theoretical tool for the school of Marxist structuralism).Paul Moser writes that typical metaphilosophical discussion includes determining the conditions under which a claim can be said to be a philosophical one.", "He regards meta-ethics, the study of ethics, to be a form of metaphilosophy, as well as meta-epistemology, the study of epistemology." ], [ "Topics", "Many sub-disciplines of philosophy have their own branch of 'metaphilosophy'.", "However, some topics within 'metaphilosophy' cut across the various subdivisions of philosophy to consider fundamentals important to all its sub-disciplines.", "===Aims===Some philosophers (e.g.", "existentialists, pragmatists) think philosophy is ultimately a practical discipline that should help us lead meaningful lives by showing us who we are, how we relate to the world around us and what we should do.", "Others (e.g.", "analytic philosophers) see philosophy as a technical, formal, and entirely theoretical discipline, with goals such as \"the disinterested pursuit of knowledge for its own sake\".", "Other proposed goals of philosophy include discovering the absolutely fundamental reason of everything it investigates, making explicit the nature and significance of ordinary and scientific beliefs, and unifying and transcending the insights given by science and religion.", "Others proposed that philosophy is a complex discipline because it has 4 or 6 different dimensions.===Boundaries===Defining philosophy and its boundaries is itself problematic; Nigel Warburton has called it \"notoriously difficult\".", "There is no straightforward definition, and most interesting definitions are controversial.", "As Bertrand Russell wrote:While there is some agreement that philosophy involves general or fundamental topics, there is no clear agreement about a series of demarcation issues, including:*that between first-order and second-order investigations.", "Some authors say that philosophical inquiry is second-order, having concepts, theories and presupposition as its subject matter; that it is \"thinking about thinking\", of a \"generally second-order character\"; that philosophers study, rather than use, the concepts that structure our thinking.", "However, the ''Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy'' warns that \"the borderline between such 'second-order' reflection, and ways of practicing the first-order discipline itself, is not always clear: philosophical problems may be tamed by the advance of a discipline, and the conduct of a discipline may be swayed by philosophical reflection\".", "*that between philosophy and empirical science.", "Some argue that philosophy is distinct from science in that its questions cannot be answered empirically, that is, by observation or experiment.", "Some analytical philosophers argue that all meaningful empirical questions are to be answered by science, not philosophy.", "However, some schools of contemporary philosophy such as the pragmatists and naturalistic epistemologists argue that philosophy should be linked to science and should be scientific in the broad sense of that term, \"preferring to see philosophical reflection as continuous with the best practice of any field of intellectual enquiry\".", "*that between philosophy and religion.", "Some argue that philosophy is distinct from religion in that it allows no place for faith or revelation: that philosophy does not try to answer questions by appeal to revelation, myth or religious knowledge of any kind, but uses reason, without reference to sensible observation and experiments\".", "However, philosophers and theologians such as Thomas Aquinas and Peter Damian have argued that philosophy is the \"handmaiden of theology\" (''ancilla theologiae'').===Methods===Philosophical method (or philosophical methodology) is the study of how to do philosophy.", "A common view among philosophers is that philosophy is distinguished by the ways that philosophers follow in addressing philosophical questions.", "There is not just one method that philosophers use to answer philosophical questions.Recently, some philosophers have cast doubt about intuition as a basic tool in philosophical inquiry, from Socrates up to contemporary philosophy of language.", "In ''Rethinking Intuition'' various thinkers discard intuition as a valid source of knowledge and thereby call into question 'a priori' philosophy.", "Experimental philosophy is a form of philosophical inquiry that makes at least partial use of empirical research—especially ''opinion polling''—in order to address persistent philosophical questions.", "This is in contrast with the methods found in analytic philosophy, whereby some say a philosopher will sometimes begin by appealing to his or her intuitions on an issue and then form an argument with those intuitions as premises.", "However, disagreement about what experimental philosophy can accomplish is widespread and several philosophers have offered criticisms.", "One claim is that the empirical data gathered by experimental philosophers can have an indirect effect on philosophical questions by allowing for a better understanding of the underlying psychological processes which lead to philosophical intuitions.", "Some analytic philosophers like Timothy Williamson have rejected such a move against 'armchair' philosophy–i.e., philosophical inquiry that is undergirded by intuition–by construing 'intuition' (which they believe to be a misnomer) as merely referring to common cognitive faculties: If one is calling into question 'intuition', one is, they would say, harboring a skeptical attitude towards common cognitive faculties–a consequence that seems philosophically unappealing.", "For Williamson, instances of intuition are instances of our cognitive faculties processing counterfactuals (or subjunctive conditionals) that are specific to the thought experiment or example in question.===Progress===A prominent question in metaphilosophy is that of whether or not philosophical progress occurs and more so, whether such progress in philosophy is even possible.David Chalmers divides inquiry into philosophical progress in metaphilosophy into three questions.#The Existence Question: is there progress in philosophy?#The Comparison Question: is there as much progress in philosophy as in science?#The Explanation Question: why isn't there more progress in philosophy?Ludwig Wittgenstein, in Culture and Value remarked, \"Philosophy hasn't made any progress?", "- If somebody scratches the spot where he has an itch, do we have to see some progress?...And can't this reaction to an irritation continue in the same way for a long time before the cure for an itching is discovered?", "\".According to Hilary Putnam philosophy is more adept at showing people that specific ideas or arguments are wrong than that specific ideas or arguments are right." ], [ "See also", "* Antiphilosophy* Metacognition* Metatheory* Meta-knowledge* Metaphysics* Metapolitics* Metasemantics* Non-philosophy* Unsolved problems in philosophy* Theory of everything (philosophy)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Double R., (1996) ''Metaphilosophy and Free Will'', Oxford University Press, USA, , * Ducasse, C.J., (1941) ''Philosophy as a Science: Its Matter and Its Method''* Lazerowitz M., (1964) ''Studies in Metaphilosphy'', London: Routledge* Overgaard, S, Gilbert, P., Burwood, S. (2013) ''An Introduction to Metaphilosophy'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press* Rescher N., (2006), ''Philosophical Dialectics, an Essay on Metaphilosophy'', Albany: State University of New York Press* Rescher, Nicholas (2001).", "''Philosophical Reasoning.", "A Study in the Methodology of Philosophizing''.", "Blackwell.", "* Williamson T., (2007) ''The Philosophy of Philosophy'', London: Blackwell* Wittgenstein Ludwig, ''Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus'', trans.", "David Pears and Brian McGuinness (1961), Routledge, hardcover: , 1974 paperback: , 2001 hardcover: , 2001 paperback: ; ** ''Philosophische Untersuchungen'' (1953) or ''Philosophical Investigations'', translated by G.E.M.", "Anscombe (1953)*" ], [ "External links", "*** ''Metaphilosophy'', journal published by Blackwell***Peter Suber: Metaphilosophy Themes and Questions – A Personal List" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mandolin" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''mandolin''' (, ; literally \"small mandola\") is a stringed musical instrument in the lute family and is generally plucked with a pick.", "It most commonly has four courses of doubled strings tuned in unison, thus giving a total of eight strings.", "A variety of string types are used, with steel strings being the most common and usually the least expensive.", "The courses are typically tuned in an interval of perfect fifths, with the same tuning as a violin (G3, D4, A4, E5).", "Also, like the violin, it is the soprano member of a family that includes the mandola, octave mandolin, mandocello and mandobass.There are many styles of mandolin, but the three most common types are the ''Neapolitan'' or ''round-backed'' mandolin, the ''archtop'' mandolin and the ''flat-backed'' mandolin.", "The round-backed version has a deep bottom, constructed of strips of wood, glued together into a bowl.", "The archtop, also known as the ''carved-top'' mandolin has an arched top and a shallower, arched back both carved out of wood.", "The flat-backed mandolin uses thin sheets of wood for the body, braced on the inside for strength in a similar manner to a guitar.", "Each style of instrument has its own sound quality and is associated with particular forms of music.", "Neapolitan mandolins feature prominently in European classical music and traditional music.", "Archtop instruments are common in American folk music and bluegrass music.", "Flat-backed instruments are commonly used in Irish, British, and Brazilian folk music, and Mexican ''estudiantinas''.Other mandolin variations differ primarily in the number of strings and include four-string models (tuned in fifths) such as the Brescian and Cremonese; six-string types (tuned in fourths) such as the Milanese, Lombard, and Sicilian; six-course instruments of 12 strings (two strings per course) such as the Genoese; and the tricordia, with four triple-string courses (12 strings total).", "Much of mandolin development revolved around the soundboard (the top).", "Early instruments were quiet, strung with gut strings, and plucked with the fingers or with a quill.", "However, modern instruments are louder, using metal strings, which exert more pressure than the gut strings.", "The modern soundboard is designed to withstand the pressure of metal strings that would break earlier instruments.", "The soundboard comes in many shapes—but generally round or teardrop-shaped, sometimes with scrolls or other projections.", "There are usually one or more sound holes in the soundboard, either round, oval, or shaped like a calligraphic (f-hole).", "A round or oval sound hole may be covered or bordered with decorative rosettes or purfling." ], [ "History", "In 1787, Luigi Bassi played the role of Don Giovanni in Mozart's opera, serenading a woman with a mandolin.", "This used to be the common picture of the mandolin, an obscure instrument of romance in the hands of a Spanish nobleman.Mandolins evolved from lute family instruments in Europe.", "Predecessors include the gittern and mandore or mandola in Italy during the 17th and 18th centuries.", "There were a variety of regional variants, but the two most widespread ones were the Neapolitan mandolin and the Lombard mandolin.", "The Neapolitan style has spread worldwide." ], [ "Construction", "Anatomy of a bowlback mandolin in schematic drawingMandolins have a body that acts as a resonator, attached to a neck.", "The resonating body may be shaped as a bowl (necked bowl lutes) or a box (necked box lutes).", "Traditional Italian mandolins, such as the Neapolitan mandolin, meet the necked bowl description.", "The necked box instruments include archtop mandolins and the flatback mandolins.Strings run between mechanical tuning machines at the top of the neck to a tailpiece that anchors the other end of the strings.", "The strings are suspended over the neck and soundboard and pass over a floating bridge.", "The bridge is kept in contact with the soundboard by the downward pressure from the strings.", "The neck is either flat or has a slight radius, and is covered with a fingerboard with frets.", "The action of the strings on the bridge causes the soundboard to vibrate, producing sound.Like any plucked instrument, mandolin notes decay to silence rather than sound out continuously as with a bowed note on a violin, and mandolin notes decay faster than larger chordophones like the guitar.", "This encourages the use of tremolo (rapid picking of one or more pairs of strings) to create sustained notes or chords.", "The mandolin's paired strings facilitate this technique: the plectrum (pick) strikes each of a pair of strings alternately, providing a more full and continuous sound than a single string would.Various design variations and amplification techniques have been used to make mandolins comparable in volume with louder instruments and orchestras, including the creation of mandolin-banjo hybrids with the drum-like body of the louder banjo, adding metal resonators (most notably by Dobro and the National String Instrument Corporation) to make a resonator mandolin, and amplifying electric mandolins through amplifiers." ], [ "Tuning", "A variety of different tunings are used.", "Usually, courses of 2 adjacent strings are tuned in unison.", "By far the most common tuning is the same as violin tuning, in scientific pitch notation G3–D4–A4–E5, or in Helmholtz pitch notation: g–d′–a′–e″.", "* fourth (lowest tone) course: G3 ()* third course: D4 ()* second course: A4 (; A above middle C)* first (highest tone) course: E5 ()The numbers of Hz shown above assume a 440 Hz A, standard in most parts of the western world.", "Some players use an A up to 10 Hz above or below a 440, mainly outside the United States.File:Mandolin fretboard.pngOther tunings exist, including ''cross-tunings'', in which the usually doubled string runs are tuned to different pitches.", "Additionally, guitarists may sometimes tune a mandolin to mimic a portion of the intervals on a standard guitar tuning to achieve familiar fretting patterns." ], [ "Mandolin family", "Clockwise from top left: 1920 Gibson F-4 mandolin; 1917 Gibson H-2 mandola; 1929 Gibson mando-bass; and 1924 Gibson K-4 mandocello from Gregg Miner's collection.=== Soprano ===The mandolin is the soprano member of the mandolin family, as the violin is the soprano member of the violin family.", "Like the violin, its scale length is typically about .", "Modern American mandolins modelled after Gibsons have a longer scale, about .", "The strings in each of its double-strung courses are tuned in unison, and the courses use the same tuning as the violin: G3–D4–A4–E5.=== Piccolo ===Piccolo mandolinThe ''piccolo'' or ''sopranino mandolin'' is a rare member of the family, tuned one octave above the mandola and one fourth above the mandolin (C4–G4–D5–A5); the same relation as that of the piccolo (to the western concert flute) or violino piccolo (to the violin and viola).", "One model was manufactured by the Lyon & Healy company under the Leland brand.", "A handful of contemporary luthiers build piccolo mandolins.=== Alto ===The mandola, termed the ''tenor mandola'' in Britain and Ireland and ''liola'' or ''alto mandolin'' in continental Europe, is tuned a fifth below the mandolin, in the same relationship as that of the viola to the violin.", "Some also call this instrument the \"alto mandola\".", "Its scale length is typically about .", "It is normally tuned like a viola (perfect fifth below the mandolin) and tenor banjo: C3–G3–D4–A4.=== Tenor ===A flatback octave mandolinThe ''octave mandolin'' (US and Canada), termed the ''octave mandola'' in Britain and Ireland and ''mandola'' in continental Europe, is tuned an octave below the mandolin: G2–D3–A3–E4.Its relationship to the mandolin is that of the tenor violin to the violin, or the tenor saxophone to the soprano saxophone.", "Octave mandolin scale length is typically about , although instruments with scales as short as or as long as are not unknown.The instrument has a variant off the coast of South America in Trinidad, where it is known as the bandol, a flat-backed instrument with four courses, the lower two strung with metal and nylon strings.The Irish bouzouki, though not strictly a member of the mandolin family, has a reasonable resemblance and similar range to the octave mandolin.", "It derives from the Greek bouzouki (a long-necked lute), constructed like a flat-backed mandolin and uses fifth-based tunings, most often G2–D3–A3–D4.Other tunings include: A2–D3–A3–D4, G2–D3–A3–E4 (an octave below the mandolin—in which case it essentially functions as an octave mandolin), G2–D3–G3–D4 or A2–D3–A3–E4.Although the Irish bouzouki's bass course pairs are most often tuned in unison, on some instruments one of each pair is replaced with a lighter string and tuned in octaves, similar to the 12-string guitar.", "While occupying the same range as the octave mandolin/octave mandola, the Irish bouzouki is theoretically distinguished from the former instrument by its longer scale length, typically from , although scales as long as , which is the usual Greek bouzouki scale, are not unknown.", "In modern usage, however, the terms \"octave mandolin\" and \"Irish bouzouki\" are often used interchangeably to refer to the same instrument.The modern cittern may also be loosely included in an \"extended\" mandolin family, based on resemblance to the flat-backed mandolins, which it predates.", "Its own lineage dates it back to the Renaissance.", "It is typically a five course (ten-string) instrument having a scale length between .", "The instrument is most often tuned to either D2–G2–D3–A3–D4 or G2–D3–A3–D4–A4, and is essentially an octave mandola with a fifth course at either the top or the bottom of its range.", "Some luthiers, such as Stefan Sobell, also refer to the octave mandola or a shorter-scaled Irish bouzouki as a cittern, irrespective of whether it has four or five courses.Other relatives of the cittern, which might also be loosely linked to the mandolins (and are sometimes tuned and played as such), include the 6-course/12-string Portuguese guitar and the 5-course/9-string waldzither.=== Baritone/Bass ===The mandocello is classically tuned to an octave plus a fifth below the mandolin, in the same relationship as that of the cello to the violin, its strings being tuned to C2–G2–D3–A3.Its scale length is typically about .", "A typical violoncello scale is .A mandolone played by Giuseppe Branzoli during a concert in Rome, 1889The mandolone was a Baroque member of the mandolin family in the bass range that was surpassed by the mandocello.", "It was part of the Neapolitan mandolin family.The Greek ''laouto'' or ''laghouto'' (long-necked lute) is similar to a mandocello, ordinarily tuned C3/C2–G3/G2–D3/D3–A3/A3 with half of each pair of the lower two courses being tuned an octave high on a lighter gauge string.", "The body is a staved bowl, the saddle-less bridge glued to the flat face like most ouds and lutes, with mechanical tuners, steel strings, and tied gut frets.", "Modern laoutos, as played on Crete, have the entire lower course tuned to C3, a reentrant octave above the expected low C. Its scale length is typically about .The Algerian ''mandole'' was developed by an Italian luthier in the early 1930s, scaled up from a mandola until it reached a scale length of approximately 25 to 27 inches.", "It is a flatback instrument, with a wide neck and 4 courses (8 strings), 5 courses (10 strings) or 6 courses (12 strings), and is used in Algeria and Morocco.", "The instrument can be tuned as a guitar, oud, or mandocello, depending on the music it will be used to play and player preference.", "When tuning it as a guitar the strings will be tuned (E2) (E2) A2 A2 D3 D3 G3 G3 B3 B3 (E4) (E4); strings in parentheses are dropped for a five- or four-course instrument.", "Using a common Arabic oud tuning D2 D2 G2 G2 A2 A2 D3 D3 (G3) (G3) (C4) (C4).", "For a mandocello tuning using fifths C2 C2 G2 G2 D3 D3 A3 A3 (E4) (E4).=== Mandobass ===Gibson mando-bass from 1922 advertisementThe mandobass is the bass version of the mandolin, just as the double bass is the bass to the violin.", "Like the double bass, it most frequently has 4 single strings, rather than double courses—and like the double bass, it is most commonly tuned to perfect fourths rather than fifths like most mandolin family instruments: E1–A1–D2–G2,—the same tuning as a bass guitar.", "These were made by the Gibson company in the early 20th century, was also never very common.", "A smaller scale four-string mandobass, usually tuned in fifths: G1–D2–A2–E3 (two octaves below the mandolin), though not as resonant as the larger instrument, was often preferred by players as easier to handle and more portable.", "Reportedly, however, most mandolin orchestras preferred to use the ordinary double bass, rather than a specialised mandolin family instrument.", "Calace and other Italian makers predating Gibson also made mandolin-basses.The relatively rare eight-string mandobass, or \"tremolo-bass\", also exists, with double courses like the rest of the mandolin family, and is tuned either G1–D2–A2–E3, two octaves lower than the mandolin, or C1–G1–D2–A2, two octaves below the mandola." ], [ "Variations", "=== Bowlback ===Bowlback mandolins (also known as roundbacks), are used worldwide.", "They are most commonly manufactured in Europe, where the long history of mandolin development has created local styles.", "However, Japanese luthiers also make them.Owing to the shape and to the common construction from wood strips of alternating colors, in the United States these are sometimes colloquially referred to as the \"potato bug\" , \"potato beetle\", or tater-bug mandolin.==== Neapolitan and Roman styles ====The Neapolitan style has an almond-shaped body resembling a bowl, constructed from curved strips of wood.", "It usually has a bent sound table, canted in two planes with the design to take the tension of the eight metal strings arranged in four courses.", "A hardwood fingerboard sits on top of or is flush with the sound table.", "Very old instruments may use wooden tuning pegs, while newer instruments tend to use geared metal tuners.", "The bridge is a movable length of hardwood.", "A pickguard is glued below the sound hole under the strings.", "European roundbacks commonly use a scale instead of the common on archtop Mandolins.Intertwined with the Neapolitan style is the Roman style mandolin, which has influenced it.", "The Roman mandolin had a fingerboard that was more curved and narrow.", "The fingerboard was lengthened over the sound hole for the E strings, the high pitched strings.", "The shape of the back of the neck was different, less rounded with an edge, the bridge was curved making the G strings higher.", "The Roman mandolin had mechanical tuning gears before the Neapolitan.===== Manufacturers of Neapolitan-style mandolins =====Calace family workshopProminent Italian manufacturers include Vinaccia (Naples), Embergher (Rome) and Calace (Naples).", "Other modern manufacturers include Lorenzo Lippi (Milan), Hendrik van den Broek (Netherlands), Brian Dean (Canada), Salvatore Masiello and Michele Caiazza (La Bottega del Mandolino) and Ferrara, Gabriele Pandini.In the United States, when the bowlback was being made in numbers, Lyon and Healy was a major manufacturer, especially under the \"Washburn\" brand.", "Other American manufacturers include Martin, Vega, and Larson Brothers.In Canada, Brian Dean has manufactured instruments in Neapolitan, Roman, German and American styles but is also known for his original 'Grand Concert' design created for American virtuoso Joseph Brent.German manufacturers include Albert & Mueller, Dietrich, Klaus Knorr, Reinhold Seiffert and Alfred Woll.", "The German bowlbacks use a style developed by Seiffert, with a larger and rounder body.Japanese brands include Kunishima and Suzuki.", "Other Japanese manufacturers include Oona, Kawada, Noguchi, Toichiro Ishikawa, Rokutaro Nakade, Otiai Tadao, Yoshihiko Takusari, Nokuti Makoto, Watanabe, Kanou Kadama and Ochiai.==== Other bowlback styles====Another family of bowlback mandolins came from Milan and Lombardy.", "These mandolins are closer to the mandolino or mandore than other modern mandolins.", "They are shorter and wider than the standard Neapolitan mandolin, with a shallow back.", "The instruments have 6 strings, 3 wire treble-strings and 3 gut or wire-wrapped-silk bass-strings.", "The strings ran between the tuning pegs and a bridge that was glued to the soundboard, as a guitar's.", "The Lombard mandolins were tuned g–b–e′–a′–d″–g″ (shown in Helmholtz pitch notation).", "A developer of the Milanese style was Antonio Monzino (Milan) and his family who made them for six generations.Samuel Adelstein described the Lombard mandolin in 1893 as wider and shorter than the Neapolitan mandolin, with a shallower back and a shorter and wider neck, with six single strings to the regular mandolin's set of 4.The Lombard was tuned C–D–A–E–B–G.", "The strings were fastened to the bridge like a guitar's.", "There were 20 frets, covering three octaves, with an additional 5 notes.", "When Adelstein wrote, there were no nylon strings, and the gut and single strings \"do not vibrate so clearly and sweetly as the double steel string of the Neapolitan.", "\"===== Brescian mandolin or Cremonese mandolin =====Brescian mandolins (also known as Cremonese) that have survived in museums have four gut strings instead of six and a fixed bridge.", "The mandolin was tuned in fifths, like the Neapolitan mandolin.", "In his 1805 mandolin method, ''Anweisung die Mandoline von selbst zu erlernen nebst einigen Uebungsstucken von Bortolazzi'', Bartolomeo Bortolazzi popularised the Cremonese mandolin, which had four single-strings and a fixed bridge, to which the strings were attached.", "Bortolazzi said in this book that the new wire-strung mandolins were uncomfortable to play, when compared with the gut-string instruments.", "Also, he felt they had a \"less pleasing...hard, zither-like tone\" as compared to the gut string's \"softer, full-singing tone.", "\"He favored the four single strings of the Cremonese instrument, which were tuned the same as the Neapolitan.=====Genoese mandolin, a blend of styles=====Like the Lombard mandolin, the Genoese mandolin was not tuned in fifths.", "Its 6 gut strings (or 6 courses of strings) were tuned as a guitar but one octave higher: e-a-d’-g’-b natural-e”.", "Like the Neapolitan and unlike the Lombard mandolin, the Genoese does not have the bridge glued to the soundboard, but holds the bridge on with downward tension, from strings that run between the bottom and neck of the instrument.", "The neck was wider than the Neapolitan mandolin's neck.", "The peg-head is similar to the guitar's.=== Archtop ===At the very end of the 19th century, a new style, with a carved top and back construction inspired by violin family instruments began to supplant the European-style bowl-back instruments in the United States.", "This new style is credited to mandolins designed and built by Orville Gibson, a Kalamazoo, Michigan, luthier who founded the \"Gibson Mandolin-Guitar Manufacturing Co., Limited\" in 1902.Gibson mandolins evolved into two basic styles: the Florentine or F-style, which has a decorative scroll near the neck, two points on the lower body and usually a scroll carved into the headstock; and the A-style, which is pear-shaped, has no points and usually has a simpler headstock.These styles generally have either two f-shaped soundholes like a violin (F-5 and A-5), or a single oval sound hole (F-4 and A-4 and lower models) directly under the strings.", "Much variation exists between makers working from these archetypes, and other variants have become increasingly common.", "Generally, in the United States, Gibson F-hole F-5 mandolins and mandolins influenced by that design are strongly associated with bluegrass, while the A-style is associated with other types of music, although it too is most often used for and associated with bluegrass.", "The F-5's more complicated woodwork also translates into a more expensive instrument.Internal bracing to support the top in the F-style mandolins is usually achieved with parallel tone bars, similar to the bass bar on a violin.", "Some makers instead employ \"X-bracing\", which is two tone-bars mortised together to form an X.", "Some luthiers now using a \"modified x-bracing\" that incorporates both a tone bar and X-bracing.Numerous modern mandolin makers build instruments that largely replicate the Gibson F-5 Artist models built in the early 1920s under the supervision of Gibson acoustician Lloyd Loar.", "Original Loar-signed instruments are sought after and extremely valuable.", "Other makers from the Loar period and earlier include Lyon and Healy, Vega and Larson Brothers.====Pressed archtops====The ideal for archtops has been solid pieces of wood carved into the right shape.", "However, another archtop exists, the top made of laminated wood or thin sheets of solid wood, pressed into the arched shape.", "These have become increasingly common in the world of internationally constructed musical instruments in the 21st century.Pressed-top instruments are made to appear the same as carved-top instruments but do not sound the same as carved-wood tops.", "Carved-wood tops when carved to the ideal thickness, produce the sound consumers expect.", "Not carving them correctly dulls the sound.", "The sound of a carved-wood instrument changes the longer it is played, and older instruments are sought out for their rich sound.Laminated-wood presstops are less resonant than carved wood, the wood and glue vibrating differently than wood grain.", "Presstops made of solid wood have the wood's natural grain compressed, typically creating a sound that is less full than a well-made, carved-top mandolin.=== Flatback ===Flatback mandolins use a thin sheet of wood with bracing for the back, as a guitar uses, rather than the bowl of the bowlback or the arched back of the carved mandolins.Like the bowlback, the flatback has a round sound hole.", "This has been sometimes modified to an elongated hole, called a D-hole.", "The body has a rounded almond shape with flat or sometimes canted soundboard.The type was developed in Europe in the 1850s.", "The French and Germans called it a Portuguese mandolin, although they also developed it locally.", "The Germans used it in Wandervogel.The bandolim is commonly used wherever the Spanish and Portuguese took it: in South America, in Brazil (Choro) and in the Philippines.In the early 1970s English luthier Stefan Sobell developed a large-bodied, flat-backed mandolin with a carved soundboard, based on his own cittern design; this is often called a 'Celtic' mandolin.American forms include the Army-Navy mandolin, the flatiron and the pancake mandolins.==== Tone ====The tone of the flatback is described as warm or mellow, suitable for folk music and smaller audiences.", "The instrument sound does not punch through the other players' sound like a carved top does.=== Double top, double back ===The double top is a feature that luthiers are experimenting with in the 21st century, to get better sound.", "However, mandolinists and luthiers have been experimenting with them since at least the early 1900s.Back in the early 1900s, mandolinist Ginislao Paris approached Luigi Embergher to build custom mandolins.", "The sticker inside one of the four surviving instruments indicates the build was called after him, the ''Sistema Ginislao Paris'').", "Paris' round-back double-top mandolins use a false back below the soundboard to create a second hollow space within the instrument.Modern mandolinists such as Joseph Brent and Avi Avital use instruments customized, either by the luthier's choice or at the request of the player.", "Joseph Brent's mandolin, made by Brian Dean also uses what Brent calls a false back.", "Brent's mandolin was the luthier's solution to Brent's request for a loud mandolin in which the wood was clearly audible, with less metallic sound from the strings.", "The type used by Avital is variation of the flatback, with a double top that encloses a resonating chamber, sound holes on the side, and a convex back.", "It is made by one manufacturer in Israel, luthier Arik Kerman.", "Other players of Kerman mandolins include Alon Sariel, Jacob Reuven, and Tom Cohen.=== Others ===The bulge on the instrument's back side is visible in this photo of a Vega cylinder-back mandolin.==== Mandolinetto ====Other American-made variants include the mandolinetto or Howe-Orme guitar-shaped mandolin (manufactured by the Elias Howe Company between 1897 and roughly 1920), which featured a cylindrical bulge along the top from fingerboard end to tailpiece and the Vega mando-lute (more commonly called a cylinder-back mandolin manufactured by the Vega Company between 1913 and roughly 1927), which had a similar longitudinal bulge but on the back rather than the front of the instrument.==== Mandolin-banjo ====An instrument with a mandolin neck paired with a banjo-style body was patented by Benjamin Bradbury of Brooklyn in 1882 and given the name ''banjolin'' by John Farris in 1885.Today ''banjolin'' is sometimes reserved to describe an instrument with four strings, while the version with the four courses of double strings is called a ''mandolin-banjo''.==== Resonator mandolin ====A resonator mandolin or \"resophonic mandolin\" is a mandolin whose sound is produced by one or more metal cones (resonators) instead of the customary wooden soundboard (mandolin top/face).", "Historic brands include Dobro and National.==== Electric mandolin ====A solid-body electric mandolinAs with almost every other contemporary chordophone, another modern variant is the electric mandolin.", "These mandolins can have four or five individual or double courses of strings.", "They were developed in the early 1930s, contemporaneous with the development of the electric guitar.", "They come in solid body and acoustic electric forms.Specific instruments have been designed to overcome the mandolin's rapid decay with its plucked notes.", "Fender released a model in 1992 with an additional string (a high A, above the E string), a tremolo bridge and extra humbucker pickup (total of two).", "The result was an instrument capable of playing heavy metal style guitar riffs or violin-like passages with sustained notes that can be adjusted as with an electric guitar." ], [ "Playing traditions worldwide", "Mandolin Club from Napoleon, Ohio, approximately 1892Italian mandolin virtuoso and child prodigy Giuseppe Pettine (here pictured in 1898) brought the Italian playing style to America where he settled in Providence, Rhode Island, as a mandolin teacher and composer.", "Pettine is credited with promoting a style where \"one player plays both the rhythmic chords and the lyric melodic line at once, combining single strokes and tremolo.", "\"The international repertoire of music for mandolin is almost unlimited, and musicians use it to play various types of music.", "This is especially true of violin music, since the mandolin has the same tuning as the violin.", "Following its invention and early development in Italy the mandolin spread throughout the European continent.", "The instrument was primarily used in a classical tradition with Mandolin orchestras, so-called ''Estudiantinas'' or in Germany ''Zupforchestern'' appearing in many cities.", "Following this continental popularity of the mandolin family local traditions appeared outside Europe in the Americas and in Japan.", "Travelling mandolin virtuosi like Carlo Curti, Giuseppe Pettine, Raffaele Calace and Silvio Ranieri contributed to the mandolin becoming a \"fad\" instrument in the early 20th century.", "This \"mandolin craze\" was fading by the 1930s, but just as this practice was falling into disuse, the mandolin found a new niche in American country, old-time music, bluegrass and folk music.", "More recently, the Baroque and Classical mandolin repertory and styles have benefited from the raised awareness of and interest in Early music, with media attention to classical players such as Israeli Avi Avital, Italian Carlo Aonzo, and American Joseph Brent.", "In India, the mandolin is played in classical Carnatic music.", "The musician U. Srinivas was perhaps the greatest mandolin player in this style.", "Lauded across the world for his virtuosity with the instrument, he died young." ], [ "Notable literature", "=== Art or \"classical\" music ===The tradition of so-called \"classical music\" for the mandolin has been somewhat spotty, due to its being widely perceived as a \"folk\" instrument.", "Significant composers did write music specifically for the mandolin, but few ''large'' works were composed for it by the most widely regarded composers.", "The total number of these works is rather small in comparison to—say—those composed for violin.", "One result of this dearth being that there were few positions for mandolinists in regular orchestras.", "To fill this gap in the literature, mandolin orchestras have traditionally played many arrangements of music written for regular orchestras or other ensembles.", "Some players have sought out contemporary composers to solicit new works.Furthermore, of the works that have been written for mandolin from the 18th century onward, many have been lost or forgotten.", "Some of these await discovery in museums and libraries and archives.", "One example of rediscovered 18th-century music for mandolin and ensembles with mandolins is the ''Gimo collection'', collected in the first half of 1762 by Jean Lefebure.", "Lefebure collected the music in Italy, and it was forgotten until manuscripts were rediscovered.Vivaldi created some concertos for mandolinos and orchestra: one for 4-chord mandolino, string bass & continuo in C major, (RV 425), and one for two 5-chord mandolinos, bass strings & continuo in G major, (RV 532), and concerto for two mandolins, 2 violons \"in Tromba\"—2 flûtes à bec, 2 salmoe, 2 théorbes, violoncelle, cordes et basse continuein in C major (p. 16).Beethoven composed mandolin music and enjoyed playing the mandolin.", "His 4 small pieces date from 1796: Sonatine WoO 43a; Adagio ma non troppo WoO 43b; Sonatine WoO 44a and Andante con Variazioni WoO 44b.The opera ''Don Giovanni'' by Mozart (1787) includes mandolin parts, including the accompaniment to the famous aria ''Deh vieni alla finestra'', and Verdi's opera Otello calls for guzla accompaniment in the aria ''Dove guardi splendono raggi'', but the part is commonly performed on mandolin.Gustav Mahler used the mandolin in his Symphony No.", "7, Symphony No.", "8 and Das Lied von der Erde.Parts for mandolin are included in works by Schoenberg (Variations Op.", "31), Stravinsky (Agon), Prokofiev (Romeo and Juliet) and Webern (opus Parts 10)Some 20th-century composers also used the mandolin as their instrument of choice (amongst these are: Schoenberg, Webern, Stravinsky and Prokofiev).Among the most important European mandolin composers of the 20th century are Raffaele Calace (composer, performer and luthier) and Giuseppe Anedda (virtuoso concert pianist and professor of the first chair of the Conservatory of Italian Mandolin, Padua, 1975).", "Today representatives of Italian classical music and Italian classical-contemporary music include Ugo Orlandi, Carlo Aonzo, Dorina Frati, Mauro Squillante and Duilio Galfetti.Japanese composers also produced orchestral music for mandolin in the 20th century, but these are not well known outside Japan.", "Notable composers include Morishige Takei and Yasuo Kuwahara.Traditional mandolin orchestras remain especially popular in Japan and Germany, but also exist throughout the United States, Europe and the rest of the world.", "They perform works composed for mandolin family instruments, or re-orchestrations of traditional pieces.", "The structure of a contemporary traditional mandolin orchestra consists of: first and second mandolins, mandolas (either octave mandolas, tuned an octave below the mandolin, or tenor mandolas, tuned like the viola), mandocellos (tuned like the cello), and bass instruments (conventional string bass or, rarely, mandobasses).", "Smaller ensembles, such as quartets composed of two mandolins, mandola, and mandocello, may also be found.==== Unaccompanied solo ====* Niccolò Paganini:Minuet* Kirsty Beilharz: Wreathed In Flames (2001)* Matthew Orlovich: Pukerang (2002)* John Peterson: Moving Fast Through Autumn Light (2000)* Ian Shanahan: Solar Dust (1988)* Larry Sitsky: The Three Names Of Shiva (1992)* Michael Smetanin: Sting (1987)* Caroline Szeto: Mandolin Dance (1995)* Silvio Ranieri:Variations on a Theme by Haydn:Song of summer* Eric Gross: Cadenza No.1: Cadenza No.2: Cadenza No.3: Cadenza No.4: Cadenza No.5: Cadenza No.6: Cadenza No.7: Cadenza No.8: Cadenza No.10: Cadenza No.11* Raffaele Calace:Prelude No.", "1:Prelude No.", "2:Prelude No.", "3:Prelude No.", "5:Prelude No.", "10:Prelude No.", "11:Prelude No.", "14:Prelude No.", "15:Large prelude:Collard:Sylvia:Minuet of rose* Ugo Bottacchiarri:I have stood on the banks* Heinrich Koniettsuni:Partita No.", "1, etc.", "* Herbert Baumann:Sonatine, etc.", "* Siegfried Behrend:Sense – structure* John Craton:The Gray Wolf:Perpetuum Mobile:Variations from Der Fluyten Lust-hof* Sakutarō Hagiwara:Hataoriru maiden* Takei Shusei:Spring to go* Seiichi Suzuki:Variations on Schubert lullaby:City of Elm:Variations on Kojonotsuki of subject matter* Gilad Hochman:Two Episodes for solo mandolin* Jiro Nakano:\"Spring has come\" Variations:Prayer:Fantasia second No.", ":Serenata:Beautiful my child and where:Prayer of the evening:Variations on September Affair of the subject matter* Makino YukariTaka:Spring snow of ballads* Jo Kondo:In early spring* Takashi Kubota:Nocturne:Etude:Fantasia first No.", "* Yasuo Kuwahara:Moon and mountain witch:Impromptu:Winter Light:Mukyu motion:Jon-gara:Silent door* Victor Kioulaphides==== Accompaniment with solo ====* Ludwig van Beethoven:Sonatine in C minor, WoO 43a:Adagio in E major WoO 43b:Sonatine in C major WoO 44a:Andante and Variations in D major WoO 44b* John Craton:Dioces aztecas:The Legend of Princess Noccalula* Giovanni Hoffmann: 4 Quartet for Mandolin, Violin, Viola, and Lute: 4 Divertimenti for Mandolin, Violin & B.c.", "* Johann Nepomuk Hummel:Sonata in C major Op.", "35* Vittorio Monti:Csárdás* Carlo Munier:Spanish Capriccio:Mazurka for concert:Waltz for concert:Bizaria:Aria Varia data:Mandolin Concerto No.", "1* Raffaele Calace:Mandolin Concerto No.", "1:Mandolin Concerto No.", "2:Mukyu motion:Tarantella:Song of Nostalgia:Elegy:Mazurka for concert* Silvio Ranieri:Warsaw of memories* Enrico Marcelli:Gypsy style Capriccio:Fantastic Waltz:Mukyu motion:Polonaise for concert* Hans Gál:Divertimento for mandolin and harp:Such as a duo for the mandolin and guitar* Norbert Shupuronguru:Serenade for mandolin and guitar* Franco Marugora:Grand Sonata for mandolin and guitar* Kurt Schwaen:Slovenia wind Dances such as* Dietrich Erdmann:Sonatine* Mari Takano:Light of silence* Rikuya Terashima:Sonata for mandolin and piano (2002)==== Duo and musical ensemble====A duet or duo is a musical composition for two performers in which the performers have equal importance to the piece.", "A musical ensemble with more than two solo instruments or voices is called trio, quartet, quintet, sextet, septet, octet, etc.", "*Ella Von Adajewska-Schultz (1846–1926):Venezuelan Serenade*Valentine Abt (1873–1942):In Venice Waters*Charles Acton:Chants Des Gondoliers* Hermann Ambrosius:Duo*Emanuele Barbella:Sonata in D major for Mandolin and Basso Continuo*Ignazio Bitelli (c. 1880–1956):L'Albero di Natale, pastorale for mandolin & guitar:Il Gondoliere, valse for 2 mandolins & guitar*Costantino Bertucci:Il Carnevale Di Venezia Con Variazioni*Pietro Gaetano Boni (1686–1741) :Sonate pour mandoline en la, Op.", "2 n° 1:Sonate pour mandoline en ré mineur, Op.", "2 n° 2:Sonate pour mandoline en ré, Op.", "2 n° 9*Antonio Del Buono:\"In Gondola\" Serenata Veneziana \"Ai Mandolnisti Di Venezia*Raffaele Calace:Barcarola Op.", "100 Per Chitarra:Barcarola Op.", "116 Per Liuto \"A Mio Figlio Peppino\"* Gioacchino Cocchi:* ''Sinfonia for 2 Mandolins & Continuo'', (Gimo 76)*Jules Cottin:Au Fil De L'Eau* John Craton:Charon Crossing the Styx (mandolin & double bass):Four Whimsies (mandolin & octave mandolin):Les gravures de Gustave Doré (mandolin & guitar):Six Pantomimes for Two Mandolins:Sonatina No.", "3 for Mandolin & Violin* Hans Gál:Op.", "59a Sonatina for 2 mandolins (1952)* Eric Gross: Hooperisms Op.181 (1991)* Eric Gross: Barbara and Deborah Op.175 (1990)* Eric Gross: Three Mandolin Duets Op.282 (2005)* Eric Gross: Paul and Adrian Op.165(1989)*Giovani Battista Gervasio :''Sonata for Mandolin & Continuo'' (Gimo 141):''Sonata per camera'' (Gimo 143):Sinfonia for 2 Mandolins & Continuo, (Gimo 149):''Trio for 2 Mandolins & Continuo,'' (Gimo 150):Sonata in D major for Mandolin and Basso Continuo:Sonata in G major for Mandolin and Basso Continuo*Giuseppe Giuliano:Sonata in D major for Mandolin and Basso Continuo* Geoffrey Gordon:Interiors of a Courtyard (mandolin & guitar)*Addiego Guerra:Sonata in G major for Mandolin and Basso Continuo* Positive Hattori:Concerto for two mandolin and piano* Sean Hickey:Mandolin Canons (mandolin & guitar)* Giovanni Hoffmann: 3 Duets for Mandolin and Violin: Serenade for Viola and Mandolin* Tyler Kaier:Den lille Havfrue (mandolin & guitar)* Peter Machajdík:Mit den Augen eines Falken for mandolin & guitar (2016)*Giovanni Battista Maldura:Barcarola Veneziana Di Mendelssohn*Edward Mezzacapo (1832–1898):Le Chant Du Gondolier*Heinrich Molbe (1835–1915):Gondolata Op.", "74 Per Mandolino, Clarinetto E Pianoforte*Carlo Munier (1859–1911):\"In Gondola\" Ricordi di Mendelssohn:Notturno Veneziano Per Quartetto Romantico* Jiro Nakano:Medaka, revolving lantern* John Peterson: Wired Life (1999)*Giuseppe Pettine (1874–1966):Barcarola Per Mandolino* Hideo Saito, Jiro Nakano:Du edge Martino*Domenico Scarlatti:Sonata in D minor (K77):Sonata in E minor (K81):Sonata in G minor (K88):Sonata No.", "54 (K. 89) in D minor for Mandolin and Basso Continuo:Sonata in D minor (K89):Sonata in D minor (K90):Sonata in G (K91)* Mari Takano:Silent Light for mandolin & harpsichord (2001):Two Pieces for Two Mandolins (2002)*Sergeij Taneev (1856–1913):Venezia Di Notte, Barcarola Op.", "9 No.", "1:Serenata Per Voce, Mandolino E Pianoforte Op.", "9 No.", "2 Alla Contessa Tat'jana L'vovna Tolstaja*Roberto Valentini (1674–1747) :Sonate pour mandoline en la, Op.", "12 n° 1:Sonate pour mandoline en ré mineur, Op.", "12 n° 2:Sonate pour mandoline en sol, Op.", "12 n° 3:Sonate pour mandoline en sol mineur, Op.", "12 n° 4:Sonate pour mandoline en mi mineur, Op.", "12 n° 5:Sonate pour mandoline en ré, Op.", "12 n° 6==== Concerto ====Concerto: a musical composition generally composed of three movements, in which, usually, one solo instrument (for instance, a piano, violin, cello or flute) is accompanied by an orchestra or concert band.", "* Anna Clyne: ''Three Sisters'', for mandolin and chamber orchestra* Eric Gross: Concerto for Mandolin and Chamber Orchestra Op.141 (1984): Concerto No.", "2 Op.151 (1986)* Larry Sitsky: Zohar, Sephardic Concerto (1998)* Jane Stanley: The Spirit's Lay Concerto for Mandolin and Orchestra (2000)* Caroline Szeto: Concerto For Mandolin and Chamber Orchestra (1998)* Giovanni Hoffmann: Concerto for Mandolin and Orchestra in D Major* Antonio Vivaldi:Mandolin Concerto in C major,:Concerto for two mandolinos in G major:Concerto for two mandolinos, 2 violons \" in Tromba\"—2 flûtes à bec, 2 salmoe, 2 théorbes, violoncelle, cordes et basse continuein in C major* Francisco Rodrigo Arto (Venezuela):Mandolin Concerto (1984)* Dominico Caudioso:Mandolin Concerto in G Major* John Craton:Mandolin Concerto No.", "1 in D Minor:Mandolin Concerto No.", "2 in D Major:Mandolin Concerto No.", "3 in E Minor:Mandolin Concerto No.", "4 in G Major:Concerto for Two Mandolins (\"Rromane Bjavela\")* Gerardo Enrique Dirié (Argentina):''Los ocho puentes'' for four recorders, mandolin and percussion (1984)* Johann Adolph Hasse:Mandolin Concerto in G major* Leopold Kozeluch:Concerto for piano, mandolin, trumpet and double bass in E major* Giovanni Battista Pergolesi:Mandolin Concerto in B major* Giovanni Paisiello:Mandolin Concerto in E major:Mandolin Concerto in C major:Mandolin Concerto in G major* Johann Nepomuk Hummel:Mandolin Concerto in G major* Armin Kaufmann:Mandolin Concerto* Dietrich Erdmann:Mandolin Concerto* Herbert Baumann:Mandolin and the Concerto for Strings* Brian Israel (1951–1986):Concerto for Mandolin (1985):Sonatinetta (1984):Surrealistic Serenade (1985)* Makino YukariTaka:Mandolin Concerto* Julian Dawes:Mandolin and the Concerto for Strings* Tanaka Ken:\"Arc\" for mandolin and orchestra* Vladimir Kororutsuku:Suite \"positive and negative\"* Avner Dorman:Mandolin Concerto* Gilad Hochman:\"Nedudim\" (\"Wanderings\") Fantasia-Concertante for mandolin and string orchestra (2014)==== Mandolin in the orchestra ====Orchestral works in which the mandolin has a limited part.", "* Domenico Cimarosa:Opera ''La finta parigina''* John Craton:Opera ''The Curious Affair of the Count of Monte Blotto''* Michel Corrette:Concerto for orchestra ''25 Concertos Comiques'': ''Concerto nr 24 in C major \"La Marche du Huron\"''*Lukas Foss :Symphony No.", "2 \"Symphony Of Chorales\" (1958)*André Grétry: ''L'Amant jaloux'' (Paris, 1778)* George Frideric Handel:Oratorio ''Alexander Balus''* György Ligeti:Opera ''Le Grand Macabre''* Bruno Maderna:Opera ''Don Perlimplin, ovvero il trionfo dell'amore e dell'immaginazione''* Gustav Mahler:''Symphony No.", "7, Song of the Night'':''Symphony No.", "8, Symphony of Thousands'':Symphony ''Song of the Earth''* Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart:Opera ''Don Giovanni''* Giovanni Paisiello:The Barber of Seville''* Willem Pijper:Opera ''Halewijn'':''Romance sans paroles'':Symphony No.", "2:Symphony No.", "3* Sergei Prokofiev:Ballet music ''Romeo and Juliet''* Ottorino Respighi:Symphonic poem ''Festivals of Rome''*Antonio Salieri:Tarare (Paris, 1787)* Rodion Shchedrin:Ballet music ''Anna Karenina''* Arnold Schoenberg:Opera ''Moses und Aron'':''Variations for Orchestra''* Niccola Spinelli: Opera ''A Basso Porto'': ''Intermezzo for mandolins and orchestra''* Igor Stravinsky:Ballet music ''Agon''* Giuseppe Verdi:Opera ''Otello''* Antonio Vivaldi:Oratorio ''Juditha triumphans''* Anton Webern:''Five Pieces for Orchestra''" ], [ "See also", "* List of mandolinists* List of mandolinists (sorted)* List of string instruments* Stringed instrument tunings* Pandura* Quintola* Greek bouzouki* Bluegrass mandolin* Mandola* Octave Mandolin* Mandocello* Mandobass* Cittern* Domra* Irish bouzouki* Portuguese guitar* Troise and his Mandoliers" ], [ "References", "* * * * * * * * Edition MANDO – Edition MANDO Verlags-Bestellung" ], [ "Further reading", "'''Chord dictionaries'''* A comprehensive chord dictionary.", "* A case-style chord dictionary.", "* A very comprehensive chord dictionary.", "'''Method and instructional guides'''* Instructional guide." ], [ "External links", "* The Mandolin World* Mandolin Youtube Channel* Accademia Mandolinistica Pugliese (Puglia-Italy)* * List of mandolin method books from 1629 to present* List of composers for the mandolin with more than 1900 names.", "Includes mandolin solos, ensembles, concertos, chamber music, and bluegrass.", "Japanese website, but needed parts are in English* Works for orchestras that contain small parts for mandolin.", "Japanese website, but needed parts are in English.", "* Works for mandolin or with major parts for mandolin.", "* 19 works from Italian composers, during the mandolins first rise, copies from manuscript into modern notation." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Microphotonics" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Microphotonics''' is a branch of technology that deals with directing light on a microscopic scale and is used in optical networking.", "Particularly, it refers to the branch of technology that deals with wafer-level integrated devices and systems that emit, transmit, detect, and process light along with other forms of radiant energy with photon as the quantum unit.Microphotonics employs at least two different materials with a large differential index of refraction to squeeze the light down to a small size.", "Generally speaking, virtually all of microphotonics relies on Fresnel reflection to guide the light.", "If the photons reside mainly in the higher index material, the confinement is due to total internal reflection.", "If the confinement is due many distributed Fresnel reflections, the device is termed a photonic crystal.", "There are many different types of geometries used in microphotonics including optical waveguides, optical microcavities, and Arrayed waveguide gratings." ], [ "Photonic crystals", "Photonic crystals are non-conducting materials that reflect various wavelengths of light almost perfectly.", "Such a crystal can be referred to as a perfect mirror.", "Other devices employed in microphotonics include micromirrors and photonic wire waveguides.", "These tools are used to \"mold the flow of light\", a famous phrase for describing the goal of microphotonics.", "The crystals serve as structures that allow the manipulation, confinement, and control of light in one, two, or three dimensions of space." ], [ "Microdisks, microtoroids, and microspheres", "Silica optical microdisk (courtesy http://copilot.caltech.eduAn optical microdisk, optical microtoroid, or optical microsphere uses internal reflection in a circular geometry to hold on to the photons.", "This type of circularly symmetric optical resonance is called a Whispering gallery mode, after Lord Rayleigh coined the term." ], [ "Application", "Microphotonics has biological applications and these can be demonstrated in the case of the \"biophotonic chips\", which are developed to increase efficiency in terms of \"photonic yield\" or the collected luminescent signal emitted by fluorescent markers used in biological chips.Currently, microphotonics technology is also being developed to replace electronics devices and bio-compatible intracellular devices.", "For instance, the long-standing goal of an all-optical router would eliminate electronic bottlenecks, speeding up the network.", "Perfect mirrors are being developed for use in fiber-optic cables." ], [ "See also", "*Photonics" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Microsoft Windows" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Microsoft Windows''' is a product line of proprietary graphical operating systems developed and marketed by Microsoft.", "It is grouped into families and sub-families that cater to particular sectors of the computing industry -- Windows (unqualified) for a consumer or corporate workstation, Windows Server for a server and Windows IoT for an embedded system.", "Defunct families include Windows 9x, Windows Mobile, Windows Phone, and Windows Embedded Compact.The first version of Windows was released on November 20, 1985, as a graphical operating system shell for MS-DOS in response to the growing interest in graphical user interfaces (GUIs).Windows is the most popular desktop operating system in the world, with a 70% market share , according to StatCounter.", "However, Windows is not the most used operating system when including both mobile and desktop OSes, due to Android's massive growth., the most recent version of Windows is Windows 11 for consumer PCs and tablets, Windows 11 Enterprise for corporations, and Windows Server 2022 for servers.", "Still supported are some editions of Windows 10, Windows Server 2016 and later (and exceptionally with paid support down to Windows Server 2012 and Windows Embedded POSReady 7)." ], [ "Product line", "Microsoft registered trademarks for various products (families) of the Windows product line -- most of which target a specific sector of the computing industry.", "the only active top-level family is Windows NT.", "The first version, Windows NT 3.1, was intended for server computing and corporate workstations.", "It grew into a product line of its own and now consists of four sub-families that tend to be released almost simultaneously and share the same kernel.", "* Windows (unqualified): For a consumer or corporate workstation or tablet.", "The latest version is Windows 11.Its main competitors are macOS by Apple for personal computers and iPadOS and Android for tablets (c.f.", ").", "Of note: 'Windows' refers to both the overall product line and to this sub-family of it.", "* Windows Server: For a server computer.", "The latest version is Windows Server 2022.Unlike its client sibling, it has adopted a strong naming scheme.", "The main competitor of this family is Linux.", "(c.f.", ")* Windows PE: A lightweight version of its Windows sibling, meant to operate as a live operating system, used for installing Windows on bare-metal computers (especially on many computers at once), recovery, or troubleshooting purposes.", "The latest version is Windows PE 10.", "* Windows IoT (previously Windows Embedded): For IoT and embedded computers.", "The latest version is Windows 11 IoT Enterprise.", "Like Windows Server, the main competitor of this family is Linux.", "(c.f.", ")These top-level Windows families are no longer actively developed:* Windows 9x: Intended for the consumer market only.", "(''PC World'' called its last version, Windows Me, one of the worst products of all time.)", "Microsoft now caters to the consumer market with Windows NT.", "* Windows Mobile: The predecessor to Windows Phone, a mobile phone and PDA operating system.", "The first version was called Pocket PC 2000.The third version, Windows Mobile 2003, was the first version to adopt the Windows Mobile trademark.", "The last version was Windows Mobile 6.5.", "* Windows Phone: Sold only to smartphone manufacturers.", "The first version was Windows Phone 7, followed by Windows Phone 8 and Windows Phone 8.1.It was succeeded by Windows 10 Mobile, which is also discontinued.", "*Windows Embedded Compact: Most commonly known by its former name, Windows CE, it is a hybrid kernel operating system optimized for low power and memory systems, with OEMs able to modify the UI to suit their needs.", "The final version was Windows Embedded Compact 2013, and it is succeeded by Windows IoT." ], [ "Version history", "The term ''Windows'' collectively describes any or all of several generations of Microsoft operating system products.", "These products are generally categorized as follows:=== Early versions ===The history of Windows dates back to 1981 when Microsoft started work on a program called \"Interface Manager\".", "It was announced in November 1983 (after the Apple Lisa, but before the Macintosh) under the name \"Windows\", but Windows 1.0 was not released until November 1985.Windows 1.0 was to compete with Apple's operating system, but achieved little popularity.", "Windows 1.0 is not a complete operating system; rather, it extends MS-DOS.", "The shell of Windows 1.0 is a program known as the MS-DOS Executive.", "Components included Calculator, Calendar, Cardfile, Clipboard Viewer, Clock, Control Panel, Notepad, Paint, Reversi, Terminal and Write.", "Windows 1.0 does not allow overlapping windows.", "Instead, all windows are tiled.", "Only modal dialog boxes may appear over other windows.", "Microsoft sold as included Windows Development libraries with the C development environment, which included numerous windows samples.Windows 2.0 was released in December 1987, and was more popular than its predecessor.", "It features several improvements to the user interface and memory management.", "Windows 2.03 changed the OS from tiled windows to overlapping windows.", "The result of this change led to Apple Computer filing a suit against Microsoft alleging infringement on Apple's copyrights (eventually settled in court in Microsoft's favor in 1993).", "Windows 2.0 also introduced more sophisticated keyboard shortcuts and could make use of expanded memory.Windows 2.1 was released in two different versions: Windows/286 and Windows/386.Windows/386 uses the virtual 8086 mode of the Intel 80386 to multitask several DOS programs and the paged memory model to emulate expanded memory using available extended memory.", "Windows/286, in spite of its name, runs on both Intel 8086 and Intel 80286 processors.", "It runs in real mode but can make use of the high memory area.In addition to full Windows packages, there were runtime-only versions that shipped with early Windows software from third parties and made it possible to run their Windows software on MS-DOS and without the full Windows feature set.The early versions of Windows are often thought of as graphical shells, mostly because they ran on top of MS-DOS and used it for file system services.", "However, even the earliest Windows versions already assumed many typical operating system functions; notably, having their own executable file format and providing their own device drivers (timer, graphics, printer, mouse, keyboard and sound).", "Unlike MS-DOS, Windows allowed users to execute multiple graphical applications at the same time, through cooperative multitasking.", "Windows implemented an elaborate, segment-based, software virtual memory scheme, which allows it to run applications larger than available memory: code segments and resources are swapped in and thrown away when memory became scarce; data segments moved in memory when a given application had relinquished processor control.=== Windows 3.x ===Windows 3.0, released in 1990Windows 3.0, released in 1990, improved the design, mostly because of virtual memory and loadable virtual device drivers (VxDs) that allow Windows to share arbitrary devices between multi-tasked DOS applications.", "Windows 3.0 applications can run in protected mode, which gives them access to several megabytes of memory without the obligation to participate in the software virtual memory scheme.", "They run inside the same address space, where the segmented memory provides a degree of protection.", "Windows 3.0 also featured improvements to the user interface.", "Microsoft rewrote critical operations from C into assembly.", "Windows 3.0 was the first version of Windows to achieve broad commercial success, selling 2 million copies in the first six months.Versions before Windows 95 had to be installed from floppy disks by end users (or in professional environments with a network installation); here Windows for Workgroups with nine 3.5-inch-disks to be inserted sequentially.Windows 3.1, made generally available on March 1, 1992, featured a facelift.", "In August 1993, Windows for Workgroups, a special version with integrated peer-to-peer networking features and a version number of 3.11, was released.", "It was sold along with Windows 3.1.Support for Windows 3.1 ended on December 31, 2001.Windows 3.2, released in 1994, is an updated version of the Chinese version of Windows 3.1.The update was limited to this language version, as it fixed only issues related to the complex writing system of the Chinese language.", "Windows 3.2 was generally sold by computer manufacturers with a ten-disk version of MS-DOS that also had Simplified Chinese characters in basic output and some translated utilities.=== Windows 9x ===The next major consumer-oriented release of Windows, Windows 95, was released on August 24, 1995.While still remaining MS-DOS-based, Windows 95 introduced support for native 32-bit applications, plug and play hardware, preemptive multitasking, long file names of up to 255 characters, and provided increased stability over its predecessors.", "Windows 95 also introduced a redesigned, object oriented user interface, replacing the previous Program Manager with the Start menu, taskbar, and Windows Explorer shell.", "Windows 95 was a major commercial success for Microsoft; Ina Fried of CNET remarked that \"by the time Windows 95 was finally ushered off the market in 2001, it had become a fixture on computer desktops around the world.\"", "Microsoft published four OEM Service Releases (OSR) of Windows 95, each of which was roughly equivalent to a service pack.", "The first OSR of Windows 95 was also the first version of Windows to be bundled with Microsoft's web browser, Internet Explorer.", "Mainstream support for Windows 95 ended on December 31, 2000, and extended support for Windows 95 ended on December 31, 2001.Windows 95 was followed up with the release of Windows 98 on June 25, 1998, which introduced the Windows Driver Model, support for USB composite devices, support for ACPI, hibernation, and support for multi-monitor configurations.", "Windows 98 also included integration with Internet Explorer 4 through Active Desktop and other aspects of the Windows Desktop Update (a series of enhancements to the Explorer shell which was also made available for Windows 95).", "In May 1999, Microsoft released Windows 98 Second Edition, an updated version of Windows 98.Windows 98 SE added Internet Explorer 5.0 and Windows Media Player 6.2 amongst other upgrades.", "Mainstream support for Windows 98 ended on June 30, 2002, and extended support for Windows 98 ended on July 11, 2006.On September 14, 2000, Microsoft released Windows Me (Millennium Edition), the last DOS-based version of Windows.", "Windows Me incorporated visual interface enhancements from its Windows NT-based counterpart Windows 2000, had faster boot times than previous versions (which however, required the removal of the ability to access a real mode DOS environment, removing compatibility with some older programs), expanded multimedia functionality (including Windows Media Player 7, Windows Movie Maker, and the Windows Image Acquisition framework for retrieving images from scanners and digital cameras), additional system utilities such as System File Protection and System Restore, and updated home networking tools.", "However, Windows Me was faced with criticism for its speed and instability, along with hardware compatibility issues and its removal of real mode DOS support.", "''PC World'' considered Windows Me to be one of the worst operating systems Microsoft had ever released, and the fourth worst tech product of all time.=== Windows NT ======= Version history ========= Early versions (Windows NT 3.1/3.5/3.51/4.0/2000) =====Windows logo, 1995In November 1988, a new development team within Microsoft (which included former Digital Equipment Corporation developers Dave Cutler and Mark Lucovsky) began work on a revamped version of IBM and Microsoft's OS/2 operating system known as \"NT OS/2\".", "NT OS/2 was intended to be a secure, multi-user operating system with POSIX compatibility and a modular, portable kernel with preemptive multitasking and support for multiple processor architectures.", "However, following the successful release of Windows 3.0, the NT development team decided to rework the project to use an extended 32-bit port of the Windows API known as Win32 instead of those of OS/2.Win32 maintained a similar structure to the Windows APIs (allowing existing Windows applications to easily be ported to the platform), but also supported the capabilities of the existing NT kernel.", "Following its approval by Microsoft's staff, development continued on what was now Windows NT, the first 32-bit version of Windows.", "However, IBM objected to the changes, and ultimately continued OS/2 development on its own.Windows NT was the first Windows operating system based on a hybrid kernel.", "The hybrid kernel was designed as a modified microkernel, influenced by the Mach microkernel developed by Richard Rashid at Carnegie Mellon University, but without meeting all of the criteria of a pure microkernel.The first release of the resulting operating system, Windows NT 3.1 (named to associate it with Windows 3.1) was released in July 1993, with versions for desktop workstations and servers.", "Windows NT 3.5 was released in September 1994, focusing on performance improvements and support for Novell's NetWare, and was followed up by Windows NT 3.51 in May 1995, which included additional improvements and support for the PowerPC architecture.", "Windows NT 4.0 was released in June 1996, introducing the redesigned interface of Windows 95 to the NT series.", "On February 17, 2000, Microsoft released Windows 2000, a successor to NT 4.0.The Windows NT name was dropped at this point in order to put a greater focus on the Windows brand.===== Windows XP =====The next major version of Windows NT, Windows XP, was released to manufacturing (RTM) on August 24, 2001, and to the general public on October 25, 2001.The introduction of Windows XP aimed to unify the consumer-oriented Windows 9x series with the architecture introduced by Windows NT, a change which Microsoft promised would provide better performance over its DOS-based predecessors.", "Windows XP would also introduce a redesigned user interface (including an updated Start menu and a \"task-oriented\" Windows Explorer), streamlined multimedia and networking features, Internet Explorer 6, integration with Microsoft's .NET Passport services, a \"compatibility mode\" to help provide backwards compatibility with software designed for previous versions of Windows, and Remote Assistance functionality.At retail, Windows XP was marketed in two main editions: the \"Home\" edition was targeted towards consumers, while the \"Professional\" edition was targeted towards business environments and power users, and included additional security and networking features.", "Home and Professional were later accompanied by the \"Media Center\" edition (designed for home theater PCs, with an emphasis on support for DVD playback, TV tuner cards, DVR functionality, and remote controls), and the \"Tablet PC\" edition (designed for mobile devices meeting its specifications for a tablet computer, with support for stylus pen input and additional pen-enabled applications).", "Mainstream support for Windows XP ended on April 14, 2009.Extended support ended on April 8, 2014.After Windows 2000, Microsoft also changed its release schedules for server operating systems; the server counterpart of Windows XP, Windows Server 2003, was released in April 2003.It was followed in December 2005, by Windows Server 2003 R2.===== Windows Vista =====After a lengthy development process, Windows Vista was released on November 30, 2006, for volume licensing and January 30, 2007, for consumers.", "It contained a number of new features, from a redesigned shell and user interface to significant technical changes, with a particular focus on security features.", "It was available in a number of different editions, and has been subject to some criticism, such as drop of performance, longer boot time, criticism of new UAC, and stricter license agreement.", "Vista's server counterpart, Windows Server 2008 was released in early 2008.===== Windows 7 =====On July 22, 2009, Windows 7 and Windows Server 2008 R2 were released to manufacturing (RTM) and released to the public three months later on October 22, 2009.Unlike its predecessor, Windows Vista, which introduced a large number of new features, Windows 7 was intended to be a more focused, incremental upgrade to the Windows line, with the goal of being compatible with applications and hardware with which Windows Vista was already compatible.", "Windows 7 has multi-touch support, a redesigned Windows shell with an updated taskbar with revealable jump lists that contain shortcuts to files frequently used with specific applications and shortcuts to tasks within the application, a home networking system called HomeGroup, and performance improvements.===== Windows 8 and 8.1 =====Windows logo (2012–2021)Windows 8, the successor to Windows 7, was released generally on October 26, 2012.A number of significant changes were made on Windows 8, including the introduction of a user interface based around Microsoft's Metro design language with optimizations for touch-based devices such as tablets and all-in-one PCs.", "These changes include the Start screen, which uses large tiles that are more convenient for touch interactions and allow for the display of continually updated information, and a new class of apps which are designed primarily for use on touch-based devices.", "The new Windows version required a minimum resolution of 1024×768 pixels, effectively making it unfit for netbooks with 800×600-pixel screens.Other changes include increased integration with cloud services and other online platforms (such as social networks and Microsoft's own OneDrive (formerly SkyDrive) and Xbox Live services), the Windows Store service for software distribution, and a new variant known as Windows RT for use on devices that utilize the ARM architecture, and a new keyboard shortcut for screenshots.", "An update to Windows 8, called Windows 8.1, was released on October 17, 2013, and includes features such as new live tile sizes, deeper OneDrive integration, and many other revisions.", "Windows 8 and Windows 8.1 have been subject to some criticism, such as the removal of the Start menu.===== Windows 10 =====On September 30, 2014, Microsoft announced Windows 10 as the successor to Windows 8.1.It was released on July 29, 2015, and addresses shortcomings in the user interface first introduced with Windows 8.Changes on PC include the return of the Start Menu, a virtual desktop system, and the ability to run Windows Store apps within windows on the desktop rather than in full-screen mode.", "Windows 10 is said to be available to update from qualified Windows 7 with SP1, Windows 8.1 and Windows Phone 8.1 devices from the Get Windows 10 Application (for Windows 7, Windows 8.1) or Windows Update (Windows 7).In February 2017, Microsoft announced the migration of its Windows source code repository from Perforce to Git.", "This migration involved 3.5 million separate files in a 300-gigabyte repository.", "By May 2017, 90 percent of its engineering team was using Git, in about 8500 commits and 1760 Windows builds per day.In June 2021, shortly before Microsoft's announcement of Windows 11, Microsoft updated their lifecycle policy pages for Windows 10, revealing that support for their last release of Windows 10 will end on October 14, 2025.On April 27, 2023, Microsoft announced that version 22H2 would be the last of Windows 10.===== Windows 11 =====On June 24, 2021, Windows 11 was announced as the successor to Windows 10 during a livestream.", "The new operating system was designed to be more user-friendly and understandable.", "It was released on October 5, 2021.Windows 11 is a free upgrade to Windows 10 users who meet the system requirements.==== Windows 365 ====In July 2021, Microsoft announced it will start selling subscriptions to virtualized Windows desktops as part of a new ''Windows 365'' service in the following month.", "The new service will allow for cross-platform usage, aiming to make the operating system available for both Apple and Android users.", "It is a separate service and offers several variations including Windows 365 Frontline, Windows 365 Boot, and the Windows 365 app.", "The subscription service will be accessible through any operating system with a web browser.", "The new service is an attempt at capitalizing on the growing trend, fostered during the COVID-19 pandemic, for businesses to adopt a hybrid remote work environment, in which \"employees split their time between the office and home\".", "As the service will be accessible through web browsers, Microsoft will be able to bypass the need to publish the service through Google Play or the Apple App Store.Microsoft announced Windows 365 availability to business and enterprise customers on August 2, 2021.==== Multilingual support ====Multilingual support has been built into Windows since Windows 3.0.The language for both the keyboard and the interface can be changed through the Region and Language Control Panel.", "Components for all supported input languages, such as Input Method Editors, are automatically installed during Windows installation (in Windows XP and earlier, files for East Asian languages, such as Chinese, and files for right-to-left scripts, such as Arabic, may need to be installed separately, also from the said Control Panel).", "Third-party IMEs may also be installed if a user feels that the provided one is insufficient for their needs.", "Since Windows 2000, English editions of Windows NT have East Asian IMEs (such as Microsoft Pinyin IME and Microsoft Japanese IME) bundled, but files for East Asian languages may be manually installed on Control Panel.Interface languages for the operating system are free for download, but some languages are limited to certain editions of Windows.", "Language Interface Packs (LIPs) are redistributable and may be downloaded from Microsoft's Download Center and installed for any edition of Windows (XP or later)they translate most, but not all, of the Windows interface, and require a certain base language (the language which Windows originally shipped with).", "This is used for most languages in emerging markets.", "Full Language Packs, which translate the complete operating system, are only available for specific editions of Windows (Ultimate and Enterprise editions of Windows Vista and 7, and all editions of Windows 8, 8.1 and RT except Single Language).", "They do not require a specific base language and are commonly used for more popular languages such as French or Chinese.", "These languages cannot be downloaded through the Download Center, but are available as optional updates through the Windows Update service (except Windows 8).The interface language of installed applications is not affected by changes in the Windows interface language.", "The availability of languages depends on the application developers themselves.Windows 8 and Windows Server 2012 introduce a new Language Control Panel where both the interface and input languages can be simultaneously changed, and language packs, regardless of type, can be downloaded from a central location.", "The PC Settings app in Windows 8.1 and Windows Server 2012 R2 also includes a counterpart settings page for this.", "Changing the interface language also changes the language of preinstalled Windows Store apps (such as Mail, Maps and News) and certain other Microsoft-developed apps (such as Remote Desktop).", "The above limitations for language packs are however still in effect, except that full language packs can be installed for any edition except Single Language, which caters to emerging markets.==== Platform support ====Windows NT included support for several platforms before the x86-based personal computer became dominant in the professional world.", "Windows NT 4.0 and its predecessors supported PowerPC, DEC Alpha and MIPS R4000 (although some of the platforms implement 64-bit computing, the OS treated them as 32-bit).", "Windows 2000 dropped support for all platforms, except the third generation x86 (known as IA-32) or newer in 32-bit mode.", "The client line of the Windows NT family still runs on IA-32 but the Windows Server line ceased supporting this platform with the release of Windows Server 2008 R2.With the introduction of the Intel Itanium architecture (IA-64), Microsoft released new versions of Windows to support it.", "Itanium versions of Windows XP and Windows Server 2003 were released at the same time as their mainstream x86 counterparts.", "Windows XP 64-Bit Edition, released in 2003, is the last Windows client operating system to support Itanium.", "Windows Server line continues to support this platform until Windows Server 2012; Windows Server 2008 R2 is the last Windows operating system to support Itanium architecture.On April 25, 2005, Microsoft released Windows XP Professional x64 Edition and Windows Server 2003 x64 Editions to support x86-64 (or simply x64), the 64-bit version of x86 architecture.", "Windows Vista was the first client version of Windows NT to be released simultaneously in IA-32 and x64 editions.", "x64 is still supported.An edition of Windows 8 known as Windows RT was specifically created for computers with ARM architecture, and while ARM is still used for Windows smartphones with Windows 10, tablets with Windows RT will not be updated.", "Starting from Windows 10 Fall Creators Update (version 1709) and later includes support for ARM-based PCs.Windows 11 is the first version to drop support for 32-bit hardware.=== Windows CE ===Windows CE (officially known as ''Windows Embedded Compact''), is an edition of Windows that runs on minimalistic computers, like satellite navigation systems and some mobile phones.", "Windows Embedded Compact is based on its own dedicated kernel, dubbed Windows CE kernel.", "Microsoft licenses Windows CE to OEMs and device makers.", "The OEMs and device makers can modify and create their own user interfaces and experiences, while Windows CE provides the technical foundation to do so.Windows CE was used in the Dreamcast along with Sega's own proprietary OS for the console.", "Windows CE was the core from which Windows Mobile was derived.", "Its successor, Windows Phone 7, was based on components from both Windows CE 6.0 R3 and Windows CE 7.0.Windows Phone 8 however, is based on the same NT-kernel as Windows 8.Windows Embedded Compact is not to be confused with Windows XP Embedded or Windows NT 4.0 Embedded, modular editions of Windows based on Windows NT kernel.=== Xbox OS ===Xbox OS is an unofficial name given to the version of Windows that runs on Xbox consoles.", "From Xbox One onwards it is an implementation with an emphasis on virtualization (using Hyper-V) as it is three operating systems running at once, consisting of the core operating system, a second implemented for games and a more Windows-like environment for applications.Microsoft updates Xbox One's OS every month, and these updates can be downloaded from the Xbox Live service to the Xbox and subsequently installed, or by using offline recovery images downloaded via a PC.", "It was originally based on NT 6.2 (Windows 8) kernel, and the latest version runs on an NT 10.0 base.", "This system is sometimes referred to as \"Windows 10 on Xbox One\".Xbox One and Xbox Series operating systems also allow limited (due to licensing restrictions and testing resources) backward compatibility with previous generation hardware, and the Xbox 360's system is backwards compatible with the original Xbox." ], [ "Version control system", "Up to and including every version before Windows 2000, Microsoft used an in-house version control system named Source Library Manager (SLM).", "Shortly after Windows 2000 was released, Microsoft switched to a fork of Perforce named Source Depot.", "This system was used up until 2017 once the system could not keep up with the size of Windows.", "Microsoft had begun to integrate Git into Team Foundation Server in 2013, but Windows (and Office) continued to rely on Source Depot.", "The Windows code was divided among 65 different repositories with a kind of virtualization layer to produce unified view of all of the code.In 2017 Microsoft announced that it would start using Git, an open source version control system created by Linus Torvalds and in May 2017 they reported that the migration into a new Git repository was complete.=== VFSForGit ===Because of its large, decades-long history, however, the Windows codebase is not especially well suited to the decentralized nature of Linux development that Git was originally created to manage.", "Each Git repository contains a complete history of all the files, which proved unworkable for Windows developers because cloning the whole repository takes several hours.", "Microsoft has been working on a new project called the Virtual File System for Git (VFSForGit) to address these challenges.In 2021 the VFS for Git has been superseded by '''Scalar'''." ], [ "Timeline of releases", " Product name Latest version General availability date Codename Support until Latest version of Mainstream Extended IE DirectX Edge 1.01 November 20, 1985 Interface Manager December 31, 2001 2.03 December 9, 1987 December 31, 2001 2.11 May 27, 1988 December 31, 2001 3.0 May 22, 1990 December 31, 2001 3.1 April 6, 1992 December 31, 2001 5 3.1 October 1992 Sparta, Winball December 31, 2001 NT 3.1.528 July 27, 1993 December 31, 2001 3.11 August 11, 1993 Sparta, Winball December 31, 2001 3.2 November 22, 1993 December 31, 2001 NT 3.5.807 September 21, 1994 Daytona December 31, 2001 NT 3.51.1057 May 30, 1995 December 31, 2001 4.0.950 August 24, 1995 Chicago, 4.0 December 31, 2000 December 31, 2001 5.5 6.1 NT 4.0.1381 July 31, 1996 Cairo June 30, 2002 June 30, 2004 6 4.10.1998 June 25, 1998 Memphis, 97, 4.1 June 30, 2002 July 11, 2006 6.1 4.10.2222 May 5, 1999 June 30, 2002 July 11, 2006 NT 5.0.2195 February 17, 2000 June 30, 2005 July 13, 2010 9.0c 4.90.3000 September 14, 2000 Millennium, 4.9 December 31, 2003 July 11, 2006 NT 5.1.2600 October 25, 2001 Whistler April 14, 2009 April 8, 2014 8 NT 5.2.3790 March 28, 2003 April 14, 2009 April 8, 2014 NT 5.2.3790 April 24, 2003 Whistler Server July 13, 2010 July 14, 2015 NT 5.2.3790 April 25, 2005 April 14, 2009 April 8, 2014 NT 5.1.2600 July 8, 2006 Eiger, Mönch April 14, 2009 April 8, 2014 NT 6.0.6003 January 30, 2007 Longhorn April 10, 2012 April 11, 2017 9 11 NT 5.2.4500 November 4, 2007 Quattro January 8, 2013 8 9.0c NT 6.0.6003 February 27, 2008 Longhorn Server January 13, 2015 January 14, 2020 9 11 NT 6.1.7601 October 22, 2009 Windows 7 January 13, 2015 January 14, 2020 11 109 NT 6.1.7601 October 22, 2009 Windows Server 7 January 13, 2015 January 14, 2020 NT 6.1.8400 April 6, 2011 Vail April 12, 2016 9 NT 6.2.9200 September 4, 2012 Server 8 October 9, 2018 October 10, 2023 11 11.1 NT 6.2.9200 October 26, 2012 January 12, 2016 10 NT 6.3.9600 October 17, 2013 Blue January 9, 2018 January 10, 2023 11 11.2 NT 6.3.9600 October 18, 2013 Server Blue October 9, 2018 October 10, 2023 NT 10.0.19045 July 29, 2015 ''Various'' October 14, 2025 12 121 NT 10.0.14393 October 12, 2016 January 11, 2022 January 12, 2027 NT 10.0.17763 October 2, 2018 January 9, 2024 January 9, 2029 NT 10.0.20348 August 18, 2021 October 13, 2026 October 14, 2031 NT 10.0.22631 October 5, 2021 November 10, 2026 NT 10.0.26XXX 2024" ], [ "Usage share and device sales", "Use of Windows 10 has exceeded Windows 7 globally since early 2018.For desktop and laptop computers, according to Net Applications and StatCounter (which track the use of operating systems in devices that are active on the Web), Windows was the most used operating-system family in August 2021, with around 91% usage share according to Net Applications and around 76% usage share according to StatCounter.Including personal computers of all kinds (e.g., desktops, laptops, mobile devices, and game consoles), Windows OSes accounted for 32.67% of usage share in August 2021, compared to Android (highest, at 46.03%), iOS's 13.76%, iPadOS's 2.81%, and macOS's 2.51%, according to Net Applications and 30.73% of usage share in August 2021, compared to Android (highest, at 42.56%), iOS/iPadOS's 16.53%, and macOS's 6.51%, according to StatCounter.Those statistics do not include servers (including so-called cloud computing, where Microsoft is known not to be a leader, with Linux used more than Windows) as Net Applications and StatCounter use web browsing as a proxy for all use." ], [ "Security", "Early versions of Windows were designed at a time where malware and networking were less common, and had few built-in security features; they did not provide access privileges to allow a user to prevent other users from accessing their files, and they did not provide memory protection to prevent one process from reading or writing another process's address space or to prevent a process from code or data used by privileged-mode code.While the Windows 9x series offered the option of having profiles for multiple users with separate profiles and home folders, it had no concept of access privileges, allowing any user to edit others' files.", "In addition, while it ran separate 32-bit applications in separate address spaces, protecting an application's code and data from being read or written by another application, it did not protect the first megabyte of memory from userland applications for compatibility reasons.", "This area of memory contains code critical to the functioning of the operating system, and by writing into this area of memory an application can crash or freeze the operating system.", "This was a source of instability as faulty applications could accidentally write into this region, potentially corrupting important operating system memory, which usually resulted in some form of system error and halt.Windows NT was far more secure, implementing access privileges and full memory protection, and, while 32-bit programs meeting the DoD's C2 security rating, yet these advantages were nullified by the fact that, prior to Windows Vista, the default user account created during the setup process was an administrator account; the user, and any program the user launched, had full access to the machine.", "Though Windows XP did offer an option of turning administrator accounts into limited accounts, the majority of home users did not do so, partially due to the number of programs which required administrator rights to function properly.", "As a result, most home users still ran as administrator all the time.", "These architectural flaws, combined with Windows's very high popularity, made Windows a frequent target of computer worm and virus writers.Furthermore, although Windows NT and its successors are designed for security (including on a network) and multi-user PCs, they were not initially designed with Internet security in mind as much, since, when it was first developed in the early 1990s, Internet use was less prevalent.In a 2002 strategy memo entitled \"Trustworthy computing\" sent to every Microsoft employee, Bill Gates declared that security should become Microsoft's highest priority.Windows Vista introduced a privilege elevation system called User Account Control.", "When logging in as a standard user, a logon session is created and a token containing only the most basic privileges is assigned.", "In this way, the new logon session is incapable of making changes that would affect the entire system.", "When logging in as a user in the Administrators group, two separate tokens are assigned.", "The first token contains all privileges typically awarded to an administrator, and the second is a restricted token similar to what a standard user would receive.", "User applications, including the Windows shell, are then started with the restricted token, resulting in a reduced privilege environment even under an Administrator account.", "When an application requests higher privileges or \"Run as administrator\" is clicked, UAC will prompt for confirmation and, if consent is given (including administrator credentials if the account requesting the elevation is not a member of the administrators group), start the process using the unrestricted token.Leaked documents from 2013 to 2016 codenamed Vault 7 detail the capabilities of the CIA to perform electronic surveillance and cyber warfare, such as the ability to compromise operating systems such as Windows.In August 2019, computer experts reported that the BlueKeep security vulnerability, , that potentially affects older unpatched Windows versions via the program's Remote Desktop Protocol, allowing for the possibility of remote code execution, may include related flaws, collectively named ''DejaBlue'', affecting newer Windows versions (i.e., Windows 7 and all recent versions) as well.", "In addition, experts reported a Microsoft security vulnerability, , based on legacy code involving Microsoft CTF and ctfmon (ctfmon.exe), that affects all Windows versions from Windows XP to the then most recent Windows 10 versions; a patch to correct the flaw is available.Microsoft releases security patches through its Windows Update service approximately once a month (usually the second Tuesday of the month), although critical updates are made available at shorter intervals when necessary.", "Versions subsequent to Windows 2000 SP3 and Windows XP implemented automatic download and installation of updates, substantially increasing the number of users installing security updates.Windows integrates the Windows Defender antivirus, which is seen as one of the best available.", "Windows also implements Secure Boot, Control Flow Guard, ransomware protection, BitLocker disk encryption, a firewall, and Windows SmartScreen.=== File permissions ===All Windows versions from Windows NT 3 have been based on a file system permission system referred to as AGDLP (Accounts, Global, Domain Local, Permissions) in which file permissions are applied to the file/folder in the form of a 'local group' which then has other 'global groups' as members.", "These global groups then hold other groups or users depending on different Windows versions used.", "This system varies from other vendor products such as Linux and NetWare due to the 'static' allocation of permission being applied directly to the file or folder.", "However using this process of AGLP/AGDLP/AGUDLP allows a small number of static permissions to be applied and allows for easy changes to the account groups without reapplying the file permissions on the files and folders." ], [ "Alternative implementations", "Owing to the operating system's popularity, a number of applications have been released that aim to provide compatibility with Windows applications, either as a compatibility layer for another operating system, or as a standalone system that can run software written for Windows out of the box.", "These include:* Wine – a free and open-source implementation of the Windows API, allowing one to run many Windows applications on x86-based platforms, including UNIX, Linux and macOS.", "Wine developers refer to it as a \"compatibility layer\" and use Windows-style APIs to emulate Windows environment.", "** CrossOver – a Wine package with licensed fonts.", "Its developers are regular contributors to Wine.", "** Proton – A fork of Wine by Valve to run Windows games on Linux and other Unix-like OS.", "* ReactOS – an open-source OS intended to run the same software as Windows, originally designed to simulate Windows NT 4.0, later aiming at Windows 7 compatibility.", "It has been in the development stage since 1996." ], [ "See also", "* Wintel" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Official Windows Blog* Microsoft Developer Network* Windows Developer Center* Microsoft Windows History Timeline* Pearson Education, InformIT – History of Microsoft Windows* Microsoft Business Software Solutions* Windows 10 release Information" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mojo (African-American culture)" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''mojo''' (), in the African-American spiritual practice called Hoodoo, is an amulet consisting of a flannel bag containing one or more magical items.", "It is a \"prayer in a bag\", or a spell that can be carried with or on the host's body.", "Alternative American names for the mojo bag include '''gris-gris bag''', '''hand''', '''mojo hand, toby, nation sack,''' '''conjure hand''', '''lucky hand''', '''conjure bag''', '''juju bag''', '''trick bag''', '''tricken bag''', '''root bag''', and '''jomo'''.", "The word mojo also refers to magic and charms.", "Mojo containers are bags, gourds, bottles, shells, and other containers.", "The making of mojo bags in Hoodoo is a system of African-American occult magic.", "The creation of mojo bags is an esoteric system that involves sometimes housing spirits inside of bags for either protection, healing, or harm and to consult with spirits.", "Other times mojo bags are created to manifest results in a person's life such as good-luck, money or love." ], [ "Etymology", "The word ''mojo'' is believed to be derived from the Kikongo word ''mooyo'', meaning \"to the spirits that dwelt within magical charms.\"", "It refers to the cavity of a nkisi, where magical items are normally stored''.''", "Alternative words for mojo, such as ''gris-gris'' (primarily used in Louisiana) and ''wanga'' (primarily used in the Caribbean) have roots in the Mande language and the Kikongo language, respectively.", "The word ''conjure'' is an ancient alternative to \"hoodoo\", which is a direct variation of African-American folklore.", "Because of this, a conjure hand is also considered a hoodoo bag, usually made by a respected community conjure doctor.=== Semantic change of the word ===Beginning in the twentieth century, the word mojo underwent semantic change in American culture in movies and songs and came to refer to sexuality and virility.", "Musicians use the word 'mojo' outside of its meaning within African-American culture and use the word out of its cultural context.", "In the Gullah community, the word mojo refers to magic and a conjure bag." ], [ "History and ideology", "Tuareg gris-grisCentral and West Africans all practiced the spiritual art of creating conjure bags for protection, healing and to communicate with spirits.", "The gris-gris originated in Dagomba in Ghana and was associated with Islamic traditions.", "Originally the gris-gris was adorned with Islamic scripture and was used to ward off evil spirits (evil djinn) or bad luck.", "Historians of the time noted that they were frequently worn by non-believers and believers alike, and were also found attached to buildings.", "The practice of using gris-gris, though originating in West Africa, came to the United States with enslaved Africans and was quickly adopted by practitioners of Louisiana Voodoo and Hoodoo in the United States, and Vodou in Haiti.", "Bambara people, West African Muslims from Senegal brought their knowledge of conjure bags to Louisiana.During the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, a few enslaved Africans were able to conceal their conjure bags when they boarded slave ships heading to the Americas.", "For example, Gullah Jack was an African from Angola who carried a conjure bag (mojo bag) onto a slave ship leaving Zanzibar for the United States.", "Gullah Jack was known to carry a conjure bag with him at all times for his spiritual protection.", "The Mandingo (Mandinka) were the first Muslim ethnic group imported from Sierra Leone in West Africa to the Americas.", "Mandingo people were known for their powerful conjure bags called gris-gris (later called mojo bags in the United States).", "Some of the Mandingo people were able to carry their gris-gris bags with them when they boarded slave ships heading to the Americas bringing the practice to the United States.", "Enslaved people went to enslaved black Muslims for conjure services requesting them to make gris-gris bags (mojo bags) for protection against their enslavers.", "During slavery, the way to identify a conjurer was by the way they dressed, their demeanor, and charms or conjure bags worn by the individual.", "Some practitioners concealed their charms while others who were in the business of conjure sometimes wear their charms and conjure bags on the outside of their clothes.In West-Central Africa, Bakongo and Yoruba people created medicine bags using leather or cloth and placed feathers, animal parts, roots, herbs and other ingredients for protection.", "When Yoruba and Bakongo people were enslaved in the United States, the practice of using feathers, animal parts, animal and human bones, and other ingredients to create mojo bags continued in African-American communities in the tradition of Hoodoo.", "In West-Central Africa, people wear nkisi, wanga, and other charm bags to ward from and reverse evil and to cure illness.", "In West Africa these conjure bags are called Juju.", "The word ''Juju'' is used in the African Diaspora to describe all forms of charms made in Hoodoo, African Diaspora Religions and African Traditional Religions.", "These African ideals about charm bags influenced the creation of mojo bags and the spiritual philosophical practice in African-American communities.", "Mojo bags can be hung from trees, tied to a string, worn underneath the clothes to cause an effect on the target.", "Minkisi (Kongo - Central Africa), World Museum Liverpool - Minkisi cloth bundles were found on slave plantations in the United States in the Deep South.", "Minksi bundles influenced the creation of mojo bags in Hoodoo.There is also a Central African influence of the mojo bag in African-American Hoodoo.", "For example, the minkisi and nkisi are spirit containers made by hand from a root doctor.", "These spirits are contained in a bag, gourd, shells and other containers.", "The Bakongo people's ''Nkisi Nkubulu'' looks similar to the mojo bags in Hoodoo.", "The spiritual philosophy of the mojo bag also has Bakongo influence.", "For example, in Bakongo belief simbi spirits can inhabit conjure bags (mojo bags) for healing or protecting an individual or a community.", "The ''Nganga'' creates the bag for the individual using ingredients specific to a certain simbi to invoke it into the conjure bag.", "Bakongo spiritual philosophy influenced the creation of mojo bags as African-Americans include certain natural and animal ingredients such as animal bones, animal teeth, claws, human bones or graveyard dirt to house a simbi spirit or an ancestral spirit inside a bag for either protection or healing.", "However, the practice became African-American when Black people in America used American materials and reinterpreted them applying a Christian or Islamic interpretation with Bakongo cosmogram concepts.", "The Christian cross looks similar to the Bakongo cosmogram and was interpreted by Black people in the southern United States and in Central Africa as an nkisi that harnessed the spirit of Jesus on the cross that can be invoked in rituals for healing or protection and for the removal of sorcery.Mojos are used to ground spirits in certain locations to prevent the spirits of the dead from coming back and haunting the living by placing the last items they touched on top of their graves.", "The last items touched by the dead are also placed inside mojo bags to carry the spirit of the deceased with the living for protection.", "A mojo can be a bottle-tree charm, spirit jugs or memorial jugs to capture spirits inside containers to house their spirit to later work with the spirit in rituals.Archeologists in New York discovered continued West-Central African burial practices in a section of Lower Manhattan, New York City which is now the location of the African Burial Ground National Monument.", "Historians and archeologists found Kongo related artifacts at the African Burial Ground such as minkisi and nkisi conjure bundles buried with African remains.", "These nkisi and minkisi bundles became the conjure bags in Hoodoo.At Hermitage plantation in Nashville, Tennessee, archeologists discovered continued West African traditions of using hexagonal glass beads for fertility and other spiritual purposes.", "Other charms found were mojo hands, lucky roots, raccoon penis bones, ceramics, and blue beads.", "These items found in a slave cabin showed enslaved African-Americans used local roots and created mojo hands for protection and healing.", "Enslaved African-Americans at Hermitage plantation used prehistoric artifacts for charms to draw spiritual power from ancient artifacts.", "In addition, archeologists found Kongo cosmograms engraved onto lime stone marbles for spiritual power.", "The charms were used to protect from conjure and remove sorcery and reverse curses back onto the conjurer.", "The knowledge of charm bags was shared and passed down orally amongst people in the slave community.The word ''hand'' in this context is defined as a combination of ingredients.", "The term may derive from the use of finger and hand bones from the dead in mojo bags, or from ingredients such as the lucky hand root (favored by gamblers).", "The latter suggests an analogy between the varied bag ingredients and the several cards that make up a hand in card games.", "Mojo reaches as far back as West African culture, where it is said to drive away evil spirits, keep good luck in the household, manipulate a fortune, and lure and persuade lovers.", "The ideology of the ancestors and the descendants of the mojo hand used this \"prayer in a bag\" based on their belief of spiritual inheritance, by which the omniscient forefathers of their families would provide protection and favor, especially when they used the mojo.", "Through this, a strong belief was placed in the idealism of whoever used mojo, creating a spiritual trust in the magic itself." ], [ "Making a mojo", " A petition paper with a verse from the Quran is placed inside a gris-gris (mojo bag) made by enslaved West African Muslims in the Americas.Most Southern-style conjure bags are made of red flannel material.", "The use of red flannel bags for mojo bags was influenced by the Bakongo people's minkisi in Central Africa, and in Hoodoo red symbolizes protection from evil and spiritual power.", "Other times when red cloth was not available, African Americans used whatever cloth they had to create a conjure bag.", "The contents of each bag vary directly with the aim of the conjurer.", "For example, a mojo carried for love-drawing will contain different ingredients than one for gambling luck or magical protection.", "Ingredients can include graveyard dirt, roots, herbs, animal parts, minerals, coins, crystals, good luck tokens, and carved amulets.", "The more personalized objects are used to add extra power because of their symbolic value.", "To house spirits of the dead inside mojo bags, jars, packets, and other containers and charms graveyard dirt from a deceased person's burial plot is used.", "Spirits of the dead can protect a person from physical and spiritual harm.", "The conjurer prepares the graveyard dirt with certain incantations, prayers, Biblical or Quranic scriptures and other ingredients to instruct the spirit to heal or protect a person.", "Historians have traced this practice to the Bakongo people of Central Africa where Bakongo (Bantu people) utilize graveyard dirt to house spirits of the dead, animal spirits, or ancestral spirits inside conjure bags for healing or protection.", "African Americans during slavery and freedom combined Native American herbal knowledge with African spirituality.", "Enslaved and free Africans upon arrival to the United States used North American herbs, roots, and animal parts to create conjure bags.", "However, they applied an African interpretation in the preparation of herbal ingredients by creating nkisi and performing African religious rituals in the preparation of spiritual medicines.A former slave from Texas said to make a conjure bag African-Americans \"would take hair and brass nails and thimbles and needles and mix them up in a conjure bag.\"", "Prince Johnson a former slave from Mississippi said his slaveholder would inspect her slaves to make sure they did not have any charms underneath their clothes.", "An oral account from Patsy Moses a former slave from Texas, mentioned the use of red flannel cloth to make conjure bags using frog bones to protect from an enemy.", "Other Texas slave narratives showed that red flannel cloth was commonly used to make mojo bags incorporating frog bones, snake skins, and roots to protect from their enemies and remove curses.", "Some mojo bags were made to cause harm and bad luck for slaveholders, and other mojo bags were for protection depending on the ingredients used by the root worker.", "William Webb made mojo bags for enslaved people in Kentucky to keep the peace between the enslaved and their enslavers.", "Webb instructed the enslaved to gather roots from their local environment and place them in conjure bags and pray over them to keep the spiritual magic of the mojo bags active.During slavery, there are records of African American ministers and church members in Black churches in Virginia and South Carolina were known by the members of their congregation and in the slave community to conjure spirits, speak to the spirits of the dead and carry and make mojo bags.", "After the American Civil War, some African American ministers and church members continued to rely on Hoodoo and make mojo bags and saw no contradiction in their practice with Christianity.", "One African American church minister relied on a conjurer to make him a mojo bag to attract more members to his church.", "For four years the minister relied on the mojo bag to increase the membership of his church.", "Every Sunday the church pews were filled.", "After four years the minister did not feel comfortable depending on the spirit of a mojo bag and not the Christian God to grow his church.", "The minister threw away the mojo bag and when he did people stopped coming to his church.", "These written accounts showed that African Americans who identified as Christian continued to believe and practice African spirituality and some African American Christians relied on Hoodoo when experiencing tough times in life.", "Some African-Americans made money making and selling mojo bags as a full-time business.", "Dr. Jim Jordan was a conjure doctor in North Carolina and became a multi-millionaire by providing conjure services to people all over the United States during the Jim Crow era.", "He owned a conjure Hoodoo store and provided medicinal and spiritual healing to his clients using charms and herbal remedies.Another version of a mojo bag is a ''prayer cloth.''", "Prayer cloths are white church cloths imbued with spiritual power from a pastor of a church.", "A pastor prays over the cloth speaking the power of God into the cloth with prayer and anointing of Holy Oil and functions like a mojo bag.", "Church members take prayer cloths with them in their purses or placed under their beds for protection.", "This modified version of a mojo bag is mostly found in African-American churches.African-American women sewed charms and mojo hands into their quilts for spiritual protection.", "Newspaper is placed on the walls to ward off evil spirits.The creation of mojo bags in Hoodoo is a West and Central African practice brought to the United States by enslaved Africans.", "In Africa, petition papers with Quranic verses along with herbs, roots and other ingredients are placed inside a leather bag and concealed by wearing them under the clothes.", "A few enslaved Africans brought their conjure bags (mojo bags) with them from Africa when they boarded slave ships heading to North America.", "African-American quilt makers sewed mojo hands into quilts for protection.", "This practice originates among West African people as they sewed Adinkra and Nsibidi symbols as protective charms into their fabrics.", "The Ejagham women of Cameroon and Yoruba women in Nigeria make cloths with sacred symbols on them.", "During the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, many West African people were taken to the United States and enslaved on plantations and continued to practice their traditions by sewing mojo hands into their quilts.On slave plantations in the United States, the creators of gris-gris (mojos) became the root workers, conjure doctors, and Hoodoo doctors in enslaved and free African American communities.", "Enslaved and free black root workers created mojo bags and placed Bible verses, petition papers, roots, herbs, animal parts, graveyard dirt, and other ingredients to conjure a negative or positive effect.", "They used either Christian or Islamic prayers to spirituality charge the mojo bag.", "During slavery, many of the mojo bags created were for protection against a harsh slaveholder.", "The petition papers placed inside a mojo bag can have either a Bible verse, a Quranic verse, symbols, and other characters to conjure a positive or negative magical result.", "In the United States, enslaved African Americans called mojo bags \"voodoo bags.\"", "After the Civil War, mojo bags were created in Black American communities for protection from law enforcement, to attract love, protection, money, employment, or to communicate with spirits.", "Folklorist Newbell Niles Puckett documented a mojo practice of an African-American cook in the Mississippi Delta.", "The African-American cook had a mojo bag with a \"lizard's tail, rabbit's foot, a fish eye, snake skins, a beetle, and a dime with a hole in it.\"", "This mojo bag was worn by the cook for good-luck.", "Other conjure bundles in the hoodoo tradition are hanged on the side of the door or beds where people sleep to protect from conjure.Traditionally, a client consulted with a root worker to know what kind of mojo he or she needed as not all mojos are the same, as one mojo can not work for everyone.", "Each person needs a different mojo.", "In traditional Hoodoo, if there are several people needing love, the root worker or conjurer created different mojos for each of their clients.", "One mojo created the same can not work for everyone.", "By the twentieth century, Hoodoo was culturally appropriated by outsiders to African-American culture to make a profit.", "Spiritual shops began to sell the same mojo for everyone.", "In traditional Hoodoo, certain songs, prayers, symbols, and ingredients are used to conjure or manifest results.", "However, when Hoodoo was appropriated by white spiritual merchants, the same mojo was sold to consumers.", "\"For Hoodoo practitioners looking to sell their goods, it has therefore become more profitable to rely 'on stereotypes of…Hoodoo to attract their primarily white clientele' (ibid.)", "than to promote the sale of historically accurate ritual objects that appeal to modern, African-American practitioners of Hoodoo.", "Additionally, white shop owners seem to dominate the mainstream Hoodoo market, undermining the ability of African-American people to rely on their religious beliefs to assure their economic empowerment.", "\"African American practitioners from the Millennial and Gen Z generations are incorporating new techniques such as the use of various crystals in the creation of mojo bags and using tarot cards for divination to consult with spirit.", "The creation of mojo bags is an individualized practice based on regional ingredients and ingredients purchased in stores and online." ], [ "Maintenance", "''Gris-gris'' by Charles Gandolfo=== Fixing and feeding a mojo hand ===There is a process to fixing a proper mojo.", "A ritual must be put in place in order to successfully prepare a mojo by being filled and awakened to life.", "This can be done by smoking incense and candles, or it may be breathed upon to bring it to life.", "Prayers may be said, and other methods may be used to accomplish this essential step.", "Once prepared, the mojo is \"dressed\" or \"fed\" with a liquid such as alcohol (whiskey, rum) perfume, water, or bodily fluids.", "The reason it is said to feed the mojo to keep it working is that it is alive with spirit.", "One story from the work entitled ''From My People'' describes a slave who went out and sought a mojo conjurer that gave him a mojo to run away from home.", "The story describes the slave's mojo as fixing him into many formations, and he ultimately dies because he misuses its power.", "Had he fixed and believed in the specific mojo himself, he might have escaped the plantation alive.=== Hiding the mojo ===Mojos are traditionally made for an individual and so must be concealed on the person at all times.", "Men usually keep the trinkets hidden in the pants pocket, while women are more prone to clip it to the bra.", "They are also commonly pinned to clothes below the waist.", "Depending on the type of mojo, the hiding place will be crucial to its success, as those who make conjure bags to carry love spells sometimes specify that the mojo must be worn next to the skin.", "A story from the book ''From My People'' described the story of Moses and the task he went through to bring his people out of slavery.", "It described how \"Hoodoo Lost his Hand\", as Moses's mojo was hidden through his staff.", "When he turned it into a snake, the pharaoh made his soothsayers and magicians create the same effect.", "As a result, the Pharaoh's snake was killed by Moses's snake, and that is how Hoodoo lost his hand." ], [ "Mojo bags in blues music", "Blues is a genre of music created in the United States by African Americans in the mid-nineteenth century that incorporates spirituals, African American work songs, slave shout songs, field hollers and call-and-response.", "Several blues singers created songs about mojo bags.", "For example, the Preston “Red” Foster song ''Got My Mojo Working'', recorded by Ann Cole in 1956 and by Muddy Waters the following year, spoke about the spiritual power of the mojo bag.", "Junior Wells composed an album in 1965 called ''Hoodoo Man Blues''.", "In the song, Wells explained he traveled to Louisiana and saw a Hoodoo practitioner to make him a mojo bag to get back his girlfriend who left him for another man." ], [ "Zora Neale Hurston", "African-American communities in Florida and Louisiana.In the 1930s, Zora Neale Hurston documented African-Americans in the South creating mojo bags using roots, herbs, and animal parts in the Hoodoo tradition.", "In 1935, Hurston published what she learned about mojo culture in her book titled, ''Mules and Men.''" ], [ "Slave narratives", "In the 1930s, the Federal Writers' Project part of the Works Progress Administration during the Great Depression, provided jobs for unemployed writers to write and collect the experiences of former slaves.", "Writers, black and white, documented the experiences of the last generation of African Americans born into slavery.", "Former African American slaves told writers about their slave experience which provided readers a glimpse into the lives of the enslaved.", "Slave narratives revealed the culture of African Americans during slavery.", "African American former slaves talked about conjure, rootwork, and Hoodoo.", "These narratives revealed how enslaved African-Americans made mojo bags for protection against their enslavers and conjure.", "Other slave narratives explained how African Americans in slavery and freedom made mojo charms to stop nose bleeds and reverse and prevent illness.", "The Library of Congress has 2,300 first-person accounts from former slaves in their digital archive." ], [ "See also", "* Auntie Caroline* Medicine bag* Nkisi Nkondi* Omamori* Rabbit's foot* Sacred bundle* Witch bottle" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Matt Groening" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Matthew Abram Groening''' ( ; born February 15, 1954) is an American cartoonist, writer, producer, and animator.", "He is best known as the creator of the comic strip ''Life in Hell'' (1977–2012) and the television series ''The Simpsons'' (1989–present), ''Futurama'' (1999–2003, 2008–2013, 2023–present), and ''Disenchantment'' (2018–2023).", "''The Simpsons'' is the longest-running U.S. primetime television series in history and the longest-running U.S. animated series and sitcom.Groening made his first professional cartoon sale of ''Life in Hell'' to the avant-garde magazine ''Wet'' in 1978.At its peak, it was carried in 250 weekly newspapers, and caught the attention of American producer James L. Brooks, who contacted Groening in 1985 about adapting it for animated sequences for the Fox variety show ''The Tracey Ullman Show''.", "Fearing the loss of ownership rights, Groening created a new set of characters, the Simpson family.", "The shorts were spun off into their own series, ''The Simpsons'', which has since aired episodes.In 1997, Groening and former ''Simpsons'' writer David X. Cohen developed ''Futurama'', an animated series about life in the year 3000, which premiered in 1999.It ran for four years on Fox; was picked up in 2008 by Comedy Central for another 5 years; then was finally picked up by Hulu for another revival in 2023.In 2016, Groening developed a new series for Netflix, ''Disenchantment'', which premiered in August 2018.Groening has won 13 Primetime Emmy Awards, 11 for ''The Simpsons'' and 2 for ''Futurama,'' and a British Comedy Award for \"outstanding contribution to comedy\" in 2004.In 2002, he won the National Cartoonist Society Reuben Award for his work on ''Life in Hell''.", "He received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame on February 14, 2012." ], [ "Early life", "Groening was born on February 15, 1954, in Portland, Oregon, the middle of five children (older brother Mark and sister Patty were born in 1950 and 1943, while the younger sisters Lisa and Maggie in 1956 and 1958, respectively).", "His Norwegian American mother, Margaret Ruth (''née'' Wiggum; March 23, 1919 – April 22, 2013), was once a teacher, and his German Canadian father, Homer Philip Groening (December 30, 1919 – March 15, 1996), was a filmmaker, advertiser, writer and cartoonist.", "Homer, born in Main Centre, Saskatchewan, Canada, grew up in a Plautdietsch-speaking family.Groening's grandfather, Abram A. Groening, was a professor at Tabor College, a Mennonite Brethren liberal arts college in Hillsboro, Kansas, before moving to Albany College (now known as Lewis and Clark College) in Oregon in 1930.Groening was raised in Portland and attended Ainsworth Elementary School and Lincoln High School.", "Following his high school graduation in 1972, Groening attended the Evergreen State College in Olympia, Washington, a liberal arts school that he described as \"a hippie college, with no grades or required classes, that drew every weirdo in the Northwest.\"", "He served as the editor of the campus newspaper, ''The Cooper Point Journal'', for which he also wrote articles and drew cartoons.", "He befriended fellow cartoonist Lynda Barry after discovering that she had written a fan letter to Joseph Heller, one of Groening's favorite authors, and had received a reply.", "Groening has credited Barry with being \"probably his biggest inspiration.\"", "He first became interested in cartoons after watching the Disney animated film ''One Hundred and One Dalmatians'', and he has also cited Robert Crumb, Ernie Bushmiller, Ronald Searle, Monty Python, and Charles M. Schulz as inspirations.", "Groening graduated with a Bachelor of Arts in journalism in 1977." ], [ "Career", "===Early career===In 1977, at age 21, Groening moved to Los Angeles to become a writer.", "He went through what he described as \"a series of lousy jobs,\" including being an extra in the television movie ''When Every Day Was the Fourth of July'', busing tables, washing dishes at a nursing home, clerking at the Hollywood Licorice Pizza record store, landscaping in a sewage treatment plant, and chauffeuring and ghostwriting for a retired Western director.===''Life in Hell''===Cover of ''Life in Hell'' No.", "4, published in 1978Groening described life in Los Angeles to his friends in the form of the self-published comic book ''Life in Hell'', which was loosely inspired by the chapter \"How to Go to Hell\" in Walter Kaufmann's book ''Critique of Religion and Philosophy''.", "Groening distributed the comic book in the book corner of Licorice Pizza, a record store in which he worked.", "He made his first professional cartoon sale to the avant-garde ''Wet'' magazine in 1978.The strip, titled \"Forbidden Words,\" appeared in the September/October issue of that year.Groening had gained employment at the ''Los Angeles Reader'', a newly formed alternative newspaper, delivering papers, typesetting, editing and answering phones.", "He showed his cartoons to the editor, James Vowell, who was impressed and eventually gave him a spot in the paper.", "''Life in Hell'' made its official debut as a comic strip in the ''Reader'' on April 25, 1980.Vowell also gave Groening his own weekly music column, \"Sound Mix,\" in 1982.However, the column would rarely actually be about music, as he would often write about his \"various enthusiasms, obsessions, pet peeves and problems\" instead.", "In an effort to add more music to the column, he \"just made stuff up,\" concocting and reviewing fictional bands and nonexistent records.", "In the following week's column, he would confess to fabricating everything in the previous column and swear that everything in the new column was true.", "Eventually, he was finally asked to give up the \"music\" column.", "Among the fans of the column was Harry Shearer, who would later become a voice actor on ''The Simpsons''.", "''Life in Hell'' became popular almost immediately.", "In November 1984, Deborah Caplan, Groening's then-girlfriend and co-worker at the ''Reader'', offered to publish \"Love is Hell\", a series of relationship-themed ''Life in Hell'' strips, in book form.", "Released a month later, the book was an underground success, selling 22,000 copies in its first two printings.", "''Work is Hell'' soon followed, also published by Caplan.", "Soon afterward, Caplan and Groening left and put together the Life in Hell Co., which handled merchandising for ''Life in Hell''.", "Groening also started Acme Features Syndicate, which initially syndicated ''Life in Hell'' as well as work by Lynda Barry and John Callahan, but would eventually only syndicate ''Life in Hell''.", "At the end of its run, ''Life in Hell'' was carried in 250 weekly newspapers and has been anthologized in a series of books, including ''School is Hell'', ''Childhood is Hell'', ''The Big Book of Hell'', and ''The Huge Book of Hell''.", "Although Groening previously stated, \"I'll never give up the comic strip.", "It's my foundation,\" the June 16, 2012, strip marked ''Life in Hell''s conclusion.", "After Groening ended the strip, the Center for Cartoon Studies commissioned a poster that was presented to Groening in honor of his work.", "The poster contained tribute cartoons by 22 of Groening's cartoonist friends who were influenced by ''Life in Hell''.===''The Simpsons''=======Creation====The design of the Simpson family, circa 1987''Life in Hell'' caught the attention of Hollywood writer-director-producer and Gracie Films founder James L. Brooks, who had been shown the strip by fellow producer Polly Platt.", "In 1985, Brooks contacted Groening with the proposition of working in animation on an undefined future project, which would turn out to be developing a series of short animated skits, called \"bumpers,\" for the Fox variety show ''The Tracey Ullman Show''.", "Originally, Brooks wanted Groening to adapt his ''Life in Hell'' characters for the show.", "Groening feared that he would have to give up his ownership rights, and that the show would fail and take down his comic strip with it.", "Groening conceived of the idea for the Simpsons in the lobby of James L. Brooks's office and hurriedly sketched out his version of a dysfunctional family: Homer, the overweight father; Marge, the slim mother; Bart, the miscreant oldest child; Lisa, the intelligent middle child; and Maggie, the baby.", "Groening famously named the main Simpson characters after members of his own family: his parents, Homer and Marge (Margaret or Marjorie in full), and his younger sisters, Lisa and Margaret (Maggie).", "Claiming that it was a bit too obvious to name a character after himself, he chose the name \"Bart,\" an anagram of brat.", "However, he stresses that aside from some of the sibling rivalry, his family is nothing like the Simpsons.", "Groening also has an older brother and sister, Mark and Patty, and in a 1995 interview Groening divulged that Mark \"is the actual inspiration for Bart.", "\"Maggie Groening has co-written a few ''Simpsons'' books featuring her cartoon namesake.====''The Tracey Ullman Show''====The family was crudely drawn, because Groening had submitted basic sketches to the animators, assuming they would clean them up; instead, they just traced over his drawings.", "The entire Simpson family was designed so that they would be recognizable in silhouette.", "When Groening originally designed Homer, he put his own initials into the character's hairline and ear: the hairline resembled an 'M', and the right ear resembled a 'G'.", "Groening decided that this would be too distracting though, and redesigned the ear to look normal.", "He still draws the ear as a 'G' when he draws pictures of Homer for fans.", "Marge's distinct beehive hairstyle was inspired by ''Bride of Frankenstein'' and the style that Margaret Groening wore during the 1960s, although her hair was never blue.", "Bart's original design, which appeared in the first shorts, had spikier hair, and the spikes were of different lengths.", "The number was later limited to nine spikes, all of the same size.", "At the time Groening was primarily drawing in black and \"not thinking that Bart would eventually be drawn in color\" gave him spikes that appear to be an extension of his head.", "Lisa's physical features are generally not used in other characters; for example, in the later seasons, no character other than Maggie shares her hairline.", "While designing Lisa, Groening \"couldn't be bothered to even think about girls' hair styles\".", "When designing Lisa and Maggie, he \"just gave them this kind of spiky starfish hair style, not thinking that they would eventually be drawn in color\".", "Groening storyboarded and scripted every short (now known as ''The Simpsons shorts''), which were then animated by a team including David Silverman and Wes Archer, both of whom would later become directors on the series.The Simpsons shorts first appeared in ''The Tracey Ullman Show'' on April 19, 1987.Another family member, Grampa Simpson, was introduced in the later shorts.", "Years later, during the early seasons of ''The Simpsons'', when it came time to give Grampa a first name, Groening says he refused to name him after his own grandfather, Abraham Groening, leaving it to other writers to choose a name.", "By coincidence, they chose \"Abraham\", unaware that it was the name of Groening's grandfather.====Half-hour====Although ''The Tracey Ullman Show'' was not a big hit, the popularity of the shorts led to a half-hour spin-off in 1989.A team of production companies adapted ''The Simpsons'' into a half-hour series for the Fox Broadcasting Company.", "The team included what is now the Klasky Csupo animation house.", "James L. Brooks negotiated a provision in the contract with the Fox network that prevented Fox from interfering with the show's content.", "Groening said his goal in creating the show was to offer the audience an alternative to what he called \"the mainstream trash\" that they were watching.", "The half-hour series premiered on December 17, 1989, with \"Simpsons Roasting on an Open Fire\", a Christmas special.", "\"Some Enchanted Evening\" was the first full-length episode produced, but it did not broadcast until May 1990, as the last episode of the first season, because of animation problems.The series quickly became a worldwide phenomenon, to the surprise of many.", "Groening said: \"Nobody thought ''The Simpsons'' was going to be a big hit.", "It sneaked up on everybody.\"", "''The Simpsons'' was co-developed by Groening, Brooks, and Sam Simon, a writer-producer with whom Brooks had worked on previous projects.", "Groening and Simon, however, did not get along and were often in conflict over the show; Groening once described their relationship as \"very contentious.\"", "Simon eventually left the show in 1993 over creative differences.Like the main family members, several characters from the show have names that were inspired by people, locations or films.", "The name \"Wiggum\" for police chief Chief Wiggum is Groening's mother's maiden name.", "The names of a few other characters were taken from major street names in Groening's hometown of Portland, Oregon, including Flanders, Lovejoy, Powell, Quimby and Kearney.", "Despite common fan belief that Sideshow Bob Terwilliger was named after SW Terwilliger Boulevard in Portland, he was actually named after the character Dr. Terwilliker from the film ''The 5,000 Fingers of Dr. T''.Although Groening has pitched a number of spin-offs from ''The Simpsons'', those attempts have been unsuccessful.", "In 1994, Groening and other ''Simpsons'' producers pitched a live-action spin-off about Krusty the Clown (with Dan Castellaneta playing the lead role), but were unsuccessful in getting it off the ground.", "Groening has also pitched \"Young Homer\" and a spin-off about the non-Simpsons citizens of Springfield.In 1995, Groening got into a major disagreement with Brooks and other ''Simpsons'' producers over \"A Star Is Burns\", a crossover episode with ''The Critic'', an animated show also produced by Brooks and staffed with many former ''Simpsons'' crew members.", "Groening claimed that he feared viewers would \"see it as nothing but a pathetic attempt to advertise ''The Critic'' at the expense of ''The Simpsons'',\" and was concerned about the possible implication that he had created or produced ''The Critic''.", "He requested his name be taken off the episode.Groening is credited with writing or co-writing the episodes \"Some Enchanted Evening\", \"The Telltale Head\", \"Colonel Homer\" and \"22 Short Films About Springfield\".", "He also co-wrote and produced ''The Simpsons Movie'', released in 2007.He has had several cameo appearances in the show, with a speaking role in the episode \"My Big Fat Geek Wedding\".", "He currently serves at ''The Simpsons'' as an executive producer and creative consultant.===''Futurama''===Comic-Con 2009After spending a few years researching science fiction, Groening got together with ''Simpsons'' writer and producer David X. Cohen (known as David S. Cohen at the time) in 1997 and developed ''Futurama'', an animated series about life in the year 3000.By the time they pitched the series to Fox in April 1998, Groening and Cohen had composed many characters and storylines; Groening claimed they had gone \"overboard\" in their discussions.", "Groening described trying to get the show on the air as \"by far the worst experience of his grown-up life.\"", "The show premiered on March 28, 1999.Groening's writing credits for the show are for the premiere episode, \"Space Pilot 3000\" (co-written with Cohen), \"Rebirth\" (story) and \"In-A-Gadda-Da-Leela\" (story).After four years on the air, the show was canceled by Fox.", "In a situation similar to ''Family Guy'', however, strong DVD sales and very stable ratings on Adult Swim brought ''Futurama'' back to life.", "When Comedy Central began negotiating for the rights to air ''Futurama'' reruns, Fox suggested that there was a possibility of also creating new episodes.", "When Comedy Central committed to sixteen new episodes, it was decided that four straight-to-DVD films – ''Bender's Big Score'' (2007), ''The Beast with a Billion Backs'' (2008), ''Bender's Game'' (2008) and ''Into the Wild Green Yonder'' (2009) – would be produced.Since no new ''Futurama'' projects were in production, the movie ''Into the Wild Green Yonder'' was designed to stand as the ''Futurama'' series finale.", "However, Groening had expressed a desire to continue the ''Futurama'' franchise in some form, including as a theatrical film.", "In an interview with CNN, Groening said that \"we have a great relationship with Comedy Central and we would love to do more episodes for them, but I don't know... We're having discussions and there is some enthusiasm but I can't tell if it's just me\".", "Comedy Central commissioned an additional 26 new episodes, and began airing them in 2010.The show continued in to 2013, before Comedy Central announced in April 2013 that they would not be renewing it beyond its seventh season.", "The final episode aired on September 4, 2013.On February 9, 2022, the series was revived at Hulu, set for a 2023 release.===''Disenchantment''===On January 15, 2016, it was announced that Groening was in talks with Netflix to develop a new animated series.", "On July 25, 2017, the series, ''Disenchantment'', was ordered by Netflix.", "He described the fantasy-oriented series as originating in a sketchbook full of \"fantastic creatures we couldn't do on ''The Simpsons''\".", "The cast includes Abbi Jacobson, Eric Andre, and Nat Faxon.", "''Disenchantment'' ran from August 17, 2018, to September 1, 2023, and consisted of 50 episodes in 5 parts.===Other pursuits===Groening in his studio, 1987In 1994, Groening formed Bongo Comics (named after the character Bongo from ''Life in Hell'') with Steve Vance, Cindy Vance and Bill Morrison, which publishes comic books based on ''The Simpsons'' and ''Futurama'' (including ''Futurama Simpsons Infinitely Secret Crossover Crisis'', a crossover between the two), as well as a few original titles.", "According to Groening, the goal with Bongo is to \"try to bring humor into the fairly grim comic book market.\"", "He also formed Zongo Comics in 1995, an imprint of Bongo that published comics for more mature readers, which included three issues of Mary Fleener's ''Fleener'' and seven issues of his close friend Gary Panter's ''Jimbo'' comics.Groening is known for his eclectic taste in music.", "His favorite artist is Frank Zappa and The Mothers of Invention and his favorite album is ''Trout Mask Replica'' by Captain Beefheart (which was produced by Zappa).", "He guest-edited Da Capo Press's ''Best Music Writing 2003'' and curated a US All Tomorrow's Parties music festival in 2003.He illustrated the cover of Frank Zappa's posthumous album ''Frank Zappa Plays the Music of Frank Zappa: A Memorial Tribute'' (1996).", "In May 2010, he curated another edition of All Tomorrow's Parties in Minehead, England.", "He also plays the drums in the all-author rock and roll band The Rock Bottom Remainders (although he is listed as the cowbell player), whose other members include Dave Barry, Ridley Pearson, Scott Turow, Amy Tan, James McBride, Mitch Albom, Roy Blount Jr., Stephen King, Kathi Kamen Goldmark, Sam Barry and Greg Iles.", "In July 2013, Groening co-authored ''Hard Listening'' (2013) with the rest of the Rock Bottom Remainders (published by Coliloquy, LLC)." ], [ "Personal life", "Groening and Deborah Caplan married in 1986 and had two sons together, Homer (who goes by Will) and Abe, both of whom Groening occasionally portrays as rabbits in ''Life in Hell''.", "The couple divorced in 1999.In 2011, Groening married Agustina Picasso, an Argentine artist, after a four-year relationship, and became stepfather to her daughter Camila Costantini.", "In May 2013, Picasso gave birth to Nathaniel Philip Picasso Groening, named after writer Nathanael West.", "She joked that \"his godfather is SpongeBob's creator Stephen Hillenburg\".", "In 2015, Groening's daughters Luna Margaret and India Mia were born.", "On June 16, 2018, he became the father of twins for a second time when his wife gave birth to Sol Matthew and Venus Ruth, announced via Instagram.", "In 2020, their daughter Nirvana was born.", "In January 2022, they had another child, Satori.Groening's brother-in-law is ''Hey Arnold!", "'', ''Dinosaur Train'' and ''Ready Jet Go!''", "creator, Craig Bartlett, who is married to Groening's sister, Lisa, but they separated in 2015.Bartlett used to appear in ''Simpsons Illustrated''.Groening is a self-identified agnostic.===Politics===Groening has made a number of campaign contributions, all towards Democratic Party candidates and organizations.", "He has donated money to the unsuccessful presidential campaigns of Democratic candidates Al Gore in 2000 and John Kerry in 2004, as well as previously donating to Kerry's Massachusetts senator campaign.", "Groening also collectively donated to the Democratic senatorial campaign committee and to the Senate campaigns of Barbara Boxer (California), Dianne Feinstein (California), Paul Simon (Illinois), Ted Kennedy (Massachusetts), Carl Levin (Michigan), Hillary Clinton (New York), Harvey Gantt (North Carolina), Howard Metzenbaum (Ohio), and Tom Bruggere (Oregon).", "He also donated to the now-defunct Hollywood Women's Political Committee, which supported and campaigned for the Democratic Party.", "His first cousin, Laurie Monnes Anderson, was a member of the Oregon State Senate, representing eastern Multnomah County.In an interview with ''Wired'' from 1999, he stated that if he was president, his first act would be \"campaign finance reform\", observing that modern campaign funding is \"a real detriment to democracy\".Groening has a great disdain towards former President Richard Nixon, and enjoyed ridiculing him by making him the butt of jokes in the Simpsons and Futurama." ], [ "Filmography", "===Film=== Year Title Role Notes 2004 ''Hair High'' Dill (voice) ''Comic Book: The Movie'' Himself Cameo 2006 ''Tales of the Rat Fink'' Finkster (voice) 2007 ''The Simpsons Movie'' Writer and producer ''Futurama: Bender's Big Score'' Direct-to-DVDExecutive producer 2008 ''Futurama: The Beast with a Billion Backs'' ''Futurama: Bender's Game'' 2009 ''Futurama: Into the Wild Green Yonder'' 2012 ''The Longest Daycare'' Short filmWriter and producer 2013 ''I Know That Voice'' Himself Documentary 2015 ''I Thought I Told You to Shut Up'' Himself Short documentary 2020 ''Playdate with Destiny'' Short filmWriter and producer 2021 ''The Force Awakens from Its Nap'' Short filmProducer ''The Good, the Bart, and the Loki'' ''The Simpsons'' Balenciaga ''Plusaversary'' 2022 ''When Billie Met Lisa'' ''Welcome to the Club'' ''The Simpsons Meet the Bocellis in \"Feliz Navidad\"'' ===Television=== Year Title Role Notes 1987–1989 ''The Tracey Ullman Show'' 48 episodes; writer and animator 1989–present ''The Simpsons'' Himself Creator, writer, executive producer, and creative consultantAlso appeared in 3 episodes as himself 1996 ''Space Ghost Coast to Coast'' Himself Episode: \"Glen Campbell\" 1999 ''Olive, the Other Reindeer'' Arturo (voice) TV special; executive producer 1999–2003;2008–2013;2023–present ''Futurama'' Himself Creator, writer, and executive producerAlso appeared in Episode: \"Lrrreconcilable Ndndifferences\" as himself 2015 ''Portlandia'' Himself Episode: \"Fashion\" 2018–2023 ''Disenchantment'' Creator, writer, and executive producer===Video games=== Year Title Voice 2007 ''The Simpsons Game'' Himself 2014 ''The Simpsons: Tapped Out''===Music video=== Year Title Artist Notes 1990 \"Do the Bartman\" Nancy Cartwright Executive producer===Theme park=== Year Title Notes 2008 ''The Simpsons Ride'' Producer" ], [ "Awards", "Groening has been nominated for 41 Emmy Awards and has won thirteen, eleven for ''The Simpsons'' and two for ''Futurama'' in the \"Outstanding Animated Program (for programming one hour or less)\" category.", "Groening received the 2002 National Cartoonist Society Reuben Award, and had been nominated for the same award in 2000.He received a British Comedy Award for \"outstanding contribution to comedy\" in 2004.In 2007, he was ranked fourth (and highest American by birth) in a list of the \"top 100 living geniuses\", published by British newspaper ''The Daily Telegraph''.He was awarded the Inkpot Award in 1988.He received the 2,459th star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame on February 14, 2012." ], [ "Bibliography", "*Groening, Matt (1977–2012).", "''Life in Hell''**''Love Is Hell'' (1986) **''Work Is Hell'' (1986) **''School Is Hell'' (1987) **''Box Full of Hell'' (1988) **''Childhood Is Hell'' (1988) **''Greetings from Hell'' (1989) **''Akbar and Jeff's Guide to Life'' (1989) **''The Big Book of Hell'' (1990) **''With Love from Hell'' (1991) **''How to Go to Hell'' (1991) **''The Road to Hell'' (1992) **''Binky's Guide to Love'' (1994) **''Love Is Hell: Special Ultra Jumbo 10th Anniversary Edition'' (1994) **''The Huge Book of Hell'' (1997) **''Will and Abe's Guide to the Universe'' (2007) * * ** * * * * * * * * **" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Metaphysics" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Metaphysics''' is the branch of philosophy that studies the fundamental nature of reality.", "This includes studies of the first principles of: being or existence, identity, change, consciousness, space and time, necessity, actuality, and possibility.", "It can also include questions about the existence of (and conceptions of) God, as well as relationships between foundational philosophical ideas such as between mind and matter, cause and effect, substance and attribute, or potentiality and actuality.Metaphysics is considered one of the four main branches of philosophy, along with epistemology, logic, and ethics.", "Metaphysics studies what it is for something to exist (to \"be\") and what types of existence there are.", "It seeks to answer, in an abstract and fully general manner, the questions of: What is that exists; and What is like." ], [ "Etymology<!--'First philosophy' and 'Philosophia prima' redirect here-->", "The word ''metaphysics'' derives from the Greek words μετὰ (''metà'', \"after, behind, following\" and possibly \"transcending\") and φυσικά (''physiká'', \"physics\").", "It has been suggested that the term might have been coined by first century BC Aristotelian editor Andronicus of Rhodes who assembled fourteen books of Aristotle's works into the treatise we now know by the name ''Metaphysics'' (μετὰ τὰ φυσικά, metà tà physikà, \"after the ''Physics'' \" – another of Aristotle's works), and published it.", "The prefix ''meta-'' (\"after\") here simply indicates that these books are organized to appear after Aristotle's discussions of physics.", "The folk assumption that ''metaphysics'' derives from the meaning \"transcending physics\" is a later reinterpretation.", "Aristotle himself did not call the subject of his books ''metaphysics''; he referred to it as \"'''first philosophy'''\" (; ), due to its importance.", "In addition to the bibliographical meaning, there is also a scientific-didactic one, relating to the content: \"That which follows the explanations about nature\", \"What comes after physics\".", "Which of the two points of view is considered to be more original is controversial among philosophy historians.However, once the name was given, the commentators sought to find other reasons for its appropriateness.", "For instance, Thomas Aquinas understood it to refer to the chronological or pedagogical order among our philosophical studies, so that the \"metaphysical sciences\" would mean \"those that we study after having mastered the sciences that deal with the physical world\".The term was misread by other medieval commentators, who thought it meant \"the science of what is beyond the physical\".", "Following this tradition, the prefix ''meta-'' has more recently been prefixed to the names of sciences to designate higher sciences dealing with ulterior and more fundamental problems: hence metamathematics, metalinguistics, metaphysiology, etc.A person who creates or develops metaphysical theories is called a ''metaphysician''.Common parlance also uses the word ''metaphysics'' for a different referent from that of those already mentioned, namely for beliefs in arbitrary non-physical or magical entities.", "For example, \"metaphysical healing\" to refer to healing by means of remedies that are magical rather than scientific.", "This usage stemmed from the various historical schools of speculative metaphysics which operated by postulating all manner of physical, mental and spiritual entities as bases for particular metaphysical systems.", "Metaphysics as a subject does not preclude beliefs in such magical entities but neither does it promote them.", "Rather, it is the subject which provides the vocabulary and logic with which such beliefs might be analyzed and studied, for example to search for inconsistencies both within themselves and with other accepted systems such as science." ], [ "Epistemological foundation", "Metaphysical study is conducted using deduction from that which is known ''a priori''.", "Like foundational mathematics (which is sometimes considered a special case of metaphysics applied to the existence of number), it tries to give a coherent account of the structure of the world, capable of explaining our everyday and scientific perception of the world, and being free from contradictions.", "In mathematics, there are many different ways to define numbers; similarly, in metaphysics, there are many different ways to define objects, properties, and goals, for it to become concepts of its natura, and other entities that are claimed to make up the world.", "While metaphysics may, as a special case, study the entities postulated by fundamental science such as atoms and superstrings, its core topic is the set of categories such as object, property and causality which those scientific theories assume.", "For example: claiming that \"electrons have charge\" is espousing a scientific theory; while exploring what it means for electrons to be (or at least, to be perceived as) \"objects\", charge to be a \"property\", and for both to exist in a topological entity called \"space\", is the task of metaphysics.There are two broad stances about what is \"the world\" studied by metaphysics.", "According to metaphysical realism, the objects studied by metaphysics exist independently of any observer so that the subject is the most fundamental of all sciences.", "Metaphysical anti-realism, on the other hand, assumes that the objects studied by metaphysics exist inside the mind of an observer, so the subject becomes a form of introspection and conceptual analysis.", "This position is of more recent origin.", "Some philosophers, notably Kant, discuss both of these \"worlds\" and what can be inferred about each one.", "Some, such as the logical positivists, and many scientists, reject the metaphysical realism as meaningless and unverifiable.", "Others reply that this criticism also applies to any type of knowledge, including hard science, which claims to describe anything other than the contents of human perception, and thus that the world of perception ''is'' the objective world in some sense.", "Metaphysics itself usually assumes that some stance has been taken on these questions and that it may proceed independently of the choice—the question of which stance to take belongs instead to another branch of philosophy, epistemology." ], [ "Central questions", "===Ontology (being)===''Ontology'' is the branch of philosophy that studies concepts such as existence, being, becoming, and reality.", "It includes the questions of how entities are grouped into basic categories and which of these entities exist on the most fundamental level.", "Ontology is sometimes referred to as the ''science of being''.", "It has been characterized as ''general metaphysics'' in contrast to ''special metaphysics'', which is concerned with more particular aspects of being.", "Ontologists often try to determine what the ''categories'' or ''highest kinds'' are and how they form a ''system of categories'' that provides an encompassing classification of all entities.", "Commonly proposed categories include substances, properties, relations, states of affairs and events.", "These categories are characterized by fundamental ontological concepts, like ''particularity'' and ''universality'', ''abstractness'' and ''concreteness'' or ''possibility'' and ''necessity''.", "Of special interest is the concept of ''ontological dependence'', which determines whether the entities of a category exist on the ''most fundamental level''.", "Disagreements within ontology are often about whether entities belonging to a certain category exist and, if so, how they are related to other entities.===Identity and change===Identity is a fundamental metaphysical concern.", "Metaphysicians investigating identity are tasked with the question of what, exactly, it means for something to be identical to itself, or – more controversially – to something else.", "Issues of identity arise in the context of time: what does it mean for something to be itself across two moments in time?", "How do we account for this?", "Another question of identity arises when we ask what our criteria ought to be for determining identity, and how the reality of identity interfaces with linguistic expressions.The metaphysical positions one takes on identity have far-reaching implications on issues such as the mind–body problem, personal identity, ethics, and law.A few ancient Greeks took extreme positions on the nature of change.", "Parmenides denied change altogether, while Heraclitus argued that change was ubiquitous: \"No man ever steps in the same river twice.", "\"Identity, sometimes called numerical identity, is the relation that a thing bears to itself, and which no thing bears to anything other than itself (cf.", "sameness).A modern philosopher who made a lasting impact on the philosophy of identity was Leibniz, whose ''law of the indiscernibility of identicals'' is still widely accepted today.", "It states that if some object ''x'' is identical to some object ''y'', then any property that ''x'' has, ''y'' will have as well.Put formally, it states:However, it does seem that objects can change over time.", "Two rival theories to account for the relationship between change and identity are ''perdurantism'', which treats objects as a series of object-stages, and ''endurantism'', which maintains that the organism—the same object—is present at every stage in its history.By appealing to intrinsic and extrinsic properties, endurantism finds a way to harmonize identity with change.", "Endurantists believe that objects persist by being strictly numerically identical over time.", "However, if Leibniz's law of the indiscernibility of identicals is used to define numerical identity here, it seems that objects must be completely unchanged in order to persist.", "Discriminating between intrinsic properties and extrinsic properties, endurantists state that numerical identity means that, if some object ''x'' is identical to some object ''y'', then any ''intrinsic'' property that ''x'' has, ''y'' will have as well.", "Thus, if an object persists, ''intrinsic'' properties of it are unchanged, but ''extrinsic'' properties can change over time.", "Besides the object itself, environments and other objects can change over time; properties that relate to other objects would change even if this object does not change.Perdurantism can harmonize identity with change in another way.", "In four-dimensionalism, a version of perdurantism, what persists is a four-dimensional object which does not change although three-dimensional slices of the object may differ.===Space and time===Objects appear to us in space and time, while abstract entities such as classes, properties, and relations do not.", "How do space and time serve this function as a ground for objects?", "Are space and time entities themselves, of some form?", "Must they exist prior to objects?", "How exactly can they be defined?", "How is time related to change; must there always be something changing in order for time to exist?===Causality===Classical philosophy recognized a number of causes, including teleological final causes.", "In special relativity and quantum field theory the notions of space, time and causality become tangled together.", "According to Aristotle's ''Physics'' (7.198a22-25), there are four types of causes: the material cause (the matter which makes up the object), the formal cause (the essence, the ''-ness'' of a thing e.g., the ''doginess'' of a dog), the efficient cause (the agent that made it possible), and the final cause (the goal of the object).", "The laws of physics are symmetrical in time, so could equally well be used to describe time as running backwards.", "Why then do we perceive it as flowing in one direction, the arrow of time, and as containing causation flowing in the same direction?For that matter, can an effect precede its cause?", "This was the title of a 1954 paper by Michael Dummett, which sparked a discussion that continues today.", "Earlier, in 1947, C. S. Lewis had argued that one can meaningfully pray concerning the outcome of, e.g., a medical test while recognizing that the outcome is determined by past events: \"My free act contributes to the cosmic shape.\"", "Likewise, some interpretations of quantum mechanics, dating to 1945, involve backward-in-time causal influences.Causality is linked by many philosophers to the concept of counterfactuals.", "To say that A caused B means that if A had not happened then B would not have happened.", "This view was advanced by David Lewis in his 1973 paper \"Causation\".", "His subsequent papers further develop his theory of causation.Causality is usually required as a foundation for philosophy of science if science aims to understand causes and effects and make predictions about them.===Necessity and possibility===Metaphysicians investigate questions about the ways the world could have been.", "David Lewis, in ''On the Plurality of Worlds'', endorsed a view called concrete modal realism, according to which facts about how things could have been are made true by other concrete worlds in which things are different.", "Other philosophers, including Gottfried Leibniz, have dealt with the idea of possible worlds as well.", "A necessary fact is true across all possible worlds.", "A possible fact is true in some possible world, even if not in the actual world.", "For example, it is possible that cats could have had two tails, or that any particular apple could have not existed.", "By contrast, certain propositions seem necessarily true, such as analytic propositions, e.g., \"All bachelors are unmarried.\"", "The view that any analytic truth is necessary is not universally held among philosophers.", "A less controversial view is that self-identity is necessary, as it seems fundamentally incoherent to claim that any ''x'' is not identical to itself; this is known as the law of identity, a putative \"first principle\".", "Similarly, Aristotle describes the principle of non-contradiction::It is impossible that the same quality should both belong and not belong to the same thing ...", "This is the most certain of all principles ... Wherefore they who demonstrate refer to this as an ultimate opinion.", "For it is by nature the source of all the other axioms." ], [ "Peripheral questions", "===Metaphysical cosmology and cosmogony===Metaphysical cosmology is the branch of metaphysics that deals with the world as the totality of all phenomena in space and time.", "Historically, it formed a major part of the subject alongside ontology, though its role is more peripheral in contemporary philosophy.", "It has had a broad scope, and in many cases was founded in religion.", "The ancient Greeks drew no distinction between this use and their model for the cosmos.", "However, in modern times it addresses questions about the Universe which are beyond the scope of the physical sciences.", "It is distinguished from religious cosmology in that it approaches these questions using philosophical methods (e.g.", "dialectics).Cosmogony deals specifically with the origin of the universe.", "Modern metaphysical cosmology and cosmogony try to address questions such as:* What is the origin of the Universe?", "What is its first cause?", "Is its existence necessary?", "(see monism, pantheism, emanationism and creationism)* What are the ultimate material components of the Universe?", "(see mechanism, dynamism, hylomorphism, atomism)* What is the ultimate reason for the existence of the Universe?", "Does the cosmos have a purpose?", "(see teleology)===Mind and matter===Different approaches toward resolving the mind–body problemAccounting for the existence of mind in a world largely composed of matter is a metaphysical problem which is so large and important as to have become a specialized subject of study in its own right, philosophy of mind.Substance dualism is a classical theory in which mind and body are essentially different, with the mind having some of the attributes traditionally assigned to the soul, and which creates an immediate conceptual puzzle about how the two interact.", "This form of substance dualism differs from the dualism of some eastern philosophical traditions (like Nyāya), which also posit a soul; for the soul, under their view, is ontologically distinct from the mind.", "Subjective Idealism postulates that material objects do not exist unless perceived and only as perceptions, whereas Objective Idealism posits that there is an external world independent of observations but that it wholly consists of mental phenomena.", "Panpsychism, is a meta-theory of mind that encompasses several theories of mind including dual aspect monism, idealism, substance dualism, property dualism, etc.", "Some forms of panpsychism hold that everything ''has'' a mental aspect or is intrinsically mental, but not that everything exists ''in'' a mind.", "Neutral monism postulates that existence consists of a single substance that in itself is neither mental nor physical, but is capable of mental and physical aspects or attributesthus it implies a dual-aspect theory.", "For the latter half of the last century, the dominant theories have been materialistic monism, type identity theory, token identity theory, functionalism, reductive physicalism, nonreductive physicalism, anomalous monism, property dualism, epiphenomenalism and emergentism.", "In recent years, there has been growing interest in panpsychism and various forms of idealism in philosophical and scientific communities to help address various conceptual problems within materialism and dualism.===Determinism and free will===Determinism is the philosophical proposition that every event, including human cognition, decision and action, is causally determined by an unbroken chain of prior occurrences.", "It holds that nothing happens that has not already been determined.", "The principal consequence of the deterministic claim is that it poses a challenge to the existence of free will.The problem of free will is the problem of whether rational agents exercise control over their own actions and decisions.", "Addressing this problem requires understanding the relation between freedom and causation, and determining whether the laws of nature are causally deterministic.", "Some philosophers, known as incompatibilists, view determinism and free will as mutually exclusive.", "If they believe in determinism, they will therefore believe free will to be an illusion, a position known as ''hard determinism''.", "Proponents range from Baruch Spinoza to Ted Honderich.", "Henri Bergson defended free will in his dissertation ''Time and Free Will'' from 1889.Others, labeled compatibilists (or \"soft determinists\"), believe that the two ideas can be reconciled coherently.", "Adherents of this view include Thomas Hobbes and many modern philosophers such as John Martin Fischer, Gary Watson, Harry Frankfurt, and the like.Incompatibilists who accept free will but reject determinism are called libertarians, a term not to be confused with the political sense.", "Robert Kane and Alvin Plantinga are modern defenders of this theory.===Natural and social kinds===The earliest type of classification of social construction traces back to Plato in his dialogue ''Phaedrus'' where he claims that the biological classification system seems to carve nature at the joints.", "In contrast, later philosophers such as Michel Foucault and Jorge Luis Borges have challenged the capacity of natural and social classification.", "In his essay The Analytical Language of John Wilkins, Borges makes us imagine a certain encyclopedia where the animals are divided into (a) those that belong to the emperor; (b) embalmed ones; (c) those that are trained; ... and so forth, in order to bring forward the ambiguity of natural and social kinds.", "According to metaphysics author Alyssa Ney: \"The reason all this is interesting is that there seems to be a metaphysical difference between the Borgesian system and Plato's\".", "The difference is not obvious but one classification attempts to carve entities up according to objective distinction while the other does not.", "According to Quine this notion is closely related to the notion of similarity.", "The philosopher of social science Jason Josephson Storm has attempted to provide a more precise definition of social kinds, arguing that social kinds may still be real insofar as they are determined by empirically observable causal processes and that many cases of what appear to be natural kinds — including biological natural kinds and the category of \"natural kind\" itself — are in fact social kinds; such a view would mitigate the need to prioritize natural kinds above social kinds for much scientific practice.===Number===There are different ways to set up the notion of number in metaphysics theories.", "Platonist theories postulate number as a fundamental category itself.", "Others consider it to be a property of an entity called a \"group\" comprising other entities; or to be a relation held between several groups of entities, such as \"the number four is the set of all sets of four things\".", "Many of the debates around universals are applied to the study of number, and are of particular importance due to its status as a foundation for the philosophy of mathematics and for mathematics itself.===Applied metaphysics===Although metaphysics as a philosophical enterprise is highly hypothetical, it also has practical application in most other branches of philosophy, science, and now also information technology.", "Such areas generally assume some basic ontology (such as a system of objects, properties, classes, and space-time) as well as other metaphysical stances on topics such as causality and agency, then build their own particular theories upon these.In science, for example, some theories are based on the ontological assumption of objects with properties (such as electrons having charge) while others may reject objects completely (such as quantum field theories, where spread-out \"electronness\" becomes property of space-time rather than an object).", "\"Social\" branches of philosophy such as philosophy of morality, aesthetics and philosophy of religion (which in turn give rise to practical subjects such as ethics, politics, law, and art) all require metaphysical foundations, which may be considered as branches or applications of metaphysics.", "For example, they may postulate the existence of basic entities such as value, beauty, and God.", "Then they use these postulates to make their own arguments about consequences resulting from them.", "When philosophers in these subjects make their foundations they are doing applied metaphysics, and may draw upon its core topics and methods to guide them, including ontology and other core and peripheral topics.", "As in science, the foundations chosen will in turn depend on the underlying ontology used, so philosophers in these subjects may have to dig right down to the ontological layer of metaphysics to find what is possible for their theories.Systems engineering is essentially based on metaphysics, although without usually acknowledging it.", "This is because systems-engineering is primarily concerned with identifying what would be of interest in a prospective new system.", "Investigating the nature of the situation aka ontology and surveying the possibilities in measuring, evaluating, specifying, planning, implementing, integrating, testing and using it aka epistemology." ], [ "Relation to other disciplines", "===Science===Prior to the modern history of science, scientific questions were addressed as a part of natural philosophy.", "Originally, the term \"science\" () simply meant \"knowledge\".", "The scientific method, however, transformed natural philosophy into an empirical activity deriving from experiment, unlike the rest of philosophy.", "By the end of the 18th century, it had begun to be called \"science\" to distinguish it from other branches of philosophy.", "Science and philosophy have been considered separated disciplines ever since.", "Thereafter, metaphysics denoted philosophical enquiry of a non-empirical character into the nature of existence.Metaphysics continues asking \"why\" where science leaves off.", "For example, any theory of fundamental physics is based on some set of axioms, which may postulate the existence of entities such as atoms, particles, forces, charges, mass, or fields.", "Stating such postulates is considered to be the \"end\" of a science theory.", "Metaphysics takes these postulates and explores what they mean as human concepts.", "For example, do all theories of physics require the existence of space and time, objects, and properties?", "Or can they be expressed using only objects, or only properties?", "Do the objects have to retain their identity over time or can they change?", "If they change, then are they still the same object?", "Can theories be reformulated by converting properties or predicates (such as \"red\") into entities (such as redness or redness fields) or processes ('there is some redding happening over there' appears in some human languages in place of the use of properties).", "Is the distinction between objects and properties fundamental to the physical world or to our perception of it?Much recent work has been devoted to analyzing the role of metaphysics in scientific theorizing.", "Alexandre Koyré led this movement, declaring in his book ''Metaphysics and Measurement'', \"It is not by following experiment, but by outstripping experiment, that the scientific mind makes progress.\"", "That metaphysical propositions can influence scientific theorizing is John Watkins' most lasting contribution to philosophy.", "Since 1957 \"he showed the ways in which some un-testable and hence, according to Popperian ideas, non-empirical propositions can nevertheless be influential in the development of properly testable and hence scientific theories.", "These profound results in applied elementary logic...represented an important corrective to positivist teachings about the meaninglessness of metaphysics and of normative claims\".", "Imre Lakatos maintained that all scientific theories have a metaphysical \"hard core\" essential for the generation of hypotheses and theoretical assumptions.", "Thus, according to Lakatos, \"scientific changes are connected with vast cataclysmic metaphysical revolutions.", "\"An example from biology of Lakatos' thesis: David Hull has argued that changes in the ontological status of the species concept have been central in the development of biological thought from Aristotle through Cuvier, Lamarck, and Darwin.", "Darwin's ignorance of metaphysics made it more difficult for him to respond to his critics because he could not readily grasp the ways in which their underlying metaphysical views differed from his own.In physics, new metaphysical ideas have arisen in connection with quantum mechanics, where subatomic particles arguably do not have the same sort of individuality as the particulars with which philosophy has traditionally been concerned.", "Also, adherence to a deterministic metaphysics in the face of the challenge posed by the quantum-mechanical uncertainty principle led physicists such as Albert Einstein to propose alternative theories that retained determinism.", "A.N.", "Whitehead is famous for creating a process philosophy metaphysics inspired by electromagnetism and special relativity.In chemistry, Gilbert Newton Lewis addressed the nature of motion, arguing that an electron should not be said to move when it has none of the properties of motion.Katherine Hawley notes that the metaphysics even of a widely accepted scientific theory may be challenged if it can be argued that the metaphysical presuppositions of the theory make no contribution to its predictive success.===Theology ===There is a relationship between theological doctrines and philosophical reflection in the philosophy of a religion (such as Christian philosophy); philosophical reflections are strictly rational.", "On this way of seeing the two disciplines, if at least one of the premises of an argument is derived from revelation, the argument falls in the domain of theology; otherwise it falls into philosophy's domain.=== Logic ===There are various ways in which logic and ontology are related.", "Thus, there are various ways in which logic is related to metaphysics.", "To understand the variety of ways logic is related to metaphysics, one must first specify what is meant by both ‘logic’ and ‘ontology.’ Here are a few ways we might specify what we mean by logic: the study of artificial formal languages, the study of formally valid inferences and logical consequence, the study of logical truths, or the study of the general features, or form, of judgments.", "Here are a few ways we might specify what we mean by ontology: the study of ontological commitment, the study of what there is, the study of the most general features of what there is, and how the things there are related to each other in the metaphysically most general ways, and the study of meta-ontology.", "For example, if we construe logic as the study of artificial formal languages and ontology as the study of ontological commitment, we might find ourselves interested in using formal logic to help us regiment our beliefs and determine our ontological commitments, as Quine suggests we should.Additionally, key concepts in metaphysics have been formalized in logical frameworks.", "For instance, Leibniz’s law of the indiscernibility of identicals can be stated in terms of formal logic." ], [ "Rejections of metaphysics<!--'Metametaphysics', 'Meta-metaphysics', 'Metaphysical deflationism', 'Ontological deflationism', 'Metaphysicalism', 'Antimetaphysicalism', and 'Anti-metaphysicalism' redirect here-->", "'''Meta-metaphysics''' is the branch of philosophy that is concerned with the foundations of metaphysics.", "A number of individuals have suggested that much or all of metaphysics should be rejected, a meta-metaphysical position known as '''metaphysical deflationism''' or '''ontological deflationism'''.In the 16th century, Francis Bacon rejected scholastic metaphysics, and argued strongly for what is now called empiricism, being seen later as the father of modern empirical science.", "In the 18th century, David Hume took a strong position, arguing that all genuine knowledge involves either mathematics or matters of fact and that metaphysics, which goes beyond these, is worthless.", "He concluded his ''Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding'' (1748) with the statement:If we take in our hand any volume book; of divinity or school metaphysics, for instance; let us ask, ''Does it contain any abstract reasoning concerning quantity or number?''", "No.", "''Does it contain any experimental reasoning concerning matter of fact and existence?''", "No.", "Commit it then to the flames: for it can contain nothing but sophistry and illusion.Thirty-three years after Hume's ''Enquiry'' appeared, Immanuel Kant published his ''Critique of Pure Reason''.", "Although he followed Hume in rejecting much of previous metaphysics, he argued that there was still room for some synthetic ''a priori'' knowledge, concerned with matters of fact yet obtainable independent of experience.", "These included fundamental structures of space, time, which he called \"pure intuitions\", and other 12 categories such as causality.", "Kant also argued for the existence of ''things in themselves'', the ultimate (but unknowable) objects of experience, and the freedom of the will (in the ''Critique of Practical Reason'').Wittgenstein introduced the concept that metaphysics could be influenced by theories of aesthetics, via logic, vis.", "a world composed of \"atomical facts\".In the 1930s, A.J.", "Ayer and Rudolf Carnap endorsed Hume's position; Carnap quoted the passage above.", "They argued that metaphysical statements are neither true nor false but meaningless since, according to their verifiability theory of meaning, a statement is meaningful only if there can be empirical evidence for or against it.", "Carnap also compared metaphysical statements to music, with the difference that \"metaphysicians are musicians without musical talent\".", "Thus, while Ayer rejected the monism of Spinoza, he avoided a commitment to pluralism, the contrary position, by holding both views to be without meaning.", "Carnap took a similar line with the controversy over the reality of the external world.", "While the logical positivism movement is now considered dead (with Ayer, a major proponent, admitting in a 1979 TV interview that \"nearly all of it was false\"), it has continued to influence philosophy development.Arguing against such rejections, scholastic philosopher Edward Feser held that Hume's critique of metaphysics, and specifically Hume's fork, is \"notoriously self-refuting\".", "Feser argues that Hume's fork itself is not a conceptual truth and is not empirically testable.Some living philosophers, such as Amie Thomasson, have argued that many metaphysical questions can be dissolved just by looking at the way words are used; others, such as Ted Sider, have argued that metaphysical questions are substantive, and that progress can be made toward answering them by comparing theories according to a range of theoretical virtues inspired by the sciences, such as simplicity and explanatory power." ], [ "History and schools of metaphysics", "===Pre-history===Cognitive archeology such as analysis of cave paintings and other pre-historic art and customs suggests that a form of perennial philosophy or Shamanic metaphysics may stretch back to the birth of behavioral modernity, all around the world.", "Similar beliefs are found in present-day \"stone age\" cultures such as Australian aboriginals.", "Perennial philosophy postulates the existence of a spirit or concept world alongside the day-to-day world, and interactions between these worlds during dreaming and ritual, or on special days or at special places.", "It has been argued that perennial philosophy formed the basis for Platonism, with Plato articulating, rather than creating, much older widespread beliefs.===Bronze Age===Bronze Age cultures such as ancient Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt (along with similarly structured but chronologically later cultures such as Mayans and Aztecs) developed belief systems based on mythology, anthropomorphic gods, mind–body dualism, and a spirit world, to explain causes and cosmology.", "These cultures appear to have been interested in astronomy and may have associated or identified the stars with some of these entities.", "In ancient Egypt, the ontological distinction between order (maat) and chaos (Isfet) seems to have been important.===Pre-Socratic Greece===Monad or The Absolute.The first named Greek philosopher, according to Aristotle, is Thales of Miletus, early 6th century BCE.", "He made use of purely physical explanations to explain the phenomena of the world rather than the mythological and divine explanations of tradition.", "He is thought to have posited water as the single underlying principle (or ''arche'' in later Aristotelian terminology) of the material world.", "His fellow, but younger Miletians, Anaximander and Anaximenes, also posited monistic underlying principles, namely ''apeiron'' (the indefinite or boundless) and air respectively.Another school was the Eleatics, in southern Italy.", "The group was founded in the early fifth century BCE by Parmenides, and included Zeno of Elea and Melissus of Samos.", "Methodologically, the Eleatics were broadly rationalist, and took logical standards of clarity and necessity to be the criteria of truth.", "Parmenides' chief doctrine was that reality is a single unchanging and universal Being.", "Zeno used ''reductio ad absurdum'', to demonstrate the illusory nature of change and time in his paradoxes.Heraclitus of Ephesus, in contrast, made change central, teaching that \"all things flow\".", "His philosophy, expressed in brief aphorisms, is quite cryptic.", "For instance, he also taught the unity of opposites.Democritus and his teacher Leucippus, are known for formulating an atomic theory for the cosmos.", "They are considered forerunners of the scientific method.===Classical China===The modern \"yin and yang symbol\" (''taijitu'')Metaphysics in Chinese philosophy can be traced back to the earliest Chinese philosophical concepts from the Zhou dynasty such as Tian (Heaven) and yin and yang.", "The fourth century BCE saw a turn towards cosmogony with the rise of Taoism (in the Daodejing and Zhuangzi) and sees the natural world as dynamic and constantly changing processes which spontaneously arise from a single immanent metaphysical source or principle (Tao).", "Another philosophical school which arose around this time was the School of Naturalists which saw the ultimate metaphysical principle as the Taiji, the \"supreme polarity\" composed of the forces of yin and yang which were always in a state of change seeking balance.", "Another concern of Chinese metaphysics, especially Taoism, is the relationship and nature of being and non-being (''you'' 有 and ''wu'' 無).", "The Taoists held that the ultimate, the Tao, was also non-being or no-presence.", "Other important concepts were those of spontaneous generation or natural vitality (Ziran) and \"correlative resonance\" (Ganying).After the fall of the Han dynasty (220 CE), China saw the rise of the Neo-Taoist Xuanxue school.", "This school was very influential in developing the concepts of later Chinese metaphysics.", "Buddhist philosophy entered China (c. 1st century) and was influenced by the native Chinese metaphysical concepts to develop new theories.", "The native Tiantai and Huayen schools of philosophy maintained and reinterpreted the Indian theories of ''shunyata'' (emptiness, ''kong'' 空) and Buddha-nature (''Fo xing'' 佛性) into the theory of interpenetration of phenomena.", "Neo-Confucians like Zhang Zai under the influence of other schools developed the concepts of \"principle\" (li) and vital energy (''qi'').===Classical Greece=======Socrates and Plato====Plato is famous for his theory of forms (which he places in the mouth of Socrates in his dialogues).", "Platonic realism (also considered a form of idealism) is considered to be a solution to the problem of universals; i.e., what particular objects have in common is that they share a specific Form which is universal to all others of their respective kind.The theory has a number of other aspects:* Epistemological: knowledge of the Forms is more certain than mere sensory data.", "* Ethical: The Form of the Good sets an objective standard for morality.", "* Time and Change: The world of the Forms is eternal and unchanging.", "Time and change belong only to the lower sensory world.", "\"Time is a moving image of Eternity\".", "* Abstract objects and mathematics: Numbers, geometrical figures, etc., exist mind-independently in the World of Forms.Platonism developed into Neoplatonism, a philosophy with a monotheistic and mystical flavour that survived well into the early Christian era.====Aristotle====Plato's pupil Aristotle wrote widely on almost every subject, including metaphysics.", "His solution to the problem of universals contrasts with Plato's.", "Whereas Platonic Forms are existentially apparent in the visible world, Aristotelian essences dwell in particulars.Potentiality and actuality are principles of a dichotomy which Aristotle used throughout his philosophical works to analyze motion, causality and other issues.The Aristotelian theory of change and causality stretches to four causes: the material, formal, efficient and final.", "The efficient cause corresponds to what is now known as a cause ''simplicity''.", "Final causes are explicitly teleological, a concept now regarded as controversial in science.", "The Matter/Form dichotomy was to become highly influential in later philosophy as the substance/essence distinction.The opening arguments in Aristotle's ''Metaphysics'', Book I, revolve around the senses, knowledge, experience, theory, and wisdom.", "The first main focus in the ''Metaphysics'' is attempting to determine how intellect \"advances from sensation through memory, experience, and art, to theoretical knowledge\".", "Aristotle claims that eyesight provides the capability to recognize and remember experiences, while sound allows learning.===Classical India===''More on Indian philosophy: Hindu philosophy''====Sāṃkhya====''Sāṃkhya'' is an ancient system of Indian philosophy based on a dualism involving the ultimate principles of consciousness and matter.", "\"Samkhya\", Webster's College Dictionary (2010), Random House, , Quote: \"Samkhya is a system of Hindu philosophy stressing the reality and duality of spirit and matter.\"", "It is described as the rationalist school of Indian philosophy.", "It is most related to the Yoga school of Hinduism, and its method was most influential on the development of Early Buddhism.The Sāmkhya is an enumerationist philosophy whose epistemology accepts three of six pramanas (proofs) as the only reliable means of gaining knowledge.", "These include ''pratyakṣa'' (perception), ''anumāṇa'' (inference) and ''śabda'' (''āptavacana'', word/testimony of reliable sources).Samkhya is strongly dualist.", "Sāmkhya philosophy regards the universe as consisting of two realities; puruṣa (consciousness) and prakṛti (matter).", "Jiva (a living being) is that state in which puruṣa is bonded to prakṛti in some form.", "This fusion, state the Samkhya scholars, led to the emergence of ''buddhi'' (\"spiritual awareness\") and ''ahaṅkāra'' (ego consciousness).", "The universe is described by this school as one created by purusa-prakṛti entities infused with various permutations and combinations of variously enumerated elements, senses, feelings, activity and mind.", "During the state of imbalance, one of more constituents overwhelm the others, creating a form of bondage, particularly of the mind.", "The end of this imbalance, bondage is called liberation, or moksha, by the Samkhya school.The existence of God or supreme being is not directly asserted, nor considered relevant by the Samkhya philosophers.", "Sāṃkhya denies the final cause of Ishvara (God).", "While the Samkhya school considers the Vedas as a reliable source of knowledge, it is an atheistic philosophy according to Paul Deussen and other scholars.", "A key difference between Samkhya and Yoga schools, state scholars, is that Yoga school accepts a \"personal, yet essentially inactive, deity\" or \"personal god\".Samkhya is known for its theory of guṇas (qualities, innate tendencies).", "Guṇa, it states, are of three types: ''sattva'' being good, compassionate, illuminating, positive, and constructive; ''rajas'' is one of activity, chaotic, passion, impulsive, potentially good or bad; and ''tamas'' being the quality of darkness, ignorance, destructive, lethargic, negative.", "Everything, all life forms and human beings, state Samkhya scholars, have these three guṇas, but in different proportions.", "The interplay of these guṇas defines the character of someone or something, of nature and determines the progress of life.", "The Samkhya theory of guṇas was widely discussed, developed and refined by various schools of Indian philosophies, including Buddhism.", "Samkhya's philosophical treatises also influenced the development of various theories of Hindu ethics.====Vedānta====Realization of the nature of self-identity is the principal object of the Vedanta system of Indian metaphysics.", "In the Upanishads, self-consciousness is not the first-person indexical self-awareness or the self-awareness which is self-reference without identification, and also not the self-consciousness which as a kind of desire is satisfied by another self-consciousness.", "It is self-realisation; the realisation of the self consisting of consciousness that leads all else.The word ''self-consciousness'' in the Upanishads means the knowledge about the existence and nature of ''manusya'', human being.", "It means the consciousness of our own real being, the primary reality.", "Self-consciousness means self-knowledge, the knowledge of Prajna i.e.", "of Prana which is attained by a Brahman.", "According to the Upanishads the Atman or Paramatman is phenomenally unknowable; it is the object of realisation.", "The Atman is unknowable in its essential nature; it is unknowable in its essential nature because it is the eternal subject who knows about everything including itself.", "The Atman is the knower and also the known.Metaphysicians regard the self either to be distinct from the absolute or entirely identical with the absolute.", "They have given form to three schools of thought – the ''dualistic school'', the ''quasi-dualistic school'' and the ''monistic school'', as the result of their varying mystical experiences.", "Prakrti and Atman, when treated as two separate and distinct aspects form the basis of the dualism of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad.", "Quasi-dualism is reflected in the Vaishnavite-monotheism of Ramanuja and the absolute monism, in the teachings of Adi Shankara.Self-consciousness is the fourth state of consciousness or ''Turiya'', the first three being ''Vaisvanara'', ''Taijasa'' and ''Prajna''.", "These are the four states of individual consciousness.There are three distinct stages leading to self-realisation.", "The first stage is in mystically apprehending the glory of the self within one as though one were distinct from it.", "The second stage is in identifying the \"I-within\" with the self, that one is in essential nature entirely identical with the pure self.", "The third stage is in realising that the Atman is Brahman, that there is no difference between the self and the absolute.", "The fourth stage is in realising \"I am the Absolute\" – ''Aham Brahman Asmi''.", "The fifth stage is in realising that Brahman is the \"all\" that exists, as also that which does not exist.===Buddhist metaphysics===In Buddhist philosophy there are various metaphysical traditions that have proposed different questions about the nature of reality based on the teachings of the Buddha in the early Buddhist texts.", "The Buddha of the early texts does not focus on metaphysical questions but on ethical and spiritual training and in some cases, he dismisses certain metaphysical questions as unhelpful and indeterminate Avyakta, which he recommends should be set aside.", "The development of systematic metaphysics arose after the Buddha's death with the rise of the Abhidharma traditions.", "The Buddhist Abhidharma schools developed their analysis of reality based on the concept of ''dharmas'' which are the ultimate physical and mental events that makeup experience and their relations to each other.", "Noa Ronkin has called their approach \"phenomenological\".Later philosophical traditions include the Madhyamika school of Nagarjuna, which further developed the theory of the emptiness (shunyata) of all phenomena or dharmas which rejects any kind of substance.", "This has been interpreted as a form of anti-foundationalism and anti-realism which sees reality as having no ultimate essence or ground.", "The Yogacara school meanwhile promoted a theory called \"awareness only\" (vijnapti-matra) which has been interpreted as a form of Idealism or Phenomenology and denies the split between awareness itself and the objects of awareness.===Islamic metaphysics===Major ideas in Islamic metaphysics () have surrounded the concept of ''weḥdah'' (وحدة) meaning 'unity', or in Arabic توحيد ''tawhid''.", "''Waḥdat al-wujūd'' literally means the 'unity of existence' or 'unity of being'.", "In modern times the phrase has been translated as \"pantheism.\"", "''Wujud'' (i.e.", "existence or presence) here refers to Allah's ''wujud'' (compare ''tawhid'').", "However, ''waḥdat ash-shuhūd'', meaning 'apparentism' or 'monotheism of witness', holds that god and his creation are entirely separate.===Scholasticism and the Middle Ages===Between about 1100 and 1500, philosophy as a discipline took place as part of the Catholic church's teaching system, known as scholasticism.", "Scholastic philosophy took place within an established framework blending Christian theology with Aristotelian teachings.", "Although fundamental orthodoxies were not commonly challenged, there were nonetheless deep metaphysical disagreements, particularly over the problem of universals, which engaged Duns Scotus and Pierre Abelard.", "William of Ockham is remembered for his principle of ontological parsimony.===Continental rationalism===In the early modern period (17th and 18th centuries), the system-building ''scope'' of philosophy is often linked to the rationalist ''method'' of philosophy, that is the technique of deducing the nature of the world by pure reason.", "The scholastic concepts of substance and accident were employed.", "* Leibniz proposed in his ''Monadology'' a plurality of non-interacting substances.", "* Descartes is famous for his dualism of material and mental substances.", "* Spinoza believed reality was a single substance of God-or-nature.Christian Wolff had theoretical philosophy divided into an ontology or ''philosophia prima'' as a general metaphysics, which arises as a preliminary to the distinction of the three \"special metaphysics\" on the soul, world and God: rational psychology, rational cosmology and rational theology.", "The three disciplines are called empirical and rational because they are independent of revelation.", "This scheme, which is the counterpart of religious tripartition in creature, creation, and Creator, is best known to philosophical students by Kant's treatment of it in the ''Critique of Pure Reason''.", "In the \"Preface\" of the 2nd edition of Kant's book, Wolff is defined \"the greatest of all dogmatic philosophers.", "\"===British empiricism===British empiricism marked something of a reaction to rationalist and system-building metaphysics, or ''speculative'' metaphysics as it was pejoratively termed.", "The skeptic David Hume famously declared that most metaphysics should be consigned to the flames (see below).", "Hume was notorious among his contemporaries as one of the first philosophers to openly doubt religion, but is better known now for his critique of causality.", "John Stuart Mill, Thomas Reid and John Locke were less skeptical, embracing a more cautious style of metaphysics based on realism, common sense and science.", "Other philosophers, notably George Berkeley were led from empiricism to idealistic metaphysics.===Kant===Immanuel Kant attempted a grand synthesis and revision of the trends already mentioned: scholastic philosophy, systematic metaphysics, and skeptical empiricism, not to forget the burgeoning science of his day.", "As did the systems builders, he had an overarching framework in which all questions were to be addressed.", "Like Hume, who famously woke him from his 'dogmatic slumbers', he was suspicious of metaphysical speculation, and also places much emphasis on the limitations of the human mind.Kant described his shift in metaphysics away from making claims about an objective noumenal world, towards exploring the subjective phenomenal world, as a Copernican Revolution, by analogy to (though opposite in direction to) Copernicus' shift from man (the subject) to the sun (an object) at the center of the universe.Kant saw rationalist philosophers as aiming for a kind of metaphysical knowledge he defined as the ''synthetic apriori''—that is knowledge that does not come from the senses (it is a priori) but is nonetheless about reality (synthetic).", "Inasmuch as it is about reality, it differs from abstract mathematical propositions (which he terms synthetic apriori), and being apriori it is distinct from empirical, scientific knowledge (which he terms synthetic aposteriori).", "The only synthetic apriori knowledge we can have is of how our minds organise the data of the senses; that organising framework is space and time, which for Kant have no mind-independent existence, but nonetheless operate uniformly in all humans.", "Apriori knowledge of space and time is all that remains of metaphysics as traditionally conceived.", "There ''is'' a reality beyond sensory data or phenomena, which he calls the realm of noumena; however, we cannot know it as it is in itself, but only as it appears to us.", "He allows himself to speculate that the origins of phenomenal God, morality, and free will ''might'' exist in the noumenal realm, but these possibilities have to be set against its basic unknowability for humans.", "Although he saw himself as having disposed of metaphysics, in a sense, he has generally been regarded in retrospect as having a metaphysics of his own, and as beginning the modern analytical conception of the subject.===Late modern philosophy===\"Metaphysics\", 1898 illustration by E. J. Sullivan from ''Sartor Resartus'' (1833–34) by Thomas CarlyleNineteenth-century philosophy was overwhelmingly influenced by Kant and his successors.", "Schopenhauer, Schelling, Fichte and Hegel all purveyed their own panoramic versions of German Idealism, Kant's own caution about metaphysical speculation, and refutation of idealism, having fallen by the wayside.", "The idealistic impulse continued into the early twentieth century with British idealists such as F. H. Bradley and J. M. E. McTaggart.", "Followers of Karl Marx took Hegel's dialectic view of history and re-fashioned it as materialism.===Early analytic philosophy and positivism===During the period when idealism was dominant in philosophy, science had been making great advances.", "The arrival of a new generation of scientifically minded philosophers led to a sharp decline in the popularity of idealism during the 1920s.Analytic philosophy was spearheaded by Bertrand Russell and G. E. Moore.", "Russell and William James tried to compromise between idealism and materialism with the theory of neutral monism.The early to mid-twentieth-century philosophy saw a trend to reject metaphysical questions as meaningless.", "The driving force behind this tendency was the philosophy of logical positivism as espoused by the Vienna Circle, which argued that the meaning of a statement was its prediction of observable results of an experiment, and thus that there is no need to postulate the existence of any objects other than these perceptual observations.At around the same time, the American pragmatists were steering a middle course between materialism and idealism.System-building metaphysics, with a fresh inspiration from science, was revived by A. N. Whitehead and Charles Hartshorne.===Continental philosophy===The forces that shaped analytic philosophy—the break with idealism, and the influence of science—were much less significant outside the English speaking world, although there was a shared turn toward language.", "Continental philosophy continued in a trajectory from post Kantianism.The phenomenology of Husserl and others was intended as a collaborative project for the investigation of the features and structure of consciousness common to all humans, in line with Kant's basing his synthetic apriori on the uniform operation of consciousness.", "It was officially neutral with regards to ontology, but was nonetheless to spawn a number of metaphysical systems.", "Brentano's concept of intentionality would become widely influential, including on analytic philosophy.Heidegger, author of ''Being and Time'', saw himself as re-focusing on Being-qua-being, introducing the novel concept of ''Dasein'' in the process.", "Classing himself an existentialist, Sartre wrote an extensive study of ''Being and Nothingness''.The speculative realism movement marks a return to full blooded realism.===Process metaphysics===There are two fundamental aspects of everyday experience: change and persistence.", "Until recently, the Western philosophical tradition has arguably championed substance and persistence, with some notable exceptions, however.", "According to process thinkers, novelty, flux and accident do matter, and sometimes they constitute the ultimate reality.In a broad sense, process metaphysics is as old as Western philosophy, with figures such as Heraclitus, Plotinus, Duns Scotus, Leibniz, David Hume, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling, Gustav Theodor Fechner, Friedrich Adolf Trendelenburg, Charles Renouvier, Karl Marx, Ernst Mach, Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche, Émile Boutroux, Henri Bergson, Samuel Alexander and Nicolas Berdyaev.", "It seemingly remains an open question whether major \"Continental\" figures such as the late Martin Heidegger, Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Gilles Deleuze, Michel Foucault, or Jacques Derrida should be included.In a strict sense, process metaphysics may be limited to the works of a few philosophers:* G. W. F. Hegel,* Charles Sanders Peirce,* William James,* Henri Bergson,* A. N. Whitehead, and* John Dewey.From a European perspective, there was a very significant and early Whiteheadian influence on the works of outstanding scholars such as:* Émile Meyerson (1859–1933),* Louis Couturat (1868–1914),* Jean Wahl (1888–1974),* Robin George Collingwood (1889–1943),* Philippe Devaux (1902–1979),* Hans Jonas (1903–1993),* Dorothy M. Emmett (1904–2000),* Maurice Merleau Ponty (1908–1961),* Enzo Paci (1911–1976),* Charlie Dunbar Broad (1887–1971),* Wolfe Mays (1912–2005),* Ilya Prigogine (1917–2003),* Jules Vuillemin (1920–2001),* Jean Ladrière (1921–2007),* Gilles Deleuze (1925–1995),* Wolfhart Pannenberg (1928–2014),* Reiner Wiehl (1929–2010), and* Alain Badiou (1937-).===Contemporary analytic philosophy===While early analytic philosophy tended to reject metaphysical theorizing, under the influence of logical positivism, it was revived in the second half of the twentieth century.", "Philosophers such as David K. Lewis and David Armstrong developed elaborate theories on a range of topics such as universals, causation, possibility and necessity and abstract objects.", "However, the focus of analytic philosophy generally is away from the construction of all-encompassing systems and toward close analysis of individual ideas.Among the developments that led to the revival of metaphysical theorizing were Quine's attack on the analytic–synthetic distinction, which was generally taken to undermine Carnap's distinction between existence questions internal to a framework and those external to it.The philosophy of fiction, the problem of empty names, and the debate over existence's status as a property have all come of relative obscurity into the limelight, while perennial issues such as free will, possible worlds, and the philosophy of time have had new life breathed into them.The analytic view is of metaphysics as studying phenomenal human concepts rather than making claims about the noumenal world, so its style often blurs into philosophy of language and introspective psychology.", "Compared to system-building, it can seem very dry, stylistically similar to computer programming, mathematics or even accountancy (as a common stated goal is to \"account for\" entities in the world)." ], [ "See also", "* Computational metaphysics* Doctor of Metaphysics* Enrico Berti's classification of metaphysics* Feminist metaphysics* Fundamental question of metaphysics* List of metaphysicians* Metacognition* Metaphilosophy** Meta-epistemology** Meta-ethics** Meta-ontology** Metasemantics* Metaphysical fiction novels* Metaphysical grounding* Philosophical logic* Philosophical realism* Philosophy of science* Philosophical theology" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * Butchvarov, Panayot (1979).", "''Being Qua Being: A Theory of Identity, Existence and Predication''.", "Bloomington and London: Indiana University Press.", "* Chalmers, David, David Manley and Ryan Wasserman, eds.", "(2009).", "''Metametaphysics: New Essays on the Foundations of Ontology''.", "Oxford University Press.", "* Crane, T and Farkas, K (2004).", "''Metaphysics: A Guide and Anthology'', Oxford University Press, .", "* Gale, Richard M. (2002).", "''The Blackwell Guide to Metaphysics''.", "Oxford: Blackwell.", "* Gay, Peter.", "(1966).", "''The Enlightenment: An Interpretation'' (2 vols.).", "New York: W.W. Norton & Company.", "* Harris, E. E. (1965).", "''The Foundations of Metaphysics in Science''.", "London: George Allen and Unwin.", "* Harris, E. E. (2000).", "''The Restitution of Metaphysics''.", "New York: Humanity Books.", "* Heisenberg, Werner (1958), \"Atomic Physics and Causal Law,\" from ''The Physicist's Conception of Nature''.", "* Koons, Robert C. and Pickavance, Timothy H. (2015), ''Metaphysics: The Fundamentals''.", "Wiley-Blackwell.", "* Le Poidevin R. & al.", "eds.", "(2009).", "''The Routledge Companion to Metaphysics''.", "New York: Routledge.", "* Loux, M. J.", "(2006).", "''Metaphysics: A Contemporary Introduction'' (3rd ed.).", "London: Routledge.", "* Lowe, E. J.", "(2002).", "''A Survey of Metaphysics''.", "Oxford: Oxford University Press.", "* Tuomas E. Tahko (2015).", "''An Introduction to Metametaphysics''.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press." ], [ "Further reading", "* Benovsky, Jiri (2016), ''Meta-metaphysics: On Metaphysical Equivalence, Primitiveness, and Theory Choice''.", "Springer.", "* Bliss, Ricki and J. T. M. Miller, eds.", "(forthcoming).", "''The Routledge Handbook of Metametaphysics''.", "Routledge.", "* Kim, Jaegwon and Ernest Sosa, eds.", "(1999).", "''Metaphysics: An Anthology''.", "Blackwell Philosophy Anthologies.", "* Kim, Jaegwon and Ernest Sosa, eds.", "(2000).", "''A Companion to Metaphysics''.", "Malden Massachusetts.", "Blackwell.", "* Neil A. Manson, Robert W. Barnard, eds.", "(2014).", "''The Bloomsbury Companion to Metaphysics''.", "Bloomsbury.", "* Raven, Michael J.", "(2020).", "''The Routledge Handbook of Metaphysical Grounding''.", "Routledge." ], [ "External links", "* * * * Metaphysics at Encyclopædia Britannica* The London Philosophy Study Guide offers many suggestions on what to read, depending on the student's familiarity with the subject: Logic & Metaphysics .", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Human spaceflight" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Human spaceflight''' (also referred to as '''manned spaceflight''' or '''crewed spaceflight''') is spaceflight with a crew or passengers aboard a spacecraft, often with the spacecraft being operated directly by the onboard human crew.", "Spacecraft can also be remotely operated from ground stations on Earth, or autonomously, without any direct human involvement.", "People trained for spaceflight are called astronauts (American or other), ''cosmonauts'' (Russian), or ''taikonauts'' (Chinese); and non-professionals are referred to as spaceflight participants or ''spacefarers''.The first human in space was Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin, who launched as part of the Soviet Union's Vostok program on 12 April 1961 at the beginning of the Space Race.", "On 5 May 1961, Alan Shepard became the first American in space, as part of Project Mercury.", "Humans traveled to the Moon nine times between 1968 and 1972 as part of the United States' Apollo program, and have had a continuous presence in space for on the International Space Station (ISS).", "On 15 October 2003, the first Chinese taikonaut, Yang Liwei, went to space as part of Shenzhou 5, the first Chinese human spaceflight.", "As of January 2024, humans have not traveled beyond low Earth orbit since the Apollo 17 lunar mission in December 1972.Currently, the United States, Russia, and China are the only countries with public or commercial human spaceflight-capable programs.", "Non-governmental spaceflight companies have been working to develop human space programs of their own, e.g.", "for space tourism or commercial in-space research.", "The first private human spaceflight launch was a suborbital flight on SpaceShipOne on June 21, 2004.The first commercial orbital crew launch was by SpaceX in May 2020, transporting NASA astronauts to the ISS under United States government contract." ], [ "History", "=== Cold War era ===Vostok space capsule, which carried the first human into orbit, at Technik Museum SpeyerMercury space capsule, which carried the first Americans into orbit, on display at the Astronaut Hall of Fame, Titusville, FloridaNorth American X-15, hypersonic rocket-powered aircraft, which reached the edge of spaceNeil Armstrong, one of the first two people to land on the Moon and the first to walk on the lunar surface, July 1969Human spaceflight capability was first developed during the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union (USSR).", "These nations developed intercontinental ballistic missiles for the delivery of nuclear weapons, producing rockets large enough to be adapted to carry the first artificial satellites into low Earth orbit.After the first satellites were launched in 1957 and 1958 by the Soviet Union, the US began work on Project Mercury, with the aim of launching men into orbit.", "The USSR was secretly pursuing the Vostok program to accomplish the same thing, and launched the first human into space, the cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin.", "On 12 April 1961, Gagarin was launched aboard Vostok 1 on a Vostok 3KA rocket and completed a single orbit.", "On 5 May 1961, the US launched its first astronaut, Alan Shepard, on a suborbital flight aboard ''Freedom 7'' on a Mercury-Redstone rocket.", "Unlike Gagarin, Shepard manually controlled his spacecraft's attitude.", "On 20 February 1962, John Glenn became the first American in orbit, aboard ''Friendship 7'' on a Mercury-Atlas rocket.", "The USSR launched five more cosmonauts in Vostok capsules, including the first woman in space, Valentina Tereshkova, aboard Vostok 6 on 16 June 1963.Through 1963, the US launched a total of two astronauts in suborbital flights and four into orbit.", "The US also made two North American X-15 flights (90 and 91, piloted by Joseph A. Walker), that exceeded the Kármán line, the altitude used by the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI) to denote the edge of space.In 1961, US President John F. Kennedy raised the stakes of the Space Race by setting the goal of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to Earth by the end of the 1960s.", "That same year, the US began the Apollo program of launching three-man capsules atop the Saturn family of launch vehicles.", "In 1962, the US began Project Gemini, which flew 10 missions with two-man crews launched by Titan II rockets in 1965 and 1966.Gemini's objective was to support Apollo by developing American orbital spaceflight experience and techniques to be used during the Moon mission.Meanwhile, the USSR remained silent about their intentions to send humans to the Moon and proceeded to stretch the limits of their single-pilot Vostok capsule by adapting it to a two or three-person Voskhod capsule to compete with Gemini.", "They were able to launch two orbital flights in 1964 and 1965 and achieved the first spacewalk, performed by Alexei Leonov on Voskhod 2, on 8 March 1965.However, the Voskhod did not have Gemini's capability to maneuver in orbit, and the program was terminated.", "The US Gemini flights did not achieve the first spacewalk, but overcame the early Soviet lead by performing several spacewalks, solving the problem of astronaut fatigue caused by compensating for the lack of gravity, demonstrating the ability of humans to endure two weeks in space, and performing the first space rendezvous and docking of spacecraft.The US succeeded in developing the Saturn V rocket necessary to send the Apollo spacecraft to the Moon, and sent Frank Borman, James Lovell, and William Anders into 10 orbits around the Moon in Apollo 8 in December 1968.In 1969, Apollo 11 accomplished Kennedy's goal by landing Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin on the Moon on 21 July and returning them safely on 24 July, along with Command Module pilot Michael Collins.", "Through 1972, a total of six Apollo missions landed 12 men to walk on the Moon, half of which drove electric powered vehicles on the surface.", "The crew of Apollo 13—Jim Lovell, Jack Swigert, and Fred Haise—survived an in-flight spacecraft failure, they flew by the Moon without landing, and returned safely to Earth.Soyuz, most serial spacecraftSalyut 1, first crewed space station, with docked Soyuz spacecraftDuring this time, the USSR secretly pursued crewed lunar orbiting and landing programs.", "They successfully developed the three-person Soyuz spacecraft for use in the lunar programs, but failed to develop the N1 rocket necessary for a human landing, and discontinued their lunar programs in 1974.Upon losing the Moon race they concentrated on the development of space stations, using the Soyuz as a ferry to take cosmonauts to and from the stations.", "They started with a series of Salyut sortie stations from 1971 to 1986.==== Post-Apollo era ====Artist's rendering of an Apollo CSM about to dock with a Soyuz spacecraftIn 1969, Nixon appointed his vice president, Spiro Agnew, to head a Space Task Group to recommend follow-on human spaceflight programs after Apollo.", "The group proposed an ambitious Space Transportation System based on a reusable Space Shuttle, which consisted of a winged, internally fueled orbiter stage burning liquid hydrogen, launched with a similar, but larger kerosene-fueled booster stage, each equipped with airbreathing jet engines for powered return to a runway at the Kennedy Space Center launch site.", "Other components of the system included a permanent, modular space station; reusable space tug; and nuclear interplanetary ferry, leading to a human expedition to Mars as early as 1986 or as late as 2000, depending on the level of funding allocated.", "However, Nixon knew the American political climate would not support congressional funding for such an ambition, and killed proposals for all but the Shuttle, possibly to be followed by the space station.", "Plans for the Shuttle were scaled back to reduce development risk, cost, and time, replacing the piloted fly-back booster with two reusable solid rocket boosters, and the smaller orbiter would use an expendable external propellant tank to feed its hydrogen-fueled main engines.", "The orbiter would have to make unpowered landings.Space Shuttle orbiter, first crewed orbital spaceplaneIn 1973, the US launched the Skylab sortie space station and inhabited it for 171 days with three crews ferried aboard an Apollo spacecraft.", "During that time, President Richard Nixon and Soviet general secretary Leonid Brezhnev were negotiating an easing of Cold War tensions known as détente.", "During the détente, they negotiated the Apollo–Soyuz program, in which an Apollo spacecraft carrying a special docking adapter module would rendezvous and dock with Soyuz 19 in 1975.The American and Soviet crews shook hands in space, but the purpose of the flight was purely symbolic.The two nations continued to compete rather than cooperate in space, as the US turned to developing the Space Shuttle and planning the space station, which was dubbed ''Freedom''.", "The USSR launched three Almaz military sortie stations from 1973 to 1977, disguised as Salyuts.", "They followed Salyut with the development of ''Mir'', the first modular, semi-permanent space station, the construction of which took place from 1986 to 1996.", "''Mir'' orbited at an altitude of , at an orbital inclination of 51.6°.", "It was occupied for 4,592 days and made a controlled reentry in 2001.The Space Shuttle started flying in 1981, but the US Congress failed to approve sufficient funds to make ''Space Station Freedom'' a reality.", "A fleet of four shuttles was built: ''Columbia'', ''Challenger'', ''Discovery'', and ''Atlantis''.", "A fifth shuttle, ''Endeavour'', was built to replace ''Challenger'', which was destroyed in an accident during launch that killed 7 astronauts on 28 January 1986.From 1983 to 1998, twenty-two Shuttle flights carried components for a European Space Agency sortie space station called Spacelab in the Shuttle payload bay.Buran''-class orbiter, Soviet equivalent of the Space Shuttle orbiterThe USSR copied the US's reusable Space Shuttle orbiter, which they called ''Buran''-class orbiter or simply ''Buran'', which was designed to be launched into orbit by the expendable Energia rocket, and was capable of robotic orbital flight and landing.", "Unlike the Space Shuttle, ''Buran'' had no main rocket engines, but like the Space Shuttle orbiter, it used smaller rocket engines to perform its final orbital insertion.", "A single uncrewed orbital test flight took place in November 1988.A second test flight was planned by 1993, but the program was canceled due to lack of funding and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991.Two more orbiters were never completed, and the one that performed the uncrewed flight was destroyed in a hangar roof collapse in May 2002.=== US / Russian cooperation ===International Space Station, assembled in orbit by US and RussiaThe dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 brought an end to the Cold War and opened the door to true cooperation between the US and Russia.", "The Soviet Soyuz and Mir programs were taken over by the Russian Federal Space Agency, which became known as the Roscosmos State Corporation.", "The Shuttle-Mir Program included American Space Shuttles visiting the ''Mir'' space station, Russian cosmonauts flying on the Shuttle, and an American astronaut flying aboard a Soyuz spacecraft for long-duration expeditions aboard ''Mir''.In 1993, President Bill Clinton secured Russia's cooperation in converting the planned Space Station ''Freedom'' into the International Space Station (ISS).", "Construction of the station began in 1998.The station orbits at an altitude of and an orbital inclination of 51.65°.", "Several of the Space Shuttle's 135 orbital flights were to help assemble, supply, and crew the ISS.", "Russia has built half of the International Space Station and has continued its cooperation with the US.=== China ===Shenzhou, first non-USSR and non-USA crewed spacecraftChina was the third nation in the world, after the USSR and US, to send humans into space.", "During the Space Race between the two superpowers, which culminated with Apollo 11 landing humans on the Moon, Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai decided on 14 July 1967 that China should not be left behind, and initiated their own crewed space program: the top-secret Project 714, which aimed to put two people into space by 1973 with the Shuguang spacecraft.", "Nineteen PLAAF pilots were selected for this goal in March 1971.The Shuguang-1 spacecraft, to be launched with the CZ-2A rocket, was designed to carry a crew of two.", "The program was officially canceled on 13 May 1972 for economic reasons.In 1992, under China Manned Space Program (CMS), also known as \"Project 921\", authorization and funding was given for the first phase of a third, successful attempt at crewed spaceflight.", "To achieve independent human spaceflight capability, China developed the Shenzhou spacecraft and Long March 2F rocket dedicated to human spaceflight in the next few years, along with critical infrastructures like a new launch site and flight control center being built.", "The first uncrewed spacecraft, ''Shenzhou 1'', was launched on 20 November 1999 and recovered the next day, marking the first step of the realization of China's human spaceflight capability.", "Three more uncrewed missions were conducted in the next few years in order to verify the key technologies.", "On 15 October 2003 ''Shenzhou 5'', China's first crewed spaceflight mission, put ''Yang Liwei'' in orbit for 21 hours and returned safely back to Inner Mongolia, making China the third nation to launch a human into orbit independently.The goal of the second phase of CMS was to make technology breakthroughs in extravehicular activities (EVA, or spacewalk),space rendezvous, and docking to support short-term human activities in space.", "On 25 September 2008 during the flight of ''Shenzhou 7'', ''Zhai Zhigang'' and ''Liu Boming'' completed China's first EVA.", "In 2011, China launched the Tiangong 1 target spacecraft and ''Shenzhou 8'' uncrewed spacecraft.", "The two spacecraft completed China's first automatic rendezvous and docking on 3 November 2011.About 9 months later, ''Tiangong 1'' completed the first manual rendezvous and docking with ''Shenzhou 9'', which carried China's first female astronaut ''Liu Yang''.In September 2016, ''Tiangong 2'' was launched into orbit.", "It was a space laboratory with more advanced functions and equipment than ''Tiangong 1''.", "A month later, ''Shenzhou 11'' was launched and docked with ''Tiangong 2''.", "Two astronauts entered ''Tiangong 2'' and were stationed for about 30 days, verifying the viability of astronauts' medium-term stay in space.", "In April 2017, China's first cargo spacecraft, ''Tianzhou 1'' docked with ''Tiangong 2'' and completed multiple in-orbit propellant refueling tests, which marked the successful completion of the second phase of CMS.The third phase of CMS began in 2020.The goal of this phase is to build China's own space station, ''Tiangong''.", "The first module of ''Tiangong'', the Tianhe core module, was launched into orbit by China's most powerful rocket Long March 5B on 29 April 2021.It was later visited by multiple cargo and crewed spacecraft and demonstrated China's capability of sustaining Chinese astronauts' long-term stay in space.According to CMS announcement, all missions of Tiangong Space Station are scheduled to be carried out by the end of 2022.Once the construction is completed, ''Tiangong'' will enter the application and development phase, which is poised to last for no less than 10 years.=== Abandoned programs of other nations ===The European Space Agency began development of the Hermes shuttle spaceplane in 1987, to be launched on the Ariane 5 expendable launch vehicle.", "It was intended to dock with the European Columbus space station.", "The projects were canceled in 1992 when it became clear that neither cost nor performance goals could be achieved.", "No Hermes shuttles were ever built.", "The Columbus space station was reconfigured as the European module of the same name on the International Space Station.Japan (NASDA) began the development of the HOPE-X experimental shuttle spaceplane in the 1980s, to be launched on its H-IIA expendable launch vehicle.", "A string of failures in 1998 led to funding reductions, and the project's cancellation in 2003 in favor of participation in the International Space Station program through the ''Kibō'' Japanese Experiment Module and H-II Transfer Vehicle cargo spacecraft.", "As an alternative to HOPE-X, NASDA in 2001 proposed the Fuji crew capsule for independent or ISS flights, but the project did not proceed to the contracting stage.From 1993 to 1997, the , Kawasaki Heavy Industries, and Mitsubishi Heavy Industries worked on the proposed Kankoh-maru vertical-takeoff-and-landing single-stage-to-orbit reusable launch system.", "In 2005, this system was proposed for space tourism.According to a press release from the Iraqi News Agency dated 5 December 1989, there was only one test of the Al-Abid space launcher, which Iraq intended to use to develop its own crewed space facilities by the end of the century.", "These plans were put to an end by the Gulf War of 1991 and the economic hardships that followed.=== United States \"Shuttle gap\" ===STS-135 (July 2011), the final human spaceflight of the United States until 2018VSS ''Unity'' Flight VP-03 December 2018, the first human spaceflight from the United States since STS-135 Under the George W. Bush administration, the Constellation program included plans for retiring the Space Shuttle program and replacing it with the capability for spaceflight beyond low Earth orbit.", "In the 2011 United States federal budget, the Obama administration canceled Constellation for being over budget and behind schedule, while not innovating and investing in critical new technologies.", "As part of the Artemis program, NASA is developing the Orion spacecraft to be launched by the Space Launch System.", "Under the Commercial Crew Development plan, NASA relies on transportation services provided by the private sector to reach low Earth orbit, such as SpaceX Dragon 2, the Boeing Starliner or Sierra Nevada Corporation's Dream Chaser.", "The period between the retirement of the Space Shuttle in 2011 and the first launch into space of SpaceShipTwo Flight VP-03 on 13 December 2018 is similar to the gap between the end of Apollo in 1975 and the first Space Shuttle flight in 1981, and is referred to by a presidential Blue Ribbon Committee as the U.S. human spaceflight gap.=== Commercial private spaceflight ===SpaceShipOne, first private sub-orbital spaceplaneCrew Dragon, first private orbital spacecraftSince the early 2000s, a variety of private spaceflight ventures have been undertaken.", "As of May 2021, SpaceX has launched humans to orbit, while Virgin Galactic has launched crew to a height above on a suborbital trajectory.", "Several other companies—including Blue Origin and Sierra Nevada—develop crewed spacecraft.", "All four companies plan to fly commercial passengers in the emerging space tourism market.SpaceX has developed Crew Dragon flying on Falcon 9.It first launched astronauts to orbit and to the ISS in May 2020 as part of the Demo-2 mission.", "Developed as part of NASA's Commercial Crew Development program, the capsule is also available for flights with other customers.", "A first tourist mission, Inspiration4, launched in September 2021.Boeing is developing the Starliner capsule as part of NASA's Commercial Crew Development program, which is launched on a United Launch Alliance Atlas V launch vehicle.", "Starliner made an uncrewed flight in December 2019.A second uncrewed flight attempt was scrubbed in August 2021, with a NASA official saying it would likely not launch until 2022.A crewed flight is not expected before the second half of 2022.Similar to SpaceX, development funding has been provided by a mix of government and private funds.Virgin Galactic is developing SpaceshipTwo, a commercial suborbital spacecraft aimed at the space tourism market.", "It reached space in December 2018.Blue Origin is in a multi-year test program of their New Shepard vehicle and has carried out 16 uncrewed test flights as of September 2021, and one crewed flight carrying founder Jeff Bezos, his brother Mark Bezos, aviator Wally Funk, and 18-year old Oliver Daemen on July 20, 2021." ], [ "Passenger travel via spacecraft", "Over the decades, a number of spacecraft have been proposed for spaceliner passenger travel.", "Somewhat analogous to travel by airliner after the middle of the 20th century, these vehicles are proposed to transport large numbers of passengers to destinations in space, or on Earth via suborbital spaceflights.", "To date, none of these concepts have been built, although a few vehicles that carry fewer than 10 persons are currently in the test flight phase of their development process.One large spaceliner concept currently in early development is the SpaceX Starship, which, in addition to replacing the Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy launch vehicles in the legacy Earth-orbit market after 2020, has been proposed by SpaceX for long-distance commercial travel on Earth, flying 100+ people suborbitally between two points in under one hour, also known as \"Earth-to-Earth\".Small spaceplane or small capsule suborbital spacecraft have been under development for the past decade or so; , at least one of each type is under development.", "Both Virgin Galactic and Blue Origin have craft in active development: the SpaceShipTwo spaceplane and the New Shepard capsule, respectively.", "Both would carry approximately a half-dozen passengers up to space for a brief time of zero gravity before returning to the launch location.", "XCOR Aerospace had been developing the Lynx single-passenger spaceplane since the 2000s, but development was halted in 2017." ], [ "Human representation and participation", "Participation and representation of humanity in space has been an issue ever since the first phase of space exploration.", "Some rights of non-spacefaring countries have been secured through international space law, declaring space the \"province of all mankind\", though the sharing of space by all humanity is sometimes criticized as imperialist and lacking.", "In addition to the lack of international inclusion, the inclusion of women and people of color has also been lacking.", "To make spaceflight more inclusive, organizations such as the ''Justspace Alliance'' and IAU-featured ''Inclusive Astronomy'' have been formed in recent years.===Women===The first woman to ever enter space was Valentina Tereshkova.", "She flew in 1963, but it was not until the 1980s that another woman entered space.", "At the time, all astronauts were required to be military test pilots; women were not able to enter this career, which is one reason for the delay in allowing women to join space crews.", "After the rules were changed, Svetlana Savitskaya became the second woman to enter space; she was also from the Soviet Union.", "Sally Ride became the next woman to enter space and the first woman to enter space through the United States program.Since then, eleven other countries have allowed women astronauts.", "The first all-female spacewalk occurred in 2018, by Christina Koch and Jessica Meir.", "These two women had both participated in separate spacewalks with NASA.", "The first mission to the Moon with a woman aboard is planned for 2024.Despite these developments, women are still underrepresented among astronauts and especially cosmonauts.", "More than 600 people have flown in space but only 75 have been women.", "Issues that block potential applicants from the programs, and limit the space missions they are able to go on, are, for example:* agencies limit women to half as much time in space as men, due to suppositions that women are at greater potential risk for cancer.", "* a lack of space suits sized appropriately for female astronauts." ], [ "Milestones", "=== By achievement ===; 12 April 1961: Yuri Gagarin was the first human in space and the first in Earth orbit, on Vostok 1.; 17 July 1962 or 19 July 1963: Either Robert M. White or Joseph A. Walker (depending on the definition of the space border) was the first to pilot a spaceplane, the North American X-15, on 17 July 1962 (White) or 19 July 1963 (Walker).", "; 18 March 1965: Alexei Leonov was first to walk in space.", "; 15 December 1965: Walter M. Schirra and Tom Stafford were first to perform a space rendezvous, piloting their Gemini 6A spacecraft to achieve station-keeping from Gemini 7 for over 5 hours.", "; 16 March 1966: Neil Armstrong and David Scott were first to rendezvous and dock, piloting their Gemini 8 spacecraft to dock with an uncrewed Agena Target Vehicle.", "; 21–27 December 1968: Frank Borman, Jim Lovell, and William Anders were the first to travel beyond low Earth orbit (LEO) and the first to orbit the Moon, on the Apollo 8 mission, which orbited the Moon ten times before returning to Earth.", "; 26 May 1969: Apollo 10 reaches the fastest speed ever traveled by a human: 39,897 km/h (11.08 km/s or 24,791 mph), or roughly 1/27,000 of lightspeed.", "; 20 July 1969: Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin were first to land on the Moon, during Apollo 11.; 14 April 1970: The crew of Apollo 13 attained pericynthion above the Moon, setting the current record for the highest absolute altitude attained by a crewed spacecraft: from Earth.", "; Longest time in space: Valeri Polyakov performed the longest single spaceflight, from 8 January 1994 to 22 March 1995 (437 days, 17 hours, 58 minutes, and 16 seconds).", "Gennady Padalka has spent the most total time in space on multiple missions, 879 days.", "; Longest-duration crewed space station:The International Space Station has the longest period of continuous human presence in space, 2 November 2000 to present ().", "This record was previously held by Mir, from Soyuz TM-8 on 5 September 1989 to the Soyuz TM-29 on 28 August 1999, a span of 3,644 days (almost 10 years).=== By nationality or sex ===; 12 April 1961: Yuri Gagarin became the first Soviet and the first human to reach space, on Vostok 1.; 5 May 1961: Alan Shepard became the first American to reach space, on ''Freedom 7''.", "; 20 February 1962: John Glenn became the first American to orbit the Earth.", "; 16 June 1963: Valentina Tereshkova became the first woman to go into space and to orbit the Earth.", "; 2 March 1978: Vladimír Remek, a Czechoslovakian, became the first non-American and non-Soviet in space, as part of the Interkosmos program.", "; 2 April 1984: Rakesh Sharma, became the first Indian citizen to reach Earth's orbit.", "; 25 July 1984: Svetlana Savitskaya became the first woman to walk in space.", "; 15 October 2003: Yang Liwei became the first Chinese in space and to orbit the Earth, on Shenzhou 5.; 18 October 2019: Christina Koch and Jessica Meir conducted the first woman-only walk in space.Sally Ride became the first American woman in space, in 1983.Eileen Collins was the first female Shuttle pilot, and with Shuttle mission STS-93 in 1999 she became the first woman to command a U.S. spacecraft.For many years, the USSR (later Russia) and the United States were the only countries whose astronauts flew in space.", "That ended with the 1978 flight of Vladimir Remek.", ", citizens from 38 nations (including space tourists) have flown in space aboard Soviet, American, Russian, and Chinese spacecraft." ], [ "Space programs", "Human spaceflight programs have been conducted by the Soviet Union–Russian Federation, the United States, Mainland China, and by American private spaceflight companies.===Current programs===The following space vehicles and spaceports are currently used for launching human spaceflights:* Soyuz program/spacecraft (Russia): Launched on Soyuz launch vehicle from Baikonur Cosmodrome.", "The first crewed flight was in 1967., there have been 149 crewed flights, all of them orbital except one suborbital flight abort and one atmospheric flight abort.", "The first 66 flights were launched by the Soviet Union.", "* China Manned Space Program/Shenzhou spacecraft (China): Launched on Long March launch vehicle from Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center.", "The first crewed flight was in 2003., there have been 12 crewed orbital flights.", "* SpaceShipTwo (US): Air launched by White Knight Two carrier aircraft taking off from Spaceport America (the first two were from Mojave Air and Space Port).", "The first crewed flight was in 2018., there have been four crewed suborbital flights.", "* Crew Dragon (US): Launched on Falcon 9 launch vehicle from Kennedy Space Center.", "The first crewed flight was in 2020., there have been seven crewed orbital flights.", "*New Shepard (US): Launched on New Shepard launch vehicle from Corn Ranch spaceport.", "The first crewed flight was in 2021., there have been six crewed suborbital flights.The following space stations are currently maintained in Earth orbit for human occupation:* International Space Station (US, Russia, Europe, Japan, Canada) assembled in orbit: altitude , 51.65° orbital inclination; crews transported by Soyuz or Crew Dragon spacecraft* Tiangong Space Station (China) assembled in orbit: 41.5° orbital inclination; crews transported by Shenzhou spacecraftMost of the time, the only humans in space are those aboard the ISS, which generally has a crew of 7, and those aboard Tiangong, which generally has a crew of 3.NASA and ESA use the term \"human spaceflight\" to refer to their programs of launching people into space.", "These endeavors have also formerly been referred to as \"manned space missions\", though this is no longer official parlance according to NASA style guides, which call for gender-neutral language.===Planned future programs===Under the Indian Human Spaceflight Program, India was planning to send humans into space on its orbital vehicle Gaganyaan before August 2022, but it has been delayed to 2024, due to the COVID-19 pandemic.", "The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) began work on this project in 2006.The initial objective is to carry a crew of two or three to low Earth orbit (LEO) for a 3-to-7-day flight in a spacecraft on a LVM 3 rocket and return them safely for a water landing at a predefined landing zone.", "On 15 August 2018, Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi, declared India will independently send humans into space before the 75th anniversary of independence in 2022.In 2019, ISRO revealed plans for a space station by 2030, followed by a crewed lunar mission.", "The program envisages the development of a fully-autonomous orbital vehicle capable of carrying 2 or 3 crew members to an about low Earth orbit and bringing them safely back home.Since 2008, the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency has developed the H-II Transfer Vehicle cargo-spacecraft-based crewed spacecraft and ''Kibō'' Japanese Experiment Module–based small space laboratory.NASA is developing a plan to land humans on Mars by the 2030s.", "The first step has begun with Artemis 1 in 2022, sending an uncrewed Orion spacecraft to a distant retrograde orbit around the Moon and returning it to Earth after a 25-day mission.SpaceX is developing Starship, a fully reusable two-stage system, with near-Earth and cislunar applications and an ultimate goal of landing on Mars.", "The upper stage of the Starship system, also called Starship, has had 9 atmospheric test flights as of September 2021.The first test flight of the fully integrated two-stage system occurred in April 2023.A modified version of Starship is being developed for the Artemis program.Several other countries and space agencies have announced and begun human spaceflight programs using natively developed equipment and technology, including Japan (JAXA), Iran (ISA), and North Korea (NADA).", "The plans for the Iranian crewed spacecraft are for a small spacecraft and space laboratory.", "North Korea's space program has plans for crewed spacecraft and small shuttle systems.=== National spacefaring attempts ===: ''This section lists all nations which have attempted human spaceflight programs.", "This is not to be confused with nations with citizens who have traveled into space, including space tourists, flown or intending to fly by a foreign country's or non-domestic private company's space systems – who are not counted in this list toward their country's national spacefaring attempts.''", "Nation/Organization Space agency Term(s) for space traveler First launched astronaut Date Spacecraft Launcher Type (1922–1991) Soviet space program(OKB-1 Design Bureau) космонавт (same word in:) ''kosmonavt''cosmonautҒарышкер Yuri Gagarin 12 April 1961 Vostok spacecraft Vostok Orbital National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) astronautspaceflight participant Alan Shepard (suborbital) 5 May 1961 Mercury spacecraft Redstone Suborbital National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) astronautspaceflight participant John Glenn (orbital) 20 February 1962 Mercury spacecraft Atlas LV-3B Orbital Space program of the People's Republic of China — 1973 (abandoned) Shuguang Long March 2A Orbital Space program of the People's Republic of China — 1981 (abandoned) Piloted FSW Long March 2 Orbital 20px European Space Agency CNES / European Space Agency (ESA) ''spationaute'' astronaut — 1992 (abandoned) Hermes Ariane V Orbital Roscosmos космонавт ''kosmonavt''cosmonaut Alexander Viktorenko, Alexander Kaleri 17 March 1992 Soyuz TM-14 to MIR Soyuz-U2 Orbital Ba'athist Iraq(1968–2003) — ''mallāḥ faḍāʼiy'' — 2001 (abandoned) — Tammouz 2 or 3 National Space Development Agency of Japan (NASDA) or — 2003 (abandoned) HOPE H-II Orbital China Manned Space Agency (CMSA) taikonaut () Yang Liwei 15 October 2003 Shenzhou spacecraft Long March 2F Orbital , Kawasaki Heavy Industries and Mitsubishi Heavy Industries or — 2000s (abandoned) Kankoh-maru Kankoh-maru Orbital Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) or — 2003 (abandoned) Fuji H-II Orbital Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) Vyomanaut   — 2024 Gaganyaan LVM 3 Orbital 20px European Space Agency European Space Agency (ESA) astronaut — 2020 (concept approved in 2009; but full development not begun) CSTS, ARV phase-2 Ariane V Orbital Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) or — TBD HTV-based spacecraft H3 Orbital Iranian Space Agency (ISA) — — 2019 (on hold) ISA spacecraft TBD Orbital National Aerospace Development Administration (NADA) — — 2020s NADA spacecraft Unha 9 Orbital Copenhagen Suborbitals astronaut — 2020s Tycho Brahe SPICA Suborbital" ], [ "Safety concerns", "There are two main sources of hazard in space flight: those due to the hostile space environment, and those due to possible equipment malfunctions.", "Addressing these issues is of great importance for NASA and other space agencies before conducting the first extended crewed missions to destinations such as Mars.=== Environmental hazards ===Planners of human spaceflight missions face a number of safety concerns.==== Life support ====The basic needs for breathable air and drinkable water are addressed by the life support system of the spacecraft.==== Medical issues ====Astronauts may not be able to quickly return to Earth or receive medical supplies, equipment, or personnel if a medical emergency occurs.", "The astronauts may have to rely for long periods on limited resources and medical advice from the ground.The possibility of blindness and of bone loss have been associated with human space flight.On 31 December 2012, a NASA-supported study reported that spaceflight may harm the brains of astronauts and accelerate the onset of Alzheimer's disease.In October 2015, the NASA Office of Inspector General issued a health hazards report related to space exploration, which included the potential hazards of a human mission to Mars.On 2 November 2017, scientists reported, based on MRI studies, that significant changes in the position and structure of the brain have been found in astronauts who have taken trips in space.", "Astronauts on longer space trips were affected by greater brain changes.Researchers in 2018 reported, after detecting the presence on the International Space Station (ISS) of five ''Enterobacter bugandensis'' bacterial strains, none pathogenic to humans, that microorganisms on ISS should be carefully monitored to assure a healthy environment for astronauts.In March 2019, NASA reported that latent viruses in humans may be activated during space missions, possibly adding more risk to astronauts in future deep-space missions.On 25 September 2021, CNN reported that an alarm had sounded during the Inspiration4 Earth-orbital journey on the SpaceX Dragon 2.The alarm signal was found to be associated with an apparent toilet malfunction.===== Microgravity =====The effects of microgravity on fluid distribution around the body (greatly exaggerated)Medical data from astronauts in low Earth orbits for long periods, dating back to the 1970s, show several adverse effects of a microgravity environment: loss of bone density, decreased muscle strength and endurance, postural instability, and reductions in aerobic capacity.", "Over time these deconditioning effects can impair astronauts' performance or increase their risk of injury.In a weightless environment, astronauts put almost no weight on the back muscles or leg muscles used for standing up, which causes the muscles to weaken and get smaller.", "Astronauts can lose up to twenty per cent of their muscle mass on spaceflights lasting five to eleven days.", "The consequent loss of strength could be a serious problem in case of a landing emergency.", "Upon returning to Earth from long-duration flights, astronauts are considerably weakened and are not allowed to drive a car for twenty-one days.Astronauts experiencing weightlessness will often lose their orientation, get motion sickness, and lose their sense of direction as their bodies try to get used to a weightless environment.", "When they get back to Earth, they have to readjust and may have problems standing up, focusing their gaze, walking, and turning.", "Importantly, those motor disturbances only get worse the longer the exposure to weightlessness.", "These changes can affect the ability to perform tasks required for approach and landing, docking, remote manipulation, and emergencies that may occur while landing.In addition, after long space flight missions, male astronauts may experience severe eyesight problems, which may be a major concern for future deep space flight missions, including a crewed mission to the planet Mars.", "Long space flights can also alter a space traveler's eye movements.===== Radiation =====RAD on the MSL (2011–2013)Without proper shielding, the crews of missions beyond low Earth orbit might be at risk from high-energy protons emitted by solar particle events (SPEs) associated with solar flares.", "If estimated correctly, the amount of radiation that astronauts would be exposed to from a solar storm similar to that of the most powerful in recorded history, the Carrington Event, would result in acute radiation sickness at least, and could even be fatal \"in a poorly shielded spacecraft\".", "Another storm that could have inflicted a potentially lethal dose of radiation on astronauts outside Earth's protective magnetosphere occurred during the Space Age, shortly after Apollo 16 landed and before Apollo 17 launched.", "This solar storm, which occurred in August 1972, could potentially have caused any astronauts who were exposed to it to suffer from acute radiation sickness, and may even have been lethal for those engaged in extravehicular activity or on the lunar surface.Another type of radiation, galactic cosmic rays, presents further challenges to human spaceflight beyond low Earth orbit.There is also some scientific concern that extended spaceflight might slow down the body's ability to protect itself against diseases, resulting in a weakened immune system and the activation of dormant viruses in the body.", "Radiation can cause both short- and long-term consequences to the bone marrow stem cells from which blood and immune-system cells are created.", "Because the interior of a spacecraft is so small, a weakened immune system and more active viruses in the body can lead to a fast spread of infection.===== Isolation =====During long missions, astronauts are isolated and confined in small spaces.", "Depression, anxiety, cabin fever, and other psychological problems may occur more than for an average person and could impact the crew's safety and mission success.", "NASA spends millions of dollars on psychological treatments for astronauts and former astronauts.", "To date, there is no way to prevent or reduce mental problems caused by extended periods of stay in space.Due to these mental disorders, the efficiency of astronauts' work is impaired; and sometimes they are brought back to Earth, incurring the expense of their mission being aborted.", "A Russian expedition to space in 1976 was returned to Earth after the cosmonauts reported a strong odor that resulted in a fear of fluid leakage; but after a thorough investigation, it became clear that there was no leakage or technical malfunction.", "It was concluded by NASA that the cosmonauts most likely had hallucinated the smell.It is possible that the mental health of astronauts can be affected by the changes in the sensory systems while in prolonged space travel.===== Sensory systems =====During astronauts' spaceflight, they are in an extreme environment.", "This, and the fact that little change is taking place in the environment, will result in the weakening of sensory input to the astronauts' seven senses.", "* Hearing – In the space station and spacecraft there are no noises from the outside, as there is no medium that can transmit sound waves.", "Although there are other team members who can talk to each other, their voices become familiar and do not stimulate the sense of hearing as much.", "Mechanical noises become familiar, as well.", "* Sight – Because of weightlessness, the body's liquids attain an equilibrium that is different from what it is on the Earth.", "For this reason, an astronaut's face swells and presses on the eyes; and therefore their vision is impaired.", "The landscape surrounding the astronauts is constant, which lessens visual stimulations.", "Due to cosmic rays, astronauts may see flashes.", "* Smell – The space station has a permanent odor described as the smell of gunpowder.", "Due to the zero gravity, the bodily fluids rise to the face and prevent the sinuses from drying up, which dulls the sense of smell.", "* Taste – The sense of taste is directly affected by the sense of smell and therefore when the sense of smell is dulled, the sense of taste is also.", "The astronauts' food is bland, and there are only certain foods that can be eaten.", "The food comes only once every few months, when supplies arrive, and there is little or no variety.", "* Touch – There are almost no stimulating changes in physical contact.", "There is almost no human physical contact during the journey.", "* The vestibular system (motion and equilibrium system) – Due to the lack of gravity, all the movements required of the astronauts are changed, and the vestibular system is damaged by the extreme change.", "* The proprioception system (the sense of the relative position of one's own parts of the body and strength of effort being employed in movement) – As a result of weightlessness, few forces are exerted on the astronauts' muscles; and there is less stimulus to this system.=== Equipment hazards ===Space flight requires much higher velocities than ground or air transportation, and consequently requires the use of high energy density propellants for launch, and the dissipation of large amounts of energy, usually as heat, for safe reentry through the Earth's atmosphere.==== Launch ====vehicle's violent disintegrationSince rockets have the potential for fire or explosive destruction, space capsules generally employ some sort of launch escape system, consisting either of a tower-mounted solid-fuel rocket to quickly carry the capsule away from the launch vehicle (employed on Mercury, Apollo, and Soyuz, the escape tower being discarded at some point after launch, at a point where an abort can be performed using the spacecraft's engines), or else ejection seats (employed on Vostok and Gemini) to carry astronauts out of the capsule and away for individual parachute landings.Such a launch escape system is not always practical for multiple-crew-member vehicles (particularly spaceplanes), depending on the location of egress hatch(es).", "When the single-hatch Vostok capsule was modified to become the 2 or 3-person Voskhod, the single-cosmonaut ejection seat could not be used, and no escape tower system was added.", "The two Voskhod flights in 1964 and 1965 avoided launch mishaps.", "The Space Shuttle carried ejection seats and escape hatches for its pilot and copilot in early flights; but these could not be used for passengers who sat below the flight deck on later flights, and so were discontinued.There have been only two in-flight launch aborts of a crewed flight.", "The first occurred on Soyuz 18a on 5 April 1975.The abort occurred after the launch escape system had been jettisoned when the launch vehicle's spent second stage failed to separate before the third stage ignited and the vehicle strayed off course.", "The crew finally managed to separate the spacecraft, firing its engines to pull it away from the errant rocket, and both cosmonauts landed safely.", "The second occurred on 11 October 2018 with the launch of Soyuz MS-10.Again, both crew members survived.In the first use of a launch escape system on the launchpad, before the start of a crewed flight, happened during the planned Soyuz T-10a launch on 26 September 1983, which was aborted by a launch vehicle fire 90 seconds before liftoff.", "Both cosmonauts aboard landed safely.The only crew fatality during launch occurred on 28 January 1986, when the Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' broke apart 73 seconds after liftoff, due to the failure of a solid rocket booster seal, which caused the failure of the external fuel tank, resulting in an explosion of the fuel and separation of the boosters.", "All seven crew members were killed.==== Extravehicular activity ====Tasks outside a spacecraft require use of a space suit.", "Despite the risk of mechanical failures while working in open space, there have been no spacewalk fatalities.", "Spacewalking astronauts routinely remain attached to the spacecraft with tethers and sometimes supplementary anchors.", "Un-tethered spacewalks were performed on three missions in 1984 using the Manned Maneuvering Unit, and on a flight test in 1994 of the Simplified Aid For EVA Rescue (SAFER) device.==== Reentry and landing ====The single pilot of Soyuz 1, Vladimir Komarov, was killed when his capsule's parachutes failed during an emergency landing on 24 April 1967, causing the capsule to crash.On 1 February 2003, the crew of seven aboard the were killed on reentry after completing a successful mission in space.", "A wing-leading-edge reinforced carbon-carbon heat shield had been damaged by a piece of frozen external tank foam insulation that had broken off and struck the wing during launch.", "Hot reentry gasses entered and destroyed the wing structure, leading to the breakup of the orbiter vehicle.==== Artificial atmosphere ====There are two basic choices for an artificial atmosphere: either an Earth-like mixture of oxygen and an inert gas such as nitrogen or helium, or pure oxygen, which can be used at lower than standard atmospheric pressure.", "A nitrogen–oxygen mixture is used in the International Space Station and Soyuz spacecraft, while low-pressure pure oxygen is commonly used in space suits for extravehicular activity.The use of a gas mixture carries the risk of decompression sickness (commonly known as \"the bends\") when transitioning to or from the pure oxygen space suit environment.", "There have been instances of injury and fatalities caused by suffocation in the presence of too much nitrogen and not enough oxygen.", "* In 1960, McDonnell Aircraft test pilot G.B.", "North passed out and was seriously injured when testing a Mercury cabin–space suit atmosphere system in a vacuum chamber, due to nitrogen-rich air leaking from the cabin into his space suit feed.", "This incident led NASA to decide on a pure oxygen atmosphere for the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo spacecraft.", "* In 1981, three pad workers were killed by a nitrogen-rich atmosphere in the aft engine compartment of the at the Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39.", "* In 1995, two pad workers were similarly killed by a nitrogen leak in a confined area of the Ariane 5 launch pad at Guiana Space Centre.A pure oxygen atmosphere carries the risk of fire.", "The original design of the Apollo spacecraft used pure oxygen at greater than atmospheric pressure prior to launch.", "An electrical fire started in the cabin of Apollo 1 during a ground test at Cape Kennedy Air Force Station Launch Complex 34 on 27 January 1967, and spread rapidly.", "The high pressure, increased by the fire, prevented removal of the plug door hatch cover in time to rescue the crew.", "All three astronauts—Gus Grissom, Ed White, and Roger Chaffee—were killed.", "This led NASA to use a nitrogen–oxygen atmosphere before launch, and low-pressure pure oxygen only in space.==== Reliability ====The March 1966 Gemini 8 mission was aborted in orbit when an attitude control system thruster stuck in the on position, sending the craft into a dangerous spin that threatened the lives of Neil Armstrong and David Scott.", "Armstrong had to shut the control system off and use the reentry control system to stop the spin.", "The craft made an emergency reentry and the astronauts landed safely.", "The most probable cause was determined to be an electrical short due to a static electricity discharge, which caused the thruster to remain powered even when switched off.", "The control system was modified to put each thruster on its own isolated circuit.The third lunar landing expedition, Apollo 13, in April 1970, was aborted and the lives of the crew—James Lovell, Jack Swigert, and Fred Haise—were threatened after the failure of a cryogenic liquid oxygen tank en route to the Moon.", "The tank burst when electrical power was applied to internal stirring fans in the tank, causing the immediate loss of all of its contents, and also damaging the second tank, causing the gradual loss of its remaining oxygen over a period of 130 minutes.", "This in turn caused a loss of electrical power provided by fuel cells to the command spacecraft.", "The crew managed to return to Earth safely by using the lunar landing craft as a \"life boat\".", "The tank failure was determined to be caused by two mistakes: the tank's drain fitting had been damaged when it was dropped during factory testing, necessitating the use of its internal heaters to boil out the oxygen after a pre-launch test; which in turn damaged the fan wiring's electrical insulation because the thermostats on the heaters did not meet the required voltage rating due to a vendor miscommunication.The crew of Soyuz 11 were killed on 30 June 1971 by a combination of mechanical malfunctions; the crew were asphyxiated due to cabin decompression following the separation of their descent capsule from the service module.", "A cabin ventilation valve had been jolted open at an altitude of by the stronger-than-expected shock of explosive separation bolts, which were designed to fire sequentially, but in fact had fired simultaneously.", "The loss of pressure became fatal within about 30 seconds.=== Fatality risk ===, 23 crew members have died in accidents aboard spacecraft.", "Over 100 others have died in accidents during activities directly related to spaceflight or testing.DateMissionAccident causeDeathsCause of death 27 January 1967 Apollo 1 Electrical fire in the cabin, spread quickly by pure oxygen atmosphere and flammable nylon materials in cabin and space suits, during pre-launch test; inability to remove plug door hatch cover due to internal pressure; rupture of cabin wall allowed outside air to enter, causing heavy smoke and soot 3 Cardiac arrest from carbon monoxide poisoning 24 April 1967 Soyuz 1 Malfunction of primary landing parachute, and entanglement of reserve parachute; loss of 50% electrical power and spacecraft control problems necessitating emergency abort 1 Trauma from crash landing 15 November 1967 X-15 Flight 3-65-97 The accident board found that the cockpit instrumentation had been functioning properly, and concluded that pilot Michael J. Adams had lost control of the X-15 as a result of a combination of distraction, misinterpretation of his instrumentation display, and possible vertigo.", "The electrical disturbance early in the flight degraded the overall effectiveness of the aircraft's control system and further added to pilot workload.", "1 Vehicle breakup 30 June 1971 Soyuz 11 Loss of cabin pressurization due to valve opening upon Orbital Module separation before re-entry 3 Asphyxia 28 January 1986 STS-51L Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' Failure of O-ring inter-segment seal in one Solid Rocket Booster in extreme cold launch temperature, allowing hot gases to penetrate casing and burn through a strut connecting booster to the External Tank; tank failure; rapid combustion of fuel; orbiter breakup from abnormal aerodynamic forces 7 Asphyxia from cabin breach, or trauma from water impact 1 February 2003 STS-107 Space Shuttle ''Columbia'' Damaged reinforced carbon-carbon heat shield panel on wing's leading edge, caused by a piece of External Tank foam insulation broken off during launch; penetration of hot atmospheric gases during re-entry, leading to structural failure of the wing, loss of control and disintegration of the orbiter 7 Asphyxia from cabin breach, trauma from dynamic load environment as orbiter broke up 31 October 2014 SpaceShipTwo VSS ''Enterprise'' powered drop-test Copilot error: premature deployment of \"feathering\" descent air-braking system caused the disintegration of the vehicle in flight; pilot survived, copilot died 1 Trauma from crash" ], [ "See also", "* List of human spaceflight programs* List of human spaceflights**1961–1970**1971–1980**1981–1990**1991–2000**2001–2010**2011–2020**2021–present* List of spaceflight records* List of crewed spacecraft* Animals in space* Monkeys and apes in space* Crewed Mars rover* Commercial astronaut* Mars to Stay* NewSpace* Space medicine* Tourism on the Moon* Women in space" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Darling, David.", "''The complete book of spaceflight.", "From Apollo 1 to Zero gravity''.", "Wiley, Hoboken NJ 2003, .", "* Haeuplik-Meusburger: ''Architecture for Astronauts – An Activity based Approach''.", "Springer Praxis Books, 2011, .", "* Larson, Wiley J.", "(ed.).", "''Human spaceflight – mission analysis and design''.", "McGraw-Hill, New York NY 2003, .", "* Pyle, Rod.", "''Space 2.0: How Private Spaceflight, a Resurgent NASA, and International Partners are Creating a New Space Age'' (2019), overview of space exploration excerpt* Spencer, Brett.", "\"The Book and the Rocket: The Symbiotic Relationship between American Public Libraries and the Space Program, 1950–2015.", "\"* Reneau, Allyson (ed.).", "''Moon First and Mars Second: A Practical Approach to Human Space Exploration'' (2020) excerpt* Smith, Michael G., Michelle Kelley, and Mathias Basner.", "\"A brief history of spaceflight from 1961 to 2020: An analysis of missions and astronaut demographics.\"", "''Acta Astronautica'' 175 (2020): 290–299." ], [ "External links", "* NASA Human Space Flight (United States of America)* Human Spaceflight Profile by NASA's Solar System Exploration* Transitioning to the NASA Constellation Program* U.S. Spaceflight History" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mendelevium" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Mendelevium''' is a synthetic chemical element; it has symbol '''Md''' (formerly '''Mv''') and atomic number 101.A metallic radioactive transuranium element in the actinide series, it is the first element by atomic number that currently cannot be produced in macroscopic quantities by neutron bombardment of lighter elements.", "It is the third-to-last actinide and the ninth transuranic element.", "It can only be produced in particle accelerators by bombarding lighter elements with charged particles.", "Seventeen isotopes are known; the most stable is 258Md with half-life 51 days; however, the shorter-lived 256Md (half-life 1.17 hours) is most commonly used in chemistry because it can be produced on a larger scale.Mendelevium was discovered by bombarding einsteinium with alpha particles in 1955, the method still used to produce it today.", "It was named after Dmitri Mendeleev, father of the periodic table of the chemical elements.", "Using available microgram quantities of einsteinium-253, over a million mendelevium atoms may be made each hour.", "The chemistry of mendelevium is typical for the late actinides, with a preponderance of the +3 oxidation state but also an accessible +2 oxidation state.", "All known isotopes of mendelevium have short half-lives; there are currently no uses for it outside basic scientific research, and only small amounts are produced." ], [ "Discovery", "The 60-inch cyclotron at the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, alt=Black-and-white picture of heavy machinery with two operators sitting asideMendelevium was the ninth transuranic element to be synthesized.", "It was first synthesized by Albert Ghiorso, Glenn T. Seaborg, Gregory Robert Choppin, Bernard G. Harvey, and team leader Stanley G. Thompson in early 1955 at the University of California, Berkeley.", "The team produced 256Md (half-life of 77 minutes) when they bombarded an 253Es target consisting of only a billion (109) einsteinium atoms with alpha particles (helium nuclei) in the Berkeley Radiation Laboratory's 60-inch cyclotron, thus increasing the target's atomic number by two.", "256Md thus became the first isotope of any element to be synthesized one atom at a time.", "In total, seventeen mendelevium atoms were produced.", "This discovery was part of a program, begun in 1952, that irradiated plutonium with neutrons to transmute it into heavier actinides.", "This method was necessary as the previous method used to synthesize transuranic elements, neutron capture, could not work because of a lack of known beta decaying isotopes of fermium that would produce isotopes of the next element, mendelevium, and also due to the very short half-life to spontaneous fission of 258Fm that thus constituted a hard limit to the success of the neutron capture process.To predict if the production of mendelevium would be possible, the team made use of a rough calculation.", "The number of atoms that would be produced would be approximately equal to the product of the number of atoms of target material, the target's cross section, the ion beam intensity, and the time of bombardment; this last factor was related to the half-life of the product when bombarding for a time on the order of its half-life.", "This gave one atom per experiment.", "Thus under optimum conditions, the preparation of only one atom of element 101 per experiment could be expected.", "This calculation demonstrated that it was feasible to go ahead with the experiment.", "The target material, einsteinium-253, could be produced readily from irradiating plutonium: one year of irradiation would give a billion atoms, and its three-week half-life meant that the element 101 experiments could be conducted in one week after the produced einsteinium was separated and purified to make the target.", "However, it was necessary to upgrade the cyclotron to obtain the needed intensity of 1014 alpha particles per second; Seaborg applied for the necessary funds.The data sheet, showing stylus tracing and notes, that proved the discovery of mendelevium.While Seaborg applied for funding, Harvey worked on the einsteinium target, while Thomson and Choppin focused on methods for chemical isolation.", "Choppin suggested using α-hydroxyisobutyric acid to separate the mendelevium atoms from those of the lighter actinides.", "The actual synthesis was done by a recoil technique, introduced by Albert Ghiorso.", "In this technique, the einsteinium was placed on the opposite side of the target from the beam, so that the recoiling mendelevium atoms would get enough momentum to leave the target and be caught on a catcher foil made of gold.", "This recoil target was made by an electroplating technique, developed by Alfred Chetham-Strode.", "This technique gave a very high yield, which was absolutely necessary when working with such a rare and valuable product as the einsteinium target material.", "The recoil target consisted of 109 atoms of 253Es which were deposited electrolytically on a thin gold foil.", "It was bombarded by 41 MeV alpha particles in the Berkeley cyclotron with a very high beam density of 6×1013 particles per second over an area of 0.05 cm2.The target was cooled by water or liquid helium, and the foil could be replaced.Initial experiments were carried out in September 1954.No alpha decay was seen from mendelevium atoms; thus, Ghiorso suggested that the mendelevium had all decayed by electron capture to fermium and that the experiment should be repeated to search instead for spontaneous fission events.", "The repetition of the experiment happened in February 1955.The element was named after Dmitri Mendeleev.On the day of discovery, 19 February, alpha irradiation of the einsteinium target occurred in three three-hour sessions.", "The cyclotron was in the University of California campus, while the Radiation Laboratory was on the next hill.", "To deal with this situation, a complex procedure was used: Ghiorso took the catcher foils (there were three targets and three foils) from the cyclotron to Harvey, who would use aqua regia to dissolve it and pass it through an anion-exchange resin column to separate out the transuranium elements from the gold and other products.", "The resultant drops entered a test tube, which Choppin and Ghiorso took in a car to get to the Radiation Laboratory as soon as possible.", "There Thompson and Choppin used a cation-exchange resin column and the α-hydroxyisobutyric acid.", "The solution drops were collected on platinum disks and dried under heat lamps.", "The three disks were expected to contain respectively the fermium, no new elements, and the mendelevium.", "Finally, they were placed in their own counters, which were connected to recorders such that spontaneous fission events would be recorded as huge deflections in a graph showing the number and time of the decays.", "There thus was no direct detection, but by observation of spontaneous fission events arising from its electron-capture daughter 256Fm.", "The first one was identified with a \"hooray\" followed by a \"double hooray\" and a \"triple hooray\".", "The fourth one eventually officially proved the chemical identification of the 101st element, mendelevium.", "In total, five decays were reported up until 4 a.m. Seaborg was notified and the team left to sleep.", "Additional analysis and further experimentation showed the produced mendelevium isotope to have mass 256 and to decay by electron capture to fermium-256 with a half-life of 1.5 h.Being the first of the second hundred of the chemical elements, it was decided that the element would be named \"mendelevium\" after the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev, father of the periodic table.", "Because this discovery came during the Cold War, Seaborg had to request permission of the government of the United States to propose that the element be named for a Russian, but it was granted.", "The name \"mendelevium\" was accepted by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) in 1955 with symbol \"Mv\", which was changed to \"Md\" in the next IUPAC General Assembly (Paris, 1957)." ], [ "Characteristics", "===Physical===Energy required to promote an f electron to the d subshell for the f-block lanthanides and actinides.", "Above around 210 kJ/mol, this energy is too high to be provided for by the greater crystal energy of the trivalent state and thus einsteinium, fermium, and mendelevium form divalent metals like the lanthanides europium and ytterbium.", "(Nobelium is also expected to form a divalent metal, but this has not yet been confirmed.", ")In the periodic table, mendelevium is located to the right of the actinide fermium, to the left of the actinide nobelium, and below the lanthanide thulium.", "Mendelevium metal has not yet been prepared in bulk quantities, and bulk preparation is currently impossible.", "Nevertheless, a number of predictions and some preliminary experimental results have been done regarding its properties.The lanthanides and actinides, in the metallic state, can exist as either divalent (such as europium and ytterbium) or trivalent (most other lanthanides) metals.", "The former have f''n''s2 configurations, whereas the latter have f''n''−1d1s2 configurations.", "In 1975, Johansson and Rosengren examined the measured and predicted values for the cohesive energies (enthalpies of crystallization) of the metallic lanthanides and actinides, both as divalent and trivalent metals.", "The conclusion was that the increased binding energy of the Rn5f126d17s2 configuration over the Rn5f137s2 configuration for mendelevium was not enough to compensate for the energy needed to promote one 5f electron to 6d, as is true also for the very late actinides: thus einsteinium, fermium, mendelevium, and nobelium were expected to be divalent metals.", "The increasing predominance of the divalent state well before the actinide series concludes is attributed to the relativistic stabilization of the 5f electrons, which increases with increasing atomic number.", "Thermochromatographic studies with trace quantities of mendelevium by Zvara and Hübener from 1976 to 1982 confirmed this prediction.", "In 1990, Haire and Gibson estimated mendelevium metal to have an enthalpy of sublimation between 134 and 142 kJ/mol.", "Divalent mendelevium metal should have a metallic radius of around .", "Like the other divalent late actinides (except the once again trivalent lawrencium), metallic mendelevium should assume a face-centered cubic crystal structure.", "Mendelevium's melting point has been estimated at 800 °C, the same value as that predicted for the neighboring element nobelium.", "Its density is predicted to be around .===Chemical===The chemistry of mendelevium is mostly known only in solution, in which it can take on the +3 or +2 oxidation states.", "The +1 state has also been reported, but has not yet been confirmed.Before mendelevium's discovery, Seaborg and Katz predicted that it should be predominantly trivalent in aqueous solution and hence should behave similarly to other tripositive lanthanides and actinides.", "After the synthesis of mendelevium in 1955, these predictions were confirmed, first in the observation at its discovery that it eluted just after fermium in the trivalent actinide elution sequence from a cation-exchange column of resin, and later the 1967 observation that mendelevium could form insoluble hydroxides and fluorides that coprecipitated with trivalent lanthanide salts.", "Cation-exchange and solvent extraction studies led to the conclusion that mendelevium was a trivalent actinide with an ionic radius somewhat smaller than that of the previous actinide, fermium.", "Mendelevium can form coordination complexes with 1,2-cyclohexanedinitrilotetraacetic acid (DCTA).In reducing conditions, mendelevium(III) can be easily reduced to mendelevium(II), which is stable in aqueous solution.", "The standard reduction potential of the ''E''°(Md3+→Md2+) couple was variously estimated in 1967 as −0.10 V or −0.20 V: later 2013 experiments established the value as .", "In comparison, ''E''°(Md3+→Md0) should be around −1.74 V, and ''E''°(Md2+→Md0) should be around −2.5 V. Mendelevium(II)'s elution behavior has been compared with that of strontium(II) and europium(II).In 1973, mendelevium(I) was reported to have been produced by Russian scientists, who obtained it by reducing higher oxidation states of mendelevium with samarium(II).", "It was found to be stable in neutral water–ethanol solution and be homologous to caesium(I).", "However, later experiments found no evidence for mendelevium(I) and found that mendelevium behaved like divalent elements when reduced, not like the monovalent alkali metals.", "Nevertheless, the Russian team conducted further studies on the thermodynamics of cocrystallizing mendelevium with alkali metal chlorides, and concluded that mendelevium(I) had formed and could form mixed crystals with divalent elements, thus cocrystallizing with them.", "The status of the +1 oxidation state is still tentative.The electrode potential ''E''°(Md4+→Md3+) was predicted in 1975 to be +5.4 V; 1967 experiments with the strong oxidizing agent sodium bismuthate were unable to oxidize mendelevium(III) to mendelevium(IV).===Atomic===A mendelevium atom has 101 electrons.", "They are expected to be arranged in the configuration Rn5f137s2 (ground state term symbol 2F7/2), although experimental verification of this electron configuration had not yet been made as of 2006.The fifteen electrons in the 5f and 7s subshells are valence electrons.", "In forming compounds, three valence electrons may be lost, leaving behind a Rn5f12 core: this conforms to the trend set by the other actinides with their Rn 5f''n'' electron configurations in the tripositive state.", "The first ionization potential of mendelevium was measured to be at most (6.58 ± 0.07) eV in 1974, based on the assumption that the 7s electrons would ionize before the 5f ones; this value has since not yet been refined further due to mendelevium's scarcity and high radioactivity.", "The ionic radius of hexacoordinate Md3+ had been preliminarily estimated in 1978 to be around 91.2 pm; 1988 calculations based on the logarithmic trend between distribution coefficients and ionic radius produced a value of 89.6 pm, as well as an enthalpy of hydration of .", "Md2+ should have an ionic radius of 115 pm and hydration enthalpy −1413 kJ/mol; Md+ should have ionic radius 117 pm.===Isotopes===Seventeen isotopes of mendelevium are known, with mass numbers from 244 to 260; all are radioactive.", "Additionally, five nuclear isomers are known: 245mMd, 247mMd, 249mMd, 254mMd, and 258mMd.", "Of these, the longest-lived isotope is 258Md with a half-life of 51.5 days, and the longest-lived isomer is 258mMd with a half-life of 58.0 minutes.", "Nevertheless, the shorter-lived 256Md (half-life 1.17 hours) is more often used in chemical experimentation because it can be produced in larger quantities from alpha particle irradiation of einsteinium.", "After 258Md, the next most stable mendelevium isotopes are 260Md with a half-life of 31.8 days, 257Md with a half-life of 5.52 hours, 259Md with a half-life of 1.60 hours, and 256Md with a half-life of 1.17 hours.", "All of the remaining mendelevium isotopes have half-lives that are less than an hour, and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than 5 minutes.The half-lives of mendelevium isotopes mostly increase smoothly from 244Md onwards, reaching a maximum at 258Md.", "Experiments and predictions suggest that the half-lives will then decrease, apart from 260Md with a half-life of 31.8 days, as spontaneous fission becomes the dominant decay mode due to the mutual repulsion of the protons posing a limit to the island of relative stability of long-lived nuclei in the actinide series.Mendelevium-256, the chemically most important isotope of mendelevium, decays through electron capture 90% of the time and alpha decay 10% of the time.", "It is most easily detected through the spontaneous fission of its electron capture daughter fermium-256, but in the presence of other nuclides that undergo spontaneous fission, alpha decays at the characteristic energies for mendelevium-256 (7.205 and 7.139 MeV) can provide more useful identification." ], [ "Production and isolation", "The lightest isotopes (244Md to 247Md) are mostly produced through bombardment of bismuth targets with argon ions, while slightly heavier ones (248Md to 253Md) are produced by bombarding plutonium and americium targets with ions of carbon and nitrogen.", "The most important and most stable isotopes are in the range from 254Md to 258Md and are produced through bombardment of einsteinium with alpha particles: einsteinium-253, -254, and -255 can all be used.", "259Md is produced as a daughter of 259No, and 260Md can be produced in a transfer reaction between einsteinium-254 and oxygen-18.Typically, the most commonly used isotope 256Md is produced by bombarding either einsteinium-253 or -254 with alpha particles: einsteinium-254 is preferred when available because it has a longer half-life and therefore can be used as a target for longer.", "Using available microgram quantities of einsteinium, femtogram quantities of mendelevium-256 may be produced.The recoil momentum of the produced mendelevium-256 atoms is used to bring them physically far away from the einsteinium target from which they are produced, bringing them onto a thin foil of metal (usually beryllium, aluminium, platinum, or gold) just behind the target in a vacuum.", "This eliminates the need for immediate chemical separation, which is both costly and prevents reusing of the expensive einsteinium target.", "The mendelevium atoms are then trapped in a gas atmosphere (frequently helium), and a gas jet from a small opening in the reaction chamber carries the mendelevium along.", "Using a long capillary tube, and including potassium chloride aerosols in the helium gas, the mendelevium atoms can be transported over tens of meters to be chemically analyzed and have their quantity determined.", "The mendelevium can then be separated from the foil material and other fission products by applying acid to the foil and then coprecipitating the mendelevium with lanthanum fluoride, then using a cation-exchange resin column with a 10% ethanol solution saturated with hydrochloric acid, acting as an eluant.", "However, if the foil is made of gold and thin enough, it is enough to simply dissolve the gold in aqua regia before separating the trivalent actinides from the gold using anion-exchange chromatography, the eluant being 6 M hydrochloric acid.Mendelevium can finally be separated from the other trivalent actinides using selective elution from a cation-exchange resin column, the eluant being ammonia α-HIB.", "Using the gas-jet method often renders the first two steps unnecessary.", "The above procedure is the most commonly used one for the separation of transeinsteinium elements.Another possible way to separate the trivalent actinides is via solvent extraction chromatography using bis-(2-ethylhexyl) phosphoric acid (abbreviated as HDEHP) as the stationary organic phase and nitric acid as the mobile aqueous phase.", "The actinide elution sequence is reversed from that of the cation-exchange resin column, so that the heavier actinides elute later.", "The mendelevium separated by this method has the advantage of being free of organic complexing agent compared to the resin column; the disadvantage is that mendelevium then elutes very late in the elution sequence, after fermium.Another method to isolate mendelevium exploits the distinct elution properties of Md2+ from those of Es3+ and Fm3+.", "The initial steps are the same as above, and employs HDEHP for extraction chromatography, but coprecipitates the mendelevium with terbium fluoride instead of lanthanum fluoride.", "Then, 50 mg of chromium is added to the mendelevium to reduce it to the +2 state in 0.1 M hydrochloric acid with zinc or mercury.", "The solvent extraction then proceeds, and while the trivalent and tetravalent lanthanides and actinides remain on the column, mendelevium(II) does not and stays in the hydrochloric acid.", "It is then reoxidized to the +3 state using hydrogen peroxide and then isolated by selective elution with 2 M hydrochloric acid (to remove impurities, including chromium) and finally 6 M hydrochloric acid (to remove the mendelevium).", "It is also possible to use a column of cationite and zinc amalgam, using 1 M hydrochloric acid as an eluant, reducing Md(III) to Md(II) where it behaves like the alkaline earth metals.", "Thermochromatographic chemical isolation could be achieved using the volatile mendelevium hexafluoroacetylacetonate: the analogous fermium compound is also known and is also volatile." ], [ "Toxicity", "Though few people come in contact with mendelevium, the International Commission on Radiological Protection has set annual exposure limits for the most stable isotope.", "For mendelevium-258, the ingestion limit was set at 9×105 becquerels (1 Bq = 1 decay per second).", "Given the half-life of this isotope, this is only 2.48 ng (nanograms).", "The inhalation limit is at 6000 Bq or 16.5 pg (picogram)." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "*" ], [ "Further reading", "* Hoffman, D.C., Ghiorso, A., Seaborg, G. T. The transuranium people: the inside story, (2000), 201–229* Morss, L. R., Edelstein, N. M., Fuger, J., The chemistry of the actinide and transactinide element, 3, (2006), 1630–1636* ''A Guide to the Elements – Revised Edition'', Albert Stwertka, (Oxford University Press; 1998)" ], [ "External links", "* Los Alamos National Laboratory – Mendelevium* It's Elemental – Mendelevium* Mendelevium at ''The Periodic Table of Videos'' (University of Nottingham)* Environmental Chemistry – Md info" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Modus ponens" ], [ "Introduction", "In propositional logic, '''''' (; '''MP'''), also known as '''''' (), '''implication elimination''', or '''affirming the antecedent''', is a deductive argument form and rule of inference.", "It can be summarized as \"''P'' implies ''Q.''", "''P'' is true.", "Therefore, ''Q'' must also be true.", "\"''Modus ponens'' is a mixed hypothetical syllogism and is closely related to another valid form of argument, ''modus tollens''.", "Both have apparently similar but invalid forms: affirming the consequent and denying the antecedent.", "Constructive dilemma is the disjunctive version of ''modus ponens''.The history of ''modus ponens'' goes back to antiquity.", "The first to explicitly describe the argument form ''modus ponens'' was Theophrastus.", "It, along with ''modus tollens'', is one of the standard patterns of inference that can be applied to derive chains of conclusions that lead to the desired goal." ], [ "Explanation", "The form of a ''modus ponens'' argument is a mixed hypothetical syllogism, with two premises and a conclusion:# If ''P'', then ''Q''.# ''P''.# Therefore, ''Q''.The first premise is a conditional (\"if–then\") claim, namely that ''P'' implies ''Q''.", "The second premise is an assertion that ''P'', the antecedent of the conditional claim, is the case.", "From these two premises it can be logically concluded that ''Q'', the consequent of the conditional claim, must be the case as well.An example of an argument that fits the form ''modus ponens'':# If today is Tuesday, then John will go to work.# Today is Tuesday.# Therefore, John will go to work.This argument is valid, but this has no bearing on whether any of the statements in the argument are actually true; for ''modus ponens'' to be a sound argument, the premises must be true for any true instances of the conclusion.", "An argument can be valid but nonetheless unsound if one or more premises are false; if an argument is valid ''and'' all the premises are true, then the argument is sound.", "For example, John might be going to work on Wednesday.", "In this case, the reasoning for John's going to work (because it is Wednesday) is unsound.", "The argument is only sound on Tuesdays (when John goes to work), but valid on every day of the week.", "A propositional argument using ''modus ponens'' is said to be deductive.In single-conclusion sequent calculi, ''modus ponens'' is the Cut rule.", "The cut-elimination theorem for a calculus says that every proof involving Cut can be transformed (generally, by a constructive method) into a proof without Cut, and hence that Cut is admissible.The Curry–Howard correspondence between proofs and programs relates ''modus ponens'' to function application: if ''f'' is a function of type ''P'' → ''Q'' and ''x'' is of type ''P'', then ''f x'' is of type ''Q''.In artificial intelligence, ''modus ponens'' is often called forward chaining." ], [ "Formal notation", "The ''modus ponens'' rule may be written in sequent notation as:where ''P'', ''Q'' and ''P'' → ''Q'' are statements (or propositions) in a formal language and ⊢ is a metalogical symbol meaning that ''Q'' is a syntactic consequence of ''P'' and ''P'' → ''Q'' in some logical system." ], [ "Justification via truth table", "The validity of ''modus ponens'' in classical two-valued logic can be clearly demonstrated by use of a truth table.", "''p'' ''q'' ''p'' → ''q'' T T T T F F F T T F F TIn instances of ''modus ponens'' we assume as premises that ''p'' → ''q'' is true and ''p'' is true.", "Only one line of the truth table—the first—satisfies these two conditions (''p'' and ''p'' → ''q'').", "On this line, ''q'' is also true.", "Therefore, whenever ''p'' → ''q'' is true and ''p'' is true, ''q'' must also be true." ], [ "Status", "While ''modus ponens'' is one of the most commonly used argument forms in logic it must not be mistaken for a logical law; rather, it is one of the accepted mechanisms for the construction of deductive proofs that includes the \"rule of definition\" and the \"rule of substitution\".", "''Modus ponens'' allows one to eliminate a conditional statement from a logical proof or argument (the antecedents) and thereby not carry these antecedents forward in an ever-lengthening string of symbols; for this reason modus ponens is sometimes called the '''rule of detachment''' or the '''law of detachment'''.", "Enderton, for example, observes that \"modus ponens can produce shorter formulas from longer ones\", and Russell observes that \"the process of the inference cannot be reduced to symbols.", "Its sole record is the occurrence of ⊦q the consequent ... an inference is the dropping of a true premise; it is the dissolution of an implication\".A justification for the \"trust in inference is the belief that if the two former assertions the antecedents are not in error, the final assertion the consequent is not in error\".", "In other words: if one statement or proposition implies a second one, and the first statement or proposition is true, then the second one is also true.", "If ''P'' implies ''Q'' and ''P'' is true, then ''Q'' is true." ], [ "Correspondence to other mathematical frameworks", "===Algebraic semantics===In mathematical logic, algebraic semantics treats every sentence as a name for an element in an ordered set.", "Typically, the set can be visualized as a lattice-like structure with a single element (the \"always-true\") at the top and another single element (the \"always-false\") at the bottom.", "Logical equivalence becomes identity, so that when and , for instance, are equivalent (as is standard), then .", "Logical implication becomes a matter of relative position: logically implies just in case , i.e., when either or else lies below and is connected to it by an upward path.In this context, to say that and together imply —that is, to affirm ''modus ponens'' as valid—is to say that the highest point which lies below both and lies below , i.e., that .", "In the semantics for basic propositional logic, the algebra is Boolean, with construed as the material conditional: .", "Confirming that is then straightforward, because and .", "With other treatments of , the semantics becomes more complex, the algebra may be non-Boolean, and the validity of modus ponens cannot be taken for granted.===Probability calculus===If and , then must lie in the interval .", "For the special case , must equal .===Subjective logic===''Modus ponens'' represents an instance of the binomial deduction operator in subjective logic expressed as:where denotes the subjective opinion about as expressed by source , and the conditional opinion generalizes the logical implication .", "The deduced marginal opinion about is denoted by .", "The case where is an absolute TRUE opinion about is equivalent to source saying that is TRUE, and the case where is an absolute FALSE opinion about is equivalent to source saying that is FALSE.", "The deduction operator of subjective logic produces an absolute TRUE deduced opinion when the conditional opinion is absolute TRUE and the antecedent opinion is absolute TRUE.", "Hence, subjective logic deduction represents a generalization of both ''modus ponens'' and the Law of total probability." ], [ "Alleged cases of failure", "Philosophers and linguists have identified a variety of cases where ''modus ponens'' appears to fail.", "Vann McGee, for instance, argued that ''modus ponens'' can fail for conditionals whose consequents are themselves conditionals.", "The following is an example:# Either Shakespeare or Hobbes wrote ''Hamlet''.# If either Shakespeare or Hobbes wrote ''Hamlet'', then if Shakespeare did not do it, Hobbes did.# Therefore, if Shakespeare did not write ''Hamlet'', Hobbes did it.Since Shakespeare did write ''Hamlet'', the first premise is true.", "The second premise is also true, since starting with a set of possible authors limited to just Shakespeare and Hobbes and eliminating one of them leaves only the other.", "However, the conclusion is doubtful, since ruling out Shakespeare as the author of ''Hamlet'' would leave numerous possible candidates, many of them more plausible alternatives than Hobbes (if the if-thens in the inference are read as material conditionals, the conclusion comes out true simply by virtue of the false antecedent.", "This is one of the paradoxes of material implication).The general form of McGee-type counterexamples to ''modus ponens'' is simply , therefore, ; it is not essential that be a disjunction, as in the example given.", "That these kinds of cases constitute failures of ''modus ponens'' remains a controversial view among logicians, but opinions vary on how the cases should be disposed of.In deontic logic, some examples of conditional obligation also raise the possibility of ''modus ponens'' failure.", "These are cases where the conditional premise describes an obligation predicated on an immoral or imprudent action, e.g., \"If Doe murders his mother, he ought to do so gently,\" for which the dubious unconditional conclusion would be \"Doe ought to gently murder his mother.\"", "It would appear to follow that if Doe is in fact gently murdering his mother, then by ''modus ponens'' he is doing exactly what he should, unconditionally, be doing.", "Here again, ''modus ponens'' failure is not a popular diagnosis but is sometimes argued for." ], [ "Possible fallacies", "The fallacy of affirming the consequent is a common misinterpretation of the ''modus ponens''." ], [ "See also", "* * * * * * *" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "*Herbert B. Enderton, 2001, ''A Mathematical Introduction to Logic Second Edition'', Harcourt Academic Press, Burlington MA, .", "* Audun Jøsang, 2016, ''Subjective Logic; A formalism for Reasoning Under Uncertainty'' Springer, Cham, *Alfred North Whitehead and Bertrand Russell 1927 ''Principia Mathematica to *56 (Second Edition)'' paperback edition 1962, Cambridge at the University Press, London UK.", "No ISBN, no LCCCN.", "*Alfred Tarski 1946 ''Introduction to Logic and to the Methodology of the Deductive Sciences'' 2nd Edition, reprinted by Dover Publications, Mineola NY.", "(pbk)." ], [ "External links", "*** '' Modus ponens'' at Wolfram MathWorld" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Modus tollens" ], [ "Introduction", "In propositional logic, '''''modus tollens''''' () ('''MT'''), also known as '''''modus tollendo tollens''''' (Latin for \"method of removing by taking away\") and '''denying the consequent''', is a deductive argument form and a rule of inference.", "''Modus tollens'' is a mixed hypothetical syllogism that takes the form of \"If ''P'', then ''Q''.", "Not ''Q''.", "Therefore, not ''P''.\"", "It is an application of the general truth that if a statement is true, then so is its contrapositive.", "The form shows that inference from ''P implies Q'' to ''the negation of Q implies the negation of P'' is a valid argument.The history of the inference rule ''modus tollens'' goes back to antiquity.", "The first to explicitly describe the argument form ''modus tollens'' was Theophrastus.", "''Modus tollens'' is closely related to ''modus ponens''.", "There are two similar, but invalid, forms of argument: affirming the consequent and denying the antecedent.", "See also contraposition and proof by contrapositive." ], [ "Explanation", "The form of a ''modus tollens'' argument is a mixed hypothetical syllogism, with two premises and a conclusion::If ''P'', then ''Q''.", ":Not ''Q''.", ":Therefore, not ''P''.The first premise is a conditional (\"if-then\") claim, such as ''P'' implies ''Q''.", "The second premise is an assertion that ''Q'', the consequent of the conditional claim, is not the case.", "From these two premises it can be logically concluded that ''P'', the antecedent of the conditional claim, is also not the case.For example::If the dog detects an intruder, the dog will bark.", ":The dog did not bark.", ":Therefore, no intruder was detected by the dog.Supposing that the premises are both true (the dog will bark if it detects an intruder, and does indeed not bark), it follows that no intruder has been detected.", "This is a valid argument since it is not possible for the conclusion to be false if the premises are true.", "(It is conceivable that there may have been an intruder that the dog did not detect, but that does not invalidate the argument; the first premise is \"if the dog ''detects'' an intruder\".", "The thing of importance is that the dog detects or does not detect an intruder, not whether there is one.", ")Example 1::If I am the burglar, then I can crack a safe.", ":I cannot crack a safe.", ":Therefore, I am not the burglar.Example 2: :If Rex is a chicken, then he is a bird.", ":Rex is not a bird.", ":Therefore, Rex is not a chicken." ], [ "Relation to ''modus ponens''", "Every use of ''modus tollens'' can be converted to a use of ''modus ponens'' and one use of transposition to the premise which is a material implication.", "For example::If ''P'', then ''Q''.", "(premise – material implication):If not ''Q'', then not ''P''.", "(derived by transposition):Not ''Q'' .", "(premise):Therefore, not ''P''.", "(derived by ''modus ponens'')Likewise, every use of ''modus ponens'' can be converted to a use of ''modus tollens'' and transposition." ], [ "Formal notation", "The ''modus tollens'' rule can be stated formally as::where stands for the statement \"P implies Q\".", "stands for \"it is not the case that Q\" (or in brief \"not Q\").", "Then, whenever \"\" and \"\" each appear by themselves as a line of a proof, then \"\" can validly be placed on a subsequent line.The ''modus tollens'' rule may be written in sequent notation::where is a metalogical symbol meaning that is a syntactic consequence of and in some logical system;or as the statement of a functional tautology or theorem of propositional logic::where and are propositions expressed in some formal system;or including assumptions::though since the rule does not change the set of assumptions, this is not strictly necessary.More complex rewritings involving ''modus tollens'' are often seen, for instance in set theory::::(\"P is a subset of Q. x is not in Q.", "Therefore, x is not in P.\")Also in first-order predicate logic::::(\"For all x if x is P then x is Q. y is not Q.", "Therefore, y is not P.\")Strictly speaking these are not instances of ''modus tollens'', but they may be derived from ''modus tollens'' using a few extra steps." ], [ "Justification via truth table", "The validity of ''modus tollens'' can be clearly demonstrated through a truth table.", "p q p → q T T T T F F F T T F F TIn instances of ''modus tollens'' we assume as premises that p → q is true and q is false.", "There is only one line of the truth table—the fourth line—which satisfies these two conditions.", "In this line, p is false.", "Therefore, in every instance in which p → q is true and q is false, p must also be false." ], [ "Formal proof", "=== Via disjunctive syllogism === ''Step'' ''Proposition'' ''Derivation'' 1 Given 2 Given 3 Material implication (1) 4 Disjunctive syllogism (3,2)=== Via ''reductio ad absurdum'' === ''Step'' ''Proposition'' ''Derivation'' 1 Given 2 Given 3 Assumption 4 Modus ponens (1,3) 5 Conjunction introduction (2,4) 6 ''Reductio ad absurdum'' (3,5) 7 ''Conditional introduction'' (2,6)=== Via contraposition === ''Step'' ''Proposition'' ''Derivation'' 1 Given 2 Given 3 Contraposition (1) 4 Modus ponens (2,3)" ], [ "Correspondence to other mathematical frameworks", "===Probability calculus===''Modus tollens'' represents an instance of the law of total probability combined with Bayes' theorem expressed as:where the conditionals and are obtained with (the extended form of) Bayes' theorem expressed as: and In the equations above denotes the probability of , and denotes the base rate (aka.", "prior probability) of .", "The conditional probability generalizes the logical statement , i.e.", "in addition to assigning TRUE or FALSE we can also assign any probability to the statement.", "Assume that is equivalent to being TRUE, and that is equivalent to being FALSE.", "It is then easy to see that when and .", "This is because so that in the last equation.", "Therefore, the product terms in the first equation always have a zero factor so that which is equivalent to being FALSE.", "Hence, the law of total probability combined with Bayes' theorem represents a generalization of ''modus tollens''.===Subjective logic===''Modus tollens'' represents an instance of the abduction operator in subjective logic expressed as:where denotes the subjective opinion about , and denotes a pair of binomial conditional opinions, as expressed by source .", "The parameter denotes the base rate (aka.", "the prior probability) of .", "The abduced marginal opinion on is denoted .", "The conditional opinion generalizes the logical statement , i.e.", "in addition to assigning TRUE or FALSE the source can assign any subjective opinion to the statement.", "The case where is an absolute TRUE opinion is equivalent to source saying that is TRUE, and the case where is an absolute FALSE opinion is equivalent to source saying that is FALSE.", "The abduction operator of subjective logic produces an absolute FALSE abduced opinion when the conditional opinion is absolute TRUE and the consequent opinion is absolute FALSE.", "Hence, subjective logic abduction represents a generalization of both ''modus tollens'' and of the Law of total probability combined with Bayes' theorem." ], [ "See also", "* * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Sources", "* Audun Jøsang, 2016, '' Subjective Logic; A formalism for Reasoning Under Uncertainty'' Springer, Cham," ], [ "External links", "* '' Modus Tollens'' at Wolfram MathWorld" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mathematician" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''mathematician''' is someone who uses an extensive knowledge of mathematics in their work, typically to solve mathematical problems.", "Mathematicians are concerned with numbers, data, quantity, structure, space, models, and change." ], [ "History", "One of the earliest known mathematicians was Thales of Miletus (); he has been hailed as the first true mathematician and the first known individual to whom a mathematical discovery has been attributed.", "He is credited with the first use of deductive reasoning applied to geometry, by deriving four corollaries to Thales's theorem.The number of known mathematicians grew when Pythagoras of Samos () established the Pythagorean school, whose doctrine it was that mathematics ruled the universe and whose motto was \"All is number\".", "It was the Pythagoreans who coined the term \"mathematics\", and with whom the study of mathematics for its own sake begins.The first woman mathematician recorded by history was Hypatia of Alexandria ( – 415).", "She succeeded her father as librarian at the Great Library and wrote many works on applied mathematics.", "Because of a political dispute, the Christian community in Alexandria punished her, presuming she was involved, by stripping her naked and scraping off her skin with clamshells (some say roofing tiles).Science and mathematics in the Islamic world during the Middle Ages followed various models and modes of funding varied based primarily on scholars.", "It was extensive patronage and strong intellectual policies implemented by specific rulers that allowed scientific knowledge to develop in many areas.", "Funding for translation of scientific texts in other languages was ongoing throughout the reign of certain caliphs, and it turned out that certain scholars became experts in the works they translated, and in turn received further support for continuing to develop certain sciences.", "As these sciences received wider attention from the elite, more scholars were invited and funded to study particular sciences.", "An example of a translator and mathematician who benefited from this type of support was al-Khawarizmi.", "A notable feature of many scholars working under Muslim rule in medieval times is that they were often polymaths.", "Examples include the work on optics, maths and astronomy of Ibn al-Haytham.The Renaissance brought an increased emphasis on mathematics and science to Europe.", "During this period of transition from a mainly feudal and ecclesiastical culture to a predominantly secular one, many notable mathematicians had other occupations: Luca Pacioli (founder of accounting); Niccolò Fontana Tartaglia (notable engineer and bookkeeper); Gerolamo Cardano (earliest founder of probability and binomial expansion); Robert Recorde (physician) and François Viète (lawyer).As time passed, many mathematicians gravitated towards universities.", "An emphasis on free thinking and experimentation had begun in Britain's oldest universities beginning in the seventeenth century at Oxford with the scientists Robert Hooke and Robert Boyle, and at Cambridge where Isaac Newton was Lucasian Professor of Mathematics & Physics.", "Moving into the 19th century, the objective of universities all across Europe evolved from teaching the \"regurgitation of knowledge\" to \"encouraging productive thinking.\"", "In 1810, Humboldt convinced the king of Prussia, Fredrick William III, to build a university in Berlin based on Friedrich Schleiermacher's liberal ideas; the goal was to demonstrate the process of the discovery of knowledge and to teach students to \"take account of fundamental laws of science in all their thinking.\"", "Thus, seminars and laboratories started to evolve.British universities of this period adopted some approaches familiar to the Italian and German universities, but as they already enjoyed substantial freedoms and autonomy the changes there had begun with the Age of Enlightenment, the same influences that inspired Humboldt.", "The Universities of Oxford and Cambridge emphasized the importance of research, arguably more authentically implementing Humboldt's idea of a university than even German universities, which were subject to state authority.", "Overall, science (including mathematics) became the focus of universities in the 19th and 20th centuries.", "Students could conduct research in seminars or laboratories and began to produce doctoral theses with more scientific content.", "According to Humboldt, the mission of the University of Berlin was to pursue scientific knowledge.", "The German university system fostered professional, bureaucratically regulated scientific research performed in well-equipped laboratories, instead of the kind of research done by private and individual scholars in Great Britain and France.", "In fact, Rüegg asserts that the German system is responsible for the development of the modern research university because it focused on the idea of \"freedom of scientific research, teaching and study.\"" ], [ "Required education", "Mathematicians usually cover a breadth of topics within mathematics in their undergraduate education, and then proceed to specialize in topics of their own choice at the graduate level.", "In some universities, a qualifying exam serves to test both the breadth and depth of a student's understanding of mathematics; the students who pass are permitted to work on a doctoral dissertation." ], [ "Activities", "Emmy Noether, mathematical theorist and teacher===Applied mathematics===Mathematicians involved with solving problems with applications in real life are called applied mathematicians.", "Applied mathematicians are mathematical scientists who, with their specialized knowledge and professional methodology, approach many of the imposing problems presented in related scientific fields.", "With professional focus on a wide variety of problems, theoretical systems, and localized constructs, applied mathematicians work regularly in the study and formulation of mathematical models.", "Mathematicians and applied mathematicians are considered to be two of the STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) careers.The discipline of applied mathematics concerns itself with mathematical methods that are typically used in science, engineering, business, and industry; thus, \"applied mathematics\" is a mathematical science with specialized knowledge.", "The term \"applied mathematics\" also describes the professional specialty in which mathematicians work on problems, often concrete but sometimes abstract.", "As professionals focused on problem solving, ''applied mathematicians'' look into the ''formulation, study, and use of mathematical models'' in science, engineering, business, and other areas of mathematical practice.===Pure mathematics===Pure mathematics is mathematics that studies entirely abstract concepts.", "From the eighteenth century onwards, this was a recognized category of mathematical activity, sometimes characterized as ''speculative mathematics'', and at variance with the trend towards meeting the needs of navigation, astronomy, physics, economics, engineering, and other applications.Another insightful view put forth is that ''pure mathematics is not necessarily applied mathematics'': it is possible to study abstract entities with respect to their intrinsic nature, and not be concerned with how they manifest in the real world.", "Even though the pure and applied viewpoints are distinct philosophical positions, in practice there is much overlap in the activity of pure and applied mathematicians.To develop accurate models for describing the real world, many applied mathematicians draw on tools and techniques that are often considered to be \"pure\" mathematics.", "On the other hand, many pure mathematicians draw on natural and social phenomena as inspiration for their abstract research.===Mathematics teaching===Many professional mathematicians also engage in the teaching of mathematics.", "Duties may include:* teaching university mathematics courses;* supervising undergraduate and graduate research; and* serving on academic committees.===Consulting===Many careers in mathematics outside of universities involve consulting.", "For instance, actuaries assemble and analyze data to estimate the probability and likely cost of the occurrence of an event such as death, sickness, injury, disability, or loss of property.", "Actuaries also address financial questions, including those involving the level of pension contributions required to produce a certain retirement income and the way in which a company should invest resources to maximize its return on investments in light of potential risk.", "Using their broad knowledge, actuaries help design and price insurance policies, pension plans, and other financial strategies in a manner which will help ensure that the plans are maintained on a sound financial basis.As another example, mathematical finance will derive and extend the mathematical or numerical models without necessarily establishing a link to financial theory, taking observed market prices as input.", "Mathematical consistency is required, not compatibility with economic theory.", "Thus, for example, while a financial economist might study the structural reasons why a company may have a certain share price, a financial mathematician may take the share price as a given, and attempt to use stochastic calculus to obtain the corresponding value of derivatives of the stock (''see: Valuation of options; Financial modeling'')." ], [ "Occupations", "In 1938 in the United States, mathematicians were desired as teachers, calculating machine operators, mechanical engineers, accounting auditor bookkeepers, and actuary statisticians.According to the Dictionary of Occupational Titles occupations in mathematics include the following.", "* Mathematician* Operations-Research Analyst* Mathematical Statistician* Mathematical Technician* Actuary* Applied Statistician* Weight Analyst" ], [ "Prizes in mathematics", "There is no Nobel Prize in mathematics, though sometimes mathematicians have won the Nobel Prize in a different field, such as economics or physics.", "Prominent prizes in mathematics include the Abel Prize, the Chern Medal, the Fields Medal, the Gauss Prize, the Nemmers Prize, the Balzan Prize, the Crafoord Prize, the Shaw Prize, the Steele Prize, the Wolf Prize, the Schock Prize, and the Nevanlinna Prize.The American Mathematical Society, Association for Women in Mathematics, and other mathematical societies offer several prizes aimed at increasing the representation of women and minorities in the future of mathematics." ], [ "Mathematical autobiographies", "Several well known mathematicians have written autobiographies in part to explain to a general audience what it is about mathematics that has made them want to devote their lives to its study.", "These provide some of the best glimpses into what it means to be a mathematician.", "The following list contains some works that are not autobiographies, but rather essays on mathematics and mathematicians with strong autobiographical elements.", "* ''The Book of My Life'' – Girolamo Cardano* ''A Mathematician's Apology'' - G.H.", "Hardy* ''A Mathematician's Miscellany'' (republished as Littlewood's miscellany) - J. E. Littlewood* ''I Am a Mathematician'' - Norbert Wiener* ''I Want to be a Mathematician'' - Paul R. Halmos* ''Adventures of a Mathematician'' - Stanislaw Ulam* ''Enigmas of Chance'' - Mark Kac* ''Random Curves'' - Neal Koblitz* ''Love and Math'' - Edward Frenkel* ''Mathematics Without Apologies'' - Michael Harris" ], [ "See also", "* * * * * * * *" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Occupational Outlook: Mathematicians.", "Information on the occupation of mathematician from the US Department of Labor.", "* Sloan Career Cornerstone Center: Careers in Mathematics.", "Although US-centric, a useful resource for anyone interested in a career as a mathematician.", "Learn what mathematicians do on a daily basis, where they work, how much they earn, and more.", "* The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive.", "A comprehensive list of detailed biographies.", "* The Mathematics Genealogy Project.", "Allows scholars to follow the succession of thesis advisors for most mathematicians, living or dead.", "* * Middle School Mathematician Project Short biographies of select mathematicians assembled by middle school students.", "* Career Information for Students of Math and Aspiring Mathematicians from MathMajor" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Microfluidics" ], [ "Introduction", "NIST researchers have combined a glass slide, plastic sheets and double-sided tape to create an inexpensive and simple-to-build microfluidic device for exposing an array of cells to different concentrations of a chemical.", "'''Microfluidics''' refers to a system that manipulates a small amount of fluids (10−9 to 10−18 liters) using small channels with sizes ten to hundreds micrometres.", "It is a multidisciplinary field that involves molecular analysis, molecular biology, and microelectronics.", "It has practical applications in the design of systems that process low volumes of fluids to achieve multiplexing, automation, and high-throughput screening.", "Microfluidics emerged in the beginning of the 1980s and is used in the development of inkjet printheads, DNA chips, lab-on-a-chip technology, micro-propulsion, and micro-thermal technologies.Typically, micro means one of the following features:* Small volumes (μL, nL, pL, fL)* Small size* Low energy consumption* Microdomain effectsTypically microfluidic systems transport, mix, separate, or otherwise process fluids.", "Various applications rely on passive fluid control using capillary forces, in the form of capillary flow modifying elements, akin to flow resistors and flow accelerators.", "In some applications, external actuation means are additionally used for a directed transport of the media.", "Examples are rotary drives applying centrifugal forces for the fluid transport on the passive chips.", "'''Active microfluidics''' refers to the defined manipulation of the working fluid by active (micro) components such as micropumps or microvalves.", "Micropumps supply fluids in a continuous manner or are used for dosing.", "Microvalves determine the flow direction or the mode of movement of pumped liquids.", "Often, processes normally carried out in a lab are miniaturised on a single chip, which enhances efficiency and mobility, and reduces sample and reagent volumes." ], [ "Microscale behaviour of fluids", "Silicone rubber and glass microfluidic devices.", "Top: a photograph of the devices.", "Bottom: Phase contrast micrographs of a serpentine channel ~15 μm wide.The behaviour of fluids at the microscale can differ from \"macrofluidic\" behaviour in that factors such as surface tension, energy dissipation, and fluidic resistance start to dominate the system.", "Microfluidics studies how these behaviours change, and how they can be worked around, or exploited for new uses.At small scales (channel size of around 100 nanometers to 500 micrometers) some interesting and sometimes unintuitive properties appear.", "In particular, the Reynolds number (which compares the effect of the momentum of a fluid to the effect of viscosity) can become very low.", "A key consequence is co-flowing fluids do not necessarily mix in the traditional sense, as flow becomes laminar rather than turbulent; molecular transport between them must often be through diffusion.High specificity of chemical and physical properties (concentration, pH, temperature, shear force, etc.)", "can also be ensured resulting in more uniform reaction conditions and higher grade products in single and multi-step reactions." ], [ "Various kinds of microfluidic flows", "Microfluidic flows need only be constrained by geometrical length scale – the modalities and methods used to achieve such a geometrical constraint are highly dependent on the targeted application.", "Traditionally, microfluidic flows have been generated inside closed channels with the channel cross section being in the order of 10 μm x 10 μm.", "Each of these methods has its own associated techniques to maintain robust fluid flow which have matured over several years.=== Open microfluidics ===The behavior of fluids and their control in open microchannels was pioneered around 2005 and applied in air-to-liquid sample collection and chromatography.", "In open microfluidics, at least one boundary of the system is removed, exposing the fluid to air or another interface (i.e.", "liquid).", "Advantages of open microfluidics include accessibility to the flowing liquid for intervention, larger liquid-gas surface area, and minimized bubble formation.", "Another advantage of open microfluidics is the ability to integrate open systems with surface-tension driven fluid flow, which eliminates the need for external pumping methods such as peristaltic or syringe pumps.", "Open microfluidic devices are also easy and inexpensive to fabricate by milling, thermoforming, and hot embossing.", "In addition, open microfluidics eliminates the need to glue or bond a cover for devices, which could be detrimental to capillary flows.", "Examples of open microfluidics include open-channel microfluidics, rail-based microfluidics, paper-based, and thread-based microfluidics.", "Disadvantages to open systems include susceptibility to evaporation, contamination, and limited flow rate.===Continuous-flow microfluidics===Continuous flow microfluidics rely on the control of a steady state liquid flow through narrow channels or porous media predominantly by accelerating or hindering fluid flow in capillary elements.", "In paper based microfluidics, capillary elements can be achieved through the simple variation of section geometry.", "In general, the actuation of liquid flow is implemented either by external pressure sources, external mechanical pumps, integrated mechanical micropumps, or by combinations of capillary forces and electrokinetic mechanisms.", "Continuous-flow microfluidic operation is the mainstream approach because it is easy to implement and less sensitive to protein fouling problems.", "Continuous-flow devices are adequate for many well-defined and simple biochemical applications, and for certain tasks such as chemical separation, but they are less suitable for tasks requiring a high degree of flexibility or fluid manipulations.", "These closed-channel systems are inherently difficult to integrate and scale because the parameters that govern flow field vary along the flow path making the fluid flow at any one location dependent on the properties of the entire system.", "Permanently etched microstructures also lead to limited reconfigurability and poor fault tolerance capability.", "Computer-aided design automation approaches for continuous-flow microfluidics have been proposed in recent years to alleviate the design effort and to solve the scalability problems.micro fluid sensorProcess monitoring capabilities in continuous-flow systems can be achieved with highly sensitive microfluidic flow sensors based on MEMS technology, which offers resolutions down to the nanoliter range.===Droplet-based microfluidics===High frame rate video showing microbubble pinch-off formation in a flow-focusing microfluidic deviceDroplet-based microfluidics is a subcategory of microfluidics in contrast with continuous microfluidics; droplet-based microfluidics manipulates discrete volumes of fluids in immiscible phases with low Reynolds number and laminar flow regimes.", "Interest in droplet-based microfluidics systems has been growing substantially in past decades.", "Microdroplets allow for handling miniature volumes (μl to fl) of fluids conveniently, provide better mixing, encapsulation, sorting, and sensing, and suit high throughput experiments.", "Exploiting the benefits of droplet-based microfluidics efficiently requires a deep understanding of droplet generation to perform various logical operations such as droplet manipulation, droplet sorting, droplet merging, and droplet breakup.===Digital microfluidics===Alternatives to the above closed-channel continuous-flow systems include novel open structures, where discrete, independently controllable dropletsare manipulated on a substrate using electrowetting.", "Following the analogy of digital microelectronics, this approach is referred to as digital microfluidics.", "Le Pesant et al.", "pioneered the use of electrocapillary forces to move droplets on a digital track.", "The \"fluid transistor\" pioneered by Cytonix also played a role.", "The technology was subsequently commercialised by Duke University.", "By using discrete unit-volume droplets, a microfluidic function can be reduced to a set of repeated basic operations, i.e., moving one unit of fluid over one unit of distance.", "This \"digitisation\" method facilitates the use of a hierarchical and cell-based approach for microfluidic biochip design.", "Therefore, digital microfluidics offers a flexible and scalable system architecture as well as high fault-tolerance capability.", "Moreover, because each droplet can be controlled independently, these systems also have dynamic reconfigurability, whereby groups of unit cells in a microfluidic array can be reconfigured to change their functionality during the concurrent execution of a set of bioassays.", "Although droplets are manipulated in confined microfluidic channels, since the control on droplets is not independent, it should not be confused as \"digital microfluidics\".", "One common actuation method for digital microfluidics is electrowetting-on-dielectric (EWOD).", "Many lab-on-a-chip applications have been demonstrated within the digital microfluidics paradigm using electrowetting.", "However, recently other techniques for droplet manipulation have also been demonstrated using magnetic force, surface acoustic waves, optoelectrowetting, mechanical actuation, etc.=== Paper-based microfluidics ===Paper-based microfluidic devices fill a growing niche for portable, cheap, and user-friendly medical diagnostic systems.", "Paper based microfluidics rely on the phenomenon of capillary penetration in porous media.", "To tune fluid penetration in porous substrates such as paper in two and three dimensions, the pore structure, wettability and geometry of the microfluidic devices can be controlled while the viscosity and evaporation rate of the liquid play a further significant role.", "Many such devices feature hydrophobic barriers on hydrophilic paper that passively transport aqueous solutions to outlets where biological reactions take place.", "Paper-based microfluidics are considered as portable point-of-care biosensors used in a remote setting where advanced medical diagnostic tools are not accessible.", "Current applications include portable glucose detection and environmental testing, with hopes of reaching areas that lack advanced medical diagnostic tools.=== Particle detection microfluidics ===One application area that has seen significant academic effort and some commercial effort is in the area of particle detection in fluids.", "Particle detection of small fluid-borne particles down to about 1 μm in diameter is typically done using a Coulter counter, in which electrical signals are generated when a weakly-conducting fluid such as in saline water is passed through a small (~100 μm diameter) pore, so that an electrical signal is generated that is directly proportional to the ratio of the particle volume to the pore volume.", "The physics behind this is relatively simple, described in a classic paper by DeBlois and Bean, and the implementation first described in Coulter's original patent.", "This is the method used to e.g.", "size and count erythrocytes (red blood cells wiki) as well as leukocytes (white blood cells) for standard blood analysis.", "The generic term for this method is resistive pulse sensing (RPS); Coulter counting is a trademark term.", "However, the RPS method does not work well for particles below 1 μm diameter, as the signal-to-noise ratio falls below the reliably detectable limit, set mostly by the size of the pore in which the analyte passes and the input noise of the first-stage amplifier.The limit on the pore size in traditional RPS Coulter counters is set by the method used to make the pores, which while a trade secret, most likely uses traditional mechanical methods.", "This is where microfluidics can have an impact: The lithography-based production of microfluidic devices, or more likely the production of reusable molds for making microfluidic devices using a molding process, is limited to sizes much smaller than traditional machining.", "Critical dimensions down to 1 μm are easily fabricated, and with a bit more effort and expense, feature sizes below 100 nm can be patterned reliably as well.", "This enables the inexpensive production of pores integrated in a microfluidic circuit where the pore diameters can reach sizes of order 100 nm, with a concomitant reduction in the minimum particle diameters by several orders of magnitude.As a result there has been some university-based development of microfluidic particle counting and sizing with the accompanying commercialization of this technology.", "This method has been termed microfluidic resistive pulse sensing (MRPS).=== Microfluidic-assisted magnetophoresis ===One major area of application for microfluidic devices is the separation and sorting of different fluids or cell types.", "Recent developments in the microfluidics field have seen the integration of microfluidic devices with magnetophoresis: the migration of particles by a magnetic field.", "This can be accomplished by sending a fluid containing at least one magnetic component through a microfluidic channel that has a magnet positioned along the length of the channel.", "This creates a magnetic field inside the microfluidic channel which draws magnetically active substances towards it, effectively separating the magnetic and non-magnetic components of the fluid.", "This technique can be readily utilized in industrial settings where the fluid at hand already contains magnetically active material.", "For example, a handful of metallic impurities can find their way into certain consumable liquids, namely milk and other dairy products.", "Conveniently, in the case of milk, many of these metal contaminants exhibit paramagnetism.", "Therefore, before packaging, milk can be flowed through channels with magnetic gradients as a means of purifying out the metal contaminants.Other, more research-oriented applications of microfluidic-assisted magnetophoresis are numerous and are generally targeted towards cell separation.", "The general way this is accomplished involves several steps.", "First, a paramagnetic substance (usually micro/nanoparticles or a paramagnetic fluid) needs to be functionalized to target the cell type of interest.", "This can be accomplished by identifying a transmembranal protein unique to the cell type of interest and subsequently functionalizing magnetic particles with the complementary antigen or antibody.", "Once the magnetic particles are functionalized, they are dispersed in a cell mixture where they bind to only the cells of interest.", "The resulting cell/particle mixture can then be flowed through a microfluidic device with a magnetic field to separate the targeted cells from the rest.Conversely, microfluidic-assisted magnetophoresis may be used to facilitate efficient mixing within microdroplets or plugs.", "To accomplish this, microdroplets are injected with paramagnetic nanoparticles and are flowed through a straight channel which passes through rapidly alternating magnetic fields.", "This causes the magnetic particles to be quickly pushed from side to side within the droplet and results in the mixing of the microdroplet contents.", "This eliminates the need for tedious engineering considerations that are necessary for traditional, channel-based droplet mixing.", "Other research has also shown that the label-free separation of cells may be possible by suspending cells in a paramagnetic fluid and taking advantage of the magneto-Archimedes effect.", "While this does eliminate the complexity of particle functionalization, more research is needed to fully understand the magneto-Archimedes phenomenon and how it can be used to this end.", "This is not an exhaustive list of the various applications of microfluidic-assisted magnetophoresis; the above examples merely highlight the versatility of this separation technique in both current and future applications." ], [ "Key application areas", "Microfluidic structures include micropneumatic systems, i.e.", "microsystems for the handling of off-chip fluids (liquid pumps, gas valves, etc.", "), and microfluidic structures for the on-chip handling of nanoliter (nl) and picoliter (pl) volumes.", "To date, the most successful commercial application of microfluidics is the inkjet printhead.", "Additionally, microfluidic manufacturing advances mean that makers can produce the devices in low-cost plastics and automatically verify part quality.Advances in microfluidics technology are revolutionizing molecular biology procedures for enzymatic analysis (e.g., glucose and lactate assays), DNA analysis (e.g., polymerase chain reaction and high-throughput sequencing), proteomics, and in chemical synthesis.", "The basic idea of microfluidic biochips is to integrate assay operations such as detection, as well as sample pre-treatment and sample preparation on one chip.An emerging application area for biochips is clinical pathology, especially the immediate point-of-care diagnosis of diseases.", "In addition, microfluidics-based devices, capable of continuous sampling and real-time testing of air/water samples for biochemical toxins and other dangerous pathogens, can serve as an always-on \"bio-smoke alarm\" for early warning.Microfluidic technology has led to the creation of powerful tools for biologists to control the complete cellular environment, leading to new questions and discoveries.", "Many diverse advantages of this technology for microbiology are listed below:* General single cell studies including growth* Cellular aging: microfluidic devices such as the \"mother machine\" allow tracking of thousands of individual cells for many generations until they die* Microenvironmental control: ranging from mechanical environment to chemical environment* Precise spatiotemporal concentration gradients by incorporating multiple chemical inputs to a single device* Force measurements of adherent cells or confined chromosomes: objects trapped in a microfluidic device can be directly manipulated using optical tweezers or other force-generating methods* Confining cells and exerting controlled forces by coupling with external force-generation methods such as Stokes flow, optical tweezer, or controlled deformation of the PDMS (Polydimethylsiloxane) device* Electric field integration* Plant on a chip and plant tissue culture* Antibiotic resistance: microfluidic devices can be used as heterogeneous environments for microorganisms.", "In a heterogeneous environment, it is easier for a microorganism to evolve.", "This can be useful for testing the acceleration of evolution of a microorganism / for testing the development of antibiotic resistance.Some of these areas are further elaborated in the sections below:===DNA chips (microarrays)===Early biochips were based on the idea of a DNA microarray, e.g., the GeneChip DNAarray from Affymetrix, which is a piece of glass, plastic or silicon substrate, on which pieces of DNA (probes) are affixed in a microscopic array.", "Similar to a DNA microarray, a protein array is a miniature array where a multitude of different capture agents, most frequently monoclonal antibodies, are deposited on a chip surface; they are used to determine the presence and/or amount of proteins in biological samples, e.g., blood.", "A drawback of DNA and protein arrays is that they are neither reconfigurable nor scalable after manufacture.", "Digital microfluidics has been described as a means for carrying out Digital PCR.===Molecular biology===In addition to microarrays, biochips have been designed for two-dimensional electrophoresis, transcriptome analysis, and PCR amplification.", "Other applications include various electrophoresis and liquid chromatography applications for proteins and DNA, cell separation, in particular, blood cell separation, protein analysis, cell manipulation and analysis including cell viability analysis and microorganism capturing.===Evolutionary biology===By combining microfluidics with landscape ecology and nanofluidics, a nano/micro fabricated fluidic landscape can be constructed by building local patches of bacterial habitat and connecting them by dispersal corridors.", "The resulting landscapes can be used as physical implementations of an adaptive landscape, by generating a spatial mosaic of patches of opportunity distributed in space and time.", "The patchy nature of these fluidic landscapes allows for the study of adapting bacterial cells in a metapopulation system.", "The evolutionary ecology of these bacterial systems in these synthetic ecosystems allows for using biophysics to address questions in evolutionary biology.===Cell behavior===The ability to create precise and carefully controlled chemoattractant gradients makes microfluidics the ideal tool to study motility, chemotaxis and the ability to evolve / develop resistance to antibiotics in small populations of microorganisms and in a short period of time.", "These microorganisms including bacteria and the broad range of organisms that form the marine microbial loop, responsible for regulating much of the oceans' biogeochemistry.Microfluidics has also greatly aided the study of durotaxis by facilitating the creation of durotactic (stiffness) gradients.===Cellular biophysics===By rectifying the motion of individual swimming bacteria, microfluidic structures can be used to extract mechanical motion from a population of motile bacterial cells.", "This way, bacteria-powered rotors can be built.===Optics===The merger of microfluidics and optics is typical known as optofluidics.", "Examples of optofluidic devices are tunable microlens arrays and optofluidic microscopes.Microfluidic flow enables fast sample throughput, automated imaging of large sample populations, as well as 3D capabilities.", "or superresolution.=== Photonics Lab on a Chip (PhLOC) ===Due to the increase in safety concerns and operating costs of common analytic methods (ICP-MS, ICP-AAS, and ICP-OES), the Photonics Lab on a Chip (PhLOC) is becoming an increasingly popular tool for the analysis of actinides and nitrates in spent nuclear waste.", "The PhLOC is based on the simultaneous application of Raman and UV-Vis-NIR spectroscopy, which allows for the analysis of more complex mixtures which contain several actinides at different oxidation states.", "Measurements made with these methods have been validated at the bulk level for industrial tests, and are observed to have a much lower variance at the micro-scale.", "This approach has been found to have molar extinction coefficients (UV-Vis) in line with known literature values over a comparatively large concentration span for 150 μL via elongation of the measurement channel, and obeys Beer's Law at the micro-scale for U(IV).", "Through the development of a spectrophotometric approach to analyzing spent fuel, an on-line method for measurement of reactant quantities is created, increasing the rate at which samples can be analyzed and thus decreasing the size of deviations detectable within reprocessing.", "Through the application of the PhLOC, flexibility and safety of operational methods are increased.", "Since the analysis of spent nuclear fuel involves extremely harsh conditions, the application of disposable and rapidly produced devices (Based on castable and/or engravable materials such as PDMS, PMMA, and glass) is advantageous, although material integrity must be considered under specific harsh conditions.", "Through the usage of fiber optic coupling, the device can be isolated from instrumentation, preventing irradiative damage and minimizing the exposure of lab personnel to potentially harmful radiation, something not possible on the lab scale nor with the previous standard of analysis.", "The shrinkage of the device also allows for lower amounts of analyte to be used, decreasing the amount of waste generated and exposure to hazardous materials.Expansion of the PhLOC to miniaturize research of the full nuclear fuel cycle is currently being evaluated, with steps of the PUREX process successfully being demonstrated at the micro-scale.", "Likewise, the microfluidic technology developed for the analysis of spent nuclear fuel is predicted to expand horizontally to analysis of other actinide, lanthanides, and transition metals with little to no modification.=== High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) ===HPLC in the field of microfluidics comes in two different forms.", "Early designs included running liquid through the HPLC column then transferring the eluted liquid to microfluidic chips and attaching HPLC columns to the microfluidic chip directly.", "The early methods had the advantage of easier detection from certain machines like those that measure fluorescence.", "More recent designs have fully integrated HPLC columns into microfluidic chips.", "The main advantage of integrating HPLC columns into microfluidic devices is the smaller form factor that can be achieved, which allows for additional features to be combined within one microfluidic chip.", "Integrated chips can also be fabricated from multiple different materials, including glass and polyimide which are quite different from the standard material of PDMS used in many different droplet-based microfluidic devices.", "This is an important feature because different applications of HPLC microfluidic chips may call for different pressures.", "PDMS fails in comparison for high-pressure uses compared to glass and polyimide.", "High versatility of HPLC integration ensures robustness by avoiding connections and fittings between the column and chip.", "The ability to build off said designs in the future allows the field of microfluidics to continue expanding its potential applications.The potential applications surrounding integrated HPLC columns within microfluidic devices have proven expansive over the last 10–15 years.", "The integration of such columns allows for experiments to be run where materials were in low availability or very expensive, like in biological analysis of proteins.", "This reduction in reagent volumes allows for new experiments like single-cell protein analysis, which due to size limitations of prior devices, previously came with great difficulty.", "The coupling of HPLC-chip devices with other spectrometry methods like mass-spectrometry allow for enhanced confidence in identification of desired species, like proteins.", "Microfluidic chips have also been created with internal delay-lines that allow for gradient generation to further improve HPLC, which can reduce the need for further separations.", "Some other practical applications of integrated HPLC chips include the determination of drug presence in a person through their hair and the labeling of peptides through reverse phase liquid chromatography.===Acoustic droplet ejection (ADE)===Acoustic droplet ejection uses a pulse of ultrasound to move low volumes of fluids (typically nanoliters or picoliters) without any physical contact.", "This technology focuses acoustic energy into a fluid sample to eject droplets as small as a millionth of a millionth of a litre (picoliter = 10−12 litre).", "ADE technology is a very gentle process, and it can be used to transfer proteins, high molecular weight DNA and live cells without damage or loss of viability.", "This feature makes the technology suitable for a wide variety of applications including proteomics and cell-based assays.===Fuel cells===Microfluidic fuel cells can use laminar flow to separate the fuel and its oxidant to control the interaction of the two fluids without the physical barrier that conventional fuel cells require.=== Astrobiology ===To understand the prospects for life to exist elsewhere in the universe, astrobiologists are interested in measuring the chemical composition of extraplanetary bodies.", "Because of their small size and wide-ranging functionality, microfluidic devices are uniquely suited for these remote sample analyses.", "From an extraterrestrial sample, the organic content can be assessed using microchip capillary electrophoresis and selective fluorescent dyes.", "These devices are capable of detecting amino acids, peptides, fatty acids, and simple aldehydes, ketones, and thiols.", "These analyses coupled together could allow powerful detection of the key components of life, and hopefully inform our search for functioning extraterrestrial life.===Food science===Microfluidic techniques such as droplet microfluidics, paper microfluidics, and lab-on-a-chip are used in the realm of food science in a variety of categories.", "Research in nutrition, food processing, and food safety benefit from microfluidic technique because experiments can be done with less reagents.", "Food processing requires the ability to enable shelf stability in foods, such as emulsions or additions of preservatives.", "Techniques such as droplet microfluidics are used to create emulsions that are more controlled and complex than those created by traditional homogenization due to the precision of droplets that is achievable.", "Using microfluidics for emulsions is also more energy efficient compared to homogenization in which “only 5% of the supplied energy is used to generate the emulsion, with the rest dissipated as heat” .", "Although these methods have benefits, they currently lack the ability to be produced at large scale that is needed for commercialization.", "Microfluidics are also used in research as they allow for innovation in food chemistry and food processing.", "An example in food engineering research is a novel micro-3D-printed device fabricated to research production of droplets for potential food processing industry use, particularly in work with enhancing emulsions.", "Paper and droplet microfluidics allow for devices that can detect small amounts of unwanted bacteria or chemicals, making them useful in food safety and analysis.", "Paper-based microfluidic devices are often referred to as microfluidic paper-based analytical devices (µPADs) and can detect such things as nitrate, preservatives, or antibiotics in meat by a colorimetric reaction that can be detected with a smartphone.", "These methods are being researched because they use less reactants, space, and time compared to traditional techniques such as liquid chromatography.", "µPADs also make home detection tests possible , which is of interest to those with allergies and intolerances.", "In addition to paper-based methods, research demonstrates droplet-based microfluidics shows promise in drastically shortening the time necessary to confirm viable bacterial contamination in agricultural waters in the domestic and international food industry.===Future directions======= Microfluidics for personalized cancer treatment ====Personalized cancer treatment is a tuned method based on the patient's diagnosis and background.", "Microfluidic technology offers sensitive detection with higher throughput, as well as reduced time and costs.", "For personalized cancer treatment, tumor composition and drug sensitivities are very important.A patient's drug response can be predicted based on the status of biomarkers, or the severity and progression of the disease can be predicted based on the atypical presence of specific cells.", "Drop-qPCR is a droplet microfluidic technology in which droplets are transported in a reusable capillary and alternately flow through two areas maintained at different constant temperatures and fluorescence detection.", "It can be efficient with a low contamination risk to detect Her2.A digital droplet‐based PCR method can be used to detect the KRAS mutations with TaqMan probes, to enhance detection of the mutative gene ratio.", "In addition, accurate prediction of postoperative disease progression in breast or prostate cancer patients is essential for determining post-surgery treatment.", "A simple microfluidic chamber, coated with a carefully formulated extracellular matrix mixture is used for cells obtained from tumor biopsy after 72 hours of growth and a thorough evaluation of cells by imaging.Microfluidics is also suitable for circulating tumor cells (CTCs) and non-CTCs liquid biopsy analysis.", "Beads conjugate to anti‐epithelial cell adhesion molecule (EpCAM) antibodies for positive selection in the CTCs isolation chip (iCHIP).", "CTCs can also be detected by using the acidification of the tumor microenvironment and the difference in membrane capacitance.", "CTCs are isolated from blood by a microfluidic device, and are cultured on-chip, which can be a method to capture more biological information in a single analysis.", "For example, it can be used to test the cell survival rate of 40 different drugs or drug combinations.", "Tumor‐derived extracellular vesicles can be isolated from urine and detected by an integrated double‐filtration microfluidic device; they also can be isolated from blood and detected by electrochemical sensing method with a two‐level amplification enzymatic assay.Tumor materials can directly be used for detection through microfluidic devices.", "To screen primary cells for drugs, it is often necessary to distinguish cancerous cells from non-cancerous cells.", "A microfluidic chip based on the capacity of cells to pass small constrictions can sort the cell types, metastases.", "Droplet‐based microfluidic devices have the potential to screen different drugs or combinations of drugs, directly on the primary tumor sample with high accuracy.", "To improve this strategy, the microfluidic program with a sequential manner of drug cocktails, coupled with fluorescent barcodes, is more efficient.", "Another advanced strategy is detecting growth rates of single-cell by using suspended microchannel resonators, which can predict drug sensitivities of rare CTCs.Microfluidics devices also can simulate the tumor microenvironment, to help to test anticancer drugs.", "Microfluidic devices with 2D or 3D cell cultures can be used to analyze spheroids for different cancer systems (such as lung cancer and ovarian cancer), and are essential for multiple anti-cancer drugs and toxicity tests.", "This strategy can be improved by increasing the throughput and production of spheroids.", "For example, one droplet-based microfluidic device for 3D cell culture produces 500 spheroids per chip.", "These spheroids can be cultured longer in different surroundings to analyze and monitor.", "The other advanced technology is organs‐on‐a‐chip, and it can be used to simulate several organs to determine the drug metabolism and activity based on vessels mimicking, as well as mimic pH, oxygen... to analyze the relationship between drugs and human organ surroundings.A recent strategy is single-cell chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChiP)‐Sequencing in droplets, which operates by combining droplet‐based single cell RNA sequencing with DNA‐barcoded antibodies, possibly to explore the tumor heterogeneity by the genotype and phenotype to select the personalized anti-cancer drugs and prevent the cancer relapse." ], [ "See also", "* Advanced Simulation Library* Droplet-based microfluidics* Fluidics* Induced-charge electrokinetics* Lab-on-a-chip* Microfluidic cell culture* Microfluidic modulation spectroscopy* Microphysiometry* Micropumps* Microvalves* uFluids@Home* Paper-based microfluidics" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "===Review papers===* * * * * * * * * * ===Books===* * Folch, Albert.", "''Hidden in Plain Sight: The History, Science, and Engineering of Microfluidic Technology'' (MIT Press, 2022) online review* * * * * ===Education===" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mersenne prime" ], [ "Introduction", "In mathematics, a '''Mersenne prime''' is a prime number that is one less than a power of two.", "That is, it is a prime number of the form for some integer .", "They are named after Marin Mersenne, a French Minim friar, who studied them in the early 17th century.", "If is a composite number then so is .", "Therefore, an equivalent definition of the Mersenne primes is that they are the prime numbers of the form for some prime .The exponents which give Mersenne primes are 2, 3, 5, 7, 13, 17, 19, 31, ... and the resulting Mersenne primes are 3, 7, 31, 127, 8191, 131071, 524287, 2147483647, ... .Numbers of the form without the primality requirement may be called '''Mersenne numbers'''.", "Sometimes, however, Mersenne numbers are defined to have the additional requirement that be prime.The smallest composite Mersenne number with prime exponent ''n'' is .Mersenne primes were studied in antiquity because of their close connection to perfect numbers: the Euclid–Euler theorem asserts a one-to-one correspondence between even perfect numbers and Mersenne primes.", "Many of the largest known primes are Mersenne primes because Mersenne numbers are easier to check for primality., 51 Mersenne primes are known.", "The largest known prime number, , is a Mersenne prime.", "Since 1997, all newly found Mersenne primes have been discovered by the Great Internet Mersenne Prime Search, a distributed computing project.", "In December 2020, a major milestone in the project was passed after all exponents below 100 million were checked at least once." ], [ "About Mersenne primes", "Many fundamental questions about Mersenne primes remain unresolved.", "It is not even known whether the set of Mersenne primes is finite or infinite.", "The Lenstra–Pomerance–Wagstaff conjecture claims that there are infinitely many Mersenne primes and predicts their order of growth and frequency: For every number n, there should on average be about ≈ 5.92 primes ''p'' with n decimal digits (i.e.", "10n-1 n) for which is prime.", "It is also not known whether infinitely many Mersenne numbers with prime exponents are composite, although this would follow from widely believed conjectures about prime numbers, for example, the infinitude of Sophie Germain primes congruent to 3 (mod 4).", "For these primes , (which is also prime) will divide , for example, , , , , , , , and .", "Since for these primes , is congruent to 7 mod 8, so 2 is a quadratic residue mod , and the multiplicative order of 2 mod must divide .", "Since is a prime, it must be or 1.However, it cannot be 1 since and 1 has no prime factors, so it must be .", "Hence, divides and cannot be prime.The first four Mersenne primes are , , and and because the first Mersenne prime starts at , all Mersenne primes are congruent to 3 (mod 4).", "Other than and , all other Mersenne numbers are also congruent to 3 (mod 4).", "Consequently, in the prime factorization of a Mersenne number (  ) there must be at least one prime factor congruent to 3 (mod 4).A basic theorem about Mersenne numbers states that if is prime, then the exponent must also be prime.", "This follows from the identityThis rules out primality for Mersenne numbers with a composite exponent, such as .Though the above examples might suggest that is prime for all primes , this is not the case, and the smallest counterexample is the Mersenne number: .The evidence at hand suggests that a randomly selected Mersenne number is much more likely to be prime than an arbitrary randomly selected odd integer of similar size.", "Nonetheless, prime values of appear to grow increasingly sparse as increases.", "For example, eight of the first 11 primes give rise to a Mersenne prime (the correct terms on Mersenne's original list), while is prime for only 43 of the first two million prime numbers (up to 32,452,843).The current lack of any simple test to determine whether a given Mersenne number is prime makes the search for Mersenne primes a difficult task, since Mersenne numbers grow very rapidly.", "The Lucas–Lehmer primality test (LLT) is an efficient primality test that greatly aids this task, making it much easier to test the primality of Mersenne numbers than that of most other numbers of the same size.", "The search for the largest known prime has somewhat of a cult following.", "Consequently, a large amount of computer power has been expended searching for new Mersenne primes, much of which is now done using distributed computing.Arithmetic modulo a Mersenne number is particularly efficient on a binary computer, making them popular choices when a prime modulus is desired, such as the Park–Miller random number generator.", "To find a primitive polynomial of Mersenne number order requires knowing the factorization of that number, so Mersenne primes allow one to find primitive polynomials of very high order.", "Such primitive trinomials are used in pseudorandom number generators with very large periods such as the Mersenne twister, generalized shift register and Lagged Fibonacci generators." ], [ "Perfect numbers", "Mersenne primes are closely connected to perfect numbers.", "In the 4th century BC, Euclid proved that if is prime, then ) is a perfect number.", "In the 18th century, Leonhard Euler proved that, conversely, all even perfect numbers have this form.", "This is known as the Euclid–Euler theorem.", "It is unknown whether there are any odd perfect numbers." ], [ "History", "2357111317192329313741434753596167717379838997101103107109113127131137139149151157163167173179181191193197199211223227229233239241251257263269271277281283293307311The first 64 prime exponents with those corresponding to Mersenne primes shaded in cyan and in bold, and those thought to do so by Mersenne in red and boldMersenne primes take their name from the 17th-century French scholar Marin Mersenne, who compiled what was supposed to be a list of Mersenne primes with exponents up to 257.The exponents listed by Mersenne in 1644 were as follows:::2, 3, 5, 7, 13, 17, 19, 31, 67, 127, 257.His list replicated the known primes of his time with exponents up to 19.His next entry, 31, was correct, but the list then became largely incorrect, as Mersenne mistakenly included and (which are composite) and omitted , , and (which are prime).", "Mersenne gave little indication of how he came up with his list.Édouard Lucas proved in 1876 that is indeed prime, as Mersenne claimed.", "This was the largest known prime number for 75 years until 1951, when Ferrier found a larger prime, , using a desk calculating machine.", "was determined to be prime in 1883 by Ivan Mikheevich Pervushin, though Mersenne claimed it was composite, and for this reason it is sometimes called Pervushin's number.", "This was the second-largest known prime number, and it remained so until 1911.Lucas had shown another error in Mersenne's list in 1876 by demonstrating that was composite without finding a factor.", "No factor was found until a famous talk by Frank Nelson Cole in 1903.Without speaking a word, he went to a blackboard and raised 2 to the 67th power, then subtracted one, resulting in the number .", "On the other side of the board, he multiplied and got the same number, then returned to his seat (to applause) without speaking.", "He later said that the result had taken him \"three years of Sundays\" to find.", "A correct list of all Mersenne primes in this number range was completed and rigorously verified only about three centuries after Mersenne published his list." ], [ "Searching for Mersenne primes", "Fast algorithms for finding Mersenne primes are available, and , the six largest known prime numbers are Mersenne primes.The first four Mersenne primes , , and were known in antiquity.", "The fifth, , was discovered anonymously before 1461; the next two ( and ) were found by Pietro Cataldi in 1588.After nearly two centuries, was verified to be prime by Leonhard Euler in 1772.The next (in historical, not numerical order) was , found by Édouard Lucas in 1876, then by Ivan Mikheevich Pervushin in 1883.Two more ( and ) were found early in the 20th century, by R. E. Powers in 1911 and 1914, respectively.The most efficient method presently known for testing the primality of Mersenne numbers is the Lucas–Lehmer primality test.", "Specifically, it can be shown that for prime , is prime if and only if divides , where and for .During the era of manual calculation, all the exponents up to and including 257 were tested with the Lucas–Lehmer test and found to be composite.", "A notable contribution was made by retired Yale physics professor Horace Scudder Uhler, who did the calculations for exponents 157, 167, 193, 199, 227, and 229.Unfortunately for those investigators, the interval they were testing contains the largest known relative gap between Mersenne primes: the next Mersenne prime exponent, 521, would turn out to be more than four times as large as the previous record of 127.Graph of number of digits in largest known Mersenne prime by year – electronic era.", "The vertical scale is logarithmic in the number of digits, thus being a function in the value of the prime.The search for Mersenne primes was revolutionized by the introduction of the electronic digital computer.", "Alan Turing searched for them on the Manchester Mark 1 in 1949, but the first successful identification of a Mersenne prime, , by this means was achieved at 10:00 pm on January 30, 1952, using the U.S. National Bureau of Standards Western Automatic Computer (SWAC) at the Institute for Numerical Analysis at the University of California, Los Angeles, under the direction of D. H. Lehmer, with a computer search program written and run by Prof. R. M. Robinson.", "It was the first Mersenne prime to be identified in thirty-eight years; the next one, , was found by the computer a little less than two hours later.", "Three more — , , and  — were found by the same program in the next several months.", "was the first prime discovered with more than 1000 digits, was the first with more than 10,000, and was the first with more than a million.", "In general, the number of digits in the decimal representation of equals , where denotes the floor function (or equivalently ).In September 2008, mathematicians at UCLA participating in the Great Internet Mersenne Prime Search (GIMPS) won part of a $100,000 prize from the Electronic Frontier Foundation for their discovery of a very nearly 13-million-digit Mersenne prime.", "The prize, finally confirmed in October 2009, is for the first known prime with at least 10 million digits.", "The prime was found on a Dell OptiPlex 745 on August 23, 2008.This was the eighth Mersenne prime discovered at UCLA.On April 12, 2009, a GIMPS server log reported that a 47th Mersenne prime had possibly been found.", "The find was first noticed on June 4, 2009, and verified a week later.", "The prime is .", "Although it is chronologically the 47th Mersenne prime to be discovered, it is smaller than the largest known at the time, which was the 45th to be discovered.On January 25, 2013, Curtis Cooper, a mathematician at the University of Central Missouri, discovered a 48th Mersenne prime, (a number with 17,425,170 digits), as a result of a search executed by a GIMPS server network.On January 19, 2016, Cooper published his discovery of a 49th Mersenne prime, (a number with 22,338,618 digits), as a result of a search executed by a GIMPS server network.", "This was the fourth Mersenne prime discovered by Cooper and his team in the past ten years.On September 2, 2016, the Great Internet Mersenne Prime Search finished verifying all tests below M37,156,667, thus officially confirming its position as the 45th Mersenne prime.On January 3, 2018, it was announced that Jonathan Pace, a 51-year-old electrical engineer living in Germantown, Tennessee, had found a 50th Mersenne prime, (a number with 23,249,425 digits), as a result of a search executed by a GIMPS server network.", "The discovery was made by a computer in the offices of a church in the same town.On December 21, 2018, it was announced that The Great Internet Mersenne Prime Search (GIMPS) discovered the largest known prime number, , having 24,862,048 digits.", "A computer volunteered by Patrick Laroche from Ocala, Florida made the find on December 7, 2018.In late 2020, GIMPS began using a new technique to rule out potential Mersenne primes called the Probable prime (PRP) test, based on development from Robert Gerbicz in 2017, and a simple way to verify tests developed by Krzysztof Pietrzak in 2018.Due to the low error rate and ease of proof, this nearly halved the computing time to rule out potential primes over the Lucas-Lehmer test (as two users would no longer have to perform the same test to confirm the other's result), although exponents passing the PRP test still require one to confirm their primality." ], [ "Theorems about Mersenne numbers", "# If and are natural numbers such that is prime, then or .#* '''Proof''': .", "Then , so .", "Thus .", "However, is prime, so or .", "In the former case, , hence (which is a contradiction, as neither −1 nor 0 is prime) or In the latter case, or .", "If , however, which is not prime.", "Therefore, .# If is prime, then is prime.#* '''Proof''': Suppose that is composite, hence can be written with and .", "Then so is composite.", "By contraposition, if is prime then ''p'' is prime.# If is an odd prime, then every prime that divides must be 1 plus a multiple of .", "This holds even when is prime.#* For example, is prime, and .", "A composite example is , where and .#* '''Proof''': By Fermat's little theorem, is a factor of .", "Since is a factor of , for all positive integers , is also a factor of .", "Since is prime and is not a factor of , is also the smallest positive integer such that is a factor of .", "As a result, for all positive integers , is a factor of if and only if is a factor of .", "Therefore, since is a factor of , is a factor of so .", "Furthermore, since is a factor of , which is odd, is odd.", "Therefore, .#* This fact leads to a proof of Euclid's theorem, which asserts the infinitude of primes, distinct from the proof written by Euclid: for every odd prime , all primes dividing are larger than ; thus there are always larger primes than any particular prime.#* It follows from this fact that for every prime , there is at least one prime of the form less than or equal to , for some integer .# If is an odd prime, then every prime that divides is congruent to .#* '''Proof''': , so is a square root of .", "By quadratic reciprocity, every prime modulus in which the number 2 has a square root is congruent to .# A Mersenne prime cannot be a Wieferich prime.#* '''Proof''': We show if is a Mersenne prime, then the congruence does not hold.", "By Fermat's little theorem, .", "Therefore, one can write .", "If the given congruence is satisfied, then , therefore .", "Hence , and therefore .", "This leads to , which is impossible since .#If and are natural numbers then and are coprime if and only if and are coprime.", "Consequently, a prime number divides at most one prime-exponent Mersenne number.", "That is, the set of pernicious Mersenne numbers is pairwise coprime.# If and are both prime (meaning that is a Sophie Germain prime), and is congruent to , then divides .#* '''Example''': 11 and 23 are both prime, and , so 23 divides .#* '''Proof''': Let be .", "By Fermat's little theorem, , so either or .", "Supposing latter true, then , so −2 would be a quadratic residue mod .", "However, since is congruent to , is congruent to and therefore 2 is a quadratic residue mod .", "Also since is congruent to , −1 is a quadratic nonresidue mod , so −2 is the product of a residue and a nonresidue and hence it is a nonresidue, which is a contradiction.", "Hence, the former congruence must be true and divides .# All composite divisors of prime-exponent Mersenne numbers are strong pseudoprimes to the base 2.# With the exception of 1, a Mersenne number cannot be a perfect power.", "That is, and in accordance with Mihăilescu's theorem, the equation has no solutions where , , and are integers with and ." ], [ "List of known Mersenne primes", ", the 51 known Mersenne primes are 2''p'' − 1 for the following ''p''::2, 3, 5, 7, 13, 17, 19, 31, 61, 89, 107, 127, 521, 607, 1279, 2203, 2281, 3217, 4253, 4423, 9689, 9941, 11213, 19937, 21701, 23209, 44497, 86243, 110503, 132049, 216091, 756839, 859433, 1257787, 1398269, 2976221, 3021377, 6972593, 13466917, 20996011, 24036583, 25964951, 30402457, 32582657, 37156667, 42643801, 43112609, 57885161, 74207281, 77232917, 82589933." ], [ "Factorization of composite Mersenne numbers", "Since they are prime numbers, Mersenne primes are divisible only by 1 and themselves.", "However, not all Mersenne numbers are Mersenne primes.", "Mersenne numbers are very good test cases for the special number field sieve algorithm, so often the largest number factorized with this algorithm has been a Mersenne number.", ", is the record-holder, having been factored with a variant of the special number field sieve that allows the factorization of several numbers at once.", "See integer factorization records for links to more information.", "The special number field sieve can factorize numbers with more than one large factor.", "If a number has only one very large factor then other algorithms can factorize larger numbers by first finding small factors and then running a primality test on the cofactor.", ", the largest completely factored number (with probable prime factors allowed) is , where is a 3,829,294-digit probable prime.", "It was discovered by a GIMPS participant with nickname \"Funky Waddle\".", ", the Mersenne number ''M''1277 is the smallest composite Mersenne number with no known factors; it has no prime factors below 268, and is very unlikely to have any factors below 1065 (~2216).The table below shows factorizations for the first 20 composite Mersenne numbers .Factorization of 11204723 × 8923838860747 × 178,48129536870911233 × 1,103 × 2,08937137438953471223 × 616,318,17741219902325555113,367 × 164,511,353438796093022207431 × 9,719 × 2,099,863471407374883553272,351 × 4,513 × 13,264,5295390071992547409916,361 × 69,431 × 20,394,40159576460752303423487179,951 × 3,203,431,780,337 (13 digits)67147573952589676412927193,707,721 × 761,838,257,287 (12 digits)712361183241434822606847228,479 × 48,544,121 × 212,885,833739444732965739290427391439 × 2,298,041 × 9,361,973,132,609 (13 digits)796044629098073145873530872,687 × 202,029,703 × 1,113,491,139,767 (13 digits)83967140655691...033397649407167 × 57,912,614,113,275,649,087,721 (23 digits)97158456325028...18708790067111,447 × 13,842,607,235,828,485,645,766,393 (26 digits)101253530120045...9934064107517,432,339,208,719 (13 digits) × 341,117,531,003,194,129 (18 digits)103101412048018...9736256430072,550,183,799 × 3,976,656,429,941,438,590,393 (22 digits)109649037107316...312041152511745,988,807 × 870,035,986,098,720,987,332,873 (24 digits)113103845937170...9926584401913,391 × 23,279 × 65,993 × 1,868,569 × 1,066,818,132,868,207 (16 digits)131272225893536...454145691647263 × 10,350,794,431,055,162,386,718,619,237,468,234,569 (38 digits)The number of factors for the first 500 Mersenne numbers can be found at ." ], [ "Mersenne numbers in nature and elsewhere", "In the mathematical problem Tower of Hanoi, solving a puzzle with an -disc tower requires steps, assuming no mistakes are made.", "The number of rice grains on the whole chessboard in the wheat and chessboard problem is .The asteroid with minor planet number 8191 is named 8191 Mersenne after Marin Mersenne, because 8191 is a Mersenne prime (3 Juno, 7 Iris, 31 Euphrosyne and 127 Johanna having been discovered and named during the 19th century).In geometry, an integer right triangle that is primitive and has its even leg a power of 2 (  ) generates a unique right triangle such that its inradius is always a Mersenne number.", "For example, if the even leg is then because it is primitive it constrains the odd leg to be , the hypotenuse to be and its inradius to be ." ], [ "Mersenne–Fermat primes", "A '''Mersenne–Fermat number''' is defined as with prime, natural number, and can be written as ''''''.", "When , it is a Mersenne number.", "When , it is a Fermat number.", "The only known Mersenne–Fermat primes with are: and .In fact, , where is the cyclotomic polynomial." ], [ "Generalizations", "The simplest generalized Mersenne primes are prime numbers of the form , where is a low-degree polynomial with small integer coefficients.", "An example is , in this case, , and ; another example is , in this case, , and .It is also natural to try to generalize primes of the form to primes of the form (for and ).", "However (see also theorems above), is always divisible by , so unless the latter is a unit, the former is not a prime.", "This can be remedied by allowing ''b'' to be an algebraic integer instead of an integer:===Complex numbers===In the ring of integers (on real numbers), if is a unit, then is either 2 or 0.But are the usual Mersenne primes, and the formula does not lead to anything interesting (since it is always −1 for all ).", "Thus, we can regard a ring of \"integers\" on complex numbers instead of real numbers, like Gaussian integers and Eisenstein integers.====Gaussian Mersenne primes====If we regard the ring of Gaussian integers, we get the case and , and can ask (WLOG) for which the number is a Gaussian prime which will then be called a '''Gaussian Mersenne prime'''.", "is a Gaussian prime for the following ::2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 19, 29, 47, 73, 79, 113, 151, 157, 163, 167, 239, 241, 283, 353, 367, 379, 457, 997, 1367, 3041, 10141, 14699, 27529, 49207, 77291, 85237, 106693, 160423, 203789, 364289, 991961, 1203793, 1667321, 3704053, 4792057, ... Like the sequence of exponents for usual Mersenne primes, this sequence contains only (rational) prime numbers.As for all Gaussian primes, the norms (that is, squares of absolute values) of these numbers are rational primes::5, 13, 41, 113, 2113, 525313, 536903681, 140737471578113, ... .====Eisenstein Mersenne primes====One may encounter cases where such a Mersenne prime is also an ''Eisenstein prime'', being of the form and .", "In these cases, such numbers are called '''Eisenstein Mersenne primes'''.", "is an Eisenstein prime for the following ::2, 5, 7, 11, 17, 19, 79, 163, 193, 239, 317, 353, 659, 709, 1049, 1103, 1759, 2029, 5153, 7541, 9049, 10453, 23743, 255361, 534827, 2237561, ...", "The norms (that is, squares of absolute values) of these Eisenstein primes are rational primes::7, 271, 2269, 176419, 129159847, 1162320517, ... ===Divide an integer=======Repunit primes====The other way to deal with the fact that is always divisible by , it is to simply take out this factor and ask which values of make:be prime.", "(The integer can be either positive or negative.)", "If, for example, we take , we get values of::2, 19, 23, 317, 1031, 49081, 86453, 109297, 270343, ... ,corresponding to primes 11, 1111111111111111111, 11111111111111111111111, ... .These primes are called repunit primes.", "Another example is when we take , we get values of::2, 5, 11, 109, 193, 1483, 11353, 21419, 21911, 24071, 106859, 139739, ... ,corresponding to primes −11, 19141, 57154490053, ....It is a conjecture that for every integer which is not a perfect power, there are infinitely many values of such that is prime.", "(When is a perfect power, it can be shown that there is at most one value such that is prime)Least such that is prime are (starting with , if no such exists):2, 3, 2, 3, 2, 5, 3, 0, 2, 17, 2, 5, 3, 3, 2, 3, 2, 19, 3, 3, 2, 5, 3, 0, 7, 3, 2, 5, 2, 7, 0, 3, 13, 313, 2, 13, 3, 349, 2, 3, 2, 5, 5, 19, 2, 127, 19, 0, 3, 4229, 2, 11, 3, 17, 7, 3, 2, 3, 2, 7, 3, 5, 0, 19, 2, 19, 5, 3, 2, 3, 2, ... For negative bases , they are (starting with , if no such exists):3, 2, 2, 5, 2, 3, 2, 3, 5, 5, 2, 3, 2, 3, 3, 7, 2, 17, 2, 3, 3, 11, 2, 3, 11, 0, 3, 7, 2, 109, 2, 5, 3, 11, 31, 5, 2, 3, 53, 17, 2, 5, 2, 103, 7, 5, 2, 7, 1153, 3, 7, 21943, 2, 3, 37, 53, 3, 17, 2, 7, 2, 3, 0, 19, 7, 3, 2, 11, 3, 5, 2, ... (notice this OEIS sequence does not allow )Least base such that is prime are:2, 2, 2, 2, 5, 2, 2, 2, 10, 6, 2, 61, 14, 15, 5, 24, 19, 2, 46, 3, 11, 22, 41, 2, 12, 22, 3, 2, 12, 86, 2, 7, 13, 11, 5, 29, 56, 30, 44, 60, 304, 5, 74, 118, 33, 156, 46, 183, 72, 606, 602, 223, 115, 37, 52, 104, 41, 6, 338, 217, ... For negative bases , they are:3, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 7, 2, 16, 61, 2, 6, 10, 6, 2, 5, 46, 18, 2, 49, 16, 70, 2, 5, 6, 12, 92, 2, 48, 89, 30, 16, 147, 19, 19, 2, 16, 11, 289, 2, 12, 52, 2, 66, 9, 22, 5, 489, 69, 137, 16, 36, 96, 76, 117, 26, 3, ... ====Other generalized Mersenne primes====Another generalized Mersenne number is:with , any coprime integers, and .", "(Since is always divisible by , the division is necessary for there to be any chance of finding prime numbers.)", "We can ask which makes this number prime.", "It can be shown that such must be primes themselves or equal to 4, and can be 4 if and only if and is prime.", "It is a conjecture that for any pair such that and are not both perfect th powers for any and is not a perfect fourth power, there are infinitely many values of such that is prime.", "However, this has not been proved for any single value of .+For more information, see numbers such that is prime(some large terms are only probable primes, these are checked up to for or , for )OEIS sequence 2 12, 3, 5, 7, 13, 17, 19, 31, 61, 89, 107, 127, 521, 607, 1279, 2203, 2281, 3217, 4253, 4423, 9689, 9941, 11213, 19937, 21701, 23209, 44497, 86243, 110503, 132049, 216091, 756839, 859433, 1257787, 1398269, 2976221, 3021377, 6972593, 13466917, 20996011, 24036583, 25964951, 30402457, 32582657, 37156667, 42643801, 43112609, 57885161, ..., 74207281, ..., 77232917, ..., 82589933, ... 2 −13, 4*, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 31, 43, 61, 79, 101, 127, 167, 191, 199, 313, 347, 701, 1709, 2617, 3539, 5807, 10501, 10691, 11279, 12391, 14479, 42737, 83339, 95369, 117239, 127031, 138937, 141079, 267017, 269987, 374321, 986191, 4031399, ..., 13347311, 13372531, ... 3 22, 3, 5, 17, 29, 31, 53, 59, 101, 277, 647, 1061, 2381, 2833, 3613, 3853, 3929, 5297, 7417, 90217, 122219, 173191, 256199, 336353, 485977, 591827, 1059503, ... 3 13, 7, 13, 71, 103, 541, 1091, 1367, 1627, 4177, 9011, 9551, 36913, 43063, 49681, 57917, 483611, 877843, ... 3 −12*, 3, 5, 7, 13, 23, 43, 281, 359, 487, 577, 1579, 1663, 1741, 3191, 9209, 11257, 12743, 13093, 17027, 26633, 104243, 134227, 152287, 700897, 1205459, ... 3 −23, 4*, 7, 11, 83, 149, 223, 599, 647, 1373, 8423, 149497, 388897, ... 4 32, 3, 7, 17, 59, 283, 311, 383, 499, 521, 541, 599, 1193, 1993, 2671, 7547, 24019, 46301, 48121, 68597, 91283, 131497, 148663, 184463, 341233, ... 4 12 (no others) 4 −12*, 3 (no others) 4 −33, 5, 19, 37, 173, 211, 227, 619, 977, 1237, 2437, 5741, 13463, 23929, 81223, 121271, ... 5 43, 43, 59, 191, 223, 349, 563, 709, 743, 1663, 5471, 17707, 19609, 35449, 36697, 45259, 91493, 246497, 265007, 289937, ... 5 313, 19, 23, 31, 47, 127, 223, 281, 2083, 5281, 7411, 7433, 19051, 27239, 35863, 70327, ... 5 22, 5, 7, 13, 19, 37, 59, 67, 79, 307, 331, 599, 1301, 12263, 12589, 18443, 20149, 27983, ... 5 13, 7, 11, 13, 47, 127, 149, 181, 619, 929, 3407, 10949, 13241, 13873, 16519, 201359, 396413, 1888279, ... 5 −15, 67, 101, 103, 229, 347, 4013, 23297, 30133, 177337, 193939, 266863, 277183, 335429, ... 5 −22*, 3, 17, 19, 47, 101, 1709, 2539, 5591, 6037, 8011, 19373, 26489, 27427, ... 5 −32*, 3, 5, 7, 17, 19, 109, 509, 661, 709, 1231, 12889, 13043, 26723, 43963, 44789, ... 5 −44*, 5, 7, 19, 29, 61, 137, 883, 1381, 1823, 5227, 25561, 29537, 300893, ... 6 52, 5, 11, 13, 23, 61, 83, 421, 1039, 1511, 31237, 60413, 113177, 135647, 258413, ... 6 12, 3, 7, 29, 71, 127, 271, 509, 1049, 6389, 6883, 10613, 19889, 79987, 608099, ... 6 −12*, 3, 11, 31, 43, 47, 59, 107, 811, 2819, 4817, 9601, 33581, 38447, 41341, 131891, 196337, ... 6 −53, 4*, 5, 17, 397, 409, 643, 1783, 2617, 4583, 8783, ... 7 62, 3, 7, 29, 41, 67, 1327, 1399, 2027, 69371, 86689, 355039, ... 7 53, 5, 7, 113, 397, 577, 7573, 14561, 58543, ... 7 42, 5, 11, 61, 619, 2879, 2957, 24371, 69247, ... 7 33, 7, 19, 109, 131, 607, 863, 2917, 5923, 12421, ... 7 23, 7, 19, 79, 431, 1373, 1801, 2897, 46997, ... 7 15, 13, 131, 149, 1699, 14221, 35201, 126037, 371669, 1264699, ... 7 −13, 17, 23, 29, 47, 61, 1619, 18251, 106187, 201653, ... 7 −22*, 5, 23, 73, 101, 401, 419, 457, 811, 1163, 1511, 8011, ... 7 −33, 13, 31, 313, 3709, 7933, 14797, 30689, 38333, ... 7 −42*, 3, 5, 19, 41, 47, 8231, 33931, 43781, 50833, 53719, 67211, ... 7 −52*, 11, 31, 173, 271, 547, 1823, 2111, 5519, 7793, 22963, 41077, 49739, ... 7 −63, 53, 83, 487, 743, ... 8 77, 11, 17, 29, 31, 79, 113, 131, 139, 4357, 44029, 76213, 83663, 173687, 336419, 615997, ... 8 52, 19, 1021, 5077, 34031, 46099, 65707, ... 8 32, 3, 7, 19, 31, 67, 89, 9227, 43891, ... 8 13 (no others) 8 −12* (no others) 8 −32*, 5, 163, 191, 229, 271, 733, 21059, 25237, ... 8 −52*, 7, 19, 167, 173, 223, 281, 21647, ... 8 −74*, 7, 13, 31, 43, 269, 353, 383, 619, 829, 877, 4957, 5711, 8317, 21739, 24029, 38299, ... 9 82, 7, 29, 31, 67, 149, 401, 2531, 19913, 30773, 53857, 170099, ... 9 73, 5, 7, 4703, 30113, ... 9 53, 11, 17, 173, 839, 971, 40867, 45821, ... 9 42 (no others) 9 22, 3, 5, 13, 29, 37, 1021, 1399, 2137, 4493, 5521, ... 9 1(none) 9 −13, 59, 223, 547, 773, 1009, 1823, 3803, 49223, 193247, 703393, ... 9 −22*, 3, 7, 127, 283, 883, 1523, 4001, ... 9 −42*, 3, 5, 7, 11, 17, 19, 41, 53, 109, 167, 2207, 3623, 5059, 5471, 7949, 21211, 32993, 60251, ... 9 −53, 5, 13, 17, 43, 127, 229, 277, 6043, 11131, 11821, ... 9 −72*, 3, 107, 197, 2843, 3571, 4451, ..., 31517, ... 9 −83, 7, 13, 19, 307, 619, 2089, 7297, 75571, 76103, 98897, ... 10 92, 3, 7, 11, 19, 29, 401, 709, 2531, 15787, 66949, 282493, ... 10 72, 31, 103, 617, 10253, 10691, ... 10 32, 3, 5, 37, 599, 38393, 51431, ... 10 12, 19, 23, 317, 1031, 49081, 86453, 109297, 270343, ... 10 −15, 7, 19, 31, 53, 67, 293, 641, 2137, 3011, 268207, ... 10 −32*, 3, 19, 31, 101, 139, 167, 1097, 43151, 60703, 90499, ... 10 −72*, 3, 5, 11, 19, 1259, 1399, 2539, 2843, 5857, 10589, ... 10 −94*, 7, 67, 73, 1091, 1483, 10937, ... 11 103, 5, 19, 311, 317, 1129, 4253, 7699, 18199, 35153, 206081, ... 11 95, 31, 271, 929, 2789, 4153, ... 11 82, 7, 11, 17, 37, 521, 877, 2423, ... 11 75, 19, 67, 107, 593, 757, 1801, 2243, 2383, 6043, 10181, 11383, 15629, ... 11 62, 3, 11, 163, 191, 269, 1381, 1493, ... 11 55, 41, 149, 229, 263, 739, 3457, 20269, 98221, ... 11 43, 5, 11, 17, 71, 89, 827, 22307, 45893, 63521, ... 11 33, 5, 19, 31, 367, 389, 431, 2179, 10667, 13103, 90397, ... 11 22, 5, 11, 13, 331, 599, 18839, 23747, 24371, 29339, 32141, 67421, ... 11 117, 19, 73, 139, 907, 1907, 2029, 4801, 5153, 10867, 20161, 293831, ... 11 −15, 7, 179, 229, 439, 557, 6113, 223999, 327001, ... 11 −23, 5, 17, 67, 83, 101, 1373, 6101, 12119, 61781, ... 11 −33, 103, 271, 523, 23087, 69833, ... 11 −42*, 7, 53, 67, 71, 443, 26497, ... 11 −57, 11, 181, 421, 2297, 2797, 4129, 4139, 7151, 29033, ... 11 −62*, 5, 7, 107, 383, 17359, 21929, 26393, ... 11 −77, 1163, 4007, 10159, ... 11 −82*, 3, 13, 31, 59, 131, 223, 227, 1523, ... 11 −92*, 3, 17, 41, 43, 59, 83, ... 11 −1053, 421, 647, 1601, 35527, ... 12 112, 3, 7, 89, 101, 293, 4463, 70067, ... 12 72, 3, 7, 13, 47, 89, 139, 523, 1051, ... 12 52, 3, 31, 41, 53, 101, 421, 1259, 4721, 45259, ... 12 12, 3, 5, 19, 97, 109, 317, 353, 701, 9739, 14951, 37573, 46889, 769543, ... 12 −12*, 5, 11, 109, 193, 1483, 11353, 21419, 21911, 24071, 106859, 139739, ... 12 −52*, 3, 5, 13, 347, 977, 1091, 4861, 4967, 34679, ... 12 −72*, 3, 7, 67, 79, 167, 953, 1493, 3389, 4871, ... 12 −1147, 401, 509, 8609, ...*Note: if and is even, then the numbers are not included in the corresponding OEIS sequence.When , it is , a difference of two consecutive perfect th powers, and if is prime, then must be , because it is divisible by .Least such that is prime are:2, 2, 2, 3, 2, 2, 7, 2, 2, 3, 2, 17, 3, 2, 2, 5, 3, 2, 5, 2, 2, 229, 2, 3, 3, 2, 3, 3, 2, 2, 5, 3, 2, 3, 2, 2, 3, 3, 2, 7, 2, 3, 37, 2, 3, 5, 58543, 2, 3, 2, 2, 3, 2, 2, 3, 2, 5, 3, 4663, 54517, 17, 3, 2, 5, 2, 3, 3, 2, 2, 47, 61, 19, ...", "Least such that is prime are:1, 1, 1, 1, 5, 1, 1, 1, 5, 2, 1, 39, 6, 4, 12, 2, 2, 1, 6, 17, 46, 7, 5, 1, 25, 2, 41, 1, 12, 7, 1, 7, 327, 7, 8, 44, 26, 12, 75, 14, 51, 110, 4, 14, 49, 286, 15, 4, 39, 22, 109, 367, 22, 67, 27, 95, 80, 149, 2, 142, 3, 11, ..." ], [ "See also", "* Repunit* Fermat prime* Power of two* Erdős–Borwein constant* Mersenne conjectures* Mersenne twister* Double Mersenne number* Prime95 / MPrime* Great Internet Mersenne Prime Search (GIMPS)* Largest known prime number* Wieferich prime* Wagstaff prime* Cullen prime* Woodall prime* Proth prime* Solinas prime* Gillies' conjecture* Williams number" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "** GIMPS home page* GIMPS Milestones Report – status page gives various statistics on search progress, typically updated every week, including progress towards proving the ordering of the largest known Mersenne primes* GIMPS, known factors of Mersenne numbers* Property of Mersenne numbers with prime exponent that are composite (PDF)* math thesis (PS)** Mersenne prime bibliography with hyperlinks to original publications* report about Mersenne primes – detection in detail * GIMPS wiki* Will Edgington's Mersenne Page – contains factors for small Mersenne numbers* Known factors of Mersenne numbers* Decimal digits and English names of Mersenne primes* Prime curios: 2305843009213693951*http://www.leyland.vispa.com/numth/factorization/cunningham/2-.txt *http://www.leyland.vispa.com/numth/factorization/cunningham/2+.txt * – Factorization of Mersenne numbers ( up to 1280)* Factorization of completely factored Mersenne numbers* The Cunningham project, factorization of *http://www.leyland.vispa.com/numth/factorization/cunningham/main.htm *http://www.leyland.vispa.com/numth/factorization/anbn/main.htm ===MathWorld links===* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Magnesium" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Magnesium''' is a chemical element; it has symbol '''Mg''' and atomic number 12.It is a shiny gray metal having a low density, low melting point and high chemical reactivity.", "Like the other alkaline earth metals (group 2 of the periodic table) it occurs naturally only in combination with other elements and it almost always has an oxidation state of +2.It reacts readily with air to form a thin passivation coating of magnesium oxide that inhibits further corrosion of the metal.", "The free metal burns with a brilliant-white light.", "The metal is obtained mainly by electrolysis of magnesium salts obtained from brine.", "It is less dense than aluminium and is used primarily as a component in strong and lightweight alloys that contain aluminium.In the cosmos, magnesium is produced in large, aging stars by the sequential addition of three helium nuclei to a carbon nucleus.", "When such stars explode as supernovas, much of the magnesium is expelled into the interstellar medium where it may recycle into new star systems.", "Magnesium is the eighth most abundant element in the Earth's crust and the fourth most common element in the Earth (after iron, oxygen and silicon), making up 13% of the planet's mass and a large fraction of the planet's mantle.", "It is the third most abundant element dissolved in seawater, after sodium and chlorine.This element is the eleventh most abundant element by mass in the human body and is essential to all cells and some 300 enzymes.", "Magnesium ions interact with polyphosphate compounds such as ATP, DNA, and RNA.", "Hundreds of enzymes require magnesium ions to function.", "Magnesium compounds are used medicinally as common laxatives and antacids (such as milk of magnesia), and to stabilize abnormal nerve excitation or blood vessel spasm in such conditions as eclampsia." ], [ "Characteristics", "=== Physical properties ===Elemental magnesium is a gray-white lightweight metal, two-thirds the density of aluminium.", "Magnesium has the lowest melting () and the lowest boiling point () of all the alkaline earth metals.Pure polycrystalline magnesium is brittle and easily fractures along shear bands.", "It becomes much more malleable when alloyed with small amounts of other metals, such as 1% aluminium.", "The malleability of polycrystalline magnesium can also be significantly improved by reducing its grain size to ca.", "1 micron or less.When finely powdered, magnesium reacts with water to produce hydrogen gas::Mg(s) + 2H2O(g) → Mg(OH)2(aq) + H2(g) + 1203.6 kJ/molHowever, this reaction is much less dramatic than the reactions of the alkali metals with water, because the magnesium hydroxide builds up on the surface of the magnesium metal and inhibits further reaction.=== Chemical properties =======General chemistry====It tarnishes slightly when exposed to air, although, unlike the heavier alkaline earth metals, an oxygen-free environment is unnecessary for storage because magnesium is protected by a thin layer of oxide that is fairly impermeable and difficult to remove.Direct reaction of magnesium with air or oxygen at ambient pressure forms only the \"normal\" oxide MgO.", "However, this oxide may be combined with hydrogen peroxide to form magnesium peroxide, MgO2, and at low temperature the peroxide may be further reacted with ozone to form magnesium superoxide Mg(O2)2.Magnesium reacts with water at room temperature, though it reacts much more slowly than calcium, a similar group 2 metal.", "When submerged in water, hydrogen bubbles form slowly on the surface of the metal; this reaction happens much more rapidly with powdered magnesium.", "The reaction also occurs faster with higher temperatures (see ).", "Magnesium's reversible reaction with water can be harnessed to store energy and run a magnesium-based engine.", "Magnesium also reacts exothermically with most acids such as hydrochloric acid (HCl), producing magnesium chloride and hydrogen gas, similar to the HCl reaction with aluminium, zinc, and many other metals.====Flammability====Magnesium is highly flammable, especially when powdered or shaved into thin strips, though it is difficult to ignite in mass or bulk.", "Flame temperatures of magnesium and magnesium alloys can reach , although flame height above the burning metal is usually less than .", "Once ignited, such fires are difficult to extinguish because they resist several substances commonly used to put out fires; combustion continues in nitrogen (forming magnesium nitride), in carbon dioxide (forming magnesium oxide and carbon), and in water (forming magnesium oxide and hydrogen, which also combusts due to heat in the presence of additional oxygen).", "This property was used in incendiary weapons during the firebombing of cities in World War II, where the only practical civil defense was to smother a burning flare under dry sand to exclude atmosphere from the combustion.Magnesium may also be used as an igniter for thermite, a mixture of aluminium and iron oxide powder that ignites only at a very high temperature.====Organic chemistry====Organomagnesium compounds are widespread in organic chemistry.", "They are commonly found as Grignard reagents, formed by reaction of magnesium with haloalkanes.", "Examples of Grignard reagents are phenylmagnesium bromide and ethylmagnesium bromide.", "The Grignard reagents function as a common nucleophile, attacking the electrophilic group such as the carbon atom that is present within the polar bond of a carbonyl group.A prominent organomagnesium reagent beyond Grignard reagents is magnesium anthracene, with magnesium forming a 1,4-bridge over the central ring.", "It is used as a source of highly active magnesium.", "The related butadiene-magnesium adduct serves as a source for the butadiene dianion.Magnesium in organic chemistry also appears as low valent magnesium compounds, primarily with the magnesium forming diatomic ions in the +1 oxidation state but more recently also with zero oxidation state or a mixture of +1 and zero states.", "Such compounds find synthetic application as reducing agents and sources of nucleophilic metal atoms.====Source of light====When burning in air, magnesium produces a brilliant white light that includes strong ultraviolet wavelengths.", "Magnesium powder (flash powder) was used for subject illumination in the early days of photography.", "Later, magnesium filament was used in electrically ignited single-use photography flashbulbs.", "Magnesium powder is used in fireworks and marine flares where a brilliant white light is required.", "It was also used for various theatrical effects, such as lightning, pistol flashes, and supernatural appearances.==== Detection in solution ====The presence of magnesium ions can be detected by the addition of ammonium chloride, ammonium hydroxide and monosodium phosphate to an aqueous or dilute HCl solution of the salt.", "The formation of a white precipitate indicates the presence of magnesium ions.Azo violet dye can also be used, turning deep blue in the presence of an alkaline solution of magnesium salt.", "The color is due to the adsorption of azo violet by Mg(OH)2.=== Occurrence ===Magnesium is the eighth-most-abundant element in the Earth's crust by mass and tied in seventh place with iron in molarity.", "It is found in large deposits of magnesite, dolomite, and other minerals, and in mineral waters, where magnesium ion is soluble.Although magnesium is found in more than 60 minerals, only dolomite, magnesite, brucite, carnallite, talc, and olivine are of commercial importance.The cation is the second-most-abundant cation in seawater (about the mass of sodium ions in a given sample), which makes seawater and sea salt attractive commercial sources for Mg. To extract the magnesium, calcium hydroxide is added to seawater to form magnesium hydroxide precipitate.", ": + → + Magnesium hydroxide (brucite) is insoluble in water and can be filtered out and reacted with hydrochloric acid to produce concentrated magnesium chloride.", ": + 2 HCl → + 2 From magnesium chloride, electrolysis produces magnesium." ], [ "Forms", "=== Alloys ===Magnesium is brittle, and fractures along shear bands when its thickness is reduced by only 10% by cold rolling (top).", "However, after alloying Mg with 1% Al and 0.1% Ca, its thickness could be reduced by 54% using the same process (bottom).As of 2013, magnesium alloys consumption was less than one million tonnes per year, compared with 50 million tonnes of aluminium alloys.", "Their use has been historically limited by the tendency of Mg alloys to corrode, creep at high temperatures, and combust.====Corrosion====In magnesium alloys, the presence of iron, nickel, copper, or cobalt strongly activates corrosion.", "In more than trace amounts, these metals precipitate as intermetallic compounds, and the precipitate locales function as active cathodic sites that reduce water, causing the loss of magnesium.", "Controlling the quantity of these metals improves corrosion resistance.", "Sufficient manganese overcomes the corrosive effects of iron.", "This requires precise control over composition, increasing costs.", "Adding a cathodic poison captures atomic hydrogen within the structure of a metal.", "This prevents the formation of free hydrogen gas, an essential factor of corrosive chemical processes.", "The addition of about one in three hundred parts arsenic reduces the corrosion rate of magnesium in a salt solution by a factor of nearly ten.====High-temperature creep and flammability====Magnesium's tendency to creep (gradually deform) at high temperatures is greatly reduced by alloying with zinc and rare-earth elements.", "Flammability is significantly reduced by a small amount of calcium in the alloy.", "By using rare-earth elements, it may be possible to manufacture magnesium alloys that are able to not catch fire at higher temperatures compared to magnesium's liquidus and in some cases potentially pushing it close to magnesium's boiling point.=== Compounds ===Magnesium forms a variety of compounds important to industry and biology, including magnesium carbonate, magnesium chloride, magnesium citrate, magnesium hydroxide (milk of magnesia), magnesium oxide, magnesium sulfate, and magnesium sulfate heptahydrate (Epsom salts).=== Isotopes ===Magnesium has three stable isotopes: , and .", "All are present in significant amounts in nature (see table of isotopes above).", "About 79% of Mg is .", "The isotope is radioactive and in the 1950s to 1970s was produced by several nuclear power plants for use in scientific experiments.", "This isotope has a relatively short half-life (21 hours) and its use was limited by shipping times.The nuclide has found application in isotopic geology, similar to that of aluminium.", "is a radiogenic daughter product of , which has a half-life of 717,000 years.", "Excessive quantities of stable have been observed in the Ca-Al-rich inclusions of some carbonaceous chondrite meteorites.", "This anomalous abundance is attributed to the decay of its parent in the inclusions, and researchers conclude that such meteorites were formed in the solar nebula before the had decayed.", "These are among the oldest objects in the Solar System and contain preserved information about its early history.It is conventional to plot / against an Al/Mg ratio.", "In an isochron dating plot, the Al/Mg ratio plotted is /.", "The slope of the isochron has no age significance, but indicates the initial / ratio in the sample at the time when the systems were separated from a common reservoir." ], [ "Production", "Magnesium sheets and ingotsWorld production was approximately 1,100 kt in 2017, with the bulk being produced in China (930 kt) and Russia (60 kt).", "The United States was in the 20th century the major world supplier of this metal, supplying 45% of world production even as recently as 1995.Since the Chinese mastery of the Pidgeon process the US market share is at 7%, with a single US producer left: US Magnesium, a Renco Group company in Utah born from now-defunct Magcorp.In September 2021, China took steps to reduce production of magnesium as a result of a government initiative to reduce energy availability for manufacturing industries, leading to a significant price increase.=== Pidgeon process ===China is almost completely reliant on the silicothermic Pidgeon process (the reduction of the oxide at high temperatures with silicon, often provided by a ferrosilicon alloy in which the iron is but a spectator in the reactions) to obtain the metal.", "The process can also be carried out with carbon at approx 2300 °C:: + + → + : + → + === Dow process ===In the United States, magnesium is obtained principally with the Dow process, by electrolysis of fused magnesium chloride from brine and sea water.", "A saline solution containing ions is first treated with lime (calcium oxide) and the precipitated magnesium hydroxide is collected::(aq) + (s) + (l) → (aq) + (s)The hydroxide is then converted to magnesium chloride by treating the hydroxide with hydrochloric acid and heating of the product to eliminate water::(s) + 2HCl(aq) → (aq) + 2(l)The salt is then electrolyzed in the molten state.", "At the cathode, the ion is reduced by two electrons to magnesium metal:: + 2 → MgAt the anode, each pair of ions is oxidized to chlorine gas, releasing two electrons to complete the circuit::2 → (g) + 2=== YSZ process ===A new process, solid oxide membrane technology, involves the electrolytic reduction of MgO.", "At the cathode, ion is reduced by two electrons to magnesium metal.", "The electrolyte is yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ).", "The anode is a liquid metal.", "At the YSZ/liquid metal anode is oxidized.", "A layer of graphite borders the liquid metal anode, and at this interface carbon and oxygen react to form carbon monoxide.", "When silver is used as the liquid metal anode, there is no reductant carbon or hydrogen needed, and only oxygen gas is evolved at the anode.", "It has been reported that this method provides a 40% reduction in cost per pound over the electrolytic reduction method." ], [ "History", "The name magnesium originates from the Greek word for locations related to the tribe of the Magnetes, either a district in Thessaly called Magnesia or Magnesia ad Sipylum, now in Turkey.", "It is related to magnetite and manganese, which also originated from this area, and required differentiation as separate substances.", "See manganese for this history.In 1618, a farmer at Epsom in England attempted to give his cows water from a local well.", "The cows refused to drink because of the water's bitter taste, but the farmer noticed that the water seemed to heal scratches and rashes.", "The substance obtained by evaporating the water became known as Epsom salts and its fame spread.", "It was eventually recognized as hydrated magnesium sulfate, ·7.The metal itself was first isolated by Sir Humphry Davy in England in 1808.He used electrolysis on a mixture of magnesia and mercuric oxide.", "Antoine Bussy prepared it in coherent form in 1831.Davy's first suggestion for a name was 'magnium', but the name magnesium is now used in most European languages." ], [ "Uses", "===Magnesium metal===illumination source while wakeskating in 1931Magnesium is the third-most-commonly-used structural metal, following iron and aluminium.", "The main applications of magnesium are, in order: aluminium alloys, die-casting (alloyed with zinc), removing sulfur in the production of iron and steel, and the production of titanium in the Kroll process.Magnesium is used in lightweight materials and alloys.", "For example, when infused with silicon carbide nanoparticles, it has extremely high specific strength.Historically, magnesium was one of the main aerospace construction metals and was used for German military aircraft as early as World War I and extensively for German aircraft in World War II.", "The Germans coined the name \"Elektron\" for magnesium alloy, a term which is still used today.", "In the commercial aerospace industry, magnesium was generally restricted to engine-related components, due to fire and corrosion hazards.", "Magnesium alloy use in aerospace is increasing in the 21st century, driven by the importance of fuel economy.", "Recent developments in metallurgy and manufacturing have allowed for the potential for magnesium alloys to act as replacements for aluminium and steel alloys in certain applications.====Aircraft====* Wright Aeronautical used a magnesium crankcase in the WWII-era Wright R-3350 Duplex Cyclone aviation engine.", "This presented a serious problem for the earliest models of the Boeing B-29 Superfortress heavy bomber when an in-flight engine fire ignited the engine crankcase.", "The resulting combustion was as hot as 5,600 °F (3,100 °C) and could sever the wing spar from the fuselage.====Automotive====Bugatti Type 57 Aérolithe featured a lightweight body made of Elektron, a trademarked magnesium alloy.", "* Mercedes-Benz used the alloy Elektron in the bodywork of an early model Mercedes-Benz 300 SLR; these cars competed in the 1955 World Sportscar Championship including a win at the Mille Miglia, and at Le Mans where one was involved in the 1955 Le Mans disaster when spectators were showered with burning fragments of elektron.", "* Porsche used magnesium alloy frames in the 917/053 that won Le Mans in 1971, and continues to use magnesium alloys for its engine blocks due to the weight advantage.", "* Volkswagen Group has used magnesium in its engine components for many years.", "* Mitsubishi Motors uses magnesium for its paddle shifters.", "* BMW used magnesium alloy blocks in their N52 engine, including an aluminium alloy insert for the cylinder walls and cooling jackets surrounded by a high-temperature magnesium alloy AJ62A.", "The engine was used worldwide between 2005 and 2011 in various 1, 3, 5, 6, and 7 series models; as well as the Z4, X1, X3, and X5.", "* Chevrolet used the magnesium alloy AE44 in the 2006 Corvette Z06.Both AJ62A and AE44 are recent developments in high-temperature low-creep magnesium alloys.", "The general strategy for such alloys is to form intermetallic precipitates at the grain boundaries, for example by adding mischmetal or calcium.====Electronics====Because of low density and good mechanical and electrical properties, magnesium is used for manufacturing of mobile phones, laptop and tablet computers, cameras, and other electronic components.", "It was used as a premium feature because of its light weight in some 2020 laptops.Products made of magnesium: firestarter and shavings, sharpener, magnesium ribbon====Magnesium materials in medicine====Recent research promises a high development potential of magnesium materials as resorbable implant material (e.g.", "as stent) for the human body.", "Common magnesium alloy elements are calcium and zinc, but also rare earth and silver are investigated.", "The contact corrosion behavior is a decisive advantage when used as an implant material to be used for a limited period of time, as it would dissolve without risk after a certain period of time.", "This would eliminate the risks and costs of an operation to remove the implant.====Other====Magnesium, being readily available and relatively nontoxic, has a variety of uses:* Magnesium is flammable, burning at a temperature of approximately , and the autoignition temperature of magnesium ribbon is approximately .", "It produces intense, bright, white light when it burns.", "Magnesium's high combustion temperature makes it a useful tool for starting emergency fires.", "Other uses include flash photography, flares, pyrotechnics, fireworks sparklers, and trick birthday candles.", "Magnesium is also often used to ignite thermite or other materials that require a high ignition temperature.", "Magnesium continues to be used as an incendiary element in warfare.Magnesium firestarter (in left hand), used with a pocket knife and flint to create sparks that ignite the shavings* In the form of turnings or ribbons, to prepare Grignard reagents, which are useful in organic synthesis.", "* As an additive agent in conventional propellants and the production of nodular graphite in cast iron.", "* As a reducing agent to separate uranium and other metals from their salts.", "* As a sacrificial (galvanic) anode to protect boats, underground tanks, pipelines, buried structures, and water heaters.", "* Alloyed with zinc to produce the zinc sheet used in photoengraving plates in the printing industry, dry-cell battery walls, and roofing.", "* As a metal, this element's principal use is as an alloying additive to aluminium with these aluminium-magnesium alloys being used mainly for beverage cans, sports equipment such as golf clubs, fishing reels, and archery bows and arrows.", "* Specialty, high-grade car wheels of magnesium alloy are called \"mag wheels\", although the term is often misapplied to aluminium wheels.", "Many car and aircraft manufacturers have made engine and body parts from magnesium.", "* Magnesium batteries have been commercialized as primary batteries, and are an active topic of research for rechargeable batteries.===Compounds===Magnesium compounds, primarily magnesium oxide (MgO), are used as a refractory material in furnace linings for producing iron, steel, nonferrous metals, glass, and cement.", "Magnesium oxide and other magnesium compounds are also used in the agricultural, chemical, and construction industries.", "Magnesium oxide from calcination is used as an electrical insulator in fire-resistant cables.Magnesium hydride is under investigation as a way to store hydrogen.Magnesium reacts with haloalkanes to give Grignard reagents, which are used for a wide variety of organic reactions forming carbon–carbon bonds.Magnesium salts are included in various foods, fertilizers (magnesium is a component of chlorophyll), and microbe culture media.Magnesium sulfite is used in the manufacture of paper (sulfite process).Magnesium phosphate is used to fireproof wood used in construction.Magnesium hexafluorosilicate is used for moth-proofing textiles." ], [ "Biological roles", "===Mechanism of action===The important interaction between phosphate and magnesium ions makes magnesium essential to the basic nucleic acid chemistry of all cells of all known living organisms.", "More than 300 enzymes require magnesium ions for their catalytic action, including all enzymes using or synthesizing ATP and those that use other nucleotides to synthesize DNA and RNA.", "The ATP molecule is normally found in a chelate with a magnesium ion.=== Nutrition =======Diet====Examples of food sources of magnesium (clockwise from top left): bran muffins, pumpkin seeds, barley, buckwheat flour, low-fat vanilla yogurt, trail mix, halibut steaks, garbanzo beans, lima beans, soybeans, and spinach Spices, nuts, cereals, cocoa and vegetables are good sources of magnesium.", "Green leafy vegetables such as spinach are also rich in magnesium.====Dietary recommendations ====In the UK, the recommended daily values for magnesium are 300 mg for men and 270 mg for women.", "In the U.S. the Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) are 400 mg for men ages 19–30 and 420 mg for older; for women 310 mg for ages 19–30 and 320 mg for older.====Supplementation====Numerous pharmaceutical preparations of magnesium and dietary supplements are available.", "In two human trials magnesium oxide, one of the most common forms in magnesium dietary supplements because of its high magnesium content per weight, was less bioavailable than magnesium citrate, chloride, lactate or aspartate.===Metabolism===An adult body has 22–26 grams of magnesium, with 60% in the skeleton, 39% intracellular (20% in skeletal muscle), and 1% extracellular.", "Serum levels are typically 0.7–1.0 mmol/L or 1.8–2.4 mEq/L.", "Serum magnesium levels may be normal even when intracellular magnesium is deficient.", "The mechanisms for maintaining the magnesium level in the serum are varying gastrointestinal absorption and renal excretion.", "Intracellular magnesium is correlated with intracellular potassium.", "Increased magnesium lowers calcium and can either prevent hypercalcemia or cause hypocalcemia depending on the initial level.", "Both low and high protein intake conditions inhibit magnesium absorption, as does the amount of phosphate, phytate, and fat in the gut.", "Unabsorbed dietary magnesium is excreted in feces; absorbed magnesium is excreted in urine and sweat.=== Detection in serum and plasma ===Magnesium status may be assessed by measuring serum and erythrocyte magnesium concentrations coupled with urinary and fecal magnesium content, but intravenous magnesium loading tests are more accurate and practical.", "A retention of 20% or more of the injected amount indicates deficiency.", "As of 2004, no biomarker has been established for magnesium.Magnesium concentrations in plasma or serum may be monitored for efficacy and safety in those receiving the drug therapeutically, to confirm the diagnosis in potential poisoning victims, or to assist in the forensic investigation in a case of fatal overdose.", "The newborn children of mothers who received parenteral magnesium sulfate during labor may exhibit toxicity with normal serum magnesium levels.===Deficiency===Low plasma magnesium (hypomagnesemia) is common: it is found in 2.5–15% of the general population.", "From 2005 to 2006, 48 percent of the United States population consumed less magnesium than recommended in the Dietary Reference Intake.", "Other causes are increased renal or gastrointestinal loss, an increased intracellular shift, and proton-pump inhibitor antacid therapy.", "Most are asymptomatic, but symptoms referable to neuromuscular, cardiovascular, and metabolic dysfunction may occur.", "Alcoholism is often associated with magnesium deficiency.", "Chronically low serum magnesium levels are associated with metabolic syndrome, diabetes mellitus type 2, fasciculation, and hypertension.===Therapy===* Intravenous magnesium is recommended by the ACC/AHA/ESC 2006 Guidelines for Management of Patients With Ventricular Arrhythmias and the Prevention of Sudden Cardiac Death for patients with ventricular arrhythmia associated with torsades de pointes who present with long QT syndrome; and for the treatment of patients with digoxin induced arrhythmias.", "* Intravenous magnesium sulfate is used for the management of pre-eclampsia and eclampsia.", "* Hypomagnesemia, including that caused by alcoholism, is reversible by oral or parenteral magnesium administration depending on the degree of deficiency.", "* There is limited evidence that magnesium supplementation may play a role in the prevention and treatment of migraine.Sorted by type of magnesium salt, other therapeutic applications include:* Magnesium sulfate, as the heptahydrate called Epsom salts, is used as bath salts, a laxative, and a highly soluble fertilizer.", "* Magnesium hydroxide, suspended in water, is used in milk of magnesia antacids and laxatives.", "* Magnesium chloride, oxide, gluconate, malate, orotate, glycinate, ascorbate and citrate are all used as oral magnesium supplements.", "* Magnesium borate, magnesium salicylate, and magnesium sulfate are used as antiseptics.", "* Magnesium bromide is used as a mild sedative (this action is due to the bromide, not the magnesium).", "* Magnesium stearate is a slightly flammable white powder with lubricating properties.", "In pharmaceutical technology, it is used in pharmacological manufacture to prevent tablets from sticking to the equipment while compressing the ingredients into tablet form.", "* Magnesium carbonate powder is used by athletes such as gymnasts, weightlifters, and climbers to eliminate palm sweat, prevent sticking, and improve the grip on gymnastic apparatus, lifting bars, and climbing rocks.===Overdose===Overdose from dietary sources alone is unlikely because excess magnesium in the blood is promptly filtered by the kidneys, and overdose is more likely in the presence of impaired renal function.", "In spite of this, megadose therapy has caused death in a young child, and severe hypermagnesemia in a woman and a young girl who had healthy kidneys.The most common symptoms of overdose are nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea; other symptoms include hypotension, confusion, slowed heart and respiratory rates, deficiencies of other minerals, coma, cardiac arrhythmia, and death from cardiac arrest.===Function in plants===Plants require magnesium to synthesize chlorophyll, essential for photosynthesis.", "Magnesium in the center of the porphyrin ring in chlorophyll functions in a manner similar to the iron in the center of the porphyrin ring in heme.", "Magnesium deficiency in plants causes late-season yellowing between leaf veins, especially in older leaves, and can be corrected by either applying epsom salts (which is rapidly leached), or crushed dolomitic limestone, to the soil." ], [ "Safety precautions", "blowtorch to self-combustion, emitting intense white lightMagnesium metal and its alloys can be explosive hazards; they are highly flammable in their pure form when molten or in powder or ribbon form.", "Burning or molten magnesium reacts violently with water.", "When working with powdered magnesium, safety glasses with eye protection and UV filters (such as welders use) are employed because burning magnesium produces ultraviolet light that can permanently damage the retina of a human eye.Magnesium is capable of reducing water and releasing highly flammable hydrogen gas::Mg(s) + 2(l) → (s) + (g)Therefore, water cannot extinguish magnesium fires.", "The hydrogen gas produced intensifies the fire.", "Dry sand is an effective smothering agent, but only on relatively level and flat surfaces.Magnesium reacts with carbon dioxide exothermically to form magnesium oxide and carbon::2Mg(s) + (g) → 2MgO(s) + C(s)Hence, carbon dioxide fuels rather than extinguishes magnesium fires.Burning magnesium can be quenched by using a Class D dry chemical fire extinguisher, or by covering the fire with sand or magnesium foundry flux to remove its air source." ], [ "See also", "* List of countries by magnesium production* Magnesium oil" ], [ "References" ], [ "Cited sources", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Magnesium at ''The Periodic Table of Videos'' (University of Nottingham)* Chemistry in its element podcast (MP3) from the Royal Society of Chemistry's Chemistry World: Magnesium*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Markup language" ], [ "Introduction", "Example of RecipeML, a simple markup language based on XML for creating recipes.", "The markup can be converted programmatically for display into, for example, HTML, PDF or Rich Text Format.|alt=A screenshot of an XML file.A '''markup''' '''language''' is a text-encoding system which specifies the structure and formatting of a document and potentially the relationship between its parts.", "Markup can control the display of a document or enrich its content to facilitate automated processing.A markup language is a set of rules governing what markup information may be included in a document and how it is combined with the content of the document in a way to facilitate use by humans and computer programs.", "The idea and terminology evolved from the \"marking up\" of paper manuscripts (e.g., with revision instructions by editors), traditionally written with a red pen or blue pencil on authors' manuscripts.Older markup languages, which typically focus on typography and presentation, include Troff, TeX, and LaTeX.Scribe and most modern markup languages, such as XML, identify document components (for example headings, paragraphs, and tables), with the expectation that technology, such as stylesheets, will be used to apply formatting or other processing.Some markup languages, such as the widely used HTML, have pre-defined presentation semantics, meaning that their specifications prescribe some aspects of how to present the structured data on particular media.", "HTML, like DocBook, Open eBook, JATS, and many others, is based on the markup meta-languages SGML and XML.", "That is, SGML and XML allow designers to specify particular schemas, which determine which elements, attributes, and other features are permitted, and where.One extremely important characteristic of most markup languages is that they allow intermingling markup with document content such as text and pictures.For example, if a few words in a sentence need to be emphasized, or identified as a proper name, defined term, or another special item, the markup may be inserted between the characters of the sentence.", "This is quite different structurally from traditional databases, where it is by definition impossible to have data that is within a record but not within any field.", "Furthermore, markup for human-readable texts must maintain it would not suffice to make each paragraph of a book into a \"paragraph\" record, where those records do not maintain order." ], [ "Etymology", "The noun ''markup'' is derived from the traditional publishing practice called ''\"marking up\"'' a manuscript, which involves adding handwritten annotations in the form of conventional symbolic printer's instructions — in the margins and the text of a paper or a printed manuscript.", "For centuries, this task was done primarily by skilled typographers known as \"markup men\" or \"markers\" who marked up text to indicate what typeface, style, and size should be applied to each part, and then passed the manuscript to others for typesetting by hand or machine.", "The markup was also commonly applied by editors, proofreaders, publishers, and graphic designers, and indeed by document authors, all of whom might also mark other things, such as corrections, changes, etc." ], [ "Types of markup language", "There are three main general categories of electronic markup, articulated in Coombs, Renear, and DeRose (1987), and Bray (2003).=== Presentational markup ===:The kind of markup used by traditional word-processing systems: binary codes embedded within document text that produce the WYSIWYG (\"'''what you see is what you get'''\") effect.", "Such markup is usually hidden from human users, even authors and editors.", "Properly speaking, such systems use procedural and/or descriptive markup underneath but convert it to \"present\" to the user as geometric arrangements of type.=== Procedural markup ===:Markup is embedded in text which provides instructions for programs to process the text.", "Well-known examples include troff, TeX, and Markdown.", "It is assumed that software processes the text sequentially from beginning to end, following the instructions as encountered.", "Such text is often edited with the markup visible and directly manipulated by the author.", "Popular procedural markup systems usually include programming constructs, especially macros, allowing complex sets of instructions to be invoked by a simple name (and perhaps a few parameters).", "This is much faster, less error-prone, and more maintenance-friendly than re-stating the same or similar instructions in many places.=== Descriptive markup ===: Markup is specifically used to label parts of the document for what they are, rather than how they should be processed.", "Well-known systems that provide many such labels include LaTeX, HTML, and XML.", "The objective is to decouple the structure of the document from any particular treatment or rendition of it.", "Such markup is often described as \"semantic\".", "An example of a descriptive markup would be HTML's tag, which is used to label a citation.", "Descriptive markup — sometimes called ''logical markup'' or ''conceptual markup'' — encourages authors to write in a way that describes the material conceptually, rather than visually.There is a considerable blurring of the lines between the types of markup.", "In modern word-processing systems, presentational markup is often saved in descriptive-markup-oriented systems such as XML, and then processed procedurally by implementations.", "The programming in procedural-markup systems, such as TeX, may be used to create higher-level markup systems that are more descriptive in nature, such as LaTeX.In recent years, several markup languages have been developed with ease of use as a key goal, and without input from standards organizations, aimed at allowing authors to create formatted text via web browsers, for example in wikis and in web forums.", "These are sometimes called lightweight markup languages.", "Markdown, BBCode, and the markup language used by Wikipedia are examples of such languages." ], [ "History of markup languages", "===GenCode===The first well-known public presentation of markup languages in computer text processing was made by William W. Tunnicliffe at a conference in 1967, although he preferred to call it ''generic coding.''", "It can be seen as a response to the emergence of programs such as RUNOFF that each used their own control notations, often specific to the target typesetting device.", "In the 1970s, Tunnicliffe led the development of a standard called GenCode for the publishing industry and later was the first chairman of the International Organization for Standardization committee that created SGML, the first standard descriptive markup language.", "Book designer Stanley Rice published speculation along similar lines in 1970.Brian Reid, in his 1980 dissertation at Carnegie Mellon University, developed the theory and a working implementation of descriptive markup in actual use.", "However, IBM researcher Charles Goldfarb is more commonly seen today as the \"father\" of markup languages.", "Goldfarb hit upon the basic idea while working on a primitive document management system intended for law firms in 1969, and helped invent IBM GML later that same year.", "GML was first publicly disclosed in 1973.In 1975, Goldfarb moved from Cambridge, Massachusetts to Silicon Valley and became a product planner at the IBM Almaden Research Center.", "There, he convinced IBM's executives to deploy GML commercially in 1978 as part of IBM's Document Composition Facility product, and it was widely used in business within a few years.SGML, which was based on both GML and GenCode, was an ISO project worked on by Goldfarb beginning in 1974.Goldfarb eventually became chair of the SGML committee.", "SGML was first released by ISO as the ISO 8879 standard in October 1986.===troff and nroff===Some early examples of computer markup languages available outside the publishing industry can be found in typesetting tools on Unix systems such as troff and nroff.", "In these systems, formatting commands were inserted into the document text so that typesetting software could format the text according to the editor's specifications.", "It was a trial and error iterative process to get a document printed correctly.", "Availability of WYSIWYG (\"what you see is what you get\") publishing software supplanted much use of these languages among casual users, though serious publishing work still uses markup to specify the non-visual structure of texts, and WYSIWYG editors now usually save documents in a markup-language-based format.===TeX===Another major publishing standard is TeX, created and refined by Donald Knuth in the 1970s and '80s.", "TeX concentrated on the detailed layout of text and font descriptions to typeset mathematical books.", "This required Knuth to spend considerable time investigating the art of typesetting.", "TeX is mainly used in academia, where it is a ''de facto'' standard in many scientific disciplines.", "A TeX macro package known as LaTeX provides a descriptive markup system on top of TeX, and is widely used both among the scientific community and the publishing industry.===Scribe, GML, and SGML===The first language to make a clean distinction between structure and presentation was Scribe, developed by Brian Reid and described in his doctoral thesis in 1980.Scribe was revolutionary in a number of ways, introducing the idea of styles separated from the marked-up document, and a grammar that controlled the usage of descriptive elements.", "Scribe influenced the development of Generalized Markup Language (later SGML), and is a direct ancestor to HTML and LaTeX.In the early 1980s, the idea that markup should focus on the structural aspects of a document and leave the visual presentation of that structure to the interpreter led to the creation of SGML.", "The language was developed by a committee chaired by Goldfarb.", "It incorporated ideas from many different sources, including Tunnicliffe's project, GenCode.", "Sharon Adler, Anders Berglund, and James A. Marke were also key members of the SGML committee.SGML specified a syntax for including the markup in documents, as well as one for separately describing ''what'' tags were allowed, and ''where'' (the Document Type Definition (DTD), later known as a schema).", "This allowed authors to create and use any markup they wished, selecting tags that made the most sense to them and were named in their own natural languages, while also allowing automated verification.", "Thus, SGML is properly a meta-language, and many particular markup languages are derived from it.", "From the late '80s onward, most substantial new markup languages have been based on the SGML system, including for example TEI and DocBook.", "SGML was promulgated as an International Standard by International Organization for Standardization, ISO 8879, in 1986.SGML found wide acceptance and use in fields with very large-scale documentation requirements.", "However, many found it cumbersome and difficult to learn — a side effect of its design attempting to do too much and being too flexible.", "For example, SGML made end tags (or start-tags, or even both) optional in certain contexts, because its developers thought markup would be done manually by overworked support staff who would appreciate saving keystrokes.====HTML====In 1989, computer scientist Sir Tim Berners-Lee wrote a memo proposing an Internet-based hypertext system, then specified HTML and wrote the browser and server software in the last part of 1990.The first publicly available description of HTML was a document called \"HTML Tags\", first mentioned on the Internet by Berners-Lee in late 1991.It describes 18 elements comprising the initial, relatively simple design of HTML.", "Except for the hyperlink tag, these were strongly influenced by SGMLguid, an in-house SGML-based documentation format at CERN, and very similar to the sample schema in the SGML standard.", "Eleven of these elements still exist in HTML 4.Berners-Lee considered HTML an SGML application.", "The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) formally defined it as such with the mid-1993 publication of the first proposal for an HTML specification: \"Hypertext Markup Language (HTML)\" Internet-Draft by Berners-Lee and Dan Connolly, which included an SGML Document Type Definition to define the grammar.", "Many of the HTML text elements are found in the 1988 ISO technical report TR 9537 ''Techniques for using SGML'', which in turn covers the features of early text formatting languages such as that used by the RUNOFF command developed in the early 1960s for the CTSS (Compatible Time-Sharing System) operating system.", "These formatting commands were derived from those used by typesetters to manually format documents.", "Steven DeRose argues that HTML's use of descriptive markup (and the influence of SGML in particular) was a major factor in the success of the Web, because of the flexibility and extensibility that it enabled.", "HTML became the main markup language for creating web pages and other information that can be displayed in a web browser and is likely the most used markup language in the world today.===XML===XML (Extensible Markup Language) is a meta markup language that is very widely used.", "XML was developed by the World Wide Web Consortium in a committee created and chaired by Jon Bosak.", "The main purpose of XML was to simplify SGML by focusing on a particular problem — documents on the Internet.", "XML remains a meta-language like SGML, allowing users to create any tags needed (hence \"extensible\") and then describing those tags and their permitted uses.XML adoption was helped because every XML document can be written in such a way that it is also an SGML document, and existing SGML users and software could switch to XML fairly easily.", "However, XML eliminated many of the more complex features of SGML to simplify implementation environments such as documents and publications.", "It appeared to strike a happy medium between simplicity and flexibility, as well as supporting very robust schema definition and validation tools, and was rapidly adopted for many other uses.", "XML is now widely used for communicating data between applications, for serializing program data, for hardware communications protocols, vector graphics, and many other uses as well as documents.====XHTML====From January 2000 until HTML 5 was released, all W3C Recommendations for HTML have been based on XML, using the abbreviation XHTML ('''Ex'''tensible '''H'''yper'''T'''ext '''M'''arkup '''L'''anguage).", "The language specification requires that XHTML Web documents be ''well-formed'' XML documents.", "This allows for more rigorous and robust documents, by avoiding many syntax errors which historically led to incompatible browser behaviors, while still using document components that are familiar with HTML.One of the most noticeable differences between HTML and XHTML is the rule that ''all tags must be closed'': empty HTML tags such as must either be ''closed'' with a regular end-tag, or replaced by a special form: (the space before the '' on the end tag is optional, but frequently used because it enables some pre-XML Web browsers, and SGML parsers, to accept the tag).", "Another difference is that all attribute values in tags must be quoted.", "Both these differences are commonly criticized as verbose but also praised because they make it far easier to detect, localize, and repair errors.", "Finally, all tag and attribute names within the XHTML namespace must be lowercase to be valid.", "HTML, on the other hand, was case-insensitive.====Other XML-based applications====Many XML-based applications now exist, including the Resource Description Framework as RDF/XML, XForms, DocBook, SOAP, and the Web Ontology Language (OWL).", "For a partial list of these, see List of XML markup languages." ], [ "Features of markup languages", "A common feature of many markup languages is that they intermix the text of a document with markup instructions in the same data stream or file.", "This is not necessary; it is possible to isolate markup from text content, using pointers, offsets, IDs, or other methods to coordinate the two.", "Such \"standoff markup\" is typical for the internal representations that programs use to work with marked-up documents.", "However, embedded or \"inline\" markup is much more common elsewhere.", "Here, for example, is a small section of text marked up in HTML: My test page Mozilla is cool At Mozilla, we’re a global community of technologists thinkers builders working together to keep the Internet alive and accessible, so people worldwide can be informed contributors and creators of the Web.", "We believe this act of human collaboration across an open platform is essential to individual growth and our collective future.", "Read the Mozilla Manifesto to learn even more about the values and principles that guide the pursuit of our mission.", "The codes enclosed in angle-brackets are markup instructions (known as tags), while the text between these instructions is the actual text of the document.", "The codes h1, p, and em are examples of ''semantic'' markup, in that they describe the intended purpose or the meaning of the text they include.", "Specifically, h1 means \"this is a first-level heading\", p means \"this is a paragraph\", and em means \"this is an emphasized word or phrase\".", "A program interpreting such structural markup may apply its own rules or styles for presenting the various pieces of text, using different typefaces, boldness, font size, indentation, color, or other styles, as desired.", "For example, a tag such as \"h1\" (header level 1) might be presented in a large bold sans-serif typeface in an article, or it might be underscored in a monospaced (typewriter-style) document – or it might simply not change the presentation at all.In contrast, the i tag in HTML 4 is an example of ''presentational'' markup, which is generally used to specify a particular characteristic of the text without specifying the reason for that appearance.", "In this case, the i element dictates the use of an italic typeface.", "However, in HTML 5, this element has been repurposed with a more semantic usage: to denote a span of text in an alternate voice or mood, or otherwise offset from the normal prose in a manner indicating a different quality of text.", "For example, it is appropriate to use the i element to indicate a taxonomic designation or a phrase in another language.", "The change was made to ease the transition from HTML 4 to HTML 5 as smoothly as possible so that deprecated uses of presentational elements would preserve the most likely intended semantics.The Text Encoding Initiative (TEI) has published extensive guidelines for how to encode texts of interest in the humanities and social sciences, developed through years of international cooperative work.", "These guidelines are used by projects encoding historical documents, the works of particular scholars, periods, genres, and so on." ], [ "Language", "While the idea of markup language originated with text documents, there is increasing use of markup languages in the presentation of other types of information, including playlists, vector graphics, web services, content syndication, and user interfaces.", "Most of these are XML applications because XML is a well-defined and extensible language.The use of XML has also led to the possibility of combining multiple markup languages into a single profile, like XHTML+SMIL and XHTML+MathML+SVG." ], [ "See also", "* Comparison of document markup languages* Curl (programming language)* HTML* LaTeX* Lightweight markup language* List of markup languages* Markdown* Programming language* Modeling language* Plain text* Formatted text* ReStructuredText* Style sheet language* Tag (markup)* WYSIWYG* XML" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links" ] ]
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[ [ "Meaning" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Meaning''' most commonly refers to:* Meaning (linguistics), meaning which is communicated through the use of language* Meaning (non-linguistic), a general term of art to capture senses of the word \"meaning\", independent from its linguistic uses* Meaning (philosophy), definition, elements, and types of meaning discussed in philosophy* The meaning of life, the significance, purpose, or worth of human existence'''Meaning''' may also refer to:* Meaning (psychology), epistemological position, in psychology as well as philosophy, linguistics, semiotics and sociology* Meaning (semiotics), the distribution of signs in sign relations* Meaning (existential), the meaning of life in contemporary existentialism" ], [ "Arts and entertainment", "* ''Meanings'' (album), a 2004 album by Gad Elbaz* \"Meaning\" (''House''), a 2006 episode of the TV series ''House''* Meaning (music), the philosophical question of meaning in relation to music*\"Meaning\", a 2007 song by Gavin DeGraw from ''Chariot''*\"The Meaning\", a song on ''Discipline'' (Janet Jackson album) (2008)*''The Meaning'' (album), a 2011 album by Layzie Bone" ], [ "See also", "* Hermeneutics, the theory of text interpretation* Linguistics, the scientific study of language* Logotherapy, psychotherapy based on an existential analysis* Meant to Be (disambiguation)* Notion (disambiguation)* Proposition (disambiguation)* Semantics, the study of meaning* Significance (disambiguation)* Meaningless (disambiguation)*" ] ]
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[ [ "Metaethics" ], [ "Introduction", "In metaphilosophy and ethics, '''metaethics''' is the study of the nature, scope, and meaning of moral judgment.", "It is one of the three branches of ethics generally studied by philosophers, the others being normative ethics (questions of how one ought to be and act) and applied ethics (practical questions of right behavior in given, usually contentious, situations).While normative ethics addresses such questions as \"What should I do?", "\", evaluating specific practices and principles of action, metaethics addresses questions such as \"What ''is'' goodness?\"", "and \"How can we tell what is good from what is bad?", "\", seeking to understand the assumptions underlying normative theories.", "Another distinction often made is that normative ethics involves first-order or substantive questions; metaethics involves second-order or formal questions.Some theorists argue that a metaphysical account of morality is necessary for the proper evaluation of actual moral theories and for making practical moral decisions; others reason from opposite premises and suggest that studying moral judgments about proper actions can guide us to a true account of the nature of morality." ], [ "Metaethical questions", "According to Richard Garner and Bernard Rosen, there are three kinds of metaethical problems, or three general questions:#What is the meaning of moral terms or judgments?", "(moral semantics)#*Asks about the meanings of such words as 'good', 'bad', 'right' and 'wrong' (see value theory)#What is the nature of moral judgments?", "(moral ontology)#*Asks questions of whether moral judgments are absolute or relative, of one kind or many kinds, etc.#How may moral judgments be supported or defended?", "(moral epistemology)#*Asks such questions as how we can know if something is right or wrong, if at all.Garner and Rosen say that answers to the three basic questions \"are not unrelated, and sometimes an answer to one will strongly suggest, or perhaps even entail, an answer to another.\"", "A metaethical theory, unlike a normative ethical theory, does not attempt to evaluate specific choices as being better, worse, good, bad, or evil; although it may have profound implications as to the validity and meaning of normative ethical claims.", "An answer to any of the three example questions above would not itself be a normative ethical statement." ], [ "Moral semantics<!--'Moral semantics' redirects here-->", "'''Moral semantics''' attempts to answer the question, \"What is the meaning of moral terms or judgments?\"", "Answers may have implications for answers to the other two questions as well.=== Cognitivist theories ===''Cognitivist'' theories hold that evaluative moral sentences express propositions (i.e., they are 'truth-apt' or 'truth bearers', capable of being true or false), as opposed to non-cognitivism.", "Most forms of cognitivism hold that some such propositions are true (including moral realism and ethical subjectivism), as opposed to error theory, which asserts that all are erroneous.==== Moral realism ====Moral realism (in the ''robust'' sense; see moral universalism for the minimalist sense) holds that such propositions are about ''robust'' or mind-independent facts, that is, not facts about any person or group's subjective opinion, but about objective features of the world.", "Metaethical theories are commonly categorized as either a form of realism or as one of three forms of \"anti-realism\" regarding moral facts: ethical subjectivism, error theory, or non-cognitivism.", "Realism comes in two main varieties:# ''Ethical naturalism'' holds that there are objective moral properties and that these properties are reducible or stand in some metaphysical relation (such as supervenience) to entirely non-ethical properties.", "Most ethical naturalists hold that we have empirical knowledge of moral truths.", "Ethical naturalism was implicitly assumed by many modern ethical theorists, particularly utilitarians.# ''Ethical non-naturalism'', as put forward by G. E. Moore, holds that there are objective and ''irreducible'' moral properties (such as the property of 'goodness'), and that we sometimes have intuitive or otherwise ''a priori'' awareness of moral properties or of moral truths.", "Moore's open question argument against what he considered the naturalistic fallacy was largely responsible for the birth of metaethical research in contemporary analytic philosophy.==== Ethical subjectivism ====Ethical subjectivism is one form of moral anti-realism.", "It holds that moral statements are made true or false by the attitudes and/or conventions of people, either those of each society, those of each individual, or those of some particular individual.", "Most forms of ethical subjectivism are relativist, but there are notable forms that are universalist:* Ideal observer theory holds that what is right is determined by the attitudes that a hypothetical ''ideal observer'' would have.", "An ideal observer is usually characterized as a being who is perfectly rational, imaginative, and informed, among other things.", "Though a subjectivist theory due to its reference to a particular (albeit hypothetical) subject, Ideal Observer Theory still purports to provide universal answers to moral questions.", "* Divine command theory holds that for a thing to be right is for a unique being, God, to approve of it, and that what is right for non-God beings is obedience to the divine will.", "This view was criticized by Plato in the ''Euthyphro'' (see the Euthyphro problem) but retains some modern defenders (Robert Adams, Philip Quinn, and others).", "Like ideal observer theory, divine command theory purports to be universalist despite its subjectivism.==== Error theory ====Error theory, another form of moral anti-realism, holds that although ethical claims do express propositions, all such propositions are false.", "Thus, both the statement \"Murder is morally wrong\" and the statement \"Murder is morally permissible\" are false, according to error theory.", "J. L. Mackie is probably the best-known proponent of this view.", "Since error theory denies that there are moral truths, error theory entails moral nihilism and, thus, moral skepticism; however, neither moral nihilism nor moral skepticism conversely entail error theory.=== Non-cognitivist theories ===Non-cognitivist theories hold that ethical sentences are neither true nor false because they do not express genuine propositions.", "Non-cognitivism is another form of moral anti-realism.", "Most forms of non-cognitivism are also forms of expressivism, however some such as Mark Timmons and Terrence Horgan distinguish the two and allow the possibility of cognitivist forms of expressivism.", "Non-cognitivism includes:* Emotivism, defended by A. J. Ayer and Charles Stevenson, holds that ethical sentences serve merely to express emotions.", "Ayer argues that ethical sentences are expressions of approval or disapproval, not assertions.", "So \"Killing is wrong\" means something like \"Boo on killing!\".", "* Quasi-realism, defended by Simon Blackburn, holds that ethical statements behave linguistically like factual claims and can be appropriately called \"true\" or \"false\", even though there are no ethical facts for them to correspond to.", "Projectivism and moral fictionalism are related theories.", "* Universal prescriptivism, defended by R. M. Hare, holds that moral statements function like universalized imperative sentences.", "So \"Killing is wrong\" means something like \"Don't kill!\"", "Hare's version of prescriptivism requires that moral prescriptions be universalizable, and hence actually have objective values, in spite of failing to be indicative statements with truth-values per se.===Centralism and non-centralism===Yet another way of categorizing metaethical theories is to distinguish between '''centralist''' and '''non-centralist''' moral theories.", "The debate between centralism and non-centralism revolves around the relationship between the so-called \"thin\" and \"thick\" concepts of morality: thin moral concepts are those such as good, bad, right, and wrong; thick moral concepts are those such as courageous, inequitable, just, or dishonest.", "While both sides agree that the thin concepts are more general and the thick more specific, centralists hold that the thin concepts are antecedent to the thick ones and that the latter are therefore dependent on the former.", "That is, centralists argue that one must understand words like \"right\" and \"ought\" before understanding words like \"just\" and \"unkind.\"", "Non-centralism rejects this view, holding that thin and thick concepts are on par with one another and even that the thick concepts are a sufficient starting point for understanding the thin ones.Non-centralism has been of particular importance to ethical naturalists in the late 20th and early 21st centuries as part of their argument that normativity is a non-excisable aspect of language and that there is no way of analyzing thick moral concepts into a purely descriptive element attached to a thin moral evaluation, thus undermining any fundamental division between facts and norms.", "Allan Gibbard, R. M. Hare, and Simon Blackburn have argued in favor of the fact/norm distinction, meanwhile, with Gibbard going so far as to argue that, even if conventional English has only mixed normative terms (that is, terms that are neither purely descriptive nor purely normative), we could develop a nominally English metalanguage that still allowed us to maintain the division between factual descriptions and normative evaluations." ], [ "Moral ontology<!--'Moral ontology' redirects here-->", "'''Moral ontology''' attempts to answer the question, \"What is the nature of moral judgments?", "\"Amongst those who believe there to be some standard(s) of morality (as opposed to moral nihilists), there are two divisions:# universalists, who hold that the same moral facts or principles apply to everyone everywhere; and# relativists, who hold that different moral facts or principles apply to different people or societies.=== Moral universalism ===Moral universalism (or universal morality) is the metaethical position that some system of ethics, or a universal ethic, applies universally, that is to all intelligent beings regardless of culture, race, sex, religion, nationality, sexuality, or other distinguishing feature.", "The source or justification of this system may be thought to be, for instance, human nature, shared vulnerability to suffering, the demands of universal reason, what is common among existing moral codes, or the common mandates of religion (although it can be argued that the latter is not in fact moral universalism because it may distinguish between Gods and mortals).", "Moral universalism is the opposing position to various forms of moral relativism.Universalist theories are generally forms of moral realism, though exceptions exists, such as the subjectivist ideal observer and divine command theories, and the non-cognitivist universal prescriptivism of R. M. Hare.", "Forms of moral universalism include:* Value monism is the common form of universalism, which holds that all goods are commensurable on a single value scale.", "* Value pluralism contends that there are two or more genuine scales of value, knowable as such, yet incommensurable, so that any prioritization of these values is either non-cognitive or subjective.", "A value pluralist might, for example, contend that both a life as a nun and a life as a mother realize genuine values (in a universalist sense), yet they are incompatible (nuns may not have children), and there is no purely rational way to measure which is preferable.", "A notable proponent of this view is Isaiah Berlin.=== Moral relativism ===Moral relativism maintains that all moral judgments have their origins either in societal or in individual standards, and that no single standard exists by which one can objectively assess the truth of a moral proposition.", "Metaethical relativists, in general, believe that the descriptive properties of terms such as \"good\", \"bad\", \"right\", and \"wrong\" do not stand subject to universal truth conditions, but only to societal convention and personal preference.", "Given the same set of verifiable facts, some societies or individuals will have a fundamental disagreement about what one ''ought'' to do based on societal or individual norms, and one cannot adjudicate these using some independent standard of evaluation.", "The latter standard will always be societal or personal and not universal, unlike, for example, the scientific standards for assessing temperature or for determining mathematical truths.", "=== Moral nihilism ===Moral nihilism, also known as ethical nihilism, is the metaethical view that nothing has intrinsic moral value.", "For example, a moral nihilist would say that killing someone, for whatever reason, is intrinsically neither morally right nor morally wrong.", "Moral nihilism must be distinguished from moral relativism, which does allow for moral statements to be intrinsically true or false in a non-universal sense, but does not assign any static truth-values to moral statements.", "Insofar as only true statements can be known, moral nihilists are moral skeptics.", "Most forms of moral nihilism are non-cognitivist and vice versa, though there are notable exceptions such as universal prescriptivism (which is semantically non-cognitive but substantially universal)." ], [ "Moral epistemology<!--'Moral epistemology' redirects here-->", "'''Moral epistemology''' is the study of moral knowledge.", "It attempts to answer such questions as, \"How may moral judgments be supported or defended?\"", "and \"Is moral knowledge possible?", "\"If one presupposes a cognitivist interpretation of moral sentences, morality is justified by the moralist's knowledge of moral facts, and the theories to justify moral judgements are epistemological theories.", "Most moral epistemologies posit that moral knowledge is somehow possible (including empiricism and moral rationalism), as opposed to moral skepticism.", "Amongst them, there are those who hold that moral knowledge is gained inferentially on the basis of some sort of non-moral epistemic process, as opposed to ethical intuitionism.=== Moral knowledge gained by inference ======= Empiricism ====Empiricism is the doctrine that knowledge is gained primarily through observation and experience.", "Metaethical theories that imply an empirical epistemology include:* ethical naturalism, which holds moral facts to be reducible to non-moral facts and thus knowable in the same ways; and * most common forms of ethical subjectivism, which hold that moral facts reduce to facts about individual opinions or cultural conventions and thus are knowable by observation of those conventions.There are exceptions within subjectivism however, such as ideal observer theory, which implies that moral facts may be known through a rational process, and individualist ethical subjectivism, which holds that moral facts are merely personal opinions and so may be known only through introspection.", "Empirical arguments for ethics run into the ''is-ought'' problem, which asserts that the way the world ''is'' cannot alone instruct people how they ''ought'' to act.==== Moral rationalism ====Moral rationalism, also called ethical rationalism, is the view according to which moral truths (or at least general moral principles) are knowable ''a priori'', by reason alone.", "Plato and Immanuel Kant, prominent figures in the history of philosophy, defended moral rationalism.", "David Hume and Friedrich Nietzsche are two figures in the history of philosophy who have rejected moral rationalism.Recent philosophers who defended moral rationalism include R. M. Hare, Christine Korsgaard, Alan Gewirth, and Michael Smith.", "A moral rationalist may adhere to any number of different semantic theories as well; moral realism is compatible with rationalism, and the subjectivist ideal observer theory and non-cognitivist universal prescriptivism both entail it.=== Ethical intuitionism ===Ethical intuitionism is the view according to which some moral truths can be known ''without'' inference.", "That is, the view is at its core a foundationalism about moral beliefs.", "Such an epistemological view implies that there are moral beliefs with propositional contents; so it implies cognitivism.", "Ethical intuitionism commonly suggests moral realism, the view that there are objective facts of morality and, to be more specific, ethical non-naturalism, the view that these evaluative facts cannot be reduced to natural fact.", "However, neither moral realism nor ethical non-naturalism are essential to the view; most ethical intuitionists simply happen to hold those views as well.", "Ethical intuitionism comes in both a \"rationalist\" variety, and a more \"empiricist\" variety known as moral sense theory.=== Moral skepticism ===Moral skepticism is the class of metaethical theories all members of which entail that no one has any moral knowledge.", "Many moral skeptics also make the stronger, modal, claim that moral knowledge is impossible.", "Forms of moral skepticism include, but are not limited to, error theory and most but not all forms of non-cognitivism." ], [ "See also", "* Anthropic principle* Axiology* Deontic logic* Ethical subjectivism* Fact–value distinction* Is–ought problem* Meta-rights* Moral realism* Normative ethics* ''Principia Ethica''* The Right and the Good" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Metaethics – entry in the ''Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy''* ''The Language of Morals'' (1952) by R. M. Hare* ''Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals'' by Immanuel Kant* Essays by philosopher Michael Huemer on meta-ethics, especially intuitionism* ''Relativity theory of ethics'' by J. J. Mittler" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mormons" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Mormons''' are a religious and cultural group related to Mormonism, the principal branch of the Latter Day Saint movement started by Joseph Smith in upstate New York during the 1820s.", "After Smith's death in 1844, the movement split into several groups following different leaders; the majority followed Brigham Young, while smaller groups followed Joseph Smith III, Sidney Rigdon, and James Strang.", "Most of these smaller groups eventually merged into the Community of Christ, and the term ''Mormon'' typically refers to members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), as today, this branch is far larger than all the others combined.", "People who identify as Mormons may also be independently religious, secular, and non-practicing or belong to other denominations.", "Since 2018, the LDS Church has emphasized a desire for its members be referred to as \"members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints\", or more simply as \"'''Latter-day Saints'''\".Mormons have developed a strong sense of community that stems from their doctrine and history.", "One of the central doctrinal issues that defined Mormonism in the 19th century was the practice of plural marriage, a form of religious polygamy.", "From 1852 until 1904, when the LDS Church banned the practice, many Mormons who had followed Brigham Young to the Utah Territory openly practiced polygamy.", "Mormons dedicate significant time and resources to serving in their churches.", "A prominent practice among young and retired members of the LDS Church is to serve a full-time proselytizing mission.", "Mormons have a health code that eschews alcoholic beverages, tobacco, tea, coffee, and addictive substances.", "They tend to be very family-oriented and have strong connections across generations and with extended family, reflecting their belief that families can be sealed together beyond death.", "They also have a strict law of chastity, requiring abstention from sexual relations outside heterosexual marriage and fidelity within marriage.Mormons self-identify as Christian, but some non-Mormons consider Mormons non-Christian because some of their beliefs differ from those of Nicene Christianity.", "Mormons believe that Christ's church was restored through Joseph Smith and is guided by living prophets and apostles.", "Mormons believe in the Bible and other books of scripture, such as the Book of Mormon.", "They have a unique view of cosmology and believe that all people are literal spirit children of God.", "Mormons believe that returning to God requires following the example of Jesus Christ and accepting his atonement through repentance and ordinances such as baptism.During the 19th century, Mormon converts tended to gather in a central geographic location, a trend that reversed somewhat in the 1920s and 1930s.", "The center of Mormon cultural influence is in Utah, and North America has more Mormons than any other continent, although about 60% of Mormons live outside the United States.", "As of December 31, 2021, the LDS Church reported a membership of 16,805,400." ], [ "Terminology", "The terminology preferred by the church itself has varied over time.", "At various points, the church has embraced the term ''Mormon'' and stated that other sects within the shared faith tradition should not be called Mormon.The word Mormon was initially coined to describe any person who believes in the Book of Mormon as a scripture volume.", "Mormonite and Mormon were originally descriptive terms used both by outsiders to the faith, church members, and occasionally church leaders.", "The term Mormon later was sometimes used derogatorily; such use may have developed during the 1838 Mormon War, although church members and leaders \"embraced the term\", according to church historian Matthew Bowman, and by the end of the 1800s it was broadly used.The LDS Church has made efforts, including in 1982, in 2001 prior to the Salt Lake City Olympics, in 2011 after ''The Book of Mormon'' appeared on Broadway, and again in 2018, to encourage the use of the church's full name, rather than the terms Mormon or LDS.", "According to Patrick Mason, chair of Mormon studies at Claremont Graduate University and Richard Bennett, a professor of church history at Brigham Young University, this is because non-church members have historically been confused about whether it represents a Christian faith, which concerns church leaders, who want to emphasize that the church is a Christian church.", "The term Mormon also causes concern for church leaders because it has been used to include splinter groups such as Fundamentalist Latter Day Saints, who practice polygamy, which the LDS Church does not; Mason said \"For more than 100 years, the mainstream LDS Church has gone to great pains to distance itself from those who practice polygamy.", "It doesn't want to have any confusion there between those two groups.", "\"In 2018, the LDS Church published a style guide that encourages the use of the terms \"the Church\", the \"Church of Jesus Christ\" or the \"restored Church of Jesus Christ\" as shortened versions after an initial use of the full name.", "According to church historian Bowman, 'the term \"restored\" refers to the idea that the original Christian religion is obsolete, and Mormons alone are practicing true Christianity.", "'The 2018 style guide rejects the term Mormons along with \"Mormon Church\", \"Mormonism\", and the abbreviation LDS.", "The second-largest sect, the Community of Christ, also rejects the term Mormon due to its association with the practice of polygamy among Brighamite sects.", "Other sects, including several fundamentalist branches of the Brighamite tradition, embrace the term ''Mormon''." ], [ "History", "The history of the Mormons has shaped them into a people with a strong sense of unity and commonality.", "From the start, Mormons have tried to establish what they call \"Zion\", a utopian society of the righteous.Mormon history can be divided into three broad periods: (1) the early history during the lifetime of Joseph Smith, (2) a \"pioneer era\" under the leadership of Brigham Young and his successors, and (3) a modern era beginning around the turn of the 20th century.", "In the first period, Smith attempted to build a city called Zion, where converts could gather.", "Zion became a \"landscape of villages\" in Utah during the pioneer era.", "In modern times, Zion is still an ideal, though Mormons gather together in their individual congregations rather than in a central geographic location.=== Beginnings ===Joseph Smith's 1820 First VisionThe Mormon movement began with the publishing of the Book of Mormon in March 1830, which Smith claimed was a translation of golden plates containing the religious history of an ancient American civilization that the ancient prophet-historian Mormon had compiled.", "Smith claimed that an angel had directed him to the golden plates buried in the Hill Cumorah.", "On April 6, 1830, Smith founded the Church of Christ.", "In 1832, Smith added an account of a vision he had sometime in the early 1820s while living in Upstate New York.", "Some Mormons regarded this vision as the most important event in human history after the birth, ministry, and resurrection of Jesus Christ.The early church grew westward as Smith sent missionaries to proselytize.", "In 1831, the church moved to Kirtland, Ohio, where missionaries had made a large number of converts and Smith began establishing an outpost in Jackson County, Missouri, where he planned to eventually build the city of Zion (or the New Jerusalem).", "In 1833, Missouri settlers, alarmed by the rapid influx of Mormons, expelled them from Jackson County into the nearby Clay County, where local residents were more welcoming.After Smith led a mission, known as Zion's Camp, to recover the land, he began building Kirtland Temple in Lake County, Ohio, where the church flourished.", "When the Missouri Mormons were later asked to leave Clay County in 1836, they secured land in what would become Caldwell County.The Kirtland era ended in 1838 after the failure of a church-sponsored anti-bank caused widespread defections, and Smith regrouped with the remaining church in Far West, Missouri.", "During the fall of 1838, tensions escalated into the Mormon War with the old Missouri settlers.", "On October 27, the governor of Missouri ordered that the Mormons \"must be treated as enemies\" and be exterminated or driven from the state.", "Between November and April, some eight thousand displaced Mormons migrated east into Illinois.Sac and Fox Indians who visited Nauvoo on August 12, 1841In 1839, the Mormons purchased the small town of Commerce, converted swampland on the banks of the Mississippi River, renamed the area Nauvoo, Illinois, and began constructing the Nauvoo Temple.", "The city became the church's new headquarters and gathering place, and it grew rapidly, fueled in part by converts immigrating from Europe.", "Meanwhile, Smith introduced temple ceremonies meant to seal families together for eternity, as well as the doctrines of eternal progression or exaltation and plural marriage.Smith created a service organization for women called the Relief Society and the Council of Fifty, representing a future theodemocratic \"Kingdom of God\" on the earth.", "Smith also published the story of his First Vision, in which the Father and the Son appeared to him when he was about 14 years old.", "This vision would come to be regarded by some Mormons as the most important event in human history after the birth, ministry, and resurrection of Jesus Christ.In 1844, local prejudices and political tensions, fueled by Mormon peculiarity, internal dissent, and reports of polygamy, escalated into conflicts between Mormons and \"anti-Mormons\" in Illinois and Missouri.", "Smith was arrested, and on June 27, 1844, he and his brother Hyrum were killed by a mob in Carthage, Illinois.", "Because Hyrum was Smith's logical successor, their deaths caused a succession crisis, and Brigham Young assumed leadership over most Latter Day Saints.", "Young had been a close associate of Smith's and was the senior apostle of the Quorum of the Twelve.", "Smaller groups of Latter-Day Saints followed other leaders to form other denominations of the Latter-Day Saints movement.=== Pioneer era ===A statue commemorating the Mormon handcart pioneersFor two years after Joseph Smith's death, conflicts escalated between Mormons and other Illinois residents.", "To prevent war, Brigham Young led the Mormon pioneers (constituting most of the Latter Day Saints) to a temporary winter quarters in Nebraska and then, eventually (beginning in 1847), to what became the Utah Territory.", "Having failed to build Zion within the confines of American society, the Mormons began to construct a society in isolation based on their beliefs and values.", "The cooperative ethic that Mormons had developed over the last decade and a half became important as settlers branched out and colonized a large desert region now known as the Mormon Corridor.", "Colonizing efforts were seen as religious duties, and the new villages were governed by the Mormon bishops (local lay religious leaders).", "The Mormons viewed land as a commonwealth, devising and maintaining a cooperative system of irrigation that allowed them to build a farming community in the desert.From 1849 to 1852, the Mormons greatly expanded their missionary efforts, establishing several missions in Europe, Latin America, and the South Pacific.", "Converts were expected to \"gather\" to Zion, and during Young's presidency (1847–77), over seventy thousand Mormon converts immigrated to America.", "Many of the converts came from England and Scandinavia and were quickly assimilated into the Mormon community.", "Many of these immigrants crossed the Great Plains in wagons drawn by oxen, while some later groups pulled their possessions in small handcarts.", "During the 1860s, newcomers began using the new railroad that was under construction.In 1852, church leaders publicized the previously secret practice of plural marriage, a form of polygamy.", "Over the next 50 years, many Mormons (between 20 and 30 percent of Mormon families) entered into plural marriages as a religious duty, with the number of plural marriages reaching a peak around 1860 and then declining through the rest of the century.", "Besides the doctrinal reasons for plural marriage, the practice made some economic sense, as many of the plural wives were single women who arrived in Utah without brothers or fathers to offer them societal support.Mormon pioneers crossing the Mississippi on the iceBy 1857, tensions had again escalated between Mormons and other Americans, primarily due to accusations involving polygamy and the theocratic rule of the Utah Territory by Brigham Young.", "In 1857, U.S. President James Buchanan sent an army to Utah, which Mormons interpreted as open aggression against them.", "Fearing a repeat of Missouri and Illinois, the Mormons prepared to defend themselves, determined to torch their own homes if they were invaded.", "The relatively peaceful Utah War ensued from 1857 to 1858, in which the most notable instance of violence was the Mountain Meadows massacre when leaders of a local Mormon militia ordered the killing of a civilian emigrant party that was traveling through Utah during the escalating tensions.", "In 1858, Young agreed to step down from his position as governor and was replaced by a non-Mormon, Alfred Cumming.", "Nevertheless, the LDS Church still wielded significant political power in the Utah Territory.At Young's death in 1877, he was followed by other LDS Church presidents, who resisted efforts by the United States Congress to outlaw Mormon polygamous marriages.", "In 1878, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in ''Reynolds v. United States'' that religious duty was not a suitable defense for practicing polygamy.", "Many Mormon polygamists went into hiding; later, Congress began seizing church assets.", "In September 1890, church president Wilford Woodruff issued a Manifesto that officially suspended the practice of polygamy.", "Although this Manifesto did not dissolve existing plural marriages, relations with the United States markedly improved after 1890, such that Utah was admitted as a U.S. state in 1896.After the Manifesto, some Mormons continued to enter into polygamous marriages, but these eventually stopped in 1904 when church president Joseph F. Smith disavowed polygamy before Congress and issued a \"Second Manifesto\" calling for all plural marriages in the church to cease.", "Eventually, the church adopted a policy of excommunicating members found practicing polygamy, and today actively seeks to distance itself from \"fundamentalist\" groups that continue the practice.=== Modern times ===During the early 20th century, Mormons began reintegrating into the American mainstream.", "In 1929, the Mormon Tabernacle Choir began broadcasting a weekly performance on national radio, becoming an asset for public relations.", "Mormons emphasized patriotism and industry, rising in socioeconomic status from the bottom among American religious denominations to the middle class.In the 1920s and 1930s, Mormons began migrating out of Utah, a trend hurried by the Great Depression, as Mormons looked for work wherever they could find it.", "As Mormons spread out, church leaders created programs to help preserve the tight-knit community feel of Mormon culture.", "In addition to weekly worship services, Mormons began participating in numerous programs such as Boy Scouting, a Young Women organization, church-sponsored dances, ward basketball, camping trips, plays, and religious education programs for youth and college students.", "During the Great Depression, the church started a welfare program to meet the needs of poor members, which has since grown to include a humanitarian branch that provides relief to disaster victims.The 360-member Mormon Tabernacle ChoirDuring the later half of the 20th century, there was a retrenchment movement in Mormonism in which Mormons became more conservative, attempting to regain their status as a \"peculiar people\".Though the 1960s and 1970s brought changes such as Women's Liberation and the civil rights movement, Mormon leaders were alarmed by the erosion of traditional values, the sexual revolution, the widespread use of recreational drugs, moral relativism, and other forces they saw as damaging to the family.Partly to counter this, Mormons put an even greater emphasis on family life, religious education, and missionary work, becoming more conservative in the process.", "As a result, Mormons today are probably less integrated with mainstream society than they were in the early 1960s.Although black people have been members of Mormon congregations since Joseph Smith's time, before 1978, black membership was small.", "From 1852 to 1978, the LDS Church enforced a policy restricting men of black African descent from being ordained to the church's lay priesthood.", "The church was sharply criticized for its policy during the civil rights movement, but the policy remained in force until a 1978 reversal that was prompted in part by questions about mixed-race converts in Brazil.", "In general, Mormons greeted the change with joy and relief.", "Since 1978, black membership has grown, and in 1997 there were approximately 500,000 black church members (about 5 percent of the total membership), mostly in Africa, Brazil, and the Caribbean.", "Black membership has continued to grow substantially, especially in West Africa, where two temples have been built.", "Some black Mormons are members of the Genesis Group, an organization of black members that predates the priesthood ban and is endorsed by the church.Global distribution of LDS Church members in 2009The LDS Church grew rapidly after World War II and became a worldwide organization as missionaries were sent across the globe.", "The church doubled in size every 15 to 20 years, and by 1996, there were more Mormons outside the United States than inside.", "In 2012, there were an estimated 14.8 million Mormons, with roughly 57 percent living outside the United States.", "It is estimated that approximately 4.5 million Mormons – approximately 30% of the total membership – regularly attend services.", "A majority of U.S. Mormons are white and non-Hispanic (84 percent).", "Most Mormons are distributed in North and South America, the South Pacific, and Western Europe.", "The global distribution of Mormons resembles a contact diffusion model, radiating out from the organization's headquarters in Utah.", "The church enforces general doctrinal uniformity, congregations on all continents teach the same doctrines, and international Mormons tend to absorb a good deal of Mormon culture, possibly because of the church's top-down hierarchy and missionary presence.", "However, international Mormons often bring pieces of their own heritage into the church, adapting church practices to local cultures.As of December 2019, the LDS Church reported having 16,565,036 members worldwide.", "Chile, Uruguay, and several areas in the South Pacific have a higher percentage of Mormons than the United States (which is at about 2 percent).", "South Pacific countries and dependencies that are more than 10 percent Mormon include American Samoa, the Cook Islands, Kiribati, Niue, Samoa, and Tonga." ], [ "Culture and practices", "Isolation in Utah had allowed Mormons to create a culture of their own.", "As the faith spread worldwide, many of its more distinctive practices followed.", "Mormon converts are urged to undergo lifestyle changes, repent of sins, and adopt sometimes atypical standards of conduct.", "Practices common to Mormons include studying scriptures, praying daily, fasting regularly, attending Sunday worship services, participating in church programs and activities on weekdays, and refraining from work on Sundays when possible.", "The most important part of the church services is considered to be the Lord's Supper (commonly called sacrament), in which church members renew covenants made at baptism.", "Mormons also emphasize standards they believe were taught by Jesus Christ, including personal honesty, integrity, obedience to the law, chastity outside marriage, and fidelity within marriage.In 2010, around 13–14 percent of Mormons lived in Utah, the center of cultural influence for Mormonism.", "Utah Mormons (as well as Mormons living in the Intermountain West) are on average more culturally and politically conservative than those living in some cosmopolitan centers elsewhere in the U.S. Utahns self-identifying as Mormon also attend church somewhat more on average than Mormons living in other states.", "(Nonetheless, whether they live in Utah or elsewhere in the U.S., Mormons tend to be more culturally and politically conservative than members of other U.S. religious groups.)", "Utah Mormons often emphasize pioneer heritage more than international Mormons, who generally are not descendants of the Mormon pioneers.A Mormon meetinghouse used for Sunday worship services in BrazilMormons have a strong sense of communality that stems from their doctrine and history.", "LDS Church members have a responsibility to dedicate their time and talents to helping the poor and building the church.", "The church is divided by locality into congregations called \"wards\", with several wards or branches to create a \"stake\".", "Most church leadership positions are lay positions, and church leaders may work 10 to 15 hours a week in unpaid church service.", "Observant Mormons also contribute 10 percent of their income to the church as tithing and are often involved in humanitarian efforts.", "Many LDS young men, women, and elderly couples choose to serve a proselytizing mission, during which they dedicate all of their time to the church without pay.Mormons adhere to the Word of Wisdom, a health law or code that is interpreted as prohibiting the consumption of tobacco, alcohol, coffee and tea, while encouraging the use of herbs, grains, fruits, and a moderate consumption of meat.", "The Word of Wisdom is also understood to forbid other harmful and addictive substances and practices, such as the use of illegal drugs and abuse of prescription drugs.", "Mormons are encouraged to keep a year's supplies, including food and financial reserves.", "Mormons also oppose behaviors such as viewing pornography and gambling.The concept of a united family that lives and progresses forever is at the core of Latter-day Saint doctrine, and Mormons place a high importance on family life.", "Many Mormons hold weekly Family Home Evenings, in which an evening is set aside for family bonding, study, prayer, and other activities they consider to be wholesome.", "Latter-day Saint fathers who hold the priesthood typically name and bless their children shortly after birth to formally give the child a name.", "Mormon parents hope and pray that their children will gain testimonies of the \"gospel\" so they can grow up and marry in temples.Mormons have a strict law of chastity, requiring abstention from sexual relations outside opposite-sex marriage and strict fidelity within marriage.", "All sexual activity (heterosexual and homosexual) outside marriage is considered a grave sin, with marriage recognized as only between a man and a woman.", "Same-sex marriages are not performed or supported by the LDS Church.", "Church members are encouraged to marry and have children, and Latter-day Saint families tend to be larger than average.", "Mormons are opposed to abortion, except in some exceptional circumstances, such as when pregnancy is the result of incest or rape or when the life or health of the mother is in serious jeopardy.", "Many practicing adult Mormons wear religious undergarments that remind them of covenants and encourage them to dress modestly.", "Latter-day Saints are counseled not to partake in any form of media that is obscene or pornographic in any way, including media that depicts graphic representations of sex or violence.", "Tattoos and body piercings are generally discouraged.LGBT Mormons remain in good standing in the church if they abstain from homosexual relations and obey the law of chastity.", "While there are no official numbers, LDS Family Services estimates that, on average, four or five members per LDS ward experience same-sex attraction.", "Gary Watts, former president of Family Fellowship, estimates that only 10 percent of homosexuals stay in the church.", "Many of these individuals have come forward through different support groups or websites discussing their homosexual attractions and concurrent church membership." ], [ "Groups within Mormonism", "Note that the categories below are not necessarily mutually exclusive.=== Latter-day Saints (\"LDS\") ===Members of the LDS Church, also known as Latter-day Saints, constitute over 95 percent of Mormons.Also note the use of the lower case ''d'' and hyphen in \"Latter-day Saints\", as opposed to the larger \"Latter Day Saint movement\".", "The beliefs and practices of LDS Mormons are generally guided by the teachings of LDS Church leaders.", "However, several smaller groups substantially differ from \"mainstream\" Mormonism in various ways.LDS Church members who do not actively participate in worship services or church callings are often called \"less-active\" or \"inactive\" (akin to the qualifying expressions ''non-observant'' or ''non-practicing'' used in relation to members of other religious groups).", "The LDS Church does not release statistics on church activity, but it is likely that about 40 percent of Mormons in the United States and 30 percent worldwide regularly attend worship services.", "Reasons for inactivity can include rejection of the fundamental beliefs, history of the church, lifestyle incongruities with doctrinal teachings or problems with social integration.", "Activity rates tend to vary with age, and disengagement occurs most frequently between age 16 and 25.In 1998, the church reported that most less active members returned to church activity later in life.", "As of 2017, the LDS Church was losing millennial-age members, a phenomenon not unique to the LDS Church.", "Former Latter-day Saints who seek to disassociate themselves from the religion are often referred to as ex-Mormons.=== Fundamentalist Mormons ===Members of sects that broke with the LDS Church over the issue of polygamy have become known as fundamentalist Mormons; these groups differ from mainstream Mormonism primarily in their belief in and practice of plural marriage.", "There are thought to be between 20,000 and 60,000 members of fundamentalist sects (0.1–0.4 percent of Mormons), with roughly half of them practicing polygamy.", "There are many fundamentalist sects, the largest two being the Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (FLDS Church) and the Apostolic United Brethren (AUB).", "In addition to plural marriage, some of these groups also practice a form of Christian communalism known as the law of consecration or the United Order.", "The LDS Church seeks to distance itself from all such polygamous groups, excommunicating their members if discovered practicing or teaching it, and today, a majority of Mormon fundamentalists have never been members of the LDS Church.=== Liberal Mormons ===Liberal Mormons, also known as Progressive Mormons, take an interpretive approach to LDS teachings and scripture.", "They look to the scriptures for spiritual guidance, but may not necessarily believe the teachings to be literally or uniquely true.", "For liberal Mormons, revelation is a process through which God gradually brings fallible human beings to greater understanding.", "A person in this group is sometimes mistakenly regarded by others within the mainstream church as a Jack Mormon, although this term is more commonly used to describe a different group with distinct motives to live the gospel in a non-traditional manner.", "Liberal Mormons place doing good and loving fellow human beings above the importance of believing correctly.", "In a separate context, members of small progressive breakaway groups have also adopted the label.=== Cultural Mormons ===Cultural Mormons are individuals who may not believe in certain doctrines or practices of the institutional LDS Church yet identify as members of the Mormon ethnic identity.", "Usually, this is a result of having been raised in the LDS faith or having converted and spent a large portion of one's life as an active member of the LDS Church.", "Cultural Mormons may or may not be actively involved with the LDS Church.", "In some cases, they may not be members of the LDS Church." ], [ "Beliefs", "Mormons have a scriptural canon consisting of the Bible (both Old and New Testaments), the Book of Mormon, and a collection of revelations and writings by Joseph Smith known as the Doctrine and Covenants and Pearl of Great Price.", "Mormons, however, have a relatively open definition of scripture.", "As a general rule, anything spoken or written by a prophet, while under inspiration, is considered to be the word of God.", "Thus, the Bible, written by prophets and apostles, is the word of God, so far as it is translated correctly.", "The Book of Mormon is also believed to have been written by ancient prophets and is viewed as a companion to the Bible.", "By this definition, the teachings of Smith's successors are also accepted as scripture, though they are always measured against and draw heavily from the scriptural canon.Mormons see as the premier figure of their religion.Mormons believe in \"a friendly universe\" governed by a God whose aim is to bring his children to immortality and eternal life.", "Mormons have a unique perspective on the nature of God, the origin of man, and the purpose of life.", "For instance, Mormons believe in a pre-mortal existence where people were literal spirit children of God and that God presented a plan of salvation that would allow his children to progress and become more like him.", "The plan involved the spirits receiving bodies on earth and going through trials in order to learn, progress, and receive a \"fullness of joy\".", "The most important part of the plan involved Jesus, the eldest of God's children, coming to earth as the literal Son of God to conquer sin and death so that God's other children could return.", "According to Mormons, every person who lives on earth will be resurrected, and nearly all of them will be received into various kingdoms of glory.", "To be accepted into the highest kingdom, a person must fully accept Christ through faith, repentance, and through ordinances such as baptism and the laying on of hands.confirmation According to Mormons, a deviation from the original principles of Christianity, known as the Great Apostasy, began not long after the ascension of Jesus Christ.", "It was marked by the corruption of Christian doctrine by Greek and other philosophies, with followers dividing into different ideological groups.", "Mormons claim the martyrdom of the apostles led to a loss of priesthood authority to administer the church and its ordinances.Mormons believe that God restored the early Christian church through Joseph Smith.", "In particular, Mormons believe that angels such as Peter, James, John, John the Baptist, Moses, and Elijah appeared to Smith and others and bestowed various priesthood authorities on them.", "Mormons believe that their church is the \"only true and living church\" because of the divine authority restored through Smith.", "Mormons self-identify as being Christian, while many Christians, particularly evangelical Protestants, disagree with this view.", "Mormons view other religions as having portions of the truth, doing good works, and having genuine value.The LDS Church has a top-down hierarchical structure with a president–prophet dictating revelations for the entire church.", "Lay Mormons are also believed to have access to inspiration and are encouraged to seek their own personal revelations.", "Mormons see Joseph Smith's First Vision as proof that the heavens are open and that God answers prayers.", "They place considerable emphasis on \"asking God\" to find out if something is true.", "Most Mormons do not claim to have had heavenly visions like Smith's in response to prayers but feel that God talks to them in their hearts and minds through the Holy Ghost.", "Though Mormons have some beliefs that are considered strange in a modernized world, they continue to hold onto their beliefs because they feel God has spoken to them." ], [ "See also", "* List of Latter Day Saints* Brighamite* List of former or dissident LDS* Anti-Mormonism" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* .", "*.", "* ** * * * .", "* * *.", "* * * .", "* .", "* * .", "*" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* churchofjesuschrist.org and comeuntochrist.org, official websites of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints* ''The Mormons'' (PBS documentary series)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Manitoba" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Manitoba''' ( ) is a province of Canada at the longitudinal centre of the country.", "It is Canada's fifth-most populous province, with a population of 1,342,153 as of 2021.Manitoba has a widely varied landscape, from arctic tundra and the Hudson Bay coastline in the north to dense boreal forest, large freshwater lakes, and prairie grassland in the central and southern regions.Indigenous peoples have inhabited what is now Manitoba for thousands of years.", "In the early 17th century, English and French fur traders began arriving in the area and establishing settlements.", "The Kingdom of England secured control of the region in 1673 and created a territory named Rupert's Land, which was placed under the administration of the Hudson's Bay Company.", "Rupert's Land, which included all of present-day Manitoba, grew and evolved from 1673 until 1869 with significant settlements of Indigenous and Métis people in the Red River Colony.", "Negotiations for the creation of the province of Manitoba commenced in 1869, but deep disagreements over the right to self-determination led to an armed conflict, known as the Red River Rebellion, between the federal government and the people (particularly Métis) of the Red River Colony.", "The resolution of the conflict and further negotiations led to Manitoba becoming the fifth province to join Canadian Confederation, when the Parliament of Canada passed the ''Manitoba Act'' on July 15, 1870.Manitoba's capital and largest city is Winnipeg, the sixth most populous municipality in Canada.", "Winnipeg is the seat of government, home to the Legislative Assembly of Manitoba and the Provincial Court.", "Four of the province's five universities, all four of its professional sports teams, and most of its cultural activities (including Festival du Voyageur and Folklorama) are located in Winnipeg.", "The city has an international airport as well as train and bus stations; a Canadian Forces base, CFB Winnipeg, operates from the airport and is the regional headquarters of the North American Aerospace Defense Command." ], [ "Etymology", "The name ''Manitoba'' possibly derives from either Cree or Ojibwe , both meaning .", "Alternatively, it may be from the Assiniboine , meaning (the lake was known to French explorers as ).", "The name was chosen by Thomas Spence for the new republic he proposed for the area south of the lake.", "Métis leader Louis Riel preferred the name over the proposed alternative of \"Assiniboia\".", "It was accepted in Ottawa under the ''Manitoba Act, 1870''." ], [ "History", "===Indigenous societies and European settlement===Modern-day Manitoba was inhabited by the First Nations people shortly after the last ice age glaciers retreated in the southwest about 10,000 years ago; the first exposed land was the Turtle Mountain area.", "The Ojibwe, Cree, Dene, Sioux, Mandan, and Assiniboine peoples founded settlements, and other tribes entered the area to trade.", "In Northern Manitoba, quartz was mined to make arrowheads.", "The first farming in Manitoba was along the Red River, where corn and other seed crops were planted before contact with Europeans.In 1611, Henry Hudson was one of the first Europeans to sail into what is now known as Hudson Bay, where he was abandoned by his crew.", "Thomas Button travelled this area in 1612 in an unsuccessful attempt to find and rescue Hudson.", "When the British ship ''Nonsuch'' sailed into Hudson Bay in 1668–1669, she became the first trading vessel to reach the area; that voyage led to the formation of the Hudson's Bay Company, to which the British government gave absolute control of the entire Hudson Bay watershed.", "This watershed was named Rupert's Land, after Prince Rupert, who helped to subsidize the Hudson's Bay Company.", "York Factory was founded in 1684 after the original fort of the Hudson's Bay Company, Fort Nelson (built in 1682), was destroyed by rival French traders.Pierre Gaultier de Varennes, sieur de La Vérendrye, visited the Red River Valley in the 1730s to help open the area for French exploration and trade.", "As French explorers entered the area, a Montreal-based company, the North West Company, began trading with the local Indigenous people.", "Both the North West Company and the Hudson's Bay Company built fur-trading forts; the two companies competed in southern Manitoba, occasionally resulting in violence, until they merged in 1821 (the Hudson's Bay Company Archives in Winnipeg preserve the history of this era).Great Britain secured the territory in 1763 after their victory over France in the North American theatre of the Seven Years' War, better known as the French and Indian War in North America; lasting from 1754 to 1763.The founding of the first agricultural community and settlements in 1812 by Lord Selkirk, north of the area which is now downtown Winnipeg, led to conflict between British colonists and the Métis.", "Twenty colonists, including the governor, and one Métis were killed in the Battle of Seven Oaks in 1816.=== Confederation ===Territorial evolution of Canada, 1867–presentRupert's Land was ceded to Canada by the Hudson's Bay Company in 1869 and incorporated into the Northwest Territories; a lack of attention to Métis concerns caused Métis leader Louis Riel to establish a local provisional government which formed into the Convention of Forty and the subsequent elected Legislative Assembly of Assiniboia on 9 March 1870.This assembly subsequently sent three delegates to Ottawa to negotiate with the Canadian government.", "This resulted in the ''Manitoba Act'' and that province's entry into the Canadian Confederation.", "Prime Minister Sir John A. Macdonald introduced the ''Manitoba Act'' in the House of Commons of Canada, the bill was given Royal Assent and Manitoba was brought into Canada as a province in 1870.Louis Riel was pursued by British army officer Garnet Wolseley because of the rebellion, and Riel fled into exile.", "The Canadian government blocked the Métis' attempts to obtain land promised to them as part of Manitoba's entry into confederation.", "Facing racism from the new flood of white settlers from Ontario, large numbers of Métis moved to what would become Saskatchewan and Alberta.Numbered Treaties were signed in the late 19th century with the chiefs of First Nations that lived in the area.", "They made specific promises of land for every family.", "As a result, a reserve system was established under the jurisdiction of the federal government.", "The prescribed amount of land promised to the native peoples was not always given; this led Indigenous groups to assert rights to the land through land claims, many of which are still ongoing.The original province of Manitoba was a square one-eighteenth of its current size, and was known colloquially as the \"postage stamp province\".", "Its borders were expanded in 1881, taking land from the Northwest Territories and the District of Keewatin, but Ontario claimed a large portion of the land; the disputed portion was awarded to Ontario in 1889.Manitoba grew to its current size in 1912, absorbing land from the Northwest Territories to reach 60°N, uniform with the northern reach of its western neighbours Saskatchewan, Alberta and British Columbia.The Manitoba Schools Question showed the deep divergence of cultural values in the territory.", "The Catholic Franco-Manitobans had been guaranteed a state-supported separate school system in the original constitution of Manitoba, but a grassroots political movement among English Protestants from 1888 to 1890 demanded the end of French schools.", "In 1890, the Manitoba legislature passed a law removing funding for French Catholic schools.", "The French Catholic minority asked the federal government for support; however, the Orange Order and other anti-Catholic forces mobilized nationwide to oppose them.", "The federal Conservatives proposed remedial legislation to override Manitoba, but they were blocked by the Liberals, led by Wilfrid Laurier.", "Once elected Prime Minister in 1896, Laurier implemented a compromise stating Catholics in Manitoba could have their own religious instruction for 30 minutes at the end of the day if there were enough students to warrant it, implemented on a school-by-school basis.=== Contemporary era ===Crowds gathering outside the old City Hall during the Winnipeg general strike, 21 June 1919By 1911, Winnipeg was the third largest city in Canada, and remained so until overtaken by Vancouver in the 1920s.", "A boomtown, it grew quickly around the start of the 20th century, with outside investors and immigrants contributing to its success.", "The drop in growth in the second half of the decade was a result of the opening of the Panama Canal in 1914, which reduced reliance on transcontinental railways for trade, as well as a decrease in immigration due to the outbreak of the First World War.", "Over 18,000 Manitoba residents enlisted in the first year of the war; by the end of the war, 14 Manitobans had received the Victoria Cross.During the First World War, Nellie McClung started the campaign for women's votes.", "On January 28, 1916, the vote for women was legalized.", "Manitoba was the first province to allow women to vote in provincial elections.", "This was two years before Canada as a country granted women the right to vote.After the First World War ended, severe discontent among farmers (over wheat prices) and union members (over wage rates) resulted in an upsurge of radicalism, coupled with a polarization over the rise of Bolshevism in Russia.", "The most dramatic result was the Winnipeg general strike of 1919.It began on 15 May and collapsed on 25 June 1919; as the workers gradually returned to their jobs, the Central Strike Committee decided to end the movement.", "Government efforts to violently crush the strike, including a Royal North-West Mounted Police charge into a crowd of protesters that resulted in multiple casualties and one death, had led to the arrest of the movement's leaders.", "In the aftermath, eight leaders went on trial, and most were convicted on charges of seditious conspiracy, illegal combinations, and seditious libel; four were deported under the ''Canadian Immigration Act''.The Great Depression (1929–) hit especially hard in Western Canada, including Manitoba.", "The collapse of the world market combined with a steep drop in agricultural production due to drought led to economic diversification, moving away from a reliance on wheat production.", "The Manitoba Co-operative Commonwealth Federation, forerunner to the New Democratic Party of Manitoba (NDP), was founded in 1932.Canada entered the Second World War in 1939.Winnipeg was one of the major commands for the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan to train fighter pilots, and there were air training schools throughout Manitoba.", "Several Manitoba-based regiments were deployed overseas, including Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry.", "In an effort to raise money for the war effort, the Victory Loan campaign organized \"If Day\" in 1942.The event featured a simulated Nazi invasion and occupation of Manitoba, and eventually raised over C$65 million.Aerial view of the Red River FloodwayWinnipeg was inundated during the 1950 Red River Flood and had to be partially evacuated.", "In that year, the Red River reached its highest level since 1861 and flooded most of the Red River Valley.", "The damage caused by the flood led then-Premier Duff Roblin to advocate for the construction of the Red River Floodway; it was completed in 1968 after six years of excavation.", "Permanent dikes were erected in eight towns south of Winnipeg, and clay dikes and diversion dams were built in the Winnipeg area.", "In 1997, the \"Flood of the Century\" caused over in damages in Manitoba, but the floodway prevented Winnipeg from flooding.In 1990, Prime Minister Brian Mulroney attempted to pass the Meech Lake Accord, a series of constitutional amendments to persuade Quebec to endorse the ''Canada Act 1982''.", "Unanimous support in the legislature was needed to bypass public consultation.", "Cree politician Elijah Harper opposed because he did not believe First Nations had been adequately involved in the Accord's process, and thus the Accord failed.Glen Murray, elected in Winnipeg in 1998, became the first openly gay mayor of a large North American city.", "The province was impacted by major flooding in 2009 and 2011.In 2004, Manitoba became the first province in Canada to ban indoor smoking in public places.", "In 2013, Manitoba was the second province to introduce accessibility legislation, protecting the rights of persons with disabilities." ], [ "Geography", "Relief map of ManitobaManitoba is bordered by the provinces of Ontario to the east and Saskatchewan to the west, the territory of Nunavut to the north, and the US states of North Dakota and Minnesota to the south.", "Manitoba is at the centre of the Hudson Bay drainage basin, with a high volume of the water draining into Lake Winnipeg and then north down the Nelson River into Hudson Bay.", "This basin's rivers reach far west to the mountains, far south into the United States, and east into Ontario.", "Major watercourses include the Red, Assiniboine, Nelson, Winnipeg, Hayes, Whiteshell and Churchill rivers.", "Most of Manitoba's inhabited south has developed in the prehistoric bed of Glacial Lake Agassiz.", "This region, particularly the Red River Valley, is flat and fertile; receding glaciers left hilly and rocky areas throughout the province.The province has a saltwater coastline bordering Hudson Bay and more than 110,000 lakes, covering approximately 15.6 percent or of its surface area.", "Manitoba's major lakes are Lake Manitoba, Lake Winnipegosis, and Lake Winnipeg, the tenth-largest freshwater lake in the world.", "A total of of traditional First Nations lands and boreal forest on Lake Winnipeg's east side were officially designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site known as Pimachiowin Aki in 2018.Baldy Mountain is the province's highest point at above sea level, and the Hudson Bay coast is the lowest at sea level.", "Riding Mountain, the Pembina Hills, Sandilands Provincial Forest, and the Canadian Shield are also upland regions.", "Much of the province's sparsely inhabited north and east lie on the irregular granite Canadian Shield, including Whiteshell, Atikaki, and Nopiming Provincial Parks.Extensive agriculture is found only in the province's southern areas, although there is grain farming in the Carrot Valley Region (near The Pas).", "Around 11 percent of Canada's farmland is in Manitoba.=== Climate ===Deep Lake at Riding Mountain National ParkManitoba has an extreme continental climate.", "Temperatures and precipitation generally decrease from south to north and increase from east to west.", "Manitoba is far from the moderating influences of mountain ranges or large bodies of water.", "Because of the generally flat landscape, it is exposed to cold Arctic high-pressure air masses from the northwest during January and February.", "In the summer, air masses sometimes come out of the Southern United States, as warm humid air is drawn northward from the Gulf of Mexico.", "Temperatures exceed numerous times each summer, and the combination of heat and humidity can bring the humidex value to the mid-40s.", "Carman, Manitoba, recorded the second-highest humidex ever in Canada in 2007, with 53.0.According to Environment Canada, Manitoba ranked first for clearest skies year round and ranked second for clearest skies in the summer and for the sunniest province in the winter and spring.Southern Manitoba (including the city of Winnipeg), falls into the humid continental climate zone (Köppen Dfb).", "This area is cold and windy in the winter and often has blizzards because of the open landscape.", "Summers are warm with a moderate length.", "This region is the most humid area in the prairie provinces, with moderate precipitation.", "Southwestern Manitoba, though under the same climate classification as the rest of Southern Manitoba, is closer to the semi-arid interior of Palliser's Triangle.", "The area is drier and more prone to droughts than other parts of southern Manitoba.", "This area is cold and windy in the winter and has frequent blizzards due to the openness of the Canadian Prairie landscape.", "Summers are generally warm to hot, with low to moderate humidity.Southern parts of the province, just north of Tornado Alley, experience tornadoes, with 16 confirmed touchdowns in 2016.In 2007, on 22 and 23 June, numerous tornadoes touched down, the largest an F5 tornado that devastated parts of Elie (the strongest recorded tornado in Canada).Köppen climate types of ManitobaThe province's northern sections (including the city of Thompson) fall in the subarctic climate zone (Köppen climate classification ''Dfc'').", "This region features long and extremely cold winters and brief, warm summers with little precipitation.", "Overnight temperatures as low as occur on several days each winter.CommunityRegionJuly dailymaximumJanuary dailymaximumAnnualprecipitation Morden Pembina Valley '''Winnipeg''' Winnipeg Pierson Westman Region Dauphin Parkland Steinbach Eastman Portage la Prairie Central Plains Brandon Westman The Pas Northern Thompson Northern Churchill Northern === Flora and fauna ===Polar bears are common in northern Manitoba.Manitoba natural communities may be grouped within five ecozones: boreal plains, prairie, taiga shield, boreal shield and Hudson plains.", "Three of these—taiga shield, boreal shield and Hudson plain—contain part of the Boreal forest of Canada which covers the province's eastern, southeastern, and northern reaches.Forests make up about , or 48 percent, of the province's land area.", "The forests consist of pines (Jack Pine, Red Pine, Eastern White Pine), spruces (White Spruce, Black Spruce), Balsam Fir, Tamarack (larch), poplars (Trembling Aspen, Balsam Poplar), birches (White Birch, Swamp Birch) and small pockets of Eastern White Cedar.Two sections of the province are not dominated by forest.", "The province's northeast corner bordering Hudson Bay is above the treeline and considered tundra.", "The tallgrass prairie once dominated the south-central and southeastern regions, including the Red River Valley.", "Mixed grass prairie is found in the southwestern region.", "Agriculture has replaced much of the natural vegetation but prairie can still be found in parks and protected areas; some are notable for the presence of the endangered western prairie fringed orchid.Manitoba is especially noted for its northern polar bear population; Churchill is commonly referred to as the \"Polar Bear Capital\".", "In the waters off the northern coast of the province are numerous marine species, including the beluga whale.", "Other populations of animals, including moose, white-tailed deer, mule deer, black and brown bears, coyote, cougar, red fox, Canada lynx, and gray wolf, are distributed throughout the province, especially in the provincial and national parks.", "There is a large population of red-sided garter snakes near Narcisse; the overwintering dens there are seasonally home to the world's largest concentration of snakes.Manitoba's bird diversity is enhanced by its position on two major migration routes, with 392 confirmed identified species; 287 of these nesting within the province.", "These include the great grey owl, the province's official bird, and the endangered peregrine falcon.Manitoba's lakes host 18 species of game fish, particularly species of trout, pike, and goldeye, as well as many smaller fish." ], [ "Demography", "+ Largest cities by population City 2021 2016 Winnipeg 749,607 705,224 Brandon 51,313 48,883 Steinbach 17,806\t 16,022 Winkler 13,745 12,660 Portage la Prairie 13,270 13,304 Thompson 13,035 13,678 Selkirk 10,504 10,278 Morden 9,929 8,668 Dauphin 8,638 8,369 ''Table source: Statistics Canada''At the 2021 census, Manitoba had a population of 1,342,153, more than half of which is in Winnipeg.", "Although initial colonization of the province revolved mostly around homesteading, the last century has seen a shift towards urbanization; Manitoba is the only Canadian province with over fifty-five percent of its population in a single city.The largest ethnic group in Manitoba is English (16.1%), followed by Scottish (14.5%), German (13.6%), Ukrainian (12.6%), Irish (11.0%), French (9.3%), Filipino (7.0%), Métis (6.8%), Polish (6.0%), First Nations (4.5%), Mennonite (3.9%), Russian (3.7%), Dutch (3.3%), Indian (3.0%), and Icelandic (2.4%).", "Indigenous peoples (including Métis) are Manitoba's fastest-growing ethnic group, representing 13.6 percent of Manitoba's population as of 2001 (some reserves refused to allow census-takers to enumerate their populations or were otherwise incompletely counted).", "Gimli, Manitoba is home to the largest Icelandic community outside of Iceland.As of the 2021 Canadian Census, the ten most spoken languages in the province included English (1,288,950 or 98.6%), French (111,790 or 8.55%), Tagalog (73,440 or 5.62%), Punjabi (42,820 or 3.28%), German (41,980 or 3.21%), Hindi (26,980 or 2.06%), Spanish (23,435 or 1.79%), Mandarin (16,765 or 1.28%), Cree (16,115 or 1.23%), and Plautdietsch (15,055 or 1.15%).", "The question on knowledge of languages allows for multiple responses.Most Manitobans belong to a Christian denomination: on the 2021 census, 54.2% reported being Christian, followed by 2.7% Sikh, 2.0% Muslim, 1.4% Hindu, 0.9% Jewish, and 0.8% Indigenous spirituality.", "36.7% reported no religious affiliation.", "The largest Christian denominations by number of adherents were the Roman Catholic Church with 21.2%; the United Church of Canada with 5.8%; and the Anglican Church of Canada with 3.3%." ], [ "Economy", "Manitoba has a moderately strong economy based largely on natural resources.", "Its Gross Domestic Product was C$50.834 billion in 2008.The province's economy grew 2.4 percent in 2008, the third consecutive year of growth.", "The average individual income in Manitoba in 2006 was C$25,100 (compared to a national average of C$26,500), ranking fifth-highest among the provinces.", "As of October 2009, Manitoba's unemployment rate was 5.8 percent.Manitoba's economy relies heavily on agriculture, tourism, electricity, oil, mining, and forestry.", "Agriculture is vital and is found mostly in the southern half of the province, although grain farming occurs as far north as The Pas.", "The most common agricultural activity is cattle husbandry, followed by assorted grains and oilseed.", "Manitoba is the nation's largest producer of sunflower seed and dry beans, and one of the leading sources of potatoes.", "Portage la Prairie is a major potato processing centre.", "Richardson International, one of the largest oat mills in the world, also has a plant in the municipality.Manitoba's largest employers are government and government-funded institutions, including crown corporations and services like hospitals and universities.", "Major private-sector employers are The Great-West Life Assurance Company, Cargill Ltd., and Richardson International.", "Manitoba also has large manufacturing and tourism sectors.", "Churchill's Arctic wildlife is a major tourist attraction; the town is a world capital for polar bear and beluga whale watchers.", "Manitoba is the only province with an Arctic deep-water seaport, at Churchill.In January 2018, the Canadian Federation of Independent Business claimed Manitoba was the most improved province for tackling red tape.=== Economic history ===Red River cart trainManitoba's early economy depended on mobility and living off the land.", "Indigenous Nations (Cree, Ojibwa, Dene, Sioux and Assiniboine) followed herds of bison and congregated to trade among themselves at key meeting places throughout the province.", "After the arrival of the first European traders in the 17th century, the economy centred on the trade of beaver pelts and other furs.", "Diversification of the economy came when Lord Selkirk brought the first agricultural settlers in 1811, though the triumph of the Hudson's Bay Company (HBC) over its competitors ensured the primacy of the fur trade over widespread agricultural colonization.HBC control of Rupert's Land ended in 1868; when Manitoba became a province in 1870, all land became the property of the federal government, with homesteads granted to settlers for farming.", "Transcontinental railways were constructed to simplify trade.", "Manitoba's economy depended mainly on farming, which persisted until drought and the Great Depression led to further diversification." ], [ "Military bases", "CFB Winnipeg is a Canadian Forces Base at the Winnipeg International Airport.", "The base is home to flight operations support divisions and several training schools, as well as the 1 Canadian Air Division and Canadian NORAD Region Headquarters.", "17 Wing of the Canadian Forces is based at CFB Winnipeg; the Wing has three squadrons and six schools.", "It supports 113 units from Thunder Bay to the Saskatchewan/Alberta border, and from the 49th parallel north to the high Arctic.", "17 Wing acts as a deployed operating base for CF-18 Hornet fighter–bombers assigned to the Canadian NORAD Region.The two 17 Wing squadrons based in the city are: the 402 (\"City of Winnipeg\" Squadron), which flies the Canadian designed and produced de Havilland Canada CT-142 Dash 8 navigation trainer in support of the 1 Canadian Forces Flight Training School's Air Combat Systems Officer and Airborne Electronic Sensor Operator training programs (which trains all Canadian Air Combat Systems Officer); and the 435 (\"Chinthe\" Transport and Rescue Squadron), which flies the Lockheed C-130 Hercules tanker/transport in airlift search and rescue roles, and is the only Air Force squadron equipped and trained to conduct air-to-air refuelling of fighter aircraft.Canadian Forces Base Shilo (CFB Shilo) is an Operations and Training base of the Canadian Forces east of Brandon.", "During the 1990s, Canadian Forces Base Shilo was designated as an Area Support Unit, acting as a local base of operations for Southwest Manitoba in times of military and civil emergency.", "CFB Shilo is the home of the 1st Regiment, Royal Canadian Horse Artillery, both battalions of the 1 Canadian Mechanized Brigade Group, and the Royal Canadian Artillery.", "The Second Battalion of Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry (2 PPCLI), which was originally stationed in Winnipeg (first at Fort Osborne, then in Kapyong Barracks), has operated out of CFB Shilo since 2004.CFB Shilo hosts a training unit, 3rd Canadian Division Training Centre.", "It serves as a base for support units of 3rd Canadian Division, also including 3 CDSG Signals Squadron, Shared Services Unit (West), 11 CF Health Services Centre, 1 Dental Unit, 1 Military Police Regiment, and an Integrated Personnel Support Centre.", "The base houses 1,700 soldiers." ], [ "Government and politics", "The Manitoba Legislative Building, meeting place of the Legislative Assembly of ManitobaAfter the control of Rupert's Land was passed from Great Britain to the Government of Canada in 1869, Manitoba attained full-fledged rights and responsibilities of self-government as the first Canadian province carved out of Rupert's Land.", "The Legislative Assembly of Manitoba was established on 14 July 1870.Political parties first emerged between 1878 and 1883, with a two-party system (Liberals and Conservatives).", "The United Farmers of Manitoba appeared in 1922, and later merged with the Liberals in 1932.Other parties, including the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF), appeared during the Great Depression; in the 1950s, Manitoban politics became a three-party system, and the Liberals gradually declined in power.", "The CCF became the New Democratic Party of Manitoba (NDP), which came to power in 1969.Since then, the Progressive Conservatives and the NDP have been the dominant parties.Like all Canadian provinces, Manitoba is governed by a unicameral legislative assembly.", "The executive branch is formed by the governing party; the party leader is the premier of Manitoba, the head of the executive branch.", "The head of state, King Charles III, is represented by the lieutenant governor of Manitoba, who is appointed by the governor general of Canada on advice of the prime minister.", "The head of state is primarily a ceremonial role, although the lieutenant governor has the official responsibility of ensuring Manitoba has a duly constituted government.The Legislative Assembly consists of the 57 Members elected to represent the people of Manitoba.", "The premier of Manitoba is Wab Kinew, who was elected in the 2023 provincial election.", "The province is represented in federal politics by 14 Members of Parliament and six Senators.Manitoba's judiciary consists of the Court of Appeal, the Court of King's Bench, and the Provincial Court.", "The Provincial Court is primarily for criminal law; 95 per cent of criminal cases in Manitoba are heard here.", "The Court of King's Bench is the highest trial court in the province.", "It has four jurisdictions: family law (child and family services cases), civil law, criminal law (for indictable offences), and appeals.", "The Court of Appeal hears appeals from both benches; its decisions can only be appealed to the Supreme Court of Canada.=== Official languages ===Both English and French are official languages of the legislature and courts of Manitoba, according to section 23 of the ''Manitoba Act, 1870'' (part of the Constitution of Canada).", "In April 1890, the Manitoba legislature attempted to abolish the official status of French and ceased to publish bilingual legislation.", "However, in 1985, the Supreme Court of Canada ruled in the Reference re Manitoba Language Rights that section 23 still applied, and that legislation published only in English was invalid (unilingual legislation was declared valid for a temporary period to allow time for translation).Although French is an official language for the purposes of the legislature, legislation, and the courts, the ''Manitoba Act'' does not require it to be an official language for the purpose of the executive branch (except when performing legislative or judicial functions).", "Hence, Manitoba's government is not completely bilingual.", "The Manitoba French Language Services Policy of 1999 is intended to provide a comparable level of provincial government services in both official languages.", "According to the 2006 Census, 82.8 percent of Manitoba's population spoke only English, 3.2 percent spoke only French, 15.1 percent spoke both, and 0.9 percent spoke neither.In 2010, the provincial government of Manitoba passed the ''Aboriginal Languages Recognition Act'', which gives official recognition to seven indigenous languages: Cree, Dakota, Dene, Inuktitut, Michif, Ojibway and Oji-Cree." ], [ "Transportation", "Union Station in Winnipeg|alt=Large grey stone building with large ornamental archway entranceManitoba has two Class I railways: Canadian National Railway (CN) and Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR).", "Winnipeg is centrally located on the main lines of both carriers, and both maintain large inter-modal terminals in the city.", "Via Rail offers transcontinental and Northern Manitoba passenger service from Winnipeg's Union Station.", "Numerous small regional and short-line railways also run trains within Manitoba: the Hudson Bay Railway, the Southern Manitoba Railway, Burlington Northern Santa Fe Manitoba, Greater Winnipeg Water District Railway, and Central Manitoba Railway.Winnipeg James Armstrong Richardson International Airport, Manitoba's largest airport, is one of only a few 24-hour unrestricted airports in Canada and is part of the National Airports System.", "A new, larger terminal opened in October 2011.It is the seventh busiest airport in Canada by passenger traffic, serving 4,484,343 passengers in 2018, and the 11th busiest airport by aircraft movements.", "The airport handles approximately of cargo annually, making it the third largest cargo airport in the country.", "Winnipeg is a major sorting facility for both FedEx and Purolator, and receives daily trans-border service from UPS.The Port of Churchill is the only Arctic deep-water port in Canada.", "It is nautically closer to ports in Northern Europe and Russia than any other port in Canada.", "It has four deep-sea berths for the loading and unloading of grain, general cargo and tanker vessels.", "The port is served by the Hudson Bay Railway.", "The port and railway came under complete community and Indigenous ownership in 2021, after AGT Food and Ingredients and Fairfax Financial transferred their shares in Arctic Gateway to OneNorth – a consortium of community and Indigenous partners which owned the other fifty percent of Arctic Gateway's shares." ], [ "Education", "Public schools follow a provincially mandated curriculum in either French or English.", "There are sixty-five funded independent schools in Manitoba, including three boarding schools.", "These schools must follow the Manitoban curriculum and meet other provincial requirements.", "There are forty-four non-funded independent schools, which are not required to meet those standards.", "Public schools in Manitoba fall under the regulation of one of thirty-seven school divisions within the provincial education system (except for the Manitoba Band Operated Schools, which are administered by the federal government).", "In 2021, the provincial government announced a plan to merge all English-language school divisions into 15 regional catchment areas, overseen by a provincial education authority.There are five universities in Manitoba, regulated by the Ministry of Advanced Education and Literacy.", "Four of these universities are in Winnipeg: the University of Manitoba, the largest and most comprehensive; the University of Winnipeg, a liberal arts school primarily focused on undergrad studies downtown; Université de Saint-Boniface, the province's only French-language university; and the Canadian Mennonite University, a religious-based institution.", "The Université de Saint-Boniface, established in 1818 and now affiliated with the University of Manitoba, is the oldest university in Western Canada.", "Brandon University, formed in 1899 and in Brandon, is the province's only university not in Winnipeg.Manitoba has fifty-four public library systems.", "Of these, Winnipeg Public Library has the largest collections, at 1.1 million items as of 2020." ], [ "Culture", "=== Arts ===Centennial Concert Hall in WinnipegThe Minister of Culture, Heritage, Tourism and Sport is responsible for promoting and, to some extent, financing Manitoban culture.", "Manitoba is the birthplace of the Red River Jig, a combination of Indigenous pow-wows and European reels popular among early settlers.", "Manitoba's traditional music has strong roots in Métis and First Nations culture, in particular the old-time fiddling of the Métis.", "Manitoba's cultural scene also incorporates classical European traditions.", "The Winnipeg-based Royal Winnipeg Ballet (RWB), is Canada's oldest ballet and North America's longest continuously operating ballet company; it was granted its royal title in 1953 under Queen Elizabeth II.", "The Winnipeg Symphony Orchestra (WSO) performs classical music and new compositions at the Centennial Concert Hall.", "Manitoba Opera, founded in 1969, also performs out of the Centennial Concert Hall.Author Margaret Laurence's home in NeepawaLe Cercle Molière (founded 1925) is the oldest French-language theatre in Canada, and Royal Manitoba Theatre Centre (founded 1958) is Canada's oldest English-language regional theatre.", "Manitoba Theatre for Young People was the first English-language theatre to win the Canadian Institute of the Arts for Young Audiences Award, and offers plays for children and teenagers as well as a theatre school.", "The Winnipeg Art Gallery (WAG), Manitoba's largest art gallery and the sixth largest in the country, hosts an art school for children; the WAG's permanent collection comprises over twenty thousand works, with a particular emphasis on Manitoban and Canadian art.The 1960s pop group the Guess Who was formed in Manitoba, and later became the first Canadian band to have a No.", "1 hit in the United States; Guess Who guitarist Randy Bachman later created Bachman–Turner Overdrive (BTO) with fellow Winnipeg-based musician Fred Turner.", "Fellow rocker Neil Young, grew up in Manitoba, and later played in Buffalo Springfield, and Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young.", "Folk rock band Crash Test Dummies formed in the late 1980s in Winnipeg and were the 1992 Juno Awards Group of the Year.Several prominent Canadian films were produced in Manitoba, such as ''The Stone Angel'', based on the Margaret Laurence book of the same title, ''The Saddest Music in the World'', ''Foodland'', ''For Angela'', and ''My Winnipeg''.", "Major films shot in Manitoba include ''The Assassination of Jesse James by the Coward Robert Ford'' and ''Capote'', both of which received Academy Award nominations.", "''Falcon Beach'', an internationally broadcast television drama, was filmed at Winnipeg Beach, Manitoba.Manitoba has a strong literary tradition.", "Bertram Brooker won the first-ever Governor General's Award for Fiction in 1936.Cartoonist Lynn Johnston, author of the comic strip ''For Better or For Worse'', was a finalist for a 1994 Pulitzer Prize and inducted into the Canadian Cartoonist Hall of Fame.", "Margaret Laurence's ''The Stone Angel'' and ''A Jest of God'' were set in Manawaka, a fictional town representing Neepawa; the latter title won the Governor General's Award in 1966.Carol Shields won both the Governor General's Award and the Pulitzer Prize for ''The Stone Diaries''.", "Gabrielle Roy, a Franco-Manitoban writer, won the Governor General's Award three times.", "A quote from her writings is featured on the Canadian $20 bill.", "Joan Thomas was nominated for the Governor General's Award twice and won in 2019 for ''Five Wives''.", "The province has also been home to many of the key figures in Mennonite literature, including Governor General Award-winning Miriam Toews, Giller winner David Bergen, Armin Wiebe and many others.", "Sandra Birdsell, whose fiction focusses on her Métis and Mennonite heritage, was thrice nominated for the Governor General's Literary Award for English Language Fiction, and also for the Scotiabank Giller Prize in 2001.=== Festivals ===Morden Corn and Apple FestivalAssiniboine Park PavilionFestivals take place throughout the province, with the largest centred in Winnipeg.", "The Winnipeg Folk Festival has an annual attendance of over 70,000.The Festival du Voyageur is an annual ten-day event held in Winnipeg's French Quarter, and is Western Canada's largest winter festival.", "It celebrates Canada's fur-trading past and French-Canadian heritage and culture.", "Folklorama, a multicultural festival run by the Folk Arts Council, receives around 400,000 pavilion visits each year, of which about thirty percent are from non-Winnipeg residents.", "The Winnipeg Fringe Theatre Festival is an annual alternative theatre festival, the second-largest festival of its kind in North America (after the Edmonton International Fringe Festival).===Museums===Manitoban museums document different aspects of the province's heritage.", "The Manitoba Museum is the largest museum in Manitoba and focuses on Manitoban history from prehistory to the 1920s.", "The full-size replica of the Nonsuch is the museum's showcase piece.", "The Manitoba Children's Museum at The Forks presents exhibits for children.", "There are two museums dedicated to the native flora and fauna of Manitoba: the Living Prairie Museum, a tall grass prairie preserve featuring 160 species of grasses and wildflowers, and FortWhyte Alive, a park encompassing prairie, lake, forest and wetland habitats, home to a large herd of bison.", "The Canadian Fossil Discovery Centre houses the largest collection of marine reptile fossils in Canada.", "Other museums feature the history of aviation, marine transport, and railways in the area.", "The Canadian Museum for Human Rights is the first Canadian national museum outside of the National Capital Region.=== Media ===Winnipeg has two daily newspapers: the ''Winnipeg Free Press'', a broadsheet with the highest circulation numbers in Manitoba, as well as the ''Winnipeg Sun'', a smaller tabloid-style paper.", "There are several ethnic weekly newspapers, including the weekly French-language ''La Liberté'', and regional and national magazines based in the city.", "Brandon has two newspapers: the daily ''Brandon Sun'' and the weekly ''Wheat City Journal''.", "Many small towns have local newspapers.There are five English-language television stations and one French-language station based in Winnipeg.", "The Global Television Network (owned by Canwest) is headquartered in the city.", "Winnipeg is home to twenty-one AM and FM radio stations, two of which are French-language stations.", "Brandon's five local radio stations are provided by Astral Media and Westman Communications Group.", "In addition to the Brandon and Winnipeg stations, radio service is provided in rural areas and smaller towns by Golden West Broadcasting, Corus Entertainment, and local broadcasters.", "CBC Radio broadcasts local and national programming throughout the province.", "Native Communications is devoted to indigenous programming and broadcasts to many of the isolated native communities as well as to larger cities.The Winnipeg Jets celebrate their first regulation win in Winnipeg at the MTS Centre on 17 October 2011" ], [ "Sports", "Manitoba has five professional sports teams: the Winnipeg Blue Bombers (Canadian Football League), the Winnipeg Jets (National Hockey League) and Manitoba Moose (American Hockey League), the Winnipeg Goldeyes (American Association), and Valour FC (Canadian Premier League).", "The province was previously home to another team called the Winnipeg Jets, which played in the World Hockey Association and National Hockey League from 1972 until 1996, when financial troubles prompted a sale and move of the team to Arizona, where they became the Phoenix Coyotes.", "A second incarnation of the Winnipeg Jets returned after True North Sports & Entertainment bought the Atlanta Thrashers and moved the team to Winnipeg in time for the 2011 hockey season.", "Manitoba has one major junior-level ice hockey team, the Western Hockey League's Brandon Wheat Kings, and one junior football team, the Winnipeg Rifles of the Canadian Junior Football League.", "It is also home to two teams in the Western Women's Canadian Football League: the Manitoba Fearless and Winnipeg Wolfpack.", "The Manitoba Herd, meanwhile, compete in the National Ringette League.", "The province is represented in university athletics by the university of Manitoba Bisons, the university of Winnipeg Wesmen, and the Brandon University Bobcats.", "All three teams compete in the Canada West Universities Athletic Association, a regional division of U Sports.Curling is an important winter sport in the province with Manitoba producing more men's national champions than any other province, while additionally in the top 3 women's national champions, as well as multiple world champions in the sport.", "The province also hosts the world's largest curling tournament in the MCA Bonspiel.Although not as prominent as ice hockey and curling, long track speed skating also features as a notable and top winter sport in Manitoba.", "The province has produced some of the world's best female speed skaters including Susan Auch and the country's top Olympic medal earners Cindy Klassen and Clara Hughes." ], [ "See also", "*Outline of Manitoba" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "***" ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mount Logan" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Mount Logan''' () is the highest mountain in Canada and the second-highest peak in North America after Denali.", "The mountain was named after Sir William Edmond Logan, a Canadian geologist and founder of the Geological Survey of Canada (GSC).", "Mount Logan is located within Kluane National Park Reserve in southwestern Yukon, less than north of the Yukon–Alaska border.", "Mount Logan is the source of the Hubbard and Logan glaciers.", "Although many shield volcanoes are much larger in size and mass, Mount Logan is believed to have the largest base circumference of any non-volcanic mountain on Earth, including a massif with eleven peaks over .Due to active tectonic uplifting, Mount Logan is still rising in height (approximately per year).", "Before 1992, the exact elevation of Mount Logan was unknown and measurements ranged from .", "In May 1992, a GSC expedition climbed Mount Logan and fixed the current height of using GPS.Temperatures are extremely low on and near Mount Logan.", "On the plateau, air temperature hovers around in the winter and reaches near freezing in summer with the median temperature for the year around .", "Minimal snow melt leads to a significant ice cap, almost thick in certain spots." ], [ "Peaks of the massif", "The Mount Logan massif is considered to contain all the surrounding peaks with less than of prominence, as listed below: Peak Height Prominence CoordinatesMain above Mentasta Pass Philippe Peak (West) Logan East Peak (Stuart Peak) Houston's Peak Prospector Peak AINA Peak Russell Peak Tudor Peak (Logan North Peak) Saxon Peak (Northeast) Queen Peak Capet Peak (Northwest) Catenary Peak Teddy Peak" ], [ "Discovery and naming", "Mount Logan is not readily visible from the surrounding lowlands or the coast, due to its position in the heart of the Saint Elias Mountains, although it can be seen from out to sea.", "Pictures taken across Yakutat Bay to the south southeast suggest it is visible from near Yakutat.", "Its first reported sighting was in 1890 by Israel C. Russell, during an expedition to nearby Mount Saint Elias, from the crest of the Pinnacle Pass Hills ().", "He wrote: \"The clouds parting toward the northeast revealed several giant peaks not before seen... One stranger, rising in three white domes far above the clouds, was especially magnificent\".", "Russell gave the mountain its present name.In 1894, Mount Logan's elevation was determined to be about , making it the highest known peak in North America at the time.", "In 1898, Denali was determined to be higher." ], [ "Ascent attempts", "===First ascent===Mount Logan from the North East, as seen from Kluane IcefieldIn 1922, a geologist approached the Alpine Club of Canada with the suggestion that the club send a team to the mountain to reach the summit for the first time.", "An international team of Canadian, British and American climbers was assembled the following year, initially planning an attempt in 1924 but forced by funding and preparation delays to postpone the trip until 1925.The international team of climbers began their journey in early May, crossing the mainland from the Pacific coast by train.", "They then walked the remaining to within of the Logan Glacier where they established base camp.", "In the early evening of June 23, 1925, Albert H. MacCarthy (leader), H.F. Lambart, Allen Carpé, Norman H. Read, W.W. Foster, and Andy Taylor stood on top for the first time.", "It had taken them 65 days to approach the mountain from the nearest town (McCarthy across the border in Alaska), reach the summit, and return, with all climbers intact, although some of them suffered severe frostbite.===Subsequent notable ascents and attempts===A climber on the knife ridge (east ridge)* 1957 ''East Ridge''.", "Don Monk, Gil Roberts and three others (US) reached the East Peak on July 19 after a 24-day climb.", "*1959 ''East Ridge'', second ascent and first alpine-style ascent, Hans Gmoser and five others (Canada).", "Starting from Kluane Lake, they hiked and skied to reach the base of the mountain.", "They climbed the ridge in six days and summited the East Peak on June 12.", "* 1965 ''Hummingbird Ridge'' (South Ridge).", "Dick Long, Allen Steck, John Evans, Jim Wilson, Franklin Coale Sr., and Paul Bacon (US) over 30 days, mid-July to Mid-August.", "Fred Beckey remarked: \"When they got back we just couldn't believe that they had climbed that thing.", "We didn't think they had a chance\".", "This climb is featured in ''Fifty Classic Climbs of North America''.", "As of 2023 the climb remains unrepeated.", "* 1967, August, the first ski descent of the mountain was made in two stages by Daniel C. Taylor main summit to the Kluane glacier * 1977 ''Warbler Ridge''.", "Dave Jones, Frank Baumann, Fred Thiessen, Jay Page (all from Canada) and Rene Bucher (Swiss) in 22 days.", "* 1978 '' West Ridge''.", "Steve Davis (WA), Jon Waterman, George Sievewright, Roger Hurt (NH).", "Climbed ridge in 27 days \"capsule-style\".", "* 1979 ''Northwest Ridge'' Michael Down (CA), Paul Kindree, John Howe, Reid Carter and John Wittmayer climbed to the summit over 22 days, topping out on June 19.", "* 1979 ''South-Southwest Ridge''.", "Raymond Jotterand (CA), Alan Burgess, Jim Elzinga and John Lauchlan reached the summit after 15 days of climbing on June 30 and July 1.", "* 1986 First winter ascent by Todd Frankiewicz, Willy Hersman, Steve Koslow, George Rooney, Vernon Tejas and John Bauman via the ''King’s Trench Route'' on March 16.", "* 1987 David Cheesmond and Catherine Freer disappeared while attempting to repeat the ''Hummingbird Ridge''.", "* 1992 June 6, an expedition sponsored by the Royal Canadian Geographic Society confirmed the height of Mount Logan using GPS.", "The leader was Michael Schmidt, with Lisel Currie, Leo Nadeay, Charlie Roots, J-C. Lavergne, Roger Laurilla, Patrick Morrow, Karl Nagy, Sue Gould, Alan Björn, Lloyd Freese, Kevin McLaughlin and Rick Staley.", "* 2005 late May.", "Three climbers from the Vancouver-based North Shore Rescue team became stranded on the mountain.", "A joint operation by Canadian and American forces rescued the three climbers and took them to Anchorage, Alaska for treatment of frostbite.", "* 2017 May 23.15-year-old Naomi Prohaska reached the summit, the youngest person to do so.", "She was part of a team led by her father.", "* 2018 June 14.The first all US veteran team reached the summit.", "The six-person team was unguided and part of the US non-profit organization Veterans Expeditions.Mount Logan 3D view" ], [ "Climbing rules", "In January 2020, due to the cost of search and rescue operations in recent years, Parks Canada announced new rules for climbing Mount Logan:* No solo expeditions* No winter expeditions (which also includes all of Kluane National Park)* Climbers must have insurance to cover the cost of search and rescue.There have been eight rescue missions in the past seven years in Kluane National Park.", "Each mission typically costs between $60,000 to $100,000 CAD which is paid for by Canadian taxpayers.", "A Parks Canada spokesperson said the new rules are to help reduce the financial burden to taxpayers." ], [ "Proposed renaming", "Following the death of Pierre Trudeau, former Prime Minister of Canada, in 2000, then Prime Minister Jean Chrétien, a close friend of Trudeau, proposed renaming the mountain Mount Trudeau.However opposition from Yukoners, mountaineers, geologists, Trudeau's political critics, and many other Canadians forced the plan to be dropped.", "A mountain in the Premier Range of British Columbia was named Mount Pierre Elliott Trudeau instead." ], [ "See also", "*List of mountain peaks of North America**List of mountain peaks of Canada***List of highest points of Canadian provinces and territories***List of Ultras in Canada*List of elevation extremes by country" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* The climbing history up to 1939 of Mount Logan, Snowdon, Ben Nevis, Ushba, Everest, Nanga Parbat, Kanchenjunga, the Matterhorn, Aoraki / Mount Cook and Mont Blanc.", "* * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * 2009 Trip Report* Mount Logan Canadian Titan - Virtual Museum of Canada" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Media bias" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Media bias''' occurs when journalists and news producers show bias in how they report and cover news.", "The term \"media bias\" implies a pervasive or widespread bias contravening of the standards of journalism, rather than the perspective of an individual journalist or article.", "The direction and degree of media bias in various countries is widely disputed.Practical limitations to media neutrality include the inability of journalists to report all available stories and facts, and the requirement that selected facts be linked into a coherent narrative.", "Government influence, including overt and covert censorship, biases the media in some countries, for example China, North Korea, Syria and Myanmar.", "Politics and media bias may interact with each other; the media has the ability to influence politicians, and politicians may have the power to influence the media.", "This can change the distribution of power in society.", "Market forces may also cause bias.", "Examples include bias introduced by the ownership of media, including a concentration of media ownership, the subjective selection of staff, or the perceived preferences of an intended audience.Assessing possible bias is one aspect of media literacy." ], [ "Types", "There have been extensive attempts to define media bias, and most works focus on individual concepts, which are all reviewed in a research project named the media bias taxonomy.", "While still ongoing, it attempts to summarize the domain as the distinct subcategories linguistic bias (encompassing linguistic intergroup bias, framing bias, epistemological bias, bias by semantic properties, and connotation bias), text-level context bias (featuring statement bias, phrasing bias, and spin bias), reporting-level context bias (highlighting selection bias, coverage bias, and proximity bias), cognitive biases (such as selective exposure and partisan bias), and related concepts like framing effects, hate speech, sentiment analysis, and group biases (encompassing gender bias, racial bias, and religion bias).", "This comprehensive classification underscores the multifaceted nature of media bias, illustrating the complexity of detecting and mitigating bias across different media content and contexts.In 2000, D'Alessio and Allen studied three possible sources of media bias:* Coverage bias when media choose to report only negative news about one party or ideology,* Gatekeeping bias (also known as selectivity or selection bias), when stories are selected or deselected, sometimes on ideological grounds (see spike).", "It is sometimes also referred to as agenda bias, when the focus is on political actors and whether they are covered based on their preferred policy issues.", "* Statement bias (also known as tonality bias or presentation bias), when media coverage is slanted towards or against particular actors or issues.Based on the findings of Gentzkow, Shapiro, and Stone, they summarize two forms of media bias in the literature driven by different motivations: demand-driven bias and supply-driven bias.", "Demand-driven bias includes three factors: \"reputation\", \"intrinsic utility from beliefs\", and \"delegation (or advice)\".Other common forms of political and non-political media bias include:* Advertising bias, when stories are selected or slanted to please advertisers.", "* Concision bias, a tendency to report views that can be summarized succinctly, crowding out more unconventional views that take time to explain.", "* Content bias, differential treatment of the parties in political conflicts, where biased news presents only one side of the conflict.", "* Corporate bias, when stories are selected or slanted to please corporate owners of media.", "* Decision-making bias, means that the motivation, frame of mind, or beliefs of the journalists will have an impact on their writing.", "It is generally pejorative.", "* Distortion bias, when the fact or reality is distorted or fabricated in the news.", "* Mainstream bias, a tendency to report what everyone else is reporting, and to avoid stories that will offend anyone.", "* Partisan bias, a tendency to report to serve particular political party leaning.", "* Sensationalism, bias in favor of the exceptional over the ordinary, giving the impression that rare events, such as airplane crashes, are more common than common events, such as automobile crashes.", "* Structural bias, when an actor or issue receives more or less favorable coverage as a result of newsworthiness and media routines, not as the result of ideological decisions (e.g.", "incumbency bonus).", "* False balance, when an issue is presented as even-sided, despite disproportionate amounts of evidence.", "* Undue weight, when a story is given much greater significance or portent than a neutral journalist or editor would give.", "* Speculative content, when stories focus not on what has occurred, but primarily on what might occur, using words like \"could\", \"might\", or \"what if\", without labeling the article as analysis or opinion.", "* False timeliness, implying that an event is a new event, and thus deriving notability, without addressing past events of the same kind.", "* Ventriloquism, when experts or witnesses are quoted in a way that intentionally voices the author's own opinion.", "* Demographic is also a common form of media bias, caused by factors such as gender, race, and social and economic status.For example, in some European countries, female politicians receive fewer mentions in the media than male politicians, due to gender bias in the media.", "A matched-pair analysis of men and women in mostly American new sources showed that men received more news coverage than women of comparable age and occupation, in spite of the fact that women were more likely to be of \"public interest\" as indicated by Wikipedia page views.Other forms of bias include reporting that favors or attacks a particular race, religion, gender, age, sexual orientation, ethnic group, or person." ], [ "History", "Political bias has been a feature of the mass media since its birth with the invention of the printing press.", "The expense of early printing equipment restricted media production to a limited number of people.", "Historians have found that publishers often served the interests of powerful social groups.John Milton's pamphlet ''Areopagitica, a Speech for the Liberty of Unlicensed Printing'', published in 1644, was one of the first publications advocating freedom of the press.In the 19th century, journalists began to recognize the concept of unbiased reporting as an integral part of journalistic ethics.", "This coincided with the rise of journalism as a powerful social force.", "Even today, though, the most conscientiously objective journalists cannot avoid accusations of bias.Like newspapers, the broadcast media (radio and television) have been used as a mechanism for propaganda from their earliest days, a tendency made more pronounced by the initial ownership of broadcast spectrum by national governments.", "Although a process of media deregulation has placed the majority of the western broadcast media in private hands, there still exists a strong government presence, or even monopoly, in the broadcast media of many countries across the globe.", "At the same time, the concentration of media ownership in private hands, and frequently amongst a comparatively small number of individuals, has also led to accusations of media bias.There are many examples of accusations of bias being used as a political tool, sometimes resulting in government censorship.", "* In the United States, in 1798, Congress passed the Alien and Sedition Acts, which prohibited newspapers from publishing \"false, scandalous, or malicious writing\" against the government, including any public opposition to any law or presidential act.", "This act was in effect until 1801.", "* During the American Civil War, President Abraham Lincoln accused newspapers in the border states of bias in favor of the Southern cause, and ordered many newspapers closed.", "* Antisemitic politicians who favored the United States entering World War II on the Nazi side asserted that the international media were controlled by Jews, and that reports of German mistreatment of Jews were biased and without foundation.", "Hollywood was accused of Jewish bias, and films such as Charlie Chaplin’s ''The Great Dictator'' were offered as alleged proof.", "* In the US during the labor union movement and the civil rights movement, newspapers supporting liberal social reform were accused by conservative newspapers of communist bias.", "Film and television media were accused of bias in favor of mixing of the races, and many television programs with racially mixed casts, such as ''I Spy'' and ''Star Trek'', were not aired on Southern stations.", "* During the war between the United States and North Vietnam, Vice President Spiro Agnew accused newspapers of anti-American bias, and in a famous speech delivered in San Diego in 1970, called anti-war protesters \"the nattering nabobs of negativism.", "\"Not all accusations of bias are political.", "Science writer Martin Gardner has accused the entertainment media of anti-science bias.", "He claims that television programs such as ''The X-Files'' promote superstition.", "In contrast, the Competitive Enterprise Institute, which is funded by businesses, accuses the media of being biased in favor of science and against business interests, and of credulously reporting science that shows that greenhouse gasses cause global warming." ], [ "Supply-driven bias and demand-driven bias", "'''Supply-driven bias'''A potential bias driver which represent that companies may \"prefer consumers to take particular actions\".Implications of Supply-driven bias in the case of firm incentives:* Supply-side incentives are able to control and affect consumers.", "Strong persuasive incentives can even be more powerful than profit motivation.", "* Competition leads to decreased bias and hinders the impact of persuasive incentives.", "And it tends to make the results more responsive to consumer demand.", "* Competition can improve consumer treatment, but it may affect the total surplus due to the ideological payoff of the owners.An example of supply-driven bias is Zinman and Zitzewitz's study of snowfall reporting.", "Ski attractions tend to be biased in snowfall reporting, and they have higher snowfall than official forecasts report.", "'''Demand-driven bias'''A potential bias driver that is \"demand from consumers themselves\".", "Consumers tend to favor a biased media based on their preferences, which is also known as “confirmation news”.There are three major factors that make this choice for consumers:* Delegation, which takes a filtering approach to bias.", "* Psychological utility, \"consumers get direct utility from news whose bias matches their own prior beliefs.", "\"* Reputation, consumers will make choices based on their prior beliefs and the reputation of the media companies.Demand-side incentives are often not related to distortion.", "Competition can still affect the welfare and treatment of consumers, but it is not very effective in changing bias compared to the supply side.In demand-driven bias, preferences and attitudes of readers can be monitored on social media, and mass media write news that caters to readers based on them.", "Mass media skew news driven by viewership and profits, leading to the media bias.", "And readers are also easily attracted to lurid news, although they may be biased and not true enough.Dong, Ren, and Nickerson investigated Chinese stock-related news and weibos in 20132014 from Sina Weibo and Sina Finance (4.27 million pieces of news and 43.17 million weibos) and found that news that aligns with Weibo users' beliefs are more likely to attract readers.", "Also, the information in biased reports also influences the decision-making of the readers.In Raymond and Taylor's test of weather forecast bias, they investigated weather reports of the New York Times during the games of the baseball team the Giants from 1890 to 1899.Their findings suggest that the New York Times produce biased weather forecast results depending on the region in which the Giants play.", "When they played at home in Manhattan, reports of sunny days predicting increased.", "From this study, Raymond and Taylor found that bias pattern in New York Times weather forecasts was consistent with demand-driven bias." ], [ "Time biased media and space biased media", "'''Time biased media'''Harold Innis suggests that time biased media are hard to move and durable.", "Examples of time biased are stone, parchment, and clay.", "Due to the manner of being difficult to move time biased media do not encourage territorial expansion.", "Time biased media encourage and facilitate the development of hierarchy.", "They are kept for more traditional, sacred, and civilized societies.", "Time can be described as en entity where only the information in the environment is seen as important.", "Harold Innis believed that our societies today moved away from this media bias in order to allow for more democratic practices as opposed to monarchic practices.", "'''Space biased media'''Space biased media is another type of bias originating from Harold Innis.", "In contrast to time biased media, social biased media is light and portable (easy to move).", "An example of space biased media is paper.", "Space biased media allows for the expansion of empires over space, can be quickly transported, administrative, has a relatively short lifespan and allows for limitless opportunity.", "Harold Innis argues that space biased media has allowed society to create a more accessible world in everyday life.", "Space biased media, he argues, is prevalent in today's society." ], [ "Country-specific", "=== United States ===Claims of media bias in the United States include claims of liberal bias, conservative bias, mainstream bias, corporate bias and activist/cause bias.", "Other claims include racial bias in criminal news in the United States." ], [ "Academic studies", "Media bias is studied at schools of journalism, university departments (including media studies, cultural studies, and peace studies).", "Other focuses beyond political bias include international differences in reporting, as well as bias in reporting of particular issues such as economic class or environmental interests.", "Currently, most of these analyses are performed manually, requiring exacting and time-consuming effort.", "However, an interdisciplinary literature review from 2019 found that automated methods, mostly from computer science and computational linguistics, are available or could be adapted for the analysis of the various forms of potential media bias.", "Employing or adapting such techniques would help to further automate the analyses in the social sciences, such as content analysis and frame analysis.The analysis of bias is itself subject to criticism and accusations of confirmation bias, arguing that liberal experimenters tend to get results that say the media has a conservative bias, while conservative experimenters tend to get results that say the media has a liberal bias, and those who do not identify themselves as either liberal or conservative get results indicating little bias, or mixed bias.", "For example, Martin Harrison's ''TV News: Whose Bias?''", "(1985) criticized the methodology of the Glasgow Media Group, arguing that the GMG identified bias selectively, via their own preconceptions about what phrases qualify as biased descriptions.", "For example, the GMG sees the word \"idle\" to describe striking workers as pejorative, despite the word being used by strikers themselves.Herman and Chomsky (1988) proposed a propaganda model hypothesizing systematic biases of U.S. media from structural economic causes.", "They hypothesize media ownership by corporations, funding from advertising, the use of official sources, efforts to discredit independent media (\"flak\"), and \"anti-communist\" ideology as the filters that bias news in favor of U.S. corporate interests.Many of the positions in the preceding study are supported by a 2002 study by Jim A. Kuypers: ''Press Bias and Politics: How the Media Frame Controversial Issues''.", "In this study of 116 mainstream US papers, including ''The New York Times'', ''the Washington Post'', ''Los Angeles Times'', and the ''San Francisco Chronicle'', Kuypers found that the mainstream print press in America operate within a narrow range of liberal beliefs.", "Those who expressed points of view further to the left were generally ignored, whereas those who expressed moderate or conservative points of view were often actively denigrated or labeled as holding a minority point of view.", "In short, political leaders, regardless of party, speaking within the press-supported range of acceptable discourse receive positive press coverage.", "Politicians, again regardless of party, speaking outside of this range are likely to receive negative press or be ignored.", "Kuypers also found that the liberal points of view expressed in editorial and opinion pages were found in hard news coverage of the same issues.", "Although focusing primarily on the issues of race and homosexuality, Kuypers found that the press injected opinion into its news coverage of other issues such as welfare reform, environmental protection, and gun control; in all, cases favoring a liberal point of view.Studies reporting perceptions of bias in the media are not limited to studies of print media.", "A joint study by the Joan Shorenstein Center on Press, Politics and Public Policy at Harvard University and the Project for Excellence in Journalism found that people see media bias in television news media such as CNN.", "Although both CNN and Fox were perceived in the study as not being centrist, CNN was perceived as being more liberal than Fox.", "Moreover, the study's findings concerning CNN's perceived bias are echoed in other studies.", "There is also a growing economics literature on mass media bias, both on the theoretical and the empirical side.", "On the theoretical side the focus is on understanding to what extent the political positioning of mass media outlets is mainly driven by demand or supply factors.", "This literature is surveyed by Andrea Prat of Columbia University and David Stromberg of Stockholm University.According to Dan Sutter of the University of Oklahoma in 2001, argued there was a systemic media bias because owners of media organizations, he claims, were left-leaning.", "David Baron of Stanford GSB presents a game-theoretic model of mass media behaviour in which, given that the pool of journalists systematically leans towards the left or the right, mass media outlets maximise their profits by providing content that is biased in the same direction.", "They can do so, because it is cheaper to hire journalists who write stories that are consistent with their political position.", "A concurrent theory would be that supply and demand would cause media to attain a neutral balance because consumers would of course gravitate towards the media they agreed with.", "This argument fails in considering the imbalance in self-reported political allegiances by journalists themselves, that distort any market analogy as regards offer: (..) ''Indeed, in 1982, 85 percent of Columbia Graduate School of Journalism students identified themselves as liberal, versus 11 percent conservative\"'' (Lichter, Rothman, and Lichter 1986: 48), quoted in Sutter, 2001.The 2005 study \"A Measure of Media Bias\", by political scientist Timothy J. Groseclose of UCLA and economist Jeffrey D. Milyo of the University of Missouri-Columbia, purports to rank news organizations in terms of identifying with liberal or conservative values relative to each other.", "They used think tank quotes and the Americans for Democratic Action (ADA) scores as a quantitative proxy for political leanings of the referential organizations.", "Thus their definition of \"liberal\" includes the RAND Corporation, a nonprofit research organization with strong ties to the Defense Department.", "Their work claims to detect a bias towards liberalism in the American media.The methods Groseclose and Milyo used to calculate this bias have been criticized by Mark Liberman, a professor of Linguistics at the University of Pennsylvania.", "Liberman concludes by saying he thinks \"that many if not most of the complaints directed against G&M are motivated in part by ideological disagreement – just as much of the praise for their work is motivated by ideological agreement.", "It would be nice if there were a less politically fraught body of data on which such modeling exercises could be explored.", "\"Sendhil Mullainathan and Andrei Shleifer of Harvard University construct a behavioural model, which is built around the assumption that readers and viewers hold beliefs that they would like to see confirmed by news providers.", "When news customers share common beliefs, profit-maximizing media outlets find it optimal to select and/or frame stories in order to pander to those beliefs.", "On the other hand, when beliefs are heterogeneous, news providers differentiate their offer and segment the market, by providing news stories that are slanted towards the two extreme positions in the spectrum of beliefs.Matthew Gentzkow and Jesse Shapiro of Chicago GSB present another demand-driven theory of mass media bias.", "If readers and viewers have a priori views on the current state of affairs and are uncertain about the quality of the information about it being provided by media outlets, then the latter have an incentive to slant stories towards their customers' prior beliefs, in order to build and keep a reputation for high-quality journalism.", "The reason for this is that rational agents would tend to believe that pieces of information that go against their prior beliefs in fact originate from low-quality news providers.Given that different groups in society have different beliefs, priorities, and interests, to which group would the media tailor its bias?", "David Stromberg constructs a demand-driven model where media bias arises because different audiences have different effects on media profits.", "Advertisers pay more for affluent audiences and media may tailor content to attract this audience, perhaps producing a right-wing bias.", "On the other hand, urban audiences are more profitable to newspapers because of lower delivery costs.", "Newspapers may for this reason tailor their content to attract the profitable predominantly liberal urban audiences.", "Finally, because of the increasing returns to scale in news production, small groups such as minorities are less profitable.", "This biases media content against the interest of minorities.Steve Ansolabehere, Rebecca Lessem and Jim Snyder of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology analyze the political orientation of endorsements by U.S. newspapers.", "They find an upward trend in the average propensity to endorse a candidate, and in particular an incumbent one.", "There are also some changes in the average ideological slant of endorsements: while in the 1940s and in the 1950s there was a clear advantage to Republican candidates, this advantage continuously eroded in subsequent decades, to the extent that in the 1990s the authors find a slight Democratic lead in the average endorsement choice.John Lott and Kevin Hassett of the American Enterprise Institute study the coverage of economic news by looking at a panel of 389 U.S. newspapers from 1991 to 2004, and from 1985 to 2004 for a subsample comprising the top 10 newspapers and the Associated Press.", "For each release of official data about a set of economic indicators, the authors analyze how newspapers decide to report on them, as reflected by the tone of the related headlines.", "The idea is to check whether newspapers display some kind of partisan bias, by giving more positive or negative coverage to the same economic figure, as a function of the political affiliation of the incumbent president.", "Controlling for the economic data being released, the authors find that there are between 9.6 and 14.7 percent fewer positive stories when the incumbent president is a Republican.Riccardo Puglisi of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology looks at the editorial choices of the ''New York Times'' from 1946 to 1997.He finds that the ''Times'' displays Democratic partisanship, with some watchdog aspects.", "This is the case, because during presidential campaigns the ''Times'' systematically gives more coverage to Democratic topics of civil rights, health care, labor and social welfare, but only when the incumbent president is a Republican.", "These topics are classified as Democratic ones, because Gallup polls show that on average U.S. citizens think that Democratic candidates would be better at handling problems related to them.", "According to Puglisi, in the post-1960 period the ''Times'' displays a more symmetric type of watchdog behaviour, just because during presidential campaigns it also gives more coverage to the typically Republican issue of defense when the incumbent president is a Democrat, and less so when the incumbent is a Republican.Alan Gerber and Dean Karlan of Yale University use an experimental approach to examine not whether the media are biased, but whether the media influence political decisions and attitudes.", "They conduct a randomized control trial just prior to the November 2005 gubernatorial election in Virginia and randomly assign individuals in Northern Virginia to (a) a treatment group that receives a free subscription to the Washington Post, (b) a treatment group that receives a free subscription to the Washington Times, or (c) a control group.", "They find that those who are assigned to the Washington Post treatment group are eight percentage points more likely to vote for the Democrat in the elections.", "The report also found that \"exposure to either newspaper was weakly linked to a movement away from the Bush administration and Republicans.", "\"A self-described \"progressive\" media watchdog group, Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting (FAIR), in consultation with the Survey and Evaluation Research Laboratory at Virginia Commonwealth University, sponsored a 1998 survey in which 141 Washington bureau chiefs and Washington-based journalists were asked a range of questions about how they did their work and about how they viewed the quality of media coverage in the broad area of politics and economic policy.", "\"They were asked for their opinions and views about a range of recent policy issues and debates.", "Finally, they were asked for demographic and identifying information, including their political orientation\".", "They then compared to the same or similar questions posed with \"the public\" based on Gallup, and Pew Trust polls.", "Their study concluded that a majority of journalists, although relatively liberal on social policies, were significantly to the right of the public on economic, labor, health care and foreign policy issues.This study continues: \"we learn much more about the political orientation of news content by looking at sourcing patterns rather than journalists' personal views.", "As this survey shows, it is government officials and business representatives to whom journalists \"nearly always\" turn when covering economic policy.", "Labor representatives and consumer advocates were at the bottom of the list.", "This is consistent with earlier research on sources.", "For example, analysts from the non-partisan Brookings Institution and from conservative think tanks such as the Heritage Foundation and the American Enterprise Institute are those most quoted in mainstream news accounts.In direct contrast to the FAIR survey, in 2014, media communication researcher Jim A. Kuypers published a 40-year longitudinal, aggregate study of the political beliefs and actions of American journalists.", "In every single category, for instance, social, economic, unions, health care, and foreign policy, he found that nationwide, print and broadcast journalists and editors as a group were \"considerably\" to the political left of the majority of Americans, and that these political beliefs found their way into news stories.", "Kuypers concluded, \"Do the political proclivities of journalists influence their interpretation of the news?", "I answer that with a resounding, yes.", "As part of my evidence, I consider testimony from journalists themselves. ...", "A solid majority of journalists do allow their political ideology to influence their reporting.", "\"Perceptions of media bias and trust in the media have changed significantly over time.", "Pew studies reported that the percentage of Americans who trusted that news media “get their facts straight” dropped from 55% in 1985, to 25% in 2011.Similarly, the percentage of Americans who trusted that news organizations would deal fairly with all sides when dealing with political and social issues dropped from 34% in 1985 to 16% in 2011.By 2011 almost two-thirds of respondents considered news organizations to be “politically biased in their reporting”, up from 45% in 1985.Similar decreases in trust have been reported by Gallup, with an all-time low around the 2016 American presidential election.", "In 2022, half of Americans responded that they believed that news organizations would deliberately attempt to mislead them.", "Jonathan M. Ladd, who has conducted intensive studies of media trust and media bias, concluded that the primary cause of belief in media bias is telling people that particular media are biased.", "People who are told that a medium is biased tend to believe that it is biased, and this belief is unrelated to whether that medium is actually biased or not.", "The only other factor with as strong an influence on belief that media is biased is extensive coverage of celebrities.", "A majority of people see such media as biased, while at the same time preferring media with extensive coverage of celebrities.Starting in 2017, the Knight Foundation and Gallup conducted research to try to understand the effect of reader bias on the reader's perception of news source bias.", "Knight Foundation partnered with Gallup to create NewsLens — an experimental platform and news aggregator first developed in 2017 to facilitate novel research on how people interact with the news online in a manner that offers insights to academics, technology policymakers and journalists.. Their research showed that those with more extreme political views tend to provide more biased ratings of news.", "NewsLens became generally available in 2020, with the goals of expanding on the research and helping the US public to read and share news with less bias.", "However, , the platform was closed." ], [ "Identifying bias", "Experiments have shown that media bias affects behavior and more specifically influences the readership's political ideology.", "A study found higher politicization rates with increased exposure to the Fox News channel.", "Forms of media bias include omission (leaving out certain words that favor one side of the story), selection of sources, sharing specific sources that proves one point, story selection, the choosing of what stories to tell that support an argument, placement, highlighting specific words in eye-catching locations of the paper, labeling, naming groups with extreme labels, and spin (the tone used).", "These 6 steps in identifying bias can help the reader be aware of biases in the story and develop a more informed idea of the truthful narrative." ], [ "Efforts to correct bias", "A technique used to avoid bias is the \"point/counterpoint\" or \"round table\", an adversarial format in which representatives of opposing views comment on an issue.", "This approach theoretically allows diverse views to appear in the media.", "However, the person organizing the report still has the responsibility to choose reporters or journalists that represent a diverse or balanced set of opinions, to ask them non-prejudicial questions, and to edit or arbitrate their comments fairly.", "When done carelessly, a point/counterpoint can be as unfair as a simple biased report, by suggesting that the \"losing\" side lost on its merits.", "Besides these challenges, exposing news consumers to differing viewpoints seems to be beneficial for a balanced understanding and more critical assessment of current events and latent topics.Using this format can also lead to accusations that the reporter has created a misleading appearance that viewpoints have equal validity (sometimes called \"false balance\").", "This may happen when a taboo exists around one of the viewpoints, or when one of the representatives habitually makes claims that are easily shown to be inaccurate.One such allegation of misleading balance came from Mark Halperin, political director of ABC News.", "He stated in an internal e-mail message that reporters should not \"artificially hold George W. Bush and John Kerry 'equally' accountable\" to the public interest, and that complaints from Bush supporters were an attempt to \"get away with ... renewed efforts to win the election by destroying Senator Kerry.\"", "When the conservative web site the Drudge Report published this message, many Bush supporters viewed it as \"smoking gun\" evidence that Halperin was using ABC to propagandize against Bush to Kerry's benefit, by interfering with reporters' attempts to avoid bias.", "An academic content analysis of election news later found that coverage at ABC, CBS, and NBC was more favorable toward Kerry than Bush, while coverage at Fox News Channel was more favorable toward Bush.Scott Norvell, the London bureau chief for Fox News, stated in a May 20, 2005 interview with ''The Wall Street Journal'' that:\"Even we at Fox News manage to get some lefties on the air occasionally, and often let them finish their sentences before we club them to death and feed the scraps to Karl Rove and Bill O'Reilly.", "And those who hate us can take solace in the fact that they aren't subsidizing Bill's bombast; we payers of the BBC license fee don't enjoy that peace of mind.Fox News is, after all, a private channel and our presenters are quite open about where they stand on particular stories.", "That's our appeal.", "People watch us because they know what they are getting.", "The Beeb's (British Broadcasting Corporation) (BBC) institutionalized leftism would be easier to tolerate if the corporation was a little more honest about it\".Another technique used to avoid bias is disclosure of affiliations that may be considered a possible conflict of interest.", "This is especially apparent when a news organization is reporting a story with some relevancy to the news organization itself or to its ownership individuals or conglomerate.", "Often this disclosure is mandated by the laws or regulations pertaining to stocks and securities.", "Commentators on news stories involving stocks are often required to disclose any ownership interest in those corporations or in its competitors.In rare cases, a news organization may dismiss or reassign staff members who appear biased.", "This approach was used in the Killian documents affair and after Peter Arnett's interview with the Iraqi press.", "This approach is presumed to have been employed in the case of Dan Rather over a story that he ran on ''60 Minutes'' in the month prior to the 2004 election that attempted to impugn the military record of George W. Bush by relying on allegedly fake documents that were provided by Bill Burkett, a retired Lieutenant Colonel in the Texas Army National Guard.Finally, some countries have laws enforcing balance in state-owned media.", "Since 1991, the CBC and Radio Canada, its French language counterpart, are governed by the Broadcasting Act.", "This act states, among other things:...the programming provided by the Canadian broadcasting system should:* (i) be varied and comprehensive, providing a balance of information, enlightenment and entertainment for men, women and children of all ages, interests and tastes,(...)* (iv) provide a reasonable opportunity for the public to be exposed to the expression of differing views on matters of public concernBesides these manual approaches, several (semi-)automated approaches have been developed by social scientists and computer scientists.", "These approaches identify differences in news coverage, which potentially resulted from media bias, by analyzing the text and meta data, such as author and publishing date.", "For instance, NewsCube is a news aggregator that extracts phrases that describe a topic differently compared to another.", "Another approach, matrix-based news aggregation, spans a matrix over two dimensions, such as ''publisher countries'' (in which articles have been published) and ''mentioned countries'' (on which country an article reports).", "As a result, each cell contains articles that have been published in one country and that report on another country.", "Particularly in international news topics, such an approach helps to reveal differences in media coverage between the involved countries.", "Attempts have also been made to utilize machine-learning to analyze the bias of text.", "For example, person-oriented framing analysis attempts to identify frames, i.e., \"perspectives\", in news coverage on a topic by determining how each person mentioned in the topic's coverage is portrayed.To detect bias in news articles automatically, effort has been done to collect and annotate datasets for machine-learning methods.", "Conducted by Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, a multidimensional dataset based on Crowdsourcing has been created for analyzing and detecting News Bias.", "This schema covers the overall bias, as well as the bias dimensions (1) hidden assumptions, (2) subjectivity, and (3) representation tendencies.", "The data set consists of more than 2,000 sentences annotated with 43,000 bias and bias dimension labels.", "The study shows that crowdworkers’ countries of origin seem to affect their judgements.", "Non-Western crowdworkers tend to annotate more bias either directly or in the form of bias dimensions (e.g., subjectivity) than Western crowdworkers do." ], [ "Social media bias", "Perceptions of media bias may also be related to the rise of social media.", "The rise of social media has undermined the economic model of traditional media.", "The number of people who rely upon social media has increased and the number who rely on print news has decreased.Studies of social media and disinformation suggest that the political economy of social media platforms has led to a commodification of information on social media.", "Messages are prioritized and rewarded based on their virality and shareability rather than their truth, promoting radical, shocking click-bait content.", "Social media influences people in part because of psychological tendencies to accept incoming information, to take feelings as evidence of truth, and to not check assertions against facts and memories.Media bias in social media is also reflected in hostile media effect.", "Social media has a place in disseminating news in modern society, where viewers are exposed to other people's comments while reading news articles.", "In their 2020 study, Gearhart and her team showed that viewers' perceptions of bias increased and perceptions of credibility decreased after seeing comments with which they held different opinions.Within the United States, Pew Research Center reported that 64% of Americans believed that social media had a toxic effect on U.S. society and culture in July 2020.Only 10% of Americans believed that it had a positive effect on society.", "Some of the main concerns with social media lie with the spread of deliberately false information and the spread of hate and extremism.", "Social scientist experts explain the growth of misinformation and hate as a result of the increase in echo chambers.Fueled by confirmation bias, online echo chambers allow users to be steeped within their own ideology.", "Because social media is tailored to your interests and your selected friends, it is an easy outlet for political echo chambers.", "Another Pew Research poll in 2019 showed that 28% of US adults \"often\" find their news through social media, and 55% of US adults get their news from social media either \"often\" or \"sometimes\".", "Additionally, more people are reported as going to social media for their news as the COVID-19 pandemic has restricted politicians to online campaigns and social media live streams.", "GCF Global encourages online users to avoid echo chambers by interacting with different people and perspectives along with avoiding the temptation of confirmation bias.Yu-Ru and Wen-Ting's research looks into how liberals and conservatives conduct themselves on Twitter after three mass shooting events.", "Although they would both show negative emotions towards the incidents they differed in the narratives they were pushing.", "Both sides would often contrast in what the root cause was along with who is deemed the victims, heroes, and villain/s.", "There was also a decrease in any conversation that was considered proactive.", "Media scholar Siva Vaidhyanathan, in his book ''Anti-Social Media: How Facebook Disconnects Us and Undermines Democracy'' (2018), argues that on social media networks, the most emotionally charged and polarizing topics usually predominate, and that \"If you wanted to build a machine that would distribute propaganda to millions of people, distract them from important issues, energize hatred and bigotry, erode social trust, undermine journalism, foster doubts about science, and engage in massive surveillance all at once, you would make something a lot like Facebook.", "\"In a 2021 report, researchers at the New York University's Stern Center for Business and Human Rights found that Republicans' frequent argument that social media companies like Facebook and Twitter have an \"anti-conservative\" bias is false and lacks any reliable evidence supporting it; the report found that right-wing voices are in fact dominant on social media and that the claim that these platforms have an anti-conservative lean \"is itself a form of disinformation.", "\"A 2021 study in ''Nature Communications'' examined political bias on social media by assessing the degree to which Twitter users were exposed to content on the left and rightspecifically, exposure on the home timeline (the \"news feed\").", "The study found that conservative Twitter accounts are exposed to content on the right, whereas liberal accounts are exposed to moderate content, shifting those users' experiences toward the political center.", "The study determined: \"Both in terms of information to which they are exposed and content they produce, drifters initialized with Right-leaning sources stay on the conservative side of the political spectrum.", "Those initialized with Left-leaning sources, on the other hand, tend to drift toward the political center: they are exposed to more conservative content and even start spreading it.\"", "These findings held true for both hashtags and links.", "The study also found that conservative accounts are exposed to substantially more low-credibility content than other accounts.A 2022 study in ''PNAS,'' using a long-running massive-scale randomized experiment, found that the political right enjoys higher algorithmic amplification than the political left in six out of seven countries studied.", "In the US, algorithmic amplification favored right-leaning news sources.Conservatives have argued that Facebook and Twitter limiting the spread of the Hunter Biden laptop controversy on their platforms that later turned out to be accurate \"proves Big Tech's bias\".Media bias is also reflected in search systems in social media.", "Kulshrestha and her team found through research in 2018 that the top-ranked results returned by these search engines can influence users' perceptions when they conduct searches for events or people, which is particularly reflected in political bias and polarizing topics." ], [ "National and ethnic viewpoint", "Many news organizations reflect, or are perceived to reflect in some way, the viewpoint of the geographic, ethnic, and national population that they primarily serve.", "Media within countries are sometimes seen as being sycophantic or unquestioning about the country's government.Western media are often criticized in the rest of the world (including eastern Europe, Asia, Africa, and the Middle East) as being pro-Western with regard to a variety of political, cultural and economic issues.", "Al Jazeera is frequently criticized both in the West and in the Arab world.The Israeli–Palestinian conflict and wider Arab–Israeli issues are a particularly controversial area, and nearly all coverage of any kind generates accusation of bias from one or both sides.", "This topic is covered in a separate article." ], [ "Religious bias", "The media are often accused of bias favoring a particular religion or of bias against a particular religion.", "In some countries, only reporting approved by a state religion is permitted, whereas in other countries, derogatory statements about any belief system are considered hate crimes and are illegal.The Satanic panic, a moral panic and episode of national hysteria that emerged in the U.S. in the 1980s (and thereafter to Canada, Britain, and Australia), was reinforced by tabloid media and infotainment.", "Scholar Sarah Hughes, in a study published in 2016, argued that the panic \"both reflected and shaped a cultural climate dominated by the overlapping worldviews of politically active conservatives\" whose ideology \"was incorporated into the panic and reinforced through\" tabloid media, sensationalist television and magazine reporting, and local news.", "Although the panic dissipated in the 1990s after it was discredited by journalists and the courts, Hughes argues that the panic has had an enduring influence in American culture and politics even decades later.In 2012, ''Huffington Post'', columnist Jacques Berlinerblau argued that secularism has often been misinterpreted in the media as another word for atheism, stating that: \"Secularism must be the most misunderstood and mangled ism in the American political lexicon.", "Commentators on the right and the left routinely equate it with Stalinism, Nazism and Socialism, among other dreaded isms.", "In the United States, of late, another false equation has emerged.", "That would be the groundless association of secularism with atheism.", "The religious right has profitably promulgated this misconception at least since the 1970s.", "\"According to Stuart A. Wright, there are six factors that contribute to media bias against minority religions: first, the knowledge and familiarity of journalists with the subject matter; second, the degree of cultural accommodation of the targeted religious group; third, limited economic resources available to journalists; fourth, time constraints; fifth, sources of information used by journalists; and finally, the front-end/back-end disproportionality of reporting.", "According to Yale Law professor Stephen Carter, \"it has long been the American habit to be more suspicious ofand more repressive towardreligions that stand outside the mainline Protestant-Roman Catholic-Jewish troika that dominates America's spiritual life.\"", "As for front-end/back-end disproportionality, Wright says: \"news stories on unpopular or marginal religions frequently are predicated on unsubstantiated allegations or government actions based on faulty or weak evidence occurring at the front-end of an event.", "As the charges weighed in against material evidence, these cases often disintegrate.", "Yet rarely is there equal space and attention in the mass media given to the resolution or outcome of the incident.", "If the accused are innocent, often the public is not made aware.\"" ], [ "Role of language", "Bias is often reflected in which language is used, and in the way that language is used.", "Mass media has a worldwide reach, but must communicate with each linguistic group in some language they understand.", "The use of language may be neutral, or may attempt to be as neutral as possible, using careful translation and avoiding culturally charged words and phrases.", "Or it may be intentionally or accidentally biased, using mistranslations and trigger words targeting particular groups.For example, in Bosnia and Herzegovina there are three mutually intelligible languages, Bosnian, Croatian, and Serbian.", "Media that try to reach as large an audience as possible use words common to all three languages.", "Media that want to target just one group may choose words that are unique to that group.", "In the United States, while most media is in English, in the 2020 election both major political parties used Spanish language advertising to reach out to Hispanic voters.", "Al Jazeera originally used Arabic, to reach its target audience, but in 2003 launched Al Jazeera English to broaden that audience.Attempts to use language designed to appeal to a particular cultural group can backfire, as when Kimberly Guilfoyle, speaking at the Republican National Convention in 2020, said she was proud that her mother was an immigrant from Puerto Rico.", "Puerto Ricans were quick to point out that they are born American citizens, and are not immigrants.There are also false flag broadcasts, that pretend to be favoring one group, while using language deliberately chosen to anger the target audience.Language may also introduce a more subtle form of bias.", "The selection of metaphors and analogies, or the inclusion of personal information in one situation but not another can introduce bias, such as a gender bias.", "Use of a word with positive or negative connotations rather than a more neutral synonym can form a biased picture in the audience's mind.", "For example, it makes a difference whether the media calls a group \"terrorists\" or \"freedom fighters\" or \"insurgents\".", "A 2005 memo to the staff of the CBC states::Rather than calling assailants \"terrorists,\" we can refer to them as bombers, hijackers, gunmen (if we're sure no women were in the group), militants, extremists, attackers or some other appropriate noun.In a widely criticized episode, initial online BBC reports of the 7 July 2005 London bombings identified the perpetrators as terrorists, in contradiction to the BBC's internal policy.", "But by the next day, journalist Tom Gross noted that the online articles had been edited, replacing \"terrorists\" by \"bombers\".", "In another case, March 28, 2007, the BBC paid almost $400,000 in legal fees in a London court to keep an internal memo dealing with alleged anti-Israeli bias from becoming public.", "The BBC has been accused of having a pro-Israel bias.=== Anglophone ===Some of the world's principal suppliers of news, the news agencies, and the main buyers of news are Anglophone corporations which could give an Anglophone bias to the selection and depiction of events.", "Anglophone definitions of what constitutes news are paramount; the news provided originates in Anglophone capitals and responds first to their own rich domestic markets.", "Most news printed and broadcast throughout the world each day comes from only a few major agencies, the three largest of which are the Associated Press, Reuters and Agence France-Presse." ], [ "Anti-union and anti-worker bias", "In 1979, a phone survey of 60 trade unions in Brisbane, Queensland, Australia found that nearly 80% of all unions and nearly 90% of all blue collar unions believe that they are not covered fairly by the media.", "53.7% of unions believe that the main cause of bias is the media's editorial process.", "55% of unions do not use the media.In 1993, political scientist Michael Parenti \"catalogued seven generalizations about the way the news media create anti-union messaging – from painting workers as greedy, to omitting the salary of management, or depicting public officials as neutral.", "\"According to a 2015 study in ''Teaching Media Quarterly'', \"Research has shown that workers, and unionized workers in particular, are almost always portrayed in a negative light by the mainstream media.\"" ], [ "See also", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Sensationalism* * Vicarious trauma after viewing media*" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Muhammad" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Muhammad''' (; ; ;  570 – 8 June 632 CE) was an Arab religious, social, and political leader and the founder of Islam.", "According to Islamic doctrine, he was a prophet divinely inspired to preach and confirm the monotheistic teachings of Adam, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and other prophets.", "He is believed to be the Seal of the Prophets within Islam, with the Quran as well as his teachings and practices forming the basis for Islamic religious belief.Muhammad was born in approximately 570CE in Mecca.", "He was the son of Abdullah ibn Abd al-Muttalib and Amina bint Wahb.", "His father, Abdullah, the son of Quraysh tribal leader Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim, died a few months before Muhammad's birth.", "His mother Amina died when he was six, leaving Muhammad an orphan.", "He was raised under the care of his grandfather, Abd al-Muttalib, and paternal uncle, Abu Talib.", "In later years, he would periodically seclude himself in a mountain cave named Hira for several nights of prayer.", "When he was 40, circa 610CE, Muhammad reported being visited by Gabriel in the cave and receiving his first revelation from God.", "In 613, Muhammad started preaching these revelations publicly, proclaiming that \"God is One\", that complete \"submission\" (''islām'') to God (''Allah'') is the right way of life (''dīn''), and that he was a prophet and messenger of God, similar to the other prophets in Islam.Muhammad's followers were initially few in number, and experienced hostility from Meccan polytheists for 13 years.", "To escape ongoing persecution, he sent some of his followers to Abyssinia in 615, before he and his followers migrated from Mecca to Medina (then known as Yathrib) later in 622.This event, the ''Hijra'', marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar, also known as the Hijri Calendar.", "In Medina, Muhammad united the tribes under the Constitution of Medina.", "In December 629, after eight years of intermittent fighting with Meccan tribes, Muhammad gathered an army of 10,000 Muslim converts and marched on the city of Mecca.", "The conquest went largely uncontested, and Muhammad seized the city with little bloodshed.", "In 632, a few months after returning from the Farewell Pilgrimage, he fell ill and died.", "By the time of his death, most of the Arabian Peninsula had converted to Islam.The revelations (each known as ''Ayah —'' literally, \"Sign of God\") that Muhammad reported receiving until his death form the verses of the Quran, regarded by Muslims as the verbatim \"Word of God\" on which the religion is based.", "Besides the Quran, Muhammad's teachings and practices (''sunnah''), found in the Hadith and ''sira'' (biography) literature, are also upheld and used as sources of Islamic law." ], [ "Sources of biographical information", "Two folios of the Birmingham Quran manuscript, an early manuscript written in Hijazi script likely dated within Muhammad's lifetime between ===Quran===The Quran is the central religious text of Islam.", "Muslims believe it represents the words of God revealed by the archangel Gabriel to Muhammad.", "The Quran is mainly addressed to a single \"Messenger of God\" who is referred to as Muhammad in a number of verses.", "The Quranic text also describes the settlement of his followers in Yathrib after their expulsion by the Quraysh, and briefly mentions military encounters such as the Muslim victory at Badr.The Quran, however, provides minimal assistance for Muhammad's chronological biography; most Quranic verses do not provide significant historical context and timeline.", "Almost none of Muhammad's companions are mentioned by name in the Quran, hence not providing sufficient information for a concise biography.", "The Quran is considered to be contemporary with Muhammad, and the Birmingham manuscript has been radiocarbon dated to his lifetime, its discovery largely disproving Western revisionist theories about the Quran's origins.===Early biographies===An early manuscript of Ibn Hisham's a''l-Sirah al-Nabawiyyah'', believed to have been transmitted by his students shortly after his death in 833Important sources regarding Muhammad's life may be found in the historic works by writers of the 2nd and 3rd centuries of the Hijri era (around the 8th and 9th century CE respectively).", "These include traditional Muslim biographies of Muhammad, which provide additional information about his life.The earliest written ''sira'' (biographies of Muhammad and quotes attributed to him) is Ibn Ishaq's ''Life of God's Messenger'' written c. 767 CE (150 AH).", "Although the original work was lost, this ''sira'' survives as extensive excerpts in works by Ibn Hisham and to a lesser extent by Al-Tabari.", "However, Ibn Hisham wrote in the preface to his biography of Muhammad that he omitted matters from Ibn Ishaq's biography that \"would distress certain people\".", "Another early historical source is the history of Muhammad's campaigns by al-Waqidi ( AH), and the work of Waqidi's secretary Ibn Sa'd al-Baghdadi ( AH).Many scholars accept these early biographies as authentic, though their accuracy is unascertainable.", "Recent studies have led scholars to distinguish between traditions touching legal matters and purely historical events.", "In the legal group, traditions could have been subject to invention while historic events, aside from exceptional cases, may have been subject only to \"tendential shaping\".===Hadith===''Muwatta'' of Malik ibn Anas, dated within his lifetime in Other important sources include the hadith collections, accounts of verbal and physical teachings and traditions attributed to Muhammad.", "Hadiths were compiled several generations after his death by Muslims including Muhammad al-Bukhari, Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj, Muhammad ibn Isa at-Tirmidhi, Abd ar-Rahman al-Nasai, Abu Dawood, Ibn Majah, Malik ibn Anas, al-Daraqutni.Some Western academics cautiously view the hadith collections as accurate historical sources.", "Scholars such as Wilferd Madelung do not reject the narrations which have been compiled in later periods, but judge them in the context of history and on the basis of their compatibility with the events and figures.", "Muslim scholars, in contrast, typically place a greater emphasis on the hadith literature instead of the biographical literature, since hadiths maintain a traditional chain of transmission (isnad); the lack of such a chain for the biographical literature makes it unverifiable in their eyes." ], [ "Pre-Islamic Arabia", "Main tribes and settlements of Arabia in Muhammad's lifetimeThe Arabian Peninsula was, and still is, largely arid with volcanic soil, making agriculture difficult except near oases or springs.", "Towns and cities dotted the landscape, two of the most prominent being Mecca and Medina.", "Medina was a large flourishing agricultural settlement, while Mecca was an important financial center for many surrounding tribes.", "In the desert, communal life was crucial for survival.", "Indigenous tribes relied on each other to endure the challenging conditions and way of life.", "Tribal affiliation, whether through family ties or alliances, played a significant role in fostering social unity.", "Indigenous Arabs were either nomadic or sedentary.", "Nomadic groups constantly traveled seeking water and pasture for their flocks, while the sedentary settled and focused on trade and agriculture.", "Nomadic survival also depended on raiding caravans or oases; nomads did not view this as a crime.In pre-Islamic Arabia, gods or goddesses were viewed as protectors of individual tribes, their spirits associated with sacred trees, stones, springs and wells.", "As well as being the site of an annual pilgrimage, the Kaaba shrine in Mecca housed 360 idols of tribal patron deities.", "Three goddesses were worshipped, in some places as daughters of Allah: Allāt, Manāt and al-'Uzzá.", "Monotheistic communities existed in Arabia, including Christians and Jews.", "Hanifs – native pre-Islamic Arabs who \"professed a rigid monotheism\" – are also sometimes listed alongside Jews and Christians in pre-Islamic Arabia, although scholars dispute their historicity.", "According to Muslim tradition, Muhammad himself was a Hanif and one of the descendants of Ishmael, son of Abraham.The second half of the sixth century was a period of political disorder in Arabia and communication routes were no longer secure.", "Religious divisions were an important cause of the crisis.", "Judaism became the dominant religion in Yemen while Christianity took root in the Persian Gulf area.", "In line with broader trends of the ancient world, the region witnessed a decline in the practice of polytheistic cults and a growing interest in a more spiritual form of religion.", "While many were reluctant to convert to a foreign faith, those faiths provided intellectual and spiritual reference points.During the early years of Muhammad's life, the Quraysh tribe to which he belonged became a dominant force in western Arabia.", "They formed the cult association of ''hums'', which tied members of many tribes in western Arabia to the Kaaba and reinforced the prestige of the Meccan sanctuary.", "To counter the effects of anarchy, Quraysh upheld the institution of sacred months during which all violence was forbidden, and it was possible to participate in pilgrimages and fairs without danger.", "Thus, although the association of ''hums'' was primarily religious, it also had important economic consequences for the city." ], [ "Life", "=== Meccan years ======= Childhood and early life ====The birth of Muhammad in the 16th-century Siyer-i NebiMuhammad ibn Abdullah ibn Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim was born in Mecca about the year 570, and his birthday is believed to be in the month of Rabi' al-Awwal.", "He belonged to the Quraysh tribe's Banu Hashim clan, which was one of the more distinguished families in the city, although the clan seems to have experienced a lack of prosperity during his early years.", "The name Muhammad means \"praiseworthy\" in Arabic and it appears four times in the Quran.", "He was also known as al-Amin () when he was young; however, historians differ as to whether it was given by people as a reflection of his nature or was simply a given name from his parents, i.e.", "a masculine form of his mother's name \"Amina\".", "Muhammad acquired the ''kunya'' of Abu al-Qasim later in his life after the birth of his son Qasim, who died two years afterwards.Islamic tradition states that Muhammad's birth year coincided with Yemeni King Abraha's unsuccessful attempt to conquer Mecca.", "Recent studies, however, challenge this notion, as other evidence suggests that the expedition, if it had occurred, would have transpired substantially before Muhammad's birth.", "Later Muslim scholars presumably linked Abraha's renowned name to the narrative of Muhammad's birth to elucidate the unclear passage about \"the men of elephants\" in Quran 105:1–5.", "''The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity'' deems the tale of Abraha's war elephant expedition as a myth.Muhammad's father, Abdullah, died almost six months before he was born.", "According to Islamic tradition, soon after birth he was sent to live with a Bedouin family in the desert, as desert life was considered healthier for infants; some western scholars reject this tradition's historicity.", "Muhammad stayed with his foster-mother, Halimah bint Abi Dhuayb, and her husband until he was two years old.", "At the age of six, Muhammad lost his biological mother Amina to illness and became an orphan.", "For the next two years, until he was eight years old, Muhammad was under the guardianship of his paternal grandfather Abd al-Muttalib, of the Banu Hashim clan until his death.", "He then came under the care of his uncle Abu Talib, the new leader of the Banu Hashim.Islamic tradition states that when Muhammad was either nine or twelve while accompanying the Meccans' caravan to Syria, he met a Christian monk or hermit named Bahira who is said to have foreseen Muhammad's career as a prophet of God.", "In his teens, Muhammad accompanied his uncle on Syrian trading journeys to gain experience in commercial trade.Little is known of Muhammad during his later youth as available information is fragmented, making it difficult to separate history from legend.", "He reportedly became a merchant and \"was involved in trade between the Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea\".", "His reputation attracted a proposal in 595 from Khadijah, a successful businesswoman.", "Muhammad consented to the marriage, which by all accounts was a happy one.Miniature from Rashid-al-Din Hamadani's ''Jami al-Tawarikh'', , illustrating the story of Muhammad's role in re-setting the Black Stone in 605 (Ilkhanate period)In 605, the Quraysh decided to roof the Kaaba, which had previously consisted only of walls.", "A complete rebuild was needed to accommodate the new weight.", "Amid concerns about upsetting the deities, a man stepped forth with a pickaxe and exclaimed, \"O goddess!", "Fear not!", "Our intentions are only for the best.\"", "With that, he began demolishing it.", "The anxious Meccans awaited divine retribution overnight, but his unharmed continuation the next day was seen as a sign of heavenly approval.", "According to a narrative collected by Ibn Ishaq, when it was time to reattach the Black Stone, a dispute arose over which clan should have the privilege.", "It was determined that the first person to step into the Kaaba's court would arbitrate.", "Muhammad took on this role, asking for a cloak.", "He placed the stone on it, guiding clan representatives to jointly elevate it to its position.", "He then personally secured it within the wall.==== Beginnings of the Quran ====Hira in the mountain Jabal al-Nour where, according to Muslim belief, Muhammad received his first revelationMuhammad began to pray alone in a cave named Hira on Mount Jabal al-Nour, near Mecca, for several weeks every year.", "According to Islamic tradition, in 610 CE, when he was 40 years old, the angel Gabriel appeared before him during his visit to the cave.", "The angel showed him a cloth with Quranic verses on it and instructed him to read.", "When Muhammad confessed his illiteracy, Gabriel choked him forcefully, nearly suffocating him, and repeated the command.", "As Muhammad reiterated his inability to read, Gabriel choked him again in a similar manner.", "This sequence took place once more before Gabriel finally recited the verses, allowing Muhammad to memorize them.", "These verses later constituted Quran 96:1-5.The experience terrified Muhammad, but he was immediately reassured by his wife Khadija and her Christian cousin Waraqa ibn Nawfal.", "Khadija instructed Muhammad to let her know if Gabriel returned.", "When he appeared during their private time, Khadija conducted tests by having Muhammad sit on her left thigh, right thigh, and lap, inquiring Muhammad if the being was still present each time.", "After Khadija removed her clothes with Muhammad on her lap, he reported that Gabriel left at that very moment.", "Khadija thus told him to rejoice as she concluded it was not a Satan but an angel visiting him.Muhammad's demeanor during his moments of inspiration frequently led to allegations from his contemporaries that he was under the influence of a jinn, a soothsayer, or a magician, suggesting that his experiences during these events bore resemblance to those associated with such figures widely recognized in ancient Arabia.", "Nonetheless, these enigmatic seizure events might have served as persuasive evidence for his followers regarding the divine origin of his revelations.", "Some historians posit that the graphic descriptions of Muhammad's condition in these instances are likely genuine, as they are improbable to have been concocted by later Muslims.A 16th-century Siyer-i Nebi image of angel Gabriel visiting MuhammadShortly after Waraqa's death, the revelations ceased for a period, causing Muhammad great distress and thoughts of suicide.", "On one occasion, he reportedly climbed a mountain intending to jump off.", "However, upon reaching the peak, Gabriel appeared to him, affirming his status as the true Messenger of God.", "This encounter soothed Muhammad, and he returned home.", "Later, when there was another long break between revelations, he repeated this action, but Gabriel intervened similarly, calming him and causing him to return home.Muhammad was confident that he could distinguish his own thoughts from these messages.", "The early Quranic revelations utilized approaches of cautioning non-believers with divine punishment, while promising rewards to believers.", "They conveyed potential consequences like famine and killing for those who rejected Muhammad's God and alluded to past and future calamities.", "The verses also stressed the imminent final judgment and the threat of hellfire for skeptics.", "According to Muslim tradition, Muhammad's wife Khadija was the first to believe he was a prophet.", "She was followed by Muhammad's ten-year-old cousin Ali ibn Abi Talib, close friend Abu Bakr, and adopted son Zaid.==== Opposition in Mecca ====Around 613, Muhammad began to preach to the public.", "Initially, he had no serious opposition from the inhabitants of Mecca, who were indifferent to his proselytizing activities, but when he started to attack their beliefs, tensions arose.", "The Quraysh challenged him to perform miracles, such as bringing forth springs of water, yet he declined, reasoning that the regularities of nature already served as sufficient proof of God's majesty.", "Some satirized his lack of success by wondering why God had not bestowed treasure upon him.", "Others called on him to visit Paradise and return with tangible parchment scrolls of the Qur'an.", "But Muhammad asserted that the Quran, in the form he conveyed it, was already an extraordinary proof.According to Amr ibn al-As, several of the Quraysh gathered at Hijr and discussed how they had never faced such serious problems as they were facing from Muhammad.", "They said that he had derided their culture, denigrated their ancestors, scorned their faith, shattered their community, and cursed their gods.", "Sometime later, Muhammad came, kissing the Black Stone and performing the ritual tawaf.", "As Muhammad passed by them, they reportedly said hurtful things to him.", "The same happened when he passed by them a second time.", "On his third pass, Muhammad stopped and said, \"Will you listen to me, O Quraysh?", "By Him (God), who holds my life in His hand, I bring you slaughter.\"", "They fell silent and told him to go home, saying that he was not a violent man.", "The next day, a number of Quraysh approached him, asking if he had said what they had heard from their companions.", "He answered yes, and one of them seized him by his cloak.", "Abu Bakr intervened, tearfully saying, \"Would you kill a man for saying God is my Lord?\"", "And they left him.The Quraysh attempted to entice Muhammad to quit preaching by giving him admission to the merchants' inner circle as well as an advantageous marriage, but he refused both of the offers.", "A delegation of them then, led by the leader of the Makhzum clan, known by the Muslims as Abu Jahl, went to Muhammad's uncle Abu Talib, head of the Hashim clan and Muhammad's caretaker, giving him an ultimatum:Abu Talib politely dismissed them at first, thinking it was just a heated talk.", "But as Muhammad grew more vocal, Abu Talib requested Muhammad to not burden him beyond what he could bear, to which Muhammad wept and replied that he would not stop even if they put the sun in his right hand and the moon in his left.", "When he turned around, Abu Talib called him and said, \"Come back nephew, say what you please, for by God I will never give you up on any account.", "\"While a group of Muslims were praying in a ravine, some Quraysh ran into them and blamed them for what they were doing.", "One of the Muslims, Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas, then took a camel's jawbone and struck a Quraysh, splitting his head open, in what is reported to be the first bloodshed in Islam.The initial persecution by the Meccans has been described by modern historians as \"mostly mild\", being constrained by the clan system, the main guarantee of security within Mecca.", "By ensuring that any inter-clan violence would be considered an attack on the honor of the whole clan, the threat of retributive action largely prevented instances of serious violence against professed Muslims, who were instead principally subject to economic sanctions and verbal insults.", "The most notable instances of bodily violence against Muslims in this period were against slaves, famously Bilal ibn Rabah and Amir ibn Fuhayra, who lacked clan protection.", "The Qur'an does not mention the persecution, with this material being found instead in the prophetic biography.====Quraysh delegation to Yathrib====The leaders of the Quraysh sent Nadr ibn al-Harith and Uqba ibn Abi Mu'ayt to Yathrib to seek the opinions of the Jewish rabbis regarding Muhammad.", "The rabbis advised them to ask Muhammad three questions: recount the tale of young men who ventured forth in the first age; narrate the story of a traveler who reached both the eastern and western ends of the earth; and provide details about the spirit.", "If Muhammad answered correctly, they stated, he would be a Prophet; otherwise, he would be a liar.", "When they returned to Mecca and asked Muhammad the questions, he told them he would provide the answers the next day.", "However, 15 days passed without a response from his God, leading to gossip among the Meccans and causing Muhammad distress.", "At some point later, the angel Gabriel came to Muhammad and provided him with the answers.In response to the first query, the Qur'an tells a story about a group of men sleeping in a cave (Qur'an 18:9–25), which scholars generally link to the legend of the Seven Sleepers of Ephesus.", "For the second query, the Qur'an speaks of Dhu al-Qarnayn, literally \"he of the two horns\" (Qur'an 18:93–99), a tale that academics widely associate with the Alexander Romance.", "As for the third query, concerning the nature of the spirit, the Qur'anic revelation asserted that it was beyond human comprehension.", "Neither the Jews who devised the questions nor the Quraysh who posed them to Muhammad converted to Islam upon receiving the answers.", "Nadr and Uqba were later executed on Muhammad's orders after the Battle of Badr, while other captives were held for ransom.", "As Uqba pleaded, \"But who will take care of my children, Muhammad?\"", "Muhammad responded, \"Hell!", "\"==== Migration to Abyssinia and the incident of Satanic Verses ====In 615, fearful that his followers would be seduced from their religion, Muhammad sent some of them to emigrate to the Abyssinian Kingdom of Aksum and found a small colony under the protection of the Christian Ethiopian emperor Aṣḥama ibn Abjar.", "Among those who departed were Umm Habiba, the daughter of one of the Quraysh chiefs, Abu Sufyan, and her husband.", "The Quraysh then sent two men to retrieve them.", "Because leatherwork at the time was highly prized in Abyssinia, they gathered a lot of skins and transported them there so they could distribute some to each of the kingdom's generals.", "But the king firmly rejected their request.While Tabari and Ibn Hisham mentioned only one migration to Abyssinia, there were two sets according to Ibn Sa'd.", "Of these two, the majority of the first group returned to Mecca before the event of Hijra, while the majority of the second group remained in Abyssinia at the time and went directly to Medina after the event of Hijra.", "These accounts agree that persecution played a major role in Muhammad sending them there.", "According to historian W. M. Watt, the episodes were more complex than the traditional accounts suggest; he proposes that there were divisions within the embryonic Muslim community, and that they likely went there to trade in competition with the prominent merchant families of Mecca.", "In Urwa's letter preserved by Tabari, these emigrants returned after the conversion to Islam of a number of individuals in positions such as Hamza and Umar.Along with many others, Tabari recorded that Muhammad was desperate, hoping for an accommodation with his tribe.", "So, while he was in the presence of a number of Quraysh, after delivering verses mentioning three of their favorite deities (Quran 53:19–20), Satan put upon his tongue two short verses: \"These are the high flying ones / whose intercession is to be hoped for.\"", "This led to a general reconciliation between Muhammad and the Meccans, and the Muslims in Abyssinia began to return home.", "However, the next day, Muhammad retracted these verses at the behest of Gabriel, claiming that they had been cast by Satan to his tongue and God had abrogated them.", "Instead, verses that revile those goddesses were then revealed.", "The returning Muslims thus had to make arrangements for clan protection before they could re-enter Mecca.This Satanic verses incident was reported ''en masse'' and documented by nearly all of the major biographers of Muhammad in Islam's first two centuries, which according to them corresponds to Quran 22:52.But since the rise of the hadith movement and systematic theology with its new doctrines, including the ''isma'', which claimed that Muhammad was infallible and thus could not be fooled by Satan, the historical memory of the early community has been reevaluated.", "And as of the 20th century CE, Muslim scholars unanimously rejected this incident.", "On the other hand, most European biographers of Muhammad recognize the veracity of this incident of satanic verses on the basis of the criterion of embarrassment.", "Historian Alfred T. Welch proposes that the period of Muhammad's turning away from strict monotheism was likely far longer but was later encapsulated in a story that made it much shorter and implicated Satan as the culprit.In 616, an agreement was established whereby all other Quraysh clans were to enforce a ban on the Banu Hashim, prohibiting trade and marriage with them.", "Nevertheless, Banu Hashim members could still move around the town freely.", "Despite facing increasing verbal abuse, Muhammad continued to navigate the streets and engage in public debates without being physically harmed.", "At a later point, a faction within Quraysh, sympathizing with Banu Hashim, initiated efforts to end the sanctions, resulting in a general consensus in 619 to lift the ban.==== Attempt to establish himself in Ta'if ====In 619, Muhammad faced a period of sorrow.", "His wife, Khadija, a crucial source of his financial and emotional support, died.", "In the same year, his uncle and guardian, Abu Talib, also died.", "Despite Muhammad's persuasions to Abu Talib to embrace Islam on his deathbed, he clung to his polytheistic beliefs until the end.", "Muhammad's other uncle, Abu Lahab, who succeeded the Banu Hashim clan leadership, was initially willing to provide Muhammad with protection.", "However, upon hearing from Muhammad that Abu Talib and Abd al-Muttalib were destined for hell due to not believing in Islam, he withdrew his support.Muhammad then went to Ta'if to try to establish himself in the city and gain aid and protection against the Meccans, but he was met with a response: \"If you are truly a prophet, what need do you have of our help?", "If God sent you as his messenger, why doesn’t He protect you?", "And if Allah wished to send a prophet, couldn’t He have found a better person than you, a weak and fatherless orphan?\"", "Realizing his efforts were in vain, Muhammad asked the people of Ta'if to keep the matter a secret, fearing that this would embolden the hostility of the Quraysh against him.", "However, instead of accepting his request, they pelted him with stones, injuring his limbs.On Muhammad's return journey to Mecca, news of the events in Ta'if had reached the ears of Abu Jahl, and he said, \"They did not allow him to enter Ta'if, so let us deny him entry to Mecca as well.\"", "Knowing the gravity of the situation, Muhammad asked a passing horseman to deliver a message to Akhnas ibn Shariq, a member of his mother's clan, requesting his protection so that he could enter in safety.", "But Akhnas declined, saying that he was only a confederate of the house of Quraysh.", "Muhammad then sent a message to Suhayl ibn Amir, who similarly declined on the basis of tribal principle.", "Finally, Muhammad dispatched someone to ask Mut'im ibn 'Adiy, the chief of the Banu Nawfal.", "Mut'im agreed, and after equipping himself, he rode out in the morning with his sons and nephews to accompany Muhammad to the city.", "When Abu Jahl saw him, he asked if Mut'im was simply giving him protection or if he had already converted to his religion.", "Mut'im replied, \"Granting him protection, of course.\"", "Then Abu Jahl said, \"We will protect whomever you protect.", "\"==== Isra' and Mi'raj ====Quranic inscriptions on the Dome of the Rock.", "It marks the spot where Muhammad is believed by Muslims to have ascended to heaven.It is at this low point in Muhammad's life that the accounts in the ''Sira'' lay out the famous Isra' and Mi'raj.", "Nowadays, Isra' is believed by Muslims to be the journey of Muhammad from Mecca to Jerusalem, while Mi'raj is from Jerusalem to the heavens.", "There is considered no substantial basis for the Mi'raj in the Quran, as the Quran does not address it directly.Quranic verse 17:1 recounts Muhammad's night journey from a revered place of prayer to the most distant place of worship.", "The Kaaba, holy enclosure in Mecca, is widely accepted as the starting point, but there is disagreement among Islamic traditions as to what constitutes \"the farthest place of worship\".", "Some modern scholars maintain that the earliest tradition saw this faraway site as a celestial twin of the Kaaba, so that Muhammad's journey took him directly from Mecca through the heavens.", "A later tradition, however, refers to it as ''Bayt al-Maqdis'', which is generally associated with Jerusalem.", "Over time, these different traditions merged to present the journey as one that began in Mecca, passed through Jerusalem, and then ascended to heaven.The dating of the events also differs from account to account.", "Ibn Sa'd recorded that Muhammad's Mi'raj took place first, from near the Kaaba to the heavens, on the 27th of Ramadan, 18 months before the Hijrah, while the Isra' from Mecca to ''Bayt al-Maqdis'' took place on the 17th night of the Last Rabi’ul before the hijrah.", "As is well known, these two stories were later combined into one.", "In Ibn Hisham's account, the Isra' came first and then the Mi'raj, and he put these stories before the deaths of Khadija and Abu Talib.", "In contrast, al-Tabari included only the story of Muhammad's ascension from the sanctuary in Mecca to \"the earthly heaven\".", "Tabari placed this story at the beginning of Muhammad's public ministry, between his account of Khadija becoming \"the first to believe in the Messenger of God\" and his account of \"the first male to believe in the Messenger of God\".==== Migration to Medina (''Hijrah'') ====Medina, located over to the north of Mecca, is a lush oasis.", "According to Muslim sources, the city was established by Jews who had survived the revolt against the Romans.", "While agriculture was far from being the domain of the Arab tribes, the Jews were outstanding farmers, cultivating the land in the oases.", "There were reportedly around 20 Jewish tribes residing in the city, with the three most prominent being Banu Nadir, Banu Qaynuqa and Banu Qurayza.", "In time, Arab tribes from southern Arabia migrated to the city and settled down alongside the Jewish community.", "The Arab tribes consisted of Banu Aws and Banu Khazraj, both collectively known as Banu Qayla.", "Before 620, there had been fighting among the two Arab tribes for almost a hundred years, with each of them attempting to court the assistance of the Jewish tribes, which occasionally led to infighting between the latter.Having lost all hope of winning converts among his fellow townspeople, Muhammad limited his efforts to non-Meccans who attended fairs or made pilgrimages.", "During these endeavors, Muhammad had an encounter with six individuals from the Banu Khazraj.", "These men had a history of raiding Jews in their locality, who in turn would warn them that a prophet would be sent to punish them.", "On hearing Muhammad's religious message, they said to each other, \"This is the very prophet of whom the Jews warned us.", "Don't let them get to him before us!\"", "Upon embracing Islam, they returned to Medina and shared their encounter, hoping that by having their people—the Khazraj and the Aws, who had been at odds for so long—accept Islam and adopt Muhammad as their leader, unity could be achieved between them.The next year, five of the earlier converts revisited Muhammad, bringing with them seven newcomers, three of whom were from the Banu Aws.", "At Aqaba, near Mecca, they pledged their loyalty to him.", "Muhammad then entrusted Mus'ab ibn Umayr to join them on their return to Medina to promote Islam.", "Come June 622, a significant clandestine meeting was convened, again at Aqaba.", "In this gathering, seventy-five individuals from Medina attended, including two women, representing all the converts of the oases.", "Muhammad asked them to protect him as they would protect their wives and children.", "They concurred and gave him their oath, commonly referred to as the second pledge of Aqaba or the pledge of war.", "Paradise was Muhammad's promise to them in exchange for their loyalty.Subsequently, Muhammad called upon the Meccan Muslims to relocate to Medina.", "This event is known as the Hijrah, which basically means \"severing of kinship ties.\"", "The departures spanned approximately three months.", "To avoid arriving in Medina by himself with his followers remaining in Mecca, Muhammad chose not to go ahead and instead stayed back to watch over them and persuade those who were reluctant.", "Some were held back by their families from leaving, but in the end, there were no Muslims left in Mecca.", "Muhammad regarded this migration as an expulsion by the Quraysh.Islamic tradition recounts that in light of the unfolding events, Abu Jahl proposed a joint assassination of Muhammad by representatives of each clan.", "Having been informed about this by the angel Gabriel, Muhammad asked his cousin Ali to lie in his bed covered with his green hadrami mantle, assuring that it would safeguard him.", "After staying hidden for three days, Muhammad subsequently departed with Abu Bakr for Medina, which at the time was still named Yathrib.", "The Meccan Muslims who undertook the migration were then called the Muhajirun, while the Medinan Muslims were dubbed the Ansar.===Medinan years===According to the 19th-century orientalist Julius Wellhausen, when Muhammad arrived in the city in 622, the Jewish tribes were allied with the two Arab tribes as subordinates.", "However, 21st-century historian Russ Rodgers disagrees.", "He argues that during Muhammad's second pledge of Aqaba, members of the Arab tribes stated they had to break certain alliances with the Jews due to the nature of the pledge.", "Rodgers infers it was the Arab tribes who held a subservient or, at most, an equal position to the Jews, since otherwise, the Jews would have been drawn into the covenant.====Constitution of Medina====Ibn Ishaq, following his narration of the ''hijrah'', maintains that Muhammad penned a text now referred to as the Constitution of Medina and divulges its assumed content without supplying any ''isnad'' or corroboration.", "The appellation is generally deemed imprecise, as the text neither established a state nor enacted Quranic statutes, but rather addressed tribal matters.", "While scholars from both the West and the Muslim world agree on the text's authenticity, disagreements persist on whether it was a treaty or a unilateral proclamation by Muhammad, the number of documents it comprised, the primary parties, the specific timing of its creation (or that of its constituent parts), whether it was drafted before or after Muhammad's removal of the three leading Jewish tribes of Medina, and the proper approach to translating it.====Beginning of armed conflict====In the early stages of his time in Medina, Muhammad was optimistic that the Jewish people would acknowledge him as a Prophet and strove to obtain converts from their community.", "However, his efforts were unsuccessful and even faced ridicule, as the Jews perceived inconsistencies between the Quran and their own scriptures.", "Consequently, the Quran accused the Jews of hiding and modifying parts of their holy texts.", "The Jewish criticism and refusal presented a danger to his prophetic claims, and, as a result, the views of Muhammad and the Quran towards them worsened.", "This then led to the reorientation of the Muslim prayer direction, the ''qibla'', from Jerusalem to the Kaaba in Mecca.Muhammad's designation of Mecca as the center of Islam, coupled with his need to settle scores with the Meccans after his threats of divine punishment against them never materialized, as well as the economic hardships he and the Muhajirun faced in Medina, culminated in a new divine directive—to fight the polytheists.", "Muhammad thus dispatched his followers to perform raids on the Quraysh's trading caravans.", "Certain Meccan followers of his were reluctant to participate, as it would mean attacking their own tribespeople.", "This vexed Muhammad, resulting in the revelation of Quran verse 2:216, among others, which asserts that fighting is good and has been made obligatory for them.", "After several months of failures, Muhammad managed to achieve his first successful raid, at Nakhla, during a month that the pagans forbade themselves from shedding blood.", "When the bountiful plunder was being brought back to him in Medina, Muhammad was met with censure from the locals.", "He contended that his followers had misconstrued his command, and he postponed taking his one-fifth portion of the spoil until a verse was ultimately revealed, legitimizing the attack.Two months hence, a grand Quraysh trade caravan, representing the investments of all Meccans, traveled home from Gaza.", "Muhammad had tried to ambush it on its departure from Mecca but had failed.", "When Abu Sufyan, the leader of the caravan, learned in Zarqa that Muhammad was preparing to raid the caravan again, he sent a messenger to Mecca for aid, and about 950 Meccans set out in response.", "As the caravan approached the watering place of Badr, Abu Sufyan reconnoitred the town himself and confirmed his suspicion that Muhammad would launch his attack there.", "He thus diverted the caravan to the more difficult coastal road to the west, even though it meant depriving them of fresh water.", "Upon the caravan's safe escape, part of the relief column withdrew, leaving behind 600–700 men.", "Muhammad, upon discovering the presence of the remaining Meccans through their water carriers, ordered his troops to cover all the wells with sand and stones, on the advice of Hubab ibn al-Mundhir, reserving one for themselves.", "And thus forcing the Meccans to fight for water.The battle commenced with individual duels between warriors from both sides, which then escalated into a chaotic melee.", "Although not participating in the combat, Muhammad inspired his followers with the promise of paradise if they died fighting.", "Many of the Quraysh were reluctant to kill their own kin, and just prior to midday, they succumbed to panic and ran away.", "Muhammad ordered the search for Abu Jahl.", "A Muslim found him, beheaded him, and threw the head to Muhammad's feet who jubilantly exclaimed: \"The head of the enemy of God.", "Praise God, for there is no other but He!\"", "The battle concluded with the Quraysh suffering 49 to 70 losses, while the Muslims had 14 casualties.", "The Muslims obtained considerable war spoils and a number of prisoners.", "Umar desired that all of them be slain, yet Muhammad resolved that ransom must be requested first, and afterwards, they could execute any for whom no one was willing to pay.Upon his return to Medina, Muhammad immediately worked to solidify his authority.", "He instructed the removal of Asma bint Marwan, who had criticized him in poetry.", "One of his followers executed her while she slept with her children, the youngest still nursing in her arms.", "Upon learning of the deed, Muhammad lauded the act as a service to God and his Messenger.", "Shortly after, he called upon his followers to end the life of the centenarian poet Abu Afak.", "Simultaneously, Muhammad employed poets like Hassan ibn Thabit to circulate his propaganda among the tribes.", "When inquired if he could shield Muhammad from his foes, Ibn Thabit is reported to have extended his tongue and claimed there was no defense against his verbal prowess.==== Conflicts with Jewish tribes ====Following the Battle of Badr, Muhammad revealed his intention to expel the Jews from the land.", "Once the ransom arrangements for the Meccan captives were finalized, he initiated a siege on the Banu Qaynuqa, regarded as the weakest and wealthiest of Medina's three main Jewish tribes.", "Muslim sources provide different reasons for the siege, including an altercation involving Hamza and Ali in the Banu Qaynuqa market, and another version by Ibn Ishaq, which tells the story of a Muslim woman being pranked by a Qaynuqa goldsmith.", "Regardless of the cause, the Banu Qaynuqa sought refuge in their fort, where Muhammad blockaded them, cutting off their access to food supplies.", "After roughly two weeks, they capitulated without engaging in combat.At first, Muhammad planned to annihilate the surrendered tribe, but Abdullah ibn Ubayy, a Khazraj chieftain who had embraced Islam, stepped in.", "Previously, the Qaynuqa had protected him during multiple conflicts.", "Ibn Ubayy implored Muhammad to show leniency, but Muhammad turned away without responding.", "Undeterred, Ibn Ubayy grasped Muhammad's cloak, causing his face to darken with anger and demanding his release.", "Ibn Ubayy refused unless Muhammad agreed to treat them leniently, threatening him, \"I am a man who fears that circumstances may change.\"", "Muhammad thus spared their lives, stipulating that they must depart Medina within three days and relinquish their property to the Muslims, with Muhammad retaining a fifth.Having dealt with the Qaynuqa, Muhammad moved on to another personal matter.", "His staunch critic, Ka'b ibn Ashraf, a wealthy half-Jewish man from Banu Nadir, had just come back from Mecca after producing poetry that mourned the death of the Quraysh at Badr and aroused them to retaliate.", "Muhammad asked his followers, \"Who is ready to kill Ka'b, who has hurt God and His apostle?\"", "Ibn Maslama offered his services, explaining that the task would require deception.", "Muhammad did not contest this.", "He then gathered accomplices, including Ka'b's foster brother, Abu Naila.", "They pretended to complain about their post-conversion hardships, persuading Ka'b to lend them food.", "On the night of their meeting with Ka'b, they murdered him when he was caught off-guard.====Meccan retaliation====\"The Prophet Muhammad and the Muslim Army at the Battle of Uhud\", from a 1595 edition of the Mamluk-Turkic ''Siyer-i Nebi''In 625, the Quraysh, wearied by Muhammad's continuous attacks on their caravans, decided to take decisive action.", "Led by Abu Sufyan, they assembled an army to oppose Muhammad.", "Upon being alerted by his scout about the impending threat, Muhammad convened a war council.", "Initially, he considered defending from the city center, but later decided to meet the enemy in open battle at Uhud Hill, following the insistence of the younger faction of his followers.", "As they prepared to depart, the remaining Jewish allies of Abdullah ibn Ubayy offered their help, which Muhammad declined.", "Despite being outnumbered, the Muslims initially held their ground but lost advantage when some archers disobeyed orders.", "As rumors of Muhammad's death spread, the Muslims started to flee, but he had only been injured and managed to escape with a group of loyal adherents.", "Satisfied they had restored their honor, the Meccans returned to Mecca.Sometime later, Muhammad found himself needing to pay blood money to Banu Amir.", "He sought monetary help from the Jewish tribe of Banu Nadir, and they agreed to his request.", "However, while waiting, he departed from his companions and disappeared.", "When they found him at his home, according to Ibn Ishaq, Muhammad disclosed that he had received a divine revelation of a planned assassination attempt on him by the Banu Nadir, which involved dropping a boulder from a rooftop.", "Muhammad then initiated a siege on the tribe, during which he also commanded the felling and burning of their palm groves.", "After a fortnight or so, the Banu Nadir capitulated.", "They were directed to vacate their land and permitted to carry only one camel-load of goods for every three people.", "From the spoils, Muhammad claimed a fertile piece of land where barley sprouted amongst palm trees.==== Raid on the Banu Mustaliq ====Upon receiving a report that the Banu Mustaliq were planning an attack on Medina, Muhammad's troops executed a surprise attack on them at their watering place, causing them to flee rapidly.", "In the confrontation, the Muslims lost one man, while the enemy suffered ten casualties.", "As part of their triumph, the Muslims seized 2,000 camels, 500 sheep and goats, and 200 women from the tribe.", "The Muslim soldiers desired the captive women, but they also sought ransom money.", "They asked Muhammad about using ''coitus interruptus'' to prevent pregnancy, to which Muhammad replied, \"You are not under any obligation to forbear from that...\" Later, envoys arrived in Medina to negotiate the ransom for the women and children.", "Despite having the choice, all of them chose to return to their country instead of staying.==== Assassination of Khaybar leaders and the Banu Uraynah affair ====Muhammad's northward raids of Medina had by now caused significant opposition.", "Many, including Abu Rafi, one of Khaybar's key chieftains, were part of this resistance.", "He was then killed in his room by the Muslims at night.", "Sometime later, Khaybar people selected Usayr ibn Razim as their ''emir''.", "Muhammad extended an invitation for him to come to Medina for a settlement.", "He agreed, but during the journey, the Muslims killed him along with his companions by surprise.", "Muhammad praised the commandos' leader for his work when he came back to Medina.Around this particular time, eight men from the Banu Uraynah tribe sought to embrace Islam.", "They conveyed their discomfort with the city's climate to Muhammad.", "As a solution, he ordered them to drink the urine and milk of his camels.", "However, they opted to steal the camels, killing the caretakers in the process.", "Upon their capture, Muhammad had their eyes gouged out and their limbs cut off.", "They were then left to die in the desert.====Battle of the Trench====Realizing that their victory at Uhud had failed to substantially weaken Muhammad's position as he continued to orchestrate raids on their trade caravans, the Quraysh finally saw the imperative of capturing Medina, a move they had previously neglected.", "This decision, according to Muslim sources, was partly influenced by some leaders of the Banu Nadir, who were distressed over the loss of their lands.", "However, that account may simply have been Muslim propaganda.", "Aware of their limited warfare skills as city merchants, the Quraysh initiated extensive negotiations with various Bedouin tribes, amassing a force believed to number around 10,000 men.", "Informed early by his allies in Mecca, Muhammad ordered his followers to fortify Medina with trenches, on the advice of Salman the Persian.", "The Jews of Banu Qurayza assisted with this effort by digging the trenches and lending their tools to the Muslims.", "The approaching Quraysh and their allies, unfamiliar with trench warfare, were drawn into a protracted siege.", "Muhammad exploited this situation, using covert negotiations with the Ghatafan tribe to create discord among his enemies.", "As the weather deteriorated, morale among the Quraysh and their allies waned, leading to their withdrawal.", "The siege saw minimal casualties, with five to six on the Muslims' side and three among the besiegers.==== Massacre of the Banu Qurayza ====On the exact day the Quraysh forces and their allies withdrew, Muhammad, while bathing at his wife's abode, received a visit from the angel Gabriel, who instructed him to attack the Jewish tribe of Banu Qurayza.", "Islamic sources recount that during the preceding Meccan siege, Abu Sufyan, the Quraysh leader, incited the Qurayza to attack the Muslims from their compound, but the Qurayza demanded the Quraysh to provide 70 hostages from among themselves to ascertain their commitment to their plans, as proposed by Muhammad's secret agent Nu'aym ibn Mas'ud.", "Abu Sufyan refused their requirement.", "Nevertheless, later accounts claim that 11 Jewish individuals from the Qurayza were indeed agitated and acted against Muhammad, but no evidence substantiates such an attack, and the tradition had every reason to dramatize the incident as a justification for the subsequent massacre.Muhammad besieged the tribe, alleging they had taken sides against him, which they firmly denied.", "As the situation turned dire, they proposed to leave their land but asked to be allowed to take movable goods, the load of a camel per person; Muhammad refused.", "They then offered to leave without taking anything, but Muhammad rejected this as well.", "He insisted on their unconditional surrender.", "The Qurayza subsequently requested to confer with one of their Aws allies who had embraced Islam, leading to the arrival of Abu Lubaba.", "When asked about Muhammad's intentions, he gestured towards his throat, indicating an imminent massacre.", "He immediately regretted his indiscretion and tied himself to one of the Mosque pillars as a form of penance.After a 25-day siege, the Banu Qurayza surrendered.", "The Muslims of Banu Aws entreated Muhammad for leniency, prompting him to suggest that one of their own should serve as the judge, which they accepted.", "Muhammad assigned the role to Sa'd ibn Muadh, a man nearing death from an infection in his wounds from the previous Meccan siege.", "He pronounced that all the men should be put to death, their possessions to be distributed among Muslims, and their women and children to be taken as captives.", "Muhammad declared, \"You have judged according to the very sentence of God above the seven heavens.\"", "Consequently, 600–900 men of Banu Qurayza were executed.", "The women and children were distributed as slaves, with some being transported to Najd to be sold.", "The proceeds were then utilized to purchase weapons and horses for the Muslims.==== Incidents with the Banu Fazara ====After a few months of rest following the annihilation of the Qurayza, Muhammad prepared to conduct numerous operations.", "The sources no longer frequently report him receiving word of impending attacks against the Muslims in Medina, suggesting that Muhammad, recognizing his newfound strength, felt capable enough to discard any pretenses and directly confront potential rivals.", "Several tribes, finding no other defensive option, eventually joined the Muslims, understanding from Muhammad's clear decree that Muslims could only raid non-Muslims, thus the most efficient way to avoid the raids was to join the raiders.During this period, Muhammad organized a caravan, presumably stocked with recent spoils, to conduct trade in Syria.", "Zayd ibn Harithah was tasked with guarding the convoy.", "However, when they journeyed through the territory of Banu Fazara, whom Zayd had raided in the past, the tribe seized the opportunity for revenge, attacked the caravan, and injured him.", "Upon his return to Medina, Muhammad decided that a punitive expedition was necessary.", "Zayd led this operation, successfully capturing Umm Qirfa, the esteemed Fazara matriarch.", "As punishment, Zayd ordered Qays ibn al-Musahhar to execute her.", "He did so by tying each of her legs to separate camels, which were then driven in opposite directions, leading to her brutal death.==== Treaty of Hudaybiyya ====The Kaaba in Mecca long held a major economic and religious role for the area.", "Seventeen months after Muhammad's arrival in Medina, it became the Muslim Qibla, or direction for prayer (salat).", "The Kaaba has been rebuilt several times; the present structure, built in 1629, is a reconstruction of an earlier building dating to 683.Early in 628, following a dream of making an unopposed pilgrimage to Mecca, Muhammad embarked on the journey.", "He was dressed in his customary pilgrim attire and was accompanied by a group of followers.", "Upon reaching Hudaybiyya, they encountered Quraysh emissaries who questioned their intentions.", "Muhammad explained they had come to venerate the Kaaba, not to fight.", "He then sent Uthman, Abu Sufyan's second cousin, to negotiate with the Quraysh.", "As the negotiations were prolonged, rumors of Uthman's death began to spark, prompting Muhammad to call his followers to renew their oaths of loyalty.", "Uthman returned with news of a negotiation impasse.", "Muhammad remained persistent.", "In the end, the Quraysh sent Suhayl ibn Amr, an envoy with full negotiation powers.", "Following lengthy discussions, a treaty was finally enacted, with terms:# A ten-year truce was established between both parties.# If a Qurayshite came to Muhammad's side without his guardian's allowance, he was to be returned to the Quraysh; yet, if a Muslim came to the Quraysh, he would not be surrendered to Muhammad.# Any tribes interested in forming alliances with Muhammad or the Quraysh were free to do so.", "These alliances were also protected by the ten-year truce.# Muslims were then required to depart back to Medina, however, they were permitted to make the Umrah pilgrimage in the coming year.==== Invasion of Khaybar ====Roughly ten weeks subsequent to his return from Hudaybiyya, Muhammad expressed his plan to invade Khaybar, a flourishing oasis about north of Medina.", "The city was populated by Jews, including those from the Banu Nadir, who had previously been expelled by Muhammad from Medina.", "With the prospect of rich spoils from the mission, numerous volunteers answered his call.", "To keep their movements hidden, the Muslim military chose to march during the nighttime.", "As dawn arrived and the city folks stepped out of their fortifications to harvest their dates, they were taken aback by the sight of the advancing Muslim forces.", "Muhammad cried out, \"Allahu Akbar!", "Khaybar is destroyed.", "For when we approach a people's land, a terrible morning awaits the warned ones.\"", "After a strenuous battle lasting more than a month, the Muslims successfully captured the city.", "The loss in the confrontation was 15–17 Muslims and 93 Jews.The spoils, inclusive of the wives of the slain warriors, were distributed among the Muslims.", "Muhammad claimed Safiyya bint Huyayy, a beautiful 17-year-old girl, from among the captives.", "Following the battle, her husband, Kinana ibn al-Rabi, was put through torture by Muhammad's decree for declining to reveal his tribe's hidden wealth, and subsequently beheaded.", "Her father and brother had been executed during the massacre of the Banu Qurayza.", "Overwhelmed by her beauty, Muhammad had sex with her the very night, contradicting his own mandate that his followers should wait for the captives' next menstrual cycle to begin before having intercourse.Following their defeat by the Muslims, some of the Jews proposed to Muhammad that they stay and serve as tenant farmers, given the Muslims' lack of expertise and labor force for date palm cultivation.", "They agreed to give half of the annual produce to the Muslims.", "Muhammad consented to this arrangement with the caveat that he could displace them at any time.", "While they were allowed to farm, he demanded the surrender of all gold or silver, executing those who secreted away their wealth.", "Taking a cue from what transpired in Khaybar, the Jews in Fadak immediately sent an envoy to Muhammad and agreed to the same terms of relinquishing 50% of their annual harvest.", "However, since no combat occurred, the rank and file had no claim to a portion of the spoils.", "Consequently, all the loot became Muhammad's exclusive wealth.At the feast following the battle, the meal served to Muhammad was reportedly poisoned.", "His companion, Bishr, fell dead after consuming it, while Muhammad himself managed to vomit it out after tasting it.", "The perpetrator was Zaynab bint al-Harith, a Jewish woman whose father, uncle, and husband had been killed by the Muslims.", "When asked why she did it, she replied, \"You know what you've done to my people...", "I said to myself: If he is truly a prophet, he will know about the poison.", "If he's merely a king, I'll be rid of him.\"", "One account suggests Muhammad forgave her, but in other more accepted reports, she was killed thereafter.", "Muhammad suffered illness for a period due to the poison he ingested, and he endured sporadic pain from it until his death.==== Fulfilled umrah and the Battle of Mu'tah ====A year after the treaty of Hudaybiyya, Muhammad took some of his followers to perform the ''umrah'' in Mecca.", "The Quraysh moved out of the city for the nearby mountain and allowed the Muslims to complete the ritual.", "Taking the opportunity of his stay, Muhammad married Maymunah bint al-Harith, a 27-year-old sister of the wife of his uncle al-Abbas.", "On the fourth day, when his allotted time by the treaty was over, Muhammad offered the Quraysh to join his wedding feast he was planning to hold in the city, but they refused and told him to depart immediately.Upon returning to Medina, Muhammad launched four raids on tribes in the vicinity.", "Two of these ended in defeat, while the remaining two yielded plunder.", "Muhammad then directed his army to move northwards, towards the frontier of the Byzantine Empire.", "Although outnumbered, the Muslim army advanced to confront their adversaries, with victory or martyrdom as their aim.", "The two parties clashed at Mu'tah and it ended in defeat for the Muslims.", "Zayd ibn Haritha, Muhammad's adopted son, died as a commander at the battle.", "Khalid ibn Walid, who had now embraced Islam, gathered the surviving Muslims to retreat.===Final years=======Conquest of Mecca====A depiction of Muhammad (with veiled face) advancing on Mecca from Siyer-i Nebi, a 16th-century Ottoman manuscript.", "The angels Gabriel, Michael, Israfil and Azrail, are also shown.After amassing a powerful alliance, Muhammad once more set his sights on his hometown, Mecca.", "He leveraged his covert agent, Budayl ibn Warqa, to fan the flames of discord between Banu Bakr, supported by the Quraysh, and Banu Khuza'ah, his ally.", "Taking the ensuing conflict as a ''casus belli'', Muhammad led his forces towards Mecca.", "Upon nearing the city, he ordered the creation of individual fires to magnify the perceived size of his army.", "He sent al-Abbas, his uncle, to warn the Meccan chief Abu Sufyan that if they were to invade the city, it could result in the slaughter of the Quraysh, including himself.", "Abu Sufyan then went to meet Muhammad and converted to Islam.", "He subsequently went back to the city and told the citizens that their lives and property would be safe as long as they did not resist and remained in their homes, went to the Kaaba, or stayed with him.Muhammad sent out his forces with a short list of six men and four women to be killed on sight.", "Among those targeted was his former scribe, Abdullah ibn Sa'd ibn Abi Sarh.", "While transcribing the Quranic verses from Muhammad's dictation, Abdullah filled a brief pause by Muhammad by vocalizing his own version of the rest of the verse.", "Absentmindedly, Muhammad instructed him to include it.", "He also professed to have intermittently modified the substance of the Quran's dictation, which Muhammad failed to detect.", "These factors led him to abandon Islam and return to Mecca.", "Later, during the conquest, Abdullah, in the company of his foster brother Uthman, implored Muhammad for mercy, which was eventually given.", "However, as they left, Muhammad rebuked his companions, \"I was silent for a long time.", "Why did not one of you kill this dog?\"", "When inquired why he did not signal, Muhammad irritably retorted, \"One does not kill by signs.\"", "After Muhammad's death, Abdullah became a top official in the Islamic state.Ibn Khatal al-Adrami, another apostate, was not as fortunate.", "He authored verses critical of Muhammad and had two girls sing them at a party he held.", "Amid the conquest, he desperately clung to the Kaaba's curtain.", "Muhammad, upon hearing this, ordered his execution, nonetheless.", "One of the songstresses was later found and similarly executed.", "In sum, only three out of the ten targets were located and eliminated.", "The remainder were able to secure a form of pardon for their past deeds and were allowed to join the ranks of Islam.", "In their advances, the Muslim forces faced only little resistance from one sector of Mecca, which was effortlessly defeated by Khalid ibn al-Walid.", "Eventually, Muhammad visited the Kaaba and had it cleared of all idols and images, except, reportedly, the paintings of Abraham, Jesus, and Mary.", "All of Mecca's residents were then gathered and made to pledge their allegiance to him and convert to Islam.==== Subduing the Hawazin and Thaqif and the expedition to Tabuk ====Conquests of Muhammad (green lines) and the Rashidun caliphs (black lines).", "Shown: Byzantine empire (North and West) & Sassanid-Persian empire (Northeast).Upon learning that Mecca had fallen to the Muslims, the Banu Hawazin gathered their entire tribe, including their families, to fight.", "They are estimated to have around 4,000 warriors.", "Muhammad led 12,000 soldiers to raid them, but they surprised him at Wadi Hunayn.", "The Muslims overpowered them and took their women, children and animals.", "Muhammad then turned his attention to Taif, a city that was famous for its vineyards and gardens.", "He ordered them to be destroyed and besieged the city, which was surrounded by walls.", "After 15–20 days of failing to breach their defenses, he abandoned the attempts.When he divided the plentiful loot acquired at Hunayn among his soldiers, the rest of the Hawazin converted to Islam and implored Muhammad to release their children and women, reminding him that he had been nursed by some of those women when he was a baby.", "He complied but held on to the rest of the plunder.", "Some of his men opposed giving away their portions, so he compensated them with six camels each from subsequent raids.", "Muhammad distributed a big portion of the booty to the new converts from the Quraysh.", "Abu Sufyan and two of his sons, Muawiyya and Yazid, got 100 camels individually.", "The Ansar, who had fought bravely in the battle, but received close to nothing, were unhappy with this.", "One of them remarked, \"It is not with such gifts that one seeks God's face.\"", "Disturbed by this utterance, Muhammad retorted, \"He changed color.", "\"Roughly 10 months after he captured Mecca, Muhammad took his army to attack the wealthy border provinces of Byzantine Syria.", "Several motives are proposed, including avenging the defeat at Mu'tah and earning vast booty.", "Because of the drought and severe heat at that time, some of the Muslims refrained from participating.", "This led to the revelation of Quran 9:38 which rebuked those slackers.", "When Muhammad and his army reached Tabuk, there were no hostile forces present.", "However, he was able to force some of the local chiefs to accept his rule and pay jizya.", "A group under Khalid ibn Walid that he sent for a raid also managed to acquire some booty including 2,000 camels and 800 cattle.The Hawazin's acceptance of Islam resulted in Taif losing its last major ally.", "After enduring a year of unrelenting thefts and terror attacks from the Muslims following the siege, the people of Taif, known as the Banu Thaqif, finally reached a tipping point and acknowledged that embracing Islam was the most sensible path for them.====Farewell pilgrimage====al-Bīrūnī's ''The Remaining Signs of Past Centuries'', depicting Muhammad prohibiting Nasī' during the Farewell Pilgrimage, 17th-century Ottoman copy of a 14th-century (Ilkhanate) manuscript (Edinburgh codex)On February 631, Muhammad received a revelation granting idolaters four months of grace, after which the Muslims would attack, kill, and plunder them wherever they met.During the 632 pilgrimage season, Muhammad personally led the ceremonies and gave a sermon.", "Among the key points highlighted are said to have been the prohibition of usury and vendettas related to past murders from the pre-Islamic era; the brotherhood of all Muslims; and the adoption of twelve lunar months without intercalation.", "He also reaffirmed that husbands had the right to discipline and strike their wives without excessive force if they were unfaithful or misbehaved.", "He explained that wives were entrusted to their husbands and, if obedient, deserved to be provided with food and clothing, as they were gifts from God for personal enjoyment.====Death and tomb====The death of Muhammad.", "From the , .After praying at the burial site in June 632, Muhammad suffered a dreadful headache that made him cry in pain.", "He continued to spend the night with each of his wives one by one, but he fainted in Maymunah's hut.", "He requested his wives to allow him to stay in Aisha's hut.", "He could not walk there without leaning on Ali and Fadl ibn Abbas, as his legs were trembling.", "His wives and his uncle al-Abbas fed him an Abyssinian remedy when he was unconscious.", "When he came to, he inquired about it, and they explained they were afraid he had pleurisy.", "He replied that God would not afflict him with such a vile disease, and ordered all the women to also take the remedy.", "According to various sources, including , Muhammad said that he felt his aorta being severed because of the food he ate at Khaybar.", "On 8 June 632, Muhammad died.", "In his last moments, he reportedly uttered:Historian Alfred T. Welch speculates that Muhammad's death was caused by Medinan fever, which was aggravated by physical and mental fatigue.Muhammad was buried where he died in Aisha's house.", "During the reign of the Umayyad caliph al-Walid I, al-Masjid an-Nabawi (the Mosque of the Prophet) was expanded to include the site of Muhammad's tomb.", "The Green Dome above the tomb was built by the Mamluk sultan Al Mansur Qalawun in the 13th century, although the green color was added in the 16th century, under the reign of Ottoman sultan Suleiman the Magnificent.", "Among tombs adjacent to that of Muhammad are those of his companions (Sahabah), the first two Muslim caliphs Abu Bakr and Umar, and an empty one that Muslims believe awaits Jesus.When Saud bin Abdul-Aziz took Medina in 1805, Muhammad's tomb was stripped of its gold and jewel ornamentation.", "Adherents to Wahhabism, Saud's followers, destroyed nearly every tomb dome in Medina in order to prevent their veneration, and the one of Muhammad is reported to have narrowly escaped.", "Similar events took place in 1925, when the Saudi militias retook—and this time managed to keep—the city.", "In the Wahhabi interpretation of Islam, burial is to take place in unmarked graves.", "Although the practice is frowned upon by the Saudis, many pilgrims continue to practice a —a ritual visit—to the tomb.===After Muhammad===Expansion of the caliphate, 622–750 CE:With Muhammad's death, disagreement broke out over who his successor would be.", "Umar ibn al-Khattab, a prominent companion of Muhammad, nominated Abu Bakr, Muhammad's friend and collaborator.", "With additional support, Abu Bakr was confirmed as the first caliph.", "This choice was disputed by some of Muhammad's companions, who held that Ali ibn Abi Talib, his cousin and son-in-law, had been designated the successor by Muhammad at Ghadir Khumm.", "Abu Bakr immediately moved to strike against the Byzantine (or Eastern Roman Empire) forces because of the previous defeat, although he first had to put down a rebellion by Arab tribes in an event that Muslim historians later referred to as the Ridda wars, or \"Wars of Apostasy\".The pre-Islamic Middle East was dominated by the Byzantine and Sassanian empires.", "The Roman–Persian Wars between the two had devastated the region, making the empires unpopular amongst local tribes.", "Furthermore, in the lands that would be conquered by Muslims, many Christians (Nestorians, Monophysites, Jacobites and Copts) were disaffected from the Eastern Orthodox Church which deemed them heretics.", "Within a decade Muslims conquered Mesopotamia, Byzantine Syria, Byzantine Egypt, large parts of Persia, and established the Rashidun Caliphate." ], [ "{{anchor|household}}Household", "The tomb of Muhammad is located in the quarters of his third wife, Aisha (Al-Masjid an-Nabawi, Medina).Muhammad's life is traditionally defined into two periods: pre-hijra (emigration) in Mecca (from 570 to 622), and post-hijra in Medina (from 622 until 632).", "Muhammad is said to have had thirteen wives in total (although two have ambiguous accounts, Rayhana bint Zayd and Maria al-Qibtiyya, as wife or concubine).At the age of 25, Muhammad married the wealthy Khadijah bint Khuwaylid who was 40 years old.", "The marriage lasted for 25 years and was a happy one.", "Muhammad did not enter into marriage with another woman during this marriage.", "After Khadijah's death, Khawla bint Hakim suggested to Muhammad that he should marry Sawdah bint Zam'ah, a Muslim widow, or Aisha, daughter of Umm Ruman and Abu Bakr of Mecca.", "Muhammad is said to have asked for arrangements to marry both.", "According to classical sources, Muhammad married Aisha when she was 6–7 years old; the marriage was consummated later, when she was 9 years old and he was 53 years old.Muhammad performed household chores such as preparing food, sewing clothes, and repairing shoes.", "He is also said to have had accustomed his wives to dialogue; he listened to their advice, and the wives debated and even argued with him.Khadijah is said to have had four daughters with Muhammad (Ruqayyah bint Muhammad, Umm Kulthum bint Muhammad, Zainab bint Muhammad, Fatimah Zahra) and two sons (Abd-Allah ibn Muhammad and Qasim ibn Muhammad, who both died in childhood).", "All but one of his daughters, Fatimah, died before him.", "Some Shi'a scholars contend that Fatimah was Muhammad's only daughter.", "Maria al-Qibtiyya bore him a son named Ibrahim ibn Muhammad, who died at two years old.Nine of Muhammad's wives survived him.", "Aisha, who became known as Muhammad's favorite wife in Sunni tradition, survived him by decades and was instrumental in helping assemble the scattered sayings of Muhammad that form the Hadith literature for the Sunni branch of Islam.Zayd ibn Haritha was a slave that Khadija gave to Muhammad.", "He was bought by her nephew Hakim bin Hizam at the market in Ukaz.", "Zayd then became the couple's adopted son, but was later disowned when Muhammad was about to marry Zayd's ex-wife, Zaynab bint Jahsh.", "According to a BBC summary, \"the Prophet Muhammad did not try to abolish slavery, and bought, sold, captured, and owned slaves himself.", "But he insisted that slave owners treat their slaves well and stressed the virtue of freeing slaves.", "Muhammad treated slaves as human beings and clearly held some in the highest esteem\"." ], [ "Legacy", "===Islamic tradition===Following the attestation to the oneness of God, the belief in Muhammad's prophethood is the main aspect of the Islamic faith.", "Every Muslim proclaims in the ''Shahadah'': \"I testify that there is no god but God, and I testify that Muhammad is a Messenger of God\".", "The Shahadah is the basic creed or tenet of Islam.", "Islamic belief is that ideally the Shahadah is the first words a newborn will hear; children are taught it immediately and it will be recited upon death.", "Muslims repeat the shahadah in the call to prayer (''adhan'') and the prayer itself.", "Non-Muslims wishing to convert to Islam are required to recite the creed.ligature at Unicode code point U+FDFA In Islamic belief, Muhammad is regarded as the last prophet sent by God.", "The Quran affirms that the only miracle given to Muhammad was the Quran itself, and offers various reasons for why he was unable to perform any other miracles when his enemies requested them.", "However, later writings such as ''hadith'' and ''sira'' attribute several miracles or supernatural events to Muhammad after his death.", "One of these is the splitting of the moon, which according to a report from Muhammad's cousin Ibn Abbas, was in fact a lunar eclipse, but this event was transformed into a literal splitting of the moon in later interpretations.The Sunnah represents the actions and sayings of Muhammad (preserved in reports known as Hadith) and covers a broad array of activities and beliefs ranging from religious rituals, personal hygiene, and burial of the dead to the mystical questions involving the love between humans and God.", "The Sunnah is considered a model of emulation for pious Muslims and has to a great degree influenced the Muslim culture.", "The greeting that Muhammad taught Muslims to offer each other, \"may peace be upon you\" (Arabic: ''as-salamu 'alaykum'') is used by Muslims throughout the world.", "Many details of major Islamic rituals such as daily prayers, the fasting and the annual pilgrimage are only found in the Sunnah and not the Quran.The Muslim profession of faith, the Shahadah, illustrates the Muslim conception of the role of Muhammad: \"There is no god except the God; Muhammad is the Messenger of God\", in Topkapı Palace, Istanbul, Turkey.Muslims have traditionally expressed love and veneration for Muhammad.", "Stories of Muhammad's life, his intercession and of his miracles have permeated popular Muslim thought and poetry.", "Among Arabic odes to Muhammad, Qasidat al-Burda (\"Poem of the Mantle\") by the Egyptian Sufi al-Busiri (1211–1294) is particularly well-known, and widely held to possess a healing, spiritual power.", "The Quran refers to Muhammad as \"a mercy (''rahmat'') to the worlds\" The association of rain with mercy in Oriental countries has led to imagining Muhammad as a rain cloud dispensing blessings and stretching over lands, reviving the dead hearts, just as rain revives the seemingly dead earth.", "Muhammad's birthday is celebrated as a major feast throughout the Islamic world, excluding Wahhabi-dominated Saudi Arabia where these public celebrations are discouraged.", "When Muslims say or write the name of Muhammad, they usually follow it with the Arabic phrase ''ṣallā llahu ʿalayhi wa-sallam'' (''may God honor him and grant him peace'') or the English phrase ''peace be upon him''.", "In casual writing, the abbreviations SAW (for the Arabic phrase) or PBUH (for the English phrase) are sometimes used; in printed matter, a small calligraphic rendition is commonly used ().==== Appearance and depictions====Various sources present a probable description of Muhammad in the prime of his life.", "He was slightly above average in height, with a sturdy frame and wide chest.", "His neck was long, bearing a large head with a broad forehead.", "His eyes were described as dark and intense, accentuated by long, dark eyelashes.", "His hair, black and not entirely curly, hung over his ears.", "His long, dense beard stood out against his neatly trimmed mustache.", "His nose was long and aquiline, ending in a fine point.", "His teeth were well-spaced.", "His face was described as intelligent, and his clear skin had a line of hair from his neck to his navel.", "Despite a slight stoop, his stride was brisk and purposeful.", "Muhammad's lip and cheek were ripped by a slingstone during the battle of Uhud.", "The wound was later cauterized, leaving a scar on his face.However, since the hadith prohibits the creation of images of sentient living beings, Islamic religious art mainly focuses on the word.", "Muslims generally avoid depictions of Muhammad, and instead decorate mosques with calligraphy, Quranic inscriptions, or geometrical designs.", "Today, the interdiction against images of Muhammad—designed to prevent worship of Muhammad, rather than God—is much more strictly observed in Sunni Islam (85%–90% of Muslims) and Ahmadiyya Islam (1%) than among Shias (10%–15%).", "While both Sunnis and Shias have created images of Muhammad in the past, Islamic depictions of Muhammad are rare.", "They have mostly been limited to the private and elite medium of the miniature, and since about 1500 most depictions show Muhammad with his face veiled, or symbolically represent him as a flame.Jammu and Kashmir, India, 1808.The earliest extant depictions come from 13th century Anatolian Seljuk and Ilkhanid Persian miniatures, typically in literary genres describing the life and deeds of Muhammad.", "During the Ilkhanid period, when Persia's Mongol rulers converted to Islam, competing Sunni and Shi'a groups used visual imagery, including images of Muhammad, to promote their particular interpretation of Islam's key events.", "Influenced by the Buddhist tradition of representational religious art predating the Mongol elite's conversion, this innovation was unprecedented in the Islamic world, and accompanied by a \"broader shift in Islamic artistic culture away from abstraction toward representation\" in \"mosques, on tapestries, silks, ceramics, and in glass and metalwork\" besides books.", "In the Persian lands, this tradition of realistic depictions lasted through the Timurid dynasty until the Safavids took power in the early 16th century.", "The Safavaids, who made Shi'i Islam the state religion, initiated a departure from the traditional Ilkhanid and Timurid artistic style by covering Muhammad's face with a veil to obscure his features and at the same time represent his luminous essence.", "Concomitantly, some of the unveiled images from earlier periods were defaced.", "Later images were produced in Ottoman Turkey and elsewhere, but mosques were never decorated with images of Muhammad.", "Illustrated accounts of the night journey (''mi'raj'') were particularly popular from the Ilkhanid period through the Safavid era.", "During the 19th century, Iran saw a boom of printed and illustrated ''mi'raj'' books, with Muhammad's face veiled, aimed in particular at illiterates and children in the manner of graphic novels.", "Reproduced through lithography, these were essentially \"printed manuscripts\".", "Today, millions of historical reproductions and modern images are available in some Muslim-majority countries, especially Turkey and Iran, on posters, postcards, and even in coffee-table books, but are unknown in most other parts of the Islamic world, and when encountered by Muslims from other countries, they can cause considerable consternation and offense.=== Islamic social reforms ===According to William Montgomery Watt, religion for Muhammad was not a private and individual matter but \"the total response of his personality to the total situation in which he found himself.", "He was responding not only... to the religious and intellectual aspects of the situation but also to the economic, social, and political pressures to which contemporary Mecca was subject.\"", "Bernard Lewis says there are two important political traditions in Islam—Muhammad as a statesman in Medina, and Muhammad as a rebel in Mecca.", "In his view, Islam is a great change, akin to a revolution, when introduced to new societies.Historians generally agree that Islamic social changes in areas such as social security, family structure, slavery and the rights of women and children improved on the ''status quo'' of Arab society.", "For example, according to Lewis, Islam \"from the first denounced aristocratic privilege, rejected hierarchy, and adopted a formula of the career open to the talents\".", "Muhammad's message transformed society and moral orders of life in the Arabian Peninsula; society focused on the changes to perceived identity, world view, and the hierarchy of values.Economic reforms addressed the plight of the poor, which was becoming an issue in pre-Islamic Mecca.", "The Quran requires payment of an alms tax (zakat) for the benefit of the poor; as Muhammad's power grew he demanded that tribes who wished to ally with him implement the zakat in particular.===European appreciation===Muhammad in ''La vie de Mahomet'' by M. Prideaux (1699).", "He holds a sword and a crescent while trampling on a globe, a cross, and the Ten Commandments.Guillaume Postel was among the first to present a more positive view of Muhammad when he argued that Muhammad should be esteemed by Christians as a valid prophet.", "Gottfried Leibniz praised Muhammad because \"he did not deviate from the natural religion\".", "Henri de Boulainvilliers, in his ''Vie de Mahomed'' which was published posthumously in 1730, described Muhammad as a gifted political leader and a just lawmaker.", "He presents him as a divinely inspired messenger whom God employed to confound the bickering Oriental Christians, to liberate the Orient from the despotic rule of the Romans and Persians, and to spread the knowledge of the unity of God from India to Spain.", "Voltaire had a mixed opinion on Muhammad: in his play ''Le fanatisme, ou Mahomet le Prophète'' he vilifies Muhammad as a symbol of fanaticism, and in an essay in 1748 he calls him \"a sublime and hearty charlatan\".", "But in Voltaire's historical survey ''Essai sur les mœurs'', he presents Mohammed as a legislator and conqueror and calls him an \"enthusiast\".", "Jean-Jacques Rousseau, in his ''Social Contract'' (1762), \"brushing aside hostile legends of Muhammad as a trickster and impostor, presents him as a sage legislator who wisely fused religious and political powers\".", "Emmanuel Pastoret published in 1787 his ''Zoroaster, Confucius and Muhammad'', in which he presents the lives of these three \"great men\", \"the greatest legislators of the universe\", and compares their careers as religious reformers and lawgivers.", "He rejects the common view that Muhammad is an impostor and argues that the Quran proffers \"the most sublime truths of cult and morals\"; it defines the unity of God with an \"admirable concision\".", "Pastoret writes that the common accusations of his immorality are unfounded: on the contrary, his law enjoins sobriety, generosity, and compassion on his followers: the \"legislator of Arabia\" was \"a great man\".", "Napoleon Bonaparte admired Muhammad and Islam, and described him as a model lawmaker and conqueror.", "Thomas Carlyle in his book ''On Heroes, Hero-Worship, & the Heroic in History'' (1841) describes \"Mahomet\" as \"A silent great soul; he was one of those who cannot ''but'' be in earnest\".", "Carlyle's interpretation has been widely cited by Muslim scholars as a demonstration that Western scholarship validates Muhammad's status as a great man in history.Ian Almond says that German Romantic writers generally held positive views of Muhammad: \"Goethe's 'extraordinary' poet-prophet, Herder's nation builder (...) Schlegel's admiration for Islam as an aesthetic product, enviably authentic, radiantly holistic, played such a central role in his view of Mohammed as an exemplary world-fashioner that he even used it as a scale of judgement for the classical (the dithyramb, we are told, has to radiate pure beauty if it is to resemble 'a Koran of poetry')\".", "After quoting Heinrich Heine, who said in a letter to some friend that \"I must admit that you, the great prophet of Mecca, are the greatest poet and that your Quran... will not easily escape my memory\", John Tolan goes on to show how Jews in Europe in particular held more nuanced views about Muhammad and Islam, being an ethnoreligious minority feeling discriminated, they specifically lauded Al-Andalus, and thus, \"writing about Islam was for Jews a way of indulging in a fantasy world, far from the persecution and pogroms of nineteenth-century Europe, where Jews could live in harmony with their non-Jewish neighbors\".Recent writers such as William Montgomery Watt and Richard Bell dismiss the idea that Muhammad deliberately deceived his followers, arguing that Muhammad \"was absolutely sincere and acted in complete good faith\" and Muhammad's readiness to endure hardship for his cause, with what seemed to be no rational basis for hope, shows his sincerity.", "Watt, however, says that sincerity does not directly imply correctness: in contemporary terms, Muhammad might have mistaken his subconscious for divine revelation.", "Watt and Bernard Lewis argue that viewing Muhammad as a self-seeking impostor makes it impossible to understand Islam's development.", "Alford T. Welch holds that Muhammad was able to be so influential and successful because of his firm belief in his vocation.===Criticism===Criticism of Muhammad has existed since the 7th century, when Muhammad was decried by his non-Muslim Arab contemporaries for preaching monotheism, and by the Jewish tribes of Arabia for his perceived appropriation of Biblical narratives and figures and proclamation of himself as the \"Seal of the Prophets.\"", "In the Middle Ages, Western and Byzantine labeled him a false prophet, the Antichrist, or portrayed him as a heretic as he was frequently portrayed in Christendom.", "Contemporary criticism involves questioning Muhammad's legitimacy as a prophet, his moral conduct, marriages, ownership of slaves, treatment of enemies, approach to doctrinal matters, and psychological well-being.===Sufism===The Sunnah contributed much to the development of Islamic law, particularly from the end of the first Islamic century.", "Muslim mystics, known as sufis, who were seeking for the inner meaning of the Quran and the inner nature of Muhammad, viewed the prophet of Islam not only as a prophet but also as a perfect human being.", "All Sufi orders trace their chain of spiritual descent back to Muhammad.===Other religions===Followers of the Baháʼí Faith venerate Muhammad as one of a number of prophets or \"Manifestations of God.\"", "He is thought to be the final manifestation, or seal of the Adamic cycle, but consider his teachings to have been superseded by those of Bahá'u'lláh, the founder of the Baháʼí faith, and the first manifestation of the current cycle.Druze tradition honors several \"mentors\" and \"prophets,\" and Muhammad is considered an important prophet of God in the Druze faith, being among the seven prophets who appeared in different periods of history." ], [ "See also", "* Ashtiname of Muhammad* Arabian tribes that interacted with Muhammad* Diplomatic career of Muhammad* Glossary of Islam* List of biographies of Muhammad* List of founders of religious traditions* List of notable Hijazis* Muhammad and the Bible* Muhammad in film* Muhammad's views on Christians* Muhammad's views on Jews* Possessions of Muhammad* Relics of Muhammad" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Citations======Sources=== * **** * * * * * *** ** ***** *** ****** ** ** * * *** ** *** *** * * * ******* *** ******* ** * ***** * *** ****** * * * ***** ******* **====Encyclopaedia of Islam====**********" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Morse code" ], [ "Introduction", "Chart of the Morse code 26 letters and 10 numeralsGotthard railway, later by a shortwave radio amateur'''Morse code''' is a method used in telecommunication to encode text characters as standardized sequences of two different signal durations, called ''dots'' and ''dashes'', or ''dits'' and ''dahs''.", "Morse code is named after Samuel Morse, one of the early developers of the system adopted for electrical telegraphy.", "'''International Morse code''' encodes the 26 basic Latin letters '''''' to '''''', one accented Latin letter (''''''), the Arabic numerals, and a small set of punctuation and procedural signals (prosigns).", "There is no distinction between upper and lower case letters.", "Each Morse code symbol is formed by a sequence of ''dits'' and ''dahs''.", "The ''dit'' duration can vary for signal clarity and operator skill, but for any one message, once established it is the basic unit of time measurement in Morse code.", "The duration of a ''dah'' is three times the duration of a ''dit'' (although some telegraphers deliberately exaggerate the length of a ''dah'' for clearer signalling).", "Each ''dit'' or ''dah'' within an encoded character is followed by a period of signal absence, called a ''space'', equal to the ''dit'' duration.", "The letters of a word are separated by a space of duration equal to three ''dits'', and words are separated by a space equal to seven ''dits''.Morse code can be memorized and sent in a form perceptible to the human senses, e.g.", "via sound waves or visible light, such that it can be directly interpreted by persons trained in the skill.", "Morse code is usually transmitted by on-off keying of an information-carrying medium such as electric current, radio waves, visible light, or sound waves.", "The current or wave is present during the time period of the ''dit'' or ''dah'' and absent during the time between ''dits'' and ''dahs''.Since many natural languages use more than the 26 letters of the Latin alphabet, Morse alphabets have been developed for those languages, largely by transliteration of existing codes.To increase the efficiency of encoding, Morse code was originally designed so that the length of each symbol is approximately inverse to the frequency of occurrence of the character that it represents in text of the English language.", "Thus the most common letter in English, the letter '''''', has the shortest code – a single ''dit''.", "Because the Morse code elements are specified by proportion rather than specific time durations, the code is usually transmitted at the highest rate that the receiver is capable of decoding.", "Morse code transmission rate (''speed'') is specified in ''groups per minute'', commonly referred to as ''words per minute''." ], [ "Development and history", "===Pre-Morse telegraphs and codes===Single needle telegraph instrumentEarly in the nineteenth century, European experimenters made progress with electrical signaling systems, using a variety of techniques including static electricity and electricity from Voltaic piles producing electrochemical and electromagnetic changes.", "These experimental designs were precursors to practical telegraphic applications.Telegraph key and sounder.", "The signal is \"on\" when the knob is pressed, and \"off\" when it is released.", "Length and timing of the ''dits'' and ''dahs'' are entirely controlled by the telegraphist.Following the discovery of electromagnetism by Hans Christian Ørsted in 1820 and the invention of the electromagnet by William Sturgeon in 1824, there were developments in electromagnetic telegraphy in Europe and America.", "Pulses of electric current were sent along wires to control an electromagnet in the receiving instrument.", "Many of the earliest telegraph systems used a single-needle system which gave a very simple and robust instrument.", "However, it was slow, as the receiving operator had to alternate between looking at the needle and writing down the message.", "In Morse code, a deflection of the needle to the left corresponded to a ''dit'' and a deflection to the right to a ''dah''.", "By making the two clicks sound different with one ivory and one metal stop, the single needle device became an audible instrument, which led in turn to the ''Double Plate Sounder'' System.William Cooke and Charles Wheatstone in Britain developed an electrical telegraph that used electromagnets in its receivers.", "They obtained an English patent in June 1837 and demonstrated it on the London and Birmingham Railway, making it the first commercial telegraph.", "Carl Friedrich Gauss and Wilhelm Eduard Weber (1833) as well as Carl August von Steinheil (1837) used codes with varying word lengths for their telegraph systems.", "In 1841, Cooke and Wheatstone built a telegraph that printed the letters from a wheel of typefaces struck by a hammer.===Samuel Morse and Alfred Vail===Morse code receiver, recording on paper tapeThe American artist Samuel Morse, the American physicist Joseph Henry, and mechanical engineer Alfred Vail developed an electrical telegraph system.", "It needed a method to transmit natural language using only electrical pulses and the silence between them.", "Around 1837, Morse therefore developed an early forerunner to the modern International Morse code.The Morse system for telegraphy, which was first used in about 1844, was designed to make indentations on a paper tape when electric currents were received.", "Morse's original telegraph receiver used a mechanical clockwork to move a paper tape.", "When an electrical current was received, an electromagnet engaged an armature that pushed a stylus onto the moving paper tape, making an indentation on the tape.", "When the current was interrupted, a spring retracted the stylus and that portion of the moving tape remained unmarked.", "Morse code was developed so that operators could translate the indentations marked on the paper tape into text messages.In his earliest design for a code, Morse had planned to transmit only numerals, and to use a codebook to look up each word according to the number which had been sent.", "However, the code was soon expanded by Alfred Vail in 1840 to include letters and special characters, so it could be used more generally.", "Vail estimated the frequency of use of letters in the English language by counting the movable type he found in the type-cases of a local newspaper in Morristown, New Jersey.", "The shorter marks were called \"dots\" and the longer ones \"dashes\", and the letters most commonly used were assigned the shortest sequences of dots and dashes.", "This code, first used in 1844, became known as ''Morse landline code'', ''American Morse code'', or ''Railroad Morse'', until the end of railroad telegraphy in the U.S. in the 1970s.===Operator-led change from graphical to audible code===In the original Morse telegraph system, the receiver's armature made a clicking noise as it moved in and out of position to mark the paper tape.", "Early telegraph operators soon learned that they could translate the clicks directly into dots and dashes, and write these down by hand, thus making the paper tape unnecessary.", "When Morse code was adapted to radio communication, the dots and dashes were sent as short and long tone pulses.Later telegraphy training found that people become more proficient at receiving Morse code when it is taught \"like a language\", with each code perceived as a whole \"word\" instead of a sequence of separate dots and dashes, such as might shown on a page.With the advent of tones produced by radiotelegraph receivers, the operators began to vocalize a dot as ''dit'', and a dash as ''dah'', to reflect the sounds of Morse code they heard.", "To conform to normal sending speed, ''dits'' which are not the last element of a code became voiced as ''di''.", "For example, the () is voiced as .", "Morse code was sometimes facetiously known as \"iddy-umpty\", a ''dit'' lampooned as \"iddy\" and a ''dah'' as \"umpty\", leading to the word \"umpteen\".Comparison of historical versions of Morse code with the current standard.", "''Left'': Later American Morse code from 1844.", "''Center'': The modified and rationalized version used by Friedrich Gerke on German railways.", "''Right'': Current ITU standard.===Gerke's refinement of Morse's code ===The Morse code, as specified in the current international standard, ''International Morse Code Recommendation'', ITU-R M.1677-1, was derived from a much-improved proposal by Friedrich Gerke in 1848 that became known as the \"Hamburg alphabet\", its only real defect being the use of an excessively long code ( and later ) for the frequently used vowel 'O'.Gerke changed many of the codepoints, in the process doing away with the different length dashes and different inter-element spaces of American Morse, leaving only two coding elements, the dot and the dash.", "Codes for German umlauted vowels and '''''' were introduced.", "Gerke's code was adopted in Germany and Austria in 1851.This finally led to the International Morse code in 1865.The International Morse code adopted most of Gerke's codepoints.", "The codes for '''''' and '''''' were taken from a code system developed by Steinheil.", "A new codepoint was added for '''''' since Gerke did not distinguish between '''''' and ''''''.", "Changes were also made to '''''', '''''', and ''''''.", "This left only four codepoints identical to the original Morse code, namely '''''', '''''', '''''' and '''''', and the latter two had their ''dahs'' extended to full length.", "The original American code being compared dates to 1838; the later American code shown in the table was developed in 1844.===Radiotelegraphy and aviation===In the 1890s, Morse code began to be used extensively for early radio communication before it was possible to transmit voice.", "In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, most high-speed international communication used Morse code on telegraph lines, undersea cables, and radio circuits.Although previous transmitters were bulky and the spark gap system of transmission was dangerous and difficult to use, there had been some early attempts: In 1910, the U.S. Navy experimented with sending Morse from an airplane.", "However the first regular aviation radiotelegraphy was on airships, which had space to accommodate the large, heavy radio equipment then in use.", "The same year, 1910, a radio on the airship ''America'' was instrumental in coordinating the rescue of its crew.During World War I, Zeppelin airships equipped with radio were used for bombing and naval scouting, and ground-based radio direction finders were used for airship navigation.", "Allied airships and military aircraft also made some use of radiotelegraphy.However, there was little aeronautical radio in general use during World War I, and in the 1920s, there was no radio system used by such important flights as that of Charles Lindbergh from New York to Paris in 1927.Once he and the ''Spirit of St. Louis'' were off the ground, Lindbergh was truly incommunicado and alone.", "Morse code in aviation began regular use in the mid-1920s.", "By 1928, when the first airplane flight was made by the ''Southern Cross'' from California to Australia, one of its four crewmen was a radio operator who communicated with ground stations via radio telegraph.Beginning in the 1930s, both civilian and military pilots were required to be able to use Morse code, both for use with early communications systems and for identification of navigational beacons that transmitted continuous two- or three-letter identifiers in Morse code.", "Aeronautical charts show the identifier of each navigational aid next to its location on the map.In addition, rapidly moving field armies could not have fought effectively without radiotelegraphy; they moved more quickly than their communications services could put up new telegraph and telephone lines.", "This was seen especially in the blitzkrieg offensives of the Nazi German Wehrmacht in Poland, Belgium, France (in 1940), the Soviet Union, and in North Africa; by the British Army in North Africa, Italy, and the Netherlands; and by the U.S. Army in France and Belgium (in 1944), and in southern Germany in 1945.=== Maritime flash telegraphy and radio telegraphy ===A U.S. Navy Morse Code training class in 2015.The sailors will use their new skills to collect signals intelligence.Radiotelegraphy using Morse code was vital during World War II, especially in carrying messages between the warships and the naval bases of the belligerents.", "Long-range ship-to-ship communication was by radio telegraphy, using encrypted messages because the voice radio systems on ships then were quite limited in both their range and their security.", "Radiotelegraphy was also extensively used by warplanes, especially by long-range patrol planes that were sent out by those navies to scout for enemy warships, cargo ships, and troop ships.Morse code was used as an international standard for maritime distress until 1999 when it was replaced by the Global Maritime Distress and Safety System.", "When the French Navy ceased using Morse code on January 31, 1997, the final message transmitted was ''\"Calling all.", "This is our last call before our eternal silence.", "\"''===Demise of commercial telegraphy===In the United States the final commercial Morse code transmission was on July 12, 1999, signing off with Samuel Morse's original 1844 message, '''''', and the prosign (\"end of contact\")., the United States Air Force still trains ten people a year in Morse.The United States Coast Guard has ceased all use of Morse code on the radio, and no longer monitors any radio frequencies for Morse code transmissions, including the international medium frequency (MF) distress frequency of However, the Federal Communications Commission still grants commercial radiotelegraph operator licenses to applicants who pass its code and written tests.", "Licensees have reactivated the old California coastal Morse station KPH and regularly transmit from the site under either this call sign or as KSM.", "Similarly, a few U.S. museum ship stations are operated by Morse enthusiasts." ], [ "Operator proficiency", "A commercially manufactured iambic paddle used in conjunction with an electronic keyer to generate high-speed Morse code, the timing of which is controlled by the electronic keyer.", "Morse code speed is measured in words per minute () or characters per minute ().", "Characters have differing lengths because they contain differing numbers of ''dits'' and ''dahs''.", "Consequently, words also have different lengths in terms of dot duration, even when they contain the same number of characters.", "For this reason, some standard word is adopted for measuring operators' transmission speeds: Two such standard words in common use are '''''' and ''''''.", "Operators skilled in Morse code can often understand (\"copy\") code in their heads at rates in excess of 40 .In addition to knowing, understanding, and being able to copy the standard written alpha-numeric and punctuation characters or symbols at high speeds, skilled high speed operators must also be fully knowledgeable of all of the special unwritten Morse code symbols for the standard Prosigns for Morse code and the meanings of these special procedural signals in standard Morse code communications protocol.International contests in code copying are still occasionally held.", "In July 1939 at a contest in Asheville, North Carolina in the United States Ted R. McElroy ('''''') set a still-standing record for Morse copying, 75.2 .", "Pierpont (2004) also notes that some operators may have passed 100 .", "By this time, they are \"hearing\" phrases and sentences rather than words.", "The fastest speed ever sent by a straight key was achieved in 1942 by Harry Turner ('''''') (d. 1992) who reached 35  in a demonstration at a U.S. Army base.", "To accurately compare code copying speed records of different eras it is useful to keep in mind that different standard words (50 dit durations versus 60 dit durations) and different interword gaps (5 dit durations versus 7 dit durations) may have been used when determining such speed records.", "For example, speeds run with the '''''' standard word and the '''''' standard may differ by up to 20%.Today among amateur operators there are several organizations that recognize high-speed code ability, one group consisting of those who can copy Morse at 60 .", "Also, Certificates of Code Proficiency are issued by several amateur radio societies, including the American Radio Relay League.", "Their basic award starts at 10  with endorsements as high as 40 , and are available to anyone who can copy the transmitted text.", "Members of the Boy Scouts of America may put a Morse interpreter's strip on their uniforms if they meet the standards for translating code at 5 .signalman sends Morse code signals in 2005.Through May 2013, the First, Second, and Third Class (commercial) Radiotelegraph Licenses using code tests based upon the '''''' standard word were still being issued in the United States by the Federal Communications Commission.", "The First Class license required 20  code group and 25  text code proficiency, the others 16  code group test (five letter blocks sent as simulation of receiving encrypted text) and 20  code text (plain language) test.", "It was also necessary to pass written tests on operating practice and electronics theory.", "A unique additional demand for the First Class was a requirement of a year of experience for operators of shipboard and coast stations using Morse.", "This allowed the holder to be chief operator on board a passenger ship.", "However, since 1999 the use of satellite and very high-frequency maritime communications systems (GMDSS) has made them obsolete.", "(By that point meeting experience requirement for the First was very difficult.", ")Currently, only one class of license, the Radiotelegraph Operator License, is issued.", "This is granted either when the tests are passed or as the Second and First are renewed and become this lifetime license.", "For new applicants, it requires passing a written examination on electronic theory and radiotelegraphy practices, as well as 16  code-group and 20  text tests.", "However, the code exams are currently waived for holders of Amateur Extra Class licenses who obtained their operating privileges under the old 20  test requirement." ], [ "International Morse code", "Morse codes of one version or another have been in use for more than 160 years — longer than any other electrical message encoding system.", "What is called Morse code today is actually somewhat different from what was originally developed by Vail and Morse.", "The Modern International Morse code, or ''continental code'', was created by Friedrich Clemens Gerke in 1848 and initially used for telegraphy between Hamburg and Cuxhaven in Germany.", "Gerke changed nearly half of the alphabet and all of the numerals, providing the foundation for the modern form of the code.", "After some minor changes to the letters and a complete revision of the numerals, International Morse Code was standardized by the International Telegraphy Congress in 1865 in Paris, and later became the standard adopted by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU).", "Morse and Vail's final code specification, however, was only really used only for land-line telegraphy in the United States and Canada, with the International code used everywhere else, including all ships at sea and sailing in North American waters.", "Morse's version became known as ''American Morse code'' or ''railroad code'', and is now almost never used, with the possible exception of historical re-enactments.===Aviation===Cayo Largo Del Sur VOR-DME.In aviation, pilots use radio navigation aids.", "To ensure that the stations the pilots are using are serviceable, the stations transmit a set of identification letters (usually a two-to-five-letter version of the station name) in Morse code.", "Station identification letters are shown on air navigation charts.", "For example, the VOR-DME based at Vilo Acuña Airport in Cayo Largo del Sur, Cuba is identified by \"UCL\", and Morse code '''''' is repeatedly transmitted on its radio frequency.", "In some countries, during periods of maintenance, the facility may instead transmit the signal () or the identification may be removed, which tells pilots and navigators that the station is unreliable.", "In Canada, the identification is removed entirely to signify the navigation aid is not to be used.In the aviation service, Morse is typically sent at a very slow speed of about 5 words per minute.", "In the U.S., pilots do not actually have to know Morse to identify the transmitter because the dot/dash sequence is written out next to the transmitter's symbol on aeronautical charts.", "Some modern navigation receivers automatically translate the code into displayed letters.Winnipeg's main airport===Amateur radio===Vibroplex brand semiautomatic key (informally called a \"bug\" since it vaguely resembles a stick insect).", "International Morse code today is most popular among amateur radio operators, in the mode commonly referred to as \"continuous wave\" or \"CW\".Other, faster keying methods are available in radio telegraphy, such as frequency-shift keying (FSK).The original amateur radio operators used Morse code exclusively since voice-capable radio transmitters did not become commonly available until around 1920.Until 2003, the International Telecommunication Union mandated Morse code proficiency as part of the amateur radio licensing procedure worldwide.", "However, the World Radiocommunication Conference of 2003 made the Morse code requirement for amateur radio licensing optional.", "Many countries subsequently removed the Morse requirement from their licence requirements.40 meter ham radio band (31 sec).Until 1991, a demonstration of the ability to send and receive Morse code at a minimum of five words per minute () was required to receive an amateur radio license for use in the United States from the Federal Communications Commission.", "Demonstration of this ability was still required for the privilege to use the shortwave bands.", "Until 2000, proficiency at the 20  level was required to receive the highest level of amateur license (Amateur Extra Class); effective April 15, 2000, in the FCC reduced the Extra Class requirement to 5 .", "Finally, effective on February 23, 2007, the FCC eliminated the Morse code proficiency requirements from all amateur radio licenses.While voice and data transmissions are limited to specific amateur radio bands under U.S. rules, Morse code is permitted on all amateur bands: LF, MF low, MF high, HF, VHF, and UHF.", "In some countries, certain portions of the amateur radio bands are reserved for transmission of Morse code signals only.Because Morse code transmissions employ an on-off keyed radio signal, it requires less complex equipment than other radio transmission modes.", "Morse code also uses less bandwidth (typically only 100–150 Hz wide, although only for a slow data rate) than voice communication (roughly 2,400~2,800 Hz used by SSB voice).Morse code is usually received as a high-pitched audio tone, so transmissions are easier to copy than voice through the noise on congested frequencies, and it can be used in very high noise / low signal environments.", "The fact that the transmitted power is concentrated into a very limited bandwidth makes it possible to use narrow receiver filters, which suppress or eliminate interference on nearby frequencies.", "The narrow signal bandwidth also takes advantage of the natural aural selectivity of the human brain, further enhancing weak signal readability.", "This efficiency makes CW extremely useful for DX (long distance) transmissions, as well as for low-power transmissions (commonly called \"QRP operation\", from the Q-code for \"reduce power\").", "There are several amateur clubs that require solid high speed copy, the highest of these has a standard of 60 .", "The American Radio Relay League offers a code proficiency certification program that starts at 10 .The relatively limited speed at which Morse code can be sent led to the development of an extensive number of abbreviations to speed communication.", "These include prosigns, Q codes, and a set of Morse code abbreviations for typical message components.", "For example, '''''' is broadcast to be interpreted as \"seek you\" (I'd like to converse with anyone who can hear my signal).", "The abbreviations '''''' (old man), '''''' (young lady), and '''''' (\"ex-young lady\" – wife) are common. ''''''", "or '''''' is used by an operator when referring to the other operator (''regardless'' of their ''actual'' age), and '''''' or '''''' (rather than the expected '''''') is used by an operator when referring to his or her spouse. ''''''", "is \"transmitting location\" (spoken \"my Q.T.H.\"", "is \"my location\").", "The use of abbreviations for common terms permits conversation even when the operators speak different languages.Although the traditional telegraph key (straight key) is still used by some amateurs, the use of mechanical semi-automatic keyers (informally called \"bugs\"), and of fully automatic electronic keyers (called \"single paddle\" and either \"double-paddle\" or \"iambic\" keys) is prevalent today.", "Software is also frequently employed to produce and decode Morse code radio signals.", "The ARRL has a readability standard for robot encoders called ''ARRL Farnsworth spacing'' that is supposed to have higher readability for both robot and human decoders.", "Some programs like WinMorse have implemented the standard.===Other uses===Radio navigation aids such as VORs and NDBs for aeronautical use broadcast identifying information in the form of Morse Code, though many VOR stations now also provide voice identification.", "Warships, including those of the U.S. Navy, have long used signal lamps to exchange messages in Morse code.", "Modern use continues, in part, as a way to communicate while maintaining radio silence.Automatic Transmitter Identification System (ATIS) uses Morse code to identify uplink sources of analog satellite transmissions.Many amateur radio repeaters identify with Morse, even though they are used for voice communications.===Applications for the general public===Representation of Morse code ''''''.An important application is signalling for help through SOS, \"\".", "This can be sent many ways: keying a radio on and off, flashing a mirror, toggling a flashlight, and similar methods.", "The SOS signal is not sent as three separate characters; rather, it is a prosign , and is keyed without gaps between characters.Some Nokia mobile phones offer an option to alert the user of an incoming text message with the Morse tone \"\" (representing SMS or Short Message Service).", "In addition, applications are now available for mobile phones that enable short messages to be input in Morse Code.===Morse code as an assistive technology===Morse code has been employed as an assistive technology, helping people with a variety of disabilities to communicate.", "For example, the Android operating system versions 5.0 and higher allow users to input text using Morse Code as an alternative to a keypad or handwriting recognition.Morse can be sent by persons with severe motion disabilities, as long as they have some minimal motor control.", "An original solution to the problem that caretakers have to learn to decode has been an electronic typewriter with the codes written on the keys.", "Codes were sung by users; see the voice typewriter employing Morse or votem.Morse code can also be translated by computer and used in a speaking communication aid.", "In some cases, this means alternately blowing into and sucking on a plastic tube (\"sip-and-puff\" interface).", "An important advantage of Morse code over row column scanning is that once learned, it does not require looking at a display.", "Also, it appears faster than scanning.In one case reported in the radio amateur magazine ''QST'', an old shipboard radio operator who had a stroke and lost the ability to speak or write could communicate with his physician (a radio amateur) by blinking his eyes in Morse.", "Two examples of communication in intensive care units were also published in ''QST magazine''.", "Another example occurred in 1966 when prisoner of war Jeremiah Denton, brought on television by his North Vietnamese captors, Morse-blinked the word ''''''.", "In these two cases, interpreters were available to understand those series of eye-blinks." ], [ "Representation, timing, and speeds", "'''International Morse code is composed of five elements:'''# short mark, dot or ''dit'' (): \"dit duration\" is one time unit long# long mark, dash or ''dah'' (): three time units long# inter-element gap between the ''dits'' and ''dahs'' within a character: one dot duration or one unit long# short gap (between letters): three time units long# medium gap (between words): seven time units long (formerly five)===Transmission===Morse code can be transmitted in a number of ways: Originally as electrical pulses along a telegraph wire, but later extended to an audio tone, a radio signal with short and long tones, or high and low tones, or as a mechanical, audible, or visual signal (e.g.", "a flashing light) using devices like an Aldis lamp or a heliograph, a common flashlight, or even a car horn.", "Some mine rescues have used pulling on a rope - a short pull for a dot and a long pull for a ''dah''.Morse messages are generally transmitted by a hand-operated device such as a telegraph key, so there are variations introduced by the skill of the sender and receiver — more experienced operators can send and receive at faster speeds.", "In addition, individual operators differ slightly, for example, using slightly longer or shorter ''dahs'' or gaps, perhaps only for particular characters.", "This is called their \"fist\", and experienced operators can recognize specific individuals by it alone.", "A good operator who sends clearly and is easy to copy is said to have a \"good fist\".", "A \"poor fist\" is a characteristic of sloppy or hard to copy Morse code.==== Digital storage ====Morse code is transmitted using just two states (on and off).", "Morse code may be represented as a binary code, and that is what telegraph operators do when transmitting messages.", "Working from the above ITU definition and further defining a bit as a dot time, a Morse code sequence may be crudely represented a combination of the following five bit-strings:# short mark, dot or ''dit'' (): '1'b# longer mark, dash or ''dah'' (): '111'b# intra-character gap (between the ''dits'' and ''dahs'' within a character): 0# short gap (between letters): '000'b# medium gap (between words): '0000000'bNote that the marks and gaps alternate: ''Dits'' and ''dahs'' are always separated by one of the gaps, and that the gaps are always separated by a ''dit'' or a ''dah''.A more efficient binary encoding uses only two-bits for each ''dit'' or ''dah'' element, with the 1 ''dit''-length pause that must follow after each automatically included for every 2 bit code.", "One possible coding is by number value for the length of signal tone sent one could use '01'b for a ''dit'' and the automatic single-dit pause after it, and '11'b for a ''dah'' and the automatic single-''dit'' following pause, and '00'b for the ''extra'' pause between letters (in effect, an end-of-letter mark).", "That leaves the code '10'b available for some other purpose, such as an escape character, or to more compactly represent the ''extra'' space between words (an end-of-word mark) instead of '00 00 00'b (only 6 ''dit'' lengths, since the 7th is automatically inserted as part of the prior ''dit'' or ''dah'').", "Although the ''dit'' and inter-letter pauses work out to be the same, for any letter containing a ''dah'', the two-bit encoding uses digital memory more compactly than the direct-conversion bit strings mentioned above.", "Including the letter-separating spaces, all International Morse letter codes pack into 12 bits or less (5 symbols), and most fit into 10 bits or less (4 symbols); most of the procedural signs fit into 14 bits, with a few only needing 12 bits (5 symbols); and all digits require exactly 12 bits.For example, Morse '''''' ( + 2 ''extra'' empty dits for \"end of letter\") would binary-encode as '11'b, '11'b, '01'b, '00'b; when packed it is '1111 0100'b = 'F4'x, which stores into only one byte (two nibbles) (as does every three-element code).", "The bit encoding for the longer method mentioned earlier the same letter would encode as '1110'b, '1110'b, '1000'b = '1110 1110 1000'b = 'EE8'x, or one-and-a-half bytes (three nibbles).", "The space saving allows small devices, like portable memory keyers, to have more and longer International Morse code sequences in small, conventional device-driver microprocessors' RAM chips.===Cable code===The very long time constants of 19th and early 20th century submarine communications cables required a different form of Morse signalling.", "Instead of keying a voltage on and off for varying times, the dits and dahs were represented by two polarities of voltage impressed on the cable, for a uniform time.===Timing===Below is an illustration of timing conventions.", "The phrase '''''', in Morse code format, would normally be written something like this, where represents ''dahs'' and represents ''dits'': −− −−− ·−· ··· · −·−· −−− −·· · M O R S E C O D ENext is the exact conventional timing for this phrase, with representing \"signal on\", and representing \"signal off\", each for the time length of exactly one dit:===Spoken representation===Morse code is often spoken or written with ''dah'' for dashes, ''dit'' for dots located at the end of a character, and ''di'' for dots located at the beginning or internally within the character.", "Thus, the following Morse code sequence:is spoken (or sung):For use on radio, there is little point in learning to read ''written'' Morse as above; rather, the ''sounds'' of all of the letters and symbols need to be learned, for both sending and receiving.===Speed in words per minute===All Morse code elements depend on the dot / ''dit'' length.", "A ''dah'' is the length of 3 dits (with no gaps between), and spacings are specified in number of ''dit'' lengths.", "An unambiguous method of specifying the transmission speed is to specify the ''dit'' duration as, for example, 50 milliseconds.Specifying the ''dit'' duration is, however, not the common practice.", "Usually, speeds are stated in words per minute.", "That introduces ambiguity because words have different numbers of characters, and characters have different ''dit'' lengths.", "It is not immediately clear how a specific word rate determines the ''dit'' duration in milliseconds.Some method to standardize the transformation of a word rate to a ''dit'' duration is useful.", "A simple way to do this is to choose a ''dit'' duration that would send a typical word the desired number of times in one minute.", "If, for example, the operator wanted a character speed of 13 words per minute, the operator would choose a ''dit'' rate that would send the typical word 13 times in exactly one minute.The typical word thus determines the ''dit'' length.", "It is common to assume that a word is 5 characters long.", "There are two common typical words: '''''' and ''''''. ''''''", "mimics a word rate that is typical of natural language words and reflects the benefits of Morse code's shorter code durations for common characters such as '''''' and ''''''. ''''''", "offers a word rate that is typical of 5 letter code groups (sequences of random letters).", "Using the word '''''' as a standard, the number of ''dit'' units is 50 and a simple calculation shows that the ''dit'' length at 20 words per minute is 60 milliseconds.", "Using the word '''''' with 60 dit units, the ''dit'' length at 20 words per minute is 50 milliseconds.Because Morse code is usually sent by hand, it is unlikely that an operator could be that precise with the ''dit'' length, and the individual characteristics and preferences of the operators usually override the standards.For commercial radiotelegraph licenses in the United States, the Federal Communications Commission specifies tests for Morse code proficiency in words per minute and in code groups per minute.", "The FCC specifies that a \"word\" is 5 characters long.", "The Commission specifies Morse code test elements at 16 code groups per minute, 20 words per minute, 20 code groups per minute, and 25 words per minute.", "The word per minute rate would be close to the '''''' standard, and the code groups per minute would be close to the '''''' standard.While the Federal Communications Commission no longer requires Morse code for amateur radio licenses, the old requirements were similar to the requirements for commercial radiotelegraph licenses.A difference between amateur radio licenses and commercial radiotelegraph licenses is that commercial operators must be able to receive code groups of random characters along with plain language text.", "For each class of license, the code group speed requirement is slower than the plain language text requirement.", "For example, for the Radiotelegraph Operator License, the examinee must pass a 20 word per minute plain text test and a 16 word per minute code group test.Based upon a 50 dit duration standard word such as '''''', the time for one ''dit'' duration or one unit can be computed by the formula::where: is the unit time, or ''dit'' duration in milliseconds, and is the speed in .High-speed telegraphy contests are held; according to the ''Guinness Book of Records'' in June 2005 at the International Amateur Radio Union's 6th World Championship in High Speed Telegraphy in Primorsko, Bulgaria, Andrei Bindasov of Belarus transmitted 230 Morse code marks of mixed text in one minute.===Farnsworth speed===Sometimes, especially while teaching Morse code, the timing rules above are changed so two different speeds are used: A character speed and a text speed.", "The character speed is how fast each individual letter is sent.", "The text speed is how fast the entire message is sent.", "For example, individual characters may be sent at a 13 words-per-minute rate, but the intercharacter and interword gaps may be lengthened so the word rate is only 5 words per minute.Using different character and text speeds is, in fact, a common practice, and is used in the Farnsworth method of learning Morse code.===Alternative display of common characters in International Morse code===Some methods of teaching Morse code use a dichotomic search table.International Morse code binary search tree: The graph branches left for each dit and right for each dah until the character representation is reached.", "Official ITU codes are shown as black letters on dark grey, and are complete, including punctuation; some non-ITU extensions are in grey letters on light grey, but are not exhaustive.", "ITU prosigns are circled in red with red text; unofficial prosigns are orange." ], [ "Learning methods", "People learning Morse code using the ''Farnsworth method'' are taught to send and receive letters and other symbols at their full target speed, that is with normal relative timing of the ''dits'', ''dahs'', and spaces within each symbol for that speed.", "The Farnsworth method is named for Donald R. \"Russ\" Farnsworth, also known by his call sign, W6TTB.", "However, initially exaggerated spaces between symbols and words are used, to give \"thinking time\" to make the sound \"shape\" of the letters and symbols easier to learn.", "The spacing can then be reduced with practice and familiarity.Another popular teaching method is the '''Koch method''', invented in 1935 by the German engineer and former stormtrooper Ludwig Koch, which uses the full target speed from the outset but begins with just two characters.", "Once strings containing those two characters can be copied with 90% accuracy, an additional character is added, and so on until the full character set is mastered.In North America, many thousands of individuals have increased their code recognition speed (after initial memorization of the characters) by listening to the regularly scheduled code practice transmissions broadcast by W1AW, the American Radio Relay League's headquarters station.", "the United States military taught Morse code as an 81-day self-paced course, having phased out more traditional classes.=== Mnemonics ===Scout movement founder Baden-Powell's mnemonic chart from 1918Visual mnemonic charts have been devised over the ages.", "Baden-Powell included one in the Girl Guides handbook in 1918.In the United Kingdom, many people learned the Morse code by means of a series of words or phrases that have the same rhythm as a Morse character.", "For instance, '''''' in Morse is which can be memorized by the phrase \"God Save the Queen\", and the Morse for '''''' is which can be memorized as \"Did she like it?\"" ], [ "Letters, numbers, punctuation, prosigns for Morse code and non-Latin variants", " Category Character Code Letters '''A, a''' Letters '''B, b''' Letters '''C, c''' Letters '''D, d''' Letters '''E, e''' Letters '''F, f''' Letters '''G, g''' Letters '''H, h''' Letters '''I, i''' Letters '''J, j''' Letters '''K, k''' Prosign for general ''invitation to transmit'' Letters '''L, l''' Letters '''M, m''' Letters '''N, n''' Letters '''O, o''' Letters '''P, p''' Letters '''Q, q''' Letters '''R, r''' Letters '''S, s''' Letters '''T, t''' Letters '''U, u''' Letters '''V, v''' Letters '''W, w''' Letters '''X, x''' Letters '''Y, y''' Letters '''Z, z''' Numbers '''0''' Numbers '''1''' Numbers '''2''' Numbers '''3''' Numbers '''4''' Numbers '''5''' Numbers '''6''' Numbers '''7''' Numbers '''8''' Numbers '''9''' Punctuation Full stop|'''Period''' '''.'''", "Punctuation Comma (punctuation)|'''Comma''' ''',''' Punctuation Question mark|'''Question mark''' '''?'''", "Punctuation Apostrophe (punctuation)|'''Apostrophe''' ''''''' Nonstandardpunctuation Exclamation mark|'''Exclamation point''' '''!'''", "digraph Punctuation '''Slash''' or Fraction (mathematics)|'''Fraction bar''' '''/''' digraph Punctuation Parenthesis|'''Open parenthesis''' '''(''' digraphUnofficial prosign for '''''exclusive''' invitation to transmit'' Punctuation Parenthesis|'''Close parenthesis''' ''')''' Nonstandardpunctuation '''Ampersand''' '''&''' digraphProsign for ''wait'' Punctuation Colon (punctuation)|'''Colon''' ''':''' Nonstandardpunctuation Semicolon|'''Semicolon''' ''';''' Punctuation Equal sign|'''Double dash''' '''=''' digraphProsign for ''new section'' or ''new paragraph'' Punctuation Plus and minus signs|'''Plus sign''' '''+''' digraph Prosign for ''new message'' or ''new page'' Punctuation '''Hyphen''' or Plus and minus signs|'''Minus sign''' '''-''' Nonstandardpunctuation Underscore|'''Underscore'''  '''_'''  Punctuation Quotation mark|'''Quotation mark''' '''\"''' Nonstandardpunctuation Dollar sign|'''Dollar sign''' '''$''' digraph Punctuation Commercial at|'''At sign''' '''@''' digraph Prosigns '''End of work''' digraph Prosigns '''Error''' digraph Prosigns '''General invitation to transmit''' Also used for letter '''K''' Prosigns '''Starting signal''' digraph Prosigns '''New message follows''' digraph Message or page separator Prosigns '''Verified''' Also used for letter '''Ŝ''' Prosigns '''Wait''' Proposed for use as ampersand '''&''' non-Latinextensions '''À, à''' Code shared with '''Å''' non-Latinextensions '''Ä, ä''' Code shared with '''Æ''', '''Ą''' non-Latinextensions '''Å, å''' Code shared with '''À''' non-Latinextensions '''Ą, ą''' Code shared with '''Ä''', '''Æ''' non-Latinextensions '''Æ, æ''' Code shared with '''Ä''', '''Ą''' non-Latinextensions '''Ć, ć''' Code shared with '''Ĉ''', '''Ç''' non-Latinextensions '''Ĉ, ĉ''' Code shared with '''Ć''', '''''' non-Latinextensions '''Ç, ç''' Code shared with '''Ć''', '''Ĉ''' non-Latinextensions '''CH, ch''' Code shared with '''Ĥ''', '''Š''' non-Latinextensions '''Đ, đ''' Code shared with '''É''', '''Ę''' Distinct from ''eth'' ('''Ð''', '''ð''') non-Latinextensions '''Ð, ð''' Distinct from D with stroke ('''Đ''', '''đ''') non-Latinextensions '''É, é''' Code shared with '''Đ''', '''Ę''' non-Latinextensions '''È, è''' Code shared with '''Ł''' non-Latinextensions '''Ę, ę''' Code shared with '''Đ''', '''É''', non-Latinextensions '''Ĝ, ĝ''' non-Latinextensions '''Ĥ, ĥ''' Code shared with '''CH''', '''Š''' non-Latinextensions '''Ĵ, ĵ''' non-Latinextensions '''Ł, ł''' Code shared with '''È''' non-Latinextensions '''Ń, ń''' Code shared with '''Ñ''' non-Latinextensions '''Ñ, ñ''' Code shared with '''Ń''' non-Latinextensions '''Ó, ó''' Code shared with '''Ö''', '''Ø''' non-Latinextensions '''Ö, ö''' Code shared with '''Ó''', '''Ø''' non-Latinextensions '''Ø, ø''' Code shared with '''Ó''', '''Ö''' non-Latinextensions '''Ś, ś''' non-Latinextensions '''Ŝ, ŝ''' Prosign for ''verified'' non-Latinextensions '''Š, š''' Code shared with '''CH''', '''Ĥ''' non-Latinextensions '''Þ, þ''' non-Latinextensions '''Ü, ü''' Code shared with '''Ŭ''' non-Latinextensions '''Ŭ, ŭ''' Code shared with '''Ü''' non-Latinextensions '''Ź, ź''' non-Latinextensions '''Ż, ż''' === Cut numbers ===Most numbers have an unofficial short-form, given in the table below.", "They are only used when both the sender and the receiver understand that numbers, and not letters, are intended; for example, one often sees the most common R-S-T signal report rendered as '''5''' instead of '''599'''.", ":+   Intended     digit     ‘Cut’ number   code   *   *   0     1     2     3     4     '''4'''   5   or '''5'''     6     '''6'''   7     8     9         :   *  To reduce confusion, codes that are ''not'' cut numbers or not numbers are in the table.", "†  Since ''cut numbers'' come from reducing multiple ''dahs'' in the regular Morse code numbers to only one ''dah'', but keeping all the ''dits'' as-is, there are no distinct cut codes for '''4''' or '''6'''.", "‡  Since five ''dits'' are still fairly short (same duration as cut '''3''' and cut '''7'''), and a single ''dit'' might possibly be misinterpreted as a mistaken cut '''1''' or cut decimal point, some operators just send the normal code for '''5''', even when using other cut numbers.=== Prosigns ===Prosigns for Morse code are special (usually) unwritten procedural signals or symbols that are used to indicate changes in communications protocol status or white space text formatting actions.=== Symbol representations ===The symbols '''!", "''', '''$''', and '''&''' are not defined inside the official ITU-R ''International Morse Code Recommendation'', but informal conventions for them exist.", "(The '''@''' symbol was formally added in 2004.", "); Exclamation mark : There is no standard representation for the exclamation mark '''!", "''', although the digraph () was proposed in the 1980s by the Heathkit Company.", "While Morse code translation software prefers the Heathkit version, on-air use is not yet universal as some amateur radio operators in North America and the Caribbean continue to use the older digraph () copied over from American Morse landline code.", "; Currency symbols : The ITU has never formally codified any currency symbols into Morse code: The unambiguous ISO 4217 currency codes are preferred for transmission.", ": The '''$''' sign code was represented in the Phillips Code as two characters \"''''''\", which became merged into ().", "; Ampersand & : The suggested unofficial encoding of the ampersand '''&''' sign listed above, often shown as , is also the official Morse prosign for ''wait''.", "In addition, the American Morse encoding for an ampersand () was similar to '''''' () and hams have nearly universally carried over this use as an abbreviation for \"and\" (e.g. ''''''", "''the weather here is cold and rainy'').", "; Keyboard \"at\" sign @ : On 24 May 2004 – the 160th anniversary of the first public Morse telegraph transmission – the Radiocommunication Bureau of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU-R) formally added the '''@''' (\"commercial at\" or \"commat\") character to the official Morse character set, using the sequence denoted by the digraph:  .", ": This sequence was reported to have been chosen to represent \"At Commercial\", or a letter \"a\" inside a swirl represented by a letter \"C\".", "The new character facilitates sending e‑mail addresses by Morse code, and is notable since it is the first official addition to the Morse set of characters since World War I.===Diacritics and non-Latin extensions ===The typical tactic for creating Morse codes for diacritics and non-Latin alphabetic scripts has been to begin by simply using the International Morse codes used for letters whose sound matches the sound of the local alphabet.", "Because Gerke code (the predecessor to International Morse) was in official use in central Europe, and included four characters not included in the International Morse standard ('''''', '''''', '''''', and '''''') it has served as a beginning-point for other languages that use an alphabetic script, but require codes for letters not accommodated by International Morse.The usual method has been to first transliterate the sounds represented by the International code and the four unique Gerke codes into the local alphabet, hence Greek, Hebrew, Russian, and Ukrainian Morse codes.", "If more codes are needed, one can either invent a new code or convert an otherwise unused code from either code set to the non-Latin letter.", "For example:* '''''' in Spanish Morse is , a language-specific code not used in either International or Gerke Morse.", "* For the Greek letter , Greek Morse code uses the International Morse code for '''''', , which has no corresponding letter in modern Greek; note that and have no historical, phonetic, or shape relationship.For Russian and Bulgarian, Russian Morse code is used to map the Cyrillic characters to four-element codes.", "Many of the characters are encoded the same as their latin-alphabet look-alikes or sound-alikes ('''''', '''''', '''''', '''''', '''''', '''''', '''''', '''''', '''''', etc.).", "The Bulgarian alphabet contains 30 characters, which exactly match all possible combinations of 1, 2, 3, and 4 ''dits'' and ''dahs'' (Russian '''''' is used as Bulgarian '''''', Russian '''''' is used as Bulgarian '''''').", "Russian requires two more codes, for letters '''''' and '''''' which are each encoded with 5 elements.Non-alphabetic scripts require more radical adaption.", "Japanese Morse code (Wabun code) has a separate encoding for kana script; although many of the codes are used for International Morse, the sounds they represent are mostly unrelated.", "The Japanese / Wabun code includes special prosigns for switching back-and-forth from International Morse: signals a switch from International Morse to Wabun, and to return from Wabun to International Morse.For Chinese, Chinese telegraph code is used to map Chinese characters to four-digit codes and send these digits out using standard Morse code.", "Korean Morse code uses the SKATS mapping, originally developed to allow Korean to be typed on western typewriters.", "SKATS maps hangul characters to arbitrary letters of the Latin script and has no relationship to pronunciation in Korean.=== Unusual variants ===During early World War I (1914–1916), Germany briefly experimented with 'dotty' and 'dashy' Morse, in essence adding a dot or a dash at the end of each Morse symbol.", "Each one was quickly broken by Allied SIGINT, and standard Morse was resumed by Spring 1916.Only a small percentage of Western Front (North Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea) traffic was in 'dotty' or 'dashy' Morse during the entire war.", "In popular culture, this is mostly remembered in the book ''The Codebreakers'' by Kahn and in the national archives of the UK and Australia (whose SIGINT operators copied most of this Morse variant).", "Kahn's cited sources come from the popular press and wireless magazines of the time.Other forms of ''Fractional Morse'' or ''Fractionated Morse'' have emerged." ], [ "Decoding software", "Decoding software for Morse code ranges from software-defined wide-band radio receivers, coupled to the Reverse Beacon Network, which decodes signals and detects '''''' messages on ham bands, to smartphone applications." ], [ "See also" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "** * * — 200 hours of at increasing speeds plus an ASCII-to-CW file generator program.", "* Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine:* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mapping" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Mapping''' may refer to:* Mapping (cartography), the process of making a map* Mapping (mathematics), a synonym for a mathematical function and its generalizations** Mapping (logic), a synonym for functional predicate" ], [ "Types of mapping", "* Animated mapping, the depiction of events over time on a map using sequential images representing each timeframe* Brain mapping, the techniques used to study the brain* Data mapping, data element mappings between two distinct data models* Digital mapping, the use of a computer to depict spatial data on a map* Gene mapping, the assignment of DNA fragments to chromosomes* Mind mapping, the drawing of ideas and the relations among them* Projection mapping, the projection of videos on the surface of objects with irregular shapes* Robotic mapping, creation and use of maps by robots* Satellite mapping, taking photos of Earth from space* Spiritual mapping, a practice of some religions* Texture mapping, in computer graphics* Web mapping, the use of the World Wide Web to depict spatial data on a map" ], [ "See also", "* * * Mapping theorem (disambiguation)* Mappings (poetry)* Surveying, the field work of gathering map data" ] ]
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[ [ "Emergency contraception" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Emergency contraception''' ('''EC''') is a birth control measure, used after sexual intercourse to prevent pregnancy.There are different forms of EC.", "Emergency contraceptive pills (ECPs), sometimes simply referred to as emergency contraceptives (ECs), or the '''morning-after pill''', are medications intended to disrupt or delay ovulation or fertilization, which are necessary for pregnancy.Intrauterine devices (IUDs)usually used as a primary contraceptive methodare sometimes used as the most effective form of emergency contraception.", "However, the use of IUDs for emergency contraception is relatively rare." ], [ "Definition", "Emergency contraception is a birth control measure taken to reduce the risk of pregnancy following unprotected sexual intercourse or when other regular contraceptive measures have not worked properly or have not been used correctly.", "It is intended to be used occasionally and is not the same as medical abortion.", "Emergency contraception is offered to women who do not wish to conceive but have had unprotected sex on any day of the menstrual cycle, from day 21 after giving birth, or from day five after abortion or miscarriage.", "Emergency contraception measures include tablets taken by mouth or the insertion of a copper intrauterine device.Emergency contraception is not related to medical abortion, which is a drug regimen administered to terminate pregnancies into the second and even third trimester." ], [ "Emergency contraceptive pills", "Emergency contraceptive pills (ECPs) are sometimes referred to as emergency hormonal contraception (EHC).", "They are taken after unprotected sexual intercourse or the breakage of a condom.===Types===A variety of emergency contraceptive pills are available, including combined estrogen and progestin pills; progestin-only (levonorgestrel, LNG) pills; and antiprogestin (ulipristal acetate or mifepristone) pills.", "Progestin-only and anti-progestin pills are available as specifically packaged pills for use as emergency contraceptive pills.", "Emergency contraceptive pills originally contained higher doses of the same hormones (estrogens, progestins, or both) found in regular combined oral contraceptive pills.", "Combined estrogen and progestin pills are no longer recommended as dedicated emergency contraceptive pills (because this regimen is less effective and caused more nausea), but certain regular combined oral contraceptive pills (taken 2–5 at a time in what was called \"the Yuzpe regimen\") have also been shown to be effective as emergency contraceptive pills.Progestin-only emergency contraceptive pills contain levonorgestrel, either as a single tablet (or historically, as a split dose of two tablets taken 12 hours apart), effective up to 72 hours after intercourse.", "Progestin-only ECPs are sold under many different brand names.", "Progestin-only ECPs are available over-the-counter (OTC) in many countries (e.g.", "Australia, Bangladesh, Bulgaria, Canada, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, India, Malta, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, South Africa, Sweden, United States), from a pharmacist without a prescription, and available with a prescription in some other countries.The antiprogestin ulipristal acetate is available as a micronized emergency contraceptive tablet, effective up to 120 hours after intercourse.", "Ulipristal acetate ECPs developed by HRA Pharma are available over the counter in Europe and by prescription in over 50 countries under the brand names ellaOne, ella (marketed by Watson Pharmaceuticals in the United States), Duprisal 30, Ulipristal 30, and UPRIS.The antiprogestin mifepristone (also known as RU-486) is available in five countries as a low-dose or mid-dose emergency contraceptive tablet, effective up to 120 hours after intercourse.", "Low-dose mifepristone ECPs are available by prescription in Armenia, Russia, Ukraine, and Vietnam and from a pharmacist without a prescription in China.", "Mid-dose mifepristone ECPs are available by prescription in China and Vietnam.Combined estrogen (ethinylestradiol) and progestin (levonorgestrel or norgestrel) pills used to be available as dedicated emergency contraceptive pills under several brand names: ''Schering PC4'', ''Tetragynon'', ''Neoprimavlar'', and ''Preven'' (in the United States) but were withdrawn after more effective dedicated progestin-only (levonorgestrel) emergency contraceptive pills with fewer side effects became available.", "If other more effective dedicated emergency contraceptive pills (levonorgestrel, ulipristal acetate, or mifepristone) are not available, specific combinations of regular combined oral contraceptive pills can be taken in split doses 12 hours apart (the Yuzpe regimen), effective up to 72 hours after intercourse.The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved this off-label use of certain brands of regular combined oral contraceptive pills in 1997.As of 2014, there are 26 brands of regular combined oral contraceptive pills containing levonorgestrel or norgestrel available in the United States that can be used in the emergency contraceptive Yuzpe regimen, when none of the more effective and better-tolerated options are available.===Effectiveness===Ulipristal acetate, and mid-dose mifepristone are both more effective than levonorgestrel, which is more effective than the Yuzpe method.The effectiveness of emergency contraception is expressed as a percentage reduction in pregnancy rate for a single use of EC.", "Using an example of \"75% effective\", the effectiveness calculation thus: The progestin-only regimen (using levonorgestrel) has an 89% effectiveness.", ", the labeling on the U.S. brand Plan B explained this effectiveness rate by stating, \"Seven out of every eight women who would have gotten pregnant will not become pregnant.", "\"In 1999, a meta-analysis of eight studies of the combined (Yuzpe) regimen concluded that the best point estimate of effectiveness was 74%.", "A 2003 analysis of two of the largest combined (Yuzpe) regimen studies, using a different calculation method, found effectiveness estimates of 47% and 53%.For both the progestin-only and Yuzpe regimens, the effectiveness of emergency contraception is highest when taken within 12 hours of intercourse and declines over time.The World Health Organization (WHO) suggested that reasonable effectiveness may continue for up to 120 hours (5 days) after intercourse.For 10 mg of mifepristone taken up to 120 hours (5 days) after intercourse, the combined estimate from three trials was an effectiveness of 83%.", "A review found that a moderate dose of mifepristone is better than LNG or Yuzpe, with delayed return of menstruation being the main adverse effect of most regimes.HRA Pharma changed its packaging information for Norlevo (levonorgestrel 1.5 mg, which is identical to many other EHCs) in November 2013 warning that according to studies the drug loses effectiveness in women who weigh more than 75 kg (165 lb) and is completely ineffective for women who weigh over 80 kg (176 lb).", "After a review by European Medicines Agency, the statement was deleted from the leaflet.", "The agency communicated that levonorgestrel is safe and effective method of emergency contraception, regardless of body weight.===Safety===The most common side effect reported by users of emergency contraceptive pills was nausea 14 to 23% of levonorgestrel-only users and 50.5% of Yuzpe regimen users; vomiting is much less common and unusual with levonorgestrel-only ECPs (5.6% of levonorgestrel-only users vs 18.8% of 979 Yuzpe regimen users in 1998 WHO trial; 1.4% of 2,720 levonorgestrel-only users in the 2002 WHO trial).", "Anti-emetics are not routinely recommended with levonorgestrel-only ECPs.", "If a woman vomits within 2 hours of taking a levonorgestrel-only ECP, she should take a further dose as soon as possible.Other common side effects (each reported by less than 20% of levonorgestrel-only users in both the 1998 and 2002 WHO trials) were abdominal pain, fatigue, headache, dizziness, and breast tenderness.", "Side effects generally resolve within 24 hours, although temporary disruption of the menstrual cycle is commonly experienced.", "If taken before ovulation, the high doses of progestogen in levonorgestrel treatments may induce progestogen withdrawal bleeding a few days after the pills are taken.One study found that about half of women who used levonorgestrel ECPs experienced bleeding within 7 days of taking the pills.", "If levonorgestrel is taken after ovulation, it may increase the length of the luteal phase, thus delaying menstruation by a few days.", "Mifepristone, if taken before ovulation, may delay ovulation by 3–4 days (delayed ovulation may result in a delayed menstruation).", "These disruptions only occur in the cycle in which ECPs were taken; subsequent cycle length is not significantly affected.", "If a woman's menstrual period is delayed by two weeks or more, it is advised that she take a pregnancy test.", "(Earlier testing may not give accurate results.", ")Existing pregnancy is not a contraindication in terms of safety, as there is no known harm to the woman, the course of her pregnancy, or the fetus if progestin-only or combined emergency contraception pills are accidentally used, but EC is not indicated for a woman with a known or suspected pregnancy because it is not effective in women who are already pregnant.The World Health Organization (WHO) lists no medical condition for which the risks of emergency contraceptive pills outweigh the benefits.", "The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) and experts on emergency contraception have concluded that progestin-only ECPs are preferable to combined ECPs containing estrogen for all women, and particularly those with a history of blood clots, stroke, or migraine.There are no medical conditions in which progestin-only ECPs are contraindicated.", "Current venous thromboembolism, current or history of breast cancer, inflammatory bowel disease, and acute intermittent porphyria are conditions where the advantages of using emergency contraceptive pills generally outweigh the theoretical or proven risks.ECPs, like all other contraceptives, reduce the absolute risk of ectopic pregnancy by preventing pregnancies and there is no increase in the relative risk of ectopic pregnancy in women who become pregnant after using progestin-only ECPs." ], [ "Interactions", "The herbal preparation of St John's wort and some enzyme-inducing drugs (e.g.", "anticonvulsants or rifampicin) may reduce the effectiveness of ECP, and a larger dose may be required, especially in women who weigh more than 165 lbs." ], [ "Intrauterine device", "An effective emergency contraception measure is the copper-T intrauterine device (IUD) which is generally recommended up to 5 days after unprotected intercourse or up to 5 days after probable ovulation.", "Some studies have found it to be effective up to 10 days after unprotected intercourse to prevent pregnancy.", "A 2021 study found that the hormonal IUD was as effective at emergency contraception as the copper IUD, though it is not offered by clinicians at the moment due to the lack of research done into the subject.Insertion of an IUD is more effective than the use of emergency contraceptive pillspregnancy rates when used as emergency contraception are the same as with normal IUD use.", "Unlike emergency contraceptive pills, which work by delaying ovulation, the copper-T IUD works by interfering with sperm motility.", "Therefore, the copper IUD is equally effective as emergency contraception at all weight ranges.", "IUDs may be left in place following the subsequent menstruation to provide ongoing contraception for as long as desired (12+ years)." ], [ "As regular contraception", "One brand of levonorgestrel pills was marketed as an ongoing method of postcoital contraception.", "However, with typical use, failure rates are expected to be higher than with the use of other birth control methods.Like all hormonal methods, postcoital high-dose progestin-only oral contraceptive pills do not protect against sexually transmitted infections.ECPs are generally recommended for backup or \"emergency\" usefor example, if a woman has forgotten to take a birth control pill or when a condom is torn during sex.", "However, for women facing reproductive coercion, who are not able to use regular birth control, repeated use of EC pills may be the most viable option available." ], [ "High-risk sex and abortion", "Making ECPs more widely available does not increase sexual risk-taking.", "While they are effective for individuals who use them in a timely fashion, the availability of EC pills does not appear to decrease abortion rates at the population level.In 2012 the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) stated: \"Despite multiple studies showing no increased risk behaviour and evidence that hormonal emergency contraception will not disrupt an established pregnancy, public and medical discourse reflects that personal values of physicians and pharmacists continue to affect emergency-contraception access, particularly for adolescents.\"" ], [ "EC and sexual assault", "Beginning in the 1960s, women who had been sexually assaulted were offered diethylstilbestrol (DES).", "Currently, the standard of care is to offer ulipristal or prompt placement of a copper IUD which is the most effective form of EC.", "However, adherence to these best practices varies by the emergency department.", "Before these EC options were available (in 1996), pregnancy rates among females of child-bearing age who had been raped were around 5%.", "Although EC is recommended following sexual assault, room for improvement in clinical practice remains." ], [ "Mechanism of action", "The primary mechanism of action of progestogen-only emergency contraceptive pills is to prevent fertilization by inhibition of ovulation.", "The best available evidence is that they do not have any post-fertilization effects such as the prevention of implantation.", "The U.S. FDA-approved labels and European EMA-approved labels (except for HRA Pharma's ''NorLevo'') levonorgestrel emergency contraceptive pills (based on labels for regular oral contraceptive pills) say they may cause endometrial changes that discourage implantation.", "Daily use of regular oral contraceptive pills can alter the endometrium (although this has not been proven to interfere with implantation), but the isolated use of a levonorgestrel emergency contraceptive pill does not have time to alter the endometrium.In March 2011, the International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics (FIGO) issued a statement that: \"review of the evidence suggests that LNG levonorgestreol ECPs cannot prevent implantation of a fertilized egg.", "Language on implantation should not be included in LNG ECP product labeling.\"", "In June 2012, a ''New York Times'' editorial called on the FDA to remove from the label the unsupported suggestion that levonorgestrel emergency contraceptive pills inhibit implantation.", "In November 2013, the European Medicines Agency (EMA) approved a change to the label for HRA Pharma's ''NorLevo'' saying it cannot prevent implantation of a fertilized egg.Progestogen-only emergency contraceptive does not appear to affect the function of the fallopian tubes or increase the rate of ectopic pregnancies.The primary mechanism of action of progesterone receptor modulator emergency contraceptive pills like low-dose and mid-dose mifepristone and ulipristal acetate is to prevent fertilization by inhibition or delay of ovulation.", "One clinical study found that post-ovulatory administration of ulipristal acetate altered the endometrium, but whether the changes would inhibit implantation is unknown.", "The European EMA-approved labels for ulipristal acetate emergency contraceptive pills do not mention an effect on implantation, but the U.S. FDA-approved label says: \"alterations to the endometrium that may affect implantation may also contribute to efficacy.", "\"The primary mechanism of action of copper-releasing intrauterine devices (IUDs) as emergency contraceptives is to prevent fertilization because of copper toxicity to sperm and ova.", "The very high effectiveness of copper-releasing IUDs as emergency contraceptives implies that they must also prevent some pregnancies by post-fertilization effects such as prevention of implantation." ], [ "History", "In 1966, gynecologist John McLean Morris and biologist Gertrude Van Wagenen at the Yale School of Medicine, reported the successful use of oral high-dose estrogen pills as post-coital contraceptives in women and rhesus macaque monkeys, respectively.", "A few different drugs were studied, with a focus on high-dose estrogens, and it was originally hoped that postcoital contraception would prove viable as an ongoing contraceptive method.The first widely used methods were five-day treatments with high-dose estrogens, using diethylstilbestrol (DES) in the US and ethinylestradiol in the Netherlands by Haspels.In the early 1970s, the Yuzpe regimen was developed by A. Albert Yuzpe in 1974; progestin-only postcoital contraception was investigated (1975); and the copper IUD was first studied for use as emergency contraception (1975).", "Danazol was tested in the early 1980s in the hopes that it would have fewer side effects than Yuzpe, but was found to be ineffective.The Yuzpe regimen became the standard course of treatment for postcoital contraception in many countries in the 1980s.", "The first prescription-only combined estrogen-progestin dedicated product, Schering PC4 (ethinylestradiol and norgestrel), was approved in the UK in January 1984 and first marketed in October 1984.Schering introduced a second prescription-only combined product, Tetragynon (ethinylestradiol and levonorgestrel) in Germany in 1985.By 1997, Schering AG dedicated prescription-only combined products had been approved in only 9 countries: the UK (Schering PC4), New Zealand (Schering PC4), South Africa (E-Gen-C), Germany (Tetragynon), Switzerland (Tetragynon), Denmark (Tetragynon), Norway (Tetragynon), Sweden (Tetragynon) and Finland (Neoprimavlar); and had been withdrawn from marketing in New Zealand in 1997 to prevent it being sold over-the-counter.", "Regular combined oral contraceptive pills (which were less expensive and more widely available) were more commonly used for the Yuzpe regimen even in countries where dedicated products were available.Over time, interest in progestin-only treatments increased.", "The Special Program on Human Reproduction (HRP), an international organization whose members include the World Bank and World Health Organization, \"played a pioneering role in emergency contraception\" by \"confirming the effectiveness of levonorgestrel.\"", "After the WHO conducted a large trial comparing Yuzpe and levonorgestrel in 1998, combined estrogen-progestin products were gradually withdrawn from some markets (''Preven'' in the United States discontinued May 2004, ''Schering PC4'' in the UK discontinued October 2001, and ''Tetragynon'' in France) in favor of progestin-only EC, although prescription-only dedicated Yuzpe regimen products are still available in some countries.In 2002, China became the first country in which mifepristone was registered for use as EC.In 2020, Japan announced it would consider easing regulations on the sale of emergency contraceptive pills without a prescription.", "Non-profit groups submitted a petition to the health ministry calling for prescription-free access to the pill.", "They had collected more than 100,000 signatures.===Calculating effectiveness===Early studies of emergency contraceptives did not attempt to calculate a failure rate; they simply reported the number of women who became pregnant after using an emergency contraceptive.", "Since 1980, clinical trials of emergency contraception have first calculated probable pregnancies in the study group if no treatment were given.", "The effectiveness is calculated by dividing observed pregnancies by the estimated number of pregnancies without treatment.Placebo-controlled trials that could give a precise measure of the pregnancy rate without treatment would be unethical, so the effectiveness percentage is based on estimated pregnancy rates.", "These are currently estimated using variants of the calendar method.Women with irregular cycles for any reason (including recent hormone use such as oral contraceptives and breastfeeding) must be excluded from such calculations.", "Even for women included in the calculation, the limitations of calendar methods of fertility determination have long been recognized.", "In their February 2014 emergency review article, Trussell and Raymond note:In 1999, hormonal assay was suggested as a more accurate method of estimating fertility for EC studies.===United States=======DES====* In 1971, a ''New England Journal of Medicine'' editorial calling attention to previously published studies on the use of DES as a postcoital contraceptive at Yale University, and a large study published in ''JAMA'' on the use of DES as a postcoital contraceptive at the University of Michigan, led to off-label use of DES as a postcoital contraceptive becoming prevalent at many university health services.", "* In May 1973, in an attempt to restrict off-label use of DES as a postcoital contraceptive to emergency situations such as rape, a ''FDA Drug Bulletin'' was sent to all U.S. physicians and pharmacists that said the FDA had approved, under restricted conditions, postcoital contraceptive use of DES.", "(In February 1975, the FDA Commissioner testified that the only error in the May 1973 ''FDA Drug Bulletin'' was that the FDA had '''not''' approved postcoital contraceptive use of DES).", "* In September 1973, the FDA published a proposed rule specifying patient labeling and special packaging requirements for any manufacturer seeking FDA approval to market DES as a postcoital contraceptive, inviting manufacturers to submit abbreviated new drug applications (ANDAs) for that indication, and notifying manufacturers that the FDA intended to order the withdrawal of DES 25 mg tablets (which were being used off-label as postcoital contraceptives).", "* In late 1973, Eli Lilly, the largest U.S. manufacturer of DES, discontinued its DES 25 mg tablets and in March 1974 sent a letter to all U.S. physicians and pharmacists telling them it did not recommend use of DES as a postcoital contraceptive.", "* Only one pharmaceutical company, Tablicaps, Inc., a small manufacturer of generic drugs, ever submitted (in January 1974) an ANDA for use of DES as an emergency postcoital contraceptive, and the FDA never approved it.", "* In February 1975, the FDA said it had not yet approved DES as a postcoital contraceptive, but would after March 8, 1975, permit marketing of DES for that indication in emergency situations such as rape or incest ''if'' a manufacturer obtained an approved ANDA that provided patient labeling and special packaging as set out in a FDA final rule published in February 1975.To discourage off-label use of DES as a postcoital contraceptive, in February 1975 the FDA ordered DES 25 mg (and higher) tablets removed from the market and ordered the labeling of lower doses (5 mg and lower) of DES still approved for other indications be changed to state: \"THIS DRUG PRODUCT SHOULD ''not'' BE USED AS A POSTCOITAL CONTRACEPTIVE\" in block capital letters on the first line of the physician prescribing information package insert and in a prominent and conspicuous location of the container and carton label.", "* In March 1978, a ''FDA Drug Bulletin'' was sent to all U.S. physicians and pharmacists which said: \"FDA has not yet given approval for any manufacturer to market DES as a postcoital contraceptive.", "The Agency, however, will approve this indication for emergency situations such as rape or incest if a manufacturer provides patient labeling and special packaging.", "To discourage 'morning after' use of DES without patient labeling, FDA has removed from the market the 25 mg tablets of DES, formerly used for this purpose.", "\"* In the 1980s, off-label use of the Yuzpe regimen superseded off-label use of DES for postcoital contraception.", "** DES is no longer commercially available in the U.S.; Eli Lilly, the last U.S. manufacturer, ceased production in spring 1997.====Preven====* On February 25, 1997, the FDA posted a notice in the ''Federal Register'' saying it had concluded that the Yuzpe regimen was safe and effective for off-label use as postcoital EC, was prepared to accept NDAs for COCPs labeled as ECPs, and listed 6 then available COCPs (there are now 22) that could be used as ECPs.", "* On September 1, 1998, the FDA approved the prescription Yuzpe regimen Preven Emergency Contraception Kit (which contained a urine pregnancy test and 4 COCPs).", "Preven was discontinued in May 2004.====Plan B====* On July 28, 1999, the FDA approved the prescription progestin-only Plan B (two 750 µg levonorgestrel pills) emergency contraceptive.", "* On August 24, 2006, the FDA approved nonprescription behind-the-counter access to Plan B from pharmacies staffed by a licensed pharmacist for women 18 or older; a prescription-only form of Plan B was made available for younger females aged 17 and younger.", "* On November 6, 2006, Barr Pharmaceuticals announced that its subsidiary, Duramed Pharmaceuticals, had initiated shipment of dual-label Plan B OTC/Rx and it would be available in pharmacies across the U.S. by mid-November 2006.", "* On March 23, 2009, a US judge ordered the FDA to allow 17-year-olds to acquire Plan B without a prescription.", "This now changes the August 24, 2006, ruling and Plan B is now available \"behind the counter\" for men and women.", "There is a prescription method available for girls under 17.", "* On April 30, 2013, the FDA approved (with three-year marketing exclusivity) Teva Pharmaceutical Industries' Plan B One-Step for sale without a prescription to anyone age 15 or over who can show proof of age such as a driver's license, birth certificate, or passport to a drug store retail clerk.", "Generic one-pill levonorgestrel emergency contraceptives and all two-pill levonorgestrel emergency contraceptives will remain restricted to sale from a pharmacist—without a prescription to anyone age 17 or over who can show proof of age.", "* On June 10, 2013, the Obama administration ceased trying to block over-the-counter availability of the pill.", "With this reversal it means that any person will be able to purchase the Plan B One-Step without a prescription." ], [ "Availability", "The COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom was reported to have caused \"significant disruption\" to contraceptive services in the United Kingdom.===United States===After ''Roe v. Wade'' and ''Doe v. Bolton'' resulted in the U.S. Supreme Court's 1973 ruling to legalize abortion, both Federal and State laws were created to allow medical professionals and institutions the right to deny reproductive health services without financial, professional, or legal penalty.", "''Roe v. Wade'' caused a historical survey to be conducted and concluded that right to privacy cases such as ''Griswold v. Connecticut'' allowed women to have parental control over childrearing, including the use of contraception for reproductive autonomy.", "After this, women became more informed about contraceptives and began requesting them more often.Almost all 50 states have implemented policies on sterilization, contraceptives, and abortion services.", "Since the late 1990s, due to rights given by specific policies, the dispensation of emergency contraceptives on issues of religious and moral objections of providing care has extended from doctors, nurses, and hospitals to pharmacies and individual pharmacists.", "Furthermore, many states have insurance policies that cover contraceptives alongside all other prescription drugs, but may have exemptions for employers or private insurers on religious grounds.", "Different state legislatures have taken different routes in broadening access to emergency contraceptives.", "In some states, if a woman has been sexually assaulted, it is mandatory to provide her access to EC.", "In other states, women have been allowed various amounts of access, including the ability to access EC without a prescription from a physician, creation of policies limiting the ability of pharmacists to deny EC on religious and moral grounds, and creation of policies discouraging pharmacists from denying to fill contraceptive prescriptions.", "One state even requires all pharmacies to stock and fill every method of contraception.", "However, other states have restricted access of emergency contraception from state Medicaid family planning eligibility expansions or contraceptive coverage mandates, or by allowing the refusal of providing contraceptive services by healthcare professionals.Under federal law, a provision of the Affordable Care Act of 2010 has guaranteed coverage of contraceptives, applying to most private health plans nationwide.", "The provision has also specifically required coverage for 18 methods of contraception used by women, related counselling and services, and requires the coverage provided not to be an out-of-pocket cost to the people.", "In October 2017, however, the Trump administration made it easier for employers that offer health care plans to exclude contraceptive coverage.", "The two regulations that allow employers to reject contraceptive coverage are religious and moral objection, but the courts have blocked the enforcement of these regulations.", "As of today, 29 states require that if insurance covers prescription drugs, it has to provide FDA-approved prescription contraceptive drugs and devices.", "10 states prohibit the restriction and delay by insurers or medical management techniques to access contraceptives, and 8 states do not permit refusal on religious or moral grounds by any employers or insurerers.", "However, 21 states do allow the refusal to comply with the contraceptive coverage mandates, and 14 states prohibit cost sharing for contraceptives.Emergency contraceptives are the most common prescription drug denied due to of religious or moral beliefs.", "There have been cases where hormones, drugs and devices used to treat human immunodeficiency virus and diabetic medication have also been denied.", "This topic continues to be fought upon on different levels; for example, Stormans, Inc v Wiesman challenged Washington state regulations on providing all lawfully prescribed pharmaceuticals, including EC.", "They were challenging Washington state regulations on providing all lawfully prescribed pharmaceuticals.", "Courts have been warned that if pharmacists are allowed to deny EC prescriptions on religious or moral beliefs, it can affect public health and set a dangerous precedent with respect to \"critical, life-saving preventative care\".", "The court denied the claim, stating that all pharmacies, even if the owner has a religious objection, must provide all prescribed medication, including EC.", "The pharmacy in question tried to appeal the case to the Supreme Court, but the appeal was rejected, leaving the lower court's ruling in place.", "Wal-Mart, the third largest U.S. pharmacy chain, refused to carry EC from 1997 to 2006, which shows that accessibility may still be an issue in areas dependent on single pharmacies with no alternatives." ], [ "See also", "* Rape crisis center* Reproductive Health Supplies Coalition" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Emergency Contraceptive Pills Medical and Service Delivery Guidance 4th edition* The Emergency Contraception Website (not-2-late.com) by the Office of Population Research at Princeton University and the Association of Reproductive Health Professionals.", "Information for women who need emergency contraception now.", "* Planned Parenthood web site.", "Educational web site with information for women who need emergency contraception now.", "* International Consortium for Emergency Contraception Policy-oriented web site directed at professionals.", "* Emergency contraception by the Adolescent Medicine Committee, Canadian Pediatric Society (CPS), ''Paediatrics and Child Health'' ACSA-CAAH* Use of Emergency Contraception Among Women Aged 15–44, United States, 2006–2010 National Center for Health Statistics" ] ]
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[ [ "Meat" ], [ "Introduction", "A selection of uncooked red meat, pork and poultry, including beef, chicken, bacon and pork chops'''Meat''' is animal tissue, often muscle, that is eaten as food.", "Humans have hunted and farmed other animals for meat since prehistoric times.", "The Neolithic Revolution allowed the domestication of animals including chickens, sheep, goats, pigs, horses, and cattle, starting around 11,000 years ago.", "Since then, selective breeding has enabled farmers to produce meat with the qualities desired by producers and consumers.", "Meat is mainly composed of water, protein, and fat.", "Its quality is affected by many factors, including the genetics and nutritional status of the animal involved.", "It is edible raw, but is normally eaten cooked, such as by stewing or roasting, or processed, such as by smoking or salting.", "Bacteria and fungi decompose and spoil unprocessed meat within hours or days.The consumption of meat, especially red and processed meat, causes health effects including increased risks of cancer, coronary heart disease, and diabetes.", "Meat production is a major contributor to environmental issues including global warming, pollution, and biodiversity loss, at every scale from local to global.Meat is important to economies and cultures around the world.", "Some people choose not to eat meat (vegetarians) for reasons such as ethics, environmental effects, health concerns, or religious dietary rules." ], [ "Etymology", "The word ''meat'' comes from the Old English word , meaning food in general.", "In modern usage, ''meat'' means skeletal muscle and associated fat and other tissues, but it may also denote other edible tissues such as offal.", "''Meat'' is sometimes used in a more restrictive sense to mean the flesh of mammalian species (pigs, cattle, sheep, goats, etc.)", "raised and prepared for human consumption, to the exclusion of fish, other seafood, insects, poultry, or other animals.", "English has specialized terms for the meat of particular animals, deriving from the Norman conquest of England in 1066: while the animals retained their English names, their meat as brought to the tables of the invaders was named in Norman French.", "These names came to be used by the entire population.+Meat of......is called:EtymologyPigsPorkNorman French ''porc'' (pig)CattleBeefNorman French ''boeuf'' (cattle)SheepMuttonNorman French ''mouton'' (sheep)CalvesVealNorman French ''veau'' (calf)Domesticated birdsPoultryNorman French ''poule'' (domestic fowl)GoatsChevonOld French ''chèvre'' (goat)DeerVenisonOld French ''venesoun'' (meat of large game)" ], [ "History", "=== Domestication ===Paleontological evidence suggests that meat constituted a substantial proportion of the diet of the earliest humans.", "Early hunter-gatherers depended on the organized hunting of large animals such as bison and deer.", "Animals were domesticated in the Neolithic, enabling the systematic production of meat and the breeding of animals to improve meat production.", "+ Major animal domestications Event Centre of origin Purpose Date/years ago Goat, Sheep, Pig, Cow Near East, South Asia Food 11,000–10,000 Chicken East Asia Cockfighting 7,000 Horse Central Asia Draft, riding 5,500=== Selective breeding === Modern agriculture employs techniques such as progeny testing to speed selective breeding, allowing the rapid acquisition of the qualities desired by meat producers.", "For instance, in the wake of well-publicised health concerns associated with saturated fats in the 1980s, the fat content of United Kingdom beef, pork and lamb fell from 20–26 percent to 4–8 percent within a few decades, due to both selective breeding for leanness and changed methods of butchery.", "Methods of genetic engineering that could improve the meat-producing qualities of animals are becoming available.Meat production continues to be shaped by the demands of customers.", "The trend towards selling meat in pre-packaged cuts has increased the demand for larger breeds of cattle, better suited to producing such cuts.", "Animals not previously exploited for their meat are now being farmed, including mammals such as antelope, zebra, water buffalo and camel, as well as non-mammals, such as crocodile, emu and ostrich.", "Organic farming supports an increasing demand for meat produced to that standard.File:Lamb meat.jpg|A shoulder of lambFile:Hereford bull large.jpg|A Hereford bull, a breed of beef cattleFile:Dog meat at Gyeongdong Market.jpg|Dog meat on sale, South KoreaFile:SelectionOfPackageMeats.jpg|Supermarket meat, North America" ], [ "Animal growth and development", "Several factors affect the growth and development of meat.=== Genetics === Trait Heritability Reproductive efficiency 2–10% Meat quality 15–30% Growth 20–40% Muscle/fat ratio 40–60%Some economically important traits in meat animals are heritable to some degree, and can thus be selected for by animal breeding.", "In cattle, certain growth features are controlled by recessive genes which have not so far been controlled, complicating breeding.", "One such trait is dwarfism; another is the doppelender or \"double muscling\" condition, which causes muscle hypertrophy and thereby increases the animal's commercial value.", "Genetic analysis continues to reveal the genetic mechanisms that control numerous aspects of the endocrine system and, through it, meat growth and quality.Genetic engineering techniques can shorten breeding programs significantly because they allow for the identification and isolation of genes coding for desired traits, and for the reincorporation of these genes into the animal genome.", "To enable such manipulation, the genomes of many animals are being mapped.", "Some research has already seen commercial application.", "For instance, a recombinant bacterium has been developed which improves the digestion of grass in the rumen of cattle, and some specific features of muscle fibres have been genetically altered.", "Experimental reproductive cloning of commercially important meat animals such as sheep, pig or cattle has been successful.", "Multiple asexual reproduction of animals bearing desirable traits is anticipated.=== Environment ===Heat regulation in livestock is of economic significance, as mammals attempt to maintain a constant optimal body temperature.", "Low temperatures tend to prolong animal development and high temperatures tend to delay it.", "Depending on their size, body shape and insulation through tissue and fur, some animals have a relatively narrow zone of temperature tolerance and others (e.g.", "cattle) a broad one.", "Static magnetic fields, for reasons still unknown, also retard animal development.=== Animal nutrition ===The quality and quantity of usable meat depends on the animal's ''plane of nutrition'', i.e., whether it is over- or underfed.", "Scientists disagree about how exactly the plane of nutrition influences carcass composition.The composition of the diet, especially the amount of protein provided, is also an important factor regulating animal growth.", "Ruminants, which may digest cellulose, are better adapted to poor-quality diets, but their ruminal microorganisms degrade high-quality protein if supplied in excess.", "Because producing high-quality protein animal feed is expensive (see also ''Environmental impact'' below), several techniques are employed or experimented with to ensure maximum utilization of protein.", "These include the treatment of feed with formalin to protect amino acids during their passage through the rumen, the recycling of manure by feeding it back to cattle mixed with feed concentrates, or the conversion of petroleum hydrocarbons to protein through microbial action.In plant feed, environmental factors influence the availability of crucial nutrients or micronutrients, a lack or excess of which can cause a great many ailments.", "In Australia, for instance, where the soil contains limited phosphate, cattle are being fed additional phosphate to increase the efficiency of beef production.", "Also in Australia, cattle and sheep in certain areas were often found losing their appetite and dying in the midst of rich pasture; this was at length found to be a result of cobalt deficiency in the soil.", "Plant toxins are also a risk to grazing animals; for instance, sodium fluoroacetate, found in some African and Australian plants, kills by disrupting the cellular metabolism.", "Some man-made pollutants such as methylmercury and some pesticide residues present a particular hazard as they bioaccumulate in meat, potentially poisoning consumers.=== Animal welfare ===The welfare of farm animals such as hens in battery cages and other systems is debated.Practices such as confinement in factory farming have generated concerns for animal welfare.", "Animals have abnormal behaviours such as tail-biting, cannibalism, and feather pecking.", "Invasive procedures such as beak trimming, castration, and ear notching have similarly been questioned.", "Breeding for high productivity may affect welfare, as when broiler chickens are bred to be very large and to grow rapidly.", "Broilers often have leg deformities and become lame, and many die from the stress of handling and transport.=== Human intervention ===Meat producers may seek to improve the fertility of female animals through the administration of gonadotrophic or ovulation-inducing hormones.", "In pig production, sow infertility is a common problem – possibly due to excessive fatness.", "No methods currently exist to augment the fertility of male animals.", "Artificial insemination is now routinely used to produce animals of the best possible genetic quality, and the efficiency of this method is improved through the administration of hormones that synchronize the ovulation cycles within groups of females.Growth hormones, particularly anabolic agents such as steroids, are used in some countries to accelerate muscle growth in animals.", "This practice has given rise to the beef hormone controversy, an international trade dispute.", "It may also decrease the tenderness of meat, although research on this is inconclusive, and have other effects on the composition of the muscle flesh.", "Where castration is used to improve control over male animals, its side effects are also counteracted by the administration of hormones.", "Myostatin-based muscle hypertrophy has also been used.Sedatives may be administered to animals to counteract stress factors and increase weight gain.", "The feeding of antibiotics to certain animals has been shown to improve growth rates also.", "This practice is particularly prevalent in the US, but has been banned in the EU, partly because it causes antimicrobial resistance in pathogenic microorganisms." ], [ "Composition", "=== Biochemical ===The biochemical composition of meat varies in complex ways depending on the species, breed, sex, age, plane of nutrition, training and exercise of the animal, as well as on the anatomical location of the musculature involved.", "Even between animals of the same litter and sex there are considerable differences in such parameters as the percentage of intramuscular fat.Adult mammalian muscle consists of roughly 75 percent water, 19 percent protein, 2.5 percent intramuscular fat, 1.2 percent carbohydrates and 2.3 percent other soluble substances.", "These include organic compounds, especially amino acids, and inorganic substances such as minerals.", "Muscle proteins are either soluble in water (sarcoplasmic proteins, about 11.5 percent of total muscle mass) or in concentrated salt solutions (myofibrillar proteins, about 5.5 percent of mass).", "There are several hundred sarcoplasmic proteins.", "Most of them – the glycolytic enzymes – are involved in glycolysis, the conversion of sugars into high-energy molecules, especially adenosine triphosphate (ATP).", "The two most abundant myofibrillar proteins, myosin and actin, form the muscle's overall structure and enable it to deliver power, consuming ATP in the process.", "The remaining protein mass includes connective tissue (collagen and elastin).", "Fat in meat can be either adipose tissue, used by the animal to store energy and consisting of \"true fats\" (esters of glycerol with fatty acids), or intramuscular fat, which contains phospholipids and cholesterol.Meat can be broadly classified as \"red\" or \"white\" depending on the concentration of myoglobin in muscle fibre.", "When myoglobin is exposed to oxygen, reddish oxymyoglobin develops, making myoglobin-rich meat appear red.", "The redness of meat depends on species, animal age, and fibre type: Red meat contains more narrow muscle fibres that tend to operate over long periods without rest, while white meat contains more broad fibres that tend to work in short fast bursts, such as the brief flight of the chicken.", "The meat of adult mammals such as cows, sheep, and horses is considered red, while chicken and turkey breast meat is considered white.File:Blade steak (cropped).jpg|\"Red\" meat:beef steakFile:Hühnerbrustfilet 20090502 001 (cropped).JPG|\"White\" meat:chicken breast (flight muscle)=== Nutritional ===Muscle tissue is high in protein, containing all of the essential amino acids, and in most cases is a good source of zinc, vitamin B12, selenium, phosphorus, niacin, vitamin B6, choline, riboflavin and iron.", "Several forms of meat are also high in vitamin K. Muscle tissue is very low in carbohydrates and does not contain dietary fiber.", "The fat content of meat varies widely with the species and breed of animal, the way in which the animal was raised, what it was fed, the part of the body, and the methods of butchering and cooking.", "Wild animals such as deer are leaner than farm animals, leading those concerned about fat content to choose game such as venison.", "Decades of breeding meat animals for fatness is being reversed by consumer demand for leaner meat.", "The fatty deposits near the muscle fibers in meats soften meat when it is cooked, improve its flavor, and make the meat seem juicier.", "Fat around meat further contains cholesterol.", "The increase in meat consumption after 1960 is associated with significant imbalances of fat and cholesterol in the human diet.+ Nutritional content of ; data vary widely with selection (e.g.", "skinless, boneless) and preparation Source Energy: kJ (kcal) Protein Carbs Fat Chicken breast 25 g 0 g 2 g Lamb mince 19 g 0 g 26 g Beef mince 19 g 0 g 22 g Dog 20 g 0 g 22 g Horse 23 g 0 g 5 g Pork loin 14 g 0 g 30 g Rabbit 32 g 0 g 9 g" ], [ "Production", "File:World production of meat, main items.svg|World production of meat, main itemsFile:World production of main meat items, main producers (2019).svg|World production of main meat items, main producers (2019)=== Transport ===Upon reaching a predetermined age or weight, livestock are usually transported ''en masse'' to the slaughterhouse.", "Depending on its length and circumstances, this may exert stress and injuries on the animals, and some may die ''en route''.", "Unnecessary stress in transport may adversely affect the quality of the meat.", "In particular, the muscles of stressed animals are low in water and glycogen, and their pH fails to attain acidic values, all of which results in poor meat quality.", "=== Slaughter ===Animals are usually slaughtered by being first stunned and then exsanguinated (bled out).", "Death results from the one or the other procedure, depending on the methods employed.", "Stunning can be effected through asphyxiating the animals with carbon dioxide, shooting them with a gun or a captive bolt pistol, or shocking them with electric current.", "The exsanguination is accomplished by severing the carotid artery and the jugular vein in cattle and sheep, and the anterior vena cava in pigs.", "Draining as much blood as possible from the carcass is necessary because blood causes the meat to have an unappealing appearance and is a breeding ground for microorganisms.=== Dressing and cutting ===After exsanguination, the carcass is dressed; that is, the head, feet, hide (except hogs and some veal), excess fat, viscera and offal are removed, leaving only bones and edible muscle.", "Cattle and pig carcases, but not those of sheep, are then split in half along the mid ventral axis, and the carcase is cut into wholesale pieces.", "The dressing and cutting sequence, long a province of manual labor, is being progressively automated.=== Conditioning ===Under hygienic conditions and without other treatment, meat can be stored at above its freezing point (−1.5 °C) for about six weeks without spoilage, during which time it undergoes an aging process that increases its tenderness and flavor.", "During the first day after death, glycolysis continues until the accumulation of lactic acid causes the pH to reach about 5.5.The remaining glycogen, about 18 g per kg, increases the water-holding capacity and tenderness of cooked meat.", "''Rigor mortis'' sets in a few hours after death as adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is used up, causing actin and myosin to combine into rigid actomyosin and lowering the meat's water-holding capacity, causing it to lose water (\"weep\").", "In muscles that enter ''rigor'' in a contracted position, actin and myosin filaments overlap and cross-bond, resulting in meat that becomes tough when cooked.", "Over time, muscle proteins denature in varying degree, with the exception of the collagen and elastin of connective tissue, and ''rigor mortis'' resolves.", "These changes mean that meat is tender and pliable when cooked just after death or after the resolution of ''rigor'', but tough when cooked during ''rigor.''", "As the muscle pigment myoglobin denatures, its iron oxidizes, which may cause a brown discoloration near the surface of the meat.", "Ongoing proteolysis contributes to conditioning: hypoxanthine, a breakdown product of ATP, contributes to meat's flavor and odor, as do other products of the decomposition of muscle fat and protein.File:Atria slaughterhouse in Nurmo Seinajoki.JPG|A slaughterhouse, FinlandFile:MIN Rungis viandes de boucherie veau.jpg|Rungis International Market, FranceFile:Sucuk-1.jpg|The word \"sausage\" is derived from Old French , from Latin , \"salted\".=== Additives ===When meat is industrially processed, additives are used to protect or modify its flavor or color, to improve its tenderness, juiciness or cohesiveness, or to aid with its preservation.+ Additives used in industrial meat processing Additive Examples Function Notes Salt n/a Imparts flavor but also inhibits microbial growth, extends the product's shelf life and helps emulsifying finely processed products, such as sausages.", "The most common additive.", "Ready-to-eat meat products often contain 1.5 to 2.5 percent salt.", "Nitrite n/a Curing meat, to stabilize color and flavor, and inhibit growth of spore-forming microorganisms such as ''Clostridium botulinum''.", "The use of nitrite's precursor nitrate is now limited to a few products such as dry sausage, prosciutto or parma ham.", "Alkaline polyphosphates Sodium tripolyphosphate Increase the water-binding and emulsifying ability of meat proteins, limit lipid oxidation and flavor loss, and reduce microbial growth.", "Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) n/a Stabilize the color of cured meat.", "Sweeteners Sugar, corn syrup Impart a sweet flavor, bind water and assist surface browning during cooking in the Maillard reaction.", "Seasonings Spices, herbs, essential oils Impart or modify flavor.", "Flavorings Monosodium glutamate Strengthen existing flavors.", "Tenderizers Proteolytic enzymes, acids Break down collagen to make the meat more palatable for consumption.", "Antimicrobials lactic, citric and acetic acid, calcium sulfate, cetylpyridinium chloride, lactoferrin, bacteriocins such as nisin.", "Limit growth of meat spoilage bacteria Antioxidants Limit lipid oxidation, which would create an undesirable \"off flavor\".", "Used in precooked meat products.", "Acidifiers Lactic acid, citric acid Impart a tangy or tart flavor note, extend shelf-life, tenderize fresh meat or help with protein denaturation and moisture release in dried meat.", "They substitute for the process of natural fermentation that acidifies some meat products such as hard salami or prosciutto." ], [ "Consumption", "=== Historical ===A bioarchaeological (specifically, isotopic analysis) study of early medieval England found, based on the funerary record, that high-meat protein diets were extremely rare, and that (contrary to previously held assumptions) elites did not consume more meat than non-elites, and men did not consume more meat than women.In the nineteenth century meat consumption in Britain was the highest in Europe, exceeded only by that in British colonies.", "In the 1830s consumption per head in Britain was about a year, rising to in 1912.In 1904 laborers were found to consume a year while aristocrats ate .", "There were estimated to be 43,000 meat purveyor establishments in Britain in 1910, with \"possibly more money invested in the meat industry than in any other British business\" except the finance industry.", "The US was a meat importing country by 1926.Truncated lifespan as a result of intensive breeding allows more meat to be produced from fewer animals.", "The world cattle population was about 600 million in 1929, with 700 million sheep and goats and 300 million pigs.=== Trends ===According to the Food and Agriculture Organization, the overall consumption for white meat has increased from the 20th to the 21st centuries.", "Poultry meat has increased by 76.6% per kilo per capita and pig meat by 19.7%.", "Bovine meat has decreased from per capita in 1990 to per capita in 2009.FAO analysis found that 357 million tonnes of meat were produced in 2021, 53% more than in 2000, with chicken meat representing more than half the increase.Overall, diets that include meat are the most common worldwide according to the results of a 2018 Ipsos MORI study of 16–64 years olds in 28 countries.", "Ipsos states \"An omnivorous diet is the most common diet globally, with non-meat diets (which can include fish) followed by over a tenth of the global population.\"", "Approximately 87% of people include meat in their diet in some frequency.", "73% of meat eaters included it in their diet regularly and 14% consumed meat only occasionally or infrequently.", "Estimates of the non-meat diets were also broken down.", "About 3% of people followed vegan diets, where consumption of meat, eggs, and dairy are abstained from.", "About 5% of people followed vegetarian diets, where consumption of meat is abstained from, but egg and/or dairy consumption is not strictly restricted.", "About 3% of people followed pescetarian diets, where consumption of the meat of land animals is abstained from, fish meat and other seafood is consumed, and egg and/or dairy consumption may or may not be strictly restricted.The type of meat consumed varies between different cultures.", "The amount and kind of meat consumed also varies by income, both between countries and within a given country.", "Horses are commonly eaten in countries such as France, Italy, Germany and Japan.", "Horses and other large mammals such as reindeer were hunted during the late Paleolithic in western Europe.", "Dogs are consumed in China, South Korea and Vietnam.", "Dogs are also occasionally eaten in the Arctic regions.", "Historically, dog meat has been consumed in various parts of the world, such as Hawaii, Japan, Switzerland and Mexico.", "Cats are sometimes eaten, such as in Peru.", "Guinea pigs are raised for their flesh in the Andes.", "Whales and dolphins are hunted, partly for their flesh, in several countries.", "Misidentification is a risk; in 2013, products in Europe labelled as beef actually contained horse meat.=== Methods of preparation ===Meat can be cooked in many ways, including braising, broiling, frying, grilling, and roasting.", "Meat can be cured by smoking, which preserves and flavors food by exposing it to smoke from burning or smoldering plant materials, often wood such as oak.", "Other methods of curing include pickling, salting, and air-drying.", "Some recipes call for raw meat; steak tartare is made from minced raw beef.", "Pâtés are made with ground meat and fat, often including liver.File:Janjetina i odojak na ražnju u Novalji.2 (cropped).jpg |Spit-roasting a lamb and a suckling pigFile:Копчіння тушок гусей.jpg |Geese being smoked in a smokehouseFile:Papaz yahnisi - cooking.jpg |Stewing mutton with vegetablesFile:Pan frying sausages.jpg |Frying pork sausages in a panFile:Steak Tartare in Dresden.jpg |Raw beef: steak tartareFile:Duck Liver Pâté.jpg |Duck liver pâté" ], [ "Health effects", "Meat, in particular red and processed meat, is linked to a variety of health risks.", "The ''2015–2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans'' asked men and teenage boys to increase their consumption of vegetables or other underconsumed foods (fruits, whole grains, and dairy) while reducing intake of protein foods (meats, poultry, and eggs) that they currently overconsume.=== Contamination ===Toxic compounds including heavy metals, mycotoxins, pesticide residues, dioxins, polychlorinated biphenyl can contaminate meat.", "Processed, smoked and cooked meat may contain carcinogens such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.", "Toxins may be introduced to meat as part of animal feed, as veterinary drug residues, or during processing and cooking.", "Such compounds are often metabolized in the body to form harmful by-products.", "Negative effects depend on the individual genome, diet, and history of the consumer.", "=== Cancer ===Cooking muscle meat creates heterocyclic amines (HCAs), which are thought to increase cancer risk in humans.", "Researchers at the National Cancer Institute published results of a study which found that human subjects who ate beef rare or medium-rare had less than one third the risk of stomach cancer than those who ate beef medium-well or well-done.", "While eating muscle meat raw may be the only way to avoid HCAs fully, the National Cancer Institute states that cooking meat below creates \"negligible amounts\" of HCAs.", "Also, microwaving meat before cooking may reduce HCAs by 90%.", "Nitrosamines, present in processed and cooked foods, are carcinogenic, being linked to colon cancer.", "Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, present in processed, smoked and cooked foods, are similarly carcinogenic.The consumption of processed and red meat carries an increased risk of cancer.", "The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), a specialized agency of the World Health Organization (WHO), classified processed meat (e.g., bacon, ham, hot dogs, sausages) as, \"''carcinogenic to humans'' (Group 1), based on ''sufficient evidence'' in humans that the consumption of processed meat causes colorectal cancer.\"", "IARC also classified red meat as \"''probably carcinogenic to humans'' (Group 2A), based on ''limited evidence'' that the consumption of red meat causes cancer in humans and ''strong'' mechanistic evidence supporting a carcinogenic effect.", "\"Cancer Research UK, National Health Service (NHS) and the National Cancer Institute have stated that red and processed meat intake increases risk of bowel cancer.", "The American Cancer Society in their \"Diet and Physical Activity Guideline\", stated \"evidence that red and processed meats increase cancer risk has existed for decades, and many health organizations recommend limiting or avoiding these foods.\"", "The Canadian Cancer Society have stated that \"eating red and processed meat increases cancer risk\".A 2021 review found an increase of 11–51% risk of multiple cancer per 100g/d increment of red meat, and an increase of 8–72% risk of multiple cancer per 50g/d increment of processed meat.=== Bacterial contamination ===Bacterial contamination has been seen with meat products.", "A 2011 study by the Translational Genomics Research Institute showed that nearly half (47%) of the meat and poultry in U.S. grocery stores were contaminated with ''S.", "aureus'', with more than half (52%) of those bacteria resistant to antibiotics.", "A 2018 investigation by the Bureau of Investigative Journalism and ''The Guardian'' found that around 15 percent of the US population suffers from foodborne illnesses every year.", "The investigation highlighted unsanitary conditions in US-based meat plants, which included meat products covered in excrement and abscesses \"filled with pus\".", "Complete cooking and the careful avoidance of recontamination reduce the risk of bacterial infections from meat.=== Diabetes ===Consumption of 100 g/day of red meat and 50 g/day of processed meat is associated with an increased risk of diabetes.Diabetes UK advises people to limit their intake of red and processed meat.=== Infectious diseases ===Meat production and trade substantially increase risks for infectious diseases (zoonosis), including of pandemics – \"directly through increased contact with wild and farmed animals or indirectly through its impact on the environment (e.g., biodiversity loss, water use, climate change)\".", "For example, avian influenza from poultry meat production is a threat to human health.", "Furthermore, the use of antibiotics in meat production contributes to antimicrobial resistance – which contributes to millions of deaths – and makes it harder to control infectious diseases.=== Changes in consumer behavior ===In response to changing meat prices as well as health concerns about lipid hypothesis|saturated fat and cholesterol, consumers have altered their consumption of various meats.", "Consumption of beef in the United States between 1970 and 1974 and 1990–1994 dropped by 21%, while consumption of chicken increased by 90%.", "=== Heart disease ===Risk of ischemic heart disease for each 50 g per day increase in processed meat consumptionProcessed red meat increases risk of coronary heart disease, whilst unprocessed red meat has a smaller increase or no risk.", "Except for poultry, at 50 g/day unprocessed red and processed meat are risk factors for ischemic heart disease, increasing the risk by about 9 and 18% respectively." ], [ "Environmental impact", "A multitude of serious negative environmental effects are associated with meat production.", "Among these are greenhouse gas emissions, fossil energy use, water use, water quality changes, and effects on grazed ecosystems.", "They are so significant that researchers at the University of Oxford stated that 'a vegan diet is probably the single biggest way to reduce your impact on planet Earth... far bigger than cutting down on your flights or buying an electric car'.", "However, this is often ignored in the public consciousness and in plans to tackle serious environmental issues such as the climate crisis.", "The livestock sector may be the largest source of water pollution (due to animal wastes, fertilizers, pesticides), and it contributes to emergence of antibiotic resistance.", "It accounts for over 8% of global human water use.", "It is a significant driver of biodiversity loss and ecosystems, as it causes deforestation, ocean dead zones, species extinction, land degradation, pollution, overfishing and global warming.", "Cattle farming was estimated to be responsible for 80 per cent of Amazon deforestation in 2008 due to the clearing of forests to grow animal feed (especially soya) and cattle ranching.Environmental effects vary among livestock production systems.", "Grazing of livestock can be beneficial for some wildlife species, but not for others.", "Targeted grazing of livestock is used as a food-producing alternative to herbicide use in some vegetation management.===Land use ===Cereal-use statistic showing an estimated large fraction of crops used as animal feeddue to beef production for export.Meat production is by far the biggest user of land, as it accounts for nearly 40% of the global land surface.", "Just in the contiguous United States, 34% of its land area () are used as pasture and rangeland, mostly feeding livestock, not counting of cropland (20%), some of which is used for producing feed for livestock.", "Roughly 75% of deforested land around the globe is used for livestock pasture.", "Deforestation from practices like slash-and-burn releases and removes the carbon sink of grown tropical forest ecosystems which substantially mitigate climate change.", "The land use is a major pressure on pressure on fertile soils which is important for global food security.===Climate change ===Life-cycle assessment of GHG emissions for foods.", "Beef is the food with the largest carbon footprint, mainly due to methane production from cows.The rising global consumption of carbon-intensive meat products has \"exploded the global carbon footprint of agriculture,\" according to some top scientists.", "Meat production is responsible for some 35% of global emissions of greenhouse gases, and 60% of the greenhouse gases attributable to food production.Some nations show very different impacts to counterparts within the same group, with Brazil and Australia having emissions over 200% higher than the average of their respective income groups, driven by meat consumption.According to the ''Assessing the Environmental Impacts of Consumption and Production'' report produced by United Nations Environment Programme's (UNEP) international panel for sustainable resource management, a worldwide transition in the direction of a meat and dairy free diet is indispensable if adverse global climate change were to be prevented.", "A 2019 report in ''The Lancet'' recommended that global meat (and sugar) consumption be reduced by 50 percent to mitigate climate change.", "Meat consumption in Western societies needs to be reduced by up to 90% according to a 2018 study published in ''Nature''.", "The 2019 special report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change called for significantly reducing meat consumption, particularly in wealthy countries, in order to mitigate and adapt to climate change.===Biodiversity loss ===Meat consumption is a primary contributor to the sixth mass extinction.", "A 2017 study by the World Wildlife Fund found that 60% of global biodiversity loss is attributable to meat-based diets, in particular from the use of land for feed crops, resulting in large-scale loss of habitats and species.", "Livestock make up 60% of the biomass of all mammals on earth, followed by humans (36%) and wild mammals (4%).", "In November 2017, 15,364 world scientists signed a Warning to Humanity calling for a drastic reduction in per capita consumption of meat and \"dietary shifts towards mostly plant-based foods\".", "The 2019 ''Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services'', released by IPBES, also recommended reductions in meat consumption in order to mitigate biodiversity loss.", "A 2021 Chatham House report asserted that a significant shift towards plant-based diets would free up the land to allow for the restoration of ecosystems and thriving biodiversity.Meat consumption is predicted to rise as the human population increases and becomes more affluent; this in turn would increase greenhouse gas emissions and further reduce biodiversity.=== Reducing environmental impact ===The environmental impact of meat production can be reduced on the farm by conversion of human-inedible residues of food crops.", "Manure from meat-producing livestock is used as fertilizer; it may be composted before application to food crops.", "Substitution of animal manures for synthetic fertilizers in crop production can be environmentally significant, as between 43 and 88 MJ of fossil fuel energy are used per kg of nitrogen in manufacture of synthetic nitrogenous fertilizers.===Reducing meat consumption ===The IPCC and others have stated that meat production has to be reduced substantially for any sufficient mitigation of climate change and, at least initially, largely through shifts towards plant-based diets where meat consumption is high.", "Personal carbon allowances that allow a certain amount of free meat consumption per person would be a form of restriction, meat taxes would be a type of fiscal mechanism.", "Meat can be replaced by, for example, high-protein iron-rich low-emission legumes and common fungi, dietary supplements (e.g.", "of vitamin B12 and zinc) and fortified foods, cultured meat, microbial foods,News article: mycoprotein, meat substitutes, and other alternatives, such as those based on mushrooms, legumes (pulses), and other food sources.", "Land previously used for meat production can be rewilded.", "The biologists Rodolfo Dirzo, Gerardo Ceballos, and Paul R. Ehrlich state that it is the \"massive planetary monopoly of industrial meat production that needs to be curbed\" while respecting the cultural traditions of indigenous peoples, for whom meat is an important source of protein." ], [ "Social attitudes to meat-eating", "Meat is part of the human diet in most cultures, where it often has symbolic meaning and important social functions.", "Some people choose not to eat meat (vegetarianism) or any food made from animals (veganism).", "The reasons for not eating all or some meat may include ethical objections to killing animals for food, health concerns, environmental concerns or religious dietary laws.=== Ethical issues ===Ethical issues regarding the consumption of meat include objecting to the act of killing animals or to the agricultural practices used in meat production.", "Reasons for objecting to killing animals for consumption may include animal rights, environmental ethics, or an aversion to inflicting pain or harm on sentient animals.", "Some people, while not vegetarians, refuse to eat the flesh of certain animals for cultural or religious reasons.==== Philosophy ====The founders of Western philosophy disagreed about the ethics of eating meat.", "Plato's ''Republic'' has Socrates describe the ideal state as vegetarian.", "Pythagoras believed that humans and animals were equal and therefore disapproved of meat consumption, as did Plutarch, whereas Zeno and Epicurus were vegetarian but allowed meat-eating in their philosophy.", "Conversely, Aristotle's ''Politics'' assert that animals, as inferior beings, exist to serve humans, including as food.", "Augustine drew on Aristotle to argue that the universe's natural hierarchy allows humans to eat animals, and animals to eat plants.", "Enlightenment philosophers were likewise divided.", "Descartes wrote that animals are merely animated machines, and Kant considered them inferior beings for lack of discernment; means rather than ends.", "But Voltaire and Rousseau disagreed; Rousseau argued that meat-eating is a social rather than a natural act, because children are not interested in meat.Later philosophers examined the changing practices of eating meat in the modern age as part of a process of detachment from animals as living beings.", "Norbert Elias, for instance, noted that in medieval times cooked animals were brought to the table whole, but that since the Renaissance only the edible parts are served, which are no longer recognizably part of an animal.", "Modern eaters, according to Noëlie Vialles, demand an \"ellipsis\" between meat and dead animals; for instance, calves' eyes are no longer considered a delicacy as in the Middle Ages, but provoke disgust.", "Even in the English language, distinctions emerged between animals and their meat, such as between cattle and beef, pigs and pork.", "Fernand Braudel wrote that since the European diet of the 15th and 16th century was particularly heavy in meat, European colonialism helped export meat-eating across the globe, as colonized peoples took up the culinary habits of their colonizers, which they associated with wealth and power.=== Religious traditions ===Catholic nuns buying meat in ItalyAmong the Indian religions, Jainism opposes the eating of meat, while some schools of Buddhism and Hinduism advocate but do not mandate vegetarianism.", "Jewish ''Kashrut'' dietary rules allow certain ''kosher'' meats and forbid others ''treif''.", "The rules prohibit the consumption of unclean animals such as pork, and mixtures of meat and milk.", "Similar halal rules apply in Islamic dietary laws: The Quran explicitly forbids meat from animals that die naturally, blood, and the meat of pigs, which are haram, forbidden.", "Some Sikh groups oppose eating any meat.===Psychology===Research in applied psychology has investigated meat eating in relation to morality, emotions, cognition, and personality.", "Psychological research suggests meat eating is correlated with masculinity, support for social hierarchy, and reduced openness to experience.", "Research into the consumer psychology of meat is relevant both to meat industry marketing and to those advocating eating less meat.=== Gender ===Unlike most other foods, meat is not perceived as gender-neutral: it is associated with men and masculinity.", "Sociological research, ranging from African tribal societies to contemporary barbecues, indicates that men are much more likely to participate in preparing meat than other food.", "This has been attributed to the influence of traditional male gender roles, in view of what Jack Goody calls a \"male familiarity with killing\", or as Claude Lévi-Strauss suggests, that roasting is more violent than boiling.", "By and large, at least in modern societies, men tend to consume more meat than women, and men often prefer red meat whereas women tend to prefer chicken and fish." ], [ "See also", "* Bushmeat* Culinary name* Gristle* List of meat dishes* Meat Atlas* Meat on the bone* Meat-free days* Mechanically separated meat* Mystery meat" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "*" ], [ "External links", "* American Meat Science Association website* IARC Monographs Q&A * IARC Monographs Q&A on the carcinogenicity of the consumption of red meat and processed meat." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Monty Python" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Monty Python''' (also collectively known as '''the Pythons''') were a British comedy troupe formed in 1969 consisting of Graham Chapman, John Cleese, Terry Gilliam, Eric Idle, Terry Jones, and Michael Palin.", "The group came to prominence for the sketch comedy series ''Monty Python's Flying Circus'', which aired on the BBC from 1969 to 1974.Their work then developed into a larger collection that included live shows, films, albums, books, and musicals; their influence on comedy has been compared to the Beatles' influence on music.", "Their sketch show has been called \"an important moment in the evolution of television comedy\".", "''Monty Python's Flying Circus'' was loosely structured as a sketch show, but its innovative stream-of-consciousness approach and Gilliam's animation skills pushed the boundaries of what was acceptable in style and content.", "A self-contained comedy unit, the Pythons had creative control which allowed them to experiment with form and content, discarding rules of television comedy.", "They followed their television work by making the films ''Monty Python and the Holy Grail'' (1975), ''Life of Brian'' (1979), and ''The Meaning of Life'' (1983).", "Their influence on British comedy has been apparent for years, while it has coloured the work of the early editions of ''Saturday Night Live'' through to absurdist trends in television comedy.At the 41st British Academy Film Awards in 1988, Monty Python received the BAFTA Award for Outstanding British Contribution to Cinema.", "In 1998, they were awarded the AFI Star Award by the American Film Institute.", "''Holy Grail'' and ''Life of Brian'' are frequently ranked on lists of the greatest comedy films.", "A 2005 poll asked more than 300 comedians, comedy writers, producers, and directors to name the greatest comedians of all time, and half of Monty Python's members made the top 50." ], [ "History", "===Before ''Flying Circus''===Jones and Palin met at Oxford University, where they performed together with the Oxford Revue.", "Chapman and Cleese met at Cambridge University.", "Idle was also at Cambridge, but started a year after Chapman and Cleese.", "Cleese met Gilliam in New York City while on tour with the Cambridge University Footlights revue ''Cambridge Circus'' (originally entitled ''A Clump of Plinths'').", "Chapman, Cleese, and Idle were members of the Footlights, which at that time also included the future Goodies (Tim Brooke-Taylor, Bill Oddie, and Graeme Garden), and Jonathan Lynn (co-writer of ''Yes Minister'' and ''Yes, Prime Minister'').", "During Idle's presidency of the club, feminist writer Germaine Greer and broadcaster Clive James were members.", "Recordings of Footlights' revues (called \"Smokers\") at Pembroke College include sketches and performances by Cleese and Idle, which, along with tapes of Idle's performances in some of the drama society's theatrical productions, are kept in the archives of the Pembroke Players.The six Python members appeared in or wrote these shows before ''Flying Circus'':* ''I'm Sorry, I'll Read That Again'' (radio) (1964–1973): Cleese (cast member and writer), Idle and Chapman (writers)* ''The Frost Report'' (1966–1967): Cleese (cast member and writer), Idle (writer of Frost's monologues), Chapman, Palin and Jones (writers)* ''At Last the 1948 Show'' (1967): Chapman and Cleese (writers and cast members), Idle (guest star and writer)* ''Twice a Fortnight'' (1967): Palin and Jones (cast members and writers)* ''Do Not Adjust Your Set'' (1967–1969): Idle, Jones, and Palin (cast members and writers), Gilliam (animation) + Bonzo Dog Band (musical interludes)* ''We Have Ways of Making You Laugh'' (1968): Idle (cast member and writer), Gilliam (animation)* ''How to Irritate People'' (1968): Cleese and Chapman (cast members and writers), Palin (cast member)* ''The Complete and Utter History of Britain'' (1969): Palin and Jones (cast members and writers)* ''Doctor in the House'' (1969), Cleese and Chapman (writers)The BBC's satirical television show ''The Frost Report'', broadcast from March 1966 to December 1967, is credited as first uniting the British Pythons and providing an environment in which they could develop their particular styles.", "\"Four Yorkshiremen sketch\" at the 2014 Monty Python reunion.", "Written by Cleese, Chapman, Tim Brooke-Taylor and Marty Feldman, it was originally performed on their TV series ''At Last the 1948 Show'' in 1967.It parodies nostalgic conversations about humble beginnings or difficult childhoods.Following the success of ''Do Not Adjust Your Set'', broadcast on ITV from December 1967 to May 1969, Thames Television offered Gilliam, Idle, Jones, and Palin their own late-night adult comedy series together.", "At the same time, Chapman and Cleese were offered a show by the BBC, which had been impressed by their work on ''The Frost Report'' and ''At Last the 1948 Show''.", "Cleese was reluctant to do a two-man show for various reasons, including Chapman's supposedly difficult and erratic personality.", "Cleese had fond memories of working with Palin on ''How to Irritate People'' and invited him to join the team.", "With no studio available at Thames until summer 1970 for the late-night show, Palin agreed to join Cleese and Chapman, and suggested the involvement of his writing partner Jones and colleague Idle—who in turn wanted Gilliam to provide animations for the projected series.", "Much has been made of the fact that the Monty Python troupe is the result of Cleese's desire to work with Palin and the chance circumstances that brought the other four members into the fold.By contrast, according to John Cleese's autobiography, the origins of ''Monty Python'' lay in the admiration that writing partners Cleese and Chapman had for the new type of comedy being done on ''Do Not Adjust Your Set''; as a result, a meeting was initiated by Cleese between Chapman, Idle, Jones, Palin, and himself at which it was agreed to pool their writing and performing efforts and jointly seek production sponsorship.", "According to their official website, the group was born from a Kashmir tandoori restaurant in Hampstead on 11 May 1969, following a taping of ''Do Not Adjust Your Set'' which Cleese and Chapman attended.", "It was the first time all six got together, reportedly going back to Cleese's apartment on nearby Basil Street afterwards to continue discussions.===''Monty Python's Flying Circus''=======Development of the series====''Monty Python's Flying Circus'' was recorded at BBC Television Centre in west London (pictured) and on location around the UK, and the show debuted on the BBC on 5 October 1969.According to show director Ian MacNaughton, the first discussion over the idea for the show, ''Monty Python's Flying Circus'', was a result of BBC's comedy advisor, Barry Took, bringing the Pythons along with John Howard Davies (director of the first four episodes) and MacNaughton together into one conference room at the BBC Television Centre.", "The Pythons had a definite idea about what they wanted to do with the series.", "They were admirers of the work of Peter Cook, Alan Bennett, Jonathan Miller, and Dudley Moore on ''Beyond the Fringe''—seminal to the British \"satire boom\"—and had worked on ''Frost'', which was similar in style.", "They enjoyed Cook and Moore's sketch show ''Not Only...", "But Also''.", "One problem the Pythons perceived with these programmes was that though the body of the sketch would be strong, the writers would often struggle to then find a punchline funny enough to end on, and this would detract from the overall sketch quality.", "They decided that they would simply not bother to \"cap\" their sketches in the traditional manner, and early episodes of the ''Flying Circus'' series make great play of this abandonment of the punchline (one scene has Cleese turn to Idle, as the sketch descends into chaos, and remark that \"This is the silliest sketch I've ever been in\"—they all resolve not to carry on and simply walk off the set).", "However, as they began assembling material for the show, the Pythons watched one of their collective heroes, Spike Milligan, whom they had admired on ''The Goon Show'' (a show the Pythons regard as their biggest influence, which also featured Peter Sellers, whom Cleese called \"the greatest voice man of all time\") recording his groundbreaking BBC series ''Q...'' (1969).", "Not only was ''Q...'' more irreverent and anarchic than any previous television comedy, but Milligan also would often \"give up\" on sketches halfway through and wander off set (often muttering \"Did I write this?\").", "It was clear that their new series would now seem less original, and Jones in particular became determined the Pythons should innovate.", "Michael Palin recalls \"Terry Jones and I adored the ''Q...'' shows...Milligan was the first writer to play with the conventions of television.", "\"\"The Ministry of Silly Walks\" sketch performed at the 2014 Python reunion.", "Featuring Cleese as a bowler-hatted civil servant in a fictitious British government ministry responsible for developing silly walks through grants, it appears in season 2, episode 1 of ''Monty Python's Flying Circus''.After much debate, Jones remembered an animation Gilliam had created for ''Do Not Adjust Your Set'' called \"Beware of the Elephants\", which had intrigued him with its stream-of-consciousness style.", "Jones felt it would be a good concept to apply to the series: allowing sketches to blend into one another.", "Palin had been equally fascinated by another of Gilliam's efforts, entitled \"Christmas Cards\", and agreed that it represented \"a way of doing things differently\".", "Since Cleese, Chapman, and Idle were less concerned with the overall flow of the programme, Jones, Palin, and Gilliam became largely responsible for the presentation style of the ''Flying Circus'' series, in which disparate sketches are linked to give each episode the appearance of a single stream-of-consciousness (often using a Gilliam animation to move from the closing image of one sketch to the opening scene of another).", "The BBC states, \"Gilliam's unique animation style became crucial, segueing seamlessly between any two completely unrelated ideas and making the stream-of-consciousness work.", "\"Writing started at 9 am and finished at 5 pm.", "Typically, Cleese and Chapman worked as one pair isolated from the others, as did Jones and Palin, while Idle wrote alone.", "After a few days, they would join with Gilliam, critique their scripts, and exchange ideas.", "Their approach to writing was democratic.", "If the majority found an idea humorous, it was included in the show.", "The casting of roles for the sketches was a similarly unselfish process, since each member viewed himself primarily as a \"writer\", rather than an actor eager for screen time.", "When the themes for sketches were chosen, Gilliam had a free hand in bridging them with animations, using a camera, scissors, and airbrush.The Spanish Inquisition\" sketch during the 2014 Python reunion.", "As a sketch writer and creator of animations, Gilliam did considerably less acting, but did have some notable sketch roles such as this (Cardinal Fang).While the show was a collaborative process, different factions within Python were responsible for elements of the team's humour.", "In general, the work of the Oxford-educated members (Jones and Palin) was more visual, and more fanciful conceptually (e.g., the arrival of the Spanish Inquisition in a suburban front room), while the Cambridge graduates' sketches tended to be more verbal and more aggressive (for example, Cleese and Chapman's many \"confrontation\" sketches, where one character intimidates or hurls abuse, or Idle's characters with bizarre verbal quirks, such as \"The Man Who Speaks In Anagrams\").", "Cleese confirmed that \"most of the sketches with heavy abuse were Graham's and mine, anything that started with a slow pan across countryside and impressive music was Mike and Terry's, and anything that got utterly involved with words and disappeared up any personal orifice was Eric's\".", "Gilliam's animations ranged from the whimsical to the savage (the cartoon format allowing him to create some astonishingly violent scenes without fear of censorship).Several names for the show were considered before ''Monty Python's Flying Circus'' was settled upon.", "Some were ''Owl Stretching Time'', ''The Toad Elevating Moment'', ''A Horse, a Spoon and a Basin'', ''Vaseline Review'', and ''Bun, Wackett, Buzzard, Stubble and Boot''.", "Reportedly, these names were considered for the show because the group members found it funny that the show name would have nothing to do with the actual content of the series.", "''Flying Circus'' stuck when the BBC explained it had printed that name in its schedules and was not prepared to amend it.", "''Gwen Dibley's Flying Circus'' was named after a woman Palin had read about in the newspaper, thinking it would be amusing if she were to discover she had her own TV show.", "''Baron Von Took's Flying Circus'' was considered as an affectionate tribute to Barry Took, the man who had brought them together.", "''Arthur Megapode's Flying Circus'' was suggested, then discarded.", "The name ''Baron Von Took's Flying Circus'' had the form of ''Baron Manfred von Richthofen's Flying Circus'' of WWI fame, and the new group was forming in a time when the Royal Guardsmen's 1966 song \"Snoopy vs. the Red Baron\" had peaked.", "The term 'flying circus' was also another name for the popular entertainment of the 1920s known as barnstorming, where multiple performers collaborated with their stunts to perform a combined set of acts.Differing, somewhat confusing accounts are given of the origins of the Python name, although the members agree that its only \"significance\" was that they thought it sounded funny.", "In the 1998 documentary ''Live at Aspen'' during the US Comedy Arts Festival, where the troupe was awarded the AFI Star Award by the American Film Institute, the group implied that \"Monty\" was selected (Eric Idle's idea) as a gently mocking tribute to Field Marshal Lord Montgomery, a British general of World War II; requiring a \"slippery-sounding\" surname, they settled on \"Python\".", "On other occasions, Idle has claimed that the name \"Monty\" was that of a popular and rotund fellow who drank in his local pub; people would often walk in and ask the barman, \"Has Monty been in yet?", "\", forcing the name to become stuck in his mind.", "The name Monty Python was later described by the BBC as being \"envisaged by the team as the perfect name for a sleazy entertainment agent\".====Style of the show====''Flying Circus'' popularised innovative formal techniques, such as the cold open, in which an episode began without the traditional opening titles or announcements.", "An example of this is the \"It's\" man: Palin, outfitted in Robinson Crusoe garb, making a tortuous journey across various terrains, before finally approaching the camera to state, \"It's ...\", to be then followed by the title sequence and theme music.", "On several occasions, the cold open lasted until mid-show, after which the regular opening titles ran.", "Occasionally, the Pythons tricked viewers by rolling the closing credits halfway through the show, usually continuing the joke by fading to the familiar globe logo used for BBC continuity, over which Cleese would parody the clipped tones of a BBC announcer.", "On one occasion, the credits ran directly after the opening titles.", "On the subversive nature of the show (and their subsequent films), Cleese states \"anti-authoritarianism was deeply ingrained in Python\".Because of their dislike of finishing with punchlines, they experimented with ending the sketches by cutting abruptly to another scene or animation, walking offstage, addressing the camera (breaking the fourth wall), or introducing a totally unrelated event or character.", "A classic example of this approach was the use of Chapman's \"anti-silliness\" character of \"the Colonel\", who walked into several sketches and ordered them to be stopped because things were becoming \"far too silly\".Cupid's foot, as used by ''Monty Python's Flying Circus''.", "A trademark of Gilliam's stop-motion animation, the giant foot would suddenly squash things, including the show's title at the end of the opening credits.Another favourite way of ending sketches was to drop a cartoonish \"16-ton weight\" prop on one of the characters when the sketch seemed to be losing momentum, or a knight in full armour (played by Terry Gilliam) would wander on-set and hit characters over the head with a rubber chicken, before cutting to the next scene.", "Yet another way of changing scenes was when John Cleese, usually outfitted in a dinner suit, would come in as a radio commentator and, in a rather pompous manner, make the formal and determined announcement \"And now for something completely different.", "\", which later became the title of the first Monty Python film.The Python theme music is the Band of the Grenadier Guards' rendition of John Philip Sousa's \"The Liberty Bell\" which was first published in 1893.Under the Berne Convention's \"country of origin\" concept, the composition was subject to United States copyright law which states that any work first published prior to 1924 was in the public domain, owing to copyright expiration.", "This enabled Gilliam to co-opt the march for the series without having to make any royalty payments.Jones and Cleese as housewives in the 2014 reunion.", "Playing Brian Cohen's mother in ''Life of Brian'', Jones delivered the line, \"He's not the Messiah, he's a very naughty boy!", "\".The use of Gilliam's surreal, collage stop motion animations was another innovative intertextual element of the Python style.", "Many of the images Gilliam used were lifted from famous works of art, and from Victorian illustrations and engravings.", "The giant foot which crushes the show's title at the end of the opening credits is in fact the foot of Cupid, cut from a reproduction of the Renaissance masterpiece ''Venus, Cupid, Folly and Time'' by Bronzino.", "This foot, and Gilliam's style in general, are visual trademarks of the programme.The Pythons used the British tradition of cross-dressing comedy by donning frocks and makeup and playing female roles themselves while speaking in falsetto.", "Jones specialised in playing the working-class housewife, or \"ratbag old women\" as termed by the BBC.", "Palin and Idle generally played the role more posh, with Idle playing more feminine women.", "Cleese played female roles more sparsely, while Chapman was frequently paired with Jones as a ratbag woman or with Idle portraying middle-class women commenting upon TV.", "Generally speaking, female roles were played by women only when the scene specifically required that the character be sexually attractive (although sometimes they used Idle for this).", "The troupe later turned to Carol Cleveland—often described as the unofficial seventh member—who co-starred in numerous episodes after 1970.In some episodes, and later in the stoning scene in ''Monty Python's Life of Brian'', they took the idea one step further by playing women who impersonated men.Many sketches are well-known and widely quoted.", "\"Dead Parrot sketch\", \"The Lumberjack Song\", \"Spam\" (which led to the coining of the term email spam), \"Nudge Nudge\", \"The Spanish Inquisition\", \"Upper Class Twit of the Year\", \"Cheese Shop\", \"The Ministry of Silly Walks\", \"Argument Clinic\", \"The Funniest Joke in the World\" (a sketch referenced in Google Translate), and Four Yorkshiremen sketch\" are just a few examples.", "Most of the show's sketches satirise areas of public life, such as: Dead Parrot (poor customer service), Silly Walks (bureaucratic inefficiency), Spam (ubiquity of Spam post World War II), and Four Yorkshiremen (nostalgic conversations).", "Featuring regularly in skits, Gumbys (characters of limited intelligence and vocabulary) were part of the Pythons' satirical view of television of the 1970s which condescendingly encouraged more involvement from the \"man on the street\".====Introduction to North America and the world====The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) added ''Monty Python's Flying Circus'' to its national September 1970 fall line-up.", "They aired the 13 episodes of series 1, which had first run on the BBC the previous autumn (October 1969 to January 1970), as well as the first six episodes of series 2 only a few weeks after they first appeared on the BBC (September to November 1970).", "The CBC dropped the show when it returned to regular programming after the Christmas 1970 break, choosing to not place the remaining seven episodes of series 2 on the January 1971 CBC schedule.", "Within a week, the CBC received hundreds of calls complaining of the cancellation, and more than 100 people staged a demonstration at the CBC's Montreal studios.", "The show eventually returned, becoming a fixture on the network during the first half of the 1970s.", "\"The Lumberjack Song\" with Palin (right) and Carol Cleveland at the 2014 reunion.", "It appeared in the ninth episode of ''Monty Python's Flying Circus''.Sketches from ''Monty Python's Flying Circus'' were introduced to American audiences in August 1972, with the release of the Python film ''And Now for Something Completely Different'', featuring sketches from series 1 and 2 of the television show.", "This 1972 release met with limited box office success.The ability to show ''Monty Python's Flying Circus'' under the American NTSC standard had been made possible by the commercial actions of American television producer Greg Garrison.", "Garrison produced the NBC series ''The Dean Martin Comedy World'', which ran during the summer of 1974.The concept was to show clips from comedy shows produced in other countries, including tape of the Python sketches \"Bicycle Repairman\" and \"The Dull Life of a Stockbroker\".Through the efforts of Python's American manager Nancy Lewis, during the summer of 1974, Ron Devillier, the programming director for nonprofit PBS television station KERA in Dallas, Texas, started airing episodes of ''Monty Python's Flying Circus''.", "Ratings shot through the roof, prompting other PBS affiliates to pick up the show.", "Devillier states, \"We got the Nielsens in and started looking at the Saturday ratings.", "The first night, it was a 6 rating.", "We couldn't believe it.", "We didn't know what a 6 looked like.", "The next week, it was a 7 and it may have taken a month but it stayed there and we started getting 8s, 9s and 10s.\"", "There was also cross-promotion from FM radio stations across the US, whose airing of tracks from the Python LPs had already introduced American audiences to this bizarre brand of comedy.", "The popularity on PBS resulted in the 1974 re-release of the 1972 ''...Completely Different'' film, with much greater box office success.", "The success of the show was captured by a March 1975 article headline in ''The New York Times'', \"Monty Python's Flying Circus Is Barnstorming Here\".", "Asked what challenges were left, now that they had made TV shows, films, written books, and produced records, Chapman responded, \"Well, actually world supremacy would be very nice\", before Idle cautioned, \"Yes, but that sort of thing has got to be done properly\".In 1975 ABC broadcast two 90-minute ''Monty Python'' specials, each with three shows, but cut out a total of 24 minutes from each, in part to make time for commercials, and in part to avoid upsetting their audience.", "As the judge observed in ''Gilliam v. American Broadcasting Companies, Inc.'', where Monty Python sued for damages caused by broadcast of the mutilated version, \"According to the network, appellants should have anticipated that most of the excised material contained scatological references inappropriate for American television and that these scenes would be replaced with commercials, which presumably are more palatable to the American public.\"", "Monty Python won the case.With the popularity of Python throughout the rest of the 1970s and through most of the 1980s, PBS stations looked at other British comedies, leading to UK shows such as ''Are You Being Served?''", "gaining a US audience, and leading, over time, to many PBS stations having a \"British Comedy Night\" which airs many popular UK comedies.In 1976, Monty Python became the top rated show in Japan.", "The popularity of the show in the Netherlands saw the town of Spijkenisse near Rotterdam open a 'silly walks' road crossing in 2018.Believed to be a world first, the official sign asks pedestrians to cross the road in a comical manner.====Departure of Cleese====Having considered the possibility at the end of the second series, Cleese left the ''Flying Circus'' at the end of the third.", "He later explained that he felt he no longer had anything fresh to offer the show, and claimed that only two Cleese- and Chapman-penned sketches in the third series (\"Dennis Moore\" and the \"Cheese Shop\") were truly original, and that the others were bits and pieces from previous work cobbled together in slightly different contexts.", "He was also finding Chapman, who was at that point in the full throes of alcoholism, difficult to work with.", "According to an interview with Idle, \"It was on an Air Canada flight on the way to Toronto, when John (Cleese) turned to all of us and said 'I want out.'", "Why?", "I don't know.", "He gets bored more easily than the rest of us.", "He's a difficult man, not easy to be friendly with.", "He's so funny because he never wanted to be liked.", "That gives him a certain fascinating, arrogant freedom.\"", "In 2012, Jones spoke on Cleese's work in the third series and subsequent departure, \"He was good at it, when he did it he was professional, but he'd rather not have done it.", "The others all loved it, but he got more and more pissed off about having to come out and do filming, and the one that really swung it, in my view, was when we had to do the day on the Newhaven lifeboat.", "\"The rest of the group carried on for one more \"half\" season before calling a halt to the programme in 1974.While the first three seasons contained 13 episodes each, the fourth ended after just six.", "The name ''Monty Python's Flying Circus'' appears in the opening animation for season four, but in the end credits, the show is listed as simply ''Monty Python''.", "Although Cleese left the show, he was credited as a writer for three of the six episodes, largely concentrated in the \"Michael Ellis\" episode, which had begun life as one of the many drafts of the \"Holy Grail\" motion picture.", "When a new direction for \"Grail\" was decided upon, the subplot of Arthur and his knights wandering around a strange department store in modern times was lifted out and recycled as the aforementioned TV episode.", "Songwriter Neil Innes contributed to some sketches, including \"Appeal on Behalf of Very Rich People\"." ], [ "Life beyond the ''Flying Circus''", "===Filmography=======''And Now for Something Completely Different'' (1971)====The Pythons' first feature film was directed by Ian MacNaughton, reprising his role from the television series.", "It consisted of sketches from the first two seasons of the ''Flying Circus'', reshot on a low budget (and often slightly edited) for cinema release.", "Material selected for the film includes: \"Dead Parrot\", \"The Lumberjack Song\", \"Upper Class Twit of the Year\", \"Hell's Grannies\", \"Self-Defence Class\", \"How Not to Be Seen\", and \"Nudge Nudge\".", "Financed by ''Playboy''s UK executive Victor Lownes, it was intended as a way of breaking Monty Python into America, and although it was ultimately unsuccessful in this, the film did good business in the UK, and later in the US on the \"Midnight movie\" circuit after their breakthrough television and film success, this being in the era before home video would make the original material much more accessible.", "The group did not consider the film a success.====''Monty Python and the Holy Grail'' (1975)====Soldier's helmet from ''Monty Python and the Holy Grail'' at the Museum of Pop Culture, SeattleIn 1974, between production on the third and fourth series, the group decided to embark on their first \"proper\" feature film, containing entirely new material.", "''Monty Python and the Holy Grail'' was based on Arthurian legend and was directed by Jones and Gilliam.", "Again, the latter also contributed linking animations (and put together the opening credits).", "Along with the rest of the Pythons, Jones and Gilliam performed several roles in the film, but Chapman took the lead as King Arthur.", "Cleese returned to the group for the film, feeling that they were once again breaking new ground.", "''Holy Grail'' was filmed on location, in picturesque rural areas of Scotland, with a budget of only £229,000; the money was raised in part with investments from rock groups such as Pink Floyd, Jethro Tull, and Led Zeppelin, as well as UK music industry entrepreneur Tony Stratton Smith (founder and owner of the Charisma Records label, for which the Pythons recorded their comedy albums).The backers of the film wanted to cut the famous Black Knight scene (a Sam Peckinpah send-up in which the Black Knight loses his limbs in a duel), but it was eventually kept in the movie.", "\"Tis but a scratch\" and \"It's just a flesh wound…\" are often quoted.", "''Holy Grail'' was selected as the second-best comedy of all time in the ABC special ''Best in Film: The Greatest Movies of Our Time''.", "and viewers in a Channel 4 poll placed it sixth.====''Monty Python's Life of Brian'' (1979)====Following the success of ''Holy Grail'', reporters asked for the title of the next Python film, though the team had not even begun to consider a third one.", "Eventually, Idle flippantly replied \"Jesus Christ – Lust for Glory\", which became the group's stock answer to such questions.", "However, they soon began to seriously consider a film lampooning the New Testament era in the same way ''Holy Grail'' had lampooned Arthurian legend.", "Despite sharing a distrust of organised religion, they agreed not to mock Jesus or his teachings directly.", "They also mentioned that they could not think of anything legitimate to make fun of about him.", "Instead, they decided to write a satire on credulity and hypocrisy among the followers of someone Brian who had been mistaken for the \"Messiah\", but who had no desire to be followed as such.", "Terry Jones adds it was a satire on those who for the next 2,000 years \"couldn't agree on what Jesus was saying about peace and love\".The focus therefore shifted to a separate individual, Brian Cohen, born at the same time, and in a neighbouring stable.", "When Jesus appears in the film (first, as a baby in the stable, and then later on the Mount, speaking the Beatitudes), he is played straight (by actor Kenneth Colley) and portrayed with respect.", "The comedy begins when members of the crowd mishear his statements of peace, love, and tolerance (\"I think he said, 'Blessed are the cheesemakers).Directing duties were handled solely by Jones, having amicably agreed with Gilliam that Jones' approach to film-making was better suited for Python's general performing style.", "''Holy Grail's'' production had often been stilted by their differences behind the camera.", "Gilliam again contributed two animated sequences (one being the opening credits) and took charge of set design.", "The film was shot on location in Tunisia, the finances being provided this time by The Beatles' George Harrison, who together with Denis O'Brien formed the production company Hand-Made Films for the movie.", "Harrison had a cameo role as the \"owner of the Mount\".Despite its subject matter attracting controversy, particularly upon its initial release, it has (together with its predecessor) been ranked among the greatest comedy films.", "In 2006 it was ranked first on a Channel 4 list of the 50 Greatest Comedy Films.", "''Empire'' magazine called it \"an unrivalled satire on religion\".", "In 2013, Richard Burridge, a theologian decorated by Pope Francis, called ''Life of Brian'' an \"extraordinary tribute to the life and work and teaching of Jesus—that they couldn't actually blaspheme or make a joke out of it.", "They did a great satire on closed minds and people who follow blindly.", "Then you have them splitting into factions...it is a wonderful satire on the way that Jesus's own teaching has been used to persecute others.", "They were satirising fundamentalism and persecution of others and at the same time saying the one person who rises above all this was Jesus\".====''Monty Python Live at the Hollywood Bowl'' (1982)====Monty Python performed four consecutive dates at the Hollywood Bowl in Los Angeles in September 1980 during preparations for ''Meaning of Life''.", "The performances were filmed and released in the concert film, ''Monty Python Live at the Hollywood Bowl'' (directed by Terry Hughes), with the Pythons performing sketches from the television series in front of an audience.", "The released film also incorporated footage from the German television specials (the inclusion of which gives Ian MacNaughton his first on-screen credit for Python since the end of ''Flying Circus'') and live performances of several songs from the troupe's then-current ''Monty Python's Contractual Obligation Album''.", "Monty Python's 4-night stint as headliners at the Hollywood Bowl set a record for a comedy act at the venue that has since been equalled by Dave Chappelle in May 2022.====''Monty Python's The Meaning of Life'' (1983)====Mr.", "Creosote from ''The Meaning of Life'' (played by Terry Jones, pictured) has been called \"the ultimate gross-out icon\" and the \"film's signature\" scene.The Pythons' final film returned to something structurally closer to the style of ''Flying Circus''.", "A series of sketches loosely follows the ages of man from birth to death.", "Directed again by Jones solo, ''The Meaning of Life'' is embellished with some of the group's most bizarre and disturbing moments, as well as various elaborate musical numbers, which include \"Galaxy Song\" (performed by Idle) and \"Every Sperm Is Sacred\" (performed by Palin and Jones).", "The film is by far their darkest work, containing a great deal of black humour, garnished by some spectacular violence (including an operation to remove a liver from a living patient without anaesthetic and the morbidly obese Mr. Creosote exploding over several restaurant patrons after finally giving in to the smooth maître d' telling him to eat a mint – \"It's only a wafer-thin mint...\").", "At the time of its release, the Pythons confessed their aim was to offend \"absolutely everyone\", adding \"It is guaranteed to offend\".The Liver Donor scene (in which a paramedic appears at the door of a living man to take his liver) is a satire on bureaucracy, a common Python trope.", "Besides the opening credits and the fish sequence, Gilliam, by now an established live-action director, no longer wanted to produce any linking cartoons, offering instead to direct one sketch, \"The Crimson Permanent Assurance\".", "Under his helm, though, the segment grew so ambitious and tangential that it was cut from the movie and used as a supporting feature in its own right.", "(Television screenings also use it as a prologue.)", "This was the last project on which all six Pythons collaborated, except for the 1989 compilation ''Parrot Sketch Not Included,'' where they are all seen sitting in a closet for four seconds.", "This was the last time Chapman appeared on screen with the Pythons.Although not as acclaimed as its two predecessors (''Holy Grail'' and ''Life of Brian''), ''The Meaning of Life'' was still well received critically and was screened at the 1983 Cannes Film Festival where it won the Grand Prix.===''Secret Policeman's Ball'' benefit shows===Members of Python contributed their services to charitable endeavours and causes—sometimes as an ensemble, at other times as individuals.", "The cause that has been the most frequent and consistent beneficiary has been the human rights work of Amnesty International.", "Between 1976 and 1981, the troupe or its members appeared in four major fund-raisers for Amnesty—known collectively as the ''Secret Policeman's Ball'' shows—which were turned into multiple films, TV shows, videos, record albums, and books.", "The brainchild of John Cleese, these benefit shows in London and their many spin-offs raised considerable sums of money for Amnesty, raised public and media awareness of the human rights cause, and influenced many other members of the entertainment community (especially rock musicians) to become involved in political and social issues.", "Among the many musicians who have publicly attributed their activism—and the organisation of their own benefit events—to the inspiration of the work in this field of Monty Python are Bob Geldof (organiser of Live Aid), U2, Pete Townshend, and Sting.", "Bono told ''Rolling Stone'' in 1986, \"I saw ''The Secret Policeman's Ball'' and it became a part of me.", "It sowed a seed...\" Sting states, \"before the Ball I did not know about Amnesty, I did not know about its work, I did not know about torture in the world.\"", "On the impact of the Ball on Geldof, Sting states, \"he took the 'Ball' and ran with it.", "\"''Ball'' co-founder Cleese and Jones had an involvement (as performer, writer or director) in all four Amnesty benefit shows, Palin in three, Chapman in two, and Gilliam in one.", "Idle did not participate in the Amnesty shows.", "Notwithstanding Idle's lack of participation, the other five members (together with \"Associate Pythons\" Carol Cleveland and Neil Innes) all appeared together in the first ''Secret Policeman's Ball'' benefit—the 1976 ''A Poke in the Eye'' held at Her Majesty's Theatre in London's West End—where they performed several Python sketches.", "In this first show, they were collectively billed as ''Monty Python''.", "Peter Cook deputised for the absent Idle in a courtroom sketch.", "In the next three shows, the participating Python members performed many Python sketches, but were billed under their individual names rather than under the collective Python banner.", "The second show featured newcomer Rowan Atkinson and Scottish comedian Billy Connolly.", "The ''Secret Policeman's Ball'' were the first stage shows in the UK to present comedic performers (such as Monty Python and Rowan Atkinson) in the same setting and shows as their contemporaries in rock music (which included Eric Clapton, Sting and Phil Collins).", "After a six-year break, Amnesty resumed producing ''Secret Policeman's Ball'' benefit shows which were held at the London Palladium in 1987 (sometimes with, and sometimes without, variants of the title) and by 2006 had presented a total of twelve shows.", "Since 1987 the Balls featured newer generations of British comedic performers, such as Stephen Fry, Hugh Laurie, and puppets from the satirical TV show ''Spitting Image'', with many attributing their participation in the show to their desire to emulate the Python's pioneering work for Amnesty.", "Cleese and Palin made a brief cameo appearance in the 1989 Amnesty show; apart from that, the Pythons have not appeared in shows after the first four.===Going solo===Blue plaque at 11 Neal's Yard, London, marking where Palin and Gilliam bought offices in 1976 as studios and editing suites for Python films and solo projects.Each member has pursued various film, television, and stage projects since the break-up of the group, but often continued to work with one another.", "Many of these collaborations were very successful, most notably ''A Fish Called Wanda'' (1988), written by Cleese, in which he starred along with Palin.", "The pair also appeared in ''Time Bandits'' (1981), a film directed by Gilliam, who wrote it together with Palin.", "Gilliam directed ''Jabberwocky'' (1977), and also directed and co-wrote ''Brazil'' (1985), which featured Palin, ''The Adventures of Baron Munchausen'' (1988), which featured Idle; he followed these with writing and directing an additional six (as of 2021) films.HandMade Films, the film studio that George Harrison co-founded to produce ''Life of Brian'', contributed to British cinema in the 1980s, producing classics of the period including ''The Long Good Friday'' and ''Mona Lisa'' (both starring Bob Hoskins), ''Time Bandits'', and ''Withnail and I'', with the studio also launching Terry Gilliam's directorial career.", "''Yellowbeard'' (1983) was co-written by Chapman and starred Chapman, Idle, and Cleese, as well as many other English comedians including Peter Cook, Spike Milligan, and Marty Feldman.Palin and Jones wrote the comedic TV series ''Ripping Yarns'' (1976–79), starring Palin.", "Jones also appeared in the pilot episode and Cleese appeared in a nonspeaking part in the episode \"Golden Gordon\".", "Jones' film ''Erik the Viking'' also has Cleese playing a small part.", "In 1996 Terry Jones wrote and directed an adaptation of Kenneth Grahame's novel ''The Wind in the Willows''.", "It featured four members of Monty Python: Jones as Mr. Toad, Idle as Ratty, Cleese as Mr. Toad's lawyer, and Palin as the Sun.", "Gilliam was considered for the voice of the river.", "The film included Steve Coogan who played Mole.Cleese has the most prolific solo career, appearing in dozens of films, several TV shows or series (including ''Cheers'', ''3rd Rock from the Sun'', Q's assistant in the James Bond movies, and ''Will & Grace''), many direct-to-video productions, some video games and a number of commercials.", "His BBC sitcom ''Fawlty Towers'' (written by and starring Cleese together with his wife Connie Booth) is the only comedy series to rank higher than the ''Flying Circus'' on the BFI TV 100's list, topping the whole poll.", "Cleese's character, Basil Fawlty, was ranked second (to Homer Simpson) on Channel 4's 2001 list of the 100 Greatest TV Characters.Idle enjoyed critical success with ''Rutland Weekend Television'' in the mid-1970s, out of which came the Beatles parody the Rutles (responsible for the cult mockumentary ''All You Need Is Cash''), and as an actor in ''Nuns on the Run'' (1990) with Robbie Coltrane.", "In 1976 Idle directed music videos for George Harrison songs \"This Song\" and \"Crackerbox Palace\", the latter of which also featured cameo appearances from Neil Innes and John Cleese.", "Idle has had success with Python songs: \"Always Look on the Bright Side of Life\" went to no.", "3 in the UK singles chart in 1991.The song had been revived by Simon Mayo on BBC Radio 1, and was consequently released as a single that year.", "The theatrical phenomenon of the Python musical ''Spamalot'' has made Idle the most financially successful of the troupe after Python.", "Written by Idle (and featuring a pre-recorded cameo of Cleese as the voice of God), it has proved to be an enormous hit on Broadway, London's West End and Las Vegas.", "This was followed by ''Not the Messiah'', which revises ''The Life of Brian'' as an oratorio.", "For the work's 2007 premiere at the Luminato festival in Toronto (which commissioned the work), Idle himself sang the \"baritone-ish\" part.===After ''Python'' reunions===Left to right: Palin, Gilliam, Jones, Idle, Cleese (pictured in 2014).Since ''The Meaning of Life'', their last project as a team, the Pythons have often been the subject of reunion rumours.", "In 1988 Monty Python won the BAFTA Award for Outstanding British Contribution To Cinema, with four of the six Pythons (Jones, Palin, Gilliam and Chapman) collecting the award.", "The final appearance of all six together occurred during the 1989 ''Parrot Sketch Not Included – 20 Years of Monty Python'' TV special.", "The death of Chapman in October 1989 put an end to the speculation of any further reunions.", "However, there were several occasions after 1989 when the remaining five members gathered together for appearances — albeit not formal reunions.", "In 1996 Jones, Idle, Cleese, and Palin were featured in a film adaptation of ''The Wind in the Willows'', which was later renamed ''Mr.", "Toad's Wild Ride''.", "In 1997 Palin and Cleese rolled out a new version of the \"Dead Parrot sketch\" for ''Saturday Night Live''.Monty Python were the inaugural recipients of the Empire Inspiration Award in 1997.Palin, Jones and Gilliam received the award on stage in London from Elton John while Cleese and Idle appeared via satellite from Los Angeles.", "In 1998 during the US Comedy Arts Festival, where the troupe were awarded the AFI Star Award by the American Film Institute, the five remaining members, along with what was purported to be Chapman's ashes, were reunited on stage for the first time in 18 years.", "The occasion was in the form of an interview called ''Monty Python Live at Aspen'', (hosted by Robert Klein, with an appearance by Eddie Izzard) in which the team looked back at some of their work and performed a few new sketches.", "On 9 October 1999, to commemorate 30 years since the first ''Flying Circus'' television broadcast, BBC2 devoted an evening to Python programmes, including a documentary charting the history of the team, interspersed with new sketches by the Monty Python team filmed especially for the event.The surviving Pythons had agreed in principle to perform a live tour of America in 1999.Several shows were to be linked with Q&A meetings in various cities.", "Although all had said yes, Palin later changed his mind, much to the annoyance of Idle, who had begun work organising the tour.", "This led to Idle refusing to take part in the new material shot for the BBC anniversary evening.", "In 2002, four of the surviving members, bar Cleese, performed \"The Lumberjack Song\" and \"Sit on My Face\" for George Harrison's memorial concert.", "The reunion also included regular supporting contributors Neil Innes and Carol Cleveland, with a special appearance from Tom Hanks.", "In an interview to publicise the DVD release of ''The Meaning of Life'', Cleese said a further reunion was unlikely.", "\"It is absolutely impossible to get even a majority of us together in a room, and I'm not joking,\" Cleese said.", "He said that the problem was one of busyness rather than one of bad feelings.", "A sketch appears on the same DVD spoofing the impossibility of a full reunion, bringing the members \"together\" in a deliberately unconvincing fashion with modern bluescreen/greenscreen techniques.Idle responded to queries about a Python reunion by adapting a line used by George Harrison in response to queries about a possible Beatles reunion.", "When asked in November 1989 about such a possibility, Harrison responded: \"As far as I'm concerned, there won't be a Beatles reunion as long as John Lennon remains dead.\"", "Idle's version of this was that he expected to see a proper Python reunion, \"just as soon as Graham Chapman comes back from the dead\", but added, \"we're talking to his agent about terms.", "\"''Spamalot'' at the Shubert Theatre, New York in 2006.Winning the 2005 Tony Award for Best Musical, Idle's musical opened in London's West End a year later.", "The original Broadway cast included Tim Curry as King Arthur, Hank Azaria as Sir Lancelot, and Cleese as the (recorded) voice of God.", "''The Pythons Autobiography by The Pythons'' (2003), compiled from interviews with the surviving members, reveals that a series of disputes in 1998, over a possible sequel to ''Holy Grail'' that had been conceived by Idle, may have resulted in the group's split.", "Cleese's feeling was that ''The Meaning of Life'' had been personally difficult and ultimately mediocre, and did not wish to be involved in another Python project for a variety of reasons (not least amongst them was the absence of Chapman, whose straight man-like central roles in the ''Grail'' and ''Brian'' films had been considered to be an essential anchoring performance).", "The book also reveals that Cleese saw Chapman as his \"greatest sounding board.", "If Graham thought something was funny, then it almost certainly was funny.", "You cannot believe how invaluable that is.'", "Ultimately it was Cleese who ended the possibility of another Python movie.A full, if nonperforming, reunion of the surviving Python members appeared at the March 2005 premiere of Idle's musical ''Spamalot''.", "Based on ''Monty Python and the Holy Grail'', it also spoofs popular musicals, including those of Andrew Lloyd Webber.", "It opened in Chicago and has since played in New York on Broadway, London, and numerous other major cities across the world.", "In 2004, ''Spamalot'' was nominated for 14 Tony Awards and won three: Best Musical, Best Direction of a Musical for Mike Nichols, and Best Performance by a Featured Actress in a Musical for Sara Ramirez, who played the Lady of the Lake, a character specially added for the musical.", "The original Broadway cast included Tim Curry as King Arthur, Michael McGrath as Patsy, David Hyde Pierce as Sir Robin, Hank Azaria as Sir Lancelot and other roles (e.g., the French Taunter, Knight of Ni, and Tim the Enchanter), Christopher Sieber as Sir Galahad and other roles (e.g., the Black Knight and Prince Herbert's Father).", "Cleese played the voice of God, a role played in the film by Chapman.Owing in part to the success of ''Spamalot'', PBS announced on 13 July 2005 that it would begin to re-air the entire run of ''Monty Python's Flying Circus'' and new one-hour specials focusing on each member of the group, called ''Monty Python's Personal Best''.", "Each episode was written and produced by the individual being honoured, with the five remaining Pythons collaborating on Chapman's programme, the only one of the editions to take on a serious tone with its new material.Long-time collaborator Neil Innes at the premiere of ''The Seventh Python'' in 2009In 2009, to commemorate the 40th anniversary of the first episode of ''Monty Python's Flying Circus'', a six-part documentary entitled ''Monty Python: Almost the Truth (Lawyers Cut)'' was released, featuring interviews with the surviving members of the team, as well as archive interviews with Graham Chapman and numerous excerpts from the television series and films.", "Each episode opens with a different re-recording of the theme song from ''Life of Brian'', with Iron Maiden vocalist and Python fan Bruce Dickinson performing the sixth.Also in commemoration of the 40th anniversary, Idle, Palin, Jones, and Gilliam appeared in a production of ''Not the Messiah'' at the Royal Albert Hall.", "The European premiere was held on 23 October 2009.An official 40th anniversary Monty Python reunion event took place in New York City on 15 October 2009, where the team received a Special Award from the British Academy of Film and Television Arts.In June 2011, it was announced that ''A Liar's Autobiography: The Untrue Story of Monty Python's Graham Chapman'', an animated 3D movie based on the memoir of Graham Chapman, was in the making.", "The memoir ''A Liar's Autobiography'' was published in 1980 and details Chapman's journey through medical school, alcoholism, acknowledgement of his gay identity, and the tolls of surreal comedy.", "Asked what was true in a deliberately fanciful account by Chapman of his life, Terry Jones joked: \"Nothing ... it's all a downright, absolute, blackguardly lie.\"", "The film uses Chapman's own voice—from a reading of his autobiography shortly before he died of cancer—and entertainment channel Epix announced the film's release in early 2012 in both 2D and 3D formats.", "Produced and directed by London-based Bill Jones, Ben Timlett, and Jeff Simpson, the new film has 15 animation companies working on chapters that will range from three to 12 minutes in length, each in a different style.", "John Cleese recorded dialogue which was matched with Chapman's voice.", "Michael Palin voiced Chapman's father and Terry Jones voiced his mother.", "Terry Gilliam voiced Graham's psychiatrist.", "They all play various other roles.", "Among the original Python group, only Eric Idle was not involved.On 26 January 2012, Terry Jones announced that the five surviving Pythons would reunite in a sci-fi comedy film called ''Absolutely Anything''.", "The film would combine computer-generated imagery and live action.", "It would be directed by Jones based on a script by Jones and Gavin Scott, and in addition to the Python members it would also star Simon Pegg, Kate Beckinsale and Robin Williams (in his final film role).", "The plot revolves around a teacher who discovers aliens (voiced by the Pythons) have given him magical powers to do \"absolutely anything\".", "Eric Idle responded via Twitter that he would not, in fact, be participating, although he was later added to the cast.===''Monty Python Live (Mostly): One Down, Five to Go''===the O2 Arena, London, in July 2014In 2013, the Pythons lost a legal case to Mark Forstater, the film producer of ''Monty Python and the Holy Grail'', over royalties for the derivative work ''Spamalot''.", "They owed a combined £800,000 in legal fees and back royalties to Forstater.", "They proposed a reunion show to pay their legal bill.On 19 November 2013, a new reunion was reported, following months of \"secret talks\".", "The original plan was for a live, one-off stage show at the O2 Arena in London on 1 July 2014, with \"some of Monty Python's greatest hits, with modern, topical, Pythonesque twists\" according to a press release.", "The tickets for this show went on sale in November 2013 and sold out in just 43 seconds.", "Nine additional shows were added, all of them at the O2, the last on 20 July.", "They have said that their reunion was inspired by ''South Park'' creators Trey Parker and Matt Stone, who are massive Monty Python fans.Mick Jagger and Charlie Watts featured in a promotional video for the shows: \"Who wants to see that again, really?", "It's a bunch of wrinkly old men trying to relive their youth and make a load of money—the best one died years ago!\"", "Michael Palin stated that the final reunion show on 20 July 2014 would be the last time that the troupe would perform together.", "It was screened to 2,000 cinemas around the world.", "Prior to the final night, Idle stated, \"It is a world event and that's really quite exciting.", "It means we're actually going to say goodbye publicly on one show.", "Nobody ever has the chance to do that.", "The Beatles didn't get a last good night.\"", "The last show was broadcast in the UK on Gold TV and internationally in cinemas by Fathom Events through a Dish Network satellite link." ], [ "Python members", "=== Graham Chapman ===Graham Chapman was originally a medical student, joining the Footlights at Cambridge.", "He completed his medical training and was legally entitled to practise as a doctor.", "Chapman is best remembered for the lead roles in ''Holy Grail'', as King Arthur, and ''Life of Brian'', as Brian Cohen.", "He died of metastatic throat cancer on 4 October 1989.At Chapman's memorial service, Cleese delivered an irreverent eulogy that included all the euphemisms for being dead from the \"Dead Parrot\" sketch, which they had written; and was also the first person to say \"fuck\" at a British memorial service.", "Chapman's comedic fictional memoir, ''A Liar's Autobiography: Volume VI'', was adapted into an animated 3D film in 2012.=== John Cleese ===John Cleese (right) and Michael Palin performing the \"Dead Parrot sketch\" in 2014John Cleese is the oldest Python.", "He met his future Python writing partner, Chapman, in Cambridge.", "Outside of Python, he is best known for setting up the Video Arts group and for the sitcom ''Fawlty Towers'' (co-written with Connie Booth, whom Cleese met during work on Python and to whom he was married for a decade).", "In ''Fawlty Towers'' Cleese starred as hotel owner Basil Fawlty, and received the 1980 British Academy Television Award for Best Entertainment Performance.", "Cleese has also co-authored several books on psychology and wrote the screenplay for the award-winning ''A Fish Called Wanda'', in which he starred with Michael Palin, and was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay.=== Terry Gilliam ===Terry Gilliam, an American by birth, is the only member of the troupe of non-British origin.", "He started off as an animator and strip cartoonist for Harvey Kurtzman's ''Help!''", "magazine, one issue of which featured Cleese.", "Moving from the US to England, he animated features for ''Do Not Adjust Your Set'' and was then asked by its makers to join them on their next project: ''Monty Python's Flying Circus''.", "He co-directed ''Monty Python and the Holy Grail'' and directed short segments of other Python films (for instance \"The Crimson Permanent Assurance\", the short film that appears before ''The Meaning of Life'').=== Eric Idle ===Eric Idle singing the \"Galaxy Song\" (from ''The Meaning of Life'') at the 2014 Monty Python reunion.", "Known for his wordplay and musical numbers, he also performed \"Always Look on the Bright Side of Life\" (from ''Life of Brian'')When Monty Python was first formed, two writing partnerships were already in place: Cleese and Chapman, as well as Jones and Palin.", "That left two in their own corners: Gilliam, operating solo due to the nature of his work, and Eric Idle.", "Regular themes in Idle's contributions were elaborate wordplay and musical numbers.", "After ''Flying Circus'', he hosted ''Saturday Night Live'' four times in the first five seasons.", "Idle's initially successful solo career faltered in the 1990s with the failures of his 1993 film ''Splitting Heirs'' (written, produced by, and starring him) and 1998's ''An Alan Smithee Film: Burn Hollywood Burn'' (in which he starred).", "He revived his career by returning to the source of his worldwide fame, adapting Monty Python material for other media.", "Idle wrote the Tony Award-winning musical ''Spamalot'', based on ''Holy Grail''.", "Following the success of the musical he wrote ''Not the Messiah'', an oratorio derived from the ''Life of Brian''.", "Representing Monty Python, Idle featured in a one-hour symphony of British Music when he performed at the London 2012 Olympic Games closing ceremony.=== Terry Jones ===Terry Jones has been described by other members of the team as the \"heart\" of the operation.", "Jones had a lead role in maintaining the group's unity and creative independence.", "Python biographer George Perry has commented that should \"you speak to him on subjects as diverse as fossil fuels, or Rupert Bear, or mercenaries in the Middle Ages or Modern China ... in a moment you will find yourself hopelessly out of your depth, floored by his knowledge.\"", "Many others agree that Jones is characterised by his irrepressible, good-natured enthusiasm.", "However, Jones' passion often led to prolonged arguments with other group members—in particular Cleese—with Jones often unwilling to back down.", "Since his major contributions were largely behind the scenes (direction, writing), and he often deferred to the other members of the group as an actor, Jones' importance to Python was often under-rated.", "However, he does have the legacy of delivering possibly the most famous line in all of Python, as Brian's mother Mandy in ''Life of Brian'', \"He's not the Messiah, he's a very naughty boy!", "\", a line voted the funniest in film history on two occasions.", "Jones died on 21 January 2020 from complications of dementia.=== Michael Palin ===Sir Michael Palin attended Oxford, where he met his Python writing partner Jones.", "The two also wrote the series ''Ripping Yarns'' together.", "Palin and Jones originally wrote face-to-face, but soon found it was more productive to write apart and then come together to review what the other had written.", "Therefore, Jones and Palin's sketches tended to be more focused than that of the others, taking one bizarre situation, sticking to it, and building on it.", "After ''Flying Circus'', Palin hosted ''Saturday Night Live'' four times in the first 10 seasons.", "His comedy output began to decrease in amount following the increasing success of his travel documentaries for the BBC.", "Palin released a book of diaries from the Python years entitled ''Michael Palin Diaries 1969–1979'', published in 2007.Palin was awarded a knighthood in the 2019 New Year Honours, which was announced by Buckingham Palace in December 2018.===Associate Pythons===Several people have been accorded unofficial \"associate Python\" status over the years.", "Occasionally such people have been referred to as the 'seventh Python', in a style reminiscent of George Martin (or other associates of the Beatles) being dubbed \"the Fifth Beatle\".", "The two collaborators with the most meaningful and plentiful contributions have been Neil Innes and Carol Cleveland.", "Both were present and presented as Associate Pythons at the official Monty Python 25th-anniversary celebrations held in Los Angeles in July 1994.Carol Cleveland (in 2009), commonly called \"Python girl\", or \"Seventh Python\".Neil Innes is the only non-Python besides Douglas Adams to be credited with writing material for ''Flying Circus''.", "He appeared in sketches and the Python films, as well as performing some of his songs in ''Monty Python Live at the Hollywood Bowl''.", "He was also a regular stand-in for absent team members on the rare occasions when they recreated sketches.", "For example, he took the place of Cleese at the Concert for George.", "Gilliam once noted that if anyone qualified for the title of the seventh Python, it would be Innes.", "He was one of the creative talents in the off-beat Bonzo Dog Band.", "He would later portray Ron Nasty of the Rutles and write all of the Rutles' compositions for ''All You Need Is Cash'' (1978), a mockumentary film co-directed by Idle.", "By 2005, a falling out had occurred between Idle and Innes over additional Rutles projects, the results being Innes' critically acclaimed Rutles \"reunion\" album ''The Rutles: Archaeology'' and Idle's straight-to-DVD ''The Rutles 2: Can't Buy Me Lunch'', each undertaken without the other's participation.", "According to an interview with Idle in the ''Chicago Tribune'' in May 2005, his attitude is that Innes and he go back \"too far.", "And no further.\"", "Innes died of a heart attack on 29 December 2019 near Toulouse, where he had lived for several years.Carol Cleveland was the most important female performer in the Monty Python ensemble, commonly referred to as \"the female Python\".", "She was originally hired by producer/director John Howard Davies for just the first five episodes of the ''Flying Circus''.", "The Pythons then pushed to make Cleveland a permanent recurring performer after producer/director Ian MacNaughton brought in several other actresses who were not as good as she was.", "Cleveland went on to appear in about two-thirds of the episodes, as well as in all of the Python films, and in most of their stage shows, as well.", "According to ''Time'', her most recognisable film roles are playing Zoot and Dingo, two maidens in the Castle Anthrax in ''Holy Grail''.===Other contributors===Cleese's first wife, Connie Booth, appeared as various characters in all four series of ''Flying Circus''.", "Her most significant role was the \"best girl\" of the eponymous Lumberjack in \"The Lumberjack Song\", though this role was sometimes played by Carol Cleveland.", "Booth appeared in a total of six sketches and also played one-off characters in Python feature films ''And Now for Something Completely Different'' and ''Monty Python and the Holy Grail''.Douglas Adams was \"discovered\" by Chapman when a version of ''Footlights Revue'' (a 1974 BBC2 television show featuring some of Adams' early work) was performed live in London's West End.", "In Cleese's absence from the final TV series, the two formed a brief writing partnership, with Adams earning a writing credit in one episode for a sketch called \"Patient Abuse\".", "In the sketch—a satire on mind-boggling bureaucracy—a man who had been stabbed by a nurse arrives at his doctor's office bleeding profusely from the stomach, when the doctor makes him fill in numerous senseless forms before he can administer treatment.", "He also had two cameo appearances in this season.", "Firstly, in the episode \"The Light Entertainment War\", Adams shows up in a surgeon's mask (as Dr. Emile Koning, according to the on-screen captions), pulling on gloves, while Palin narrates a sketch that introduces one person after another, and never actually gets started.", "Secondly, at the beginning of \"Mr. Neutron\", Adams is dressed in a \"pepperpot\" outfit and loads a missile onto a cart being driven by Terry Jones, who is calling out for scrap metal (\"Any old iron ...\").", "Adams and Chapman also subsequently attempted a few non-Python projects, including ''Out of the Trees''.", "He also contributed to a sketch on the soundtrack album for ''Monty Python and the Holy Grail''.Other than Carol Cleveland, the only other non-Python to make a significant number of appearances in the ''Flying Circus'' was Ian Davidson.", "He appeared in the first two series of the show, and played over 10 roles.", "While Davidson is primarily known as a scriptwriter, it is not known if he had any contribution toward the writing of the sketches, as he is only credited as a performer.", "In total, Davidson is credited as appearing in eight episodes of the show, which is more than any other male actor who was not a Python.", "Despite this, Davidson did not appear in any Python-related media subsequent to series 2, though footage of him was shown on the documentary ''Python Night – 30 Years of Monty Python''.Stand-up comedian Eddie Izzard, a devoted fan of the group, has occasionally stood in for absent members.", "When the BBC held a \"Python Night\" in 1999 to celebrate 30 years of the first broadcast of ''Flying Circus'', the Pythons recorded some new material with Izzard standing in for Idle, who had declined to partake in person (he taped a solo contribution from the US).", "Izzard hosted ''The Life of Python'' (1999), a history of the group that was part of Python Night and appeared with them at a festival/tribute in Aspen, Colorado, in 1998 (released on DVD as ''Live at Aspen'').", "Izzard has said that Monty Python was a significant influence on her style of comedy and Cleese has referred to her as \"the lost Python\".Series director of ''Flying Circus'', Ian MacNaughton, is also regularly associated with the group and made a few on-screen appearances in the show and in the film ''And Now for Something Completely Different''.", "Apart from Neil Innes, others to contribute musically included Fred Tomlinson and the Fred Tomlinson Singers.", "They made appearances in songs such as \"The Lumberjack Song\" as a backup choir.", "Other contributors and performers for the Pythons included John Howard Davies, John Hughman, Lyn Ashley, Bob Raymond, John Young, Rita Davies, Stanley Mason, Maureen Flanagan, and David Ballantyne." ], [ "Cultural influence and legacy", "\"Argument Clinic\" sketch with Palin (standing) and Cleese in 2014.CNN states, \"Monty Python has been called The Beatles of comedy\".By the time of Monty Python's 25th anniversary, in 1994, the point was already being made that \"the five surviving members had with the passing years begun to occupy an institutional position in the edifice of British social culture that they had once had so much fun trying to demolish\".", "A similar point is made in a 2006 book on the relationship between Python and philosophy: \"It is remarkable, after all, not only that the utterly bizarre ''Monty Python's Flying Circus'' was sponsored by the BBC in the first place, but that Monty Python itself grew into an institution of enormous cultural influence.", "\"Ron Devillier, the PBS programming director who put ''Monty Python's Flying Circus'' on US television, states, \"they brought through a kind of phony baloney surface ethic that we all lived under and shot right through it and split it in half.", "If you really let it happen, you could laugh at yourself.", "All the things that they were doing were really funny like playing on our sensibilities and making fun of them in a very funny way, pointing out how pompous we can be and making fun of themselves at the same time.\"", "Danny Gallagher of the ''Dallas Observer'' writes, \"Monty Python has also been good to American comedy.", "If America's television viewing public had never seen \"The Lumberjack Song\" or \"The Dead Parrot\" sketch, we might still be holding up ''The Sonny & Cher Comedy Hour'' as a supreme example of cutting-edge TV comedy.", "\"A self-contained comedy unit responsible for both writing and performing their work, Monty Python's influence on comedy has been compared to the Beatles' influence on music.", "Author Neil Gaiman writes, \"A strange combination of individuals gave us Python.", "And you needed those people, just in the same way that with the Beatles you had four talented people, but together you had the Beatles.", "And I think that's so incredibly true when it comes to Python.", "\"===Comedy stylists===Monty Python have been named as being influential to the comedy stylings of a great many people including: Sacha Baron Cohen, David Cross, Rowan Atkinson, Seth MacFarlane, Seth Meyers, Trey Parker, Matt Stone, Vic and Bob, Mike Myers, Russell Brand, Robin Williams, Jerry Seinfeld, Eddie Izzard, and \"Weird Al\" Yankovic.", "Matt Groening, creator of ''The Simpsons'', was influenced by Python's \"high velocity sense of the absurd and not stopping to explain yourself\", and pays tribute through a couch gag used in seasons five and six.", "Appearing on ''Monty Python's Best Bits (Mostly)'', Jim Carrey—who refers to Monty Python as the \"Super Justice League of comedy\"—recalled the effect on him of Ernest Scribbler (played by Palin) laughing himself to death in \"The Funniest Joke in the World\" sketch.", "Nick Park, creator of ''Wallace and Gromit'', was inspired by Gilliam's animation in Monty Python \"to be a bit wacky and off the wall.\"", "Simon Pegg, co-writer of the ''Three Flavours Cornetto'' trilogy of British comedy films (from ''Shaun of the Dead'' to ''The World's End''), stated his \"love of comedy was hugely informed by Monty Python.\"", "Jerry Seinfeld told ''Parade'', \"Monty Python was a gigantic influence on me.", "They were just about silly, funny things that meant nothing, and that's the stuff I love.", "There's a wonderful childlike freedom in those kinds of things.\"", "''Monty Python's Flying Circus'' served as an inspiration for voice actor Rob Paulsen in voicing Pinky from the animated television series ''Animaniacs'' and ''Pinky and the Brain'', giving the character \"a goofy whack job\" of a British accent.Comedian John Oliver states, \"Writing about the importance of Monty Python is basically pointless.", "Citing them as an influence is almost redundant.", "It's assumed.", "This strange group of wildly talented, appropriately disrespectful, hugely imaginative and massively inspirational idiots changed what comedy could be for their generation and for those that followed.\"", "On how Python's freeform style influenced sketch comedy, Tina Fey of the US television show ''Saturday Night Live'' states, \"Sketch endings are overrated.", "Their key was to do something as long as it was funny and then just stop and do something else.\"", "Stephen Merchant, co-creator of ''The Office'' with Ricky Gervais, stated, \"I don't remember where I got this grand idea that I could somehow be John Cleese.", "That was my overriding passion from my mid-teens.", "Cleese had grown up in Weston-Super-Mare, not far from Bristol where I grew up, and he was tall and he was very funny and very British and it's almost like I thought 'well if they want tall people from the west country I can do that.", "'\"===Places===; In space* Seven asteroids are named after Monty Python or its members: 9617 Grahamchapman, 9618 Johncleese, 9619 Terrygilliam, 9620 Ericidle, 9621 Michaelpalin, 9622 Terryjones, and 13681 Monty Python.", "* In 2010, the commercial space company SpaceX launched a wheel of cheese into low Earth orbit and returned it safely to Earth on COTS Demo Flight 1.Elon Musk, CEO and CTO of SpaceX, said this was done as a tribute to Monty Python.", ";Terrestrial* After John Cleese spoke negatively about the town of Palmerston North in New Zealand, recommending it as a good place to commit suicide, the town renamed a compost heap \"Mt.", "Cleese\".===\"Pythonesque\"===Among the more visible cultural influences of Monty Python is the inclusion of terms either directly from, or derived from, Monty Python, into the lexicon of the English language.", "* The most obvious of these is the term \"Pythonesque\", which has become a byword in surreal humour, and is included in standard dictionaries.", "Terry Jones commented on his disappointment at the existence of such a term, claiming the initial aim of Monty Python was to create something new and impossible to categorise, and \"the fact that Pythonesque is now a word in the ''Oxford English Dictionary'' shows the extent to which we failed\".", "* The term has been applied to animations similar to those constructed by Gilliam (e.g., the cut-out style of ''South Park'', whose creators have often acknowledged a debt to Python, including contributing material to the aforementioned 30th-anniversary theme night).", "* ''Good Eats'' creator Alton Brown cited Python as one of the influences that shaped how he created the series, as well as how he authors the script for each episode.", "Later episodes included Gilliam-style animations to illustrate key points.", "* Film critic Robbie Collin writes, \"You can find the Pythonesque everywhere in cinema.", "Most successful Hollywood comedies bear some kind of Python-print.", "The ''Austin Powers'' series chugs along on Pythonisms.", "Then there are Christopher Guest's mockumentaries, such as ''Waiting for Guffman'' and ''Best in Show'', which revel in the quiet absurdity of the everyday—well-staked-out Python territory.", "And there's a tensile weirdness in the films of Will Ferrell that's also deeply Pythonesque.", "\"===TV===The Japanese anime series ''Girls und Panzer'' featured the special episode \"Survival War!", "\", which referenced the \"Spam\" sketch, but the word \"spam\" was censored to avoid legal issue with the Pythons.===Things named after Monty Python===Beyond a dictionary definition, Python terms have entered the lexicon in other ways.Spam\" sketch, from where the junk term is derived.", "Spam is included in almost every dish, much to the consternation of a customer.", "* The term \"spam\" in reference to bulk, unsolicited email is derived from the show's 1970 \"Spam\" sketch.", "As the waitress recites the Spam-filled menu, a chorus of Viking patrons drown out all conversations with a song, repeating \"Spam, Spam, Spam, Spam… Spammity Spam!", "Wonderful Spam!\".", "* The Python programming language by Guido van Rossum is named after the troupe, and Monty Python references are often found in sample code created for that language.", "The default integrated development environment of the programming language is named IDLE, an alternative one is named eric, both in honour of Eric Idle.", "Additionally, a 2001 April Fool's Day joke by van Rossum and Larry Wall involving the merger of Python with Perl was dubbed \"Parrot\" after the Dead Parrot sketch.", "The name \"Parrot\" was later used for a project to develop a virtual machine for running bytecode for interpreted languages such as Perl and Python.", "Its package index is also known as the \"Cheese Shop\" after the sketch of the same name.", "There is also a python refactoring tool called bicyclerepair named after Bicycle Repair Man sketch.", "* In 1985, a fossil of a previously unknown species of gigantic prehistoric snake from the Miocene was discovered in Riversleigh, Queensland, Australia.", "The Australian palaeontologist who discovered the fossil snake was a Monty Python fan, and he gave the snake the taxonomic name of ''Montypythonoides riversleighensis'' in honour of the Monty Python team.", "* In 2006, Ben & Jerry's, known for their \"celebrity flavours\", introduced to the line-up \"Vermonty Python\", a coffee liqueur ice cream with a chocolate cookie crumb swirl and fudge cows.", "The name \"Minty Python\" had been suggested before in 1996 in a contest to select the quintessential British ice cream flavour.", "* In 1999, in connection with the group's 30th anniversary, a beer named \"Holy Grail Ale\" was released by the Black Sheep Brewery in North Yorkshire.", "* The endangered Bemaraha woolly lemur (''Avahi cleesei'') is named after John Cleese.", "* Geneticists discovered a mutant gene which caused mutant flies to live twice as long as normal ones.", "They dubbed the gene \"Indy,\" which is an acronym for the line of dialogue: \"I'm not dead yet!", "\", from the film ''Monty Python and the Holy Grail''.", "* The band Toad the Wet Sprocket took its name from the Rock Notes sketch on the comedy album, ''Monty Python's Contractual Obligation Album''.===World records===Gumby flower arranging.", "A character of limited intelligence and vocabulary (a satire on the condescending use of the \"man on the street\" on TV), he is played here by Terry Gilliam in 2014.On St George's Day, 23 April 2007, the cast and creators of ''Spamalot'' gathered in Trafalgar Square under the tutelage of the two Terrys (Jones and Gilliam) to set a new record for the world's largest coconut orchestra.", "They led 5,567 people \"clip-clopping\" in time to the Python classic, \"Always Look on the Bright Side of Life\", for the ''Guinness World Records'' attempt.On 5 October 2019, to mark the 50th anniversary of Monty Python's first show, the \"first official Monty Python Guinness world record attempt\" tried to break the record for \"the largest gathering of people dressed as Gumbys.\"", "A recurring character on the show, a Gumby wears a handkerchief on their head, has spectacles, braces, a knitted tank top, and wellington boots.", "The shirt sleeves and trouser legs are always rolled up, exposing their socks and knees.", "Dimwitted, their most famous catchphrases are \"My brain hurts!\"", "and repeated shouts of \"Hello!\"", "and \"Sorry!", "\"." ], [ "Timeline", "ImageSize = width:800 height:300PlotArea = left:100 bottom:60 top:0 right:50Alignbars = justifyDateFormat = dd/mm/yyyyPeriod = from:01/01/1969 till:01/09/2015TimeAxis = orientation:horizontal format:yyyyColors = id:bass value:red id:lguitar value:orange id:kboards value:yellow id:drums value:green id:Vocals value:pink id:Vocal value:purple id:Ad value:purple id:Ads value:purple id:fix value:blue id:Lines value:black legend:Films id:Lines2 value:gray(0.75) legend:Reunions id:Lines3 value:gray(0.5) legend:LiveLegend = orientation:horizontal position:bottomScaleMajor = increment:2 start:1969ScaleMinor = increment:1 start:1969BarData = bar:Graham text:\"Graham Chapman\" bar:John text:\"John Cleese\" bar:Eric text:\"Eric Idle\" bar:Michael text:\"Michael Palin\" bar:TerryJ text:\"Terry Jones\" bar:TerryG text:\"Terry Gilliam\" bar:Carol text:\"Carol Cleveland\" bar:Neil text:\"Neil Innes\"PlotData= width:10 textcolor:black align:left anchor:from shift:(10,-4) bar:Eric from:01/01/1969 till:21/04/1983 color:bass bar:Eric from:01/01/1989 till:31/12/1989 color:bass bar:Eric from:01/01/1998 till:01/06/1998 color:bass bar:Eric from:01/05/2002 till:01/05/2003 color:bass bar:Eric from:01/06/2009 till:01/02/2010 color:bass bar:Eric from:01/01/2014 till:31/12/2014 color:bass bar:Eric from:01/03/2015 till:01/09/2015 color:bass bar:Michael from:01/01/1969 till:21/04/1983 color:lguitar bar:Michael from:01/01/1989 till:31/12/1989 color:lguitar bar:Michael from:01/01/1998 till:31/12/1999 color:lguitar bar:Michael from:01/05/2002 till:01/05/2003 color:lguitar bar:Michael from:01/06/2012 till:31/12/2012 color:lguitar bar:Michael from:01/06/2009 till:01/02/2010 color:lguitar bar:Michael from:01/01/2014 till:31/12/2014 color:lguitar bar:Michael from:01/03/2015 till:01/09/2015 color:lguitar bar:TerryJ from:01/01/1969 till:21/04/1983 color:kboards bar:TerryJ from:01/01/1989 till:31/12/1989 color:kboards bar:TerryJ from:01/01/1998 till:31/12/1999 color:kboards bar:TerryJ from:01/05/2002 till:01/05/2003 color:kboards bar:TerryJ from:01/06/2012 till:31/12/2012 color:kboards bar:TerryJ from:01/06/2009 till:01/02/2010 color:kboards bar:TerryJ from:01/01/2014 till:31/12/2014 color:kboards bar:TerryJ from:01/03/2015 till:01/09/2015 color:kboards bar:TerryG from:01/01/1969 till:21/04/1983 color:drums bar:TerryG from:01/01/1989 till:31/12/1989 color:drums bar:TerryG from:01/01/1998 till:31/12/1999 color:drums bar:TerryG from:01/05/2002 till:01/05/2003 color:drums bar:TerryG from:01/06/2012 till:31/12/2012 color:drums bar:TerryG from:01/06/2009 till:01/02/2010 color:drums bar:TerryG from:01/01/2014 till:31/12/2014 color:drums bar:TerryG from:01/03/2015 till:01/09/2015 color:drums bar:John from:01/01/1969 till:01/10/1973 color:fix bar:John from:02/10/1974 till:21/04/1983 color:fix bar:John from:01/01/1989 till:31/12/1989 color:fix bar:John from:01/01/1998 till:31/12/1999 color:fix bar:John from:01/06/2012 till:31/12/2012 color:fix bar:John from:01/01/2014 till:31/12/2014 color:fix bar:John from:01/03/2015 till:01/09/2015 color:fix bar:Graham from:01/01/1969 till:21/04/1983 color:vocal bar:Graham from:01/01/1989 till:04/10/1989 color:vocal bar:Carol from:01/01/1969 till:21/04/1983 color:vocals bar:Carol from:01/06/1999 till:31/12/1999 color:vocals bar:Carol from:01/05/2002 till:01/05/2003 color:vocals bar:Carol from:01/06/2009 till:01/02/2010 color:vocals bar:Carol from:01/06/2012 till:31/12/2012 color:vocals bar:Carol from:01/01/2014 till:31/12/2014 color:vocals bar:Neil from:01/01/1974 till:01/06/1980 color:vocals bar:Neil from:01/05/2002 till:01/05/2003 color:vocalsLineData = at:28/09/1971 color:black layer:back at:09/04/1975 color:black layer:back at:17/08/1979 color:black layer:back at:31/03/1983 color:black layer:back at:08/09/2012 color:black layer:back at:01/06/2015 color:black layer:back at:01/07/1989 color:lines2 layer:back at:31/03/1998 color:lines2 layer:back at:08/10/1999 color:lines2 layer:back at:28/11/2002 color:lines2 layer:back at:23/10/2009 color:lines2 layer:back at:10/07/2014 color:lines2 layer:back at:01/06/1970 color:Lines3 layer:back at:01/06/1971 color:Lines3 layer:back at:01/06/1972 color:Lines3 layer:back at:01/06/1973 color:Lines3 layer:back at:01/06/1974 color:Lines3 layer:back at:01/06/1976 color:Lines3 layer:back at:01/06/1980 color:Lines3 layer:back at:10/07/2014 color:Lines3 layer:back" ], [ "Media", "===Television===*''Monty Python's Flying Circus'' (1969–1974): The show that started the Python phenomenon, see also List of Monty Python's Flying Circus episodes.", "*''Monty Python's Fliegender Zirkus'' (1972): Two 45-minute specials were made by WDR for West German television.", "The first was recorded in German, while the second was in English with German dubbing.", "*''Monty Python's Personal Best'' (2006): Six one-hour specials, each episode presenting the best of one member's work.===Films===Five Monty Python productions were released as theatrical films:*''And Now for Something Completely Different'' (1971): A collection of sketches from the first and second TV series of ''Monty Python's Flying Circus'' re-enacted and shot for film.", "*''Monty Python and the Holy Grail'' (1975): King Arthur and his knights embark on a low-budget search for the Holy Grail, encountering humorous obstacles along the way.", "Some of these turned into stand-alone sketches.", "*''Monty Python's Life of Brian'' (1979): Brian is born on the first Christmas, in the stable next to Jesus'.", "He spends his life being mistaken for a messiah.", "*''Monty Python Live at the Hollywood Bowl'' (1982): A videotape recording directed by Terry Hughes of a live performance of sketches, it was originally intended for a TV/video special.", "It was transferred to 35 mm and given a limited theatrical release in the US.", "*''Monty Python's The Meaning of Life'' (1983): An examination of the meaning of life in a series of sketches from conception to death and beyond.===Albums===* ''Monty Python's Flying Circus'' (1970)* ''Another Monty Python Record'' (1971)* ''Monty Python's Previous Record'' (1972)* ''The Monty Python Matching Tie and Handkerchief'' (1973)* ''Monty Python Live at Drury Lane'' (1974)* ''The Album of the Soundtrack of the Trailer of the Film of Monty Python and the Holy Grail'' (1975)* ''Monty Python Live at City Center'' (1976)* ''The Monty Python Instant Record Collection'' (1977)* ''Monty Python's Life of Brian'' (1979)* ''Monty Python Examines The Life of Brian'' (promo) (1979)* ''Monty Python's Contractual Obligation Album'' (1980)* ''The Monty Python Instant Record Collection'' (US version) (1981)* ''Monty Python's The Meaning of Life'' (1983)* ''Monty Python's The Meaning of Life: Audio Press Kit'' (promo) (1983)* ''The Final Rip Off'' (1987)* ''Monty Python Sings'' (1989)* ''The Ultimate Monty Python Rip Off'' (1994)* ''Monty Python Sings Again'' (2014)* ''The Hastily Cobbled Together for a Fast Buck Album'' (unreleased)===Theatre===*''Monty Python's Flying Circus'': Between 1974 and 1980 (''Live at the Hollywood Bowl'' was released in 1982, but was performed in 1980), the Pythons made three sketch-based stage shows, comprising mainly material from the original television series.", "*''Monty Python's Spamalot'': Written by Idle and directed by Mike Nichols, with music and lyrics by John Du Prez and Idle, it starred Hank Azaria, Tim Curry, and David Hyde Pierce; ''Spamalot'' is a musical adaptation of the film ''Monty Python and the Holy Grail''.", "It ran in Chicago from 21 December 2004 to 23 January 2005, and began performances on Broadway on 17 March 2005.It won three Tony Awards.", "It was one of eight UK musicals commemorated on Royal Mail stamps, issued in February 2011.", "*''Not the Messiah'': the Toronto Symphony Orchestra commissioned Idle and John Du Prez to write the music and lyrics of an oratorio based on ''Monty Python's Life of Brian''.", "Entitled ''Not the Messiah'', it had its world premiere as part of Luminato, a \"festival of arts and creativity\" taking place 1–10 June 2007 in Toronto, Ontario, Canada.", "''Not the Messiah'' was conducted by Peter Oundjian, music director of the Toronto Symphony Orchestra, who is Idle's cousin.", "It was performed by a narrator, the Toronto Symphony Orchestra, with guest soloists and choir.", "According to Idle, \"I promise it will be funnier than Handel, though probably not as good\".", "* ''Monty Python Live'': One Down, Five to Go: (1–5, 15–16, 18–20 July 2014).", "The Pythons have stated this is the last live reunion of the remaining members of Monty Python.", "Held at London's O2 Arena, tickets for the first night's show sold out in 43 seconds.", "The set list included a mix of live performances of their most popular sketches, clips from their shows, and elaborate dance numbers.", "Each night featured a different celebrity \"victim\" of the \"Blackmail\" sketch.", "The final show was screened to 2,000 cinemas around the world.===Books===Books by Monty Python* ''Monty Python's Big Red Book'' (1971) .", "* ''The Brand New Monty Python Bok'' (1973) .", "* ''The Fairly Incomplete & Rather Badly Illustrated Monty Python Song Book'' (1994) Script books* ''Monty Python and the Holy Grail'' (1977) .", "* ''Monty Python's The Life of Brian/MONTYPYTHONSCRAPBOOK'' (1979, plus script-only reprint) .", "* ''Monty Python's The Meaning of Life'' (1983) .", "* ''Monty Python's Flying Circus – Just The Words'' Volume 1 (1989) .", "* ''Monty Python's Flying Circus – Just The Words'' Volume 2 (1989) .", "* ''Monty Python's Fliegender Zirkus'' (edited by Alfred Biolek) (1998)Compilations* ''The Complete Works of Shakespeare and Monty Python.", "Volume One – Monty Python'' (1981) .", "* ''The Monty Python Gift Boks'' (1986)* ''A Pocketful of Python Volume 1'' (edited by Terry Jones) (1999)* ''A Pocketful of Python Volume 2'' (edited by John Cleese) (1999)* ''A Pocketful of Python Volume 3'' (edited by Terry Gilliam) (2000)* ''A Pocketful of Python Volume 4'' (edited by Michael Palin) (2000)* ''A Pocketful of Python Volume 5'' (edited by Eric Idle) (2002)Books about Monty Python by Pythons* ''Monty Python Speaks!''", "(edited by David Morgan) (1999)* ''The Pythons Autobiography by The Pythons'' (edited by Bob McCabe) (2003, plus various reformatted editions)* ''Monty Python Live!''", "(2009)* ''Monty Python at Work'' (by Michael Palin, compilation of republished diary entries) (2014)* ''So, Anyway'' ... (by John Cleese, Autobiography to age 30) (2014)* ''Always Look on the Bright Side of Life'' (by Eric Idle, Autobiography) (2018) .Other books about Monty Python* ''Monty Python: The Case Against'' (by Robert Hewison) (1981)===Games===* ''Monty Python's Flying Circus'' (1990) a video game released by Virgin Games* ''Monty Python's Complete Waste of Time'' (1994) released by 7th Level for Macintosh and MS-DOS* ''Monty Python & the Quest for the Holy Grail'' (1996), official game released by 7th Level* ''Monty Python's The Meaning of Life'' (1997), also released by 7th Level.", "* ''Python-opoly'' (2007), a Monty Python-themed property game released by Toy Vault* ''Monty Python Fluxx'' (2008), a card game released by Looney Labs* ''Monty Python's Cow Tossing'' (2011), a smartphone game* ''The Ministry of Silly Walks'' (2014), a smartphone game" ], [ "See also", "* List of recurring ''Monty Python's Flying Circus'' characters* Python (Monty) Pictures" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * The Secret Policeman's Balls, 3-DVD set (2009)** * Monty Python: 40 Years of Insanity** * The Life of Python – 20 Greatest Monty Python Sketches (40th Anniversary)**" ], [ "External links", "* * * * * Monty Python – Official YouTube page* 40 Years of Monty Python – photo essay by ''TIME'' magazine* 2014 interview on return to live shows ()" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Married... with Children" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Married... with Children''''' is an American television sitcom created by Michael G. Moye and Ron Leavitt for the Fox Broadcasting Company.", "Originally broadcast from April 5, 1987, to June 9, 1997, it is the longest-running live-action sitcom ever aired on Fox.", "''Married... with Children'' was the first primetime series broadcast on the new Fox network.", "The series's run ended with the episode broadcast on May 5, 1997.Two previously unaired episodes were broadcast on June 9, 1997 and June 18, 2002.Set in Chicago, the show follows the lives of Al Bundy, a former high school football player turned hard-luck women's shoe salesman; his lazy wife, Peggy; their pretty but dim-witted daughter, Kelly; and their smart-aleck son, Bud.", "The show also features their neighbors, the stuffy Steve and Marcy Rhoades, both of whom Al finds annoying, but the Rhoades feel the same way about Al.", "Later in the series, Marcy marries Jefferson D'Arcy, a white-collar criminal who becomes her \"trophy husband\" and Al's sidekick.The series is one of the longest running sitcoms in American television history, comprising eleven seasons with 259 episodes in its run.", "Its theme song is \"Love and Marriage\" by Sammy Cahn and Jimmy Van Heusen, performed by Frank Sinatra from the 1955 television production ''Our Town''.The first two seasons of the series were videotaped at ABC Television Center in Hollywood.", "Seasons 3 to 8 were taped at Sunset Gower Studios in Hollywood, and the final three seasons were taped at Sony Pictures Studios in Culver City.", "The series was initially produced by Embassy Communications.", "Starting halfway through the second season, the series was produced by ELP Communications under the studio Columbia Pictures Television.In 2008, the show made the top 100 on ''Entertainment Weekly'' \"New TV Classics\" list, placing number 94.In May 2022, an animated revival of the series was in the works." ], [ "Cast and characters", " Actor Role Years Seasons Appearances Ed O'Neill Al Bundy 1987–1997 1–11 259 Katey Sagal Margaret \"Peggy\" Bundy 1987–1997 1–11 247 Christina Applegate Kelly Bundy 1987–1997 1–11 256 David Faustino Bud Bundy 1987–1997 1–11 257 Amanda Bearse Marcy Rhoades/D'Arcy 1987–1997 1–11 236 David Garrison Steve Rhoades 1987–1990, 1992, 1993, 1995 1–4, guest 6–7, 9 73 Ted McGinley Jefferson D'Arcy 1989, 1991–97 Guest 4, main 5–11 166* Al Bundy (Ed O'Neill) – A misanthrope, afflicted by the so-called \"Bundy curse\" that consigns him to an unrewarding career selling women's shoes and a life with a family that mocks and disrespects him, who still enjoys the simple things in life.", "He constantly attempts to relive his high-school football days, when he was an \"All State Fullback\".", "His most noted achievement was having scored four touchdowns in a single game for Polk High.", "His favorite things in life are the local nudie bar, his collection of ''BigUns'' magazine, his Dodge car with more than on the odometer, and a television show called ''Psycho Dad''.", "Despite his family's antipathy for him, and his for them, Al is always ready to defend his family and the Bundy honor.", "* Peggy Bundy (née Wanker) (Katey Sagal) – Al's wife who is always pestering him about money and refuses to do any housework or get a job.", "Peggy is a lazy redhead who spends most of her time watching talk shows such as ''Oprah'' or stealing Al's limited funds to go shopping; she frequently mocks Al about his unglamourous job, his meager earnings, his hygiene, and his poor sexual abilities.", "Her careless spending on things like clothes and male strip clubs has run Al into debt on numerous occasions.", "A recurring joke in the series is Al's and Peggy's regrets of having married each other, although on occasion they will show affection towards one another.", "Peggy's best friend is Marcy, with whom Peggy occasionally leads into trouble.", "Peggy's side of the family is a backwoods clan of hillbillies whom she often forces the other Bundys to endure, especially her morbidly obese mother, whom Al finds intolerable.", "* Kelly Bundy (Christina Applegate) – the Bundys' firstborn; a dumb blonde who is often derided as promiscuous and dates guys who irritate Al to the point that he wants to physically assault them.", "Her stupidity manifests in many ways, from forgetting ideas on the spot to mispronouncing or misspelling simple words.", "She and her brother Bud generally get along, but enjoy belittling one another.", "* Budrick \"Bud\" Franklin Bundy (David Faustino) – the younger Bundy offspring, and sometimes the more level-headed family member, although his preoccupation with sex sometimes leads to inevitable failures with women.", "He and older sister Kelly constantly taunt each other, but when Kelly is in a legitimate bind he will support her, much like Kelly does for him under similar circumstances.", "* Marcy Rhoades, later Marcy D'Arcy (Amanda Bearse) – the Bundys' next-door neighbor, Al's nemesis and Peggy's best friend; an educated banker, but also a feminist and environmentalist who often protests Al's schemes with his NO MA'AM (National Organization of Men Against Amazonian Masterhood) group.", "Marcy is the founder and leader of an anti-man support group called \"FANG\" (Feminists Against Neanderthal Guys).", "Marcy and Al constantly bicker and do not get along.", "For the first few seasons of the show, Marcy is married to Steve Rhoades.", "After Marcy and Steve divorce and he leaves during the fourth season, Marcy meets and marries Jefferson D'Arcy, giving her the name Marcy D'Arcy.", "* Steven \"Steve\" Bartholomew Rhoades (David Garrison) is Marcy's first husband, a stuffy banker who finds himself frequently entangled in Al's schemes.", "Steve's most prized possession is his Mercedes-Benz, which he does not even let Marcy drive.", "Although very much in love at the beginning of the series, Steve and Marcy grow apart and he leaves her during the fourth season to become a forest ranger at Yosemite National Park.", "He later comes back in \"The Egg and I\" episode to try and reclaim his old life with Marcy, but finds trouble with Jefferson, Marcy's second husband.", "Steve later has another job as the dean of Bud's college, after blackmailing the previous one he worked under as a chauffeur.", "* Jefferson Milhouse D'Arcy (Ted McGinley), a pretty-boy scammer to whom Marcy wakes up one morning and discovers she has married.", "Unlike Steve, Jefferson is more of a free spirit, likes to have fun, is constantly unemployed, has no money of his own, and uses Marcy for financial purposes.", "Marcy is aware of this, but whenever Jefferson gets into trouble with her, he distracts her by working his charm and resorting to sexual bartering.", "In several episodes, Jefferson is implied, but never confirmed, to have had a past life as a former spy/CIA operative.=== Pilot episode ===In the show's pilot episode, actors Tina Caspary and Hunter Carson played the roles of Kelly and Bud Bundy, respectively.", "Before the series aired publicly the roles for the two Bundy children were re-cast.", "Ed O'Neill and the show's producers worried about a lack of chemistry with the parents and the original actors cast as the children.", "A re-casting was done and all of the scenes in the pilot with Carson and Caspary were re-shot with David Faustino and Christina Applegate playing Bud and Kelly Bundy.=== Recurring characters ===" ], [ "Reception", "===Critical response===For season 1, Metacritic calculated an average of 58 out of 100 based on 5 reviews, indicating \"mixed or average reviews\".", "In 1987, the ''Los Angeles Times'' commented: \"The scripts are one-line oriented and sometimes an ugly howl, and the central characters are perfectly cast.", "The growly O'Neill and Sagal—who has a terrific mincing walk that she may have picked up from her days as one of Bette Midler's Harlettes—were born to insult and perform bowling-ball humor.\"", "Conversely, also in 1987, Tom Shales writing for ''The Washington Post'' wrote: \"A nasty-minded, overacted and poorly cast sitcom, \"Married ... With Children\" gets the schedule off on a rousing limp.", "\"===Ratings===Despite the show's enduring popularity and fanbase, ''Married... with Children'' was never a huge ratings success.", "Part of the reason was that Fox, a startup network, did not have the affiliate base of the Big Three television networks, thus preventing the series from reaching the entire country.", "In an interview for a special commemorating the series' 20-year anniversary in 2007, Katey Sagal stated that part of the problem the series faced was that many areas of the country were able to get Fox only through low-quality UHF channels well into the early 1990s, while some areas of the country did not receive the new network at all, a problem not largely rectified until the launch of Foxnet in June 1991 and later the network's acquisition of National Football League rights which led to several stations across the United States changing affiliations.", "For instance, Ed O'Neill's hometown of Youngstown, Ohio didn't have its own Fox affiliate until CBS affiliate WKBN-TV signed on WFXI-CA/WYFX-LP in 1998, one year after the show went off the air (the area was served by WPGH-TV in Pittsburgh and Cleveland's Fox affiliates—initially WOIO, then WJW—as default affiliates on cable), so many of O'Neill's friends and family mistakenly thought he was famous for beer commercials during this time.Another problem lay in the fact that many of the newly developed series on Fox were unsuccessful, which kept the network from building a popular lineup to draw in a larger audience.", "In its original airing debut, ''Married... with Children'' was part of a Sunday lineup that competed with the popular ''Murder, She Wrote'' and Sunday-night movie on CBS.", "Fellow freshman series included ''Duet'', cancelled in 1989, along with ''It's Garry Shandling's Show'' and ''The Tracey Ullman Show'', both of which were canceled in 1990.The success of ''The Simpsons'', which debuted on ''The Tracey Ullman Show'' in 1987, helped draw some viewers over to Fox, allowing ''Married... with Children'' to sneak into the Nielsen Top 50 from Season 4 through Season 8, peaking at No.", "37 in Season 6.Although these ratings were somewhat small in comparison with the other three networks, they were good enough for Fox to keep renewing the show.While the series didn't end on a cliffhanger, it was expected to be renewed for a 12th season (which would have been the final season) and thus didn't have a proper series finale when Fox decided to cancel it in 1997.With Fox announcing the cancellation publicly before informing the cast and crew, most if not all of them found out about the series cancellation from fans and low-level employees instead of from the network itself.", "Katey Sagal stated that she constantly felt that the series was neglected by Fox despite helping bring the fledgling network on the map (''Married with Children'' having been on even before ''The Simpsons''); for his part, Ed O'Neill attributed possible neglect of the series by Fox to constant turnover of some of the top positions at the network.", "In a 2013 interview, O'Neill stated that he felt TV stations who owned syndication rights to the series put pressure on Fox and Sony Pictures Television to end the series since the series had nearly three times the episodes needed for syndication and the production of more episodes would have resulted in higher rights fees.+Ratings overview Season Episodes Timeslot (EDT) Premiere Finale TV season Rank Rating 1 13 Sunday 8:00 PM 1986–87 '''#142''' '''–''' 2 22 Sunday 8:00 PM Sunday 8:30 PM 1987–88 '''#115''' '''4.7''' 3 22 Sunday 8:30 PM 1988–89 '''#63''' '''10.5''' 4 23 Sunday 9:00 PM 1989–90 '''#41''' '''12.9''' 5 25 1990–91 '''#41''' '''12.4''' 6 26 1991–92 '''#37''' '''12.5''' 7 26 1992–93 '''#43''' '''11.4''' 8 26 1993–94 '''#46''' '''10.8''' 9 26 1994–95 '''#66''' '''9.5''' 10 26 1995–96 '''#78''' '''8.2''' 11 24 Saturday 9:00 PM Sunday 7:30 PM Monday 9:30 PM (January 6–27, 1997)Monday 9:00 PM (February 24 – June 9, 1997) 1996–97 '''#97''' '''6.7'''=== Controversy ===The series is considered the first raunchy sitcom to run on regular network television and in 1989, Terry Rakolta from Bloomfield Hills, Michigan attempted to lead a boycott of the show after viewing the episode \"Her Cups Runneth Over\".", "Offended by the images of an old man wearing a woman's garter and stockings, the scene in which Steve touches the pasties of a mannequin dressed in S&M gear, a homosexual man wearing a tiara on his head (and Al's line \"...and they wonder why we call them 'queens), and a half-nude woman who takes off her bra in front of Al (and is shown with her arms covering her bare chest in the next shot), Rakolta began a letter-writing campaign to advertisers, demanding they boycott the show.After advertisers began dropping their support for the show, and while Rakolta made several appearances on television talk shows demanding the show's cancellation, Fox executives refused to air the episode titled \"I'll See You in Court\" (in which the Bundys attempt to improve their love life by having marital relations in a different setting).", "This episode became known as the \"Lost Episode\" and was aired on FX on June 18, 2002, with some parts cut.", "The episode was packaged with the rest of the third season in the January 2005 DVD release (and in the first volume of the ''Married ... With Children Most Outrageous Episodes'' DVD set) with the parts cut from syndication restored.Viewers' curiosity over the boycott and over the show itself led to a drastic ratings boost in an example of the Streisand effect, which Rakolta has since acknowledged.", "Rakolta has been alluded to twice on the show: \"Rock and Roll Girl\", in which a newscaster mentions the city Bloomfield Hills, and \"No Pot to Pease In\", in which a television show is made about the Bundy family and then cancelled because, as Marcy stated, \"some woman in Michigan didn't like it.", "\"The conservative Parents Television Council named ''Married... with Children'' the worst show of both the 1995–96 and 1996–97 television seasons in its first two years in operation.", "Republican U.S.", "Senator Jesse Helms called the show \"trash\".", "Fellow Senator Joe Lieberman (D-CT) also strongly criticized the sitcom, after having walked in on his stepson and young daughter watching an episode one evening during the late 1993.In an interview many years later, Lieberman would specifically cite ''Married...With Children'' as the impetus for his becoming a vocal opponent of pop culture and the entertainment industry throughout his Senate career.Despite the series' controversial content and being largely aimed at an adult audience, it did receive recognition as one of the few series at the time that gave women prominent roles behind the scenes.", "Producers decided to rewrite the sixth season storyline of Peggy's pregnancy, which coincided with Sagal's actual pregnancy, as a dream that Al had.", "This was done to prevent Sagal from suffering further trauma by having her character Peggy interact with a new baby, when Sagal's pregnancy ended with her going into premature labor and the baby being stillborn.", "Bearse showed she was a talented director as well as an actress by moving to the director's chair and directing her co-stars for over 30 episodes of the series between 1991 and 1997.Bearse also became one of the first mainstream actresses to publicly come out as lesbian, which she did during the series run and received positive recognition for doing.On April 22, 2012, Fox re-aired the series premiere in commemoration of its 25th anniversary." ], [ "Episodes", "During its 11-season run on the Fox network, ''Married... with Children'' aired 258 episodes.", "A 259th episode, \"I'll See You in Court\" from season 3, never aired on Fox, but premiered on FX and has since been included on DVD and in syndication packages.", "Three specials also aired following the series' cancellation, including a cast reunion." ], [ "Home media", "Sony Pictures Home Entertainment has released all 11 seasons of ''Married... with Children'' on DVD in Regions 1, 2, & 4.On December 12, 2010, Sony released a complete series set on DVD in Region 1.In December 2007, the Big Bundy Box—a special collection box with all seasons plus new interviews with Sagal and David Faustino—was released.", "This boxset was released in Australia (Region 4) on November 23, 2009.The Sony DVD box sets from season 3 onward do not feature the original \"Love and Marriage\" theme song in the opening sequence.", "This was done because Sony was unable to obtain the licensing rights to the song for later sets.", "Despite this, the end credits on the DVDs for season 3 still include a credit for \"Love and Marriage.", "\"On August 27, 2013, it was announced that Mill Creek Entertainment had acquired the home media rights to various television series from the Sony Pictures library including ''Married... with Children'' with the original theme song \"Love and Marriage\" sung by Frank Sinatra.", "They have subsequently re-released the 11 seasons on DVD.", "The Mill Creek Entertainment version (along with the versions available for streaming and downloading) include scenes that are normally edited in syndication and most of the licensed music that's dubbed over or deleted due to copyright issues.", "A complete series DVD set was re-released on July 7, 2015, in Region 1.All seasons of ''Married... with Children'' are now available for online download and streaming through Amazon, Apple iTunes, Peacock, Hulu, and Vudu.DVD name Ep # Release dates DVD special features Region 1Region 2Region 4 Season One 13 October 28, 2003 April 7, 2004 October 25, 2005 Married with Children reunion Season Two 22 March 16, 2004 October 26, 2004 September 22, 2008 Clips from the 2003 reunion Season Three 22 January 25, 2005 February 10, 2005 September 22, 2008 Clips from the 2003 reunion Season Four 23 August 30, 2005 December 22, 2005 September 22, 2008None Season Five 25 June 20, 2006 June 27, 2006 September 22, 2008Promos for other TV shows Season Six 26 December 19, 2006 August 17, 2006 September 22, 2008Promos for other TV shows Season Seven 26 September 18, 2007 October 5, 2006 September 22, 2008None Season Eight 26 March 18, 2008 December 19, 2006 October 22, 2008None Season Nine 26 August 19, 2008 February 20, 2007 October 22, 2008None Season Ten 27 March 17, 2009 March 20, 2007 March 11, 2009None Season Eleven 24 October 13, 2009 May 8, 2007 March 11, 2009Promos for other TV showsThe Big Bundy Box209N/AN/ADecember 3, 2008Seasons 1–9 with room for 10 & 11.Special features same as individual seasons.", "The Complete Series 259 October 13, 2009July 7, 2015 (re-release) November 22, 2009 November 23, 2009June 17, 2020 (re-release)Married with Children reunion (2003)Clips from the 2003 reunionDavid Faustino interviewKatey Sagal interviewPromos for other TV showsBonus wall poster" ], [ "Merchandise", "=== Books ===* ''Pig Out With Peg: Secrets from the Bundy Family Kitchen'', Avon Books, November 1990, * ''Bundyisms: The Wit and Wisdom of America's Last Family'', Boulevard Books, May 1997, * ''The Complete \"Married... with Children\" Book: TV's Dysfunctional Family Phenomenon'', Bear Manor Media, August 2017, ==== Comic books ====''Married... with Children'' was adapted into a comic book series by NOW Comics in 1990.=== Toys ======= Board game ====*''Married With Children: Act Like...Think Like...Be Like a...Bundy'' was released in 1990 by Galoob.==== Action figures ====Two series (10 in all) of 8\" action figures were produced by Classic TV Toys in 2005 and 2006.In 2018, Funko produced figures of Al, Kelly, Bud and Peggy as a part of their Funko POP!", "line.That same year, Funko also released a ''Married... with Children'' box set as a Comic Con Exclusive.", "It included retro-styled Al, Peggy, Kelly and Bud action figures.", "In 2018 and 2019, Mego released Target exclusives of Al, Peggy and Kelly in 1/9 scale." ], [ "International remakes", ";ArmeniaAn Armenian remake was made in 2016, called ''The Azizyans''.", "The Azizyans is an Armenian sitcom television series developed by Robert Martirosyan and Van Grigoryan.", "The series premiered on Armenia TV on October 31, 2016.However, the series was not available to the public until Armenia TV started airing the sitcom from October 10, 2017.The series takes place in Yerevan, Armenia.", "The Azizyans sitcom is starred by Hayk Marutyan.", "He embodies the character of Garnik Azizyan – a clothes store seller, who is the only one working in the family.", "Mrs. Ruzan Azizyan is lazy enough to perform the duties of a housewife.The problems of the father of the family don't bother his 3 children – his daughter, who is internet-addicted and is active in all social networks; his unemployed eldest son, who is a complete loser, and his youngest son, who is a schoolboy.", "The roles in this sitcom, created for family watching, are played by Ani Lupe, Satenik Hazaryan, Ishkhan Gharibyan, Suren Arustamyan and other popular Armenian actors.", "The project is directed by Arman Marutyan.", "In the second season of the sitcom, the Azizyan family continues to survive thanks to the meager salary of Garnik.The wife of Garnik – Ruzan, remains in the status of a housewife, without even thinking about finding a job.", "The elder son of Garnik and Ruzan – Azat, continues to look for a new job, a young man appears in the life of Marie, who is trying to win the girl's heart.", "Their younger son Levon, continues to live his own life and does not understand what he has in common with this family.", "And their neighbors Irina and Alik continue to be friends with the family, which Azizyans do not quite approve.", "The only bright spot in the life of the family is their house, which Garnik inherited from his grandfather.", ";ArgentinaAn Argentine remake was made by Telefe in 2005, called ''Casados con Hijos''.", "Two seasons were made (2005 and 2006), totaling 215 episodes and it became a smashing success during the replaying.", "More than fifteen years after the release, it is still aired on Saturdays at 7:30 pm.", "The series has been also shown by local channels in Uruguay, Paraguay, and Peru.The character names are: José \"Pepe\" Argento (based on Al, played by Guillermo Francella), Mónica \"Moni\" Argento (based on Peggy, played by Florencia Peña), Paola Argento (based on Kelly, played by Luisana Lopilato), Alfio \"Coqui\" Argento (based on Bud, played by Darío Lopilato), Dardo and María Elena Fuseneco (based on Jefferson D'Arcy, Steve Rhoades and Marcy; played by Marcelo de Bellis and Érica Rivas).", ";BrazilIn Brazil Rede Bandeirantes made a remake in 1999 with the name ''A Guerra dos Pintos'' (The War of The Pintos).", "52 episodes were recorded but only 22 aired before cancelation.", ";BulgariaIn Bulgaria a remake is aired from March 26, 2012, with the name ''Женени с деца в България'' (Zheneni s detsa v Bulgaria) (Married with children in Bulgaria).", ";CroatiaIn Croatia a remake called ''Bračne vode'' was broadcast from September 2008 until November 2009 on Nova TV channel.", "The characters based on the Bundys were called Zvonimir, Sunčica, Kristina and Boris Bandić while the ones based on Marcy and Steve were called Marica and Ivan Kumarica.", ";GermanyIn Germany, the 1992 remake ''Hilfe, meine Familie spinnt'', broadcast in the prime time, reached double the audience of the original (broadcast in the early fringe time).", "This, however, was not enough to maintain the series, so it was cancelled after one season with 26 episodes.The remake used the exact translated scripts of the original series (which already substituted localised humour and in-jokes for incomprehensible references to American TV shows not shown in Germany, as well as some totally different jokes) and just renamed places and people according to the new setting.", "It had a rerun twice on Super RTL in 1996 and 1997.''''", "was aired from March to December 1993 for 26 episodes.", ";HungaryIn 2006, Hungarian TV network TV2 purchased the license rights including scripts and hired the original producers from Sony Pictures for a remake of the show placed in a Hungarian environment.", "It was entitled '''' (in English: ''Married with children in Budapest'', loan translation: ''A gruesomely decent family in Budapest'').", "The main story began with the new family called the Bándis inheriting an outskirt house from their American relatives the Bundys.", "They filmed a whole season of 26 episodes, all of them being remade versions of the plots of the original first seasons.", "It was the highest budget sitcom ever made in Hungary.", "First it was aired on Tuesday nights, but was beaten by a new season of ''ER'', then placed to Wednesday nights.", "The remake lost its viewers, but stayed on the air due to the contract between Sony and TV2.Also the Hungarian critics have strongly condemned the copyright infringement of the original series.", "They also criticized the lack of quality and the dilettante forcing of the American cliches in Eastern European (Hungarian) environment.", ";IsraelThe complete American series aired in Israel in the 1990s, with reruns of it ever since.", "There has also been an Israeli remake to the show titled ''Nesuim Plus'' (Married Plus) that aired its two seasons from 2012 to 2017.;RussiaThe Original ''Married... With Children'' ran on TV-6 Russia in the late 1990s and early 2000s (before the closing of the channel) in prime-time basis, broadcasting the episodes from seasons 1–11.The show later aired on DTV and Domashniy TV.", "A Russian adaptation, titled ''Happy Together'' (Schastlivy Vmeste; ''Happy Together''), was broadcast on TNT across the country in 2006.The character names are: Gena Bukin (based on Al, played by Viktor Loginov), Dasha Bukina (based on Peggy, played by Natalya Bochkareva), Sveta Bukina (based on Kelly, played by Darya Sagalova), Roma Bukin (based on Bud, played by Alexander Yakin), Elena and Anatoliy Poleno (based on Marcy and Jefferson D'Arcy, played by Yulia Zaharova and Pavel Savinkov), Evgeniy Stepanov (based on Steve Rhoades, played by Aleksey Sekirin), Sema Bukin (based on Seven, played by Ilya Butkovskiy), and Baron Bukin (based on Buck and Lucky, played by Bayra).", ";TurkeyA remake was aired in Turkey in 2004 for one season under the name ''Evli ve Çocuklu'' (Married and with Children), featuring Ege Aydan and Yıldız Kaplan in the roles of Niyazi (based on Al) and Jale (based on Peg) Tonguç.", "The producer, Med Yapım, has published 10 episodes on YouTube in 2018.;UKITV had been screening the original ''Married... With Children'' since 1988.In 1996, the UK production company Central Television and Columbia Pictures Television (Columbia TriStar Central Productions) produced a UK version called '''''Married for Life''''', which lasted for one series with seven episodes." ], [ "Spin-offs", "''Top of the Heap'' was a sitcom starring Matt LeBlanc.", "The show was about Vinnie Verducci (played by LeBlanc) and his father Charlie (played by Joseph Bologna) always trying get rich quick schemes.", "The Verduccis were introduced in an earlier episode where Vinnie dated Kelly Bundy, and Charlie was introduced as an old friend of Al Bundy's.", "The end of the pilot episode shows Al breaking into their apartment and stealing their TV to replace the one he lost betting on Vinnie in a boxing match.", "However, the show didn't last long and was ultimately cancelled.", "It had its own spin-off/sequel called ''Vinnie & Bobby'' a year later, which was also cancelled.Also, an attempt was made to make a spin-off out of David Garrison's Steve Rhoades character which took place on Bud's Trumaine University.", "The spin-off was called ''Radio Free Trumaine'' where Garrison played the Dean.", "''Enemies'' was another spin-off, but played to be a spoof on the TV series ''Friends''.", "Meanwhile, a proposed series focusing on the NO MA'AM group without Al Bundy was outright rejected by Fox over fears of misogyny.On September 11, 2014, it was announced that a spin-off was in the works, centered on the character of Bud Bundy." ], [ "Animated revival", "On May 13, 2022, ''Deadline'' reported that an animated revival of the series was currently in the works with the original cast attached to return.", "It was further revealed that Sony Pictures Television had been working on the animated series for over a year and waited until they had closed deals with the cast before presenting it to networks and streamers.", "It was felt that an animated revival worked best due to the original cast's busy schedule as well as Applegate being diagnosed with multiple sclerosis in 2021, making an animated revival more feasible due to the cast's schedules and Applegate's physical limitations.Applegate confirmed in a 2023 ''Vanity Fair'' interview that she, O'Neill, Sagal, and Faustino remained attached to the revival and were just waiting." ], [ "U.S. syndication and international airings", "Distributed by Columbia Pictures Television Distribution, later Sony Pictures Television since 2002, ''Married... with Children'' debuted in off-network syndication in the fall of 1991.The series later began airing on cable on FX from September 1998 until 2007.In June 2002, FX became the first television network to air the controversial, previously banned episode \"I'll See You in Court\", albeit in an edited format.", "The full version of \"I'll See You in Court\" can only be seen on the DVD release ''Married... with Children: The Most Outrageous Episodes Volume 1'' and the Mill Creek Entertainment complete series collection.", "The version found on the Third Season DVD set under Sony is the edited-for-TV version.", "In 2008, the Spike network reportedly paid US$12 million for broadcast rights to every episode including the unedited version of the infamous episode \"I'll See You in Court\".Broadcast rights to the series are currently held by Paramount Media Networks.", "It previously aired on Antenna TV, Ion Television, TBS, WGN America, and Sony's GetTV channel.", "WGN America gained rights to the show when TBS removed it from their early morning slots in September 2018.Following its acquisition by Nexstar Media Group and rebrand to NewsNation, the network indicated it would start rolling off its non-news programming as those contracts expire to expand news coverage.", "Meanwhile, eight Paramount channels have carried the show since 2008: Spike (since renamed Paramount Network), TV Land from 2009 to 2011, Comedy Central from 2010 to 2011, Nick at Nite from July 6 to August 17, 2011, VH1 Classic (now MTV Classic), CMT from 2019 to 2022, and Logo TV.", "In November 2018, the entire 11-season run became available to watch through Hulu.", "''Married...with Children'' has also been a ratings success in other countries around the world.", "Country Foreign title Translation Network(s) Notes Brazil '''Um amor de Família'''(''A Lovely Family'') DubbedSubtitled Sony Entertainment TelevisionPlayTV The show runs on Sony Entertainment Television and Comedy Central Brasil (since 2012 February) with original sound and subtitles (source: ), the dubbed version runs on PlayTV.", "57 dubbed and subtitled episodes are now available on the Brazilian version of Netflix.", "Bulgaria '''Женени с деца'''(''Married with Children'') Dubbed bTVFox lifeDiema Airing on bTV Comedy.", "Canada '''''Married...with Children''''' None CMTGlobalSpikeDejaViewTVtropolisCFMTMuchMTV Broadcasting on Spike, DejaView, Much, and MTV.", "Episodes available to stream for free (with ads) on the CTV app.", "Chile '''''Casado con hijos'''''(''Married... with Children'') Subtitled Sony Entertainment Television Today the show runs on Sony Entertainment Television.", "Colombia '''''Casado con hijos'''''(''Married... with Children'') Subtitled ''Cadena 1''Sony Entertainment TelevisionComedy Central The original series aired in Colombia presented by Cinevision on Channel 1 from 1992 to 1994.Reruns on the original language aired on basic cable channels Sony and Comedy Central.", "The Colombian remake ''Casados con hijos'' airs on Teleantioquia (2000-2005), Caracol Channel (2004-2006, 2011–2012) and CityTv (2014-2016).", "Croatia '''Bračne vode'''(''Marriage Waters'') Subtitled HRTRTL TelevizijaNova TVFox Life The show runs on Nova TV and Fox Life.", "Czech Republic '''Ženatý se závazky'''(''Married with commitments'') Dubbed TV PrimaTV NovaNova Cinema Smíchov The show runs weekly from Monday to Friday on TV Smíchov.", "Denmark '''Vore værste år'''(''Our Worst Years'') Subtitled TV3Comedy Central Dominican Republic '''Casado con Hijos'''(''Married with Children'') Dubbed Telesistema Canal 11 Estonia '''Tuvikesed'''(''Loveydoves'') Subtitled Kanal 12 Broadcast before midnight on Kanal 12, episodes rerun on the next weekday morning.", "Finland '''Pulmuset'''(''Loveydoves'') Subtitled MTV3NelonenTV5 Being rerun on TV5.France '''Mariés, deux enfants'''(''Married, Two Children'') Dubbed M6Comédie!", "Runs on the cable channel Comédie!.", "Germany '''Eine schrecklich nette Familie'''(''An Awfully Nice Family'') Dubbed RTLProSiebenKabel1Comedy Centralkabel eins classicsRTL Nitro It first ran from 1992 on RTL (\"RTLplus\" at that time), moving to ProSieben for the final 51 episodes, ending in 1997.It airs two episodes a day Monday-Friday on RTL Nitro, with an additional two episodes on Thursday night.", "Greece '''Παντρεμένοι με παιδιά'''(''Married with Children'') Subtitled ANT1Mega ChannelMakedonia TV The series returned on January 9, 2016, for reruns, airing every weekend at 10:40 p.m., starting from season 1, on Mega Channel which initially aired just the last seasons.", "Hungary '''Egy rém rendes család'''(''A gruesomely decent family'') Dubbed TV3RTL KlubViasat 3CoolTVHumor+ A cable television called CoolTV airs 3 episodes and PrizmaTV 2 episodes each day.", "Italy '''Sposati...con figli'''(''Married...with Children'') Dubbed Canale 5Sky Show Norway '''Bundy'''(''Bundy'') Subtitled TV3Viasat 4 Originally named ''Våre verste år'' (''Our worst years''), but was later renamed ''Bundy''.", "It had its on run on TV3, and now in reruns after midnight every day except weekends on TV3.Reruns have also been shown on TV3's sister channel Viasat 4.Poland '''Świat według Bundych'''(''The World According to the Bundys'') Voice-over Polsat The show was aired many times on Polsat and is still broadcast on that channel.", "The series' success brought about a local TV show ''Świat według Kiepskich'' (''The World According to the Kiepskis'') that paraphrased the Polish title of ''Married... with Children''; however, the premise of the Polish show is significantly different from that of the American original (e.g.", "has got other characters only similar to the original ones and makes laugh of Polish, not American reality), which is why it is usually not considered a remake.", "In the book \"Świat według Kiepskich.", "Zwariowana historia kultowego serialu\" (''The World According to the Kiepskis.", "A crazy story of the cult TV series) by Jabłonka and Łęczuk, a producer of Świat według Kiepskich- Tomasz Kurzewski says that Polsat wanted to create a brand new sitcom and announced a competition for the best idea and Kurzewski was advised to make a Polish version of the most popular Polsat sitcom, which was Married... with Children and competitive ideas were not connected with Married... with Children, so the American TV series is only an inspiration of the Polish one, not an original version of a remake.", "Świat według Kiepskich was not made under the American licence.''", "Romania '''Familia Bundy''' (''The Bundy Family'') Subtitled Pro TV The show was aired in the 1990s, multiple times.", "Russia '''Женаты... с детьми''' (''Married... with Children''), '''Счастливы вместе'''(''Happy Together'') Voice-over (original) TV-6, DTV, Domashniy TV (original)TNT (remake) The Russian remake of the show, Счастливы вместе, has been broadcast since March 2006 on TNT every weekday.", "The series was cancelled in 2013.Serbia '''Брачне воде / Bračne vode'''(''Marriage Waters'') Dubbed (Season 1)Subtitled Fox televizijaFox Life Fox televizija aired season 1 dubbed, by the studio \"Prizor\".", "The show aired on Fox Life too, with all of its seasons in subtitles only.", "Spain '''Matrimonio con hijos'''(''Marriage with Children'') Dubbed TVE2SET en VEO The original series was a classic that ran for a decade in the public national channel TVE2.The Spanish TV channel Cuatro did a remake of the original series under the name ''Matrimonio con Hijos''.", "In Catalonia, the show is running on the DTT channels Canal 300 and Sony Entertainment Television en VEO.", "Sweden '''Våra värsta år'''(''Our Worst Years'') Subtitled TV3ZTVTV6 The name \"Våra värsta år\" is a pun on the name \"Våra bästa år\" (\"Our best years\") as ''Days of Our Lives'' is called in Swedish.", "Ukraine '''Одружені... та з дітьми''' (''Married... with Children'')'''Щасливі разом''' (''Happy Together'') Voice-over TET, 1+1 (original)Novyi Kanal (Russian remake) The show aired on TET (first two seasons) in 2009 and on 1+1 (all seasons) in 2011–2012.The Russian remake of the show, ''Счастливы вместе'', is being shown on Novyi Kanal (New Channel) every Sunday from 12:20–14:20.There was also a Ukrainian version of Polish Świat według Kiepskich which was called Nepruhi and was aired in 2010." ], [ "Locations", "The opening footage comprises views of Chicago, opening with a shot of Buckingham Fountain in Grant Park.", "The aerial downtown shot was taken from the Lake Shore Drive section north of the Loop.", "The expressway entrance shot was taken from the 1983 movie ''National Lampoon's Vacation'' featuring the Griswolds' green family truckster with a northeastward view of the Dan Ryan/Stevenson junction southwest of the Loop.", "The exterior shot used for the Bundys' house was taken in a subdivision in Deerfield, Illinois.", "Non-English versions might differ, e.g.", "the dubbed German version always includes the expressway shot." ], [ "See also", "*''Modern Family'', a show where Ed O'Neill also plays a family man.", "*''Star-ving'', a web series created by David Faustino, where the original cast was reunited.", "*''Unhappily Ever After'', another show created by Ron Leavitt, treating similar themes." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Metre" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''metre''' (or '''meter''' in North American spelling; symbol: '''m''') is the base unit of length in the International System of Units (SI).", "Since 2019 the metre has been defined as the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of of a second, where the second is defined by a hyperfine transition frequency of caesium.The metre was originally defined in 1791 by the French National Assembly as one ten-millionth of the distance from the equator to the North Pole along a great circle, so the Earth's polar circumference is approximately .In 1799, the metre was redefined in terms of a prototype metre bar, the bar used was changed in 1889, and in 1960 the metre was redefined in terms of a certain number of wavelengths of a certain emission line of krypton-86.The current definition was adopted in 1983 and modified slightly in 2002 to clarify that the metre is a measure of proper length.", "From 1983 until 2019, the metre was formally defined as the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum in of a second.", "After the 2019 redefinition of the SI base units, this definition was rephrased to include the definition of a second in terms of the caesium frequency .", "This series of amendments did not alter the size of the metre significantly – today Earth's polar circumference measures , a change of 0.022% from the original value of exactly , which also includes improvements in the accuracy of measuring the circumference." ], [ "Spelling", "''Metre'' is the standard spelling of the metric unit for length in nearly all English-speaking nations, the exceptions being the United States and the Philippines which use ''meter''.Measuring devices (such as ammeter, speedometer) are spelled \"-meter\" in all variants of English.", "The suffix \"-meter\" has the same Greek origin as the unit of length." ], [ "Etymology", "The etymological roots of ''metre'' can be traced to the Greek verb () (to measure, count or compare) and noun () (a measure), which were used for physical measurement, for poetic metre and by extension for moderation or avoiding extremism (as in \"be measured in your response\").", "This range of uses is also found in Latin (), French (), English and other languages.", "The Greek word is derived from the Proto-Indo-European root ''*meh₁-'' 'to measure'.", "The motto () in the seal of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM), which was a saying of the Greek statesman and philosopher Pittacus of Mytilene and may be translated as \"Use measure!", "\", thus calls for both measurement and moderation.", "The use of the word ''metre'' (for the French unit ) in English began at least as early as 1797." ], [ "History of definition <span class=\"anchor\" id=\"History\"></span><span class=\"anchor\" id=\"Definition\"></span>", "=== Universal measure: the metre linked to the figure of the Earth ===The Meridian room of the Paris Observatory (or Cassini room): the Paris meridian is drawn on the ground.|leftGalileo discovered gravitational acceleration to explain the fall of bodies at the surface of the Earth.", "He also observed the regularity of the period of swing of the pendulum and that this period depended on the length of the pendulum.Kepler's laws of planetary motion served both to the discovery of Newton's law of universal gravitation and to the determination of the distance from Earth to the Sun by Giovanni Domenico Cassini.", "They both also used a determination of the size of the Earth, then considered as a sphere, by Jean Picard through triangulation of Paris meridian.", "In 1671, Jean Picard also measured the length of a seconds pendulum at Paris Observatory and proposed this unit of measurement to be called the astronomical radius (French: ''Rayon Astronomique'').", "In 1675, Tito Livio Burattini suggested the term '''' meaning universal measure for this unit of length, but then it was discovered that the length of a seconds pendulum varies from place to place.Gravimeter with variant of Repsold–Bessel pendulumChristiaan Huygens found out the centrifugal force which explained variations of gravitational acceleration depending on latitude.", "He also mathematically formulated the link between the length of the simple pendulum and gravitational acceleration.", "According to Alexis Clairaut, the study of variations in gravitational acceleration was a way to determine the figure of the Earth, whose crucial parameter was the flattening of the Earth ellipsoid.", "In the 18th century, in addition of its significance for cartography, geodesy grew in importance as a means of empirically demonstrating the theory of gravity, which Émilie du Châtelet promoted in France in combination with Leibniz's mathematical work and because the radius of the Earth was the unit to which all celestial distances were to be referred.", "Indeed, Earth proved to be an oblate spheroid through geodetic surveys in Ecuador and Lapland and this new data called into question the value of Earth radius as Picard had calculated it.After the Anglo-French Survey, the French Academy of Sciences commissioned an expedition led by Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre and Pierre Méchain, lasting from 1792 to 1798, which measured the distance between a belfry in Dunkirk and Montjuïc castle in Barcelona at the longitude of the Paris Panthéon.", "When the length of the metre was defined as one ten-millionth of the distance from the North Pole to the Equator, the flattening of the Earth ellipsoid was assumed to be .In 1841, Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel using the method of least squares calculated from several arc measurements a new value for the flattening of the Earth, which he determinated as .", "He also devised a new instrument for measuring gravitational acceleration which was first used in Switzerland by Emile Plantamour, Charles Sanders Peirce and Isaac-Charles Élisée Cellérier (8.01.1818 – 2.10.1889), a Genevan mathematician soon independently discovered a mathematical formula to correct systematic errors of this device which had been noticed by Plantamour and Adolphe Hirsch.", "This allowed Friedrich Robert Helmert to determine a remarkably accurate value of for the flattening of the Earth when he proposed his ellipsoid of reference in 1901.This was also the result of the Metre Convention of 1875, when the metre was adopted as an international scientific unit of length for the convenience of continental European geodesists following the example of Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler.==== Meridional definition ====In 1790, one year before it was ultimately decided that the metre would be based on the Earth quadrant (a quarter of the Earth's circumference through its poles), Talleyrand proposed that the metre be the length of the seconds pendulum at a latitude of 45°.", "This option, with one-third of this length defining the foot, was also considered by Thomas Jefferson and others for redefining the yard in the United States shortly after gaining independence from the British Crown.Instead of the seconds pendulum method, the commission of the French Academy of Sciences – whose members included Borda, Lagrange, Laplace, Monge and Condorcet – decided that the new measure should be equal to one ten-millionth of the distance from the North Pole to the Equator, determined through measurements along the meridian passing through Paris.", "Apart from the obvious consideration of safe access for French surveyors, the Paris meridian was also a sound choice for scientific reasons: a portion of the quadrant from Dunkirk to Barcelona (about 1000 km, or one-tenth of the total) could be surveyed with start- and end-points at sea level, and that portion was roughly in the middle of the quadrant, where the effects of the Earth's oblateness were expected not to have to be accounted for.", "Improvements in the measuring devices designed by Borda and used for this survey also raised hopes for a more accurate determination of the length of this meridian arc.The task of surveying the Paris meridian arc took more than six years (1792–1798).", "The technical difficulties were not the only problems the surveyors had to face in the convulsed period of the aftermath of the French Revolution: Méchain and Delambre, and later Arago, were imprisoned several times during their surveys, and Méchain died in 1804 of yellow fever, which he contracted while trying to improve his original results in northern Spain.", "In the meantime, the commission of the French Academy of Sciences calculated a provisional value from older surveys of 443.44 lignes.", "This value was set by legislation on 7 April 1795.In 1799, a commission including Johan Georg Tralles, Jean Henri van Swinden, Adrien-Marie Legendre and Jean-Baptiste Delambre calculated the distance from Dunkirk to Barcelona using the data of the triangulation between these two towns and determined the portion of the distance from the North Pole to the Equator it represented.", "Pierre Méchain's and Jean-Baptiste Delambre's measurements were combined with the results of the Spanish-French geodetic mission and a value of was found for the Earth's flattening.", "However, French astronomers knew from earlier estimates of the Earth's flattening that different meridian arcs could have different lengths and that theire curvature could be irregular.", "The distance from the North Pole to the Equator was then extrapolated from the measurement of the Paris meridian arc between Dunkirk and Barcelona and was determined as 5 130 740 toises.", "As the metre had to be equal to one ten-millionth of this distance, it was defined as 0.513074 toise or 3 feet and 11.296 lines of the Toise of Peru, which had been constructed in 1735 for the French Geodesic Mission to the Equator.", "When the final result was known, a bar whose length was closest to the meridional definition of the metre was selected and placed in the National Archives on 22 June 1799 (4 messidor An VII in the Republican calendar) as a permanent record of the result.==== Early adoption of the metre as a scientific unit of length: the forerunners ====Triangulation near New York City, 1817In 1816, Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler was appointed first Superintendent of the Survey of the Coast.", "Trained in geodesy in Switzerland, France and Germany, Hassler had brought a standard metre made in Paris to the United States in 1805.He designed a baseline apparatus which instead of bringing different bars in actual contact during measurements, used only one bar calibrated on the metre and optical contact.", "Thus the metre became the unit of length for geodesy in the United States.In 1830, Hassler became head of the Office of Weights and Measures, which became a part of the Survey of the Coast.", "He compared various units of length used in the United States at that time and measured coefficients of expansion to assess temperature effects on the measurements.In 1832, Carl Friedrich Gauss studied the Earth's magnetic field and proposed adding the second to the basic units of the metre and the kilogram in the form of the CGS system (centimetre, gram, second).", "In 1836, he founded the Magnetischer Verein, the first international scientific association, in collaboration with Alexander von Humboldt and Wilhelm Edouard Weber.", "The coordination of the observation of geophysical phenomena such as the Earth's magnetic field, lightning and gravity in different points of the globe stimulated the creation of the first international scientific associations.", "The foundation of the Magnetischer Verein would be followed by that of the Central European Arc Measurement (German: ''Mitteleuropaïsche Gradmessung'') on the initiative of Johann Jacob Baeyer in 1863, and by that of the International Meteorological Organisation whose president, the Swiss meteorologist and physicist, Heinrich von Wild would represent Russia at the International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM).In 1834, Hassler, measured at Fire Island the first baseline of the Survey of the Coast, shortly before Louis Puissant declared to the French Academy of Sciences in 1836 that Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre and Pierre Méchain had made errors in the meridian arc measurement, which had been used to determine the length of the metre.", "Errors in the method of calculating the length of the Paris meridian were taken into account by Bessel when he proposed his reference ellipsoid in 1841.Ibáñez apparatus calibrated on the metric Spanish Standard and used at Aarberg, in canton of Bern, SwitzerlandEgyptian astronomy has ancient roots which were revived in the 19th century by the modernist impetus of Muhammad Ali who founded in Sabtieh, Boulaq district, in Cairo an Observatory which he was keen to keep in harmony with the progress of this science still in progress.", "In 1858, a Technical Commission was set up to continue, by adopting the procedures instituted in Europe, the cadastre work inaugurated under Muhammad Ali.", "This Commission suggested to Viceroy Mohammed Sa'id Pasha the idea of buying geodetic devices which were ordered in France.", "While Mahmud Ahmad Hamdi al-Falaki was in charge, in Egypt, of the direction of the work of the general map, the viceroy entrusted to Ismail Mustafa al-Falaki the study, in Europe, of the precision apparatus calibrated against the metre intended to measure the geodesic bases and already built by Jean Brunner in Paris.", "Ismail Mustafa had the task to carry out the experiments necessary for determining the expansion coefficients of the two platinum and brass bars, and to compare the Egyptian standard with a known standard.", "The Spanish standard designed by Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero and Frutos Saavedra Meneses was chosen for this purpose, as it had served as a model for the construction of the Egyptian standard.", "In addition, the Spanish standard had been compared with Borda's double-toise N° 1, which served as a comparison module for the measurement of all geodesic bases in France, and was also to be compared to the Ibáñez apparatus.", "In 1954, the connection of the southerly extension of the Struve Geodetic Arc with an arc running northwards from South Africa through Egypt would bring the course of a major meridian arc back to land where Eratosthenes had founded geodesy.", "'''West Europe–Africa Meridian-arc''': a meridian arc extending from the Shetland Islands, through Great Britain, France and Spain to El Aghuat in Algeria, whose parameters were calculated from surveys carried out in the mid to late 19th century.", "It yielded a value for the equatorial radius of the earth ''a'' = 6 377 935 metres, the ellipticity being assumed as 1/299.15.The radius of curvature of this arc is not uniform, being, in the mean, about 600 metres greater in the northern than in the southern part.", "Greenwich meridian is depicted rather than Paris meridian.|leftSeventeen years after Bessel calculated his ellipsoid of reference, some of the meridian arcs the German astronomer had used for his calculation had been enlarged.", "This was a very important circumstance because the influence of errors due to vertical deflections was minimized in proportion to the length of the meridian arcs: the longer the meridian arcs, the more precise the image of the Earth ellipsoid would be.", "After Struve Geodetic Arc measurement, it was resolved in the 1860s, at the initiative of Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero who would become the first president of both the International Geodetic Association and the International Committee for Weights and Measure, to remeasure the arc of meridian from Dunkirk to Formentera and to extend it from Shetland to the Sahara.", "This did not pave the way to a new definition of the metre because it was known that the theoretical definition of the metre had been inaccessible and misleading at the time of Delambre and Mechain arc measurement, as the geoid is a ball, which on the whole can be assimilated to an oblate spheroid, but which in detail differs from it so as to prohibit any generalization and any extrapolation from the measurement of a single meridian arc.", "In 1859, Friedrich von Schubert demonstrated that several meridians had not the same length, confirming an hypothesis of Jean Le Rond d’Alembert.", "He also proposed an ellipsoid with three unequal axes.", "In 1860, Elie Ritter, a mathematician from Geneva, using Schubert's data computed that the Earth ellipsoid could rather be a spheroid of revolution accordingly to Adrien-Marie Legendre’s model.", "However, the following year, resuming his calculation on the basis of all the data available at the time, Ritter came to the conclusion that the problem was only resolved in an approximate manner, the data appearing too scant, and for some affected by vertical deflections, in particular the latitude of Montjuïc in the French meridian arc which determination had also been affected in a lesser proportion by systematic errors of the repeating circle.Struve Geodetic ArcIt was well known that by measuring the latitude of two stations in Barcelona, Méchain had found that the difference between these latitudes was greater than predicted by direct measurement of distance by triangulation and that he didn't dare to admit this inaccuracy.", "This was later explained by clearance in the central axis of the repeating circle causing wear and consequently the zenith measurements contained significant systematic errors.", "Polar motion predicted by Leonard Euler and later discovered by Seth Carlo Chandler also had an impact on accuracy of latitudes' determinations.", "Among all these sources of error, it was mainly an unfavourable vertical deflection that gave an inaccurate determination of Barcelona's latitude and a metre \"too short\" compared to a more general definition taken from the average of a large number of arcs.As early as 1861, Johann Jacob Baeyer sent a memorandum to the King of Prussia recommending international collaboration in Central Europe with the aim of determining the shape and dimensions of the Earth.", "At the time of its creation, the association had sixteen member countries: Austrian Empire, Kingdom of Belgium, Denmark, seven German states (Grand Duchy of Baden, Kingdom of Bavaria, Kingdom of Hanover, Mecklenburg, Kingdom of Prussia, Kingdom of Saxony, Saxe-Coburg and Gotha), Kingdom of Italy, Netherlands, Russian Empire (for Poland), United Kingdoms of Sweden and Norway, as well as Switzerland.", "The Central European Arc Measurement created a Central Office, located at the Prussian Geodetic Institute, whose management was entrusted to Johann Jacob Baeyer.Baeyer's goal was a new determination of anomalies in the shape of the Earth using precise triangulations, combined with gravity measurements.", "This involved determining the geoid by means of gravimetric and leveling measurements, in order to deduce the exact knowledge of the terrestrial spheroid while taking into account local variations.", "To resolve this problem, it was necessary to carefully study considerable areas of land in all directions.", "Baeyer developed a plan to coordinate geodetic surveys in the space between the parallels of Palermo and Freetown Christiana (Denmark) and the meridians of Bonn and Trunz (German name for Milejewo in Poland).", "This territory was covered by a triangle network and included more than thirty observatories or stations whose position was determined astronomically.", "Bayer proposed to remeasure ten arcs of meridians and a larger number of arcs of parallels, to compare the curvature of the meridian arcs on the two slopes of the Alps, in order to determine the influence of this mountain range on vertical deflection.", "Baeyer also planned to determine the curvature of the seas, the Mediterranean Sea and Adriatic Sea in the south, the North Sea and the Baltic Sea in the north.", "In his mind, the cooperation of all the States of Central Europe could open the field to scientific research of the highest interest, research that each State, taken in isolation, was not able to undertake.Spain and Portugal joined the European Arc Measurement in 1866.French Empire hesitated for a long time before giving in to the demands of the Association, which asked the French geodesists to take part in its work.", "It was only after the Franco-Prussian War, that Charles-Eugène Delaunay represented France at the Congress of Vienna in 1871.In 1874, Hervé Faye was appointed member of the Permanent Commission which was presided by Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero.The International Geodetic Association gained global importance with the accession of Chile, Mexico and Japan in 1888; Argentina and United-States in 1889; and British Empire in 1898.The convention of the International Geodetic Association expired at the end of 1916.It was not renewed due to the First World War.", "However, the activities of the International Latitude Service were continued through an thanks to the efforts of H.G.", "van de Sande Bakhuyzen and Raoul Gautier (1854–1931), respectively directors of Leiden Observatory and Geneva Observatory.==== International prototype metre bar ====Johnson Mattey and given to the United States, which served as the standard for American cartography from 1890 replacing the Committee Meter, an authentic copy of the ''Mètre des Archives'' produced in 1799 in Paris, which Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler had brought to the United States in 1805|leftAfter the French Revolution, Napoleonic Wars led to the adoption of the metre in Latin America following independence of Brazil and Hispanic America, while the American Revolution prompted the foundation of the Survey of the Coast in 1807 and the creation of the Office of Standard Weights and Measures in 1830.In continental Europe, Napoleonic Wars fostered German nationalism which later led to unification of Germany in 1871.Meanwhile, most European countries had adopted the metre.", "In the 1870s, German Empire played a pivotal role in the unification of the metric system through the European Arc Measurement but its overwhelming influence was mitigated by that of neutral states.", "While the German astronomer Wilhelm Julius Foerster, director of the Berlin Observatory and director of the German Weights and Measures Service boycotted the Permanent Committee of the Internation Metre Commission alongside with the Russian and Austrian representatives in order to promote the foundation of a permanent International Bureau of Weights and Measures, the German born, Swiss astronomer, Adolphe Hirsch conformed to the opinion of Italy and Spain to create, in spite of French reluctance, the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in France as a permanent institution at the disadventage of the ''Conservatoire national des Arts et Métiers''.At that time, units of measurement were defined by primary standards, and unique artifacts made of different alloys with distinct coefficients of expansion were the legal basis of units of length.", "A wrought iron ruler, the Toise of Peru, also called ''Toise de l'Académie'', was the French primary standard of the toise, and the metre was officially defined by an artifact made of platinum kept in the National Archives.", "Besides the latter, another platinum and twelve iron standards of the metre were made by Étienne Lenoir in 1799.One of them became known as the ''Committee Meter'' in the United States and served as standard of length in the United States Coast Survey until 1890.According to geodesists, these standards were secondary standards deduced from the Toise of Peru.", "In Europe, except Spain, surveyors continued to use measuring instruments calibrated on the Toise of Peru.", "Among these, the toise of Bessel and the apparatus of Borda were respectively the main references for geodesy in Prussia and in France.", "These measuring devices consisted of bimetallic rulers in platinum and brass or iron and zinc fixed together at one extremity to assess the variations in length produced by any change in temperature.", "The combination of two bars made of two different metals allowed to take thermal expansion into account without measuring the temperature.", "A French scientific instrument maker, Jean Nicolas Fortin, had made three direct copies of the Toise of Peru, one for Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von Struve, a second for Heinrich Christian Schumacher in 1821 and a third for Friedrich Bessel in 1823.In 1831, Henri-Prudence Gambey also realized a copy of the Toise of Peru which was kept at Altona Observatory.Historic Dutch replicas of metric standards in the collection of Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam: iron metre with case constructed by Étienne Lenoir in 1799, copper grave kilogram with case (1798), copper volume measures (1829)In the second half of the 19th century, the creation of the International Geodetic Association would mark the adoption of new scientific methods.", "It then became possible to accurately measure parallel arcs, since the difference in longitude between their ends could be determined thanks to the invention of the electrical telegraph.", "Furthermore, advances in metrology combined with those of gravimetry have led to a new era of geodesy.", "If precision metrology had needed the help of geodesy, the latter could not continue to prosper without the help of metrology.", "It was then necessary to define a single unit to express all the measurements of terrestrial arcs and all determinations of the gravitational acceleration by means of pendulum.In 1866, the most important concern was that the Toise of Peru, the standard of the toise constructed in 1735 for the French Geodesic Mission to the Equator, might be so much damaged that comparison with it would be worthless, while Bessel had questioned the accuracy of copies of this standard belonging to Altona and Koenigsberg Observatories, which he had compared to each other about 1840.This assertion was particularly worrying, because when the primary Imperial yard standard had partially been destroyed in 1834, a new standard of reference was constructed using copies of the \"Standard Yard, 1760\", instead of the pendulum's length as provided for in the Weights and Measures Act of 1824, because the pendulum method proved unreliable.", "Nevertheless Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler's use of the metre and the creation of the Office of Standard Weights and Measures as an office within the Coast Survey contributed to the introduction of the Metric Act of 1866 allowing the use of the metre in the United States, and preceded the choice of the metre as international scientific unit of length and the proposal by the European Arc Measurement (German: ''Europäische Gradmessung'') to establish a \"European international bureau for weights and measures\".leftIn 1867 at the second General Conference of the International Association of Geodesy held in Berlin, the question of an international standard unit of length was discussed in order to combine the measurements made in different countries to determine the size and shape of the Earth.", "According to a preliminary proposal made in Neuchâtel the precedent year, the General Conference recommended the adoption of the metre in replacement of the toise of Bessel, the creation of an International Metre Commission, and the foundation of a World institute for the comparison of geodetic standards, the first step towards the creation of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures.Hassler's metrological and geodetic work also had a favourable response in Russia.", "In 1869, the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences sent to the French Academy of Sciences a report drafted by Otto Wilhelm von Struve, Heinrich von Wild and Moritz von Jacobi inviting his French counterpart to undertake joint action to ensure the universal use of the metric system in all scientific work.In the 1870s and in light of modern precision, a series of international conferences was held to devise new metric standards.", "When a conflict broke out regarding the presence of impurities in the metre-alloy of 1874, a member of the Preparatory Committee since 1870 and Spanish representative at the Paris Conference in 1875, Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero intervened with the French Academy of Sciences to rally France to the project to create an International Bureau of Weights and Measures equipped with the scientific means necessary to redefine the units of the metric system according to the progress of sciences.The Metre Convention (''Convention du Mètre'') of 1875 mandated the establishment of a permanent International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM: '''') to be located in Sèvres, France.", "This new organisation was to construct and preserve a prototype metre bar, distribute national metric prototypes, and maintain comparisons between them and non-metric measurement standards.", "The organisation distributed such bars in 1889 at the first General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM: ''''), establishing the ''International Prototype Metre'' as the distance between two lines on a standard bar composed of an alloy of 90% platinum and 10% iridium, measured at the melting point of ice.=== Metrology and paradigm shift in physics ===Invar wire baseline apparatusThe comparison of the new prototypes of the metre with each other involved the development of special measuring equipment and the definition of a reproducible temperature scale.", "The BIPM's thermometry work led to the discovery of special alloys of iron–nickel, in particular invar, whose practically negligible coefficient of expansion made it possible to develop simpler baseline measurement methods, and for which its director, the Swiss physicist Charles-Edouard Guillaume, was granted the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1920.Guillaume's Nobel Prize marked the end of an era in which metrology was leaving the field of geodesy to become a technological application of physics.In 1921, the Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to another Swiss scientist, Albert Einstein, who following Michelson–Morley experiment had questioned the luminiferous aether in 1905, just as Newton had questioned Descartes' Vortex theory in 1687 after Jean Richer's pendulum experiment in Cayenne, French Guiana.Furthermore, special relativity changed conceptions of time and mass, while general relativity changed that of space.", "According to Newton, space was Euclidean, infinite and without boundaries and bodies gravitated around each other without changing the structure of space.", "Einstein's theory of gravity states, on the contrary, that the mass of a body has an effect on all other bodies while modifying the structure of space.", "A massive body induces a curvature of the space around it in which the path of light is inflected, as was demonstrated by the displacement of the position of a star observed near the Sun during an eclipse in 1919.==== Wavelength definition ====In 1873, James Clerk Maxwell suggested that light emitted by an element be used as the standard both for the unit of length and for the second.", "These two quantities could then be used to define the unit of mass.", "About the unit of length he wrote:Charles Sanders Peirce’s work promoted the advent of American science at the forefront of global metrology.", "Alongside his intercomparisons of artifacts of the metre and contributions to gravimetry through improvement of reversible pendulum, Peirce was the first to tie experimentally the metre to the wave length of a spectral line.", "According to him the standard length might be compared with that of a wave of light identified by a line in the solar spectrum.", "Albert Michelson soon took up the idea and improved it.In 1893, the standard metre was first measured with an interferometer by Albert A. Michelson, the inventor of the device and an advocate of using some particular wavelength of light as a standard of length.", "By 1925, interferometry was in regular use at the BIPM.", "However, the International Prototype Metre remained the standard until 1960, when the eleventh CGPM defined the metre in the new International System of Units (SI) as equal to wavelengths of the orange-red emission line in the electromagnetic spectrum of the krypton-86 atom in vacuum.==== Speed of light definition ====To further reduce uncertainty, the 17th CGPM in 1983 replaced the definition of the metre with its current definition, thus fixing the length of the metre in terms of the second and the speed of light::: The metre is the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of of a second.This definition fixed the speed of light in vacuum at exactly metres per second (≈ or ≈1.079 billion km/hour).", "An intended by-product of the 17th CGPM's definition was that it enabled scientists to compare lasers accurately using frequency, resulting in wavelengths with one-fifth the uncertainty involved in the direct comparison of wavelengths, because interferometer errors were eliminated.", "To further facilitate reproducibility from lab to lab, the 17th CGPM also made the iodine-stabilised helium–neon laser \"a recommended radiation\" for realising the metre.", "For the purpose of delineating the metre, the BIPM currently considers the HeNe laser wavelength, , to be with an estimated relative standard uncertainty (''U'') of .This uncertainty is currently one limiting factor in laboratory realisations of the metre, and it is several orders of magnitude poorer than that of the second, based upon the caesium fountain atomic clock ().", "Consequently, a realisation of the metre is usually delineated (not defined) today in labs as wavelengths of helium–neon laser light in vacuum, the error stated being only that of frequency determination.", "This bracket notation expressing the error is explained in the article on measurement uncertainty.Practical realisation of the metre is subject to uncertainties in characterising the medium, to various uncertainties of interferometry, and to uncertainties in measuring the frequency of the source.", "A commonly used medium is air, and the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has set up an online calculator to convert wavelengths in vacuum to wavelengths in air.", "As described by NIST, in air, the uncertainties in characterising the medium are dominated by errors in measuring temperature and pressure.", "Errors in the theoretical formulas used are secondary.By implementing a refractive index correction such as this, an approximate realisation of the metre can be implemented in air, for example, using the formulation of the metre as wavelengths of helium–neon laser light in vacuum, and converting the wavelengths in vacuum to wavelengths in air.", "Air is only one possible medium to use in a realisation of the metre, and any partial vacuum can be used, or some inert atmosphere like helium gas, provided the appropriate corrections for refractive index are implemented.The metre is ''defined'' as the path length travelled by light in a given time, and practical laboratory length measurements in metres are determined by counting the number of wavelengths of laser light of one of the standard types that fit into the length, and converting the selected unit of wavelength to metres.", "Three major factors limit the accuracy attainable with laser interferometers for a length measurement:* uncertainty in vacuum wavelength of the source,* uncertainty in the refractive index of the medium,* least count resolution of the interferometer.Of these, the last is peculiar to the interferometer itself.", "The conversion of a length in wavelengths to a length in metres is based upon the relation: which converts the unit of wavelength ''λ'' to metres using ''c'', the speed of light in vacuum in m/s.", "Here ''n'' is the refractive index of the medium in which the measurement is made, and ''f'' is the measured frequency of the source.", "Although conversion from wavelengths to metres introduces an additional error in the overall length due to measurement error in determining the refractive index and the frequency, the measurement of frequency is one of the most accurate measurements available.The CIPM issued a clarification in 2002:=== Timeline ===DateDeciding bodyDecision 8 May 1790French National AssemblyThe length of the new metre to be equal to the length of a pendulum with a half-period of one second.30 Mar 1791French National AssemblyAccepts the proposal by the French Academy of Sciences that the new definition for the metre be equal to one ten-millionth of the length of a great circle quadrant along the Earth's meridian through Paris, that is the distance from the equator to the north pole along that quadrant.1795Provisional metre bar made of brass and based on Paris meridan arc (French: ''Méridienne de France'') measured by Nicolas-Louis de Lacaillle and Cesar-François Cassini de Thury, legally equal to 443.44 lines of the ''toise du Pérou'' (a standard French unit of length from 1766).", "The line was 1/864 of a ''toise''.10 Dec 1799French National AssemblySpecifies the platinum metre bar, presented on 22 June 1799 and deposited in the National Archives, as the final standard.", "Legally equal to 443.296 lines on the ''toise du Pérou''.24–28 Sept 18891st General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM)Defines the metre as the distance between two lines on a standard bar of an alloy of platinum with 10% iridium, measured at the melting point of ice.27 Sept – 6 Oct 19277th CGPMRedefines the metre as the distance, at , between the axes of the two central lines marked on the prototype bar of platinum–iridium, this bar being subject to one standard atmosphere of pressure and supported on two cylinders of at least 10 mm (1 cm) diameter, symmetrically placed in the same horizontal plane at a distance of 571 mm (57.1 cm) from each other.14 Oct 196011th CGPMDefines the metre as wavelengths in vacuum of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the 2p and 5d quantum levels of the krypton-86 atom.21 Oct 198317th CGPMDefines the metre as the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of of a second.2002International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM)Considers the metre to be a unit of proper length and thus recommends this definition be restricted to \"lengths ℓ which are sufficiently short for the effects predicted by general relativity to be negligible with respect to the uncertainties of realisation\".+Definitions of the metre since 1795 Basis of definition Date Absoluteuncertainty Relativeuncertainty part of the quadrant along the meridian, measurement by Delambre and Méchain (443.296 lines) 1795 First prototype '''' platinum bar standard 1799 Platinum–iridium bar at melting point of ice (1st CGPM) 1889 Platinum–iridium bar at melting point of ice, atmospheric pressure, supported by two rollers (7th CGPM) 1927 n.a.", "n.a.", "Hyperfine atomic transition; wavelengths of light from a specified transition in krypton-86 (11th CGPM) 1960 Length of the path travelled by light in vacuum in second (17th CGPM) 1983" ], [ "Early adoptions of the metre internationally", "In France, the metre was adopted as an exclusive measure in 1801 under the Consulate.", "This continued under the First French Empire until 1812, when Napoleon decreed the introduction of the non-decimal ''mesures usuelles'', which remained in use in France up to 1840 in the reign of Louis Philippe.", "Meanwhile, the metre was adopted by the Republic of Geneva.", "After the joining of the canton of Geneva to Switzerland in 1815, Guillaume Henri Dufour published the first official Swiss map, for which the metre was adopted as the unit of length.=== Adoption dates by country ===* France: 1801–1812, then 1840* Republic of Geneva, Switzerland: 1813* Kingdom of the Netherlands: 1820* Kingdom of Belgium: 1830* Chile: 1848* Kingdom of Sardinia, Italy: 1850* Spain: 1852* Portugal: 1852* Colombia: 1853* Ecuador: 1856* Mexico: 1857* Brazil: 1862* Argentina: 1863* Italy: 1863* United States: 1866* German Empire, Germany: 1872* Austria, 1875* Switzerland: 1877" ], [ "SI prefixed forms of metre", "SI prefixes can be used to denote decimal multiples and submultiples of the metre, as shown in the table below.", "Long distances are usually expressed in km, astronomical units (149.6 Gm), light-years (10 Pm), or parsecs (31 Pm), rather than in Mm, Gm, Tm, Pm, Em, Zm or Ym; \"30 cm\", \"30 m\", and \"300 m\" are more common than \"3 dm\", \"3 dam\", and \"3 hm\", respectively.The terms ''micron'' and ''millimicron'' have been used instead of ''micrometre'' (μm) and ''nanometre'' (nm), respectively, but this practice is discouraged." ], [ "Equivalents in other units", "Metric unitexpressed in non-SI unitsNon-SI unitexpressed in metric units 1 metre ≈ 1.0936 yard 1 yard= 0.9144 metre 1 metre ≈ 39.370 inches 1 inch= 0.0254 metre 1 centimetre ≈ inch 1 inch= 2.54 centimetres 1 millimetre ≈ inch 1 inch= 25.4 millimetres 1 metre = 10ångström 1 ångström= 10 metre 1 nanometre = 10ångström 1 ångström= 100 picometresWithin this table, \"inch\" and \"yard\" mean \"international inch\" and \"international yard\" respectively, though approximate conversions in the left column hold for both international and survey units.", ": \"≈\" means \"is approximately equal to\";: \"=\" means \"is exactly equal to\".One metre is exactly equivalent to inches and to yards.A simple mnemonic to assist with conversion is \"three 3s\": 1 metre is nearly equivalent to 3feet inches.", "This gives an overestimate of 0.125mm.The ancient Egyptian cubit was about 0.5m (surviving rods are 523–529mm).", "Scottish and English definitions of the ell (two cubits) were 941mm (0.941m) and 1143mm (1.143m) respectively.", "The ancient Parisian ''toise'' (fathom) was slightly shorter than 2m and was standardised at exactly 2m in the mesures usuelles system, such that 1m was exactly toise.", "The Russian verst was 1.0668km.", "The Swedish mil was 10.688km, but was changed to 10km when Sweden converted to metric units." ], [ "See also", "* ISO 1standard reference temperature for length measurements* Metric prefix* Vertical position" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * Astin, A. V. & Karo, H. Arnold, (1959), ''Refinement of values for the yard and the pound'', Washington DC: National Bureau of Standards, republished on National Geodetic Survey web site and the Federal Register (Doc.", "59–5442, Filed, 30 June 1959)* * * * * * * ''Historical context of the SI: Meter''.", "Retrieved 26 May 2010.", "* National Institute of Standards and Technology.", "(27 June 2011). ''", "NIST-F1 Cesium Fountain Atomic Clock''.", "Author.", "* National Physical Laboratory.", "(25 March 2010). ''", "Iodine-Stabilised Lasers''.", "Author.", "* * Republic of the Philippines.", "(2 December 1978). ''", "Batas Pambansa Blg.", "8: An Act Defining the Metric System and its Units, Providing for its Implementation and for Other Purposes''.", "Author.", "* Republic of the Philippines.", "(10 October 1991). ''", "Republic Act No.", "7160: The Local Government Code of the Philippines''.", "Author.", "* Supreme Court of the Philippines (Second Division).", "(20 January 2010). ''", "G.R.", "No.", "185240''.", "Author.", "* Taylor, B.N.", "and Thompson, A.", "(Eds.).", "(2008a).", "''The International System of Units (SI)''.", "United States version of the English text of the eighth edition (2006) of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures publication ''Le Système International d' Unités (SI)'' (Special Publication 330).", "Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of Standards and Technology.", "Retrieved 18 August 2008.", "* Taylor, B.N.", "and Thompson, A.", "(2008b).", "''Guide for the Use of the International System of Units'' (Special Publication 811).", "Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of Standards and Technology.", "Retrieved 23 August 2008.", "* Turner, J.", "(deputy director of the National Institute of Standards and Technology).", "(16 May 2008).", "\"Interpretation of the International System of Units (the Metric System of Measurement) for the United States\".", "''Federal Register'' Vol.", "73, No.", "96, p.28432–28433.", "* Zagar, B.G.", "(1999).", "Laser interferometer displacement sensors in J.G.", "Webster (ed.).", "''The Measurement, Instrumentation, and Sensors Handbook''.", "CRC Press.", "." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mole" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Mole''' (or '''Molé''') may refer to:" ], [ "Animals", "* Mole (animal) or \"true mole\"* Golden mole, southern African mammals* Marsupial mole, Australian mammals" ], [ "Other common meanings", "* Nevus, a growth on human skin** Melanocytic nevus, another term for mole* Mole (architecture), a structure separating bodies of water* Mole (espionage), a spy in an organisation* Mole (sauce), a traditional Mexican food which can be a sauce or marinade" ], [ "Arts and entertainment", "* Mole, in the novel ''The Wind in the Willows'' by Kenneth Grahame* Mole (Zdeněk Miler character)* The Mole, in ''Happy Tree Friends''* The Mole, a criminal in Dick Tracy comic strips* ''El Topo'' (''The Mole''), a 1970 film* ''De Mol'' (TV series)* \"The Mole\", a song by Harry James" ], [ "Science and technology", "* Mole (unit), the SI unit for the amount of substance* Tunnel boring machine* Heat Flow and Physical Properties Package, a burrowing probe sent to Mars" ], [ "People", "* Mole (surname)* Molé, a French surname" ], [ "Places", "===Australia===* Mole River (New South Wales)* Mole Creek (Tasmania)===England ===* River Mole, Surrey* River Mole, Devon===France===* La Môle, a commune, ''Var Département''* Le Môle, an Alp mountain===Ghana===* Mole National Park===India===* Mole, Karnataka, a village===Myanmar===* Mole, Shwegu, a village" ], [ "Other uses", "* \"Mole\", NATO term for the Soviet aircraft Beriev Be-8* Cultivator No.", "6, WWII trench-digger, nickname* Mole-Richardson or Mole, lighting company* Moll (slang), or mole" ], [ "See also", "* Mole wrench* Mol (disambiguation)* The Mole (disambiguation)* Moles (disambiguation)* Moll (disambiguation)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mentha" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Mentha''''' (also known as '''mint''', from Greek , Linear B ''mi-ta'') is a genus of plants in the family Lamiaceae (mint family).", "The exact distinction between species is unclear; it is estimated that 13 to 24 species exist.", "Hybridization occurs naturally where some species' ranges overlap.", "Many hybrids and cultivars are known.The genus has a subcosmopolitan distribution across Europe, Africa – (Southern Africa), Asia, Australia – Oceania, North America and South America.", "Its species can be found in many environments, but most grow best in wet environments and moist soils." ], [ "Description", "Flowering verticillasters of a spearmint.Mints are aromatic, almost exclusively perennial herbs.", "They have wide-spreading underground and overground stolons and erect, square, branched stems.", "Mints will grow 10–120 cm (4–48 inches) tall and can spread over an indeterminate area.", "Due to their tendency to spread unchecked, some mints are considered invasive.The leaves are arranged in opposite pairs, from oblong to lanceolate, often downy, and with a serrated margin.", "Leaf colors range from dark green and gray-green to purple, blue, and sometimes pale yellow.The flowers are produced in long bracts from leaf axils.", "They are white to purple and produced in false whorls called verticillasters.", "The corolla is two-lipped with four subequal lobes, the upper lobe usually the largest.", "The fruit is a nutlet, containing one to four seeds." ], [ "Taxonomy", "''Mentha'' is a member of the tribe Mentheae in the subfamily Nepetoideae.", "The tribe contains about 65 genera, and relationships within it remain obscure.", "Authors have disagreed on the circumscription of ''Mentha''.", "For example, ''M.", "cervina'' has been placed in ''Pulegium'' and ''Preslia'', and ''M.", "cunninghamii'' has been placed in ''Micromeria''.", "In 2004, a molecular phylogenetic study indicated that both ''M.", "cervina'' and ''M.", "cunninghamii'' should be included in ''Mentha''.", "However, ''M.", "cunninghamii'' was excluded in a 2007 treatment of the genus.More than 3,000 names have been published in the genus ''Mentha'', at ranks from species to forms, the majority of which are regarded as synonyms or illegitimate names.", "The taxonomy of the genus is made difficult because many species hybridize readily, or are themselves derived from possibly ancient hybridization events.", "Seeds from hybrids give rise to variable offspring, which may spread through vegetative propagation.", "The variability has led to what has been described as \"paroxysms of species and subspecific taxa\"; for example, one taxonomist published 434 new mint taxa for central Europe alone between 1911 and 1916.Recent sources recognize between 18 and 24 species.===Species===, Plants of the World Online recognized the following species:*''Mentha alaica'' Boriss.", "*''Mentha aquatica'' L. – water mint, marsh mint*''Mentha arvensis'' L. – corn mint, wild mint, Japanese peppermint, field mint, banana mint*''Mentha atrolilacina'' B.J.Conn & D.J.Duval – slender mint*''Mentha australis'' R.Br.", "– Australian mint*''Mentha canadensis'' L. – Canada mint, American wild mint*''Mentha cervina'' L. – Hart's pennyroyal*''Mentha cunninghamii'' (Benth.)", "Benth.", "– New Zealand mint*''Mentha dahurica'' Fisch.", "ex Benth.", "– Dahurian thyme*''Mentha darvasica'' Boriss.", "*''Mentha diemenica'' Spreng.", "– slender mint*''Mentha gattefossei'' Maire*''Mentha grandiflora'' Benth.", "*''Mentha japonica'' (Miq.)", "Makino*''Mentha laxiflora'' Benth.", "– forest mint*''Mentha longifolia'' (L.) L. – horse mint*''Mentha micrantha'' (Fisch.", "ex Benth.)", "Heinr.Braun*''Mentha pamiroalaica'' Boriss.", "*''Mentha pulegium'' L. – pennyroyal*''Mentha requienii'' Benth.", "– Corsican mint*''Mentha royleana'' Wall.", "ex Benth.", "*''Mentha satureioides'' R.Br.", "– native pennyroyal*''Mentha spicata'' L. – spearmint, garden mint (a cultivar of spearmint)*''Mentha suaveolens'' Ehrh.", "– apple mint, pineapple mint (a variegated cultivar of apple mint)=== Other species ===There are a number of plants that have mint in the common English name but which do not belong to the genus ''Mentha'':* ''Agastache'' sp.", "– known as horse mints* ''Calamintha'' sp.", "(syn.", "''Clinopodium'') – known as calamints* ''Clinopodium acinos'' (syn.", "''Acinos arvensis'') – known as backle mint* ''Elsholtzia ciliata'' – known as comb mint* ''Melissa officinalis'' – known as balm mint* ''Nepeta'' sp.", "– known as cat mint or catnip* ''Origanum'' sp.", "– known as rock mint* ''Sideritis montana'' – known as sider mint=== Hybrids ===The ''Mentha'' × ''piperita'' hybrid known as \"chocolate mint\"The mint genus has a large grouping of recognized hybrids.", "Those accepted by Plants of the World Online are listed below.", "Parent species are taken from Tucker & Naczi (2007).", "Synonyms, along with cultivars and varieties where available, are included within the specific nothospecies.", "*''Mentha'' × ''carinthiaca'' Host - ''M.", "arvensis'' × ''M.", "suaveolens''*''Mentha'' × ''dalmatica'' Tausch - ''M.", "arvensis'' × ''M.", "longifolia''*''Mentha'' × ''dumetorum'' Schult.", "- ''M.", "aquatica'' × ''M.", "longifolia''*''Mentha'' × ''gayeri'' Trautm.", "- ''M.", "longifolia'' × ''M.", "spicata'' × ''M.", "suaveolens''*''Mentha'' × ''gracilis'' Sole (syn.", "''Mentha'' × ''gentilis'') - ''M.", "arvensis'' × ''M.", "spicata'' – ginger mint, Scotch spearmint*''Mentha'' × ''kuemmerlei'' Trautm.", "- ''M.", "aquatica'' × ''M.", "spicata'' × ''M.", "suaveolens''*''Mentha'' × ''locyana'' Borbás - ''M.", "longifolia'' × ''M.", "verticillata''*''Mentha'' × ''piperita'' L. - ''M.", "aquatica'' × ''M.", "spicata'' – peppermint, chocolate mint*''Mentha'' × ''pyramidalis'' Ten.", "- ''M.", "aquatica'' × ''M.", "microphylla''*''Mentha'' × ''rotundifolia'' (L.) Huds.", "- ''M.", "longifolia'' × ''M.", "suaveolens'' – false apple mint*''Mentha'' × ''suavis'' Guss.", "(syn.", "''Mentha'' × ''amblardii'', ''Mentha × lamiifolia'', ''Mentha × langii'', ''Mentha × mauponii'', ''Mentha × maximilianea'', ''Mentha × rodriguezii'', ''Mentha × weissenburgensis'') - ''M.", "aquatica'' × ''M.", "suaveolens''*''Mentha'' × ''verticillata'' L. - ''M.", "aquatica'' × ''M.", "arvensis''*''Mentha'' × ''villosa'' Huds.", "(syn.", "''M.", "nemorosa'') - ''M.", "spicata'' × ''M.", "suaveolens'' – large apple mint, foxtail mint, hairy mint, woolly mint, Cuban mint, mojito mint, and ''yerba buena'' in Cuba*''Mentha'' × ''villosa-nervata'' Opiz - ''M.", "longifolia'' × ''M.", "spicata'' – sharp-toothed mint*''Mentha'' × ''wirtgeniana'' F.W.Schultz (syn.", "''Mentha'' × ''smithiana'') - ''M.", "aquatica'' × ''M.", "arvensis'' × ''M.", "spicata'' – red raripila mint=== Common names and cultivars ===There are hundreds of common English names for species and cultivars of ''Mentha''.", "These include:* Apple mint - ''Mentha suaveolens'' and ''Mentha × rotundifolia''* Banana mint - ''Mentha arvensis'' 'Banana'* Bowles mint - ''Mentha villosa'' and ''Mentha × villosa'' 'Alopecuroides'* Canada mint - ''Mentha canadensis''* Chocolate mint - ''Mentha × piperita'' 'Chocolate'* Corsican mint - ''Mentha requienii''* Cuba mint - ''Mentha x villosa''* Curly mint - ''Mentha spicata'' 'Curly'* Eau de Cologne mint - ''Mentha × piperita'' 'Citrata'* Field mint - ''Mentha arvensis''* Flea mint - ''Mentha requienii'' * Ginger mint - ''Mentha × gracilis''* Gray mint - ''Mentha longifolia''* Green mint - ''Mentha spicata'' * Grey mint - ''Mentha longifolia''* Japanese peppermint - ''Mentha arvensis'' var.", "''piperascens''* Japanese mint or Japanese medicine mint - ''Mentha spicata'' 'Abura'* Kiwi mint - ''Mentha cunninghamii''* Lemon mint - ''Mentha x piperita'' var.", "''citrata'' and ''Mentha X gentilis''* Marsh mint - ''Mentha aquatica''* Meadow mint - ''Mentha x gracilis'' and ''Mentha arvensis''* Mojito mint - ''Mentha Spicata'' 'Mojito'* Moroccan mint - ''Mentha spicata var.", "crispa'' 'Moroccan' and mints collected in Morocco* Pennyroyal - ''Mentha pulegium''* Peppermint - ''Mentha × piperita'' and sometimes ''Mentha requienii''* Pineapple mint - ''Mentha suaveolens'' 'Variegata' and ''Mentha suaveolens'' 'Pineapple' * Polemint - ''Mentha pulegium''* Red raripila mint - ''Mentha × wirtgeniana''* Round leaf mint - ''Mentha suaveolens''* Spearmint - ''Mentha spicata''* Strawberry mint - ''Mentha × piperita'' 'Strawberry'* Swiss mint - ''Mentha × piperita'' 'Swiss'* Tall mint - ''Mentha × wirtgeniana''* Tea mint - ''Mentha × verticillata''* Toothmint - ''Mentha × smithiana''* Water mint - ''Mentha aquatica''* Woolly mint - ''Mentha × rotundifolia''" ], [ "Cultivation", "''Mentha x gracilis'' and ''M.", "rotundifolia'': The steel ring is to control the spread of the plant.All mints thrive near pools of water, lakes, rivers, and cool moist spots in partial shade.", "In general, mints tolerate a wide range of conditions, and can also be grown in full sun.", "Mint grows all year round.They are fast-growing, extending their reach along surfaces through a network of runners.", "Due to their speedy growth, one plant of each desired mint, along with a little care, will provide more than enough mint for home use.", "Some mint species are more invasive than others.", "Even with the less invasive mints, care should be taken when mixing any mint with any other plants, lest the mint take over.", "To control mints in an open environment, they should be planted in deep, bottomless containers sunk in the ground, or planted above ground in tubs and barrels.Some mints can be propagated by seed, but growth from seed can be an unreliable method for raising mint for two reasons: mint seeds are highly variable — one might not end up with what one supposed was planted — and some mint varieties are sterile.", "It is more effective to take and plant cuttings from the runners of healthy mints.The most common and popular mints for commercial cultivation are peppermint (''Mentha × piperita''), native spearmint (''Mentha spicata''), Scotch spearmint (''Mentha x gracilis''), and cornmint (''Mentha arvensis''); also (more recently) apple mint (''Mentha suaveolens'').Mints are supposed to make good companion plants, repelling pesty insects and attracting beneficial ones.", "They are susceptible to whitefly and aphids.Harvesting of mint leaves can be done at any time.", "Fresh leaves should be used immediately or stored up to a few days in plastic bags in a refrigerator.", "Optionally, leaves can be frozen in ice cube trays.", "Dried mint leaves should be stored in an airtight container placed in a cool, dark, dry area." ], [ "Uses", "===Culinary===A jar of mint jelly, a traditional condiment served with lamb dishes''Limonana'' (mint lemonade) served in Damascus, SyriaThe leaf, fresh or dried, is the culinary source of mint.", "Fresh mint is usually preferred over dried mint when storage of the mint is not a problem.", "The leaves have a warm, fresh, aromatic, sweet flavor with a cool aftertaste, and are used in teas, beverages, jellies, syrups, candies, and ice creams.", "In Middle Eastern cuisine, mint is used in lamb dishes, while in British cuisine and American cuisine, mint sauce and mint jelly are used, respectively.", "Mint (pudina) is a staple in Indian cuisine, used for flavouring curries and other dishes.Mint is a necessary ingredient in Touareg tea, a popular tea in northern African and Arab countries.", "Alcoholic drinks sometimes feature mint for flavor or garnish, such as the mint julep and the mojito.", "''Crème de menthe'' is a mint-flavored liqueur used in drinks such as the grasshopper.Mint essential oil and menthol are extensively used as flavorings in breath fresheners, drinks, antiseptic mouth rinses, toothpaste, chewing gum, desserts, and candies, such as mint (candy) and mint chocolate.", "The substances that give the mints their characteristic aromas and flavors are menthol (the main aroma of peppermint and Japanese peppermint) and pulegone (in pennyroyal and Corsican mint).", "The compound primarily responsible for the aroma and flavor of spearmint is L-carvone.Mints are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species, including buff ermine moths.", "It is also eaten by beetles such as ''Chrysolina coerulans'' (blue mint beetle) and ''Mint leaf beetle''.===Traditional medicine and cosmetics===The ancient Greeks rubbed mint on their arms, believing it would make them stronger.", "Mint was originally used as a medicinal herb to treat stomach ache and chest pains.", "There are several uses in traditional medicine and preliminary research for possible use in treating irritable bowel syndrome.Menthol from mint essential oil (40–90%) is an ingredient of many cosmetics and some perfumes.", "Menthol and mint essential oil are also used in aromatherapy which may have clinical use to alleviate post-surgery nausea.====Allergic reaction====Although it is used in many consumer products, mint may cause allergic reactions in some people, inducing symptoms such as abdominal cramps, diarrhea, headaches, heartburn, tingling or numbing around the mouth, anaphylaxis or contact dermatitis.===Insecticides===Mint oil is also used as an environmentally friendly insecticide for its ability to kill some common pests such as wasps, hornets, ants, and cockroaches.===Room scent and aromatherapy===Known in Greek mythology as the herb of hospitality, one of mint's first known uses in Europe was as a room deodorizer.", "The herb was strewn across floors to cover the smell of the hard-packed soil.", "Stepping on the mint helped to spread its scent through the room.", "Today, it is more commonly used for aromatherapy through the use of essential oils." ], [ "Diseases" ], [ "Etymology of \"mint\"", "An example of mint leavesThe word \"mint\" descends from the Latin word ''mentha'' or ''menta'', which is rooted in the Greek words ''mintha'', ''minthē'' or  ''mintē'' meaning \"spearmint\".", "The plant was personified in Greek mythology as Minthe, a nymph who was beloved by Hades and was transformed into a mint plant by either Persephone or Demeter.", "This, in turn, ultimately derived from a proto-Indo-European root that is also the origin of the Sanskrit ''-mantha, mathana'' (''premna serratifolia'').References to \"mint leaves\", without a qualifier like \"peppermint\" or \"apple mint\", generally refer to spearmint leaves.In Spain and Central and South America, mint is known as ''menta''.", "In Lusophone countries, especially in Portugal, mint species are popularly known as ''hortelã''.", "In many Indo-Aryan languages, it is called ''pudīna'': , , borrowed from Persian ''pudna'' or ''puna'' meaning \"pennyroyal\".The taxonomic family Lamiaceae is known as the mint family.", "It includes many other aromatic herbs, including most of the more common cooking herbs, such as basil, rosemary, sage, oregano, and catnip.As an English colloquial term, any small mint-flavored confectionery item can be called a mint.In common usage, other plants with fragrant leaves may be called \"mint\", although they are not in the mint family:* Vietnamese mint, commonly used in Southeast Asian cuisine is ''Persicaria odorata'' in the family Polygonaceae, collectively known as smartweeds or pinkweeds.", "* Mexican mint marigold is ''Tagetes lucida'' in the sunflower family (Asteraceae)." ], [ "Fossil record", "†'''''Mentha pliocenica''''' fossil seeds have been excavated in Pliocene deposits of Dvorets on the right bank of the Dnieper river between the cities of Rechitsa and Loyew, in south-eastern Belarus.", "The fossil seeds are similar to the seeds of ''Mentha aquatica'' and ''Mentha arvensis''." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Flora Europaea: ''Mentha''* Botanical.com entry on Mint* * Preview of ''Mint: The Genus Mentha''" ] ]
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[ [ "Marjoram" ], [ "Introduction", "Growing tip with flower budsDried marjoram herb for flavoring'''Marjoram''' (; '''''Origanum majorana''''') is a cold-sensitive perennial herb or undershrub with sweet pine and citrus flavours.", "In some Middle Eastern countries, marjoram is synonymous with oregano, and there the names '''sweet marjoram''' and '''knotted marjoram''' are used to distinguish it from other plants of the genus ''Origanum''.", "It is also called '''pot marjoram''', although this name is also used for other cultivated species of ''Origanum''." ], [ "History", "Marjoram is indigenous to Cyprus, the Mediterranean, Turkey, Western Asia, the Arabian Peninsula, and the Levant, and was known to the ancient Greeks and Romans as a symbol of happiness.", "It may have spread to the British Isles during the Middle Ages.", "Marjoram was not widely used in the United States until after World War II.The name marjoram (Old French: ''majorane''; ) does not directly derive from the Latin word (major).Marjoram is related to Samhain, the Celtic pagan holiday that would eventually become Halloween.", "It has also been used in Sephardi Jewish tradition as a ritual medical practice.", "Ancient Greeks believed the plant was created by Aphrodite.", "In one myth, the royal perfumer of Cyprus, Amaracus, was transformed into marjoram.", "To the Romans the herb was known as the herb of happiness, and was believed to increase lifespan.", "Marjoram is mentioned in Pedanius Dioscorides’ De Materia Medica, and was used by Hippocrates as an antiseptic.Today, marjoram is used largely for consumption.", "Its popularity may be due to the rise of low-fat and low-salt diets, which require more seasoning." ], [ "Description", "Leaves are smooth, simple, petiolated, ovate to oblong-ovate, long, wide, with obtuse apex, entire margin, symmetrical but tapering base, and reticulate venation.", "The texture of the leaf is extremely smooth due to the presence of numerous hairs." ], [ "Cultivation", "Marjoram (''Origanum majorana'') essential oilConsidered a tender perennial (USDA Zones 7–9), marjoram can sometimes prove hardy even in zone 5.Under proper conditions it spreads prolifically, and so is usually grown in pots to prevent it from taking over a garden.Marjoram is cultivated for its aromatic leaves, either green or dry, for culinary purposes; the tops are cut as the plants begin to flower and are dried slowly in the shade.", "It is often used in herb combinations such as ''herbes de Provence'' and ''za'atar''.", "The flowering leaves and tops of marjoram are steam-distilled to produce an essential oil that is yellowish (darkening to brown as it ages).", "It has many chemical components, some of which are borneol, camphor, and pinene." ], [ "Related species", "Oregano (''Origanum vulgare''), sometimes listed with marjoram as ''O.", "majorana'', is also called wild marjoram.", "It is a perennial common in southern Europe and north to Sweden in dry copses and on hedge-banks, with many stout stems high, bearing short-stalked, somewhat ovate leaves and clusters of purple flowers.", "It has a stronger flavor than marjoram.Pot marjoram or Cretan oregano (''O.", "onites'') has similar uses to marjoram.Hardy marjoram or French/Italian/Sicilian marjoram (''O.", "× majoricum''), a cross of marjoram with oregano, is much more resistant to cold, but is slightly less sweet.''O.", "× hybridum'' is known as showy marjoram or showy oregano.<!---" ], [ "Toxicology", "--->" ], [ "Uses", "Marjoram is used for seasoning soups, stews, salad dressings, sauces, and herbal teas.Marjoram has long been used as a medicinal herb.", "Marjoram or marjoram oil has been used to treat cancer, colds, coughs, cramps, depression, as a diuretic, ear infections, gastrointestinal problems, headaches, and paralysis, as well as arthritis, chest congestion, and muscle aches.", "It has also been used as an aphrodisiac, mouthwash, tea, and in poultices, tinctures, and infusions.", "Though not all of its historic uses are scientifically backed, the plant has verifiable medical use.", "For example, it contains the phenol carvacrol, which is antibacterial, antifungal and antimicrobial.", "Ethanol extract is cytotoxic against fibrosarcoma cell lines, ethyl acetate extract has antiproliferative properties against C6 and HeLa cells, as have hesperetin and hydroquinone, which can be isolated from marjoram extract.", "Cardioprotective, hepatoprotective, antiulcerogenetic, anticholinesterase, anti-PCOS, and anti-inflammatory effects were also found in dried marjoram, marjoram tea, or in compounds extracted from marjoram.", "Marjoram is generally not toxic, but should not be used by pregnant or lactating women.", "However, it is always important to be cautious and consult a doctor when using medical herbs." ], [ "See also", "*Origanum vulgare*Origanum onites" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* ''Origanum majorana'' List of Chemicals in Dr. Duke's Databases* ''Origanum majorana'' in the Plants For A Future database*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Medicine" ], [ "Introduction", "Flag of World Health Organization featuring Rod of Asclepius, a common symbol for medicine and health care'''Medicine''' is the science and practice of caring for a patient, managing the diagnosis, prognosis, prevention, treatment, palliation of their injury or disease, and promoting their health.", "Medicine encompasses a variety of health care practices evolved to maintain and restore health by the prevention and treatment of illness.", "Contemporary medicine applies biomedical sciences, biomedical research, genetics, and medical technology to diagnose, treat, and prevent injury and disease, typically through pharmaceuticals or surgery, but also through therapies as diverse as psychotherapy, external splints and traction, medical devices, biologics, and ionizing radiation, amongst others.Medicine has been practiced since prehistoric times, and for most of this time it was an art (an area of creativity and skill), frequently having connections to the religious and philosophical beliefs of local culture.", "For example, a medicine man would apply herbs and say prayers for healing, or an ancient philosopher and physician would apply bloodletting according to the theories of humorism.", "In recent centuries, since the advent of modern science, most medicine has become a combination of art and science (both basic and applied, under the umbrella of '''medical science''').", "For example, while stitching technique for sutures is an art learned through practice, knowledge of what happens at the cellular and molecular level in the tissues being stitched arises through science.Prescientific forms of medicine, now known as traditional medicine or ''folk medicine'', remain commonly used in the absence of scientific medicine and are thus called alternative medicine.", "Alternative treatments outside of scientific medicine with ethical, safety and efficacy concerns are termed quackery." ], [ "Etymology", "Medicine (, ) is the science and practice of the diagnosis, prognosis, treatment, and prevention of disease.", "The word \"medicine\" is derived from Latin ''medicus'', meaning \"a physician\"." ], [ "Clinical practice", "''The Doctor'' by Sir Luke Fildes (1891)Elizabeth Blackwell, the first female physician in the United States graduated from SUNY Upstate (1847)Medical availability and clinical practice vary across the world due to regional differences in culture and technology.", "Modern scientific medicine is highly developed in the Western world, while in developing countries such as parts of Africa or Asia, the population may rely more heavily on traditional medicine with limited evidence and efficacy and no required formal training for practitioners.In the developed world, evidence-based medicine is not universally used in clinical practice; for example, a 2007 survey of literature reviews found that about 49% of the interventions lacked sufficient evidence to support either benefit or harm.In modern clinical practice, physicians and physician assistants personally assess patients to diagnose, prognose, treat, and prevent disease using clinical judgment.", "The doctor-patient relationship typically begins with an interaction with an examination of the patient's medical history and medical record, followed by a medical interview and a physical examination.", "Basic diagnostic medical devices (e.g., stethoscope, tongue depressor) are typically used.", "After examining for signs and interviewing for symptoms, the doctor may order medical tests (e.g., blood tests), take a biopsy, or prescribe pharmaceutical drugs or other therapies.", "Differential diagnosis methods help to rule out conditions based on the information provided.", "During the encounter, properly informing the patient of all relevant facts is an important part of the relationship and the development of trust.", "The medical encounter is then documented in the medical record, which is a legal document in many jurisdictions.", "Follow-ups may be shorter but follow the same general procedure, and specialists follow a similar process.", "The diagnosis and treatment may take only a few minutes or a few weeks, depending on the complexity of the issue.The components of the medical interview and encounter are:* Chief complaint (CC): the reason for the current medical visit.", "These are the ''symptoms''.", "They are in the patient's own words and are recorded along with the duration of each one.", "Also called ''chief concern'' or ''presenting complaint''.", "* Current activity: occupation, hobbies, what the patient actually does.", "* Family history (FH): listing of diseases in the family that may impact the patient.", "A family tree is sometimes used.", "* History of present illness (HPI): the chronological order of events of symptoms and further clarification of each symptom.", "Distinguishable from history of previous illness, often called past medical history (PMH).", "Medical history comprises HPI and PMH.", "* Medications (Rx): what drugs the patient takes including prescribed, over-the-counter, and home remedies, as well as alternative and herbal medicines or remedies.", "Allergies are also recorded.", "* Past medical history (PMH/PMHx): concurrent medical problems, past hospitalizations and operations, injuries, past infectious diseases or vaccinations, history of known allergies.", "* Review of systems (ROS) or ''systems inquiry'': a set of additional questions to ask, which may be missed on HPI: a general enquiry (have you noticed any weight loss, change in sleep quality, fevers, lumps and bumps?", "etc.", "), followed by questions on the body's main organ systems (heart, lungs, digestive tract, urinary tract, etc.).", "* Social history (SH): birthplace, residences, marital history, social and economic status, habits (including diet, medications, tobacco, alcohol).The physical examination is the examination of the patient for medical signs of disease that are objective and observable, in contrast to symptoms that are volunteered by the patient and are not necessarily objectively observable.", "The healthcare provider uses sight, hearing, touch, and sometimes smell (e.g., in infection, uremia, diabetic ketoacidosis).", "Four actions are the basis of physical examination: inspection, palpation (feel), percussion (tap to determine resonance characteristics), and auscultation (listen), generally in that order, although auscultation occurs prior to percussion and palpation for abdominal assessments.The clinical examination involves the study of:* Abdomen and rectum* Cardiovascular (heart and blood vessels)* General appearance of the patient and specific indicators of disease (nutritional status, presence of jaundice, pallor or clubbing)* Genitalia (and pregnancy if the patient is or could be pregnant)* Head, eye, ear, nose, and throat (HEENT)* Musculoskeletal (including spine and extremities)* Neurological (consciousness, awareness, brain, vision, cranial nerves, spinal cord and peripheral nerves)* Psychiatric (orientation, mental state, mood, evidence of abnormal perception or thought).", "* Respiratory (large airways and lungs)* Skin* Vital signs including height, weight, body temperature, blood pressure, pulse, respiration rate, and hemoglobin oxygen saturationIt is to likely focus on areas of interest highlighted in the medical history and may not include everything listed above.The treatment plan may include ordering additional medical laboratory tests and medical imaging studies, starting therapy, referral to a specialist, or watchful observation.", "A follow-up may be advised.", "Depending upon the health insurance plan and the managed care system, various forms of \"utilization review\", such as prior authorization of tests, may place barriers on accessing expensive services.The medical decision-making (MDM) process includes the analysis and synthesis of all the above data to come up with a list of possible diagnoses (the differential diagnoses), along with an idea of what needs to be done to obtain a definitive diagnosis that would explain the patient's problem.On subsequent visits, the process may be repeated in an abbreviated manner to obtain any new history, symptoms, physical findings, lab or imaging results, or specialist consultations." ], [ "Institutions", "Santa Maria della Scala, fresco by Domenico di Bartolo, 1441–1442Contemporary medicine is, in general, conducted within health care systems.", "Legal, credentialing, and financing frameworks are established by individual governments, augmented on occasion by international organizations, such as churches.", "The characteristics of any given health care system have a significant impact on the way medical care is provided.From ancient times, Christian emphasis on practical charity gave rise to the development of systematic nursing and hospitals, and the Catholic Church today remains the largest non-government provider of medical services in the world.", "Advanced industrial countries (with the exception of the United States) and many developing countries provide medical services through a system of universal health care that aims to guarantee care for all through a single-payer health care system or compulsory private or cooperative health insurance.", "This is intended to ensure that the entire population has access to medical care on the basis of need rather than ability to pay.", "Delivery may be via private medical practices, state-owned hospitals and clinics, or charities, most commonly a combination of all three.Most tribal societies provide no guarantee of healthcare for the population as a whole.", "In such societies, healthcare is available to those who can afford to pay for it, have self-insured it (either directly or as part of an employment contract), or may be covered by care financed directly by the government or tribe.Modern drug ampoulesTransparency of information is another factor defining a delivery system.", "Access to information on conditions, treatments, quality, and pricing greatly affects the choice of patients/consumers and, therefore, the incentives of medical professionals.", "While the US healthcare system has come under fire for its lack of openness, new legislation may encourage greater openness.", "There is a perceived tension between the need for transparency on the one hand and such issues as patient confidentiality and the possible exploitation of information for commercial gain on the other.The health professionals who provide care in medicine comprise multiple professions, such as medics, nurses, physiotherapists, and psychologists.", "These professions will have their own ethical standards, professional education, and bodies.", "The medical profession has been conceptualized from a sociological perspective.=== Delivery ===Provision of medical care is classified into primary, secondary, and tertiary care categories.Nurses in Kokopo, East New Britain, Papua New Guinea|uprightPrimary care medical services are provided by physicians, physician assistants, nurse practitioners, or other health professionals who have first contact with a patient seeking medical treatment or care.", "These occur in physician offices, clinics, nursing homes, schools, home visits, and other places close to patients.", "About 90% of medical visits can be treated by the primary care provider.", "These include treatment of acute and chronic illnesses, preventive care and health education for all ages and both sexes.Secondary care medical services are provided by medical specialists in their offices or clinics or at local community hospitals for a patient referred by a primary care provider who first diagnosed or treated the patient.", "Referrals are made for those patients who required the expertise or procedures performed by specialists.", "These include both ambulatory care and inpatient services, emergency departments, intensive care medicine, surgery services, physical therapy, labor and delivery, endoscopy units, diagnostic laboratory and medical imaging services, hospice centers, etc.", "Some primary care providers may also take care of hospitalized patients and deliver babies in a secondary care setting.Tertiary care medical services are provided by specialist hospitals or regional centers equipped with diagnostic and treatment facilities not generally available at local hospitals.", "These include trauma centers, burn treatment centers, advanced neonatology unit services, organ transplants, high-risk pregnancy, radiation oncology, etc.Modern medical care also depends on information – still delivered in many health care settings on paper records, but increasingly nowadays by electronic means.In low-income countries, modern healthcare is often too expensive for the average person.", "International healthcare policy researchers have advocated that \"user fees\" be removed in these areas to ensure access, although even after removal, significant costs and barriers remain.Separation of prescribing and dispensing is a practice in medicine and pharmacy in which the physician who provides a medical prescription is independent from the pharmacist who provides the prescription drug.", "In the Western world there are centuries of tradition for separating pharmacists from physicians.", "In Asian countries, it is traditional for physicians to also provide drugs." ], [ "Branches", "Drawing by Marguerite Martyn (1918) of a visiting nurse in St. Louis, Missouri, with medicine and babiesWorking together as an interdisciplinary team, many highly trained health professionals besides medical practitioners are involved in the delivery of modern health care.", "Examples include: nurses, emergency medical technicians and paramedics, laboratory scientists, pharmacists, podiatrists, physiotherapists, respiratory therapists, speech therapists, occupational therapists, radiographers, dietitians, and bioengineers, medical physicists, surgeons, surgeon's assistant, surgical technologist.The scope and sciences underpinning human medicine overlap many other fields.", "A patient admitted to the hospital is usually under the care of a specific team based on their main presenting problem, e.g., the cardiology team, who then may interact with other specialties, e.g., surgical, radiology, to help diagnose or treat the main problem or any subsequent complications/developments.Physicians have many specializations and subspecializations into certain branches of medicine, which are listed below.", "There are variations from country to country regarding which specialties certain subspecialties are in.The main branches of medicine are:* Basic sciences of medicine; this is what every physician is educated in, and some return to in biomedical research.", "* Interdisciplinary fields, where different medical specialties are mixed to function in certain occasions.", "* Medical specialties=== Basic sciences ===* ''Anatomy'' is the study of the physical structure of organisms.", "In contrast to ''macroscopic'' or ''gross anatomy'', ''cytology'' and ''histology'' are concerned with microscopic structures.", "* ''Biochemistry'' is the study of the chemistry taking place in living organisms, especially the structure and function of their chemical components.", "* ''Biomechanics'' is the study of the structure and function of biological systems by means of the methods of Mechanics.", "* ''Biophysics'' is an interdisciplinary science that uses the methods of physics and physical chemistry to study biological systems.", "* ''Biostatistics'' is the application of statistics to biological fields in the broadest sense.", "A knowledge of biostatistics is essential in the planning, evaluation, and interpretation of medical research.", "It is also fundamental to epidemiology and evidence-based medicine.", "* ''Cytology'' is the microscopic study of individual cells.", "''Louis Pasteur'', as portrayed in his laboratory, 1885 by Albert EdelfeltStatue of Robert Koch in Berlin* ''Embryology'' is the study of the early development of organisms.", "* ''Endocrinology'' is the study of hormones and their effect throughout the body of animals.", "* ''Epidemiology'' is the study of the demographics of disease processes, and includes, but is not limited to, the study of epidemics.", "* ''Genetics'' is the study of genes, and their role in biological inheritance.", "* ''Gynecology'' is the study of female reproductive system.", "* ''Histology'' is the study of the structures of biological tissues by light microscopy, electron microscopy and immunohistochemistry.", "* ''Immunology'' is the study of the immune system, which includes the innate and adaptive immune system in humans, for example.", "* ''Lifestyle medicine'' is the study of the chronic conditions, and how to prevent, treat and reverse them.", "* ''Medical physics'' is the study of the applications of physics principles in medicine.", "* ''Microbiology'' is the study of microorganisms, including protozoa, bacteria, fungi, and viruses.", "* ''Molecular biology'' is the study of molecular underpinnings of the process of replication, transcription and translation of the genetic material.", "* ''Neuroscience'' includes those disciplines of science that are related to the study of the nervous system.", "A main focus of neuroscience is the biology and physiology of the human brain and spinal cord.", "Some related clinical specialties include neurology, neurosurgery and psychiatry.", "* ''Nutrition science'' (theoretical focus) and ''dietetics'' (practical focus) is the study of the relationship of food and drink to health and disease, especially in determining an optimal diet.", "Medical nutrition therapy is done by dietitians and is prescribed for diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, weight and eating disorders, allergies, malnutrition, and neoplastic diseases.", "* ''Pathology as a science'' is the study of diseasethe causes, course, progression and resolution thereof.", "* ''Pharmacology'' is the study of drugs and their actions.", "* ''Photobiology'' is the study of the interactions between non-ionizing radiation and living organisms.", "* ''Physiology'' is the study of the normal functioning of the body and the underlying regulatory mechanisms.", "* ''Radiobiology'' is the study of the interactions between ionizing radiation and living organisms.", "* ''Toxicology'' is the study of hazardous effects of drugs and poisons.=== Specialties ===In the broadest meaning of \"medicine\", there are many different specialties.", "In the UK, most specialities have their own body or college, which has its own entrance examination.", "These are collectively known as the Royal Colleges, although not all currently use the term \"Royal\".", "The development of a speciality is often driven by new technology (such as the development of effective anaesthetics) or ways of working (such as emergency departments); the new specialty leads to the formation of a unifying body of doctors and the prestige of administering their own examination.Within medical circles, specialities usually fit into one of two broad categories: \"Medicine\" and \"Surgery\".", "\"Medicine\" refers to the practice of non-operative medicine, and most of its subspecialties require preliminary training in Internal Medicine.", "In the UK, this was traditionally evidenced by passing the examination for the Membership of the Royal College of Physicians (MRCP) or the equivalent college in Scotland or Ireland.", "\"Surgery\" refers to the practice of operative medicine, and most subspecialties in this area require preliminary training in General Surgery, which in the UK leads to membership of the Royal College of Surgeons of England (MRCS).", "At present, some specialties of medicine do not fit easily into either of these categories, such as radiology, pathology, or anesthesia.", "Most of these have branched from one or other of the two camps above; for example anaesthesia developed first as a faculty of the Royal College of Surgeons (for which MRCS/FRCS would have been required) before becoming the Royal College of Anaesthetists and membership of the college is attained by sitting for the examination of the Fellowship of the Royal College of Anesthetists (FRCA).==== Surgical specialty ====Surgeons in an operating room''Surgery'' is an ancient medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental techniques on a patient to investigate or treat a pathological condition such as disease or injury, to help improve bodily function or appearance or to repair unwanted ruptured areas (for example, a perforated ear drum).", "Surgeons must also manage pre-operative, post-operative, and potential surgical candidates on the hospital wards.", "In some centers, anesthesiology is part of the division of surgery (for historical and logistical reasons), although it is not a surgical discipline.", "Other medical specialties may employ surgical procedures, such as ophthalmology and dermatology, but are not considered surgical sub-specialties per se.Surgical training in the U.S. requires a minimum of five years of residency after medical school.", "Sub-specialties of surgery often require seven or more years.", "In addition, fellowships can last an additional one to three years.", "Because post-residency fellowships can be competitive, many trainees devote two additional years to research.", "Thus in some cases surgical training will not finish until more than a decade after medical school.", "Furthermore, surgical training can be very difficult and time-consuming.Surgical subspecialties include those a physician may specialize in after undergoing general surgery residency training as well as several surgical fields with separate residency training.", "Surgical subspecialties that one may pursue following general surgery residency training: ''''* Bariatric surgery* Cardiovascular surgery – may also be pursued through a separate cardiovascular surgery residency track* Colorectal surgery* Endocrine surgery* General surgery* Hand surgery* Hepatico-Pancreatico-Biliary Surgery* Minimally invasive surgery* Pediatric surgery* Plastic surgery – may also be pursued through a separate plastic surgery residency track* Surgical critical care* Surgical oncology* Transplant surgery* Trauma surgery* Vascular surgery – may also be pursued through a separate vascular surgery residency trackOther surgical specialties within medicine with their own individual residency training:* Dermatology* Neurosurgery* Ophthalmology* Oral and maxillofacial surgery* Orthopedic surgery* Otorhinolaryngology* Podiatric surgery – do not undergo medical school training, but rather separate training in podiatry school* Urology==== Internal medicine specialty ===='''Internal medicine''' is the medical specialty dealing with the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of adult diseases.", "According to some sources, an emphasis on internal structures is implied.", "In North America, specialists in internal medicine are commonly called \"internists\".", "Elsewhere, especially in Commonwealth nations, such specialists are often called physicians.", "These terms, ''internist'' or ''physician'' (in the narrow sense, common outside North America), generally exclude practitioners of gynecology and obstetrics, pathology, psychiatry, and especially surgery and its subspecialities.Because their patients are often seriously ill or require complex investigations, internists do much of their work in hospitals.", "Formerly, many internists were not subspecialized; such ''general physicians'' would see any complex nonsurgical problem; this style of practice has become much less common.", "In modern urban practice, most internists are subspecialists: that is, they generally limit their medical practice to problems of one organ system or to one particular area of medical knowledge.", "For example, gastroenterologists and nephrologists specialize respectively in diseases of the gut and the kidneys.In the Commonwealth of Nations and some other countries, specialist pediatricians and geriatricians are also described as ''specialist physicians'' (or internists) who have subspecialized by age of patient rather than by organ system.", "Elsewhere, especially in North America, general pediatrics is often a form of primary care.There are many subspecialities (or subdisciplines) of internal medicine::*''Angiology/Vascular Medicine'':*''Bariatrics'':*''Cardiology'':*''Critical care medicine'':*''Endocrinology'':*''Gastroenterology'':*''Geriatrics'':*''Hematology'':*''Hepatology'':*''Infectious disease'':*''Nephrology'':*''Neurology'':*''Oncology'':*''Pediatrics'':*''Pulmonology/Pneumology/Respirology/chest medicine'':*''Rheumatology'':*''Sports Medicine''Training in internal medicine (as opposed to surgical training), varies considerably across the world: see the articles on ''medical education'' for more details.", "In North America, it requires at least three years of residency training after medical school, which can then be followed by a one- to three-year fellowship in the subspecialties listed above.", "In general, resident work hours in medicine are less than those in surgery, averaging about 60 hours per week in the US.", "This difference does not apply in the UK where all doctors are now required by law to work less than 48 hours per week on average.==== Diagnostic specialties ====* ''Clinical laboratory sciences'' are the clinical diagnostic services that apply laboratory techniques to diagnosis and management of patients.", "In the United States, these services are supervised by a pathologist.", "The personnel that work in these medical laboratory departments are technically trained staff who do not hold medical degrees, but who usually hold an undergraduate medical technology degree, who actually perform the tests, assays, and procedures needed for providing the specific services.", "Subspecialties include transfusion medicine, cellular pathology, clinical chemistry, hematology, clinical microbiology and clinical immunology.", "* ''Clinical neurophysiology'' is concerned with testing the physiology or function of the central and peripheral aspects of the nervous system.", "These kinds of tests can be divided into recordings of: (1) spontaneous or continuously running electrical activity, or (2) stimulus evoked responses.", "Subspecialties include electroencephalography, electromyography, evoked potential, nerve conduction study and polysomnography.", "Sometimes these tests are performed by techs without a medical degree, but the interpretation of these tests is done by a medical professional.", "* ''Diagnostic radiology'' is concerned with imaging of the body, e.g.", "by x-rays, x-ray computed tomography, ultrasonography, and nuclear magnetic resonance tomography.", "Interventional radiologists can access areas in the body under imaging for an intervention or diagnostic sampling.", "* ''Nuclear medicine'' is concerned with studying human organ systems by administering radiolabelled substances (radiopharmaceuticals) to the body, which can then be imaged outside the body by a gamma camera or a PET scanner.", "Each radiopharmaceutical consists of two parts: a tracer that is specific for the function under study (e.g., neurotransmitter pathway, metabolic pathway, blood flow, or other), and a radionuclide (usually either a gamma-emitter or a positron emitter).", "There is a degree of overlap between nuclear medicine and radiology, as evidenced by the emergence of combined devices such as the PET/CT scanner.", "* ''Pathology as a medical specialty'' is the branch of medicine that deals with the study of diseases and the morphologic, physiologic changes produced by them.", "As a diagnostic specialty, pathology can be considered the basis of modern scientific medical knowledge and plays a large role in evidence-based medicine.", "Many modern molecular tests such as flow cytometry, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), immunohistochemistry, cytogenetics, gene rearrangements studies and fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) fall within the territory of pathology.==== Other major specialties ====The following are some major medical specialties that do not directly fit into any of the above-mentioned groups:* ''Anesthesiology'' (also known as ''anaesthetics''): concerned with the perioperative management of the surgical patient.", "The anesthesiologist's role during surgery is to prevent derangement in the vital organs' (i.e.", "brain, heart, kidneys) functions and postoperative pain.", "Outside of the operating room, the anesthesiology physician also serves the same function in the labor and delivery ward, and some are specialized in critical medicine.", "* ''Emergency medicine'' is concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of acute or life-threatening conditions, including trauma, surgical, medical, pediatric, and psychiatric emergencies.", "* ''Family medicine'', ''family practice'', ''general practice'' or ''primary care'' is, in many countries, the first port-of-call for patients with non-emergency medical problems.", "Family physicians often provide services across a broad range of settings including office based practices, emergency department coverage, inpatient care, and nursing home care.Gynecologist Michel Akotionga of Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso* ''Medical genetics'' is concerned with the diagnosis and management of hereditary disorders.", "* ''Neurology'' is concerned with diseases of the nervous system.", "In the UK, neurology is a subspecialty of general medicine.", "* ''Obstetrics and gynecology'' (often abbreviated as ''OB/GYN'' (American English) or ''Obs & Gynae'' (British English)) are concerned respectively with childbirth and the female reproductive and associated organs.", "Reproductive medicine and fertility medicine are generally practiced by gynecological specialists.", "* ''Pediatrics'' (AE) or ''paediatrics'' (BE) is devoted to the care of infants, children, and adolescents.", "Like internal medicine, there are many pediatric subspecialties for specific age ranges, organ systems, disease classes, and sites of care delivery.", "* ''Pharmaceutical medicine'' is the medical scientific discipline concerned with the discovery, development, evaluation, registration, monitoring and medical aspects of marketing of medicines for the benefit of patients and public health.", "* ''Physical medicine and rehabilitation'' (or ''physiatry'') is concerned with functional improvement after injury, illness, or congenital disorders.", "* ''Podiatric medicine'' is the study of, diagnosis, and medical & surgical treatment of disorders of the foot, ankle, lower limb, hip and lower back.", "* ''Preventive medicine'' is the branch of medicine concerned with preventing disease.", "** ''Community health'' or ''public health'' is an aspect of health services concerned with threats to the overall health of a community based on population health analysis.", "* ''Psychiatry'' is the branch of medicine concerned with the bio-psycho-social study of the etiology, diagnosis, treatment and prevention of cognitive, perceptual, emotional and behavioral disorders.", "Related fields include psychotherapy and clinical psychology.===Interdisciplinary fields=== Some interdisciplinary sub-specialties of medicine include:* ''Addiction medicine'' deals with the treatment of addiction.", "* ''Aerospace medicine'' deals with medical problems related to flying and space travel.", "* ''Biomedical Engineering'' is a field dealing with the application of engineering principles to medical practice.", "* ''Clinical pharmacology'' is concerned with how systems of therapeutics interact with patients.", "* ''Conservation medicine'' studies the relationship between human and non-human animal health, and environmental conditions.", "Also known as ecological medicine, environmental medicine, or medical geology.", "* ''Disaster medicine'' deals with medical aspects of emergency preparedness, disaster mitigation and management.", "* ''Diving medicine'' (or hyperbaric medicine) is the prevention and treatment of diving-related problems.", "* ''Evolutionary medicine'' is a perspective on medicine derived through applying evolutionary theory.", "* ''Forensic medicine'' deals with medical questions in legal context, such as determination of the time and cause of death, type of weapon used to inflict trauma, reconstruction of the facial features using remains of deceased (skull) thus aiding identification.", "* ''Gender-based medicine'' studies the biological and physiological differences between the human sexes and how that affects differences in disease.", "* ''Health informatics'' is a relatively recent field that deal with the application of computers and information technology to medicine.", "* ''Hospice and Palliative Medicine'' is a relatively modern branch of clinical medicine that deals with pain and symptom relief and emotional support in patients with terminal illnesses including cancer and heart failure.", "* ''Hospital medicine'' is the general medical care of hospitalized patients.", "Physicians whose primary professional focus is hospital medicine are called hospitalists in the United States and Canada.", "The term Most Responsible Physician (MRP) or attending physician is also used interchangeably to describe this role.", "* ''Laser medicine'' involves the use of lasers in the diagnostics or treatment of various conditions.", "* Many other health science fields, e.g.", "dietetics* ''Medical ethics'' deals with ethical and moral principles that apply values and judgments to the practice of medicine.", "* ''Medical humanities'' includes the humanities (literature, philosophy, ethics, history and religion), social science (anthropology, cultural studies, psychology, sociology), and the arts (literature, theater, film, and visual arts) and their application to medical education and practice.", "* ''Nosokinetics'' is the science/subject of measuring and modelling the process of care in health and social care systems.", "* ''Nosology'' is the classification of diseases for various purposes.", "* ''Occupational medicine'' is the provision of health advice to organizations and individuals to ensure that the highest standards of health and safety at work can be achieved and maintained.", "* ''Pain management'' (also called ''pain medicine'', or ''algiatry'') is the medical discipline concerned with the relief of pain.", "* ''Pharmacogenomics'' is a form of ''individualized medicine''.", "* ''Podiatric medicine'' is the study of, diagnosis, and medical treatment of disorders of the foot, ankle, lower limb, hip and lower back.", "* ''Sexual medicine'' is concerned with diagnosing, assessing and treating all disorders related to sexuality.", "* ''Sports medicine'' deals with the treatment and prevention and rehabilitation of sports/exercise injuries such as muscle spasms, muscle tears, injuries to ligaments (ligament tears or ruptures) and their repair in athletes, amateur and professional.", "* ''Therapeutics'' is the field, more commonly referenced in earlier periods of history, of the various remedies that can be used to treat disease and promote health.", "* ''Travel medicine'' or ''emporiatrics'' deals with health problems of international travelers or travelers across highly different environments.", "* ''Tropical medicine'' deals with the prevention and treatment of tropical diseases.", "It is studied separately in temperate climates where those diseases are quite unfamiliar to medical practitioners and their local clinical needs.", "* ''Urgent care'' focuses on delivery of unscheduled, walk-in care outside of the hospital emergency department for injuries and illnesses that are not severe enough to require care in an emergency department.", "In some jurisdictions this function is combined with the emergency department.", "* Veterinary medicine; veterinarians apply similar techniques as physicians to the care of non-human animals.", "* ''Wilderness medicine'' entails the practice of medicine in the wild, where conventional medical facilities may not be available." ], [ "Education and legal controls", "Medical students learning about stitchesMedical education and training varies around the world.", "It typically involves entry level education at a university medical school, followed by a period of supervised practice or internship, or residency.", "This can be followed by postgraduate vocational training.", "A variety of teaching methods have been employed in medical education, still itself a focus of active research.", "In Canada and the United States of America, a Doctor of Medicine degree, often abbreviated M.D., or a Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine degree, often abbreviated as D.O.", "and unique to the United States, must be completed in and delivered from a recognized university.Since knowledge, techniques, and medical technology continue to evolve at a rapid rate, many regulatory authorities require continuing medical education.", "Medical practitioners upgrade their knowledge in various ways, including medical journals, seminars, conferences, and online programs.", "A database of objectives covering medical knowledge, as suggested by national societies across the United States, can be searched at http://data.medobjectives.marian.edu/ .Headquarters of the Organización Médica Colegial de España, which regulates the medical profession in SpainIn most countries, it is a legal requirement for a medical doctor to be licensed or registered.", "In general, this entails a medical degree from a university and accreditation by a medical board or an equivalent national organization, which may ask the applicant to pass exams.", "This restricts the considerable legal authority of the medical profession to physicians that are trained and qualified by national standards.", "It is also intended as an assurance to patients and as a safeguard against charlatans that practice inadequate medicine for personal gain.", "While the laws generally require medical doctors to be trained in \"evidence based\", Western, or Hippocratic Medicine, they are not intended to discourage different paradigms of health.In the European Union, the profession of doctor of medicine is regulated.", "A profession is said to be regulated when access and exercise is subject to the possession of a specific professional qualification.The regulated professions database contains a list of regulated professions for doctor of medicine in the EU member states, EEA countries and Switzerland.", "This list is covered by the Directive 2005/36/EC.Doctors who are negligent or intentionally harmful in their care of patients can face charges of medical malpractice and be subject to civil, criminal, or professional sanctions." ], [ "Medical ethics", "Byzantine manuscript of the Hippocratic OathMedical ethics is a system of moral principles that apply values and judgments to the practice of medicine.", "As a scholarly discipline, medical ethics encompasses its practical application in clinical settings as well as work on its history, philosophy, theology, and sociology.", "Six of the values that commonly apply to medical ethics discussions are:* autonomy – the patient has the right to refuse or choose their treatment.", "(.", ")* beneficence – a practitioner should act in the best interest of the patient.", "(.", ")* justice – concerns the distribution of scarce health resources, and the decision of who gets what treatment (fairness and equality).", "* non-maleficence – \"first, do no harm\" ().", "* respect for persons – the patient (and the person treating the patient) have the right to be treated with dignity.", "* truthfulness and honesty – the concept of informed consent has increased in importance since the historical events of the Doctors' Trial of the Nuremberg trials, Tuskegee syphilis experiment, and others.Values such as these do not give answers as to how to handle a particular situation, but provide a useful framework for understanding conflicts.", "When moral values are in conflict, the result may be an ethical dilemma or crisis.", "Sometimes, no good solution to a dilemma in medical ethics exists, and occasionally, the values of the medical community (i.e., the hospital and its staff) conflict with the values of the individual patient, family, or larger non-medical community.", "Conflicts can also arise between health care providers, or among family members.", "For example, some argue that the principles of autonomy and beneficence clash when patients refuse blood transfusions, considering them life-saving; and truth-telling was not emphasized to a large extent before the HIV era." ], [ "History", "Statuette of ancient Egyptian physician Imhotep, the first physician from antiquity known by name=== Ancient world ===Prehistoric medicine incorporated plants (herbalism), animal parts, and minerals.", "In many cases these materials were used ritually as magical substances by priests, shamans, or medicine men.", "Well-known spiritual systems include animism (the notion of inanimate objects having spirits), spiritualism (an appeal to gods or communion with ancestor spirits); shamanism (the vesting of an individual with mystic powers); and divination (magically obtaining the truth).", "The field of medical anthropology examines the ways in which culture and society are organized around or impacted by issues of health, health care and related issues.The earliest known medical texts in the world were found in the ancient Syrian city of Ebla and date back to 2500 BCE.", "Other early records on medicine have been discovered from ancient Egyptian medicine, Babylonian Medicine, Ayurvedic medicine (in the Indian subcontinent), classical Chinese medicine (predecessor to the modern traditional Chinese medicine), and ancient Greek medicine and Roman medicine.In Egypt, Imhotep (3rd millennium BCE) is the first physician in history known by name.", "The oldest Egyptian medical text is the ''Kahun Gynaecological Papyrus'' from around 2000 BCE, which describes gynaecological diseases.", "The ''Edwin Smith Papyrus'' dating back to 1600 BCE is an early work on surgery, while the ''Ebers Papyrus'' dating back to 1500 BCE is akin to a textbook on medicine.In China, archaeological evidence of medicine in Chinese dates back to the Bronze Age Shang Dynasty, based on seeds for herbalism and tools presumed to have been used for surgery.", "The ''Huangdi Neijing'', the progenitor of Chinese medicine, is a medical text written beginning in the 2nd century BCE and compiled in the 3rd century.In India, the surgeon Sushruta described numerous surgical operations, including the earliest forms of plastic surgery.", "Earliest records of dedicated hospitals come from Mihintale in Sri Lanka where evidence of dedicated medicinal treatment facilities for patients are found.Mosaic on the floor of the Asclepieion of Kos, depicting Hippocrates, with Asklepius in the middle (2nd–3rd century)In Greece, the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates, the \"father of modern medicine\", laid the foundation for a rational approach to medicine.", "Hippocrates introduced the Hippocratic Oath for physicians, which is still relevant and in use today, and was the first to categorize illnesses as acute, chronic, endemic and epidemic, and use terms such as, \"exacerbation, relapse, resolution, crisis, paroxysm, peak, and convalescence\".", "The Greek physician Galen was also one of the greatest surgeons of the ancient world and performed many audacious operations, including brain and eye surgeries.", "After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the onset of the Early Middle Ages, the Greek tradition of medicine went into decline in Western Europe, although it continued uninterrupted in the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire.Most of our knowledge of ancient Hebrew medicine during the 1st millennium BC comes from the Torah, i.e.", "the Five Books of Moses, which contain various health related laws and rituals.", "The Hebrew contribution to the development of modern medicine started in the Byzantine Era, with the physician Asaph the Jew.=== Middle Ages ===A manuscript of ''Al-Risalah al-Dhahabiah'' by Ali al-Ridha, the eighth Imam of Shia Muslims.", "The text says: \"Golden dissertation in medicine which is sent by Imam Ali ibn Musa al-Ridha, peace be upon him, to al-Ma'mun.", "\"The concept of hospital as institution to offer medical care and possibility of a cure for the patients due to the ideals of Christian charity, rather than just merely a place to die, appeared in the Byzantine Empire.Although the concept of uroscopy was known to Galen, he did not see the importance of using it to localize the disease.", "It was under the Byzantines with physicians such of Theophilus Protospatharius that they realized the potential in uroscopy to determine disease in a time when no microscope or stethoscope existed.", "That practice eventually spread to the rest of Europe.After 750 CE, the Muslim world had the works of Hippocrates, Galen and Sushruta translated into Arabic, and Islamic physicians engaged in some significant medical research.", "Notable Islamic medical pioneers include the Persian polymath, Avicenna, who, along with Imhotep and Hippocrates, has also been called the \"father of medicine\".", "He wrote ''The Canon of Medicine'' which became a standard medical text at many medieval European universities, considered one of the most famous books in the history of medicine.", "Others include Abulcasis, Avenzoar, Ibn al-Nafis, and Averroes.", "Persian physician Rhazes was one of the first to question the Greek theory of humorism, which nevertheless remained influential in both medieval Western and medieval Islamic medicine.", "Some volumes of Rhazes's work ''Al-Mansuri'', namely \"On Surgery\" and \"A General Book on Therapy\", became part of the medical curriculum in European universities.", "Additionally, he has been described as a doctor's doctor, the father of pediatrics, and a pioneer of ophthalmology.", "For example, he was the first to recognize the reaction of the eye's pupil to light.", "The Persian Bimaristan hospitals were an early example of public hospitals.In Europe, Charlemagne decreed that a hospital should be attached to each cathedral and monastery and the historian Geoffrey Blainey likened the activities of the Catholic Church in health care during the Middle Ages to an early version of a welfare state: \"It conducted hospitals for the old and orphanages for the young; hospices for the sick of all ages; places for the lepers; and hostels or inns where pilgrims could buy a cheap bed and meal\".", "It supplied food to the population during famine and distributed food to the poor.", "This welfare system the church funded through collecting taxes on a large scale and possessing large farmlands and estates.", "The Benedictine order was noted for setting up hospitals and infirmaries in their monasteries, growing medical herbs and becoming the chief medical care givers of their districts, as at the great Abbey of Cluny.", "The Church also established a network of cathedral schools and universities where medicine was studied.", "The Schola Medica Salernitana in Salerno, looking to the learning of Greek and Arab physicians, grew to be the finest medical school in Medieval Europe.Santa Maria della Scala Hospital, one of Europe's oldest hospitals.", "During the Middle Ages, the Catholic Church established universities to revive the study of sciences, drawing on the learning of Greek and Arab physicians in the study of medicine.However, the fourteenth and fifteenth century Black Death devastated both the Middle East and Europe, and it has even been argued that Western Europe was generally more effective in recovering from the pandemic than the Middle East.", "In the early modern period, important early figures in medicine and anatomy emerged in Europe, including Gabriele Falloppio and William Harvey.The major shift in medical thinking was the gradual rejection, especially during the Black Death in the 14th and 15th centuries, of what may be called the \"traditional authority\" approach to science and medicine.", "This was the notion that because some prominent person in the past said something must be so, then that was the way it was, and anything one observed to the contrary was an anomaly (which was paralleled by a similar shift in European society in general – see Copernicus's rejection of Ptolemy's theories on astronomy).", "Physicians like Vesalius improved upon or disproved some of the theories from the past.", "The main tomes used both by medicine students and expert physicians were Materia Medica and Pharmacopoeia.Andreas Vesalius was the author of ''De humani corporis fabrica'', an important book on human anatomy.", "Bacteria and microorganisms were first observed with a microscope by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek in 1676, initiating the scientific field microbiology.", "Independently from Ibn al-Nafis, Michael Servetus rediscovered the pulmonary circulation, but this discovery did not reach the public because it was written down for the first time in the \"Manuscript of Paris\" in 1546, and later published in the theological work for which he paid with his life in 1553.Later this was described by Renaldus Columbus and Andrea Cesalpino.", "Herman Boerhaave is sometimes referred to as a \"father of physiology\" due to his exemplary teaching in Leiden and textbook 'Institutiones medicae' (1708).", "Pierre Fauchard has been called \"the father of modern dentistry\".=== Modern ===Paul-Louis Simond injecting a plague vaccine in Karachi, 1898Veterinary medicine was, for the first time, truly separated from human medicine in 1761, when the French veterinarian Claude Bourgelat founded the world's first veterinary school in Lyon, France.", "Before this, medical doctors treated both humans and other animals.Modern scientific biomedical research (where results are testable and reproducible) began to replace early Western traditions based on herbalism, the Greek \"four humours\" and other such pre-modern notions.", "The modern era really began with Edward Jenner's discovery of the smallpox vaccine at the end of the 18th century (inspired by the method of variolation originated in ancient China), Robert Koch's discoveries around 1880 of the transmission of disease by bacteria, and then the discovery of antibiotics around 1900.The post-18th century modernity period brought more groundbreaking researchers from Europe.", "From Germany and Austria, doctors Rudolf Virchow, Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, Karl Landsteiner and Otto Loewi made notable contributions.", "In the United Kingdom, Alexander Fleming, Joseph Lister, Francis Crick and Florence Nightingale are considered important.", "Spanish doctor Santiago Ramón y Cajal is considered the father of modern neuroscience.From New Zealand and Australia came Maurice Wilkins, Howard Florey, and Frank Macfarlane Burnet.Others that did significant work include William Williams Keen, William Coley, James D. Watson (United States); Salvador Luria (Italy); Alexandre Yersin (Switzerland); Kitasato Shibasaburō (Japan); Jean-Martin Charcot, Claude Bernard, Paul Broca (France); Adolfo Lutz (Brazil); Nikolai Korotkov (Russia); Sir William Osler (Canada); and Harvey Cushing (United States).As science and technology developed, medicine became more reliant upon medications.", "Throughout history and in Europe right until the late 18th century, not only plant products were used as medicine, but also animal (including human) body parts and fluids.", "Pharmacology developed in part from herbalism and some drugs are still derived from plants (atropine, ephedrine, warfarin, aspirin, digoxin, ''vinca'' alkaloids, taxol, hyoscine, etc.).", "Vaccines were discovered by Edward Jenner and Louis Pasteur.The first antibiotic was arsphenamine (Salvarsan) discovered by Paul Ehrlich in 1908 after he observed that bacteria took up toxic dyes that human cells did not.", "The first major class of antibiotics was the sulfa drugs, derived by German chemists originally from azo dyes.cardiac medicine at the Star pharmaceutical factory in Tampere, Finland in 1953Pharmacology has become increasingly sophisticated; modern biotechnology allows drugs targeted towards specific physiological processes to be developed, sometimes designed for compatibility with the body to reduce side-effects.", "Genomics and knowledge of human genetics and human evolution is having increasingly significant influence on medicine, as the causative genes of most monogenic genetic disorders have now been identified, and the development of techniques in molecular biology, evolution, and genetics are influencing medical technology, practice and decision-making.Evidence-based medicine is a contemporary movement to establish the most effective algorithms of practice (ways of doing things) through the use of systematic reviews and meta-analysis.", "The movement is facilitated by modern global information science, which allows as much of the available evidence as possible to be collected and analyzed according to standard protocols that are then disseminated to healthcare providers.", "The Cochrane Collaboration leads this movement.", "A 2001 review of 160 Cochrane systematic reviews revealed that, according to two readers, 21.3% of the reviews concluded insufficient evidence, 20% concluded evidence of no effect, and 22.5% concluded positive effect." ], [ "Quality, efficiency, and access", "Evidence-based medicine, prevention of medical error (and other \"iatrogenesis\"), and avoidance of unnecessary health care are a priority in modern medical systems.", "These topics generate significant political and public policy attention, particularly in the United States where healthcare is regarded as excessively costly but population health metrics lag similar nations.Globally, many developing countries lack access to care and access to medicines.", ", most wealthy developed countries provide health care to all citizens, with a few exceptions such as the United States where lack of health insurance coverage may limit access." ], [ "See also", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "2001 Mars Odyssey" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''2001 Mars Odyssey''''' is a robotic spacecraft orbiting the planet Mars.", "The project was developed by NASA, and contracted out to Lockheed Martin, with an expected cost for the entire mission of US$297 million.", "Its mission is to use spectrometers and a thermal imager to detect evidence of past or present water and ice, as well as study the planet's geology and radiation environment.", "It is hoped that the data ''Odyssey'' obtains would help answer the question of whether life existed on Mars and create a risk-assessment of the radiation that future astronauts on Mars might experience.", "It also acts as a relay for communications between the ''Curiosity'' rover, and previously the Mars Exploration Rovers and ''Phoenix'' lander, to Earth.", "The mission was named as a tribute to Arthur C. Clarke, evoking the name of his and Stanley Kubrick's 1968 film ''2001: A Space Odyssey''.", "''Odyssey'' was launched April 7, 2001, on a Delta II rocket from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, and reached Mars orbit on October 24, 2001, at 02:30 UTC (October 23, 19:30 PDT, 22:30 EDT).On May 28, 2002 (sol ), NASA reported that ''Odyssey''s GRS instrument had detected large amounts of hydrogen, a sign that there must be ice lying within a meter of the planet's surface, and proceeded to map the distribution of water below the shallow surface.", "The orbiter also discovered vast deposits of bulk water ice near the surface of equatorial regions.By December 15, 2010, it broke the record for longest serving spacecraft at Mars, with 3,340 days of operation.", "''Odyssey'' has also served as the primary means of communications for NASA's Mars surface explorers in the past decade, up to the ''Curiosity'' rover.", "It currently holds the record for the longest-surviving continually active spacecraft in orbit around a planet other than Earth, ahead of the Pioneer Venus Orbiter (served 14 years) and the ''Mars Express'' (serving over 20 years), at .", "it is in a polar orbit around Mars with a semi-major axis of about 3,800 km or 2,400 miles.", "It is estimated to have enough propellant to function until the end of 2025." ], [ "Naming", "In August 2000, NASA solicited candidate names for the mission.", "Out of 200 names submitted, the committee chose Astrobiological Reconnaissance and Elemental Surveyor, abbreviated ARES (a tribute to Ares, the Greek god of war).", "Faced with criticism that this name was not very compelling, and too aggressive, the naming committee reconvened.", "The candidate name \"2001 Mars Odyssey\" had earlier been rejected because of copyright and trademark concerns.", "However, NASA e-mailed Arthur C. Clarke in Sri Lanka, who responded that he would be delighted to have the mission named after his books, and he had no objections.", "On September 20, NASA associate administrator Ed Weiler wrote to the associate administrator for public affairs recommending a name change from ARES to ''2001 Mars Odyssey''.", "Peggy Wilhide then approved the name change." ], [ "Mission objectives", "* Mapping the levels of elements across the entire Martian surface * Determine how much hydrogen exists within the “shallow subsurface” * Develop a library of high-resolution images and spectroscopy for the mineral composition of the Martian surface * Provide information on the morphology of the Martian surface * Identify the “radiation-induced risk to human explorers” through a characterization of the “near-space radiation environment” on the Martian surface" ], [ "Scientific instruments", "The three primary instruments ''Odyssey'' uses are the:* '''Thermal Emission Imaging System''' (THEMIS).", "It is an onboard camera that provides visible and infrared imaging to characterize how minerals are distributed on the surface of Mars.", "* '''Gamma Ray Spectrometer''' (GRS), including the '''High Energy Neutron Detector''' (HEND), provided by Russia.", "'''GRS''' is a collaboration between University of Arizona's Lunar and Planetary Lab., the Los Alamos National Laboratory, and Russia's Space Research Institute.", "It is a spectrometer focussed on the gamma-ray portion of the spectrum in order to search for various elements in the Martian atmosphere, including carbon, silicon, iron and magnesium.", "* '''Mars Radiation Environment Experiment''' (MARIE).", "An “energetic particle spectrometer”, measuring the radiation levels around Mars." ], [ "Mission", "Summary of ''Mars Odyssey'' mission startAnimation of ''2001 Mars Odyssey''s trajectory around SunAnimation of ''2001 Mars Odyssey'' trajectory around Mars from October 24, 2001, to October 24, 2002''Mars Odyssey'' as imaged by ''Mars Global Surveyor''''Mars Odyssey'' launched from Cape Canaveral on April 7, 2001, and arrived at Mars about 200 days later on October 24.Upon arrival, the spacecraft's main engine fired in order to decelerate, which allowed it to be captured into orbit around Mars.", "''Odyssey'' then spent about 76 days aerobraking, using aerodynamic drag from the upper reaches of the Martian atmosphere to gradually slow down and reduce and circularize its orbit.", "By planning to use the atmosphere of Mars to slow the spacecraft in its orbit rather than firing its engine or thrusters, ''Odyssey'' did not need an additional 200 kilograms (440 lb) of propellant on board.", "This reduction in spacecraft weight allowed the mission to be launched on a Delta II 7925 launch vehicle, rather than a larger, more expensive launcher.Aerobraking ended in January 2002, and Odyssey began its science mapping mission on February 19, 2002.", "''Odyssey''s original, nominal mission lasted until August 2004, but repeated mission extensions have kept the mission active.The payload's MARIE radiation experiment stopped taking measurements after a large solar event bombarded the ''Odyssey'' spacecraft on October 28, 2003.Engineers believe the most likely cause is that a computer chip was damaged by a solar particle smashing into the MARIE computer board.About 85% of images and other data from NASA's twin Mars Exploration Rovers, ''Spirit'' and ''Opportunity'', have reached Earth via communications relay by ''Odyssey''.", "The orbiter helped analyze potential landing sites for the rovers and performed the same task for NASA's Phoenix mission, which landed on Mars in May 2008.", "''Odyssey'' aided NASA's ''Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter'', which reached Mars in March 2006, by monitoring atmospheric conditions during months when the newly arrived orbiter used aerobraking to alter its orbit into the desired shape.", "''Odyssey'' is in a Sun-synchronous orbit, which provides consistent lighting for its photographs.", "On September 30, 2008 (sol ) the spacecraft altered its orbit to gain better sensitivity for its infrared mapping of Martian minerals.", "The new orbit eliminated the use of the gamma ray detector, due to the potential for overheating the instrument at the new orbit.MARIE hardware, designed to measure radiationThe orbiter's orientation is controlled by a set of three reaction wheels and a spare.", "When one failed in June 2012, the fourth was spun up and successfully brought into service.", "Since July 2012, ''Odyssey'' has been back in full, nominal operation mode following three weeks of 'safe' mode on remote maintenance.", "''Mars Odyssey''s THEMIS instrument was used to help select a landing site for the Mars Science Laboratory (MSL).", "Several days before MSL's landing in August 2012, ''Odyssey''s orbit was altered to ensure that it would be able to capture signals from the rover during its first few minutes on the Martian surface.", "''Odyssey'' also acted as a relay for UHF radio signals from the (MSL) rover ''Curiosity''.", "Because ''Odyssey'' is in a Sun-synchronous orbit, it consistently passes over ''Curiosity''s location at the same two times every day, which allowed for convenient scheduling of contact with Earth.On February 11, 2014, mission control accelerated ''Odyssey''s drift toward a morning-daylight orbit to \"enable observation of changing ground temperatures after sunrise and after sunset in thousands of places on Mars\".", "The orbital change occurred gradually until November 2015.Those observations could yield insight about the composition of the ground and about temperature-driven processes, such as warm seasonal flows observed on some slopes, and geysers fed by spring thawing of carbon dioxide (CO2) ice near Mars' poles.On October 19, 2014, NASA reported that the ''Mars Odyssey'' Orbiter, as well as the ''Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter'' and ''MAVEN'', were healthy after the Comet Siding Spring flyby.In 2010, a spokesman for NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory stated that ''Odyssey'' could continue operating until at least 2016.This estimate has since been extended to the end of 2025.=== Major discoveries ===By 2008, ''Mars Odyssey'' had mapped the basic distribution of water below the shallow surface.", "The ground truth for its measurements came on July 31, 2008, when NASA announced that the Phoenix lander confirmed the presence of water on Mars, as predicted in 2002 based on data from the ''Odyssey'' orbiter.", "The science team is trying to determine whether the water ice ever thaws enough to be available for microscopic life, and if carbon-containing chemicals and other raw materials for life are present.The orbiter also discovered vast deposits of bulk water ice near the surface of equatorial regions.", "Evidence for equatorial hydration is both morphological and compositional and is seen at both the Medusae Fossae formation and the Tharsis Montes.THEMIS camera; 9 May 2023)" ], [ "See also" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* The ''Mars Odyssey'' site* ''2001 Mars Odyssey'' Mission Profile by NASA's Solar System Exploration* ''Sky & Telescope'': \"Mars Odyssey Pays Early Dividends\"* BBC News story on ''Mars Odyssey'' observations of apparent ice deposits* Mars Trek - Shows present overhead position of ''Mars Odyssey''" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Madagascar" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Madagascar''', officially the '''Republic of Madagascar''', is an island country lying off the southeastern coast of Africa.", "It is the world's fourth largest island, the second-largest island country and the 44th largest country in the world.", "Its capital and largest city is Antananarivo.Madagascar consists of the island of Madagascar and numerous smaller peripheral islands.", "Following the prehistoric breakup of the supercontinent Gondwana, Madagascar split from Africa during the Early Jurassic, around 180 million years ago, and split from the Indian subcontinent around 90 million years ago, allowing native plants and animals to evolve in relative isolation; consequently, it is a biodiversity hotspot and one of the world's 17 megadiverse countries, with over 90% of wildlife being endemic.", "The island has a subtropical to tropical maritime climate.Madagascar was first settled during or before the mid first millennium AD by Austronesian peoples, presumably arriving on outrigger canoes from present-day Indonesia.", "These were joined around the ninth century AD by Bantu migrants crossing the Mozambique Channel from East Africa.", "Other groups continued to settle on Madagascar over time, each one making lasting contributions to Malagasy cultural life.", "Subsequently, the Malagasy ethnic group is often divided into 18 or more subgroups, of which the largest are the Merina of the central highlands.Until the late 18th century, the island of Madagascar was ruled by a fragmented assortment of shifting sociopolitical alliances.", "Beginning in the early 19th century, most of it was united and ruled as the Kingdom of Madagascar by a series of Merina nobles.", "The monarchy was ended in 1897 by the annexation by France, from which Madagascar gained independence in 1960.The country has since undergone four major constitutional periods, termed republics, and has been governed as a constitutional democracy since 1992.Following a political crisis and military coup in 2009, Madagascar underwent a protracted transition towards its fourth and current republic, with constitutional governance being restored in January 2014.Madagascar is a member of the United Nations (UN), the African Union (AU), the Southern African Development Community (SADC), and the .", "Malagasy and French are both official languages of the state.", "Christianity is the country's predominant religion, with a significant minority still practicing traditional faiths.", "Madagascar is classified as a least developed country by the UN.", "Ecotourism and agriculture, paired with greater investments in education, health and private enterprise, are key elements of its development strategy.", "Despite substantial economic growth since the early 2000s, income disparities have widened, and quality of life remains low for the majority of the population." ], [ "Etymology", "In the Malagasy language, the island of Madagascar is called ''Madagasikara'' () and its people are referred to as ''Malagasy''.", "The origin of the name is uncertain, and is likely foreign, having been propagated in the Middle Ages by Europeans.", "If this is the case, it is unknown when the name was adopted by the inhabitants of the island.", "No single Malagasy-language name predating ''Madagasikara'' appears to have been used by the local population to refer to the island, although some communities had their own name for part or all of the land they inhabited.One hypothesis relates ''Madagascar'' to the word ''Malay'', referring to the Austronesian origin of the Malagasy people in modern-day Indonesia.", "In a map by Muhammad al-Idrisi dating from the year 1154, the island is named ''Gesira Malai'', or \"Malay island\" in Arabic.", "The inversion of this name to ''Malai Gesira'', as it was known by the Greeks, is thought to be the precursor of the modern name of the island.", "The name \"Malay island\" was later rendered in Latin as ''Malichu'', an abbreviated form of ''Malai Insula'', in the medieval Hereford Mappa Mundi as the name of Madagascar.Another hypothesis is that ''Madagascar'' is a corrupted transliteration of Mogadishu, the capital of Somalia and an important medieval Indian Ocean port.", "This would have resulted from 13th-century Venetian explorer Marco Polo confusing the two locations in his memoirs, in which he mentions the land of ''Madageiscar'' to the south of Socotra.", "This name would then have been popularized on Renaissance maps by Europeans.", "One of the first documents written that might explain why Marco Polo called it ''Madagascar'' is in a 1609 book on Madagascar by Jerome Megiser.", "Jerome Megiser describes an event in which the kings of Mogadishu and Adal traveled to Madagascar with a fleet of around twenty-five thousand men in order to invade the wealthy islands of Taprobane and Sumatra.", "However, a tempest threw them off course and they landed on the coasts of Madagascar, conquering the island and signing a treaty with its inhabitants.", "They remained for eight months and erected at different points of the island eight pillars on which they engraved \"Magadoxo\", a name which later, by corruption became Madagascar Jan Huyghen van Linschoten, a Dutch traveler who copied Portuguese works and maps, confirmed this event by saying \"Madagascar has its name from 'makdishu' (Mogadishu)\" whose \"shayk\" invaded it.The name ''Malagasikara'', or ''Malagascar'', is also historically attested.", "A British state paper in 1699 records the arrival of eighty to ninety passengers from \"Malagaskar\" to what would eventually become New York City.", "An 1882 edition of the British newspaper The Graphic referred to \"Malagascar\" as the name of the island, stating that it is etymologically a word of Malay origin, and may be related to the name of Malacca.", "In 1891, Saleh bin Osman, a Zanzibari traveler, refers to the island as \"Malagaskar\" when recounting his journeys, including as part of the Emin Pasha Relief Expedition.", "In 1905, Charles Basset wrote in his doctoral thesis that ''Malagasikara'' was the way the island is referred to by its natives, who emphasized that they were ''Malagasy'', and not ''Madagasy''." ], [ "History", "===Early period===Malagasy ancestry reflects a blend of Southeast Asian, Oceanian and Bantu (Southeast African) roots.Traditionally, archaeologists have estimated that the earliest settlers arrived in successive waves in outrigger canoes from South Borneo, possibly throughout the period between 350 BC and 550 AD, while others are cautious about dates earlier than AD 250.In either case, these dates make Madagascar one of the most recent major landmasses on Earth to be settled by humans, predating the settlement of Iceland and New Zealand.", "It is proposed that Ma'anyan people were brought as laborers and slaves by Javan and Sumatran-Malays in their trading fleets to Madagascar.", "Dates earlier than the mid-first millennium AD are not strongly supported.Upon arrival, early settlers practiced slash-and-burn agriculture to clear the coastal rainforests for cultivation.", "The first settlers encountered Madagascar's abundance of megafauna, including 17 species of giant lemurs, the large flightless elephant birds (including possibly the largest bird to ever exist, ''Aepyornis maximus''), the giant fossa, and several species of Malagasy hippopotamus, which have since become extinct because of hunting and habitat destruction.", "By 600 AD, groups of these early settlers had begun clearing the forests of the central highlands.Arab traders first reached the island between the 7th and 9th centuries.", "A wave of Bantu-speaking migrants from southeastern Africa arrived around the year 1000.South Indian Tamil merchants arrived around the 11th century.", "They introduced the zebu, a type of long-horned humped cattle, which they kept in large herds.", "Irrigated paddy fields were developed in the central highland Betsileo Kingdom and were extended with terraced paddies throughout the neighboring Kingdom of Imerina a century later.", "The rising intensity of land cultivation and the ever-increasing demand for zebu pasturage had largely transformed the central highlands from a forest ecosystem to grassland by the 17th century.The oral histories of the Merina people, who arrived in the central highlands between 600 and 1,000 years ago, describe encountering an established population they called the Vazimba.", "Probably the descendants of an earlier and less technologically advanced Austronesian settlement wave, the Vazimba were assimilated or expelled from the highlands by the Merina kings Andriamanelo, Ralambo, and Andrianjaka in the 16th and early 17th centuries.", "Today, the spirits of the Vazimba are revered as ''tompontany'' (ancestral masters of the land) by many traditional Malagasy communities.===Arab and European contacts===Portuguese explorer Diogo Dias recorded the island while participating in the 2nd Portuguese India Armadas.The written history of Madagascar began with the Arabs, who established trading posts along the northwest coast by at least the 10th century and introduced Islam, the Arabic script (used to transcribe the Malagasy language in a form of writing known as ''sorabe''), Arab astrology, and other cultural elements.European contact began in 1500, when the Portuguese sea captain Diogo Dias sighted the island, while participating in the 2nd Armada of the Portuguese India Armadas.Matatana was the first Portuguese settlement on the south coast, 10 km west of Fort Dauphin.", "In 1508, settlers there built a tower, a small village, and a stone column.", "This settlement was established in 1513 at the behest of the viceroy of Portuguese India, Jeronimo de Azevedo.Matatana, represented in a picture of 1613, regarding a settlement of the beginning of the 16th century, in the Book of Humberto Leitão\"Contacts continued from the 1550s.", "Several colonization and conversion missions were ordered by King João III and by the Viceroy of India, including one in 1553 by Baltazar Lobo de Sousa.", "In that mission, according to detailed descriptions by chroniclers Diogo do Couto and João de Barros, emissaries reached the inland via rivers and bays, exchanging goods and even converting one of the local kings.The French established trading posts along the east coast in the late 17th century.", "From about 1774 to 1824, Madagascar gained prominence among pirates and European traders, particularly those involved in the trans-Atlantic slave trade.", "The small island of Nosy Boroha off the northeastern coast of Madagascar has been proposed by some historians as the site of the legendary pirate utopia of Libertalia.", "Many European sailors were shipwrecked on the coasts of the island, among them Robert Drury, whose journal is one of the few written depictions of life in southern Madagascar during the 18th century.The wealth generated by maritime trade spurred the rise of organized kingdoms on the island, some of which had grown quite powerful by the 17th century.", "Among these were the Betsimisaraka alliance of the eastern coast and the Sakalava chiefdoms of Menabe and Boina on the west coast.", "The Kingdom of Imerina, located in the central highlands with its capital at the royal palace of Antananarivo, emerged at around the same time under the leadership of King Andriamanelo.===Kingdom of Madagascar===King Andrianampoinimerina (1787–1810)Upon its emergence in the early 17th century, the highland kingdom of Imerina was initially a minor power relative to the larger coastal kingdoms and grew even weaker in the early 18th century when King Andriamasinavalona divided it among his four sons.", "Following almost a century of warring and famine, Imerina was reunited in 1793 by King Andrianampoinimerina (1787–1810).", "From his initial capital Ambohimanga, and later from the Rova of Antananarivo, this Merina king rapidly expanded his rule over neighboring principalities.", "His ambition to bring the entire island under his control was largely achieved by his son and successor, King Radama I (1810–28), who was recognized by the British government as King of Madagascar.", "Radama concluded a treaty in 1817 with the British governor of Mauritius to abolish the lucrative slave trade in return for British military and financial assistance.", "Artisan missionary envoys from the London Missionary Society began arriving in 1818 and included such key figures as James Cameron, David Jones and David Griffiths, who established schools, transcribed the Malagasy language using the Roman alphabet, translated the Bible, and introduced a variety of new technologies to the island.Radama's successor, Queen Ranavalona I (1828–61), responded to increasing political and cultural encroachment on the part of Britain and France by issuing a royal edict prohibiting the practice of Christianity in Madagascar and pressuring most foreigners to leave the territory.", "William Ellis of the London Missionary Society described his visits made during her reign in his book ''Three Visits to Madagascar during the years 1853, 1854, and 1856''.", "The Queen made heavy use of the traditional practice of ''fanompoana'' (forced labor as tax payment) to complete public works projects and develop a standing army of between 20,000 and 30,000 Merina soldiers, whom she deployed to pacify outlying regions of the island and further expand the Kingdom of Merina to encompass most of Madagascar.", "Residents of Madagascar could accuse one another of various crimes, including theft, Christianity and especially witchcraft, for which the ordeal of ''tangena'' was routinely obligatory.", "Between 1828 and 1861, the ''tangena'' ordeal caused about 3,000 deaths annually.", "In 1838, it was estimated that as many as 100,000 people in Imerina died as a result of the tangena ordeal, constituting roughly 20 percent of the population.", "The combination of regular warfare, disease, difficult forced labor, and harsh measures of justice resulted in a high mortality rate among soldiers and civilians alike during her 33-year reign; the population of Madagascar is estimated to have declined from around 5 million to 2.5 million between 1833 and 1839.Among those who continued to reside in Imerina were Jean Laborde, an entrepreneur who developed munitions and other industries on behalf of the monarchy, and Joseph-François Lambert, a French adventurer and slave trader, with whom then-Prince Radama II signed a controversial trade agreement termed the Lambert Charter.", "Succeeding his mother, Radama II attempted to relax the queen's stringent policies, but was overthrown two years later by Prime Minister Rainivoninahitriniony and an alliance of ''Andriana'' (noble) and ''Hova'' (commoner) courtiers, who sought to end the absolute power of the monarch.Following the coup, the courtiers offered Radama's queen, Rasoherina, the opportunity to rule, if she would accept a power sharing arrangement with the Prime Minister: a new social contract that would be sealed by a political marriage between them.", "Queen Rasoherina accepted, first marrying Rainivoninahitriniony, then later deposing him and marrying his brother, Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony, who would go on to marry Queen Ranavalona II and Queen Ranavalona III in succession.", "Over the course of Rainilaiarivony's 31-year tenure as prime minister, numerous policies were adopted to modernize and consolidate the power of the central government.", "Schools were constructed throughout the island and attendance was made mandatory.", "Army organization was improved and British consultants were employed to train and professionalize soldiers.", "Polygamy was outlawed and Christianity, declared the official religion of the court in 1869, was adopted alongside traditional beliefs among a growing portion of the populace.", "Legal codes were reformed on the basis of British common law and three European-style courts were established in the capital city.", "In his joint role as Commander-in-Chief, Rainilaiarivony also successfully ensured the defense of Madagascar against several French colonial incursions.===French colonization=== Franco-Hova WarPrimarily on the basis that the Lambert Charter had not been respected, France invaded Madagascar in 1883 in what became known as the first Franco-Hova War.", "At the end of the war, Madagascar ceded the northern port town of Antsiranana (Diego Suarez) to France and paid 560,000 francs to Lambert's heirs.", "In 1890, the British accepted the full formal imposition of a French protectorate on the island, but French authority was not acknowledged by the government of Madagascar.", "To force capitulation, the French bombarded and occupied the harbor of Toamasina on the east coast, and Mahajanga on the west coast, in December 1894 and January 1895 respectively.A French military flying column then marched toward Antananarivo, losing many men to malaria and other diseases.", "Reinforcements came from Algeria and Sub-Saharan Africa.", "Upon reaching the city in September 1895, the column bombarded the royal palace with heavy artillery, causing heavy casualties and leading Queen Ranavalona III to surrender.", "France annexed Madagascar in 1896 and declared the island a colony the following year, dissolving the Merina monarchy and sending the royal family into exile on Réunion Island and to Algeria.", "A two-year resistance movement organized in response to the French capture of the royal palace was effectively put down at the end of 1897.The conquest was followed by ten years of civil war, due to the Menalamba insurrection.", "The \"pacification\" carried out by the French administration lasted more than fifteen years, in response to the rural guerrillas scattered throughout the country.", "In total, the repression of this resistance to colonial conquest caused several tens of thousands of Malagasy victims.Under colonial rule, plantations were established for the production of a variety of export crops.", "Slavery was abolished in 1896 and approximately 500,000 slaves were freed; many remained in their former masters' homes as servants or as sharecroppers; in many parts of the island strong discriminatory views against slave descendants are still held today.", "Wide paved boulevards and gathering places were constructed in the capital city of Antananarivo and the Rova palace compound was turned into a museum.", "Additional schools were built, particularly in rural and coastal areas where the schools of the Merina had not reached.", "Education became mandatory between the ages of 6 and 13 and focused primarily on French language and practical skills.National monument in Moramanga commemorating the beginning of the Malagasy Uprising on 29 March 1947.Between 11,000 and 90,000 Malagasy died during the uprising which lasted nearly two years.Huge mining and forestry concessions were granted to large companies.", "Native chiefs loyal to the French administration were also granted part of the land.", "Forced labor was introduced in favor of the French companies and peasants were encouraged, through taxation, to work for wages (especially in the colonial concessions) to the detriment of small individual farms.", "However, the colonial period was accompanied by movements fighting for independence: the Menalamba, the Vy Vato Sakelika, the Democratic Movement for Malagasy Renovation (MDRM).", "In 1927, major demonstrations were organized in Antananarivo, notably on the initiative of the communist activist François Vittori, who was imprisoned as a result.", "The 1930s saw the Malagasy anti-colonial movement gain further momentum.", "Malagasy trade unionism began to appear underground and the Communist Party of the Madagascar region was formed.", "But in 1939, all the organizations were dissolved by the administration of the colony, which opted for the Vichy regime.", "The MDRM was accused by the colonial regime of being at the origin of the 1947 insurrection and was pursued by violent repression.The Merina royal tradition of taxes paid in the form of labor was continued under the French and used to construct a railway and roads linking key coastal cities to Antananarivo.", "Malagasy troops fought for France in World War I.", "In the 1930s, Nazi political thinkers developed the Madagascar Plan that had identified the island as a potential site for the deportation of Europe's Jews.", "During the Second World War, the island was the site of the Battle of Madagascar between the Vichy French and an Allied expeditionary force.The occupation of France during the Second World War tarnished the prestige of the colonial administration in Madagascar and galvanized the growing independence movement, leading to the Malagasy Uprising of 1947.This movement led the French to establish reformed institutions in 1956 under the ''Loi Cadre'' (Overseas Reform Act), and Madagascar moved peacefully towards independence.", "The Malagasy Republic was proclaimed on 14 October 1958, as an autonomous state within the French Community.", "A period of provisional government ended with the adoption of a constitution in 1959 and full independence on 26 June 1960.===Independent state===Philibert Tsiranana, the first president of Madagascar (1960–1972)Since regaining independence, Madagascar has transitioned through four republics with corresponding revisions to its constitution.", "The First Republic (1960–72), under the leadership of French-appointed President Philibert Tsiranana, was characterized by a continuation of strong economic and political ties to France.", "Many high-level technical positions were filled by French expatriates, and French teachers, textbooks and curricula continued to be used in schools around the country.", "Popular resentment over Tsiranana's tolerance for this \"neo-colonial\" arrangement inspired a series of farmer and student protests that overturned his administration in 1972.Gabriel Ramanantsoa, a major general in the army, was appointed interim president and prime minister that same year, but low public approval forced him to step down in 1975.Colonel Richard Ratsimandrava, appointed to succeed him, was assassinated six days into his tenure.", "General Gilles Andriamahazo ruled after Ratsimandrava for four months before being replaced by another military appointee: Vice Admiral Didier Ratsiraka, who ushered in the Marxist–Leninist Second Republic that ran under his tenure from 1975 to 1993.This period saw a political alignment with the Eastern Bloc countries and a shift toward economic insularity.", "These policies, coupled with economic pressures stemming from the 1973 oil crisis, resulted in the rapid collapse of Madagascar's economy and a sharp decline in living standards, and the country had become completely bankrupt by 1979.The Ratsiraka administration accepted the conditions of transparency, anti-corruption measures and free market policies imposed by the International Monetary Fund, World Bank and various bilateral donors in exchange for their bailout of the nation's broken economy.Ratsiraka's dwindling popularity in the late 1980s reached a critical point in 1991 when presidential guards opened fire on unarmed protesters during a rally.", "Within two months, a transitional government had been established under the leadership of Albert Zafy (1993–96), who went on to win the 1992 presidential elections and inaugurate the Third Republic (1992–2010).", "The new Madagascar constitution established a multi-party democracy and a separation of powers that placed significant control in the hands of the National Assembly.", "The new constitution also emphasized human rights, social and political freedoms, and free trade.", "Zafy's term, however, was marred by economic decline, allegations of corruption, and his introduction of legislation to give himself greater powers.", "He was consequently impeached in 1996, and an interim president, Norbert Ratsirahonana, was appointed for the three months prior to the next presidential election.", "Ratsiraka was then voted back into power on a platform of decentralization and economic reforms for a second term which lasted from 1996 to 2001.The contested 2001 presidential elections in which then-mayor of Antananarivo, Marc Ravalomanana, eventually emerged victorious, caused a seven-month standoff in 2002 between supporters of Ravalomanana and Ratsiraka.", "The negative economic impact of the political crisis was gradually overcome by Ravalomanana's progressive economic and political policies, which encouraged investments in education and ecotourism, facilitated foreign direct investment, and cultivated trading partnerships both regionally and internationally.", "National GDP grew at an average rate of 7 percent per year under his administration.", "In the latter half of his second term, Ravalomanana was criticised by domestic and international observers who accused him of increasing authoritarianism and corruption.Opposition leader and then-mayor of Antananarivo, Andry Rajoelina, led a movement in early 2009 in which Ravalomanana was pushed from power in an unconstitutional process widely condemned as a ''coup d'état''.", "In March 2009, Rajoelina was declared by the Supreme Court as the President of the High Transitional Authority, an interim governing body responsible for moving the country toward presidential elections.", "In 2010, a new constitution was adopted by referendum, establishing a Fourth Republic, which sustained the democratic, multi-party structure established in the previous constitution.", "Hery Rajaonarimampianina was declared the winner of the 2013 presidential election, which the international community deemed fair and transparent.In 2018 the first round of the presidential election was held on 7 November and the second round was held on 10 December.", "Three former presidents and the most recent president were the main candidates of the elections.", "Former president Andry Rajoelina won the second round of the elections.", "He was previously president from 2009 to 2014.Former president Marc Ravalomana lost the second round and he did not accept the results because of allegations of fraud.", "Ravalomana was president from 2002 to 2009.The most recent president Hery Rajaonarimampianina received very modest support in the first round.", "In January 2019 the High Constitutional Court declared Rajoelina as the winner of the elections and the new president.In June 2019 parliamentary elections the party of president Andry Rajoelina won absolute majority of the seats of the National Assembly.", "It received 84 seats and the supporters of former president Ravalomana got only 16 seats of 151 seats of the National Assembly.", "51 seats of deputies were independent or represented small parties.", "President Rajoelina could rule as a strongman.Mid-2021 marked the beginning of the 2021–2022 Madagascar famine which, due to a severe drought, caused hundreds of thousands of people to face food insecurity and over one million people were on the verge of a famine.In November 2023, Andry Rajoelina was re-elected to another term with 58.95% of the vote in the first round of the election amidst an opposition boycott and a controversy about his acquisition of French citizenship and subsequent eligibility.", "Turnout was 46.36%, the lowest in a presidential election in the country's history." ], [ "Geography", "Land coverage (left) and topographical (right) maps of MadagascarAt , Madagascar is the world's 46th largest country, the second-largest island country and the fourth-largest island.", "The country lies mostly between latitudes 12°S and 26°S, and longitudes 43°E and 51°E.", "Neighboring islands include the French territory of Réunion and the country of Mauritius to the east, as well as the state of Comoros and the French territory of Mayotte to the north west.", "The nearest mainland state is Mozambique, located to the west.The prehistoric breakup of the supercontinent Gondwana resulted in the separation of East Gondwana (comprising Madagascar, Antarctica, Australia and the Indian subcontinent) and West Gondwana (Africa–South America) during the Jurassic period, around 185 million years ago.", "The Indo-Madagascar landmass separated from Antarctica and Australia around 125 million years ago and Madagascar separated from the Indian landmass about 84–92 million years ago during the Late Cretaceous.", "This long history of separation from other continents has allowed plants and animals on the island to evolve in relative isolation.", "Along the length of the eastern coast runs a narrow and steep escarpment containing much of the island's remaining tropical lowland forest.", "To the west of this ridge lies a plateau in the center of the island ranging in altitude from above sea level.", "These central highlands, traditionally the homeland of the Merina people and the location of their historic capital at Antananarivo, are the most densely populated part of the island and are characterized by terraced, rice-growing valleys lying between grassy hills and patches of the subhumid forests that formerly covered the highland region.", "To the west of the highlands, the increasingly arid terrain gradually slopes down to the Mozambique Channel and mangrove swamps along the coast.Madagascar's highest peaks rise from three prominent highland massifs: Maromokotro in the Tsaratanana Massif is the island's highest point, followed by Boby Peak in the Andringitra Massif, and Tsiafajavona in the Ankaratra Massif.", "To the east, the ''Canal des Pangalanes'' is a chain of human-made and natural lakes connected by canals built by the French just inland from the east coast and running parallel to it for some .The western and southern sides, which lie in the rain shadow of the central highlands, are home to dry deciduous forests, spiny forests, and deserts and xeric shrublands.", "Due to their lower population densities, Madagascar's dry deciduous forests have been better preserved than the eastern rain forests or the original woodlands of the central plateau.", "The western coast features many protected harbors, but silting is a major problem caused by sediment from the high levels of inland erosion carried by rivers crossing the broad western plains.===Climate===A Köppen climate classification map of MadagascarThe combination of southeastern trade winds and northwestern monsoons produces a hot rainy season (November–April) with frequently destructive cyclones, and a relatively cooler dry season (May–October).", "Rain clouds originating over the Indian Ocean discharge much of their moisture over the island's eastern coast; the heavy precipitation supports the area's rainforest ecosystem.", "The central highlands are both drier and cooler while the west is drier still, and a semi-arid climate prevails in the southwest and southern interior of the island.", "Tropical cyclones cause damage to infrastructure and local economies as well as loss of life.", "In 2004, Cyclone Gafilo became the strongest cyclone ever recorded to hit Madagascar.", "The storm killed 172 people, left 214,260 homeless and caused more than US$250 million in damage.", "In February 2022, Cyclone Batsirai killed at least 10 people weeks after Cyclone Ana killed 55 and displaced 130,000 people on the island.A 2022 analysis found that the expected costs for Madagascar, to adapt to and avert the environmental consequences of climate change, are going to be high.===Biodiversity and conservation===Comet orchid (''Angraecum sesquipedale''), the flowers of this orchid have a very long spur and are pollinated by a species of hawkmoth with a proboscis of matching length.As a result of the island's long isolation from neighboring continents, Madagascar is home to various endemic plants and animals found nowhere else on Earth.", "Approximately 90% of all plant and animal species found in Madagascar are endemic.", "This distinctive ecology has led some ecologists to refer to Madagascar as the \"eighth continent\", and the island has been classified by Conservation International as a biodiversity hotspot.", "Madagascar is classed as one of 17 megadiverse countries.", "The country is home to seven terrestrial ecoregions: Madagascar lowland forests, Madagascar subhumid forests, Madagascar dry deciduous forests, Madagascar ericoid thickets, Madagascar spiny forests, Madagascar succulent woodlands, and Madagascar mangroves.More than 80 percent of Madagascar's 14,883 plant species are found nowhere else in the world, including five plant families.", "The family ''Didiereaceae'', composed of four genera and 11 species, is limited to the spiny forests of southwestern Madagascar.", "Four-fifths of the world's ''Pachypodium'' species are endemic to the island.", "Three-fourths of Madagascar's 860 orchid species are found here alone, as are six of the world's nine baobab species.", "The island is home to around 170 palm species, three times as many as on all of mainland Africa; 165 of them are endemic.", "Many native plant species are used as herbal remedies for a variety of afflictions.", "The drugs vinblastine and vincristine are ''vinca'' alkaloids, used to treat Hodgkin lymphoma, leukemia, and other cancers, were derived from the Madagascar periwinkle.", "The traveler's palm, known locally as ''ravinala'' and endemic to the eastern rain forests, is highly iconic of Madagascar and is featured in the national emblem as well as the Air Madagascar logo.The ring-tailed lemur is one of over 100 known species and subspecies of lemur found only in Madagascar.Like its flora, Madagascar's fauna is diverse and exhibits a high rate of endemism.", "Lemurs have been characterized as \"Madagascar's flagship mammal species\" by Conservation International.", "In the absence of monkeys and other competitors, these primates have adapted to a wide range of habitats and diversified into numerous species.", ", there were officially 103 species and subspecies of lemur, 39 of which were described by zoologists between 2000 and 2008.They are almost all classified as rare, vulnerable, or endangered.", "At least 17 species of lemur have become extinct since humans arrived on Madagascar, all of which were larger than the surviving lemur species.A number of other mammals, including the catlike fossa, are endemic to Madagascar.", "Over 300 species of birds have been recorded on the island, of which over 60 percent (including four families and 42 genera) are endemic.", "The few families and genera of reptiles that have reached Madagascar have diversified into more than 260 species, with over 90 percent of these being endemic (including one endemic family).", "The island is home to two-thirds of the world's chameleon species, including the smallest known.Endemic fish of Madagascar include two families, 15 genera and over 100 species, primarily inhabiting the island's freshwater lakes and rivers.", "Although invertebrates remain poorly studied in Madagascar, researchers have found high rates of endemism among the known species.", "All 651 species of terrestrial snail are endemic, as are a majority of the island's butterflies, scarab beetles, lacewings, spiders, and dragonflies.Madagascar's varied fauna and flora are endangered by human activity.", "Since the arrival of humans around 2,350 years ago, Madagascar has lost more than 90 percent of its original forest.", "This forest loss is largely fueled by ''tavy'' (\"fat\"), a traditional slash-and-burn agricultural practice imported to Madagascar by the earliest settlers.", "Malagasy farmers embrace and perpetuate the practice not only for its practical benefits as an agricultural technique, but for its cultural associations with prosperity, health and venerated ancestral custom (''fomba malagasy'').", "As human population density rose on the island, deforestation accelerated beginning around 1,400 years ago.", "By the 16th century, the central highlands had been largely cleared of their original forests.", "More recent contributors to the loss of forest cover include the growth in cattle herd size since their introduction around 1,000 years ago, a continued reliance on charcoal as a fuel for cooking, and the increased prominence of coffee as a cash crop over the past century.", "Madagascar had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 4.63/10, ranking it 119th globally out of 172 countries.According to a conservative estimate, about 40 percent of the island's original forest cover was lost from the 1950s to 2000, with a thinning of remaining forest areas by 80 percent.", "In addition to traditional agricultural practice, wildlife conservation is challenged by the illicit harvesting of protected forests, as well as the state-sanctioned harvesting of precious woods within national parks.", "Although banned by then-President Marc Ravalomanana from 2000 to 2009, the collection of small quantities of precious timber from national parks was re-authorized in January 2009 and dramatically intensified under the administration of Andry Rajoelina as a key source of state revenues to offset cuts in donor support following Ravalomanana's ousting.Invasive species have likewise been introduced by human populations.", "Following the 2014 discovery in Madagascar of the Asian common toad, a relative of a toad species that has severely harmed wildlife in Australia since the 1930s, researchers warned the toad could \"wreak havoc on the country's unique fauna.\"", "Habitat destruction and hunting have threatened many of Madagascar's endemic species or driven them to extinction.", "The island's elephant birds, a family of endemic giant ratites, became extinct in the 17th century or earlier, most probably because of human hunting of adult birds and poaching of their large eggs for food.", "Numerous giant lemur species vanished with the arrival of human settlers to the island, while others became extinct over the course of the centuries as a growing human population put greater pressures on lemur habitats and, among some populations, increased the rate of lemur hunting for food.", "A July 2012 assessment found that the exploitation of natural resources since 2009 has had dire consequences for the island's wildlife: 90 percent of lemur species were found to be threatened with extinction, the highest proportion of any mammalian group.", "Of these, 23 species were classified as critically endangered.", "A 2023 study published in ''Nature Communications'' found that 120 of the 219 mammal species only found on Madagascar are threatened with extinction.In 2003, Ravalomanana announced the Durban Vision, an initiative to more than triple the island's protected natural areas to over or 10 percent of Madagascar's land surface.", ", areas protected by the state included five Strict Nature Reserves (''Réserves Naturelles Intégrales''), 21 Wildlife Reserves (''Réserves Spéciales'') and 21 National Parks (''Parcs Nationaux'').", "In 2007 six of the national parks were declared a joint World Heritage Site under the name Rainforests of the Atsinanana.", "These parks are Marojejy, Masoala, Ranomafana, Zahamena, Andohahela and Andringitra.", "Local timber merchants are harvesting scarce species of rosewood trees from protected rainforests within Marojejy National Park and exporting the wood to China for the production of luxury furniture and musical instruments." ], [ "Government", "===Structure===Antananarivo is the political and economic capital of Madagascar.Madagascar is a semi-presidential representative democratic multi-party republic, wherein the popularly elected president is the head of state and selects a prime minister, who recommends candidates to the president to form his cabinet of ministers.", "According to the constitution, executive power is exercised by the government while legislative power is vested in the ministerial cabinet, the Senate and the National Assembly, although in reality these two latter bodies have very little power or legislative role.", "The constitution establishes independent executive, legislative and judicial branches and mandates a popularly elected president limited to three five-year terms.The public directly elects the president and the 127 members of the National Assembly to five-year terms.", "All 33 members of the Senate serve six-year terms, with 22 senators elected by local officials and 11 appointed by the president.", "The last National Assembly election was held on 20 December 2013 and the last Senate election was held on 30 December 2015.At the local level, the island's 22 provinces are administered by a governor and provincial council.", "Provinces are further subdivided into regions and communes.", "The judiciary is modeled on the French system, with a High Constitutional Court, High Court of Justice, Supreme Court, Court of Appeals, criminal tribunals, and tribunals of first instance.", "The courts, which adhere to civil law, lack the capacity to quickly and transparently try the cases in the judicial system, often forcing defendants to pass lengthy pretrial detentions in unsanitary and overcrowded prisons.Antananarivo is the administrative capital and largest city of Madagascar.", "It is located in the highlands region, near the geographic center of the island.", "King Andrianjaka founded Antananarivo as the capital of his Imerina Kingdom around 1610 or 1625 upon the site of a captured Vazimba capital on the hilltop of Analamanga.", "As Merina dominance expanded over neighboring Malagasy peoples in the early 19th century to establish the Kingdom of Madagascar, Antananarivo became the center of administration for virtually the entire island.", "In 1896 the French colonizers of Madagascar adopted the Merina capital as their center of colonial administration.", "The city remained the capital of Madagascar after regaining independence in 1960.In 2017, the capital's population was estimated at 1,391,433 inhabitants.", "The next largest cities are Antsirabe (500,000), Toamasina (450,000) and Mahajanga (400,000).===Politics===Madagascar's President Andry RajoelinaSince Madagascar gained independence from France in 1960, the island's political transitions have been marked by numerous popular protests, several disputed elections, an impeachment, two military coups and one assassination.", "The island's recurrent political crises are often prolonged, with detrimental effects on the local economy, international relations and Malagasy living standards.", "The eight-month standoff between incumbent Ratsiraka and challenger Marc Ravalomanana following the 2001 presidential elections cost Madagascar millions of dollars in lost tourism and trade revenue as well as damage to infrastructure, such as bombed bridges and buildings damaged by arson.", "A series of protests led by Andry Rajoelina against Ravalomanana in early 2009 became violent, with more than 170 people killed.", "Modern politics in Madagascar are colored by the history of Merina subjugation of coastal communities under their rule in the 19th century.", "The consequent tension between the highland and coastal populations has periodically flared up into isolated events of violence.Madagascar has historically been perceived as being on the margin of mainstream African affairs despite being a founding member of the Organisation of African Unity, which was established in 1963 and dissolved in 2002 to be replaced by the African Union.", "Madagascar was not permitted to attend the first African Union summit because of a dispute over the results of the 2001 presidential election, but rejoined the African Union in July 2003 after a 14-month hiatus.", "Madagascar was again suspended by the African Union in March 2009 following the unconstitutional transfer of executive power to Rajoelina.", "Madagascar is a member of the International Criminal Court with a Bilateral Immunity Agreement of protection for the United States military.", "Eleven countries have established embassies in Madagascar, including France, the United Kingdom, the United States, China and India, while Madagascar has embassies in sixteen other countries.Human rights in Madagascar are protected under the constitution and the state is a signatory to numerous international agreements including the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the Convention on the Rights of the Child.", "Religious, ethnic and sexual minorities are protected under the law.", "Freedom of association and assembly are also guaranteed under the law, although in practice the denial of permits for public assembly has occasionally been used to impede political demonstrations.", "Torture by security forces is rare and state repression is low relative to other countries with comparably few legal safeguards, although arbitrary arrests and the corruption of military and police officers remain problems.", "Ravalomanana's 2004 creation of BIANCO, an anti-corruption bureau, resulted in reduced corruption among Antananarivo's lower-level bureaucrats in particular, although high-level officials have not been prosecuted by the bureau.", "Accusations of media censorship have risen due to the alleged restrictions on the coverage of government opposition.", "Some journalists have been arrested for allegedly spreading fake news.===Military and law enforcement===The rise of centralized kingdoms among the Sakalava, Merina and other ethnic groups produced the island's first standing armies by the 16th century, initially equipped with spears but later with muskets, cannons and other firearms.", "By the early 19th century, the Merina sovereigns of the Kingdom of Madagascar had brought much of the island under their control by mobilizing an army of trained and armed soldiers numbering as high as 30,000.French attacks on coastal towns in the later part of the century prompted then-Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony to solicit British assistance to provide training to the Merina monarchy's army.", "Despite the training and leadership provided by British military advisers, the Malagasy army was unable to withstand French weaponry and was forced to surrender following an attack on the royal palace at Antananarivo.", "Madagascar was declared a colony of France in 1897.The political independence and sovereignty of the Malagasy armed forces, which comprises an army, navy and air force, was restored with independence from France in 1960.Since this time the Malagasy military has never engaged in armed conflict with another state or within its own borders, but has occasionally intervened to restore order during periods of political unrest.", "Under the socialist Second Republic, Admiral Didier Ratsiraka instated mandatory national armed or civil service for all young citizens regardless of sex, a policy that remained in effect from 1976 to 1991.The armed forces are under the direction of the Minister of Defense and have remained largely neutral during times of political crisis, as during the protracted standoff between incumbent Ratsiraka and challenger Marc Ravalomanana in the disputed 2001 presidential elections, when the military refused to intervene in favor of either candidate.", "This tradition was broken in 2009, when a segment of the army defected to the side of Andry Rajoelina, then-mayor of Antananarivo, in support of his attempt to force President Ravalomanana from power.The Minister of Interior is responsible for the national police force, paramilitary force (''gendarmerie'') and the secret police.", "The police and gendarmerie are stationed and administered at the local level.", "However, in 2009 fewer than a third of all communes had access to the services of these security forces, with most lacking local-level headquarters for either corps.", "Traditional community tribunals, called ''dina'', are presided over by elders and other respected figures and remain a key means by which justice is served in rural areas where state presence is weak.", "Historically, security has been relatively high across the island.", "Violent crime rates are low, and criminal activities are predominantly crimes of opportunity such as pickpocketing and petty theft, although child prostitution, human trafficking and the production and sale of marijuana and other illegal drugs are increasing.", "Budget cuts since 2009 have severely impacted the national police force, producing a steep increase in criminal activity in recent years.===Administrative divisions===Madagascar is subdivided into 22 regions (''faritra'').", "The regions are further subdivided into 119 districts, 1,579 communes, and 17,485 ''fokontany''.Madagascar's regions+ '''Regions and former provinces'''New regions Formerprovinces Area inkm2 Population2018Diana Antsiranana19,993 889,962Sava Antsiranana23,794 1,123,772 Itasy Antananarivo6,579 898,549 Analamanga Antananarivo17,346 3,623,925Vakinankaratra Antananarivo17,884 2,079,659Bongolava Antananarivo18,096 670,993 Sofia (7) Mahajanga50,973 1,507,591Boeny Mahajanga31,250 929,312Betsiboka Mahajanga28,964 393,278Melaky Mahajanga40,863 308,944 Alaotra Mangoro Toamasina27,846 1,249,931Atsinanana Toamasina22,031 1,478,472Analanjirofo Toamasina21,666 1,150,089Amoron'i Mania Fianarantsoa16,480 837,116Haute-Matsiatra Fianarantsoa20,820 1,444,587Vatovavy-Fitovinany Fianarantsoa20,740 1,440,657Atsimo-Atsinanana Fianarantsoa16,632 1,030,404 Ihorombe Fianarantsoa26,046 418,520Menabe Toliara48,814 692,463Atsimo-Andrefana Toliara66,627 1,797,894 Androy Toliara18,949 900,235Anosy Toliara29,505 809,051591,896 25,674,196=== United Nations involvement ===Madagascar became a member state of the United Nations on 20 September 1960, shortly after gaining its independence on 26 June 1960.As of January 2017, 34 police officers from Madagascar are deployed in Haiti as part of the United Nations Stabilisation Mission in Haiti.", "Starting in 2015, under the direction of and with assistance from the UN, the World Food Programme started the Madagascar Country Programme with the two main goals of long-term development and reconstruction efforts, and addressing the food insecurity issues in the southern regions of Madagascar.", "These goals plan to be accomplished by providing meals for specific schools in rural and urban priority areas and by developing national school feeding policies to increase consistency of nourishment throughout the country.", "Small and local farmers have also been assisted in increasing both the quantity and quality of their production, as well as improving their crop yield in unfavorable weather conditions.", "In 2017, Madagascar signed the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons." ], [ "Economy", "Historical change in per capita GDP of Madagascar since 1950 Nosy Iranja is one of the international tourism destinations in MadagascarMadagascar's GDP in 2015 was estimated at US$9.98 billion, with a per capita GDP of $411.82.Approximately 69 percent of the population lives below the national poverty line threshold of one dollar per day.", "During 2011–15, the average growth rate was 2.6% but was expected to have reached 4.1% in 2016, due to public works programs and a growth of the service sector.", "The agriculture sector constituted 29 percent of Malagasy GDP in 2011, while manufacturing formed 15 percent of GDP.", "Madagascar's other sources of growth are tourism, agriculture and the extractive industries.", "The fishing sector represents 800 millions USD or 6% of GNP with 200 000 direct jobs.Tourism focuses on the niche eco-tourism market, capitalizing on Madagascar's unique biodiversity, unspoiled natural habitats, national parks and lemur species.", "An estimated 365,000 tourists visited Madagascar in 2008, but the sector declined during the political crisis with 180,000 tourists visiting in 2010.However, the sector has been growing steadily for a few years.", "In 2016, 293,000 tourists landed in the African island with an increase of 20% compared to 2015.For 2017 the country has the goal of reaching 366,000 visitors, while for 2018 government estimates are expected to reach 500,000 annual tourists.The island is still a very poor country in 2018; structural brakes remain in the development of the economy: corruption and the shackles of the public administration, lack of legal certainty, and backwardness of land legislation.", "The economy, however, has been growing since 2011, with GDP growth exceeding 4% per year; almost all economic indicators are growing, the GDP per capita was around $1600 (PPP) for 2017, one of the lowest in the world, although growing since 2012; unemployment was also cut, which in 2016 was equal to 2.1% with a work force of 13.4 million as of 2017.The main economic resources of Madagascar are tourism, textiles, agriculture, and mining.Poverty affects 92% of the population in 2017.The country ranks fourth in the world in terms of chronic malnutrition.", "Nearly one in two children under the age of five is stunted.", "In addition, Madagascar is among the five countries where access to water is the most difficult for the population.", "Twelve million people do not have access to clean water, according to the NGO WaterAid.===Natural resources and trade===Toy animals made from raffia, a native palmMadagascar's natural resources include a variety of agricultural and mineral products.", "Agriculture (including the growing of raffia), mining, fishing and forestry are mainstays of the economy.", "In 2017 the top exports were vanilla (US$894M), nickel metal (US$414M), cloves (US$288M), knitted sweaters (US$184M) and cobalt (US$143M).Madagascar is the world's principal supplier of vanilla, cloves and ylang-ylang.", "The island supplies 80% of the world's natural vanilla.", "Other key agricultural resources include coffee, lychees and shrimp.", "Key mineral resources include various types of precious and semi-precious stones, and it currently provides half of the world's supply of sapphires, which were discovered near Ilakaka in the late 1990s.Madagascar has one of the world's largest reserves of ilmenite (titanium ore), as well as important reserves of chromite, coal, iron, cobalt, copper and nickel.", "Several major projects are underway in the mining, oil and gas sectors that are anticipated to give a significant boost to the Malagasy economy.", "These include such projects as ilmenite and zircon mining at the Mandena mine by Rio Tinto, extraction of nickel by the Ambatovy mine near Moramanga and its processing near Toamasina by Sherritt International, and the development of the giant onshore heavy oil deposits at Tsimiroro and Bemolanga by Madagascar Oil.Exports formed 28 percent of GDP in 2009.Most of the country's export revenue is derived from the textiles industry, fish and shellfish, vanilla, cloves and other foodstuffs.", "France is the nation's main trading partner, although the United States, Japan and Germany also have strong economic ties.", "The Madagascar-U.S. Business Council was formed in May 2003, as a collaboration between USAID and Malagasy artisan producers to support the export of local handicrafts to foreign markets.", "Imports of such items as foodstuffs, fuel, capital goods, vehicles, consumer goods and electronics consume an estimated 52 percent of GDP.", "The main sources of Madagascar's imports include China, France, Iran, Mauritius and Hong Kong.===Infrastructure and media===A news stand in AntananarivoIn many places oxcarts are an important medium of transport, like in AmbatolampyIn 2010, Madagascar had approximately of paved roads, of railways and of navigable waterways.", "The majority of roads in Madagascar are unpaved, with many becoming impassable in the rainy season.", "Largely paved national routes connect the six largest regional towns to Antananarivo, with minor paved and unpaved routes providing access to other population centers in each district.", "Construction of the Antananarivo–Toamasina toll highway, the country's first toll highway, began in December 2022.The approximately infrastructure project, which will connect Madagascar's capital to its largest seaport, is expected to take four years to complete.", "Another project meant to create 348 kilometers of roads and create better connections costs €235.5 million.", "This includes a €116 million grant from the European Union, a €110 million loan from the European Investment Bank, and €4.8 million in finance from the Republic of Madagascar.''''''", "Since 2016, €100.4 million has been paid to the Republic of Madagascar through this project.", "''''''There are several rail lines in Madagascar.", "Antananarivo is connected to Toamasina, Ambatondrazaka and Antsirabe by rail, and another rail line connects Fianarantsoa to Manakara.", "The most important seaport in Madagascar is located on the east coast at Toamasina.", "Ports at Mahajanga and Antsiranana are significantly less used because of their remoteness.", "Madagascar's government hopes to expand the ports of Antsiranana in the north and Taolagnaro in the south, connecting them to improved road networks, since many imports are every day necessities and Madagascar also relies on export money.''''''", "The island's newest port at Ehoala, constructed in 2008 and privately managed by Rio Tinto, will come under state control upon completion of the company's mining project near Tôlanaro around 2038.Air Madagascar services the island's many small regional airports, which offer the only practical means of access to many of the more remote regions during rainy season road washouts.Running water and electricity are supplied at the national level by a government service provider, Jirama, which is unable to service the entire population.", ", only 6.8 percent of Madagascar's ''fokontany'' had access to water provided by Jirama, while 9.5 percent had access to its electricity services.", "Fifty-six percent of Madagascar's power is provided by hydroelectric power plants, with the remaining 44% provided by diesel engine generators.", "Mobile telephone and internet access are widespread in urban areas but remain limited in rural parts of the island.", "Approximately 30% of the districts are able to access the nations' several private telecommunications networks via mobile telephones or land lines.", "The World Bank estimates that 17 million people in Madagascar's rural areas live more than two kilometres away from an all-season road.", "In Madagascar, 11% of the rural population has access to power.", "''''''Radio broadcasts remain the principal means by which the Malagasy population access international, national, and local news.", "Only state radio broadcasts are transmitted across the entire island.", "Hundreds of public and private stations with local or regional range provide alternatives to state broadcasting.", "In addition to the state television channel, a variety of privately owned television stations broadcast local and international programming throughout Madagascar.", "Several media outlets are owned by political partisans or politicians themselves, including the media groups MBS (owned by Ravalomanana) and Viva (owned by Rajoelina), contributing to political polarization in reporting.The media have historically come under varying degrees of pressure to censor their criticism of the government.", "Reporters are occasionally threatened or harassed, and media outlets are periodically forced to close.", "Accusations of media censorship have increased since 2009 because of the alleged intensification of restrictions on political criticism.", "Access to the internet has grown dramatically over the past decade, with an estimated 352,000 residents of Madagascar accessing the internet from home or in one of the nation's many internet cafés in December 2011." ], [ "Demographics", "Malagasy ethnic subgroupsAgriculture has long influenced settlement on the island.", "Only 15% of the nation's 24,894,551 population live in the 10 largest cities.In , the population of Madagascar was estimated at  million, up from 2.2 million in 1900.The annual population growth rate in Madagascar was approximately 2.9 percent in 2009.Approximately 42.5 percent of the population is younger than 15 years of age, while 54.5 percent are between the ages of 15 and 64.Those aged 65 and older form 3 percent of the total population.", "Only two general censuses, in 1975 and 1993, have been carried out after independence.", "The most densely populated regions of the island are the eastern highlands and the eastern coast, contrasting most dramatically with the sparsely populated western plains.===Ethnic groups===The Malagasy ethnic group forms over 90 percent of Madagascar's population and is typically divided into 18 ethnic subgroups.", "Recent DNA research revealed that the genetic makeup of the average Malagasy person constitutes an approximately equal blend of Southeast Asian, Oceanian and East African genes, although the genetics of some communities show a predominance of Southeast Asian or East African origins or some Arab, Indian, or European ancestry.Southeast Asian features – specifically from the southern part of Borneo – are most predominant among the Merina of the central highlands, who form the largest Malagasy ethnic subgroup at approximately 26 percent of the population, while certain communities among the western coastal peoples (collectively called ''côtiers'') have relatively stronger East African features.", "The largest coastal ethnic subgroups are the Betsimisaraka (14.9 percent) and the Tsimihety and Sakalava (6 percent each).", "Peoples along the east and southeastern coasts often have a roughly equal blend of Austronesian and Bantu ancestry; coastal peoples also usually show the largest genetic influence from the centuries of Arab, Somali, Gujarati, and Tamil traders and merchants of the area, compared to the inland highlander peoples.Malagasy ethnic subgroups Regional concentrationAntankarana, Sakalava, Tsimihety Former Antsiranana Province; north and northwestern coastsSakalava, Vezo Former Mahajanga Province; western coastBetsimisaraka, Sihanaka, Bezanozano Former Toamasina Province; eastern coastMerina Former Antananarivo Province; central highlandsBetsileo, Antaifasy, Antambahoaka, Antaimoro, Antaisaka, Tanala Former Fianarantsoa Province; southeastern coastMahafaly, Antandroy, Antanosy people, Bara, Vezo Former Toliara Province; southern inland regions and coastChinese, Indian and Comoran minorities are present in Madagascar, as well as a small European (primarily French) populace.", "Emigration in the late 20th century has reduced these minority populations, occasionally in abrupt waves, such as the exodus of Comorans in 1976, following anti-Comoran riots in Mahajanga.", "By comparison, there has been no significant emigration of Malagasy peoples.", "The number of Europeans has declined since independence, reduced from 68,430 in 1958 to 17,000 three decades later.", "There were an estimated 25,000 Comorans, 18,000 Indians, and 9,000 Chinese living in Madagascar in the mid-1980s.=== Largest cities ======Languages===A Malagasy childThe Malagasy language is of Malayo-Polynesian origin and is generally spoken throughout the island.", "The numerous dialects of Malagasy, which are generally mutually intelligible, can be clustered under one of two subgroups: eastern Malagasy, spoken along the eastern forests and highlands including the Merina dialect of Antananarivo, and western Malagasy, spoken across the western coastal plains.", "The Malagasy language derives from the Southeast Barito languages, with the Ma'anyan language being its closest relative, incorporating numerous Malay and Javanese loanwords.French became the official language during the colonial period, when Madagascar came under the authority of France.", "In the first national Constitution of 1958, Malagasy and French were named the official languages of the Malagasy Republic.", "Madagascar is a francophone country, and French is mostly spoken as a second language among the educated population and used for international communication.No official languages were mentioned in the Constitution of 1992, although Malagasy was identified as the national language.", "Nonetheless, many sources still claimed that Malagasy and French were official languages, eventually leading a citizen to initiate a legal case against the state in April 2000, on the grounds that the publication of official documents only in the French language was unconstitutional.", "The High Constitutional Court observed in its decision that, in the absence of a language law, French still had the character of an official language.The Constitution of 2007 recognised three official languages, Malagasy, French, and English.", "A fourth Constitution, adopted in 2010 following a referendum, recognised only Malagasy and French.=== Religion ===Our Lady of La Salette Cathedral in AntsirabeCatholic Church in AntananarivoChristianity is the most widely professed religion in Madagascar.", "According to the most recent national census completed in 1993, a majority of the population (52 percent) adhered to indigenous beliefs, with Christianity being the largest single religion at 41 percent, followed by Islam at 7 percent.", "However, according to the Pew Research Center in 2020, 85% of the population identified as Christian, while just 4.5% practiced folk religions; Protestants comprise a plurality of Christians, followed by Roman Catholics.", "In contrast, a 2020 study conducted by the Association of Religion Data Archives found 58.1% of the population was Christian, 2.1% Muslim, 39.2% practiced traditional faiths, and 0.6% was nonreligious or adhered to other faiths.The inconsistency in religious data reflects the common practice of alternating between religious identities or syncretizing different faith traditions.", "Christians integrate and combine their religious beliefs with the deeply rooted practice of honoring ancestors.", "For instance, they may bless their dead at church before proceeding with traditional burial rites or invite a Christian minister to consecrate a ''famadihana'' reburial.", "Christianity is predominant in the highlands.", "The Malagasy Council of Churches comprises the four oldest and most prominent Christian denominations of Madagascar (Roman Catholic, Church of Jesus Christ in Madagascar, Lutheran, and Anglican) and has been influential in Malagasy politics.The veneration of ancestors has led to the widespread tradition of tomb building, as well as the highlands practice of the ''famadihana'', whereby a deceased family member's remains are exhumed and re-wrapped in fresh silk shrouds, before being replaced in the tomb.", "The ''famadihana'' is an occasion to celebrate the beloved ancestor's memory, reunite with family and community, and enjoy a festive atmosphere.", "Residents of surrounding villages are often invited to attend the party, where food and rum are typically served, and a ''hiragasy'' troupe or other musical entertainment is commonly present.", "Consideration for ancestors is also demonstrated through adherence to ''fady'', taboos that are respected during and after the lifetime of the person who establishes them.", "It is widely believed that by showing respect for ancestors in these ways, they may intervene on behalf of the living.", "Conversely, misfortunes are often attributed to ancestors whose memory or wishes have been neglected.", "The sacrifice of zebu is a traditional method used to appease or honor the ancestors.", "In addition, the Malagasy traditionally believe in a creator god, called Zanahary or Andriamanitra.Islam was first brought to Madagascar in the Middle Ages by Arab and Somali Muslim traders, who established several Islamic schools along the eastern coast.", "While the use of Arabic script and loan words, and the adoption of Islamic astrology, would spread across the island, Islam took hold in only a handful of southeastern coastal communities.", "In 2020, Muslims constituted 2% of the population of Madagascar.", "They are largely concentrated in the northwestern provinces of Mahajanga and Antsiranana.", "Muslims are divided between ethnic Malagasy and Indians, Pakistanis and Comorans.Hinduism was introduced to Madagascar through Gujarati people immigrating from the Saurashtra region of India in the late 19th century.", "Most Hindus in Madagascar speak Gujarati or Hindi at home, reflecting the faiths concentration among those of Indian ancestry.Rabbinic Judaism emerged on the island in the 21st century, as the common belief in a myth of Jewish origin for the Malagasy peoples inspired Messianic Jews in Antananarivo to begin researching Judaism and studying the Torah.", "In 2016, 121 members of the Malagasy Jewish community were formally converted to Orthodox Judaism.===Health===Medical centers, dispensaries, and hospitals are found throughout the island, although they are concentrated in urban areas and particularly in Antananarivo.", "Access to medical care remains beyond the reach of many Malagasy, especially in the rural areas, and many recourse to traditional healers.", "In addition to the high expense of medical care relative to the average Malagasy income, the prevalence of trained medical professionals remains extremely low.", "In 2010, Madagascar had an average of three hospital beds per 10,000 people and a total of 3,150 doctors, 5,661 nurses, 385 community health workers, 175 pharmacists, and 57 dentists for a population of 22 million.", "Fifteen percent of government spending in 2008 was directed toward the health sector.", "Approximately 70 percent of spending on health was contributed by the government, while 30 percent originated with international donors and other private sources.", "The government provides at least one basic health center per commune.", "Private health centers are concentrated within urban areas and particularly those of the central highlands.Despite these barriers to access, health services have shown a trend toward improvement over the past twenty years.", "Child immunizations against such diseases as hepatitis B, diphtheria, and measles increased an average of 60 percent in this period, indicating low but increasing availability of basic medical services and treatments.", "The Malagasy fertility rate in 2009 was 4.6 children per woman, declining from 6.3 in 1990.Teen pregnancy rates of 14.8 percent in 2011, much higher than the African average, are a contributing factor to rapid population growth.", "In 2010, the maternal mortality rate was 440 per 100,000 births, compared to 373.1 in 2008 and 484.4 in 1990, indicating a decline in perinatal care following the 2009 coup.", "The infant mortality rate in 2011 was 41 per 1,000 births, with an under-five mortality rate at 61 per 1,000 births.", "Schistosomiasis, malaria, and sexually transmitted diseases are common in Madagascar, although infection rates of AIDS remain low relative to many countries in mainland Africa, at 0.2 percent of the adult population.", "The malaria mortality rate is also among the lowest in Africa at 8.5 deaths per 100,000 people, in part because of the highest frequency use of insecticide treated nets in Africa.", "Adult life expectancy in 2009 was 63 years for men and 67 years for women.Madagascar had outbreaks of the bubonic plague and pneumonic plague in 2017 (2575 cases, 221 deaths) and 2014 (263 confirmed cases, 71 deaths).", "In 2019, Madagascar had a measles outbreak, resulting in 118,000 cases and 1,688 deaths.", "In 2020, Madagascar was also affected by the COVID-19 pandemic.", "Undernourishment and hunger rates were at 42% in 2018.According to the United Nations, more than one million people in southern Madagascar are struggling to get enough to eat, due to what could become the first famine caused by climate change.===Education===Education access and quality were prioritized under Ravalomanana.Prior to the 19th century, all education in Madagascar was informal and typically served to teach practical skills as well as social and cultural values, including respect for ancestors and elders.", "The first formal European-style school was established in 1818 at Toamasina by members of the London Missionary Society (LMS).", "The LMS was invited by King Radama I to expand its schools throughout Imerina to teach basic literacy and numeracy to aristocratic children.", "The schools were closed by Ranavalona I in 1835, but reopened and expanded in the decades after her death.By the end of the 19th century, Madagascar had the most developed and modern school system in pre-colonial Sub-Saharan Africa.", "Access to schooling was expanded in coastal areas during the colonial period, with French language and basic work skills becoming the focus of the curriculum.", "During the post-colonial First Republic, a continued reliance on French nationals as teachers, and French as the language of instruction, displeased those desiring a complete separation from the former colonial power.", "Consequently, under the socialist Second Republic, French instructors and other nationals were expelled, Malagasy was declared the language of instruction, and a large cadre of young Malagasy were rapidly trained to teach at remote rural schools under the mandatory two-year national service policy.This policy, known as ''malgachization'', coincided with a severe economic downturn and a dramatic decline in the quality of education.", "Those schooled during this period generally failed to master the French language or many other subjects and struggled to find employment, forcing many to take low-paying jobs in the informal or black market that mired them in deepening poverty.", "Excepting the brief presidency of Albert Zafy, from 1992 to 1996, Ratsiraka remained in power from 1975 to 2001 and failed to achieve significant improvements in education throughout his tenure.Education was prioritized under the Ravalomanana administration (2002–09), and is currently free and compulsory from ages 6 to 13.The primary schooling cycle is five years, followed by four years at the lower secondary level and three years at the upper secondary level.", "During Ravalomanana's first term, thousands of new primary schools and additional classrooms were constructed, older buildings were renovated, and tens of thousands of new primary teachers were recruited and trained.", "Primary school fees were eliminated, and kits containing basic school supplies were distributed to primary students.Government school construction initiatives have ensured at least one primary school per ''fokontany'' and one lower secondary school within each commune.", "At least one upper secondary school is located in each of the larger urban centers.", "The three branches of the national public university are located at Antananarivo, Mahajanga, and Fianarantsoa.", "These are complemented by public teacher-training colleges and several private universities and technical colleges.As a result of increased educational access, enrollment rates more than doubled between 1996 and 2006.However, education quality is weak, producing high rates of grade repetition and dropout.", "Education policy in Ravalomanana's second term focused on quality issues, including an increase in minimum education standards for the recruitment of primary teachers from a middle school leaving certificate (BEPC) to a high school leaving certificate (BAC), and a reformed teacher training program to support the transition from traditional didactic instruction to student-centered teaching methods to boost student learning and participation in the classroom.", "Public expenditure on education was 2.8 percent of GDP in 2014.The literacy rate is estimated at 64.7%.Madagascar was ranked 107th in the Global Innovation Index in 2023." ], [ "Culture", "Each of the many ethnic subgroups in Madagascar adhere to their own set of beliefs, practices and ways of life that have historically contributed to their unique identities.", "However, there are a number of core cultural features that are common throughout the island, creating a strongly unified Malagasy cultural identity.", "In addition to a common language and shared traditional religious beliefs around a creator god and veneration of the ancestors, the traditional Malagasy worldview is shaped by values that emphasize ''fihavanana'' (solidarity), ''vintana'' (destiny), ''tody'' (karma), and ''hasina'', a sacred life force that traditional communities believe imbues and thereby legitimates authority figures within the community or family.", "Other cultural elements commonly found throughout the island include the practice of male circumcision; strong kinship ties; a widespread belief in the power of magic, diviners, astrology and witch doctors; and a traditional division of social classes into nobles, commoners, and slaves.Although social castes are no longer legally recognized, ancestral caste affiliation often continues to affect social status, economic opportunity, and roles within the community.", "Malagasy people traditionally consult ''Mpanandro'' (\"Makers of the Days\") to identify the most auspicious days for important events such as weddings or ''famadihana'', according to a traditional astrological system introduced by Arabs.", "Similarly, the nobles of many Malagasy communities in the pre-colonial period would commonly employ advisers known as the ''ombiasy'' (from ''olona-be-hasina'', \"man of much virtue\") of the southeastern Antemoro ethnic group, who trace their ancestry back to early Somali settlers.The diverse origins of Malagasy culture are evident in its tangible expressions.", "The most emblematic instrument of Madagascar, the ''valiha'', is a bamboo tube zither carried to Madagascar by early settlers from southern Borneo, and is very similar in form to those found in Indonesia and the Philippines today.", "Traditional houses in Madagascar are likewise similar to those of southern Borneo in terms of symbolism and construction, featuring a rectangular layout with a peaked roof and central support pillar.", "Reflecting a widespread veneration of the ancestors, tombs are culturally significant in many regions and tend to be built of more durable material, typically stone, and display more elaborate decoration than the houses of the living.", "The production and weaving of silk can be traced back to the island's earliest settlers, and Madagascar's national dress, the woven ''lamba'', has evolved into a varied and refined art.The Southeast Asian cultural influence is also evident in Malagasy cuisine, in which rice is consumed at every meal, typically accompanied by one of a variety of flavorful vegetable or meat dishes.", "African influence is reflected in the sacred importance of zebu cattle and their embodiment of their owner's wealth, traditions originating on the African mainland.", "Cattle rustling, originally a rite of passage for young men in the plains areas of Madagascar where the largest herds of cattle are kept, has become a dangerous and sometimes deadly criminal enterprise as herdsmen in the southwest attempt to defend their cattle with traditional spears against increasingly armed professional rustlers.===Media======Arts===A Hiragasy dancer.A wide variety of oral and written literature has developed in Madagascar.", "One of the island's foremost artistic traditions is its oratory, as expressed in the forms of ''hainteny'' (poetry), ''kabary'' (public discourse) and ''ohabolana'' (proverbs).", "An epic poem exemplifying these traditions, the ''Ibonia'', has been handed down over the centuries in several different forms across the island, and offers insight into the diverse mythologies and beliefs of traditional Malagasy communities.", "This tradition was continued in the 20th century by such artists as Jean-Joseph Rabearivelo, who is considered Africa's first modern poet, and Elie Rajaonarison, an exemplar of the new wave of Malagasy poetry.", "Madagascar has also developed a rich musical heritage, embodied in dozens of regional musical genres such as the coastal ''salegy'' or highland ''hiragasy'' that enliven village gatherings, local dance floors and national airwaves.", "Madagascar also has a growing culture of classical music fostered through youth academies, organizations and orchestras that promote youth involvement in classical music.The plastic arts are also widespread throughout the island.", "In addition to the tradition of silk weaving and lamba production, the weaving of raffia and other local plant materials has been used to create a wide array of practical items such as floor mats, baskets, purses and hats.", "Wood carving is a highly developed art form, with distinct regional styles evident in the decoration of balcony railings and other architectural elements.", "Sculptors create a variety of furniture and household goods, ''aloalo'' funerary posts, and wooden sculptures, many of which are produced for the tourist market.", "The decorative and functional woodworking traditions of the Zafimaniry people of the central highlands was inscribed on UNESCO's list of Intangible Cultural Heritage in 2008.Among the Antaimoro people, the production of paper embedded with flowers and other decorative natural materials is a long-established tradition that the community has begun to market to eco-tourists.", "Embroidery and drawn thread work are done by hand to produce clothing, as well as tablecloths and other home textiles for sale in local crafts markets.", "Malagasy artists such as Madame Zo have incorporated textile traditions of Madagascar directly into their work.", "A small but growing number of fine art galleries in Antananarivo, and several other urban areas, offer paintings by local artists, and annual art events, such as the Hosotra open-air exhibition in the capital, contribute to the continuing development of fine arts in Madagascar.===Sport===''Moraingy'' is a traditional martial art of Madagascar.A number of traditional pastimes have emerged in Madagascar.", "''Moraingy'', a type of hand-to-hand combat, is a popular spectator sport in coastal regions.", "It is traditionally practiced by men, but women have recently begun to participate.", "The wrestling of zebu cattle, which is named savika or ''tolon-omby'', is also practiced in many regions.", "In addition to sports, a wide variety of games are played.", "Among the most emblematic is ''fanorona'', a board game widespread throughout the Highland regions.", "According to folk legend, the succession of King Andrianjaka after his father Ralambo was partially the result of the obsession that Andrianjaka's older brother may have had with playing ''fanorona'' to the detriment of his other responsibilities.Western recreational activities were introduced to Madagascar over the past two centuries.", "Rugby union is considered the national sport of Madagascar.", "Soccer is also popular.", "Madagascar has produced a world champion in pétanque, a French game similar to lawn bowling, which is widely played in urban areas and throughout the Highlands.", "School athletics programs typically include soccer, track and field, judo, boxing, women's basketball and women's tennis.", "Madagascar sent its first competitors to the Olympic Games in 1964, and has also competed in the African Games.", "Scouting is represented in Madagascar by its own local federation of three scouting clubs.", "Membership in 2011 was estimated at 14,905.Because of its advanced sports facilities, Antananarivo gained the hosting rights for several of Africa's top international basketball events, including the 2011 FIBA Africa Championship, the 2009 FIBA Africa Championship for Women, the 2014 FIBA Africa Under-18 Championship, the 2013 FIBA Africa Under-16 Championship, and the 2015 FIBA Africa Under-16 Championship for Women.", "Madagascar's national 3x3 basketball team won the gold medal at the 2019 African Games.===Cuisine===Malagasy cuisine reflects the diverse influences of Southeast Asian, African, Oceania, Indian, Chinese, and European culinary traditions.", "The complexity of Malagasy meals can range from the simple, traditional preparations introduced by the earliest settlers, to the refined festival dishes prepared for the island's 19th-century monarchs.", "Throughout almost the entire island, the contemporary cuisine of Madagascar typically consists of a base of rice (''vary'') served with an accompaniment (''laoka'').", "The many varieties of ''laoka'' may be vegetarian or include animal proteins, and typically feature a sauce flavored with such ingredients as ginger, onion, garlic, tomato, vanilla, coconut milk, salt, curry powder, green peppercorns or, less commonly, other spices or herbs.", "In parts of the arid south and west, pastoral families may replace rice with maize, cassava, or curds made from fermented zebu milk.", "A wide variety of sweet and savory fritters as well as other street foods are available across the island, as are diverse tropical and temperate-climate fruits.", "Locally produced beverages include fruit juices, coffee, herbal teas and teas, and alcoholic drinks such as rum, wine, and beer.", "Three Horses Beer is the most popular beer on the island and is considered emblematic of Madagascar." ], [ "See also", "* Index of Madagascar-related articles* Outline of Madagascar" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *** * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Country Profile from BBC News* Madagascar.", "''The World Factbook''.", "Central Intelligence Agency.", "* * Madagascar from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''* * Key Development Forecasts for Madagascar from International Futures* * Map of Madagascar, 1666, (in French).", "Eran Laor Cartographic Collection, The National Library of Israel" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Flowering plant" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Flowering plants''' are plants that bear flowers and fruits, and form the clade '''Angiospermae''' (), commonly called '''angiosperms'''.", "They include all forbs (flowering plants without a woody stem), grasses and grass-like plants, a vast majority of broad-leaved trees, shrubs and vines, and most aquatic plants.", "The term \"angiosperm\" is derived from the Greek words ἀγγεῖον / ('container, vessel') and σπέρμα / ('seed'), meaning that the seeds are enclosed within a fruit.", "They are by far the most diverse group of land plants with 64 orders, 416 families, approximately 13,000 known genera and 300,000 known species.", "Angiosperms were formerly called '''Magnoliophyta''' ().Angiosperms are distinguished from the other seed-producing plants, the gymnosperms, by having flowers, xylem consisting of vessel elements instead of tracheids, endosperm within their seeds, and fruits that completely envelop the seeds.The ancestors of flowering plants diverged from the common ancestor of all living gymnosperms before the end of the Carboniferous, over 300 million years ago.", "In the Cretaceous, angiosperms diversified explosively, becoming the dominant group of plants across the planet.Agriculture is almost entirely dependent on angiosperms, and a small number of flowering plant families supply nearly all plant-based food and livestock feed.", "Rice, maize, and wheat provide half of the world's calorie intake, and all three plants are cereals from the Poaceae family (colloquially known as grasses).", "Other families provide materials such as wood, paper and cotton, and supply numerous ingredients for traditional and modern medicines.", "Flowering plants are also commonly grown for decorative purposes, with certain flowers playing a significant role in many cultures.Out of the \"Big Five\" extinction events in Earth's history, only the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event had occurred while angiosperms dominated plant life on the planet.", "Today, the Holocene extinction affects all kingdoms of complex life on Earth, and conservation measures are necessary to protect plants in their habitats in the wild (''in situ''), or failing that, ''ex situ'' in seed banks or artificial habitats like botanic gardens.", "Otherwise, around 40% of plant species may become extinct due to human actions such as habitat destruction, introduction of invasive species, unsustainable logging and collection of medicinal or ornamental plants.", "Further, climate change is starting to impact plants and is likely to cause many species to become extinct by 2100." ], [ "Distinguishing features", "Angiosperms are terrestrial vascular plants; like the gymnosperms, they have roots, stems, leaves, and seeds.", "They differ from other seed plants in several ways.", "Feature Description ImageFlowers The reproductive organs of flowering plants, not found in any other seed plants.", "Narcissus'' flower in section.", "Petals and sepals are replaced here by a fused tube, the corona, and tepals.Reduced gametophytes, three cells in male, seven cells with eight nuclei in female The gametophytes are smaller than those of gymnosperms.", "The smaller size of the pollen reduces the time between pollination and fertilization, which in gymnosperms is up to a year.", "Embryo sac is a reduced female gametophyte.Endosperm Endosperm forms after fertilization but before the zygote divides.", "It provides food for the developing embryo, the cotyledons, and sometimes the seedling.", "Closed carpel enclosing the ovules.", "Once the ovules are fertilised, the carpels, often with surrounding tissues, develop into fruits.", "Gymnosperms have unenclosed seeds.", "Peas (seeds, from ovules) inside pod (fruit, from fertilised carpel).", "Xylem made of vessel elements Open vessel elements are stacked end to end to form continuous tubes, whereas gymnosperm xylem is made of tapered tracheids connected by small pits.", "Xylem vessels (long tubes)." ], [ "Diversity", "=== Ecological diversity ===File:MountainAshWithCars.jpg|''Eucalyptus regnans'',a tree almost 100 m tallFile:WolffiaArrhiza2.jpg|''Wolffia arrhiza'', a rootless floating freshwater plant under 2 mm acrossThe largest angiosperms are ''Eucalyptus'' gum trees of Australia, and ''Shorea faguetiana'', dipterocarp rainforest trees of Southeast Asia, both of which can reach almost in height.", "The smallest are ''Wolffia'' duckweeds which float on freshwater, each plant less than across.File:Sunlight on a gunnera leaf, 'Quarry Garden', Belsay estate - geograph.org.uk - 1384733.jpg|''Gunnera'' captures sunlight for photosynthesis over the large surfaces of its leaves, which are supported by strong veins.File:Orobanche purpurea.jpg|''Orobanche purpurea'', a parasitic broomrape with no leaves, obtains all its food from other plants.Considering their method of obtaining energy, some 99% of flowering plants are photosynthetic autotrophs, deriving their energy from sunlight and using it to create molecules such as sugars.", "The remainder are parasitic, whether on fungi like the orchids for part or all of their life-cycle, or on other plants, either wholly like the broomrapes, ''Orobanche'', or partially like the witchweeds, ''Striga''.File:Carnegiea gigantea Saguaro cactus plant (cropped).jpg|''Carnegiea gigantea'', the saguaro cactus, grows in hot dry deserts in Mexico and the southern United States.File:Dryas octopetala (Colorado, USA).jpg|''Dryas octopetala'', the mountain avens, lives in cold arctic and montane habitats in the far north of America and Eurasia.File:Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn.", "(47502598342).jpg|''Nelumbo nucifera'', the sacred lotus, grows in warm freshwater across tropical and subtropical Asia.File:Zostera.jpg|''Zostera'' seagrass grows on the seabed in sheltered coastal waters.In terms of their environment, flowering plants are cosmopolitan, occupying a wide range of habitats on land, in fresh water and in the sea.", "On land, they are the dominant plant group in every habitat except for frigid moss-lichen tundra and coniferous forest.", "The seagrasses in the Alismatales grow in marine environments, spreading with rhizomes that grow through the mud in sheltered coastal waters.File:Drosera anglica ne2.jpg|''Drosera anglica'', a sundew, lives in nutrient-poor acid bogs, deriving nutrients from trapped insects.File:Gentiana verna.jpg|''Gentiana verna'', the spring gentian, flourishes in dry limestone habitats.Some specialised angiosperms are able to flourish in extremely acid or alkaline habitats.", "The sundews, many of which live in nutrient-poor acid bogs, are carnivorous plants, able to derive nutrients such as nitrate from the bodies of trapped insects.", "Other flowers such as ''Gentiana verna'', the spring gentian, are adapted to the alkaline conditions found on calcium-rich chalk and limestone, which give rise to often dry topographies such as limestone pavement.File:GT Herb Robert.jpg|''Geranium robertianum'', herb-Robert, is an annual or biennial herb of Europe and North America.File:Betula_pendula_001.jpg|''Betula pendula'', the silver birch, is a perennial deciduous tree of Eurasia.File:Lianas.jpg|Lianas ''Austrosteenisia'', ''Parsonsia'', and ''Sarcopetalum'' climbing trees in AustraliaAs for their growth habit, the flowering plants range from small, soft herbaceous plants, often living as annuals or biennials that set seed and die after one growing season, to large perennial woody trees that may live for many centuries and grow to many metres in height.", "Some species grow tall without being self-supporting like trees by climbing on other plants in the manner of vines or lianas.=== Taxonomic diversity ===The number of species of flowering plants is estimated to be in the range of 250,000 to 400,000.This compares to around 12,000 species of moss and 11,000 species of pteridophytes.", "The APG system seeks to determine the number of families, mostly by molecular phylogenetics.", "In the 2009 APG III there were 415 families.", "The 2016 APG IV added five new orders (Boraginales, Dilleniales, Icacinales, Metteniusales and Vahliales), along with some new families, for a total of 64 angiosperm orders and 416 families.The diversity of flowering plants is not evenly distributed.", "Nearly all species belong to the eudicot (75%), monocot (23%), and magnoliid (2%) clades.", "The remaining five clades contain a little over 250 species in total; i.e.", "less than 0.1% of flowering plant diversity, divided among nine families.", "The 25 most species-rich of 443 families, containing over 166,000 species between them in their APG circumscriptions, are:+ The 25 largest angiosperm families Group Family English name No.", "of spp.", "Eudicot Asteraceae or Compositae daisy 22,750 Monocot Orchidaceae orchid 21,950 Eudicot Fabaceae or Leguminosae pea, legume 19,400 Eudicot Rubiaceae madder 13,150 Monocot Poaceae or Gramineae grass 10,035 Eudicot Lamiaceae or Labiatae mint 7,175 Eudicot Euphorbiaceae spurge 5,735 Eudicot Melastomataceae melastome 5,005 Eudicot Myrtaceae myrtle 4,625 Eudicot Apocynaceae dogbane 4,555 Monocot Cyperaceae sedge 4,350 Eudicot Malvaceae mallow 4,225 Monocot Araceae arum 4,025 Eudicot Ericaceae heath 3,995 Eudicot Gesneriaceae gesneriad 3,870 Eudicot Apiaceae or Umbelliferae parsley 3,780 Eudicot Brassicaceae or Cruciferae cabbage 3,710 Magnoliid dicot Piperaceae pepper 3,600 Monocot Bromeliaceae bromeliad 3,540 Eudicot Acanthaceae acanthus 3,500 Eudicot Rosaceae rose 2,830 Eudicot Boraginaceae borage 2,740 Eudicot Urticaceae nettle 2,625 Eudicot Ranunculaceae buttercup 2,525 Magnoliid dicot Lauraceae laurel 2,500" ], [ "Evolution", "=== History of classification ===From 1736, an illustration of Linnaean classificationThe botanical term \"angiosperm\", from Greek words ( 'bottle, vessel') and ( 'seed'), was coined in the form \"Angiospermae\" by Paul Hermann in 1690, including only flowering plants whose seeds were enclosed in capsules.", "The term angiosperm fundamentally changed in meaning in 1827 with Robert Brown, when angiosperm came to mean a seed plant with enclosed ovules.", "In 1851, with Wilhelm Hofmeister's work on embryo-sacs, Angiosperm came to have its modern meaning of all the flowering plants including Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons.", "The APG system treats the flowering plants as an unranked clade without a formal Latin name (angiosperms).", "A formal classification was published alongside the 2009 revision in which the flowering plants rank as the subclass Magnoliidae.", "From 1998, the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG) has reclassified the angiosperms, with updates in the APG II system in 2003, the APG III system in 2009, and the APG IV system in 2016.=== Phylogeny ======= External ====In 2019, a molecular phylogeny of plants placed the flowering plants in their evolutionary context:==== Internal ====The main groups of living angiosperms are:Detailed Cladogram of the 2016 Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG) IV classification.=== Fossil history ===Adaptive radiation in the Cretaceous created many flowering plants, such as ''Sagaria'' in the Ranunculaceae.Fossilised spores suggest that land plants (embryophytes) have existed for at least 475 million years.", "However, angiosperms appear suddenly and in great diversity in the fossil record in the Early Cretaceous (~130 mya).", "Claimed records of flowering plants prior to this are not widely accepted.", "Molecular evidence suggests that the ancestors of angiosperms diverged from the gymnosperms during the late Devonian, about 365 million years ago.", "The origin time of the crown group of flowering plants remains contentious.", "By the Late Cretaceous, angiosperms appear to have dominated environments formerly occupied by ferns and gymnosperms.", "Large canopy-forming trees replaced conifers as the dominant trees close to the end of the Cretaceous, 66 million years ago.", "The radiation of herbaceous angiosperms occurred much later." ], [ "Reproduction", "=== Flowers ===Angiosperm flower showing reproductive parts and life cycleThe characteristic feature of angiosperms is the flower.", "Its function is to ensure fertilization of the ovule and development of fruit containing seeds.", "It may arise terminally on a shoot or from the axil of a leaf.", "The flower-bearing part of the plant is usually sharply distinguished from the leaf-bearing part, and forms a branch-system called an inflorescence.Flowers produce two kinds of reproductive cells.", "Microspores, which divide to become pollen grains, are the male cells; they are borne in the stamens.", "The female cells, megaspores, divide to become the egg cell.", "They are contained in the ovule and enclosed in the carpel; one or more carpels form the pistil.The flower may consist only of these parts, as in wind-pollinated plants like the willow, where each flower comprises only a few stamens or two carpels.", "In insect- or bird-pollinated plants, other structures protect the sporophylls and attract pollinators.", "The individual members of these surrounding structures are known as sepals and petals (or tepals in flowers such as ''Magnolia'' where sepals and petals are not distinguishable from each other).", "The outer series (calyx of sepals) is usually green and leaf-like, and functions to protect the rest of the flower, especially the bud.", "The inner series (corolla of petals) is, in general, white or brightly colored, is more delicate in structure, and attracts pollinators by colour, scent, and nectar.", "Most flowers are hermaphroditic, producing both pollen and ovules in the same flower, but some use other devices to reduce self-fertilization.", "Heteromorphic flowers have carpels and stamens of differing lengths, so animal pollinators cannot easily transfer pollen between them.", "Homomorphic flowers may use a biochemical self-incompatibility to discriminate between self and non-self pollen grains.", "Dioecious plants such as holly have male and female flowers on separate plants.", "Monoecious plants have separate male and female flowers on the same plant; these are often wind-pollinated, as in maize, but include some insect-pollinated plants such as ''Cucurbita'' squashes.=== Fertilisation and embryogenesis ===Double fertilization requires two sperm cells to fertilise cells in the ovule.", "A pollen grain sticks to the stigma at the top of the pistil, germinates, and grows a long pollen tube.", "A haploid generative cell travels down the tube behind the tube nucleus.", "The generative cell divides by mitosis to produce two haploid (''n'') sperm cells.", "The pollen tube grows from the stigma, down the style and into the ovary.", "When it reaches the micropyle of the ovule, it digests its way into one of the synergids, releasing its contents including the sperm cells.", "The synergid that the cells were released into degenerates; one sperm makes its way to fertilise the egg cell, producing a diploid (2''n'') zygote.", "The second sperm cell fuses with both central cell nuclei, producing a triploid (3''n'') cell.", "The zygote develops into an embryo; the triploid cell develops into the endosperm, the embryo's food supply.", "The ovary develops into a fruit.", "and each ovule into a seed.=== Fruit and seed ===horse chestnut tree, showing the large seed inside the fruit, which is dehiscing or splitting open.", "As the embryo and endosperm develop, the wall of the embryo sac enlarges and combines with the nucellus and integument to form the ''seed coat''.", "The ovary wall develops to form the fruit or pericarp, whose form is closely associated with type of seed dispersal system.Other parts of the flower often contribute to forming the fruit.", "For example, in the apple, the hypanthium forms the edible flesh, surrounding the ovaries which form the tough cases around the seeds.Apomixis, setting seed without fertilization, is found naturally in about 2.2% of angiosperm genera.", "Some angiosperms, including many citrus varieties, are able to produce fruits through a type of apomixis called nucellar embryony." ], [ "Interactions with humans", "=== Practical uses ===Harvesting rice in Arkansas, 2020Food from plants: a dish of ''Dal tadka'', Indian lentil soupAgriculture is almost entirely dependent on angiosperms, which provide virtually all plant-based food and livestock feed.", "Much of this food derives from a small number of flowering plant families.", "For instance, half of the world's calorie intake is supplied by just three plants - wheat, rice and maize.+ Major food-providing families Family English Example foods from that family Poaceae Grasses, cereals Most feedstocks, inc. rice, maize, wheat, barley, rye, oats, pearl millet, sugar cane, sorghum Fabaceae Legumes, pea family Peas, beans, lentils; for animal feed, clover, alfalfa Solanaceae Nightshade family Potatoes, tomatoes, peppers, aubergines Cucurbitaceae Gourd family Squashes, cucumbers, pumpkins, melons Brassicaceae Cabbage family Cabbage and its varieties, e.g.", "Brussels sprout, broccoli; mustard; oilseed rape Apiaceae Parsley family Parsnip, carrot, parsley, coriander, fennel, cumin, caraway Rutaceae Rue family Oranges, lemons, grapefruits Rosaceae Rose family Apples, pears, cherries, apricots, plums, peachesFlowering plants provide a diverse range of materials in the form of wood, paper, fibers such as cotton, flax, and hemp, medicines such as digoxin and opioids, and decorative and landscaping plants.", "Coffee and hot chocolate are beverages from flowering plants.=== Cultural uses === Bird-and-flower painting: ''Kingfisher and iris'' ''kachō-e'' woodblock print by Ohara Koson (late 19th century) Both real and fictitious plants play a wide variety of roles in literature and film.", "Flowers are the subjects of many poems by poets such as William Blake, Robert Frost, and Rabindranath Tagore.", "Bird-and-flower painting () is a kind of Chinese painting that celebrates the beauty of flowering plants.", "Flowers have been used in literature to convey meaning by authors including William Shakespeare.", "Flowers are used in a variety of art forms which arrange cut or living plants, such as bonsai, ikebana, and flower arranging.", "Ornamental plants have sometimes changed the course of history, as in tulipomania.", "Many countries and regions have floral emblems; a survey of 70 of these found that the most popular flowering plant family for such emblems is Orchidaceae at 15.7% (11 emblems), followed by Fabaceae at 10% (7 emblems), and Asparagaceae, Asteraceae, and Rosaceae all at 5.7% (4 emblems each).=== Conservation ===Viola calcarata, a species highly vulnerable to climate change.Human impact on the environment has driven a range of species extinct and is threatening even more today.", "Multiple organizations such as IUCN and Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew suggest that around 40% of plant species are threatened with extinction.", "The majority are threatened by habitat loss, but activities such as logging of wild timber trees and collection of medicinal plants, or the introduction of non-native invasive species, also play a role.", "Relatively few plant diversity assessments currently consider climate change, yet it is starting to impact plants as well.", "About 3% of flowering plants are very likely to be driven extinct within a century at of global warming, and 10% at .", "In worst-case scenarios, half of all tree species may be driven extinct by climate change over that timeframe.Conservation in this context is the attempt to prevent extinction, whether ''in situ'' by protecting plants and their habitats in the wild, or ''ex situ'' in seed banks or as living plants.", "Some 3000 botanic gardens around the world maintain living plants, including over 40% of the species known to be threatened, as an \"insurance policy against extinction in the wild.\"", "The United Nations' Global Strategy for Plant Conservation asserts that \"without plants, there is no life\".", "It aims to \"halt the continuing loss of plant diversity\" throughout the world." ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "===Articles, books and chapters===* * * * * * ** 1st edition published by Oxford University Press in 1991 * * * * Cromie, William J.", "(December 16, 1999).", "\"Oldest Known Flowering Plants Identified By Genes\".", "Harvard University Gazette.", "* * * * * * * * ** * * * * * * * ===Websites===* * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Malvales" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Malvales''' are an order of flowering plants.", "As circumscribed by APG II-system, the order includes about 6000 species within nine families.", "The order is placed in the eurosids II, which are part of the eudicots.The plants are mostly shrubs and trees; most of its families have a cosmopolitan distribution in the tropics and subtropics, with limited expansion into temperate regions.", "An interesting distribution occurs in Madagascar, where three endemic families of Malvales (Sphaerosepalaceae, Sarcolaenaceae and Diegodendraceae) occur.Many species of Malvaceae, ''sensu lato'' (in the broad sense), are valued for their wood, with that of ''Ochroma'' (balsa) being known for its lightness, and that of ''Tilia'' (lime, linden, or basswood) as a popular wood for carving.", "Fruit of the cacao tree (''Theobroma cacao'') are used as an ingredient for chocolate.", "Kola nuts (genus ''Cola'') are notable for their high caffeine content and were commonly used in the past in preparation of various cola drinks.", "They are still in use as a stimulant, particularly in West Africa where they are chewed for this effect.", "Other well-known members of Malvales in the APG II sense are daphnes, hibiscus, hollyhocks, okra, jute, baobab trees, cotton, kapok (which mostly comes from ''Ceiba pentandra'', but also from other \"Kapok trees\" also of Malvales, such as ''Bombax ceiba''), and durian." ], [ "Description", "''Hibiscus moscheutos''The morphology of Malvales is diverse, with few common characteristics.", "Among those most commonly encountered are leaf shapes in palmate form, sepals which are connate, and a specific structure and chemical composition of the seeds.", "The cortex is often fibrous, built of soft phloem layers." ], [ "Taxonomy", "Early classifications such as that of Dahlgren placed the Malvales in the superorder Malviflorae (also called Malvanae).", "Family boundaries and circumscriptions of the \"core\" Malvales families, Malvaceae, Bombacaceae, Tiliaceae, and Sterculiaceae, have long been problematic.", "A close relationship among these families, and particularly Malvaceae and Bombacaceae, has generally been recognized, although until recently most classification systems have maintained them as separate families.", "With numerous molecular phylogenies showing Sterculiaceae, Bombacaceae, and Tiliaceae as traditionally defined are either paraphyletic or polyphyletic, a consensus has been emerging for a trend to expand Malvaceae to include these three families.", "This expanded circumscription of Malvaceae has been recognized in the most recent version of the Thorne system, by the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group, and in the most recent comprehensive treatment of vascular plant families and genera, the Kubitzki system.The dominant family in the APG II-system is the extended Malvaceae (Malvaceae ''sensu lato'') with over 4000 species, followed by Thymelaeaceae with 750 species.", "This expanded circumscription of Malvaceae is taken to include the families Bombacaceae, Sterculiaceae and Tiliaceae.", "Under the older Cronquist system the order contained these four \"core Malvales\" families plus the Elaeocarpaceae and was placed among the Dilleniidae.", "Some of the currently included families were placed by Cronquist in the Violales." ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Alverson, W. S., K. G. Karol, D. A. Baum, M. W. Chase, S. M. Swensen, R. McCourt, and K. J. Sytsma (1998).", "Circumscription of the Malvales and relationships to other Rosidae: Evidence from rbcL sequence data.", "''American Journal of Botany'' '''85''', 876–887.", "(Available online: Abstract )* Edlin, H. L. 1935.A critical revision of certain taxonomic groups of the Malvales.", "''New Phytologist'' 34: 1-20, 122–143.", "* Judd, W.S., C. S. Campbell, E. A. Kellogg, P. F. Stevens, M. J. Donoghue (2002).", "''Plant Systematics: A Phylogenetic Approach, 2nd edition''.", "pp.", "405–410 (Malvales).", "Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, Massachusetts.", ".", "* Kubitzki, K. and M. W. Chase.", "2003.Introduction to Malvales, pp.", "12– 16.In K. Kubitzki (ed.", "), ''The Families and Genera of Vascular Plants'', vol.", "5, Malvales, Capparales and non-betalain Caryophyllales.", "* du Mortier, B. C. J.", "(1829).", "''Analyse des Familles de Plantes, avec l'indication des principaux genres qui s'y rattachent'', p. 43.Imprimerie de J. Casterman, Tournay.", "* Watson, L., and Dallwitz, M. J.", "(1992 onwards).", "The families of flowering plants: descriptions, illustrations, identification, and information retrieval The families of flowering plants: descriptions, illustrations, identification, and information retrieval.", "http://delta-intkey.com* Whitlock, B.", "A.", "(October 2001).", "Malvales (Mallow).", "In: ''Nature Encyclopedia of Life Sciences''.", "Nature Publishing Group, London.", "(Available online: DOI | ELS site)" ], [ "External links", "* Tree of Life Malvales* Johansson, J.T.", "2013 (and onwards).", "The Phylogeny of Angiosperms.", "Published online.", "http://angio.bergianska.se Malvales" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Myrtales" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Blue Eyes Fuchsia''' flower and buds, from order Myrtales and family OnagraceaeThe '''Myrtales''' are an order of flowering plants placed as a sister to the eurosids II clade as of the publishing of the ''Eucalyptus grandis'' genome in June 2014.The APG III system of classification for angiosperms still places it within the eurosids.", "This finding is corroborated by the placement of the Myrtales in the Malvid clade by the One Thousand Plant Transcriptomes Initiative.", "The following families are included as of APGIII:* Alzateaceae S. A. Graham* Combretaceae R. Br.", "(leadwood family)* Crypteroniaceae A.", "DC.", "* Lythraceae J. St.-Hil.", "(loosestrife and pomegranate family)* Melastomataceae Juss.", "(including Memecylaceae DC.", ")* Myrtaceae Juss.", "(myrtle family; including Heteropyxidaceae Engl.", "& Gilg, Psiloxylaceae Croizat)* Onagraceae Juss.", "(evening primrose and Fuchsia family)* Penaeaceae Sweet ex Guill.", "(including Oliniaceae Arn., Rhynchocalycaceae L. A. S. Johnson & B. G. Briggs)* Vochysiaceae A. St.-Hil.The Cronquist system gives essentially the same composition, except the Vochysiaceae are removed to the order Polygalales, and the Thymelaeaceae are included.", "The families Sonneratiaceae, Trapaceae, and Punicaceae are removed from the Lythraceae.", "In the classification system of Dahlgren the Myrtales were in the superorder Myrtiflorae (also called Myrtanae).", "The APGIII system agrees with the older Cronquist circumscriptions of treating Psiloxylaceae and Heteropyxidaceae within Myrtaceae, and Memecyclaceae within Melastomataceae.Ellagitannins are reported in dicotyledoneous angiosperms, and notably in species in the order Myrtales." ], [ "Origins", "Myrtales is dated to have begun 89–99 million years ago (mya) in Australasia.", "There is some contention as to that date however, which was obtained using nuclear DNA.", "When looking at chloroplast DNA, the myrtales ancestor is instead considered to have evolved in the mid-Cretaceous period (100mya) in Southeast Africa, rather than in Australasia.", "Although the APG system classifies myrtales as within the eurosids, the recently published genome of ''Eucalyptus grandis'' places the order myrtales as a sister to the eurosids rather than inside them.", "The discrepancy is thought to have arisen due to the difference between using numerous taxa versus using various genes for constructing a phylogeny.== References ==" ], [ "Further reading", "* *" ], [ "External links" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Malpighiales" ], [ "Introduction", "''Aspidopterys cordata'' (Malpighiaceae)The '''Malpighiales''' comprise one of the largest orders of flowering plants, containing about 36 families and more than species, about 7.8% of the eudicots.", "The order is very diverse, containing plants as different as the willow, violet, poinsettia, manchineel, rafflesia and coca plant, and are hard to recognize except with molecular phylogenetic evidence.", "It is not part of any of the classification systems based only on plant morphology.", "Molecular clock calculations estimate the origin of stem group Malpighiales at around 100 million years ago (Mya) and the origin of crown group Malpighiales at about 90 Mya.The Malpighiales are divided into 32 to 42 families, depending upon which clades in the order are given the taxonomic rank of family.", "In the APG III system, 35 families were recognized.", "Medusagynaceae, Quiinaceae, Peraceae, Malesherbiaceae, Turneraceae, Samydaceae, and Scyphostegiaceae were consolidated into other families.", "The largest family, by far, is the Euphorbiaceae, with about 6300 species in about 245 genera.In a 2009 study of DNA sequences of 13 genes, 42 families were placed into 16 groups, ranging in size from one to 10 families.", "The relationships among these 16 groups remain poorly resolved.", "Malpighiales and Lamiales are the two large orders whose phylogeny remains mostly unresolved.Some examples of notable species include cassava, a tuber that is a major staple food crop in much of the world; the stinking corpse lily, which produces that largest known flower of any plant; the willows; flaxseed, an important food and fiber crop; Saint John's wort, a herb with a long history of medicinal uses; castor bean, the source of the infamous poison ricin; passionfruit, which produces an edible fruit and psychoactive flowers with a history of traditional medicinal uses; poinsettia, a common ornamental plant; the mangosteen; manchineel tree, one of the most toxic trees in the world; poplars, aspens, and cottonwoods which are commonly used for timber—and many more." ], [ "Affinities", "Malpighiales is a member of a supraordinal group called the COM clade, which consists of the orders Celastrales, Oxalidales, and Malpighiales.", "Some describe it as containing a fourth order, Huales, separating the family Huaceae into its own order, separate from Oxalidales.Some recent studies have placed Malpighiales as sister to Oxalidales ''sensu lato'' (including Huaceae), while others have found a different topology for the COM clade.The COM clade is part of an unranked group known as malvids (rosid II), though formally placed in Fabidae (rosid I).", "These in turn are part of a group that has long been recognized, namely, the rosids." ], [ "History", "The French botanist Charles Plumier named the genus ''Malpighia'' in honor of Marcello Malpighi's work on plants; ''Malpighia'' is the type genus for the Malpighiaceae, a family of tropical and subtropical flowering plants.The family Malpighiaceae was the type family for one of the orders created by Jussieu in his 1789 work ''Genera Plantarum''.", "Friedrich von Berchtold and Jan Presl described such an order in 1820.Unlike modern taxonomists, these authors did not use the suffix \"ales\" in naming their orders.", "The name \"Malpighiales\" is attributed by some to Carl von Martius.", "In the 20th century, it was usually associated with John Hutchinson, who used it in all three editions of his book, ''The Families of Flowering Plants''.", "The name was not used by those who wrote later, in the 1970s, '80s, and '90s.The taxon was largely presaged by Hans Hallier in 1912 in an article in the ''Archiv.", "Néerl.", "Sci.", "Exact.", "Nat.''", "titled \"L'Origine et le système phylétique des angiospermes\", in which his Passionales and Polygalinae were derived from Linaceae (in Guttales), with Passionales containing seven (of eight) families that also appear in the current Malpighiales, namely Passifloraceae, Salicaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Achariaceae, Flacourtiaceae, Malesherbiaceae, and Turneraceae, and Polygalinae containing four (of 10) families that also appear in the current Malpighiales, namely Malpighiaceae, Violaceae, Dichapetalaceae, and Trigoniaceae.The molecular phylogenetic revolution led to a major restructuring of the order.", "The first semblance of Malpighiales as now known came from a phylogeny of seed plants published in 1993 and based upon DNA sequences of the gene ''rbcL''.", "This study recovered a group of rosids unlike any group found in any previous system of plant classification.", "To make a clear break with classification systems being used at that time, the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group resurrected Hutchinson's name, though his concept of Malpighiales included much of what is now in Celastrales and Oxalidales." ], [ "Circumscription", "Malpighiales is monophyletic and in molecular phylogenetic studies, it receives strong statistical support.", "Since the APG II system was published in 2003, minor changes to the circumscription of the order have been made.", "The family Peridiscaceae has been expanded from two genera to three, and then to four, and transferred to Saxifragales.The genera ''Cyrillopsis'' (Ixonanthaceae), ''Centroplacus'' (Centroplacaceae), ''Bhesa'' (Centroplacaceae), ''Aneulophus'' (Erythroxylaceae), ''Ploiarium'' (Bonnetiaceae), ''Trichostephanus'' (Samydaceae), ''Sapria'' (Rafflesiaceae), ''Rhizanthes'' (Rafflesiaceae), and ''Rafflesia'' (Rafflesiaceae) had been either added or confirmed as members of Malpighiales by the end of 2009.Some family delimitations have changed, as well, most notably, the segregation of Calophyllaceae from Clusiaceae ''sensu lato'' when it was shown that the latter is paraphyletic.", "Some differences of opinion on family delimitation exist, as well.", "For example, Samydaceae and Scyphostegiaceae may be recognized as families or included in a large version of Salicaceae.The group is difficult to characterize phenotypically, due to sheer morphological diversity, ranging from tropical holoparasites with giant flowers and temperate trees and herbs with tiny, simple flowers.", "Members often have dentate leaves, with the teeth having a single vein running into a congested and often deciduous apex (i.e., violoid, salicoid, or theoid).", "Also, zeylanol has recently been discovered in ''Balanops'' and ''Dichapetalum'' which are in the balanops clade (so-called Chrysobalanaceae s. l.).", "The so-called parietal suborder (the clusioid clade and Ochnaceae s. l. were also part of Parietales) corresponds with the traditional Violales as 8 (Achariaceae, Violaceae, Flacourtiaceae, Lacistemataceae, Scyphostegiaceae, Turneraceae, Malesherbiaceae, and Passifloraceae) of the order's 10 families along with Salicaceae, which have usually been assigned as a related order or suborder, are in this most derived malpighian suborder, so that eight of the 10 families of this suborder are Violales.", "The family Flacourtiaceae has proven to be polyphyletic as the cyanogenic members have been placed in Achariaceae and the ones with salicoid teeth were transferred to Salicaceae.", "Scyphostegiaceae, consisting of the single genus ''Scyphostegia'' has been merged into Salicaceae." ], [ "Phylogeny", "===2009===The phylogeny of Malpighiales is, at its deepest level, an unresolved polytomy of 16 clades.", "It has been estimated that complete resolution of the phylogeny will require at least 25000 base pairs of DNA sequence data per taxon.", "A similar situation exists with Lamiales and it has been analyzed in some detail.", "The phylogenetic tree shown below is from Wurdack and Davis (2009).", "The statistical support for each branch is 100% bootstrap percentage and 100% posterior probability, except where labeled, with bootstrap percentage followed by posterior probability.===2012===In 2012, ''Xi et al.''", "managed to obtain a more resolved phylogenetic tree than previous studies through the use of data from a large number of genes.", "They included analyses of 82 plastid genes from 58 species (they ignored the problematic Rafflesiaceae), using partitions identified a posteriori by applying a Bayesian mixture model.", "Xi ''et al.''", "identified 12 additional clades and three major, basal clades.Changes made in the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG) classification of 2016 (APG IV) were the inclusion of Irvingiaceae, Peraceae, Euphorbiaceae and Ixonanthaceae, together with the transfer of the COM clade from the fabids (rosid I) to the malvids (rosid II)." ], [ "Gallery of type genera", " Annals of natural history (18226028760).jpg |''Acharia tragodes'' (chaulmoogra family) |alt=\"botanical illustration\"Balanops australiana (13813866135).jpg |''Balanops australiana'' (pimplebark family) |alt=\"fruit and foliage\"Bonnetia stricta (Nees) Nees & Mart.", "(2038118904).jpg |''Bonnetia stricta'' (cascarilla family) |alt=\"flower\"Summerflowergua.jpg |''Calophyllum brasiliense'' (takamaka family) |alt=\"flowers and foliage\"Caryocar brasiliense 2015-09-27 (084236).jpg |''Caryocar brasiliense'' (souari-tree family) |alt=\"flowers\"Botanische Jahrbücher für Systematik, Pflanzengeschichte und Pflanzengeographie (1907) (20394368832).jpg |''Centroplacus glaucinus'' (biku-biku family) |alt=botanical illustrationChrysobalanus icaco (Chrysobalanaceae) 01.jpg |''Chrysobalanus icaco'' (cocoplum family) |alt=fruit and foliageStarr 011025-0021 Clusia rosea.jpg |''Clusia rosea'' (mangosteen family) |alt=flowerDichapetalum gelonioides 04774.jpg |''Dichapetalum gelonioides'' (ratbane family) |alt=foliageElatine hydropiper sl5.jpg |''Elatine hydropiper'' (waterwort family) |alt=foliageErythroxylum coca 002.JPG |''Erythroxylum coca'' (coca family) |alt=flowers and foliageEuphorbia antiquorum (Euphorbia mayuranathanii) - Botanischer Garten - Heidelberg, Germany - DSC01386.jpg |''Euphorbia antiquorum'' (spurge family) |alt=flowersFlickr - BioDivLibrary - n73 w1150.jpg |''Euphronia hirtelloides'' (euphronia family) |alt=botanical illustration13534-Goupia glabra-Caura.jpg |''Goupia glabra'' (kopi family) |alt=fruit and foliageÁrea de Proteção Ambiental de Guadalupe Mauricio Cabral Periquito (11)Humiria balsamifera 20-01-2013.jpg |''Humiria balsamifera'' (umiri family) |alt=flowers and foliageHypericum canariense kz2.JPG |''Hypericum canariense'' (St.-John's-wort family) |alt=flowersIrvingia smithii01.jpg |''Irvingia smithii'' (ogbono-nut family) |alt=flowersIxonanthes reticulata.jpg |''Ixonanthes reticulata'' (twentymen-tree family) |alt=treeLacistema hasslerianum Chodat - Flickr - Alex Popovkin, Bahia, Brazil (1).jpg |''Lacistema hasslerianum'' (cemp-wood family) |alt=fruit and foliageA Common Flax or Linseed (Linum usitatissimum) flower.", "Chapeltoun North Ayrshire.jpg |''Linum usitatissimum'' (flax family) |alt=flowerMaloighia glabra 'Acerola' (Malphigiaceae) flower.jpg |''Malpighia glabra'' (acerola family) |alt=flowersOchna species 5.jpg |''Ochna thomasiana'' (Mickey-Mouse-plant family) |alt=flowersPanda oleosa - Kyoto University Museum - DSC06432.JPG |''Panda oleosa'' (kana-nut family) |alt=fruitFlickr - ggallice - Purple Passionflower.jpg |''Passiflora incarnata'' (passionfruit family) |alt=flowerFlickr - João de Deus Medeiros - Pera glabrata (1).jpg |''Pera glabrata'' (lightning-bush family) |alt=fruitKizhaarnelli flowers.JPG |''Phyllanthus niruri'' (leafflower family) |alt=flowersPetalostigma pubescens foliage and flowers.jpg |''Petalostigma pubescens'' (hollyspurge family; type genus ''Picrodendron'' not shown) |alt=flowersPodostemum ceratophyllum (20277018311).jpg |''Podostemum ceratophyllum'' (riverweed family) |alt=foliageChild's Amulet tree (4428811907).jpg |''Putranjiva roxburghii'' (childlife-tree family) |alt=flowersRafflesia Arnoldii Batang Palupuah Indonesia.jpg |''Rafflesia Arnoldii'' (corpse-flower family) |alt=flowersMangrove at 9 mile pond (5643479815).jpg |''Rhizophora mangle'' (mangrove family) |alt=mangroves20170328Salix alba1.jpg |''Salix alba'' (willow family) |alt=treesTrigonia nivea Cambess.", "var.", "pubescens (Cambess.)", "Lleras - Flickr - Alex Popovkin, Bahia, Brazil (1).jpg |''Trigonia nivea'' (triangle-vine family) |alt=fruitsMaiden's jealousy (Tristellateia australasiae) 1.jpg|''Tristellateia australasiae'' (Malpighiaceae family)|alt=flower and foliage20150324Viola odorata2.jpg |''Viola odorata'' (violet family) |alt=flower\"Litoh family\" is a common name for Ctenolophonaceae, and \"koteb family\" for Lophopyxidaceae." ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * (''see also'' Angiosperm Phylogeny Website)" ], [ "External links" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Miranda warning" ], [ "Introduction", "Page of the manuscript written by Chief Justice Earl Warren regarding the ''Miranda v. Arizona'' decision.", "This page established the basic requirements of the \"''Miranda'' warning\".In the United States, the '''''Miranda'' warning''' is a type of notification customarily given by police to criminal suspects in police custody (or in a custodial interrogation) advising them of their right to silence and, in effect, protection from self-incrimination; that is, their right to refuse to answer questions or provide information to law enforcement or other officials.", "Named for the U.S. Supreme Court's 1966 decision ''Miranda v. Arizona'', these rights are often referred to as '''''Miranda'' rights'''.", "The purpose of such notification is to preserve the admissibility of their statements made during custodial interrogation in later criminal proceedings.", "The idea came from law professor Yale Kamisar, who subsequently was dubbed \"the father of ''Miranda''.", "\"The language used in ''Miranda'' warnings derives from the Supreme Court's opinion in its ''Miranda'' decision.", "But the specific language used in the warnings varies between jurisdictions, and the warning is deemed adequate as long as the defendant's rights are properly disclosed such that any waiver of those rights by the defendant is knowing, voluntary, and intelligent.", "For example, the warning may be phrased as follows:The ''Miranda'' warning is part of a preventive criminal procedure rule that law enforcement are required to administer to protect an individual who is in custody and subject to direct questioning or its functional equivalent from a violation of their Fifth Amendment right against compelled self-incrimination.", "In ''Miranda v. Arizona'', the Supreme Court held that the admission of an elicited incriminating statement by a suspect not informed of these rights violates the Fifth Amendment and the Sixth Amendment right to counsel, through the incorporation of these rights into state law.", "Thus, if law enforcement officials decline to offer a ''Miranda'' warning to an individual in their custody, they may interrogate that person and act upon the knowledge gained, but may not ordinarily use that person's statements as evidence against them in a criminal trial." ], [ "Origin and development of ''Miranda'' rights", "A U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP) Border Patrol agent reading the ''Miranda'' rights to a suspectThe concept of \"''Miranda'' rights\" was enshrined in U.S. law following the 1966 ''Miranda v. Arizona'' Supreme Court decision, which found that the Fifth and Sixth Amendment rights of Ernesto Arturo Miranda had been violated during his arrest and trial for armed robbery, kidnapping, and rape of a young woman.Miranda was subsequently retried and convicted, based primarily on his estranged ex-partner, who had been tracked down by the original arresting officer via Miranda's own parents, suddenly claiming that Miranda had confessed to her when she had visited him in jail.", "Miranda's lawyer later confessed that he 'goofed' the case by focusing too much on the constitutional issues (and losing sight of the jury and guilt or innocence).The circumstances triggering the ''Miranda'' safeguards, i.e.", "''Miranda'' rights, are \"custody\" and \"interrogation\".", "Custody means formal arrest or the deprivation of freedom to an extent associated with formal arrest.", "Interrogation means explicit questioning or actions that are reasonably likely to elicit an incriminating response.", "The Supreme Court did not specify the exact wording to use when informing a suspect of their rights.", "However, the Court did create a set of guidelines that must be followed.", "The ruling states:From ''Miranda rights'', American English developed the verb ''Mirandize'', meaning \"read the ''Miranda'' rights to\".In ''Berkemer v. McCarty'' (1984), the Supreme Court decided that a person subjected to custodial interrogation is entitled to the benefit of the procedural safeguards enunciated in ''Miranda'', regardless of the nature or severity of the offense of which they are suspected or for which they were arrested.Notably, the ''Miranda'' rights need not be read in any particular order, and they need not precisely match the language of the ''Miranda'' case as long as they are adequately and fully conveyed (''California v. Prysock'', ).In ''Berghuis v. Thompkins'' (2010), the Supreme Court held that unless a suspect expressly states that they are invoking this right, subsequent voluntary statements made to an officer can be used against them in court, and police can continue to interact with (or question) the alleged criminal.In ''Vega v. Tekoh'' (2022) the Supreme Court held that police may not be sued for failing to administer ''Miranda'' warnings, and that the remedy for such a failure is the exclusion of the acquired statements at trial." ], [ "The warnings", "Every U.S. jurisdiction has its own regulations regarding what, precisely, must be said to a person arrested or placed in a custodial situation.", "The typical warning states:* You have the right to remain silent and refuse to answer questions.", "* If you give up the right to remain silent, anything you say can and will be used against you in a court of law.", "* You have the right to consult an attorney before speaking to the police and to have an attorney present during questioning now or in the future.", "* If you cannot afford an attorney, one will be appointed for you before any questioning if you wish.", "* If you decide to answer questions now without an attorney present, you will still have the right to stop answering at any time until you talk to an attorney.", "* Knowing and understanding your rights as I have explained them to you, are you willing to answer my questions without an attorney present?The courts have since ruled that the warning must be \"meaningful\", so it is usually required that the suspect be asked if they understand their rights.", "Sometimes, firm answers of \"yes\" are required.", "Some departments and jurisdictions require that an officer ask \"do you understand?\"", "after every sentence in the warning.", "An arrestee's silence is not a waiver, but in Berghuis v. Thompkins (2010), the Supreme Court ruled 5–4 that police are allowed to interrogate suspects who have invoked or waived their rights ambiguously, and any statement given during questioning prior to invocation or waiving is admissible as evidence.", "Evidence has in some cases been ruled inadmissible because of an arrestee's poor knowledge of English and the failure of arresting officers to provide the warning in the arrestee's language.While the exact language above is not required by ''Miranda'', the police must advise the suspect that:# they have the right to remain silent;# anything the suspect ''does'' say can and may be used against them in a court of law;# they have the right to have an attorney present before and during the questioning; and# they have the right, if they cannot afford the services of an attorney, to have one appointed, at public expense and without cost to them, to represent them before and during the questioning.There is no precise language that must be used in advising a suspect of their ''Miranda'' rights.", "The point is that whatever language is used the substance of the rights outlined above must be communicated to the suspect.", "The suspect may be advised of their rights orally or in writing.", "Also, officers must make sure the suspect understands what the officer is saying, taking into account potential education levels.", "It may be necessary to \"translate\" to the suspect's level of understanding.", "Courts have ruled this admissible as long as the original waiver is said and the \"translation\" is recorded either on paper or on tape.The Supreme Court has resisted efforts to require officers to more fully advise suspects of their rights.", "For example, the police are not required to advise the suspect that they can stop the interrogation at any time, that the decision to exercise the right cannot be used against the suspect, or that they have a right to talk to a lawyer before being asked any questions.", "Nor have the courts required to explain the rights.", "For example, the standard ''Miranda'' right to counsel states ''You have a right to have an attorney present during the questioning''.", "Police are not required to explain that this right is not merely a right to have a lawyer present while the suspect is being questioned.", "The right to counsel includes:* the right to talk to a lawyer before deciding whether to talk to police,* if the defendant decides to talk to the police, the right to consult with a lawyer before being interrogated,* the right to answer police only through an attorney.===Circumstances triggering the ''Miranda'' requisites===The circumstances triggering the ''Miranda'' safeguards, i.e.", "''Miranda'' warnings, are \"custody\" and \"interrogation\".", "Custody means formal arrest or the deprivation of freedom to an extent associated with formal arrest.", "Interrogation means explicit questioning or actions that are reasonably likely to elicit an incriminating response.", "Suspects in \"custody\" who are about to be interrogated must be properly advised of their ''Miranda'' rights—namely, the Fifth Amendment right against compelled self incrimination (and, in furtherance of this right, the right to counsel while in custody).", "The Sixth Amendment right to counsel means that the suspect has the right to consult with an attorney before questioning begins and have an attorney present during the interrogation.", "The Fifth Amendment right against compelled self incrimination is the right to remain silent—the right to refuse to answer questions or to otherwise communicate information.The duty to warn only arises when police officers conduct custodial interrogations.", "The Constitution does not require that a defendant be advised of the ''Miranda'' rights as part of the arrest procedure, or once an officer has probable cause to arrest, or if the defendant has become a suspect of the focus of an investigation.", "Custody and interrogation are the events that trigger the duty to warn.===Use in various U.S. state jurisdictions===Police detectives read the ''Miranda'' rights to a criminal suspectSome jurisdictions provide the right of a juvenile to remain silent if their parent or guardian is not present.", "Some departments in New Jersey, Nevada, Oklahoma, and Alaska modify the \"providing an attorney\" clause as follows:Even though this sentence may be somewhat ambiguous to some laypersons, who can, and who ''have'' actually interpreted it as meaning that they will not get a lawyer until they confess and are arraigned in court, the U.S. Supreme Court has approved of it as an accurate description of the procedure in those states.In Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and California—the four states that border Mexico—suspects who are not United States citizens are given an additional warning:After issuance of Miranda warnings, the police may ask waiver questions.", "Common waiver questions, which may be included on a written warning card or document, are,An affirmative answer to both of the above questions waives the rights.", "If the suspect responds \"no\" to the first question, the officer is required to re-read the ''Miranda'' warning, while saying \"no\" to the second question invokes the right at that moment; in either case the interviewing officer or officers cannot question the suspect until the rights are waived.Generally, when defendants invoke their Fifth Amendment right against self-incrimination and refuse to testify or submit to cross-examination at trial, the prosecutor cannot indirectly punish them for the exercise of a constitutional right by commenting on their silence and insinuating that it is an implicit admission of guilt.", "Since ''Miranda'' rights are simply a judicial gloss upon the Fifth Amendment which protects against coercive interrogations, the same rule also prevents prosecutors from commenting about the post-arrest silence of suspects who invoke their ''Miranda'' rights immediately after arrest.", "However, neither the Fifth Amendment nor ''Miranda'' extend to ''pre-arrest'' silence, which means that if a defendant takes the witness stand at trial (meaning he just waived his Fifth Amendment right to remain silent), the prosecutor can attack his credibility with his pre-arrest silence (based on his failure to immediately turn himself in and confess to the things he voluntarily testified about at trial).Under the Uniform Code of Military Justice, Article 31 provides for the right against compelled self-incrimination.", "Interrogation subjects under Army jurisdiction must first be given Department of the Army Form 3881, which informs them of the charges and their rights, and the subjects must sign the form.", "The United States Navy and United States Marine Corps require that all arrested personnel be read the \"rights of the accused\" and must sign a form waiving those rights if they so desire; a verbal waiver is not sufficient.It is unclear whether a ''Miranda'' warning—if spoken or in writing—could be appropriately given to disabled persons.", "For example, \"the right to remain silent\" means little to a deaf individual and the word \"constitutional\" may not be understood by people with only an elementary education.", "In one case, a deaf murder suspect was kept at a therapy station until he was able to understand the meaning of the ''Miranda'' warning and other judicial proceedings." ], [ "The six rules", "The ''Miranda'' rule applies to the use of testimonial evidence in criminal proceedings that is the product of custodial police interrogation.", "The ''Miranda'' right to counsel and right to remain silent are derived from the self-incrimination clause of the Fifth Amendment.", "Therefore, for the ''Miranda'' to apply, six requirements must be fulfilled:; 1.Evidence must have been gathered.", ": If the suspect did not make a statement during the interrogation the fact that he was not advised of his ''Miranda'' rights is of no importance.", "Nor can the state offer evidence that the defendant asserted his rights—that he refused to talk.", "; 2.The evidence must be testimonial.", ": ''Miranda'' applies only to \"testimonial\" evidence as that term is defined under the Fifth Amendment.", "For purposes of the Fifth Amendment, testimonial statements mean communications that explicitly or implicitly relate a factual assertion an assertion of fact or belief or disclose information.", "The ''Miranda'' rule does not prohibit compelling a person to engage in non-assertive conduct that is incriminating or may produce incriminating evidence.", "Thus, requiring a suspect to participate in identification procedures such as giving handwriting or voice exemplars, fingerprints, DNA samples, hair samples, and dental impressions is not within the Miranda rule.", "Such physical or real evidence is non-testimonial and not protected by the Fifth Amendment self-incrimination clause.", "On the other hand, certain non-verbal conduct may be testimonial.", "For example, if the suspect nodded their head up and down in response to the question \"did you kill the victim\", the conduct is testimonial; it is the same as saying \"yes I did\", and Miranda would apply.", "; 3.The evidence must have been obtained while the suspect was in custody.", ": The evidence must have been obtained while the suspect was in custody.", "This limitation follows from the fact that ''Miranda'''s purpose is to protect suspects from the compulsion inherent in the police-dominated atmosphere attendant to arrest.", "Custody means either that the suspect was under arrest or that his freedom of movement was restrained to an extent \"associated with a formal arrest\".", "A formal arrest occurs when an officer, with the intent to make an arrest, takes a person into custody by the use of physical force or the person submits to the control of an officer who has indicated his intention to arrest the person.", "Telling a person he is \"under arrest\" is sufficient to satisfy this requirement even though the person may not be otherwise physically restrained.", "Absent a formal arrest, the issue is whether a reasonable person in the suspect's position would have believed that he was under \"full custodial\" arrest.", "Applying this objective test, the Court has held Miranda does not apply to roadside questioning of a stopped motorist or to questioning of a person briefly detained on the street—a Terry stop.", "Even though neither the motorist nor the pedestrian is free to leave, this interference with the freedom of action is not considered actual arrest or its functional equivalent for purposes of the Fifth Amendment.", "The court has similarly held that a person who voluntarily comes to the police station for purposes of questioning is not in custody and thus not entitled to Miranda warnings particularly when the police advise the suspect that he is not under arrest and free to leave.", "; 4.The evidence must have been the product of interrogation.", ": The evidence must have been the product of interrogation.", "A defendant who seeks to challenge the admissibility of a statement under ''Miranda'' must show that the statement was \"prompted by police conduct that constituted 'interrogation'\".", "A volunteered statement by a person in custody does not implicate ''Miranda''.", "In ''Rhode Island v. Innis'', the Supreme Court defined interrogation as express questioning and \"any words or actions on the part of the police (other than those normally attendant to arrest and custody) that the police should know are reasonably likely to elicit an incriminating response from the suspect\".", "Thus, a practice that the police \"should know is reasonably likely to evoke an incriminating response from a suspect ... amounts to interrogation\".", "For example, confronting the suspect with incriminating evidence may be sufficiently evocative to amount to interrogation because the police are implicitly communicating a question: \"How do you explain this?\"", "On the other hand, \"unforeseeable results of police words or actions\" do not constitute interrogation.", "Under this definition, routine statements made during the administration of sobriety tests would not implicate Miranda.", "For example, a police officer arrests a person for impaired driving and takes him to the police station to administer an intoxilyzer test.", "While at the station the officer also asks the defendant to perform certain psycho-physical tests such as the walk and turn, one leg stand or finger to nose test.", "It is standard practice to instruct the arrestee on how to perform the test and to demonstrate the test.", "(The police ''will not'' tell the person that they have the right to refuse to perform the test, and the refusal cannot be used in evidence against them, nor can they be in any way punished for refusing to perform it, same as the police will not tell someone that they may refuse to perform a roadside sobriety test without penalty).", "An incriminating statement made by an arrestee during the instruction, \"I couldn't do that even if I were sober\", would not be the product of interrogation.", "Similarly, incriminating statements made in response to requests for consent to search a vehicle or other property are not considered to be the product of interrogation.", "; 5.The interrogation must have been conducted by state-agents.", ": To establish a violation of the defendant's Fifth Amendment rights, the defendant must show state action, so the interrogation must have been conducted by state-agents.", "If the interrogation was conducted by a person known by the suspect to be a law enforcement officer the state action requirement is unquestionably met.", "On the other hand, where a private citizen obtains a statement there is no state action regardless of the custodial circumstances surrounding the statement.", "A confession obtained through the interrogation by an undercover police officer or a paid informant does not violate ''Miranda'' because there is no coercion, no police dominated atmosphere if the suspect does not know that they are being questioned by the police.", "Private security guards and \"private\" police present special problems.", "They are generally not regarded as state-agents.", "However, an interrogation conducted by a police officer moonlighting as a security guard may well trigger ''Miranda'''s safeguards since an officer is considered to be \"on duty\" at all times.", "; 6.The evidence must be offered by the state during a criminal prosecution.", ": The evidence is being offered during a criminal proceeding.", "Under the exclusionary rule, a ''Miranda''-defective statement cannot be used by the prosecution as substantive evidence of guilt.", "However, the Fifth Amendment exclusionary rule applies only to criminal proceedings.", "In determining whether a particular proceeding is criminal, the courts look at the punitive nature of the sanctions that could be imposed.", "Labels are irrelevant.", "The question is whether the consequences of an outcome adverse to the defendant could be characterized as punishment.", "Clearly a criminal trial is a criminal proceeding since if convicted the defendant could be fined or imprisoned.", "However, the possibility of loss of liberty does not make the proceeding criminal in nature.", "For example, commitment proceedings are not criminal proceedings even though they can result in long confinement because the confinement is considered rehabilitative in nature and not punishment.", "Similarly, ''Miranda'' does not apply directly to probation revocation proceedings because the evidence is not being used as a basis for imposing additional punishment.===Application of the prerequisites===Assuming that the six requirements are present and ''Miranda'' applies, the statement will be subject to suppression unless the prosecution can demonstrate:* that the suspect was advised of their ''Miranda'' rights, and* that the suspect voluntarily waived those rights or that the circumstances fit an exception to the ''Miranda'' rule.The defendant may also be able to challenge the admissibility of the statement under provisions of state constitutions and state criminal procedure statutes.Immigrants who live in the United States illegally are also protected and should receive their ''Miranda'' warnings as well when being interrogated or placed under arrest.", "\"Aliens receive constitutional protections when they have come within the territory of the United States and have developed substantial connections with this country\".The Fifth Amendment right to counsel, a component of the ''Miranda'' Rule, is different from the Sixth Amendment right to counsel.", "In the context of the law of confessions the Sixth Amendment right to counsel is defined by the Massiah Doctrine." ], [ "Waiver", "Simply advising the suspect of their rights does not fully comply with the ''Miranda'' rule.", "The suspect must also voluntarily waive their ''Miranda'' rights before questioning can proceed.", "An express waiver is not necessary.", "However, most law enforcement agencies use written waiver forms.", "These include questions designed to establish that the suspect expressly waived their rights.", "Typical waiver questions are* \"Do you understand each of these rights?\"", "and* \"Understanding each of these rights, do you now wish to speak to the police without a lawyer being present?", "\"The waiver must be \"knowing and intelligent\" and it must be \"voluntary\".", "These are separate requirements.", "To satisfy the first requirement the state must show that the suspect generally understood their rights (right to remain silent and right to counsel) and the consequences of forgoing those rights (that anything they said could be used against them in court).", "To show that the waiver was \"voluntary\" the state must show that the decision to waive the rights was not the product of police coercion.", "If police coercion is shown or evident, then the court proceeds to determine the voluntariness of the waiver under the totality of circumstances test focusing on the personal characteristics of the accused and the particulars of the coercive nature of the police conduct.", "The ultimate issue is whether the coercive police conduct was sufficient to overcome the will of a person under the totality of the circumstances.", "Courts traditionally focused on two categories of factors in making this determination: (1) the personal characteristics of the suspect and (2) the circumstances attendant to the waiver.", "However, the Supreme Court significantly altered the voluntariness standard in the case of ''Colorado v. Connelly''.", "In ''Connelly'', the Court held that \"Coercive police activity is a necessary predicate to a finding that a confession is not 'voluntary' within the meaning of the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.\"", "The Court has applied this same standard of voluntariness in determining whether a waiver of a suspect's Fifth Amendment ''Miranda'' rights was voluntary.", "Thus, a waiver of ''Miranda'' rights is voluntary unless the defendant can show that their decision to waive their rights and speak to the police was the product of police misconduct and coercion that overcame the defendant's free will.", "After ''Connelly'', the traditional totality of circumstances analysis is not even reached unless the defendant can first show such coercion by the police.", "Under ''Connelly'', a suspect's decisions need not be the product of rational deliberations.", "In addition to showing that the waiver was \"voluntary\", the prosecution must also show that the waiver was \"knowing\" and \"intelligent\".", "Essentially this means the prosecution must prove that the suspect had a basic understanding of their rights and an appreciation of the consequences of forgoing those rights.", "The focus of the analysis is directly on the personal characteristics of the suspect.", "If the suspect was under the influence of alcohol or other drugs, or suffered from an emotional or mental condition that substantially impaired their capacity to make rational decisions, the courts may well decide that the suspect's waiver was not knowing and intelligent.A waiver must also be clear and unequivocal.", "An equivocal statement is ineffective as a waiver and the police may not proceed with the interrogation until the suspect's intentions are made clear.", "The requirement that a waiver be unequivocal must be distinguished from situations in which the suspect made an equivocal assertion of their ''Miranda'' rights after the interrogation began.", "Any post-waiver assertion of a suspect's ''Miranda'' rights must be clear and unequivocal.", "Any ambiguity or equivocation will be ineffective.", "If the suspect's assertion is ambiguous, the interrogating officers are permitted to ask questions to clarify the suspect's intentions, although they are not required to.", "In other words, if a suspect's assertion is ambiguous, the police may either attempt to clarify the suspect's intentions or they may simply ignore the ineffective assertion and continue with the interrogation.", "The timing of the assertion is significant.", "Requesting an attorney prior to arrest is of no consequence because ''Miranda'' applies only to custodial interrogations.", "The police may simply ignore the request and continue with the questioning; however, the suspect is also free to leave." ], [ "Assertion", "If the defendant asserts his right to remain silent, all interrogation must immediately stop and the police may not resume the interrogation unless they have \"scrupulously honored\" the defendant's assertion and subsequently obtained a valid waiver before resuming the interrogation.", "In determining whether the police \"scrupulously honored\" the assertion the courts apply a totality of the circumstances test.", "The most important factors are the length of time between termination of the original interrogation and the commencement of the second, and issuing a new set of ''Miranda'' warnings before resumption of interrogation.The consequences of assertion of the right to counsel are stricter.", "The police must immediately cease all interrogation and the police cannot reinitiate interrogation unless counsel is present (merely consulting with counsel is insufficient) or the defendant of his own volition contacts the police.", "If the defendant does reinitiate contact, a valid waiver must be obtained before interrogation may resume.In ''Berghuis v. Thompkins'' (2010), the Supreme Court declared in a 5–4 decision that criminal defendants who have been read their ''Miranda'' rights (and who have indicated they understand them and have not already waived them), must explicitly state during or before an interrogation begins that they wish to be silent and not speak to police for that protection against self-incrimination to apply.", "If they speak to police about the incident before invoking the ''Miranda'' right to remain silent, or afterwards at any point during the interrogation or detention, the words they speak may be used against them if they have not stated they do not want to speak to police.", "Those who oppose the ruling contend that the requirement that the defendant must speak to indicate his intention to remain silent further erodes the ability of the defendant to stay completely silent about the case.", "This opposition must be put in context with the second option offered by the majority opinion, which allowed that the defendant had the option of remaining silent, saying: \"Had he wanted to remain silent, he could have said nothing in response or unambiguously invoked his Miranda rights, ending the interrogation.\"", "Thus, having been \"''Mirand''ized\", a suspect may avow explicitly the invocation of these rights, or, alternatively, simply remain silent.", "Absent the former, \"anything said can and will be used against the defendant in a court of law\"." ], [ "Exceptions", "Assuming that the six factors are present, the ''Miranda'' rule would apply unless the prosecution can establish that the statement falls within an exception to the ''Miranda'' rule.", "The three exceptions are:# the routine booking question exception# the jail house informant exception# the public safety exception.Arguably only the last is a true exception—the first two can better be viewed as consistent with the ''Miranda'' factors.", "For example, questions that are routinely asked as part of the administrative process of arrest and custodial commitment are not considered \"interrogation\" under ''Miranda'' because they are not intended or likely to produce incriminating responses.", "Nonetheless, all three circumstances are treated as exceptions to the rule.", "The jail house informant exception applies to situations where the suspect does not know that he is speaking to a state-agent; either a police officer posing as a fellow inmate, a cellmate working as an agent for the state or a family member or friend who has agreed to cooperate with the state in obtaining incriminating information.===Public safety exception===The \"public safety\" exception is a limited and case-specific exception, allowing certain unadvised statements (given without ''Miranda'' warnings) to be admissible into evidence at trial when they were elicited in circumstances where there was great danger to public safety; thus, the ''Miranda'' rule provides some elasticity.The public safety exception derives from ''New York v. Quarles'' (1984), a case in which the Supreme Court considered the admissibility of a statement elicited by a police officer who apprehended a rape suspect who was thought to be carrying a firearm.", "The arrest took place during the middle of the night in a supermarket that was open to the public but apparently deserted except for the clerks at the checkout counter.", "When the officer arrested the suspect, he found an empty shoulder holster, handcuffed the suspect, and asked him where the gun was.", "The suspect nodded in the direction of the gun (which was near some empty cartons) and said, \"The gun is over there.\"", "The Supreme Court found that such an unadvised statement was admissible in evidence because \"in a kaleidoscopic situation such as the one confronting these officers, where spontaneity rather than adherence to a police manual is necessarily the order of the day, the application of the exception we recognize today should not be made to depend on ''post hoc'' findings at a suppression hearing concerning the subjective motivation of the police officer.\"", "Thus, the jurisprudential rule of ''Miranda'' must yield in \"a situation where concern for public safety must be paramount to adherence to the literal language of the prophylactic rules enunciated in ''Miranda''.", "\"Under this exception, to be admissible in the government's direct case at a trial, the questioning must not be \"actually compelled by police conduct which overcame his will to resist,\" and must be focused and limited, involving a situation \"in which police officers ask questions reasonably prompted by a concern for the public safety.", "\"In 2010, the Federal Bureau of Investigation encouraged agents to use a broad interpretation of public safety-related questions in terrorism cases, stating that the \"magnitude and complexity\" of terrorist threats justified \"a significantly more extensive public safety interrogation without ''Miranda'' warnings than would be permissible in an ordinary criminal case,\" continuing to list such examples as: \"questions about possible impending or coordinated terrorist attacks; the location, nature and threat posed by weapons that might pose an imminent danger to the public; and the identities, locations, and activities or intentions of accomplices who may be plotting additional imminent attacks.\"", "A Department of Justice spokesman described this position as not altering the constitutional right, but as clarifying existing flexibility in the rule.Prosecutors initially argued that Tsarnaev's pre-''Miranda'' statements should be admissible under this exception.", "However, the exception was not considered by the court because the prosecutors later decided not to use any of that evidence in their case against Tsarnaev.The New York Court of Appeals upheld the exception in a 2013 murder case, ''People v Doll'', where a man with blood on his clothes was detained and questioned.The window of opportunity for the exception is small.", "Once the suspect is formally charged, the Sixth Amendment right to counsel would attach and surreptitious interrogation would be prohibited.", "The public safety exception applies where circumstances present a clear and present danger to the public's safety and the officers have reason to believe that the suspect has information that can end the emergency." ], [ "Consequences of violation", "Assuming that a ''Miranda'' violation occurred—the six factors are present and no exception applies—the statement will be subject to suppression under the ''Miranda'' exclusionary rule.", "That is, if the defendant objects or files a motion to suppress, the exclusionary rule would prohibit the prosecution from offering the statement as proof of guilt.", "However, the statement can be used to impeach the defendant's testimony.", "Further, the fruit of the poisonous tree doctrine does not apply to Miranda violations.", "Therefore, the exclusionary rule exceptions, attenuation, independent source and inevitable discovery, do not come into play, and derivative evidence would be fully admissible.", "For example, suppose the police continue with a custodial interrogation after the suspect has asserted his right to silence.", "During his post-assertion statement the suspect tells the police the location of the gun he used in the murder.", "Using this information the police find the gun.", "Forensic testing identifies the gun as the murder weapon, and fingerprints lifted from the gun match the suspect's.", "The contents of the Miranda-defective statement could not be offered by the prosecution as substantive evidence, but the gun itself and all related forensic evidence could be used as evidence at trial.===Procedural requirements===Although the rules vary by jurisdiction, generally a person who wishes to contest the admissibility of evidence on the grounds that it was obtained in violation of his constitutional rights must comply with the following procedural requirements:# The defendant must file a motion.# The motion must be in writing.# The motion must be filed before trial.# The motion must allege the factual and legal grounds on which the defendant seeks suppression of evidence.# The motion must be supported by affidavits or other documentary evidence.# The motion must be served on the state.Failure to comply with a procedural requirement may result in summary dismissal of the motion.", "If the defendant meets the procedural requirement, the motion will normally be considered by the judge outside the presence of the jury.", "The judge hears evidence, determines the facts, makes conclusions of law and enters an order allowing or denying the motion." ], [ "Related doctrines", "In addition to ''Miranda'', confession may be challenged under the ''Massiah'' Doctrine, the voluntariness standard, provisions of federal and state rules of criminal procedure and state constitutional provisions.===''Massiah'' Doctrine===The ''Massiah'' Doctrine (established by ''Massiah v. United States'') prohibits the admission of a confession obtained in violation of the defendant's Sixth Amendment right to counsel.", "Specifically, the ''Massiah'' rule applies to the use of testimonial evidence in criminal proceedings deliberately elicited by the police from a defendant after formal charges have been filed.", "The events that trigger the Sixth Amendment safeguards under ''Massiah'' are (1) the commencement of adversarial criminal proceedings and (2) deliberate elicitation of information from the defendant by governmental agents.The Sixth Amendment guarantees a defendant a right to counsel in all criminal prosecutions.", "The purposes of the Sixth Amendment right to counsel are to protect a defendant's right to a fair trial and to assure that the adversarial system of justice functions properly by providing competent counsel as an advocate for the defendant in his contest against the \"prosecutorial forces\" of the state.====Commencement of adversarial criminal proceedings====The Sixth Amendment right \"attaches\" once the government has committed itself to the prosecution of the case by the initiation of adversarial judicial proceedings \"by way of formal charge, preliminary hearing, indictment, information or arraignment\".", "Determining whether a particular event or proceeding constitutes the commencement of adversarial criminal proceedings requires both an examination of the rules of criminal procedure for the jurisdiction in which the crime is charged and the Supreme Court cases dealing with the issue of when formal prosecution begins.", "Once adversarial criminal proceedings commence the right to counsel applies to all critical stages of the prosecution and investigation.", "A critical stage is \"any stage of the prosecution, formal or informal, in court or out, where counsel's absence might derogate from the accused's right to a fair trial\".Government attempts to obtain incriminating statement related to the offense charged from the defendant by overt interrogation or surreptitious means is a critical stage and any information thus obtained is subject to suppression unless the government can show that an attorney was present or the defendant knowingly, voluntarily and intelligently waived his right to counsel.====Deliberate elicitation of information from the defendant by governmental agents====Deliberate elicitation is defined as the intentional creation of circumstances by government agents that are likely to produce incriminating information from the defendant.", "Clearly express questioning (interrogation) would qualify but the concept also extends to surreptitious attempts to acquire information from the defendant through the use of undercover agents or paid informants.The definition of \"deliberate elicitation\" is not the same as the definition of \"interrogation\" under the ''Miranda'' rule.", "''Miranda'' interrogation includes express questioning and any actions or statements that an officer would reasonably foresee as likely to cause an incriminating response.", "''Massiah'' applies to express questioning and any attempt to deliberately and intentionally obtain incriminating information from the defendant regarding the crime charged.", "The difference is purposeful creation of an environment likely to produce incriminating information (''Massiah'') and action likely to induce an incriminating response even if that was not the officer's purpose or intent (''Miranda'').The Sixth Amendment right to counsel is offense-specific – the right only applies to post-commencement attempts to obtain information relating to the crime charged.", "The right does not extend to uncharged offenses if factually related to the charged crime.Information obtained in violation of the defendant's Sixth Amendment right to counsel is subject to suppression unless the government can establish that the defendant waived his right to counsel.", "The waiver must be knowing, intelligent and voluntary.", "A valid ''Miranda'' waiver operates as a waiver of Sixth Amendment right.====''Miranda'' and ''Massiah'' compared====# ''' Constitutional basis''':#* ''Miranda'' is based on the Sixth Amendment right to counsel and the Fifth Amendment right to remain silent.#* ''Massiah'' is based on the Sixth Amendment right to counsel.# '''Attachment''':#* ''Miranda'': Custody + interrogation (charging status irrelevant).#* ''Massiah'': Formally charged + deliberate elicitation (custodial status irrelevant).# '''Scope''':#*a.", "''Miranda'' applies to custodial interrogation by known governmental agents.", "Surreptitious acquisition of incriminating information allowed.#*a.", "''Massiah'' applies to overt and surreptitious interrogation.#*b.", "''Miranda'' is not offense specific.#*b.", "''Massiah'' is offense specific.#*c. ''Miranda'': interrogation + \"functional equivalent\"#*c. ''Massiah'': interrogation + \"deliberate elicitation\"# '''Waiver''': Both ''Miranda'' and ''Massiah'' rights may be waived.# '''Assertion''': In each case, the assertion must be clear and unequivocal.", "The effects of assertion are not identical.", "For purposes of ''Miranda'', the police must immediately cease the interrogation and cannot resume interrogating the defendant about any offense charged or uncharged unless counsel is present or the defendant initiates contact for purposes of resuming interrogation and valid waiver obtained.", "Because ''Massiah'' is offense-specific, an assertion of the sixth amendment right to counsel requires the police to cease interrogating the defendant about any charged offense.", "Apparently the police could continue questioning the defendant about uncharged crimes assuming that the defendant was not in custody.", "The defendant's remedy would be to leave or to refuse to answer questions.# '''Remedy for violation''': The remedy for violation of Fifth and Sixth Amendment rights to counsel is identical: the statements and testimonial information are subject to suppression.", "Derivative evidence is not subject to suppression under ''Miranda ''– fruit of poisonous tree doctrine may apply to ''Massiah'' violation.", "Both ''Miranda'' and ''Massiah'' defective statements can be used for impeachment purposes.# '''Exceptions''': The primary exceptions to ''Miranda'' are (1) the routine booking questions exception (2) the jail house informant exception and (3) the public safety exception.", "In ''Moulton v. Maine,'' the Supreme Court refused to recognize a public safety exception to the ''Massiah'' rule.", "''Massiah'' allows for the use of jail house informants provided the informants serve merely as \"passive listeners\".===The voluntariness standard===The voluntariness standard applies to all police interrogations regardless of the custodial status of the suspect and regardless of whether the suspect has been formally charged.", "The remedy for a violation of the standard is complete suppression of the statement and any evidence derived from the statement.", "The statement cannot be used as either substantive evidence of guilt or to impeach the defendant's testimony.", "The reason for the strictness is the common law's aversion to the use of coerced confessions because of their inherent unreliability.", "Further the rights to be free from coerced confession cannot be waived nor is it necessary that the victim of coercive police conduct assert his right.", "In considering the voluntariness standard one must consider the Supreme Court's decision in ''Colorado v. Connelly''.", "Although federal courts' application of the ''Connelly'' rule has been inconsistent and state courts have often failed to appreciate the consequences of the case, ''Connelly'' clearly marked a significant change in the application of the voluntariness standard.", "Before ''Connelly,'' the test was whether the confession was voluntary considering the totality of the circumstances.", "\"Voluntary\" carried its everyday meaning: the confession had to be a product of the exercise of the defendant's free will rather than police coercion.", "After ''Connelly,'' the totality of circumstances test is not even triggered unless the defendant can show coercive police conduct.", "Questions of free will and rational decision making are irrelevant to a due process claim unless police misconduct existed and a causal connection can be shown between the misconduct and the confession.===State constitutional challenges===Every state constitution has articles and provision guaranteeing individual rights.", "In most cases the subject matter is similar to the federal bill of rights.", "Most state courts interpretation of their constitution is consistent with the interpretation federal court's of analogous provisions of the federal constitution.", "With regard to ''Miranda'' issues, state courts have exhibited significant resistance to incorporating into their state jurisprudence some of the limitations on the ''Miranda'' rule that have been created by the federal courts.", "As a consequence a defendant may be able to circumvent the federal limitation on the ''Miranda'' rule and successfully challenge the admissibility under state constitutional provisions.", "Practically every aspect of the ''Miranda'' rule has drawn state court criticism.", "However the primary point of contention involve the following limitations on the scope of the ''Miranda'' rule: (1) the ''Harris'' exception (2) the ''Burbine'' rule and (3) the ''Fare'' rule.===State statutory challenges===In addition to constitutionally based challenge, states permit a defendant to challenge the admissibility of a confession on the grounds that the confession was obtained in violation of a defendant's statutory rights.", "For example, North Carolina Criminal Procedure Act permits a defendant to move to suppress evidence obtained as a result of a \"substantial\" violation of the provision of the North Carolina Rules of Criminal Procedure." ], [ "Confusion regarding use", "Due to the prevalence of American television programs and motion pictures in which the police characters frequently read suspects their rights, it has become an expected element of arrest procedure—in the 2000 ''Dickerson'' decision, Chief Justice William Rehnquist wrote that ''Miranda'' warnings had \"become embedded in routine police practice to the point where the warnings have become part of our national culture\".While arrests and interrogations can legally occur without the ''Miranda'' warning being given, this procedure would generally make the arrestee's pre-''Miranda'' statements inadmissible at trial.", "(However, pursuant to the plurality opinion in ''United States v. Patane'', physical evidence obtained as a result of pre-''Miranda'' statements may still be admitted.", "There was no majority opinion of the Court in that case.", ")In some jurisdictions, a ''detention'' differs at law from an ''arrest'', and police are not required to give the ''Miranda'' warning until the person is arrested for a crime.", "In those situations, a person's statements made to police are generally admissible even though the person was not advised of their rights.", "Similarly, statements made while an arrest is in progress before the ''Miranda'' warning was given or completed are also generally admissible.Because ''Miranda'' applies only to custodial interrogations, it does not protect detainees from standard booking questions such as name and address.", "Because it is a protective measure intended to safeguard the Fifth Amendment right against self-incrimination, it does not prevent the police from taking blood without a warrant from persons suspected of driving under the influence of alcohol.", "(Such evidence may be self-incriminatory, but are not considered statements of self-incrimination.", ")If an inmate is in jail and invoked ''Miranda'' on one case, it is unclear whether this extends to any other cases that they may be charged with while in custody.", "For example, a subject is arrested, charged with cattle raiding, and is held in county jail awaiting trial.", "He invokes his ''Miranda'' rights on the cattle case.", "While in custody, he is involved in a fight where a staff member loses his ability to walk.", "He speaks to the custodial staff regarding the fight without first invoking ''Miranda''.", "It is unclear if this statement is admissible because of the original ''Miranda'' statement.Many police departments give special training to interrogators with regard to the ''Miranda'' warning; specifically, how to influence a suspect's decision to waive the right.", "For instance, the officer may be required to specifically ask if the rights are understood and if the suspect wishes to talk.", "The officer is allowed, before asking the suspect a question, to speak at length about evidence collected, witness statements, etc.", "The officer will ''then'' ask if the suspect wishes to talk, and the suspect is then more likely to talk in an attempt to refute the evidence presented.", "Another tactic commonly taught is never to ask a question; the officer may simply sit the suspect down in an interrogation room, sit across from him and do paperwork, and wait for the suspect to begin talking.", "These tactics are intended to mitigate the restrictions placed on law officers against compelling a suspect to give evidence, and have stood up in court as valid lawful tactics.", "Nevertheless, such tactics are condemned by legal rights groups as deceptive.", "===Exemption for interrogations conducted by undercover agents===In ''Illinois v. Perkins'', 496 U.S. 292 (1990), the United States Supreme Court held that undercover officers are not required to give suspects a ''Miranda'' warning prior to asking questions that may elicit incriminating responses.", "In this case, an undercover agent posed as an inmate and carried on a 35-minute conversation with another inmate that he suspected of committing a murder that was being investigated.", "During this conversation, the suspect implicated himself in the murder that the undercover agent was investigating.The Supreme Court came to this conclusion despite the government's admission that a custodial interrogation had been conducted by a government agent.===Report of warnings being given to detainees in Afghanistan===Beginning in 2009, some detainees captured in Afghanistan have been read their ''Miranda'' rights by the FBI, according to Congressman Michael Rogers of Michigan, who claims to have witnessed this himself.", "According to the Justice Department, \"There has been no policy change nor blanket instruction for FBI agents to ''Mirand''ize detainees overseas.", "While there have been specific cases in which FBI agents have ''Mirand''ized suspects overseas at both Bagram and in other situations, in order to preserve the quality of evidence obtained, there has been no overall policy change with respect to detainees.\"" ], [ "Equivalent rights in other countries", "Whether arising from their constitutions, common law, or statute, many nations recognize a defendant's right to silence." ], [ "See also", "* Arrest* Civil rights* Criminal justice* Garrity warning* Kalkines warning* Right to silence* Uniform Code of Military Justice* United States constitutional criminal procedure" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Coldrey, J.", "(1990).", "\"The Right to Silence Reassessed\".", "74 ''Victorian Bar News'' 25.", "* Coldrey, J.", "(1991).", "\"The Right to Silence: Should It Be Curtailed or Abolished?", "\", 20 ''Anglo-American Law Review'' 51..* \"Rehnquist's legacy\" ''The Economist''.", "July 2–8, 2005.p. 28.", "* Stevenson, N. (1982).", "\"Criminal Cases in the NSW District Court: A Pilot Study\".", "In J. Basten, M. Richardson, C. Ronalds and G. Zdenkowski (eds.", "), ''The Criminal Injustice System''.", "Sydney: Australian Legal Workers Group (NSW) and Legal Service Bulletin.", "* \"The Miranda Warning\".", "The U.S. Constitution Online.", "N.p., n.d.", "Web.", "November 4, 2012." ], [ "External links", "* Don't Talk to the Police—Lecture by Professor James Duane of the Regent University School of Law and Officer George Bruch from the Virginia Beach police department.", "* Miranda Rights and Illegal Immigrants on Real Law Radio—Host Bob DiCello discusses the Miranda rights of illegal immigrants in Arizona with author, Gary L. Stuart on the legal news talk radio program, ''Real Law Radio'' (Saturday, May 8, 2010).", "* Shahzad and Miranda Rights Prof. Orin Kerr" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Moot" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Moot''' may refer to:* Mootness, in American law: a point where further proceedings have lost practical significance; whereas in British law: the issue remains debatable* Moot court, an activity in many law schools where participants take part in simulated court proceedings* moot, the pseudonym for Christopher Poole (born c. 1988), founder of the anonymous imageboard 4chan.org* The Moot, a discussion group of Christian intellectuals active in Britain from 1938 to 1947" ], [ "See also", "* Meeting (Old English (Anglo-Saxon): ''Moot'')** Folkmoot** Jamtamót, the old assembly of Jämtland** Witenagemot, the High Council of Anglo-Saxon England** Moot hall, a meeting or assembly building, traditionally to decide local issues** Moot hill, a hill or mound historically used as an assembly or meeting place** World Scout Moot, a gathering of older Scouts, mainly Rover Scouts, ages 18–26 from all over the world** Entmoot, a gathering of Ents in ''The Lord of the Rings''** MoodleMoot, a gathering or conference relating to the Moodle Learning Management System" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mississippian (geology)" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Mississippian''' ( , also known as '''Lower Carboniferous''' or '''Early Carboniferous''') is a subperiod in the geologic timescale or a subsystem of the geologic record.", "It is the earlier of two subperiods of the Carboniferous period lasting from roughly 358.9 to 323.2 million years ago.", "As with most other geochronologic units, the rock beds that define the Mississippian are well identified, but the exact start and end dates are uncertain by a few million years.", "The Mississippian is so named because rocks with this age are exposed in the Mississippi Valley.The Mississippian was a period of marine transgression in the Northern Hemisphere: the sea level was so high that only the Fennoscandian Shield and the Laurentian Shield were dry land.", "The cratons were surrounded by extensive delta systems and lagoons, and carbonate sedimentation on the surrounding continental platforms, covered by shallow seas.In North America, where the interval consists primarily of marine limestones, it is treated as a geologic period between the Devonian and the Pennsylvanian.", "During the Mississippian an important phase of orogeny occurred in the Appalachian Mountains.", "The USGS geologic time scale shows its relation to other periods.In Europe, the Mississippian and Pennsylvanian are grouped together as the Carboniferous system, and traditionally referred to as the ''Upper Carboniferous'' and ''Lower Carboniferous'' instead." ], [ "Subdivisions", "In the official geologic timescale, the Mississippian is subdivided into three stages:*Serpukhovian ( to mya)*Visean ( to mya)*Tournaisian ( to mya)The lower two come from European stratigraphy, the top from Russian stratigraphy.", "Besides Europe and Russia, there are many local subdivisions that are used as alternatives for the international timescale.", "In the North American system, the Mississippian is subdivided into four stages:*Chesterian (top of the Visean plus the Serpukhovian)*Meramecian (middle Visean)*Osagean (top of the Tournaisian and bottom of the Visean)*Kinderhookian (the lower two-thirds of the Tournaisian)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Meiosis" ], [ "Introduction", "In meiosis, the chromosomes duplicate (during interphase) and homologous chromosomes exchange genetic information (chromosomal crossover) during the first division, called meiosis I.", "The daughter cells divide again in meiosis II, splitting up sister chromatids to form haploid gametes.", "Two gametes fuse during fertilization, forming a diploid cell (zygote) with a complete set of paired chromosomes.crane fly spermatocyte, played back at 120× the recorded speed'''Meiosis''' (; , since it is a reductional division) is a special type of cell division of germ cells and apicomplexans in sexually-reproducing organisms that produces the gametes, the sperm or egg cells.", "It involves two rounds of division that ultimately result in four cells, each with only one copy of each chromosome (haploid).", "Additionally, prior to the division, genetic material from the paternal and maternal copies of each chromosome is crossed over, creating new combinations of code on each chromosome.", "Later on, during fertilisation, the haploid cells produced by meiosis from a male and a female will fuse to create a zygote, a cell with two copies of each chromosome again.Errors in meiosis resulting in aneuploidy (an abnormal number of chromosomes) are the leading known cause of miscarriage and the most frequent genetic cause of developmental disabilities.In meiosis, DNA replication is followed by two rounds of cell division to produce four daughter cells, each with half the number of chromosomes as the original parent cell.", "The two meiotic divisions are known as meiosis I and meiosis II.", "Before meiosis begins, during S phase of the cell cycle, the DNA of each chromosome is replicated so that it consists of two identical sister chromatids, which remain held together through sister chromatid cohesion.", "This S-phase can be referred to as \"premeiotic S-phase\" or \"meiotic S-phase\".", "Immediately following DNA replication, meiotic cells enter a prolonged G2-like stage known as meiotic prophase.", "During this time, homologous chromosomes pair with each other and undergo genetic recombination, a programmed process in which DNA may be cut and then repaired, which allows them to exchange some of their genetic information.", "A subset of recombination events results in crossovers, which create physical links known as chiasmata (singular: chiasma, for the Greek letter Chi (Χ)) between the homologous chromosomes.", "In most organisms, these links can help direct each pair of homologous chromosomes to segregate away from each other during meiosis I, resulting in two haploid cells that have half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell.During meiosis II, the cohesion between sister chromatids is released and they segregate from one another, as during mitosis.", "In some cases, all four of the meiotic products form gametes such as sperm, spores or pollen.", "In female animals, three of the four meiotic products are typically eliminated by extrusion into polar bodies, and only one cell develops to produce an ovum.", "Because the number of chromosomes is halved during meiosis, gametes can fuse (i.e.", "fertilization) to form a diploid zygote that contains two copies of each chromosome, one from each parent.", "Thus, alternating cycles of meiosis and fertilization enable sexual reproduction, with successive generations maintaining the same number of chromosomes.", "For example, diploid humancells contain 23 pairs of chromosomes including 1 pair of sex chromosomes (46 total), half of maternal origin and half of paternal origin.", "Meiosis produces haploid gametes (ova or sperm) that contain one set of 23 chromosomes.", "When two gametes (an egg and a sperm) fuse, the resulting zygote is once again diploid, with the mother and father each contributing 23 chromosomes.", "This same pattern, but not the same number of chromosomes, occurs in all organisms that utilize meiosis.Meiosis occurs in all sexually-reproducing single-celled and multicellular organisms (which are all eukaryotes), including animals, plants and fungi.", "It is an essential process for oogenesis and spermatogenesis." ], [ "Overview", "Although the process of meiosis is related to the more general cell division process of mitosis, it differs in two important respects: recombination meiosis shuffles the genes between the two chromosomes in each pair (one received from each parent), producing lots of recombinant chromosomes with unique genetic combinations in every gamete mitosis occurs only if needed to repair DNA damage; usually occurs between identical sister chromatids and does not result in genetic changes   chromosome number (ploidy) meiosis produces four genetically unique cells, each with half the number of chromosomes as in the parent mitosisproduces two genetically identical cells, each with the same number of chromosomes as in the parentMeiosis begins with a diploid cell, which contains two copies of each chromosome, termed homologs.", "First, the cell undergoes DNA replication, so each homolog now consists of two identical sister chromatids.", "Then each set of homologs pair with each other and exchange genetic information by homologous recombination often leading to physical connections (crossovers) between the homologs.", "In the first meiotic division, the homologs are segregated to separate daughter cells by the spindle apparatus.", "The cells then proceed to a second division without an intervening round of DNA replication.", "The sister chromatids are segregated to separate daughter cells to produce a total of four haploid cells.", "Female animals employ a slight variation on this pattern and produce one large ovum and three small polar bodies.", "Because of recombination, an individual chromatid can consist of a new combination of maternal and paternal genetic information, resulting in offspring that are genetically distinct from either parent.", "Furthermore, an individual gamete can include an assortment of maternal, paternal, and recombinant chromatids.", "This genetic diversity resulting from sexual reproduction contributes to the variation in traits upon which natural selection can act.Meiosis uses many of the same mechanisms as mitosis, the type of cell division used by eukaryotes to divide one cell into two identical daughter cells.", "In some plants, fungi, and protists meiosis results in the formation of spores: haploid cells that can divide vegetatively without undergoing fertilization.", "Some eukaryotes, like bdelloid rotifers, do not have the ability to carry out meiosis and have acquired the ability to reproduce by parthenogenesis.Meiosis does not occur in archaea or bacteria, which generally reproduce asexually via binary fission.", "However, a \"sexual\" process known as horizontal gene transfer involves the transfer of DNA from one bacterium or archaeon to another and recombination of these DNA molecules of different parental origin." ], [ "History", "Meiosis was discovered and described for the first time in sea urchin eggs in 1876 by the German biologist Oscar Hertwig.", "It was described again in 1883, at the level of chromosomes, by the Belgian zoologist Edouard Van Beneden, in ''Ascaris'' roundworm eggs.", "The significance of meiosis for reproduction and inheritance, however, was described only in 1890 by German biologist August Weismann, who noted that two cell divisions were necessary to transform one diploid cell into four haploid cells if the number of chromosomes had to be maintained.", "In 1911, the American geneticist Thomas Hunt Morgan detected crossovers in meiosis in the fruit fly ''Drosophila melanogaster'', which helped to establish that genetic traits are transmitted on chromosomes.The term \"meiosis\" is derived from the Greek word , meaning 'lessening'.", "It was introduced to biology by J.B. Farmer and J.E.S.", "Moore in 1905, using the idiosyncratic rendering \"maiosis\":''We propose to apply the terms Maiosis or Maiotic phase to cover the whole series of nuclear changes included in the two divisions that were designated as Heterotype and Homotype by Flemming''.The spelling was changed to \"meiosis\" by Koernicke (1905) and by Pantel and De Sinety (1906) to follow the usual conventions for transliterating Greek." ], [ "Phases", "Meiosis is divided into meiosis I and meiosis II which are further divided into Karyokinesis I, Cytokinesis I, Karyokinesis II, and Cytokinesis II, respectively.", "The preparatory steps that lead up to meiosis are identical in pattern and name to interphase of the mitotic cell cycle.", "Interphase is divided into three phases:*Growth 1 (G1) phase: In this very active phase, the cell synthesizes its vast array of proteins, including the enzymes and structural proteins it will need for growth.", "In G1, each of the chromosomes consists of a single linear molecule of DNA.", "*Synthesis (S) phase: The genetic material is replicated; each of the cell's chromosomes duplicates to become two identical sister chromatids attached at a centromere.", "This replication does not change the ploidy of the cell since the centromere number remains the same.", "The identical sister chromatids have not yet condensed into the densely packaged chromosomes visible with the light microscope.", "This will take place during prophase I in meiosis.", "*Growth 2 (G2) phase: G2 phase as seen before mitosis is not present in meiosis.", "Meiotic prophase corresponds most closely to the G2 phase of the mitotic cell cycle.Interphase is followed by meiosis I and then meiosis II.", "Meiosis I separates replicated homologous chromosomes, each still made up of two sister chromatids, into two daughter cells, thus reducing the chromosome number by half.", "During meiosis II, sister chromatids decouple and the resultant daughter chromosomes are segregated into four daughter cells.", "For diploid organisms, the daughter cells resulting from meiosis are haploid and contain only one copy of each chromosome.", "In some species, cells enter a resting phase known as interkinesis between meiosis I and meiosis II.Meiosis I and II are each divided into prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase stages, similar in purpose to their analogous subphases in the mitotic cell cycle.", "Therefore, meiosis includes the stages of meiosis I (prophase I, metaphase I, anaphase I, telophase I) and meiosis II (prophase II, metaphase II, anaphase II, telophase II).During meiosis, specific genes are more highly transcribed.", "In addition to strong meiotic stage-specific expression of mRNA, there are also pervasive translational controls (e.g.", "selective usage of preformed mRNA), regulating the ultimate meiotic stage-specific protein expression of genes during meiosis.", "Thus, both transcriptional and translational controls determine the broad restructuring of meiotic cells needed to carry out meiosis.===Meiosis I===Meiosis I segregates homologous chromosomes, which are joined as tetrads (2n, 4c), producing two haploid cells (n chromosomes, 23 in humans) which each contain chromatid pairs (1n, 2c).", "Because the ploidy is reduced from diploid to haploid, meiosis I is referred to as a ''reductional division''.", "Meiosis II is an ''equational division'' analogous to mitosis, in which the sister chromatids are segregated, creating four haploid daughter cells (1n, 1c).Meiosis Prophase I in mice.", "In Leptotene (L) the axial elements (stained by SYCP3) begin to form.", "In Zygotene (Z) the transverse elements (SYCP1) and central elements of the synaptonemal complex are partially installed (appearing as yellow as they overlap with SYCP3).", "In Pachytene (P) it is fully installed except on the sex chromosomes.", "In Diplotene (D) it disassembles revealing chiasmata.", "CREST marks the centromeres.Schematic of the synaptonemal complex at different stages of prophase I and the chromosomes arranged as a linear array of loops.====Prophase I====Prophase I is by far the longest phase of meiosis (lasting 13 out of 14 days in mice).", "During prophase I, homologous maternal and paternal chromosomes pair, synapse, and exchange genetic information (by homologous recombination), forming at least one crossover per chromosome.", "These crossovers become visible as chiasmata (plural; singular chiasma).", "This process facilitates stable pairing between homologous chromosomes and hence enables accurate segregation of the chromosomes at the first meiotic division.", "The paired and replicated chromosomes are called bivalents (two chromosomes) or tetrads (four chromatids), with one chromosome coming from each parent.", "Prophase I is divided into a series of substages which are named according to the appearance of chromosomes.===== Leptotene =====The first stage of prophase I is the ''leptotene'' stage, also known as ''leptonema'', from Greek words meaning \"thin threads\".", "In this stage of prophase I, individual chromosomes—each consisting of two replicated sister chromatids—become \"individualized\" to form visible strands within the nucleus.", "The chromosomes each form a linear array of loops mediated by cohesin, and the lateral elements of the synaptonemal complex assemble forming an \"axial element\" from which the loops emanate.", "Recombination is initiated in this stage by the enzyme SPO11 which creates programmed double strand breaks (around 300 per meiosis in mice).", "This process generates single stranded DNA filaments coated by RAD51 and DMC1 which invade the homologous chromosomes, forming inter-axis bridges, and resulting in the pairing/co-alignment of homologues (to a distance of ~400 nm in mice).=====Zygotene=====Leptotene is followed by the ''zygotene'' stage, also known as ''zygonema'', from Greek words meaning \"paired threads\", which in some organisms is also called the bouquet stage because of the way the telomeres cluster at one end of the nucleus.", "In this stage the homologous chromosomes become much more closely (~100 nm) and stably paired (a process called synapsis) mediated by the installation of the transverse and central elements of the synaptonemal complex.", "Synapsis is thought to occur in a zipper-like fashion starting from a recombination nodule.", "The paired chromosomes are called bivalent or tetrad chromosomes.=====Pachytene=====The ''pachytene'' stage ( ), also known as ''pachynema'', from Greek words meaning \"thick threads\".", "is the stage at which all autosomal chromosomes have synapsed.", "In this stage homologous recombination, including chromosomal crossover (crossing over), is completed through the repair of the double strand breaks formed in leptotene.", "Most breaks are repaired without forming crossovers resulting in gene conversion.", "However, a subset of breaks (at least one per chromosome) form crossovers between non-sister (homologous) chromosomes resulting in the exchange of genetic information.", "The exchange of information between the homologous chromatids results in a recombination of information; each chromosome has the complete set of information it had before, and there are no gaps formed as a result of the process.", "Because the chromosomes cannot be distinguished in the synaptonemal complex, the actual act of crossing over is not perceivable through an ordinary light microscope, and chiasmata are not visible until the next stage.=====Diplotene=====During the ''diplotene'' stage, also known as ''diplonema'', from Greek words meaning \"two threads\", the synaptonemal complex disassembles and homologous chromosomes separate from one another a little.", "However, the homologous chromosomes of each bivalent remain tightly bound at chiasmata, the regions where crossing-over occurred.", "The chiasmata remain on the chromosomes until they are severed at the transition to anaphase I to allow homologous chromosomes to move to opposite poles of the cell.In human fetal oogenesis, all developing oocytes develop to this stage and are arrested in prophase I before birth.", "This suspended state is referred to as the ''dictyotene stage'' or dictyate.", "It lasts until meiosis is resumed to prepare the oocyte for ovulation, which happens at puberty or even later.=====Diakinesis=====Chromosomes condense further during the ''diakinesis'' stage, from Greek words meaning \"moving through\".", "This is the first point in meiosis where the four parts of the tetrads are actually visible.", "Sites of crossing over entangle together, effectively overlapping, making chiasmata clearly visible.", "Other than this observation, the rest of the stage closely resembles prometaphase of mitosis; the nucleoli disappear, the nuclear membrane disintegrates into vesicles, and the meiotic spindle begins to form.=====Meiotic spindle formation=====Unlike mitotic cells, human and mouse oocytes do not have centrosomes to produce the meiotic spindle.", "In mice, approximately 80 MicroTubule Organizing Centers (MTOCs) form a sphere in the ooplasm and begin to nucleate microtubules that reach out towards chromosomes, attaching to the chromosomes at the kinetochore.", "Over time the MTOCs merge until two poles have formed, generating a barrel shaped spindle.", "In human oocytes spindle microtubule nucleation begins on the chromosomes, forming an aster that eventually expands to surround the chromosomes.", "Chromosomes then slide along the microtubules towards the equator of the spindle, at which point the chromosome kinetochores form end-on attachments to microtubules.====Metaphase I====Homologous pairs move together along the metaphase plate: As ''kinetochore microtubules'' from both spindle poles attach to their respective kinetochores, the paired homologous chromosomes align along an equatorial plane that bisects the spindle, due to continuous counterbalancing forces exerted on the bivalents by the microtubules emanating from the two kinetochores of homologous chromosomes.", "This attachment is referred to as a bipolar attachment.", "The physical basis of the independent assortment of chromosomes is the random orientation of each bivalent along with the metaphase plate, with respect to the orientation of the other bivalents along the same equatorial line.", "The protein complex cohesin holds sister chromatids together from the time of their replication until anaphase.", "In mitosis, the force of kinetochore microtubules pulling in opposite directions creates tension.", "The cell senses this tension and does not progress with anaphase until all the chromosomes are properly bi-oriented.", "In meiosis, establishing tension ordinarily requires at least one crossover per chromosome pair in addition to cohesin between sister chromatids (see Chromosome segregation).====Anaphase I====Kinetochore microtubules shorten, pulling homologous chromosomes (which each consist of a pair of sister chromatids) to opposite poles.", "Nonkinetochore microtubules lengthen, pushing the centrosomes farther apart.", "The cell elongates in preparation for division down the center.", "Unlike in mitosis, only the cohesin from the chromosome arms is degraded while the cohesin surrounding the centromere remains protected by a protein named Shugoshin (Japanese for \"guardian spirit\"), what prevents the sister chromatids from separating.", "This allows the sister chromatids to remain together while homologs are segregated.====Telophase I====The first meiotic division effectively ends when the chromosomes arrive at the poles.", "Each daughter cell now has half the number of chromosomes but each chromosome consists of a pair of chromatids.", "The microtubules that make up the spindle network disappear, and a new nuclear membrane surrounds each haploid set.", "The chromosomes uncoil back into chromatin.", "Cytokinesis, the pinching of the cell membrane in animal cells or the formation of the cell wall in plant cells, occurs, completing the creation of two daughter cells.", "However, cytokinesis does not fully complete resulting in \"cytoplasmic bridges\" which enable the cytoplasm to be shared between daughter cells until the end of meiosis II.", "Sister chromatids remain attached during telophase I.Cells may enter a period of rest known as interkinesis or interphase II.", "No DNA replication occurs during this stage.===Meiosis II===Meiosis II is the second meiotic division, and usually involves equational segregation, or separation of sister chromatids.", "Mechanically, the process is similar to mitosis, though its genetic results are fundamentally different.", "The result is the production of four haploid cells (n chromosomes; 23 in humans) from the two haploid cells (with n chromosomes, each consisting of two sister chromatids) produced in meiosis I.", "The four main steps of meiosis II are: prophase II, metaphase II, anaphase II, and telophase II.In '''prophase II''', we see the disappearance of the nucleoli and the nuclear envelope again as well as the shortening and thickening of the chromatids.", "Centrosomes move to the polar regions and arrange spindle fibers for the second meiotic division.In '''metaphase II''', the centromeres contain two kinetochores that attach to spindle fibers from the centrosomes at opposite poles.", "The new equatorial metaphase plate is rotated by 90 degrees when compared to meiosis I, perpendicular to the previous plate.This is followed by '''anaphase II''', in which the remaining centromeric cohesin, not protected by Shugoshin anymore, is cleaved, allowing the sister chromatids to segregate.", "The sister chromatids by convention are now called sister chromosomes as they move toward opposing poles.The process ends with '''telophase II''', which is similar to telophase I, and is marked by decondensation and lengthening of the chromosomes and the disassembly of the spindle.", "Nuclear envelopes re-form and cleavage or cell plate formation eventually produces a total of four daughter cells, each with a haploid set of chromosomes.Meiosis is now complete and ends up with four new daughter cells." ], [ "Origin and function", "The new combinations of DNA created during meiosis are a significant source of genetic variation alongside mutation, resulting in new combinations of alleles, which may be beneficial.", "Meiosis generates gamete genetic diversity in two ways: (1) Law of Independent Assortment.", "The independent orientation of homologous chromosome pairs along the metaphase plate during metaphase I and orientation of sister chromatids in metaphase II, this is the subsequent separation of homologs and sister chromatids during anaphase I and II, it allows a random and independent distribution of chromosomes to each daughter cell (and ultimately to gametes); and (2) Crossing Over.", "The physical exchange of homologous chromosomal regions by homologous recombination during prophase I results in new combinations of genetic information within chromosomes.===Prophase I arrest===Female mammals and birds are born possessing all the oocytes needed for future ovulations, and these oocytes are arrested at the prophase I stage of meiosis.", "In humans, as an example, oocytes are formed between three and four months of gestation within the fetus and are therefore present at birth.", "During this prophase I arrested stage (dictyate), which may last for decades, four copies of the genome are present in the oocytes.", "The arrest of ooctyes at the four genome copy stage was proposed to provide the informational redundancy needed to repair damage in the DNA of the germline.", "The repair process used appears to involve homologous recombinational repair Prophase I arrested oocytes have a high capability for efficient repair of DNA damage, particularly exogenously induced double-strand breaks.", "DNA repair capability appears to be a key quality control mechanism in the female germ line and a critical determinant of fertility." ], [ "Occurrence", "===In life cycles===Diplontic life cycleHaplontic life cycle.Meiosis occurs in eukaryotic life cycles involving sexual reproduction, consisting of the cyclical process of growth and development by mitotic cell division, production of gametes by meiosis and fertilization.", "At certain stages of the life cycle, germ cells produce gametes.", "Somatic cells make up the body of the organism and are not involved in gamete production.Cycling meiosis and fertilization events results in alternation between haploid and diploid states.", "The organism phase of the life cycle can occur either during the diploid state (''diplontic'' life cycle), during the haploid state (''haplontic'' life cycle), or both (''haplodiplontic'' life cycle), in which there are two distinct organism phases, one with haploid cells and the other with diploid cells.In the ''diplontic life cycle'' (with pre-gametic meiosis), as in humans, the organism is multicellular and diploid, grown by mitosis from a diploid cell called the zygote.", "The organism's diploid germ-line stem cells undergo meiosis to make haploid gametes (the spermatozoa in males and ova in females), which fertilize to form the zygote.", "The diploid zygote undergoes repeated cellular division by mitosis to grow into the organism.In the ''haplontic life cycle'' (with post-zygotic meiosis), the organism is haploid, by the proliferation and differentiation of a single haploid cell called the gamete.", "Two organisms of opposing sex contribute their haploid gametes to form a diploid zygote.", "The zygote undergoes meiosis immediately, creating four haploid cells.", "These cells undergo mitosis to create the organism.", "Many fungi and many protozoa utilize the haplontic life cycle.", "In the ''haplodiplontic life cycle'' (with sporic or intermediate meiosis), the living organism alternates between haploid and diploid states.", "Consequently, this cycle is also known as the alternation of generations.", "The diploid organism's germ-line cells undergo meiosis to produce spores.", "The spores proliferate by mitosis, growing into a haploid organism.", "The haploid organism's gamete then combines with another haploid organism's gamete, creating the zygote.", "The zygote undergoes repeated mitosis and differentiation to produce a new diploid organism.", "The haplodiplontic life cycle can be considered a fusion of the diplontic and haplontic life cycles.===In plants and animals===Overview of chromatides' and chromosomes' distribution within the mitotic and meiotic cycle of a male human cellMeiosis occurs in all animals and plants.", "The result, the production of gametes with half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell, is the same, but the detailed process is different.", "In animals, meiosis produces gametes directly.", "In land plants and some algae, there is an alternation of generations such that meiosis in the diploid sporophyte generation produces haploid spores instead of gametes.", "When they germinate, these spores undergo repeated cell division by mitosis, developing into a multicellular haploid gametophyte generation, which then produces gametes directly (i.e.", "without further meiosis).", "In both animals and plants, the final stage is for the gametes to fuse to form a zygote in which the original number of chromosomes is restored.===In mammals===In females, meiosis occurs in cells known as oocytes (singular: oocyte).", "Each primary oocyte divides twice in meiosis, unequally in each case.", "The first division produces a daughter cell, and a much smaller polar body which may or may not undergo a second division.", "In meiosis II, division of the daughter cell produces a second polar body, and a single haploid cell, which enlarges to become an ovum.", "Therefore, in females each primary oocyte that undergoes meiosis results in one mature ovum and two or three polar bodies.There are pauses during meiosis in females.", "Maturing oocytes are arrested in prophase I of meiosis I and lie dormant within a protective shell of somatic cells called the follicle.", "At the beginning of each menstrual cycle, FSH secretion from the anterior pituitary stimulates a few follicles to mature in a process known as folliculogenesis.", "During this process, the maturing oocytes resume meiosis and continue until metaphase II of meiosis II, where they are again arrested just before ovulation.", "If these oocytes are fertilized by sperm, they will resume and complete meiosis.", "During folliculogenesis in humans, usually one follicle becomes dominant while the others undergo atresia.", "The process of meiosis in females occurs during oogenesis, and differs from the typical meiosis in that it features a long period of meiotic arrest known as the dictyate stage and lacks the assistance of centrosomes.In males, meiosis occurs during spermatogenesis in the seminiferous tubules of the testicles.", "Meiosis during spermatogenesis is specific to a type of cell called spermatocytes, which will later mature to become spermatozoa.", "Meiosis of primordial germ cells happens at the time of puberty, much later than in females.", "Tissues of the male testis suppress meiosis by degrading retinoic acid, proposed to be a stimulator of meiosis.", "This is overcome at puberty when cells within seminiferous tubules called Sertoli cells start making their own retinoic acid.", "Sensitivity to retinoic acid is also adjusted by proteins called nanos and DAZL.", "Genetic loss-of-function studies on retinoic acid-generating enzymes have shown that retinoic acid is required postnatally to stimulate spermatogonia differentiation which results several days later in spermatocytes undergoing meiosis, however retinoic acid is not required during the time when meiosis initiates.In female mammals, meiosis begins immediately after primordial germ cells migrate to the ovary in the embryo.", "Some studies suggest that retinoic acid derived from the primitive kidney (mesonephros) stimulates meiosis in embryonic ovarian oogonia and that tissues of the embryonic male testis suppress meiosis by degrading retinoic acid.", "However, genetic loss-of-function studies on retinoic acid-generating enzymes have shown that retinoic acid is not required for initiation of either female meiosis which occurs during embryogenesis or male meiosis which initiates postnatally.=== Flagellates ===While the majority of eukaryotes have a two-divisional meiosis (though sometimes achiasmatic), a very rare form, one-divisional meiosis, occurs in some flagellates (parabasalids and oxymonads) from the gut of the wood-feeding cockroach ''Cryptocercus''." ], [ "Role in human genetics and disease", "Recombination among the 23 pairs of human chromosomes is responsible for redistributing not just the actual chromosomes, but also pieces of each of them.", "There is also an estimated 1.6-fold more recombination in females relative to males.", "In addition, average, female recombination is higher at the centromeres and male recombination is higher at the telomeres.", "On average, 1 million bp (1 Mb) correspond to 1 cMorgan (cm = 1% recombination frequency).", "The frequency of cross-overs remain uncertain.", "In yeast, mouse and human, it has been estimated that ≥200 double-strand breaks (DSBs) are formed per meiotic cell.", "However, only a subset of DSBs (~5–30% depending on the organism), go on to produce crossovers, which would result in only 1-2 cross-overs per human chromosome.===Nondisjunction===The normal separation of chromosomes in meiosis I or sister chromatids in meiosis II is termed ''disjunction''.", "When the segregation is not normal, it is called ''nondisjunction''.", "This results in the production of gametes which have either too many or too few of a particular chromosome, and is a common mechanism for trisomy or monosomy.", "Nondisjunction can occur in the meiosis I or meiosis II, phases of cellular reproduction, or during mitosis.Most monosomic and trisomic human embryos are not viable, but some aneuploidies can be tolerated, such as trisomy for the smallest chromosome, chromosome 21.Phenotypes of these aneuploidies range from severe developmental disorders to asymptomatic.", "Medical conditions include but are not limited to:* Down syndrome – trisomy of chromosome 21* Patau syndrome – trisomy of chromosome 13* Edwards syndrome – trisomy of chromosome 18* Klinefelter syndrome – extra X chromosomes in males – i.e.", "XXY, XXXY, XXXXY, etc.", "* Turner syndrome – lacking of one X chromosome in females – i.e.", "X0* Triple X syndrome – an extra X chromosome in females* Jacobs syndrome – an extra Y chromosome in males.The probability of nondisjunction in human oocytes increases with increasing maternal age, presumably due to loss of cohesin over time." ], [ "Comparison to mitosis", "In order to understand meiosis, a comparison to mitosis is helpful.", "The table below shows the differences between meiosis and mitosis.", "Meiosis Mitosis End result Normally four cells, each with half the number of chromosomes as the parent Two cells, having the same number of chromosomes as the parent Function Production of gametes (sex cells) in sexually reproducing eukaryotes with diplont life cycle Cellular reproduction, growth, repair, asexual reproduction Where does it happen?", "Almost all eukaryotes (animals, plants, fungi, and protists); In gonads, before gametes (in diplontic life cycles); After zygotes (in haplontic); Before spores (in haplodiplontic) All proliferating cells in all eukaryotes Steps Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I, Telophase I, Prophase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II, Telophase II Prophase, Prometaphase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase Genetically same as parent?", "No Yes Crossing over happens?", "Yes, normally occurs between each pair of homologous chromosomes Very rarely Pairing of homologous chromosomes?", "Yes No Cytokinesis Occurs in Telophase I and Telophase II Occurs in Telophase Centromeres split Does not occur in Anaphase I, but occurs in Anaphase II Occurs in Anaphase" ], [ "Molecular regulation", "How a cell proceeds to meiotic division in meiotic cell division is not well known.", "Maturation promoting factor (MPF) seemingly have role in frog Oocyte meiosis.", "In the fungus ''S.", "pombe''.", "there is a role of MeiRNA binding protein for entry to meiotic cell division.It has been suggested that Yeast CEP1 gene product, that binds centromeric region CDE1, may play a role in chromosome pairing during meiosis-I.Meiotic recombination is mediated through double stranded break, which is catalyzed by Spo11 protein.", "Also Mre11, Sae2 and Exo1 play role in breakage and recombination.", "After the breakage happen, recombination take place which is typically homologous.", "The recombination may go through either a double Holliday junction (dHJ) pathway or synthesis-dependent strand annealing (SDSA).", "(The second one gives to noncrossover product).Seemingly there are checkpoints for meiotic cell division too.", "In S. pombe, Rad proteins, S. pombe Mek1 (with FHA kinase domain), Cdc25, Cdc2 and unknown factor is thought to form a checkpoint.In vertebrate oogenesis, maintained by cytostatic factor (CSF) has role in switching into meiosis-II." ], [ "See also", "*Fertilisation*Coefficient of coincidence*DNA repair*Oxidative stress*Synizesis (biology) *Biological life cycle*Apomixis *Parthenogenesis *Alternation of generations *Brachymeiosis *Mitotic recombination*Dikaryon*Mating of yeast" ], [ "References", "===Cited texts===*" ], [ "External links", "* Meiosis Flash Animation* Animations from the U. of Arizona Biology Dept.", "* Meiosis at Kimball's Biology Pages* Khan Academy, video lecture* CCO The Cell-Cycle Ontology* Stages of Meiosis animation* * \"Abby Dernburg Seminar: Chromosome Dynamics During Meiosis\"" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Minix" ], [ "Introduction", "'''MINIX''' (from '''mini-Unix''') is a Unix-like operating system based on a microkernel architecture.", "Since version 2.0, it has been Portable Operating System Interface (POSIX) compliant.Early versions of MINIX were created by Andrew S. Tanenbaum for educational purposes.", "Starting with MINIX 3, the primary aim of development shifted from education to the creation of a highly reliable and self-healing microkernel OS.", "MINIX 3 was developed as open-source software.MINIX was first released in 1987, with its complete source code made available to universities for study in courses and research.", "It has been free and open-source software since it was relicensed under the BSD-3-Clause license in April 2000." ], [ "Implementation", "===MINIX 1.0===Andrew S. Tanenbaum created MINIX at Vrije Universiteit in Amsterdam to exemplify the principles conveyed in his textbook, ''Operating Systems: Design and Implementation'' (1987).", "(Despite sharing a name, it has no relation to the older MINIX from Digital Systems House, Inc. based on AT&T Unix code.", ")An abridged 12,010 lines of the C source code of the kernel, memory manager, and file system of MINIX 1.0 are printed in the book.", "Prentice-Hall also released MINIX source code and binaries on floppy disk with a reference manual.", "MINIX 1 was system-call compatible with Seventh Edition Unix.Tanenbaum originally developed MINIX for compatibility with the IBM PC and IBM PC/AT 8088 microcomputers available at the time.===MINIX 1.5===MINIX 1.5, released in 1991, included support for MicroChannel IBM PS/2 systems and was also ported to the Motorola 68000 and SPARC architectures, supporting the Atari ST, Amiga, Macintosh, and Sun SPARCstation computer platforms.", "There were also unofficial ports to Intel 386 PC compatibles (in 32-bit protected mode), National Semiconductor NS32532, ARM and Inmos transputer processors.", "Meiko Scientific used an early version of MINIX as the basis for the MeikOS operating system for its transputer-based Computing Surface parallel computers.===MINIX 2.0===MINIX 2.0.4 system startup and login promptshell interactionDemand for the 68k-architectures waned, however, and MINIX 2.0, released in 1997, was only available for the x86 and Solaris-hosted SPARC architectures.", "It was the subject of the second edition of Tanenbaum's textbook, cowritten with Albert Woodhull and was distributed on a CD-ROM included with the book.", "MINIX 2.0 added POSIX.1 compliance, support for 386 and later processors in 32-bit mode and replaced the Amoeba network protocols included in MINIX 1.5 with a TCP/IP stack.", "A version of MINIX running as a user process under SunOS and Solaris was also available, a simulator named SMX (operating system) or just ''SMX'' for short.Version 2.0.3 was released in May 2001.It was the first version after MINIX had been relicensed under the BSD-3-Clause license, which was retroactively applied to all previous versions.====Minix-vmd====Minix-vmd is a variant of MINIX 2.0 for Intel IA-32-compatible processors, created by two Vrije Universiteit researchers, which adds virtual memory and support for the X Window System.===MINIX 3===top\" system monitoring commandX11 with the twm window managerMINIX 3 was publicly announced on 24 October 2005 by Tanenbaum during his keynote speech at the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) Symposium on Operating Systems Principles (SOSP).", "Although it still serves as an example for the new edition of Tanenbaum's textbook, coauthored by Albert S. Woodhull, it is comprehensively redesigned to be \"usable as a serious system on resource-limited and embedded computers and for applications requiring high reliability.", "\"MINIX 3 currently supports IA-32 and ARM architecture systems.", "It is available in a live CD format that allows it to be used on a computer without installing it on the hard drive, and in versions compatible with hardware emulating and virtualizing systems, including Bochs, QEMU, VMware Workstation and Fusion, VirtualBox, and Microsoft Virtual PC.Version 3.1.2 was released on 18 April 2006.It was the first version after MINIX had been relicensed under the BSD-3-Clause license with a new fourth clause.Version 3.1.5 was released on 5 November 2009.It contains X11, emacs, vi, cc, gcc, perl, python, ash, bash, zsh, ftp, ssh, telnet, pine, and over 400 other common Unix utility programs.", "With the addition of X11, this version marks the transition away from a text-only system.", "In many cases it can automatically restart a crashed driver without affecting running processes.", "In this way, MINIX is self-healing and can be used in applications demanding high reliability.", "MINIX 3 also has support for virtual memory management, making it suitable for desktop OS use.", "Desktop applications such as Firefox and OpenOffice.org are not yet available for MINIX 3 however.As of version 3.2.0, the userland was mostly replaced by that of NetBSD and support from pkgsrc became possible, increasing the available software applications that MINIX can use.", "Clang replaced the prior compiler (with GCC now having to be manually compiled), and GDB, the GNU debugger, was ported.MINIX 3.3.0, released in September 2014, brought ARM support.MINIX 3.4.0RC, Release Candidates became available in January 2016.However, a stable release of MINIX 3.4.0 is yet to be announced, and MINIX development has been dormant since 2018.MINIX supports many programming languages, including C, C++, FORTRAN, Modula-2, Pascal, Perl, Python, and Tcl.Over 50 people attended MINIXCon 2016, a conference to discuss the history and future of MINIX.All Intel chipsets post-2015 are running MINIX 3 internally as the software component of the Intel Management Engine." ], [ "Relationship with Linux", "===Early influence===Linus Torvalds used and appreciated MINIX, but his design deviated from the MINIX architecture in significant ways, most notably by employing a monolithic kernel instead of a microkernel.", "This was disapproved of by Tanenbaum in the Tanenbaum–Torvalds debate.", "Tanenbaum explained again his rationale for using a microkernel in May 2006.Early Linux kernel development was done on a MINIX host system, which led to Linux inheriting various features from MINIX, such as the MINIX file system.", "Eric Raymond claimed that Linus hasn't actually written Linux from scratch, but rather reused source code of MINIX itself to have working codebase.", "As the development progressed, MINIX code was gradually phased out completely.===''Samizdat'' claims===In May 2004, Kenneth Brown of the Alexis de Tocqueville Institution made the accusation that major parts of the Linux kernel had been copied from the MINIX codebase, in a book named ''Samizdat''.", "These accusations were rebutted universally—most prominently by Tanenbaum, who strongly criticised Brown and published a long rebuttal on his own personal Web site, also claiming that Brown was funded by Microsoft." ], [ "Licensing", "At the time of MINIX's original development, its license was relatively liberal.", "Its licensing fee was very small ($69) relative to those of other operating systems.", "Tanenbaum wished for MINIX to be as accessible as possible to students, but his publisher was unwilling to offer material (such as the source code) that could be copied freely, so a restrictive license requiring a nominal fee (included in the price of Tanenbaum's book) was applied as a compromise.", "This prevented the use of MINIX as the basis for a freely distributed software system.When free and open-source Unix-like operating systems such as Linux and 386BSD became available in the early 1990s, many volunteer software developers abandoned MINIX in favor of these.", "In April 2000, MINIX became free and open-source software under the BSD-3-Clause license, which was retroactively applied to all previous versions.", "However, by this time other operating systems had surpassed its capabilities, and it remained primarily an operating system for students and hobbyists.", "In late 2005, MINIX was relicensed with a fourth clause added to the BSD-3-Clause license." ], [ "See also", "*MINIX file system*Redox, an operating system in Rust using a MINIX-like kernel*Xinu*xv6" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*** The Minix Operating System (Minix 2 support)* History of MINIX from Andrew Tanenbaum**" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Muscular dystrophy" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Muscular dystrophies''' ('''MD''') are a genetically and clinically heterogeneous group of rare neuromuscular diseases that cause progressive weakness and breakdown of skeletal muscles over time.", "The disorders differ as to which muscles are primarily affected, the degree of weakness, how fast they worsen, and when symptoms begin.", "Some types are also associated with problems in other organs.Over 30 different disorders are classified as muscular dystrophies.", "Of those, Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) accounts for approximately 50% of cases and affects males beginning around the age of four.", "Other relatively common muscular dystrophies include Becker muscular dystrophy, facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy, and myotonic dystrophy, whereas limb–girdle muscular dystrophy and congenital muscular dystrophy are themselves groups of several – usually ultrarare – genetic disorders.Muscular dystrophies are caused by mutations in genes, usually those involved in making muscle proteins.", "The muscle protein, dystrophin, is in most muscle cells and works to strengthen the muscle fibers and protect them from injury as muscles contract and relax.", "It links the muscle membrane to the thin muscular filaments within the cell.", "Dystrophin is an integral part of the muscular structure, an absence of dystrophin can cause impairments such as: healthy muscle tissue can be replaced by fibrous tissue and fat, causing inability to generate force.", "Respiratory and cardiac complications can occur as well.", "These mutations are either inherited from parents or may occur spontaneously during early development.", "Muscular dystrophies may be X-linked recessive, autosomal recessive, or autosomal dominant.", "Diagnosis often involves blood tests and genetic testing.There is no cure for any disorder from the muscular dystrophy group.", "Several drugs designed to address the root cause are under development, including gene therapy (Microdystrophin), and antisense drugs (Ataluren, Eteplirsen etc.).", "Other medications used include corticosteroids (Deflazacort), calcium channel blockers (Diltiazem) to slow skeletal and cardiac muscle degeneration, anticonvulsants to control seizures and some muscle activity, and immunosuppressants (Vamorolone) to delay damage to dying muscle cells.", "Physical therapy, braces, and corrective surgery may help with some symptoms while assisted ventilation may be required in those with weakness of breathing muscles.Outcomes depend on the specific type of disorder.", "Many affected people will eventually become unable to walk and Duchenne muscular dystrophy in particular is associated with shortened life expectancy.Muscular dystrophy was first described in the 1830s by Charles Bell.", "The word \"dystrophy\" comes from the Greek ''dys'', meaning \"no, un-\" and ''troph-'' meaning \"nourish\"." ], [ "Signs and symptoms", "Severe limb deformities and contractures indicative of muscular dystrophyThe signs and symptoms consistent with muscular dystrophy are:" ], [ "Causes", "The majority of muscular dystrophies are inherited; the different muscular dystrophies follow various inheritance patterns (X-linked, autosomal recessive or autosomal dominant).", "In a small percentage of patients, the disorder may have been caused by a ''de novo'' (spontaneous) mutation." ], [ "Diagnosis", "The diagnosis of muscular dystrophy is based on the results of muscle biopsy, increased creatine phosphokinase (CpK3), electromyography, and genetic testing.", "A physical examination and the patient's medical history will help the doctor determine the type of muscular dystrophy.", "Specific muscle groups are affected by different types of muscular dystrophy.An MRI can be used to assess the white matter of the nervous system and measure the merosin levels in young boys.", "An absence of merosin in young boys will result with neurological deficits and changes in the white matter.===Classification=== Disorder nameOMIM GeneInheritance patternAge of onsetMuscles affected Description'''Becker muscular dystrophy'''''DMD''XRChildhoodDistal limbs progressing to generalised weakness A less severe variant of Duchenne muscular dystrophy, affects predominantly boys.", "'''Congenital muscular dystrophy''' Multiple MultipleAD, ARAt birthGeneralised weakness Symptoms include general muscle weakness and possible joint deformities.", "Disease progresses slowly, and lifespan is shortened.Congenital muscular dystrophy includes several disorders with a range of symptoms.", "Muscle degeneration may be mild or severe.", "Problems may be restricted to skeletal muscle, or muscle degeneration may be paired with effects on the brain and other organ systems.Several forms of the congenital muscular dystrophies are caused by defects in proteins thought to have some relationship to the dystrophin-glycoprotein complex and to the connections between muscle cells and their surrounding cellular structure.", "Some forms of congenital muscular dystrophy show severe brain malformations, such as lissencephaly and hydrocephalus.", "'''Duchenne muscular dystrophy'''''DMD''XRChildhoodDistal limbs progressing to generalised weakness, involving respiratory muscles The most common childhood form of muscular dystrophy, affects predominantly boys (mild symptoms may occur in female carriers).", "Characterised by progressive muscle wasting.", "Clinical symptoms become evident when the child begins walking.", "By age 10, the child may need braces and by age 12, most patients are unable to walk.", "Typical lifespans range from 15 to 45.Sporadic mutations in this gene occur frequently.", "'''Distal muscular dystrophy'''''DYSF''AD, AR20–60 yearsDistal muscles in hands, forearms and lower legs Progress is slow and not life-threatening.Miyoshi myopathy, one of the distal muscular dystrophies, causes initial weakness in the calf muscles, and is caused by defects in the same gene responsible for one form of limb–girdle muscular dystrophy.", "'''Emery–Dreifuss muscular dystrophy'''MultipleMultipleXR, AD, ARChildhood, early teenage yearsDistal limb muscles, limb-girdle, heart Symptoms include muscle weakness and wasting, starting in the distal limb muscles and progressing to involve the limb–girdle muscles.", "Most patients also have cardiac conduction defects and arrhythmias.", "'''Facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy'''''DUX4''ADAdolescenceFace, shoulders, upper arms, progressing to other muscles Causes progressive weakness, initially in the muscles of the face, shoulders, and upper arms.", "Additional muscles are often affected.", "Affected individuals can become severely disabled, with 20% requiring a wheelchair by age 50.30% of cases involve spontaneous mutations.", "Penetrance and severity seem to be lower in females compared to males.", "'''Limb–girdle muscular dystrophy''' Multiple MultipleAD, ARAnyUpper arms and legs The person normally leads a normal life with some assistance.", "Rare cardiopulmonary complications can be life-threatening.", "'''Myotonic muscular dystrophy'''''DMPK''''CNBP''ADAdulthoodSkeletal muscles, heart, other muscle groups Presents with myotonia (delayed relaxation of muscles), as well as muscle wasting and weakness.", "Varies in severity and manifestations and affects many body systems in addition to skeletal muscles, including the heart, endocrine organs, and eyes.", "'''Oculopharyngeal muscular dystrophy'''''PABPN1''AD, rarely AR40–50 yearsEye muscles, face, throat, pelvis, shoulders" ], [ "Management", "Ankle foot orthosisCurrently, there is no cure for muscular dystrophy.", "In terms of management, physical therapy, occupational therapy, orthotic intervention (e.g., ankle-foot orthosis), speech therapy, and respiratory therapy may be helpful.", "Low intensity corticosteroids such as prednisone, and deflazacort may help to maintain muscle tone.", "Orthoses (orthopedic appliances used for support) and corrective orthopedic surgery may be needed to improve the quality of life in some cases.", "The cardiac problems that occur with Emery–Dreifuss muscular dystrophy (EDMD) and myotonic muscular dystrophy may require a pacemaker.", "The myotonia (delayed relaxation of a muscle after a strong contraction) occurring in myotonic muscular dystrophy may be treated with medications such as quinine.Low-intensity, assisted exercises (dynamic exercise training, or assisted bicycle training of the arms and legs during a 24-week trial significantly delays the functional loss of muscular dystrophy.", "It can be done in a safe and feasible manner, even with boys late in their ambulation stage.", "However, eccentric exercises, or intense exercises causing soreness should not be used as they can cause further damage.Occupational therapy assists the individual with MD to engage in activities of daily living (such as self-feeding and self-care activities) and leisure activities at the most independent level possible.", "This may be achieved with use of adaptive equipment or the use of energy-conservation techniques.", "Occupational therapy may implement changes to a person's environment, both at home or work, to increase the individual's function and accessibility; furthermore, it addresses psychosocial changes and cognitive decline which may accompany MD, and provides support and education about the disease to the family and individual." ], [ "Prognosis", "Prognosis depends on the individual form of muscular dystrophy.", "Some dystrophies cause progressive weakness and loss of muscle function, which may result in severe physical disability and a life-threatening deterioration of respiratory muscles or heart.", "Other dystrophies do not affect life expectancy and only cause relatively mild impairment." ], [ "History", "In the 1860s, descriptions of boys who grew progressively weaker, lost the ability to walk, and died at an early age became more prominent in medical journals.", "In the following decade, French neurologist Guillaume Duchenne gave a comprehensive account of the most common and severe form of the disease, which now carries his name – Duchenne MD." ], [ "Society and culture", "In 1966 in the US and Canada, Jerry Lewis and the Muscular Dystrophy Association (MDA) began the annual Labor Day telecast ''The Jerry Lewis Telethon'', significant in raising awareness of muscular dystrophy in North America.", "Disability rights advocates, however, have criticized the telethon for portraying those living with the disease as deserving pity rather than respect.On December 18, 2001, the MD CARE Act was signed into law in the US; it amends the Public Health Service Act to provide research for the various muscular dystrophies.", "This law also established the Muscular Dystrophy Coordinating Committee to help focus research efforts through a coherent research strategy." ], [ "See also" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* *" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mongols" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Mongols''' are an East Asian ethnic group native to Mongolia, Inner Mongolia in China, and the Republic of Buryatia of the Russian Federation.", "The Mongols are the principal member of the large family of Mongolic peoples.", "The Oirats in Western Mongolia as well as the Buryats and Kalmyks of Russia are classified either as distinct ethno-linguistic groups or subgroups of Mongols.The Mongols are bound together by a common heritage and ethnic identity.", "Their indigenous dialects are collectively known as the Mongolian language.", "The contiguous geographical area in which the Mongols primarily live is referred to as the Mongol heartland, especially in history books.", "The ancestors of the modern-day Mongols are referred to as Proto-Mongols." ], [ "Definition", "Broadly defined, the term includes the Mongols proper (also known as the Khalkha Mongols), Buryats, Oirats, the Kalmyks and the Southern Mongols.", "The latter comprises the Abaga Mongols, Abaganar, Aohans, Baarins, Chahars, Eastern Dorbets, Gorlos Mongols, Jalaids, Jaruud, Kharchins, Khishigten, Khorchins, Khuuchid, Muumyangan, Naimans, Onnigud, Ordos, Sunud, Tumed, Urad and Üzemchins.The designation \"Mongol\" briefly appeared in 8th century records of Tang China to describe a tribe of Shiwei.", "It resurfaced in the late 11th century during the Khitan-ruled Liao dynasty.", "After the fall of the Liao in 1125, the Khamag Mongols became a leading tribe on the Mongolian Plateau.", "However, their wars with the Jurchen-ruled Jin dynasty and the Tatar confederation had weakened them.In the thirteenth century, the word Mongol grew into an umbrella term for a large group of Mongolic-speaking tribes united under the rule of Genghis Khan.=== Etymology ===Mongolian historian and Sinologist Gunjiin Sükhbaatar proposes that the ethnonym '''Mongol''' derives from the personal name of the progenitor of Rouran Khaganate, who is known in the Chinese-language historiographical works ''Book of Wei'' and ''History of the Northern Dynasties'' as '''Mùgǔlǘ'''." ], [ "History", " Asia in 330555, showing the Rouran Khaganate and its neighbors, including the Tuoba Wei and the Tuyuhun, all of which were established by Proto-MongolsIn various times Mongolic peoples have been equated with the Scythians, the Magog, and the Tungusic peoples.", "Based on Chinese historical texts the ancestry of the Mongolic peoples can be traced back to the Donghu, a nomadic confederation occupying eastern Mongolia and Manchuria.", "The Donghu neighboured the Xiongnu, whose identity is still debated today.", "Although some scholars maintain that they were proto-Mongols, they were more likely a multi-ethnic group of Mongolic and Turkic tribes.", "It has been suggested that the language of the Huns was related to the Xiongnu.The Donghu, however, can be much more easily labeled proto-Mongol since the Chinese histories trace only Mongolic tribes and kingdoms (Xianbei and Wuhuan peoples) from them, although some historical texts claim a mixed Xiongnu-Donghu ancestry for some tribes (e.g.", "the Khitan).=== In the Chinese classics ===Yuan dynasty Mongol riderThe Donghu are mentioned by Sima Qian as already existing in Inner Mongolia north of Yan in 699–632 BCE along with the Shanrong.", "Unofficial Chinese sources such as ''Yi Zhou Shu'' (\"Lost Book of Zhou\") and the ''Classic of Mountains and Seas'' project the Donghu's activities back to the Shang dynasty (1600–1046 BCE).", "However, the Hu (胡) were not mentioned among the non-Shang ''fang'' (方 \"border-region\"; modern term ''fāngguó'' 方國 \"fang-countries\") in the extant oracle bones from the Shang period.The Xianbei formed part of the Donghu confederation, and possibly had in earlier times some independence within the Donghu confederation as well as from the Zhou dynasty.", "During the Warring States the poem \"The Great Summons\" () in the anthology Verses of Chu mentions small-waisted and long-necked Xianbei women, and possibly also the book ''Discourses of the States'', which states that during the reign of King Cheng of Zhou (reigned 1042–1021 BCE) the Xianbei came to participate at a meeting of Zhou subject-lords at Qiyang (岐阳) (now Qishan County) but were only allowed to perform the fire ceremony under the supervision of Chu since they were not vassals (诸侯) by enfeoffment and establishment.", "The Xianbei chieftain was appointed joint guardian of the ritual torch along with Chu viscount Xiong Yi.These early Xianbei came from the nearby Zhukaigou culture (2200–1500 BCE) in the Ordos Desert, where maternal DNA corresponds to the Mongol Daur people and the Tungusic Evenks.", "The Zhukaigou Xianbei (part of the Ordos culture of Inner Mongolia and northern Shaanxi) had trade relations with the Shang.", "Liu Song dynasty commentator Pei Yin (裴駰), in his Jixie (集解), quoted Eastern Han dynasty scholar Fu Qian (服虔)'s assertion that Shanrong (山戎) and Beidi (北狄) are ancestors of the present-day Xianbei (鮮卑).", "Again in Inner Mongolia another closely connected core Mongolic Xianbei region was the Upper Xiajiadian culture (1000–600 BCE) where the Donghu confederation was centered.After the Donghu were defeated by Xiongnu king Modu Chanyu, the Xianbei and Wuhuan survived as the main remnants of the confederation.", "Tadun Khan of the Wuhuan (died 207 AD) was the ancestor of the proto-Mongolic Kumo Xi.", "The Wuhuan are of the direct Donghu royal line and the ''New Book of Tang'' says that in 209 BCE, Modu Chanyu defeated the Wuhuan instead of using the word Donghu.", "The Xianbei, however, were of the lateral Donghu line and had a somewhat separate identity, although they shared the same language with the Wuhuan.", "In 49 CE the Xianbei ruler Bianhe (Bayan Khan?)", "raided and defeated the Xiongnu, killing 2000, after having received generous gifts from Emperor Guangwu of Han.", "The Xianbei reached their peak under Tanshihuai Khan (reigned 156–181) who expanded the vast, but short lived, Xianbei state (93–234).Three prominent groups split from the Xianbei state as recorded by the Chinese histories: the Rouran (claimed by some to be the Pannonian Avars), the Khitan people and the Shiwei (a subtribe called the \"Shiwei Menggu\" is held to be the origin of the Genghisid Mongols).", "Besides these three Xianbei groups, there were others such as the Murong, Duan and Tuoba.", "Their culture was nomadic, their religion shamanism or Buddhism and their military strength formidable.", "There is still no direct evidence that the Rouran spoke Mongolic languages, although most scholars agree that they were Proto-Mongolic.", "The Khitan, however, had two scripts of their own and many Mongolic words are found in their half-deciphered writings.Geographically, the Tuoba Xianbei ruled the southern part of Inner Mongolia and northern China, the Rouran (Yujiulü Shelun was the first to use the title khagan in 402) ruled eastern Mongolia, western Mongolia, the northern part of Inner Mongolia and northern Mongolia, the Khitan were concentrated in eastern part of Inner Mongolia north of Korea and the Shiwei were located to the north of the Khitan.", "These tribes and kingdoms were soon overshadowed by the rise of the First Turkic Khaganate in 555, the Uyghur Khaganate in 745 and the Yenisei Kirghiz states in 840.The Tuoba were eventually absorbed into China.", "The Rouran fled west from the Göktürks and either disappeared into obscurity or, as some say, invaded Europe as the Avars under their Khan, Bayan I.", "Some Rouran under Tatar Khan migrated east, founding the Tatar confederation, who became part of the Shiwei.", "The Khitans, who were independent after their separation from the Kumo Xi (of Wuhuan origin) in 388, continued as a minor power in Manchuria until one of them, Abaoji (872–926), established the Liao dynasty (916–1125).===Mongol Empire===A portrait of Kublai Khan by Araniko (1245–1306)Mongol huntsmen, Ming dynastyThe destruction of Uyghur Khaganate by the Kirghiz resulted in the end of Turkic dominance in Mongolia.", "According to historians, Kirghiz were not interested in assimilating newly acquired lands; instead, they controlled local tribes through various manaps (tribal leaders).", "The Khitans occupied the areas vacated by the Turkic Uyghurs bringing them under their control.", "The Yenisei Kirghiz state was centered on Khakassia and they were expelled from Mongolia by the Khitans in 924.Beginning in the 10th century, the Khitans, under the leadership of Abaoji, prevailed in several military campaigns against the Tang dynastys border guards, and the Xi, Shiwei and Jurchen nomadic groups.Remnants of the Liao dynasty led by Yelü Dashi fled west through Mongolia after being defeated by the Jurchen-led Jin dynasty and founded the Qara Khitai (Western Liao dynasty) in 1124 while still maintaining control over western Mongolia.", "In 1218, Genghis Khan incorporated the Qara Khitai after which the Khitan passed into obscurity.", "Some remnants surfaced as the Qutlugh-Khanid dynasty (1222–1306) in Iran and the Dai Khitai in Afghanistan.", "With the expansion of the Mongol Empire, the Mongolic peoples settled over almost all Eurasia and carried on military campaigns from the Adriatic Sea to Indonesian Java and from Japan to Palestine (Gaza).", "They simultaneously became Padishahs of Persia, Emperors of China, and Great Khans of the Mongols, and one (Al-Adil Kitbugha) became Sultan of Egypt.", "The Mongolic peoples of the Golden Horde established themselves to govern Russia by 1240.By 1279, they conquered the Song dynasty and brought all of China proper under the control of the Yuan dynasty.With the breakup of the empire, the dispersed Mongolic peoples quickly adopted the mostly Turkic cultures surrounding them and were assimilated, forming parts of Afghanistan's Hazaras, Azerbaijanis, Uzbeks, Karakalpaks, Tatars, Bashkirs, Turkmens, Uyghurs, Nogays, Kyrgyzs, Kazakhs, Caucasus peoples, Iranian peoples and Moghuls; linguistic and cultural Persianization also began to be prominent in these territories.", "Some Mongols assimilated into the Yakuts after their migration to northern Siberia and about 30% of Yakut words have Mongol origin.", "However, remnants of the Yuan imperial family retreated north to Mongolia in 1368, retaining their language and culture.", "There were 250,000 Mongols in southern China and many Mongols were massacred by the rebel army.", "The survivors were trapped in southern China and eventually assimilated.", "The Dongxiangs, Bonans, Yugur and Monguor people were invaded by the Ming dynasty.===Northern Yuan===The Northern Yuan dynasty and Turco-Mongol residual states and domains by the 15th centuryAfter the fall of the Yuan dynasty in 1368, the Mongols continued to rule the Northern Yuan dynasty in northern China and the Mongolian steppe.", "However, the Oirads began to challenge the Eastern Mongols under the Borjigin monarchs in the late 14th century and Mongolia was divided into two parts: Western Mongolia (Oirats) and Eastern Mongolia (Khalkha, Inner Mongols, Barga, Buryats).", "The earliest written references to the plough in Middle Mongolian language sources appear towards the end of the 14th c.In 1434, Eastern Mongol Taisun Khan's (1433–1452) Oirat prime minister Togoon Taish reunited the Mongols after killing Adai Khan in Khorchin.", "Togoon died in 1439 and his son Esen Taish became ruler of Northern Yuan dynasty.", "Esen later unified the Mongol tribes.", "The Ming dynasty attempted to invade the Northern Yuan in the 14–16th centuries, however, the Ming dynasty was defeated by the Oirat, Southern Mongol, Eastern Mongol and united Mongol armies.", "Esen's 30,000 cavalries defeated 500,000 Chinese soldiers in 1449.Within eighteen months of his defeat of the titular Khan Taisun, in 1453, Esen himself took the title of Great Khan (1454–1455) of the Great Yuan.The Khalkha emerged during the reign of Dayan Khan (1479–1543) as one of the six tumens of the Eastern Mongolic peoples.", "They quickly became the dominant Mongolic clan in Mongolia proper.", "He reunited the Mongols again.", "In 1550, Altan Khan led a Khalkha Mongol raid on Beijing.", "The Mongols voluntarily reunified during Eastern Mongolian Tümen Zasagt Khan rule (1558–1592) for the last time (the Mongol Empire united all Mongols before this).Eastern Mongolia was divided into three parts in the 17th century: Outer Mongolia (Khalkha), Inner Mongolia (Inner Mongols) and the Buryat region in southern Siberia.The last Mongol khagan was Ligdan in the early 17th century.", "He got into conflicts with the Manchus over the looting of Chinese cities, and managed to alienate most Mongol tribes.", "In 1618, Ligdan signed a treaty with the Ming dynasty to protect their northern border from the Manchus attack in exchange for thousands of taels of silver.", "By the 1620s, only the Chahars remained under his rule.=== Qing-era Mongols ===wars between Qing dynasty and Dzungar KhanateDzungar soldier called Ayusi from the high Qing era, by Giuseppe Castiglione, 1755The Battle of Oroi-Jalatu in 1755 between the Qing (that ruled China at the time) and Mongol Dzungar armies.", "The fall of the Dzungar KhanateThe Chahar army was defeated in 1625 and 1628 by the Inner Mongol and Manchu armies due to Ligdan's faulty tactics.", "The Qing forces secured their control over Inner Mongolia by 1635, and the army of the last khan Ligdan moved to battle against Tibetan Gelugpa sect (Yellow Hat sect) forces.", "The Gelugpa forces supported the Manchus, while Ligdan supported Kagyu sect (Red Hat sect) of Tibetan Buddhism.", "Ligden died in 1634 on his way to Tibet.", "By 1636, most Inner Mongolian nobles had submitted to the Qing dynasty founded by the Manchus.", "Inner Mongolian Tengis noyan revolted against the Qing in the 1640s and the Khalkha battled to protect Sunud.Western Mongol Oirats and Eastern Mongolian Khalkhas vied for domination in Mongolia since the 15th century and this conflict weakened Mongol strength.", "In 1688, the Western Mongol Dzungar Khanate's king Galdan Boshugtu attacked Khalkha after murder of his younger brother by Tusheet Khan Chakhundorj (main or Central Khalkha leader) and the Khalkha-Oirat War began.", "Galdan threatened to kill Chakhundorj and Zanabazar (Javzandamba Khutagt I, spiritual head of Khalkha) but they escaped to Sunud (Inner Mongolia).", "Many Khalkha nobles and folks fled to Inner Mongolia because of the war.", "Few Khalkhas fled to the Buryat region and Russia threatened to exterminate them if they did not submit, but many of them submitted to Galdan Boshugtu.In 1683 Galdan's armies reached Tashkent and the Syr Darya and crushed two armies of the Kazakhs.", "After that Galdan subjugated the Black Khirgizs and ravaged the Fergana Valley.", "From 1685 Galdan's forces aggressively pushed the Kazakhs.", "While his general Rabtan took Taraz, and his main force forced the Kazakhs to migrate westwards.", "In 1687, he besieged the City of Turkistan.", "Under the leadership of Abul Khair Khan, the Kazakhs won major victories over the Dzungars at the Bulanty River in 1726, and at the Battle of Anrakay in 1729.The Khalkha eventually submitted to Qing rule in 1691 by Zanabazar's decision, thus bringing all of today's Mongolia under the rule of the Qing dynasty but Khalkha ''de facto'' remained under the rule of Galdan Boshugtu Khaan until 1696.The Mongol-Oirat's Code (a treaty of alliance) against foreign invasion between the Oirats and Khalkhas was signed in 1640, however, the Mongols could not unite against foreign invasions.", "Chakhundorj fought against Russian invasion of Outer Mongolia until 1688 and stopped Russian invasion of Khövsgöl Province.", "Zanabazar struggled to bring together the Oirats and Khalkhas before the war.Galdan Boshugtu sent his army to \"liberate\" Inner Mongolia after defeating the Khalkha's army and called Inner Mongolian nobles to fight for Mongolian independence.", "Some Inner Mongolian nobles, Tibetans, Kumul Khanate and some Moghulistan's nobles supported his war against the Manchus, however, Inner Mongolian nobles did not battle against the Qing.There were three khans in Khalkha and Zasagt Khan Shar (Western Khalkha leader) was Galdan's ally.", "Tsetsen Khan (Eastern Khalkha leader) did not engage in this conflict.", "While Galdan was fighting in Eastern Mongolia, his nephew Tseveenravdan seized the Dzungarian throne in 1689 and this event made Galdan impossible to fight against the Qing Empire.", "The Russian and Qing Empires supported his action because this coup weakened Western Mongolian strength.", "Galdan Boshugtu's army was defeated by the outnumbering Qing army in 1696 and he died in 1697.The Mongols who fled to the Buryat region and Inner Mongolia returned after the war.", "Some Khalkhas mixed with the Buryats.The Buryats fought against Russian invasion since the 1620s and thousands of Buryats were massacred.", "The Buryat region was formally annexed to Russia by treaties in 1689 and 1727, when the territories on both the sides of Lake Baikal were separated from Mongolia.", "In 1689 the Treaty of Nerchinsk established the northern border of Manchuria north of the present line.", "The Russians retained Trans-Baikalia between Lake Baikal and the Argun River north of Mongolia.", "The Treaty of Kyakhta (1727), along with the Treaty of Nerchinsk, regulated the relations between Imperial Russia and the Qing Empire until the mid-nineteenth century.", "It established the northern border of Mongolia.", "Oka Buryats revolted in 1767 and Russia completely conquered the Buryat region in the late 18th century.", "Russia and Qing were rival empires until the early 20th century, however, both empires carried out united policy against Central Asians.The Qing Empire conquered Upper Mongolia or the Oirat's Khoshut Khanate in the 1720s and 80,000 people were killed.", "By that period, Upper Mongolian population reached 200,000.The Dzungar Khanate conquered by the Qing dynasty in 1755–1758 because of their leaders and military commanders conflicts.", "Some scholars estimate that about 80% of the Dzungar population were destroyed by a combination of warfare and disease during the Qing conquest of the Dzungar Khanate in 1755–1758.Mark Levene, a historian whose recent research interests focus on genocide, has stated that the extermination of the Dzungars was \"arguably the eighteenth century genocide par excellence.\"", "The Dzungar population reached 600,000 in 1755.About 200,000–250,000 Oirats migrated from western Mongolia to Volga River in 1607 and established the Kalmyk Khanate.The Torghuts were led by their Tayishi, Höö Örlög.", "Russia was concerned about their attack but the Kalmyks became a Russian ally and a treaty to protect the southern Russian border was signed between the Kalmyk Khanate and Russia.", "In 1724 the Kalmyks came under control of Russia.", "By the early 18th century, there were approximately 300,000–350,000 Kalmyks and 15,000,000 Russians.", "The Tsardom of Russia gradually chipped away at the autonomy of the Kalmyk Khanate.", "These policies, for instance, encouraged the establishment of Russian and German settlements on pastures the Kalmyks used to roam and feed their livestock.", "In addition, the Tsarist government imposed a council on the Kalmyk Khan, thereby diluting his authority, while continuing to expect the Kalmyk Khan to provide cavalry units to fight on behalf of Russia.", "The Russian Orthodox church, by contrast, pressured Buddhist Kalmyks to adopt Orthodoxy.", "In January 1771, approximately 200,000 (170,000) Kalmyks began the migration from their pastures on the left bank of the Volga River to Dzungaria (Western Mongolia), through the territories of their Bashkir and Kazakh enemies.", "The last Kalmyk khan Ubashi led the migration to restore Mongolian independence.", "Ubashi Khan sent his 30,000 cavalries to the Russo-Turkish War in 1768–1769 to gain weapon before the migration.", "The Empress Catherine the Great ordered the Russian army, Bashkirs and Kazakhs to exterminate all migrants and the Empress abolished the Kalmyk Khanate.", "The Kyrgyzs attacked them near Balkhash Lake.", "About 100,000–150,000 Kalmyks who settled on the west bank of the Volga River could not cross the river because the river did not freeze in the winter of 1771 and Catherine the Great executed influential nobles of them.", "After seven months of travel, only one-third (66,073) of the original group reached Dzungaria (Balkhash Lake, western border of the Qing Empire).", "The Qing Empire transmigrated the Kalmyks to five different areas to prevent their revolt and influential leaders of the Kalmyks died soon (killed by the Manchus).", "Russia states that Buryatia voluntarily merged with Russia in 1659 due to Mongolian oppression and the Kalmyks voluntarily accepted Russian rule in 1609 but only Georgia voluntarily accepted Russian rule.In the early 20th century, the late Qing government encouraged Han Chinese colonization of Mongolian lands under the name of \"New Policies\" or \"New Administration\" (xinzheng).", "As a result, some Mongol leaders (especially those of Outer Mongolia) decided to seek Mongolian independence.", "After the Xinhai Revolution, the Mongolian Revolution on 30 November 1911 in Outer Mongolia ended an over 200-year rule of the Qing dynasty.=== Post-Qing era ===With the independence of Outer Mongolia, the Mongolian army controlled Khalkha and Khovd regions (modern day Uvs, Khovd, and Bayan-Ölgii provinces), but Northern Xinjiang (the Altai and Ili regions of the Qing Empire), Upper Mongolia, Barga and Inner Mongolia came under control of the newly formed Republic of China.", "On February 2, 1913, the Bogd Khanate of Mongolia sent Mongolian cavalries to \"liberate\" Inner Mongolia from China.", "Russia refused to sell weapons to the Bogd Khanate, and the Russian czar, Nicholas II, referred to it as \"Mongolian imperialism\".", "Additionally, the United Kingdom urged Russia to abolish Mongolian independence as it was concerned that \"if Mongolians gain independence, then Central Asians will revolt\".", "10,000 Khalkha and Inner Mongolian cavalries (about 3,500 Inner Mongols) defeated 70,000 Chinese soldiers and controlled almost all of Inner Mongolia; however, the Mongolian army retreated due to lack of weapons in 1914.400 Mongol soldiers and 3,795 Chinese soldiers died in this war.", "The Khalkhas, Khovd Oirats, Buryats, Dzungarian Oirats, Upper Mongols, Barga Mongols, most Inner Mongolian and some Tuvan leaders sent statements to support Bogd Khan's call of Mongolian reunification.", "In reality however, most of them were too prudent or irresolute to attempt joining the Bogd Khan regime.", "Russia encouraged Mongolia to become an autonomous region of China in 1914.Mongolia lost Barga, Dzungaria, Tuva, Upper Mongolia and Inner Mongolia in the 1915 Treaty of Kyakhta.In October 1919, the Republic of China occupied Mongolia after the suspicious deaths of Mongolian patriotic nobles.", "On 3 February 1921 the White Russian army—led by Baron Ungern and mainly consisting of Mongolian volunteer cavalries, and Buryat and Tatar cossacks—liberated the Mongolian capital.", "Baron Ungern's purpose was to find allies to defeat the Soviet Union.", "The Statement of Reunification of Mongolia was adopted by Mongolian revolutionist leaders in 1921.The Soviet, however, considered Mongolia to be Chinese territory in 1924 during a secret meeting with the Republic of China.", "However, the Soviets officially recognized Mongolian independence in 1945 but carried out various policies (political, economic and cultural) against Mongolia until its fall in 1991 to prevent Pan-Mongolism and other irredentist movements.On 10 April 1932 Mongolians revolted against the government's new policy and Soviets.", "The government and Soviet soldiers defeated the rebels in October.The Buryats started to migrate to Mongolia in the 1900s due to Russian oppression.", "Joseph Stalin's regime stopped the migration in 1930 and started a campaign of ethnic cleansing against newcomers and Mongolians.", "During the Stalinist repressions in Mongolia almost all adult Buryat men and 22,000–33,000 Mongols (3–5% of the total population; common citizens, monks, Pan-Mongolists, nationalists, patriots, hundreds of military officers, nobles, intellectuals and elite people) were shot dead under Soviet orders.", "Some authors also offer much higher estimates, up to 100,000 victims.", "Around the late 1930s the Mongolian People's Republic had an overall population of about 700,000 to 900,000 people.", "By 1939, Soviet said \"We repressed too many people, the population of Mongolia is only hundred thousands\".", "The proportion of victims in relation to the population of the country is much higher than the corresponding figures of the Great Purge in the Soviet Union.Khorloogiin Choibalsan, leader of the Mongolian People's Republic (left), and Georgy Zhukov consult during the Battle of Khalkhin Gol against Japanese troops, 1939The Manchukuo (1932–1945), puppet state of the Empire of Japan (1868–1947) invaded Barga and some part of Inner Mongolia with Japanese help.", "The Mongolian army advanced to the Great Wall of China during the Soviet–Japanese War of 1945 (Mongolian name: ''Liberation War of 1945'').", "Japan forced Inner Mongolian and Barga people to fight against Mongolians but they surrendered to Mongolians and started to fight against their Japanese and Manchu allies.", "Marshal Khorloogiin Choibalsan called Inner Mongolians and Xinjiang Oirats to migrate to Mongolia during the war but the Soviet Army blocked Inner Mongolian migrants' way.", "It was a part of a Pan-Mongolian plan and few Oirats and Inner Mongols (Huuchids, Bargas, Tümeds, about 800 Uzemchins) arrived.", "Inner Mongolian leaders carried out active policy to merge Inner Mongolia with Mongolia since 1911.They founded the Inner Mongolian Army in 1929 but the Inner Mongolian Army disbanded after ending World War II.", "The Japanese Empire supported Pan-Mongolism since the 1910s but there have never been active relations between Mongolia and Imperial Japan due to Russian resistance.", "The nominally independent Inner Mongolian Mengjiang state (1936–1945) was established with support of Japan in 1936; also, some Buryat and Inner Mongol nobles founded a Pan-Mongolist government with the support of Japan in 1919.World War II Zaisan Memorial, Ulaan Baatar, from the People's Republic of Mongolia era.The Inner Mongols established the short-lived Republic of Inner Mongolia in 1945.Another part of Choibalsan's plan was to merge Inner Mongolia and Dzungaria with Mongolia.", "By 1945, Chinese communist leader Mao Zedong requested the Soviets to stop Pan-Mongolism because China lost its control over Inner Mongolia and without Inner Mongolian support the Communists were unable to defeat Japan and Kuomintang.Mongolia and Soviets supported Xinjiang Uyghurs' and Kazakhs' separatist movement in the 1930–1940s.", "By 1945, the Soviets refused to support them after its alliance with the Chinese Communist Party and Mongolia interrupted its relations with the separatists under pressure.", "Xinjiang Oirat's militant groups operated together the Turkic peoples but the Oirats did not have the leading role due to their small population.", "Basmachis or Turkic and Tajik militants fought to liberate Central Asia (Soviet Central Asia) until 1942.On February 2, 1913, the Treaty of friendship and alliance between the Government of Mongolia and Tibet was signed.", "Mongolian agents and Bogd Khan disrupted Soviet secret operations in Tibet to change its regime in the 1920s.On October 27, 1961, the United Nations recognized Mongolian independence and granted the nation full membership in the organization.The Tsardom of Russia, Russian Empire, Soviet Union, capitalist and communist China performed many genocide actions against the Mongols (assimilate, reduce the population, extinguish the language, culture, tradition, history, religion and ethnic identity).", "Peter the Great said: \"The headwaters of the Yenisei River must be Russian land\".", "The Russian Empire sent the Kalmyks and Buryats to war to reduce the populations (World War I and other wars).", "During the 20th century, Soviet scientists attempted to convince the Kalmyks and Buryats that they're not Mongols during (demongolization policy).", "35,000 Buryats were killed during the rebellion of 1927 and around one-third of the Buryat population in Russia died in the 1900s–1950s.", "10,000 Buryats of the Buryat-Mongol Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic were massacred by Stalin's order in the 1930s.", "In 1919 the Buryats established a small theocratic Balagad state in Kizhinginsky District of Russia and it fell in 1926.In 1958, the name \"Mongol\" was removed from the name of the Buryat-Mongol Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic.On 22 January 1922 Mongolia proposed to migrate the Kalmyks during the Kalmykian Famine but bolshevik Russia refused.", "71,000–72,000 (93,000?", "; around half of the population) Kalmyks died during the Russian famine of 1921–22.The Kalmyks revolted against the Soviet Union in 1926, 1930 and 1942–1943 (see Kalmykian Cavalry Corps).", "In 1913, Nicholas II, tsar of Russia, said: \"We need to prevent from Volga Tatars.", "But the Kalmyks are more dangerous than them because they are the Mongols so send them to war to reduce the population\".", "On 23 April 1923 Joseph Stalin, communist leader of Russia, said: \"We are carrying out wrong policy on the Kalmyks who related to the Mongols.", "Our policy is too peaceful\".", "In March 1927, Soviet deported 20,000 Kalmyks to Siberia, the tundra and Karelia.The Kalmyks founded the sovereign Republic of Oirat-Kalmyk on 22 March 1930.The Oirats' state had a small army and 200 Kalmyk soldiers defeated 1,700 Soviet soldiers in Durvud province of Kalmykia but the Oirats' state was destroyed by the Soviet Army in 1930.Kalmykian nationalists and Pan-Mongolists attempted to migrate Kalmyks to Mongolia in the 1920s.", "Mongolia suggested to migrate the Soviet Union's Mongols to Mongolia in the 1920s but Russia refused the suggestion.Stalin deported all Kalmyks to Siberia in 1943 and around half of the (97,000–98,000) Kalmyks deported to Siberia died before being allowed to return home in 1957.The government of the Soviet Union forbade teaching the Kalmyk language during the deportation.", "The Kalmyks' main purpose was to migrate to Mongolia and many Kalmyks joined the German Army.", "Marshal Khorloogiin Choibalsan attempted to migrate the deportees to Mongolia and he met with them in Siberia during his visit to Russia.", "Under the Law of the Russian Federation of April 26, 1991 \"On Rehabilitation of Exiled Peoples,\" repressions against Kalmyks and other peoples were qualified as acts of genocide.Mongolian President Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj (right)On 3 October 2002 the Ministry of Foreign Affairs announced that Taiwan recognizes Mongolia as an independent country, although no legislative actions were taken to address concerns over its constitutional claims to Mongolia.", "Offices established to support Taipei's claims over Outer Mongolia, such as the Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission, lie dormant.Agin-Buryat Okrug and Ust-Orda Buryat Okrugs merged with Irkutsk Oblast and Chita Oblast in 2008 despite Buryats' resistance.", "Small scale protests occurred in Inner Mongolia in 2011.The Inner Mongolian People's Party is a member of the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization and its leaders are attempting to establish a sovereign state or merge Inner Mongolia with Mongolia.Ger" ], [ "Language", "Chronological tree of the Mongolic languagesMongolian is the official national language of Mongolia, where it is spoken by nearly 2.8 million people (2010 estimate), and the official provincial language of China's Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, where there are at least 4.1 million ethnic Mongols.", "Across the whole of China, the language is spoken by roughly half of the country's 5.8 million ethnic Mongols (2005 estimate) However, the exact number of Mongolian speakers in China is unknown, as there is no data available on the language proficiency of that country's citizens.", "The use of Mongolian in China, specifically in Inner Mongolia, has witnessed periods of decline and revival over the last few hundred years.", "The language experienced a decline during the late Qing period, a revival between 1947 and 1965, a second decline between 1966 and 1976, a second revival between 1977 and 1992, and a third decline between 1995 and 2012.However, in spite of the decline of the Mongolian language in some of Inner Mongolia's urban areas and educational spheres, the ethnic identity of the urbanized Chinese-speaking Mongols is most likely going to survive due to the presence of urban ethnic communities.", "The multilingual situation in Inner Mongolia does not appear to obstruct efforts by ethnic Mongols to preserve their language.", "Although an unknown number of Mongols in China, such as the Tumets, may have completely or partially lost the ability to speak their language, they are still registered as ethnic Mongols and continue to identify themselves as ethnic Mongols.", "The children of inter-ethnic Mongol-Chinese marriages also claim to be and are registered as ethnic Mongols.The specific origin of the Mongolic languages and associated tribes is unclear.", "Linguists have traditionally proposed a link to the Tungusic and Turkic language families, included alongside Mongolic in the broader group of Altaic languages, though this remains controversial.", "Today the Mongolian peoples speak at least one of several Mongolic languages including Mongolian, Buryat, Oirat, Dongxiang, Tu and Bonan.", "Additionally, many Mongols speak either Russian or Mandarin Chinese as languages of inter-ethnic communication." ], [ "Religion", "Buddhist temple in Buryatia, RussiaTimur of Mongolic origin himself had converted almost all the Borjigin leaders to Islam.The original religion of the Mongolic peoples was Mongolian shamanism.", "The Xianbei came in contact with Confucianism and Daoism but eventually adopted Buddhism.", "However, the Xianbeis and some other people in Mongolia and Rourans followed a form of shamanism.", "In the 5th century the Buddhist monk Dharmapriya was proclaimed \"State Teacher\" of the Rouran Khaganate and 3,000 families and some Rouran nobles became Buddhists.", "In 511 the Rouran Douluofubadoufa Khan sent Hong Xuan to the Tuoba court with a pearl-encrusted statue of the Buddha as a gift.", "The Tuoba Xianbei and Khitans were mostly Buddhists, although they still retained their original Shamanism.", "The Tuoba had a \"sacrificial castle\" to the west of their capital where ceremonies to spirits took place.", "Wooden statues of the spirits were erected on top of this sacrificial castle.", "One ritual involved seven princes with milk offerings who ascended the stairs with 20 female shamans and offered prayers, sprinkling the statues with the sacred milk.", "The Khitan had their holiest shrine on Mount Muye where portraits of their earliest ancestor Qishou Khagan, his wife Kedun and eight sons were kept in two temples.", "Mongolic peoples were also exposed to Zoroastrianism, Manicheism, Nestorianism, Eastern Orthodoxy and Islam from the west.The Mongolic peoples, in particular the Borjigin, had their holiest shrine on Mount Burkhan Khaldun where their ancestor Börte Chono (Blue Wolf) and Goo Maral (Beautiful Doe) had given birth to them.", "Genghis Khan usually fasted, prayed and meditated on this mountain before his campaigns.", "As a young man he had thanked the mountain for saving his life and prayed at the foot of the mountain sprinkling offerings and bowing nine times to the east with his belt around his neck and his hat held at his chest.", "Genghis Khan kept a close watch on the Mongolic supreme shaman Kokochu Teb who sometimes conflicted with his authority.", "Later the imperial cult of Genghis Khan (''Tengerism'', centered on the eight white gers and nine white banners in Ordos) grew into a highly organized indigenous religion with scriptures in the Mongolian script.", "Indigenous moral precepts of the Mongolic peoples were enshrined in oral wisdom sayings (now collected in several volumes), the anda (blood-brother) system and ancient texts such as the ''Chinggis-un Bilig'' (Wisdom of Genghis) and ''Oyun Tulkhuur'' (Key of Intelligence).", "These moral precepts were expressed in poetic form and mainly involved truthfulness, fidelity, help in hardship, unity, self-control, fortitude, veneration of nature, veneration of the state and veneration of parents.In 1254 Möngke Khan organized a formal religious debate (in which William of Rubruck took part) between Christians, Muslims and Buddhists in Karakorum, a cosmopolitan city of many religions.", "The Mongolic Empire was known for its religious tolerance, but had a special leaning towards Buddhism and was sympathetic towards Christianity while still worshipping Tengri.", "The Mongolic leader Abaqa Khan sent a delegation of 13–16 to the Second Council of Lyon (1274), which created a great stir, particularly when their leader 'Zaganus' underwent a public baptism.", "A joint crusade was announced in line with the Franco-Mongol alliance but did not materialize because Pope Gregory X died in 1276.Yahballaha III (1245–1317) and Rabban Bar Sauma (c. 1220–1294) were famous Mongolic Nestorian Christians.", "The Keraites in central Mongolia were Christian.", "In Istanbul the Church of Saint Mary of the Mongols stands as a reminder of the Byzantine-Mongol alliance.The western Khanates, however, eventually adopted Islam (under Berke and Ghazan) and the Turkic languages (because of its commercial importance), although allegiance to the Great Khan and limited use of the Mongolic languages can be seen even in the 1330s.", "In 1521 the first Mughal emperor Babur took part in a military banner milk-sprinkling ceremony in the Chagatai Khanate where the Mongolian language was still used.", "Al-Adil Kitbugha (reigned 1294–1296), a Mongol Sultan of Egypt, and the half-Mongol An-Nasir Muhammad (reigned till 1341) built the Madrassa of Al-Nasir Muhammad in Cairo, Egypt.", "An-Nasir's Mongol mother was Ashlun bint Shaktay.", "The Mongolic nobility during the Yuan dynasty studied Confucianism, built Confucian temples (including Beijing Confucius Temple) and translated Confucian works into Mongolic but mainly followed the Sakya school of Tibetan Buddhism under Phags-pa Lama.The general populace still practised Shamanism.", "Dongxiang and Bonan Mongols adopted Islam, as did Moghol-speaking peoples in Afghanistan.", "In the 1576 the Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism became the state religion of Mongolia.", "The Red Hat school of Tibetan Buddhism coexisted with the Gelug Yellow Hat school which was founded by the half-Mongol Je Tsongkhapa (1357–1419).", "Shamanism was absorbed into the state religion while being marginalized in its purer forms, later only surviving in far northern Mongolia.", "Monks were some of the leading intellectuals in Mongolia, responsible for much of the literature and art of the pre-modern period.", "Many Buddhist philosophical works lost in Tibet and elsewhere are preserved in older and purer form in Mongolian ancient texts (e.g.", "the Mongol Kanjur).", "Zanabazar (1635–1723), Zaya Pandita (1599–1662) and Danzanravjaa (1803–1856) are among the most famous Mongol holy men.", "The 4th Dalai Lama Yonten Gyatso (1589–1617), a Mongol himself, is recognized as the only non-Tibetan Dalai Lama although the current 14th Dalai Lama is of Mongolic Monguor extraction.", "The name is a combination of the Mongolian word dalai meaning \"ocean\" and the Tibetan word (bla-ma) meaning \"guru, teacher, mentor\".1 Many Buryats became Orthodox Christians due to the Russian expansion.", "During the socialist period religion was officially banned, although it was practiced in clandestine circles.", "Today, a sizable proportion of Mongolic peoples are atheist or agnostic.", "In the most recent census in Mongolia, almost forty percent of the population reported as being atheist, while the majority religion was Tibetan Buddhism, with 53%.", "Having survived suppression by the Communists, Buddhism among the Eastern, Northern, Southern and Western Mongols is today primarily of the Gelugpa (Yellow Hat sect) school of Tibetan Buddhism.", "There is a strong shamanistic influence in the Gelugpa sect among the Mongols." ], [ "Kinship and family life", "Mongols grazing livestock, by Roy Chapman Andrews photographs in 1921The traditional Mongol family was patriarchal, patrilineal and patrilocal.", "Wives were brought for each of the sons, while daughters were married off to other clans.", "Wife-taking clans stood in a relation of inferiority to wife-giving clans.", "Thus wife-giving clans were considered \"elder\" or \"bigger\" in relation to wife-taking clans, who were considered \"younger\" or \"smaller\".", "This distinction, symbolized in terms of \"elder\" and \"younger\" or \"bigger\" and \"smaller\", was carried into the clan and family as well, and all members of a lineage were terminologically distinguished by generation and age, with senior superior to junior.In the traditional Mongolian family, each son received a part of the family herd as he married, with the elder son receiving more than the younger son.", "The youngest son would remain in the parental tent caring for his parents, and after their death he would inherit the parental tent in addition to his own part of the herd.", "This inheritance system was mandated by law codes such as the Yassa, created by Genghis Khan.", "Likewise, each son inherited a part of the family's camping lands and pastures, with the elder son receiving more than the younger son.", "The eldest son inherited the farthest camping lands and pastures, and each son in turn inherited camping lands and pastures closer to the family tent until the youngest son inherited the camping lands and pastures immediately surrounding the family tent.", "Family units would often remain near each other and in close cooperation, though extended families would inevitably break up after a few generations.", "It is probable that the Yasa simply put into written law the principles of customary law.After the family, the next largest social units were the subclan and clan.", "These units were derived from groups claiming patrilineal descent from a common ancestor, ranked in order of seniority (the \"conical clan\").", "By the Chingissid era this ranking was symbolically expressed at formal feasts, in which tribal chieftains were seated and received particular portions of the slaughtered animal according to their status.", "The lineage structure of Central Asia had three different modes.", "It was organized on the basis of genealogical distance, or the proximity of individuals to one another on a graph of kinship; generational distance, or the rank of generation in relation to a common ancestor, and birth order, the rank of brothers in relation to each another.", "The paternal descent lines were collaterally ranked according to the birth of their founders, and were thus considered senior and junior to each other.", "Of the various collateral patrilines, the senior in order of descent from the founding ancestor, the line of eldest sons, was the most noble.", "In the steppe, no one had his exact equal; everyone found his place in a system of collaterally ranked lines of descent from a common ancestor.", "It was according to this idiom of superiority and inferiority of lineages derived from birth order that legal claims to superior rank were couched.The Mongol kinship is one of a particular patrilineal type classed as Omaha, in which relatives are grouped together under separate terms that crosscut generations, age, and even sexual difference.", "Thus, one uses different terms for a man's father's sister's children, his sister's children, and his daughter's children.", "A further attribute is strict terminological differentiation of siblings according to seniority.The division of Mongolian society into senior elite lineages and subordinate junior lineages was waning by the twentieth century.", "During the 1920s, the Communist regime was established.", "The remnants of the Mongolian aristocracy fought alongside the Japanese and against Chinese, Soviets and Communist Mongols during World War II, but were defeated.The anthropologist Herbert Harold Vreeland visited three Mongol communities in 1920 and published a highly detailed book with the results of his fieldwork, ''Mongol community and kinship structure''." ], [ "Royal family", "Mural of a Mongol family, Yuan dynastyThe Mughal Emperor Babur and his heir Humayun.", "The word ''Mughal'' is derived from the Persian word for Mongol.The royal clan of the Mongols is the Borjigin clan descended from Bodonchar Munkhag (c. 850–900).", "This clan produced Khans and princes for Mongolia and surrounding regions until the early 20th century.", "All the Great Khans of the Mongol Empire, including its founder Genghis Khan, were of the Borjigin clan.", "The royal family of Mongolia was called the ''Altan Urag'' (Golden Lineage) and is synonymous with Genghisid.", "After the fall of the Northern Yuan dynasty in 1635 the Dayan Khanid aristocracy continued the Genghisid legacy in Mongolia until 1937 when most were killed during the Stalinist purges.", "The four hereditary Khans of the Khalkha (Tüsheet Khan, Setsen Khan, Zasagt Khan and Sain Noyan Khan) were all descended from Dayan Khan (1464–1543) through Abtai Sain Khan, Sholoi Khan, Laikhur Khan and Tumenkhen Sain Noyan respectively.", "Dayan Khan was himself raised to power by Queen Mandukhai the Wise (c.1449–1510) during the crisis of the late 15th century when the line of Kublai Khan, the grandson of Genghis Khan, was on the verge of dying out.The Khongirad was the main consort clan of the Borjigin and provided numerous Empresses and consorts.", "There were five minor non-Khonggirad inputs from the maternal side which passed on to the Dayan Khanid aristocracy of Mongolia and Inner Mongolia.", "The first was the Keraite lineage added through Kublai Khan's mother Sorghaghtani Beki which linked the Borjigin to the Nestorian Christian tribe of Cyriacus Buyruk Khan.", "The second was the Turkic Karluk lineage added through Toghon Temur Khan's mother Mailaiti which linked the Borjigin to Bilge Kul Qadir Khan (840–893) of the Kara-Khanid Khanate and ultimately to the Lion-Karluks as well as the Ashina tribe of the 6th century Göktürks.", "The third was the Korean lineage added through Biligtü Khan's mother Empress Gi (1315–370) which linked the Borjigin to the Haengju Gi clan and ultimately to King Jun of Gojeoson (262–184 BC) and possibly even further to King Tang of Shang (1675–1646 BC) through Jizi.", "The fourth was the Esen Taishi lineage added through Bayanmunkh Jonon's mother Tsetseg Khatan which linked the Borjigin more firmly to the Oirats.", "The fifth was the Aisin-Gioro lineage added during the Qing dynasty.", "To the west, Genghisid Khans received daughters of the Byzantine emperor in marriage, such as when the Byzantine princess Maria Palaiologina married to Abaqa Khan (1234–1282), while there were also connections with European royalty through Russia, where, for example, Prince Gleb (1237–1278) married Feodora Sartaqovna the daughter of Sartaq Khan, a great-grandson of Genghis Khan.The Dayan Khanid aristocracy still held power during the Bogd Khanate of Mongolia (1911–1919) and the Constitutional Monarchy period (1921–1924).", "They were accused of collaboration with the Japanese and executed in 1937 while their counterparts in Inner Mongolia were severely persecuted during the Cultural Revolution.", "Ancestral shrines of Genghis Khan were destroyed by the Red Guards during the 1960s and the Horse-Tail Banner of Genghis Khan disappeared.", "The Rinchen family in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia is a Dayan Khanid branch from Buryatia.", "Members of this family include the scholar Byambyn Rinchen (1905–1977), geologist Rinchen Barsbold (1935–?", "), diplomat Ganibal Jagvaral and Amartuvshin Ganibal (1974–?)", "the President of XacBank.", "There are many other families with aristocratic ancestry in Mongolia and it is often noted that most of the common populace already has some share of Genghisid ancestry.", "Mongolia, however, has remained a republic since 1924 and there has been no discussion of introducing a constitutional monarchy." ], [ "Historical population", " Year Population Notes 1 AD 1–2,000,000?", "1000 2,500,000?", "750,000 Khitans 1200 2,600,000?", "1,5–2,000,000 Mongols 1600 2,300,000?", "77,000 Buryats; 600,000 Khalkhas1700 2,600,000?", "600,000 Khalkhas; 1,100,000?", "Oirats: 600,000 Zunghars, 200–250,000?", "Kalmyks, 200,000 Upper Mongols1800 2,000,000?", "600,000 Khalkhas; 440,000?", "Oirats: 120,000 Zunghars, 120,000?", "Upper Mongols 19002,300,000?283,383 Buryats (1897); 500,000?", "Khalkhas (1911); 380,000 Oirats: 70,000?", "Mongolian Oirats (1911), 190,648 Kalmyks (1897), 70,000?", "Dzungarian and Inner Mongolian Oirats, 50,000 Upper Mongols; 1,500,000?", "Southern Mongols (1911) 1927 2,100,000?", "'''600,000 Mongolians''' — 230,000?", "Buryats: 15,000?", "Mongolian Buryats, 214,957 Buryats in Russia (1926); 500,000?", "Khalkhas (1927); 330,000?", "Oirats: 70,000 Mongolian Oirats, 128,809 Kalmyks (1926)19562,500,000?228,647 Buryats: 24,625 Mongolian Buryats (1956), 135,798 Buryats of the (Buryat Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic; 1959), 23,374 Agin-Buryats (1959), 44,850 Ust-Orda Buryats (1959); 639,141 Khalkhas (1956); 240,000?", "Oirats: 77,996 Mongolian Oirats (1956), 100,603 Kalmyks (1959), 1,462,956 Mongols in China (1953)19804,300,000?317,966?", "Buryats: 29,802 Mongolian Buryats (1979), 206,860 Buryatian Buryats (1979), 45,436 Usta-Orda Buryats (1979), 35,868 Agin-Buryats (1979); 1,271,086 Khalkhas; 398,339 Oirats: 127,328 Mongolian Oirats (1979), 140,103 Kalmyks (1979), 2,153,000 Southern Mongols (1981) 1990 4,700,000?376,629 Buryats: 35,444 Mongolian Buryats (1989), 249,525 Buryatian Buryats (1989), 49,298 Usta-Orda Buryats (1989), 42,362 Agin-Buryats (1989); 1,654,221 Khalkhas; 470,000?", "Oirats: 161,803 Mongolian Oirats (1989), 165,103 Kalmyks (1989), 33,000 Upper Mongols (1987); 2010 5–9,200,000?", "500,000?", "Buryats (45–75,000 Mongolian Buryats, 10,000 Hulunbuir Buryats); 2,300,000 Khalkhas (including Dariganga, Darkhad, Eljigin and Sartuul); 638,372 Oirats: 183,372 Kalmyks, 205,000 Mongolian Oirats, 90–100, 000 Upper Mongols, 2010 — 140,000 Xinjiang Oirats; 2013 — 190,000?", "Xinjiang Oirats: 100,000?", "Torghuts (Kalmyks), 40–50,000?", "Olots, 40,000?", "other Oirats: mainly Khoshuts; 1,5–4,000,000?", "5,700,000?", "Southern MongolsThis map shows the boundary of the 13th-century Mongol Empire and location of today's Mongols in modern Mongolia, Russia and China." ], [ "Geographic distribution", "Today, the majority of Mongols live in the modern states of Mongolia, China (mainly Inner Mongolia and Xinjiang), Russia, Kyrgyzstan and Afghanistan.The differentiation between tribes and peoples (ethnic groups) is handled differently depending on the country.", "The Tumed, Chahar, Ordos, Barga, Altai Uriankhai, Buryats, Dörböd (Dörvöd, Dörbed), Torguud, Dariganga, Üzemchin (or Üzümchin), Bayads, Khoton, Myangad (Mingad), Eljigin, Zakhchin, Darkhad, and Olots (or Öölds or Ölöts) are all considered as tribes of the Mongols.=== Subgroups ===The Eastern Mongols are mainly concentrated in Mongolia, including the Khalkha, Eljigin Khalkha, Darkhad, Sartuul Khalkha, and Dariganga (Khalkha).The Southern or Inner Mongols mainly are concentrated in Inner Mongolia, China.", "They comprise the Abaga Mongols, Abaganar, Aohans, Asud, Baarins, Chahar, Durved, Gorlos, Kharchin, Hishigten, Khorchin, Huuchid, Jalaid, Jaruud, Muumyangan, Naiman (Southern Mongols), Onnigud, Ordos, Sunud, Tümed, Urad, and Uzemchin.=== Sister groups ===The Buryats are mainly concentrated in their homeland, the Buryat Republic, a federal subject of Russia.", "They are the major northern subgroup of the Mongols.", "The Barga Mongols are mainly concentrated in Inner Mongolia, China, along with the Buryats and Hamnigan.The Western Oirats are mainly concentrated in Western Mongolia:*184,000 Kalmyks (2010) — Kalmykia, Russia*205,000 Mongolian Oirats (2010)*140,000 Oirats (2010) — Xinjiang region, China*90,000 Upper Mongols (2010) — Qinghai region, China.", "The Khoshuts are the major subgroup of the Upper Mongols, along with the Choros, Khalkha and Torghuts.", "*12,000 Sart Kalmyks (Zungharian descents) (2012) — Kyrgyzstan.", "Religion: Sunni Islam.Altai Uriankhai, Baatud, Bayad, Chantuu, Choros, Durvud, Khoshut, Khoid, Khoton, Myangad, Olots, Sart Kalmyks (mainly Olots), Torghut, Zakhchin.", "*Kalmyks — Baatud, Buzava, Choros, Durvud, Khoid, Olots, Torghut.", "*Upper Mongolian Oirats — Choros, Khoshut, Torghut.=== Mongolia ===Mongol women in traditional dressIn modern-day Mongolia, Mongols make up approximately 95% of the population, with the largest ethnic group being Khalkha Mongols, followed by Buryats, both belonging to the Eastern Mongolian peoples.", "They are followed by Oirats, who belong to the Western Mongolian peoples.Mongolian ethnic groups:Baarin, Baatud, Barga, Bayad, Buryat,Selenge Chahar, Chantuu, Darkhad, DarigangaDörbet Oirat, Eljigin, Khalkha, Hamnigan, Kharchin, Khoid, Khorchin, Hotogoid, Khoton, Huuchid, Myangad, Olots, Sartuul,Torgut, Tümed, Üzemchin, Zakhchin.=== China ===Strong Mongol men at August games.", "Photo by Wm.", "Purdom, 1909The 2010 census of the People's Republic of China counted more than 7 million people of various Mongolic groups.", "The 1992 census of China counted only 3.6 million ethnic Mongols.", "The 2010 census counted roughly 5.8 million ethnic Mongols, 621,500 Dongxiangs, 289,565 Mongours, 132,000 Daurs, 20,074 Baoans, and 14,370 Yugurs.", "Most of them live in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, followed by Liaoning.", "Small numbers can also be found in provinces near those two.There were 669,972 Mongols in Liaoning in 2011, making up 11.52% of Mongols in China.", "The closest Mongol area to the sea is the Dabao Mongol Ethnic Township () in Fengcheng, Liaoning.", "With 8,460 Mongols (37.4% of the township population) it is located from the North Korean border and from Korea Bay of the Yellow Sea.", "Another contender for closest Mongol area to the sea would be Erdaowanzi Mongol Ethnic Township () in Jianchang County, Liaoning.", "With 5,011 Mongols (20.7% of the township population) it is located around from the Bohai Sea.Other peoples speaking Mongolic languages are the Daur, Sogwo Arig, Monguor people, Dongxiangs, Bonans, Sichuan Mongols and eastern part of the Yugur people.", "Those do not officially count as part of the Mongol ethnicity, but are recognized as ethnic groups of their own.", "The Mongols lost their contact with the Mongours, Bonan, Dongxiangs, Yunnan Mongols since the fall of the Yuan dynasty.", "Mongolian scientists and journalists met with the Dongxiangs and Yunnan Mongols in the 2000s.Inner Mongolia:Southern Mongols, Barga, Buryat, Dörbet Oirat, Khalkha, Dzungar people, Eznee Torgut.Xinjiang province:Altai Uriankhai, Chahar, Khoshut, Olots, Torghut, Zakhchin.Qinghai province: Upper Mongols: Choros, Khoshut=== Russia ===Two Mongolic ethnic groups are present in Russia; the 2010 census found 461,410 Buryats and 183,400 Kalmyks.=== Elsewhere ===Smaller numbers of Mongolic peoples exist in Western Europe and North America.", "Some of the more notable communities exist in South Korea, the United States, the Czech Republic and the United Kingdom." ], [ "Gallery", "File:YuanEmpressAlbumJiyatu.jpg|Mongol Empress Zayaat (Jiyatu), wife of Kulug Khan (1281–1311)File:TuluiWithQueenSorgaqtani.jpg|Genghis' son Tolui with Queen SorgaqtaniFile:Hulagu Khan.jpg|Hulegu Khan, ruler of the IlkhanateFile:IlkhanidHorseArcher.jpg|13th century Ilkhanid Mongol archerFile:Mongol soldiers by Rashid al-Din 1305.JPG|Mongol soldiers by Rashid al-Din, BnF.", "MS. Supplément Persan 1113.1430-1434 AD.File:Annushka by I.Argunov (1767, Kuskovo).jpg|Kalmyk Mongol girl Annushka (painted in 1767)File:Navaanneren.jpg|A 20th-century Mongol Khan, NavaannerenFile:4DalaiLama.jpg|The 4th Dalai Lama Yonten GyatsoFile:Sumo_May09_Asashoryu.jpg|Dolgorsürengiin Dagvadorj became the first Mongol to reach sumo's highest rank.File:Naadam women archery.jpg|Mongol women archers during Naadam festivalFile:Mongolian Musician.jpg|A Mongol musicianFile:Mongols Wrangler.jpg|A Mongol WranglerFile:Еравнинский шаман Сандан.JPG|Buryat Mongol shamanFile:Чаепитие калмыков.jpg|Kalmyks, 19th centuryFile:MongolianDance.JPG|Mongol girl performing Bayad danceFile:Забайкальские буряты.jpg|Buryat Mongols (painted in 1840)File:Wanrong_hat.jpg|Daur Mongol Empress Wanrong (1906–1946), also had Borjigin blood on maternal side.File:Бурятский мальчик.JPG|Buryat Mongol boy during shamanic riteFile:Concubine Wenxiu.jpg|Concubine Wenxiu was Puyi's consortFile:Mongolia, near Ulaanbaatar.jpg|A Mongolian Buddhist monk, 1913" ], [ "See also", "* Altan Telgey* American Center for Mongolian Studies* Horse culture in Mongolia* List of medieval Mongol tribes and clans* List of modern Mongol clans* List of Mongolians* List of Mongol states* Mongolian name* Mongoloid* Qara'unas" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Secondary sources ===* * * * * * * === Primary sources ===*" ], [ "External links", "* \" Evidence that a West-East admixed population lived in the Tarim Basin as early as the early Bronze Age\" Li et al.", "''BMC Biology'' 2010, 8:15.", "* Ethnic map of Mongolia* Map share of ethnic by county of China (archived 1 January 2016)*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Manga" ], [ "Introduction", " are comics or graphic novels originating from Japan.", "Most manga conform to a style developed in Japan in the late 19th century, and the form has a long history in earlier Japanese art.", "The term ''manga'' is used in Japan to refer to both comics and cartooning.", "Outside of Japan, the word is typically used to refer to comics originally published in the country.In Japan, people of all ages and walks of life read manga.", "The medium includes works in a broad range of genres: action, adventure, business and commerce, comedy, detective, drama, historical, horror, mystery, romance, science fiction and fantasy, erotica (''hentai'' and ''ecchi''), sports and games, and suspense, among others.", "Many manga are translated into other languages.Since the 1950s, manga has become an increasingly major part of the Japanese publishing industry.", "By 1995, the manga market in Japan was valued at (), with annual sales of 1.9billion manga books and manga magazines (also known as manga anthologies) in Japan (equivalent to 15issues per person).", "In 2020 Japan's manga market value hit a new record of ¥612.6 billion due to the fast growth of digital manga sales as well as increase of print sales.", "In 2022 Japan's manga market hit yet another record value of ¥675.9 billion.", "Manga have also gained a significant worldwide readership.", "Beginning with the late 2010s manga started massively outselling American comics.As of 2021, the top four comics publishers in the world are manga publishers Shueisha, Kodansha, Kadokawa, and Shogakukan.", "In 2020 the North American manga market was valued at almost $250 million.", "According to NPD BookScan manga made up 76% of overall comics and graphic novel sales in the US in 2021.The fast growth of the North American manga market is attributed to manga's wide availability on digital reading apps, book retailer chains such as Barnes & Noble and online retailers such as Amazon as well as the increased streaming of anime.", "According to Jean-Marie Bouissou, manga represented 38% of the French comics market in 2005.This is equivalent to approximately three times that of the United States and was valued at about ($million).", "In Europe and the Middle East, the market was valued at $250 million in 2012.In April 2023, the Japan Business Federation laid out a proposal aiming to spur the economic growth of Japan by further promoting the contents industry abroad, primarily anime, manga and video games, for measures to invite industry experts from abroad to come to Japan to work, and to link with the tourism sector to help foreign fans of manga and anime visit sites across the country associated with particular manga stories.", "The federation seeks on quadrupling the sales of Japanese content in overseas markets within the upcoming 10 years.Manga stories are typically printed in black-and-white—due to time constraints, artistic reasons (as coloring could lessen the impact of the artwork) and to keep printing costs low—although some full-color manga exist (e.g., ''Colorful'').", "In Japan, manga are usually serialized in large manga magazines, often containing many stories, each presented in a single episode to be continued in the next issue.", "A single manga story is almost always longer than a single issue from a Western comic.", "Collected chapters are usually republished in volumes, frequently but not exclusively paperback books.", "A manga artist (''mangaka'' in Japanese) typically works with a few assistants in a small studio and is associated with a creative editor from a commercial publishing company.", "If a manga series is popular enough, it may be animated after or during its run.", "Sometimes, manga are based on previous live-action or animated films.Manga-influenced comics, among original works, exist in other parts of the world, particularly in those places that speak Chinese (\"manhua\"), Korean (\"manhwa\"), English (\"OEL manga\"), and French (\"manfra\"), as well as in the nation of Algeria (\"DZ-manga\")." ], [ "Etymology", "The kanji for \"manga\" from the preface to ''Shiji no yukikai'' (1798)The word \"manga\" comes from the Japanese word (katakana: ; hiragana: ), composed of the two kanji (man) meaning \"whimsical or impromptu\" and (ga) meaning \"pictures\".", "The same term is the root of the Korean word for comics, ''manhwa'', and the Chinese word ''manhua''.The word first came into common usage in the late 18th century with the publication of such works as Santō Kyōden's picturebook ''Shiji no yukikai'' (1798), and in the early 19th century with such works as Aikawa Minwa's ''Manga hyakujo'' (1814) and the celebrated ''Hokusai Manga'' books (1814–1834) containing assorted drawings from the sketchbooks of the famous ukiyo-e artist Hokusai.", "Rakuten Kitazawa (1876–1955) first used the word \"manga\" in the modern sense.In Japanese, \"manga\" refers to all kinds of cartooning, comics, and animation.", "Among English speakers, \"manga\" has the stricter meaning of \"Japanese comics\", in parallel to the usage of \"anime\" in and outside Japan.", "The term \"ani-manga\" is used to describe comics produced from animation cels." ], [ "History and characteristics", "kami-shibai'' story teller from ''Sazae-san'' by Machiko Hasegawa.", "Sazae appears with her hair in a bun.Manga originated from ''emakimono'' (scrolls), ''Chōjū-jinbutsu-giga'', dating back to the 12th century.", "During the Edo period (1603–1867), a book of drawings titled ''Toba Ehon'' further developed what would later be called manga.", "The word itself first came into common usage in 1798, with the publication of works such as Santō Kyōden's picturebook ''Shiji no yukikai'' (1798), and in the early 19th century with such works as Aikawa Minwa's ''Manga hyakujo'' (1814) and the ''Hokusai Manga'' books (1814–1834).", "Adam L. Kern has suggested that ''kibyoshi'', picture books from the late 18th century, may have been the world's first comic books.", "These graphical narratives share with modern manga humorous, satirical, and romantic themes.", "Some works were mass-produced as serials using woodblock printing.", "however Eastern comics are generally held separate from the evolution of Western comics and Western comic art probably originated in 17th century Italy.Writers on manga history have described two broad and complementary processes shaping modern manga.", "One view represented by other writers such as Frederik L. Schodt, Kinko Ito, and Adam L. Kern, stress continuity of Japanese cultural and aesthetic traditions, including pre-war, Meiji, and pre-Meiji culture and art.", "The other view, emphasizes events occurring during and after the Allied occupation of Japan (1945–1952), and stresses U.S. cultural influences, including U.S. comics (brought to Japan by the GIs) and images and themes from U.S. television, film, and cartoons (especially Disney).Regardless of its source, an explosion of artistic creativity occurred in the post-war period, involving manga artists such as Osamu Tezuka (''Astro Boy'') and Machiko Hasegawa (''Sazae-san'').", "''Astro Boy'' quickly became (and remains) immensely popular in Japan and elsewhere, and the anime adaptation of ''Sazae-san'' drew more viewers than any other anime on Japanese television in 2011.Tezuka and Hasegawa both made stylistic innovations.", "In Tezuka's \"cinematographic\" technique, the panels are like a motion picture that reveals details of action bordering on slow motion as well as rapid zooms from distance to close-up shots.", "This kind of visual dynamism was widely adopted by later manga artists.", "Hasegawa's focus on daily life and women's experience also came to characterize later ''shōjo manga''.", "Between 1950 and 1969, an increasingly large readership for manga emerged in Japan with the solidification of its two main marketing genres, ''shōnen manga'' aimed at boys and ''shōjo manga'' aimed at girls.In 1969, a group of female manga artists (later called the ''Year 24 Group'', also known as ''Magnificent 24s'') made their ''shōjo'' manga debut (\"year 24\" comes from the Japanese name for the year 1949, the birth-year of many of these artists).", "The group included Moto Hagio, Riyoko Ikeda, Yumiko Ōshima, Keiko Takemiya, and Ryoko Yamagishi.", "Thereafter, primarily female manga artists would draw ''shōjo'' for a readership of girls and young women.", "In the following decades (1975–present), ''shōjo'' manga continued to develop stylistically while simultaneously evolving different but overlapping subgenres.", "Major subgenres include romance, superheroines, and \"Ladies Comics\" (in Japanese, ''redisu'' , ''redikomi'' , and ''josei'' ).Modern ''shōjo'' manga romance features love as a major theme set into emotionally intense narratives of self-realization.", "With the superheroines, ''shōjo'' manga saw releases such as Pink Hanamori's ''Mermaid Melody Pichi Pichi Pitch'', Reiko Yoshida's ''Tokyo Mew Mew'', and Naoko Takeuchi's ''Pretty Soldier Sailor Moon'', which became internationally popular in both manga and anime formats.", "Groups (or ''sentais'') of girls working together have also been popular within this genre.", "Like Lucia, Hanon, and Rina singing together, and Sailor Moon, Sailor Mercury, Sailor Mars, Sailor Jupiter, and Sailor Venus working together.Manga for male readers sub-divides according to the age of its intended readership: boys up to 18 years old (''shōnen'' manga) and young men 18 to 30 years old (''seinen'' manga); as well as by content, including action-adventure often involving male heroes, slapstick humor, themes of honor, and sometimes explicit sex.", "The Japanese use different kanji for two closely allied meanings of \"seinen\"— for \"youth, young man\" and for \"adult, majority\"—the second referring to pornographic manga aimed at grown men and also called ''seijin'' (\"adult\" ) manga.", "''Shōnen'', ''seinen'', and ''seijin'' manga share a number of features in common.Boys and young men became some of the earliest readers of manga after World War II.", "From the 1950s on, ''shōnen'' manga focused on topics thought to interest the archetypal boy, including subjects like robots, space-travel, and heroic action-adventure.", "Popular themes include science fiction, technology, sports, and supernatural settings.", "Manga with solitary costumed superheroes like Superman, Batman, and Spider-Man generally did not become as popular.The role of girls and women in manga produced for male readers has evolved considerably over time to include those featuring single pretty girls (''bishōjo'') such as Belldandy from ''Oh My Goddess!", "'', stories where such girls and women surround the hero, as in ''Negima'' and ''Hanaukyo Maid Team'', or groups of heavily armed female warriors (''sentō bishōjo'')By the turn of the 21st century, manga \"achieved worldwide popularity\".With the relaxation of censorship in Japan in the 1990s, an assortment of explicit sexual material appeared in manga intended for male readers, and correspondingly continued into the English translations.", "In 2010, the Tokyo Metropolitan Government considered a bill to restrict minors' access to such content.The ''gekiga'' style of storytelling—thematically somber, adult-oriented, and sometimes deeply violent—focuses on the day-in, day-out grim realities of life, often drawn in a gritty and unvarnished fashion.", "''Gekiga'' such as Sampei Shirato's 1959–1962 ''Chronicles of a Ninja's Military Accomplishments'' (''Ninja Bugeichō'') arose in the late 1950s and 1960s, partly from left-wing student and working-class political activism, and partly from the aesthetic dissatisfaction of young manga artists like Yoshihiro Tatsumi with existing manga." ], [ "Publications and exhibition", "Delegates of 3rd Asian Cartoon Exhibition, held at Tokyo (Annual Manga Exhibition) by The Japan FoundationA manga store in JapanIn Japan, manga constituted an annual 40.6 billion yen (approximately US$395 million) publication-industry by 2007.In 2006 sales of manga books made up for about 27% of total book-sales, and sale of manga magazines, for 20% of total magazine-sales.", "The manga industry has expanded worldwide, where distribution companies license and reprint manga into their native languages.Marketeers primarily classify manga by the age and gender of the target readership.", "In particular, books and magazines sold to boys (''shōnen'') and girls (''shōjo'') have distinctive cover-art, and most bookstores place them on different shelves.", "Due to cross-readership, consumer response is not limited by demographics.", "For example, male readers may subscribe to a series intended for female readers, and so on.", "Japan has manga cafés, or ''manga kissa'' (''kissa'' is an abbreviation of ''kissaten'').", "At a ''manga kissa'', people drink coffee, read manga and sometimes stay overnight.The Kyoto International Manga Museum maintains a very large website listing manga published in Japanese.=== Magazines ===''Eshinbun Nipponchi'' is credited as the first manga magazine ever made.", "usually have many series running concurrently with approximately 20–40 pages allocated to each series per issue.", "Other magazines such as the anime fandom magazine ''Newtype'' featured single chapters within their monthly periodicals.", "Other magazines like ''Nakayoshi'' feature many stories written by many different artists; these magazines, or \"anthology magazines\", as they are also known (colloquially \"phone books\"), are usually printed on low-quality newsprint and can be anywhere from 200 to more than 850 pages thick.", "Manga magazines also contain one-shot comics and various four-panel ''yonkoma'' (equivalent to comic strips).", "Manga series can run for many years if they are successful.", "Popular shonen magazines include ''Weekly Shōnen Jump'', ''Weekly Shōnen Magazine'' and ''Weekly Shōnen Sunday'' - Popular shoujo manga include ''Ciao'', ''Nakayoshi'' and ''Ribon''.", "Manga artists sometimes start out with a few \"one-shot\" manga projects just to try to get their name out.", "If these are successful and receive good reviews, they are continued.", "Magazines often have a short life.=== Collected volumes ===After a series has run for a while, publishers often collect the chapters and print them in dedicated book-sized volumes, called .", "These can be hardcover, or more usually softcover books, and are the equivalent of U.S. trade paperbacks or graphic novels.", "These volumes often use higher-quality paper, and are useful to those who want to \"catch up\" with a series so they can follow it in the magazines or if they find the cost of the weeklies or monthlies to be prohibitive.", "\"Deluxe\" versions have also been printed as readers have gotten older and the need for something special grew.", "Old manga have also been reprinted using somewhat lesser quality paper and sold for 100 yen (about $1 U.S. dollar) each to compete with the used book market.==== History ====Kanagaki Robun and Kawanabe Kyōsai created the first manga magazine in 1874: ''Eshinbun Nipponchi''.", "The magazine was heavily influenced by ''Japan Punch'', founded in 1862 by Charles Wirgman, a British cartoonist.", "''Eshinbun Nipponchi'' had a very simple style of drawings and did not become popular with many people.", "''Eshinbun Nipponchi'' ended after three issues.", "The magazine ''Kisho Shimbun'' in 1875 was inspired by ''Eshinbun Nipponchi'', which was followed by ''Marumaru Chinbun'' in 1877, and then ''Garakuta Chinpo'' in 1879.", "''Shōnen Sekai'' was the first ''shōnen'' magazine created in 1895 by Iwaya Sazanami, a famous writer of Japanese children's literature back then.", "''Shōnen Sekai'' had a strong focus on the First Sino-Japanese War.In 1905, the manga-magazine publishing boom started with the Russo-Japanese War, ''Tokyo Pakku'' was created and became a huge hit.", "After ''Tokyo Pakku'' in 1905, a female version of ''Shōnen Sekai'' was created and named ''Shōjo Sekai'', considered the first ''shōjo'' magazine.", "''Shōnen Pakku'' was made and is considered the first children's manga magazine.", "The children's demographic was in an early stage of development in the Meiji period.", "''Shōnen Pakku'' was influenced from foreign children's magazines such as ''Puck'' which an employee of Jitsugyō no Nihon (publisher of the magazine) saw and decided to emulate.", "In 1924, ''Kodomo Pakku'' was launched as another children's manga magazine after ''Shōnen Pakku''.", "During the boom, ''Poten'' (derived from the French \"potin\") was published in 1908.All the pages were in full color with influences from ''Tokyo Pakku'' and ''Osaka Puck''.", "It is unknown if there were any more issues besides the first one.", "''Kodomo Pakku'' was launched May 1924 by Tokyosha and featured high-quality art by many members of the manga artistry like Takei Takeo, Takehisa Yumeji and Aso Yutaka.", "Some of the manga featured speech balloons, where other manga from the previous eras did not use speech balloons and were silent.Published from May 1935 to January 1941, ''Manga no Kuni'' coincided with the period of the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945).", "''Manga no Kuni'' featured information on becoming a mangaka and on other comics industries around the world.", "''Manga no Kuni'' handed its title to ''Sashie Manga Kenkyū'' in August 1940.=== ''Dōjinshi'' ===''Dōjinshi'', produced by small publishers outside of the mainstream commercial market, resemble in their publishing small-press independently published comic books in the United States.", "Comiket, the largest comic book convention in the world with around 500,000 visitors gathering over three days, is devoted to ''dōjinshi''.", "While they most often contain original stories, many are parodies of or include characters from popular manga and anime series.", "Some ''dōjinshi'' continue with a series' story or write an entirely new one using its characters, much like fan fiction.", "In 2007, ''dōjinshi'' sales amounted to 27.73 billion yen (US$245 million).", "In 2006 they represented about a tenth of manga books and magazines sales." ], [ "Digital manga", "Thanks to the advent of the internet, there have been new ways for aspiring mangaka to upload and sell their manga online.", "Before, there were two main ways in which a mangaka's work could be published: taking their manga drawn on paper to a publisher themselves, or submitting their work to competitions run by magazines.=== Web manga ===In recent years, there has been a rise in manga released digitally.", "Web manga, as it is known in Japan, has seen an increase thanks in part to image hosting websites where anyone can upload pages from their works for free.", "Although released digitally, almost all web manga sticks to the conventional black-and-white format despite some never getting physical publication.", "Pixiv is the most popular site where amateur and professional work gets published on the site.", "It has grown to be the most visited site for artwork in Japan.", "Twitter has also become a popular place for web manga with many artists releasing pages weekly on their accounts in the hope of their work getting picked up or published professionally.", "One of the best examples of an amateur work becoming professional is ''One-Punch Man'' which was released online and later received a professional remake released digitally and an anime adaptation soon thereafter.Many of the big print publishers have also released digital only magazines and websites where web manga get published alongside their serialized magazines.", "Shogakukan for instance has two websites, Sunday Webry and Ura Sunday, that release weekly chapters for web manga and even offer contests for mangaka to submit their work.", "Both Sunday Webry and Ura Sunday have become one of the top web manga sites in Japan.", "Some have even released apps that teach how to draw professional manga and learn how to create them.", "''Weekly Shōnen Jump'' released ''Jump Paint'', an app that guides users on how to make their own manga from making storyboards to digitally inking lines.", "It also offers more than 120 types of pen tips and more than 1,000 screentones for artists to practice.", "Kodansha has also used the popularity of web manga to launch more series and also offer better distribution of their officially translated works under Kodansha Comics thanks in part to the titles being released digitally first before being published physically.The rise web manga has also been credited to smartphones and computers as more and more readers read manga on their phones rather than from a print publication.", "While paper manga has seen a decrease over time, digital manga have been growing in sales each year.", "The Research Institute for Publications reports that sales of digital manga books excluding magazines jumped 27.1 percent to ¥146 billion in 2016 from the year before while sales of paper manga saw a record year-on-year decline of 7.4 percent to ¥194.7 billion.", "They have also said that if the digital and paper keep the same growth and drop rates, web manga would exceed their paper counterparts.", "In 2020 manga sales topped the ¥600 billion mark for the first time in history, beating the 1995 peak due to a fast growth of the digital manga market which rose by ¥82.7 billion from a previous year, surpassing print manga sales which have also increased.=== Webtoons ===While webtoons have caught on in popularity as a new medium for comics in Asia, Japan has been slow to adopt webtoons as the traditional format and print publication still dominate the way manga is created and consumed(although this is beginning to change).", "Despite this, one of the biggest webtoon publishers in the world, Comico, has had success in the traditional Japanese manga market.", "Comico was launched by NHN Japan, the Japanese subsidiary of Korean company, NHN Entertainment.", "As of now, there are only two webtoon publishers that publish Japanese webtoons: Comico and Naver Webtoon (under the name XOY in Japan).", "Kakao has also had success by offering licensed manga and translated Korean webtoons with their service Piccoma.", "All three companies credit their success to the webtoon pay model where users can purchase each chapter individually instead of having to buy the whole book while also offering some chapters for free for a period of time allowing anyone to read a whole series for free if they wait long enough.", "The added benefit of having all of their titles in color and some with special animations and effects have also helped them succeed.", "Some popular Japanese webtoons have also gotten anime adaptations and print releases, the most notable being ''ReLIFE'' and ''Recovery of an MMO Junkie''." ], [ "International markets", "By 2007, the influence of manga on international comics had grown considerably over the past two decades.", "\"Influence\" is used here to refer to effects on the comics markets outside Japan and to aesthetic effects on comics artists internationally.The reading direction in a traditional mangaTraditionally, manga stories flow from top to bottom and from right to left.", "Some publishers of translated manga keep to this original format.", "Other publishers mirror the pages horizontally before printing the translation, changing the reading direction to a more \"Western\" left to right, so as not to confuse foreign readers or traditional comics-consumers.", "This practice is known as \"flipping\".", "For the most part, criticism suggests that flipping goes against the original intentions of the creator (for example, if a person wears a shirt that reads \"MAY\" on it, and gets flipped, then the word is altered to \"YAM\"), who may be ignorant of how awkward it is to read comics when the eyes must flow through the pages and text in opposite directions, resulting in an experience that's quite distinct from reading something that flows homogeneously.", "If the translation is not adapted to the flipped artwork carefully enough it is also possible for the text to go against the picture, such as a person referring to something on their left in the text while pointing to their right in the graphic.", "Characters shown writing with their right hands, the majority of them, would become left-handed when a series is flipped.", "Flipping may also cause oddities with familiar asymmetrical objects or layouts, such as a car being depicted with the gas pedal on the left and the brake on the right, or a shirt with the buttons on the wrong side, however these issues are minor when compared to the unnatural reading flow, and some of them could be solved with an adaptation work that goes beyond just translation and blind flipping.=== Asia ===Manga shelf in \"Kim Đồng\" bookstore, 55 Quang Trung, Hanoi, VietnamManga has highly influenced the art styles of manhwa and manhua.", "Manga in Indonesia is published by Elex Media Komputindo, Level Comic, M&C and Gramedia.", "Manga has influenced Indonesia's original comic industry.", "Manga in the Philippines were imported from the US and were sold only in specialty stores and in limited copies.", "The first manga in Filipino language is Doraemon which was published by J-Line Comics and was then followed by Case Closed.", "In 2015, Boys' Love manga became popular through the introduction of BL manga by printing company BLACKink.", "Among the first BL titles to be printed were Poster Boy, Tagila, and Sprinters, all were written in Filipino.", "BL manga have become bestsellers in the top three bookstore companies in the Philippines since their introduction in 2015.During the same year, Boys' Love manga have become a popular mainstream with Thai consumers, leading to television series adapted from BL manga stories since 2016.=== Europe ===The comic book and manga store ''Sakura Eldorado'' in Hamburg, GermanyManga has influenced European cartooning in a way that is somewhat different from in the U.S. Broadcast anime in France and Italy opened the European market to manga during the 1970s.", "French art has borrowed from Japan since the 19th century (Japonism) and has its own highly developed tradition of bande dessinée cartooning.", "Manga was introduced to France in the late 1990s, where Japanese pop culture became massively popular: in 2021, 55% of comics sold in the country were manga and France is the biggest manga importer.By mid-2021, 75 percent of the €300 value of accounts given to French 18 year-olds was spent on manga.", "According to the Japan External Trade Organization, sales of manga reached $212.6 million within France and Germany alone in 2006.France represents about 50% of the European market and is the second worldwide market, behind Japan.", "In 2013, there were 41 publishers of manga in France and, together with other Asian comics, manga represented around 40% of new comics releases in the country, surpassing Franco-Belgian comics for the first time.", "European publishers marketing manga translated into French include Asuka, Casterman, Glénat, Kana, and Pika Édition, among others.", "European publishers also translate manga into Dutch, German, Italian, and other languages.", "In 2007, about 70% of all comics sold in Germany were manga.", "Since 2010 the country celebrates Manga Day on every August 27.In 2021 manga sales in Germany rose by 75% from its original record of 70 million in 2005.As of 2022 Germany is the third largest manga market in Europe after Italy and France.", "In 2021, the Spanish manga market hit a record of 1033 new title publications.", "In 2022 the 28th edition of the Barcelona Manga Festival opened its doors to more than 163,000 fans, compared to a pre-pandemic 120,000 in 2019.Manga publishers based in the United Kingdom include Gollancz and Titan Books.", "Manga publishers from the United States have a strong marketing presence in the United Kingdom: for example, the Tanoshimi line from Random House.", "In 2019 The British Museum held a mass exhibition dedicated to manga.=== United States ===The manga section at Barnes & Noble in San Bruno, CaliforniaManga made their way only gradually into U.S. markets, first in association with anime and then independently.", "Some U.S. fans became aware of manga in the 1970s and early 1980s.", "However, anime was initially more accessible than manga to U.S. fans, many of whom were college-age young people who found it easier to obtain, subtitle, and exhibit video tapes of anime than translate, reproduce, and distribute -style manga books.", "One of the first manga translated into English and marketed in the U.S. was Keiji Nakazawa's ''Barefoot Gen'', an autobiographical story of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima issued by Leonard Rifas and Educomics (1980–1982).", "More manga were translated between the mid-1980s and 1990s, including ''Golgo 13'' in 1986, ''Lone Wolf and Cub'' from First Comics in 1987, and ''Kamui'', ''Area 88'', and ''Mai the Psychic Girl'', also in 1987 and all from Viz Media-Eclipse Comics.", "Others soon followed, including ''Akira'' from Marvel Comics' Epic Comics imprint, ''Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind'' from Viz Media, and ''Appleseed'' from Eclipse Comics in 1988, and later ''Iczer-1'' (Antarctic Press, 1994) and Ippongi Bang's ''F-111 Bandit'' (Antarctic Press, 1995).During the 1980s and 1990s, Japanese animation, such as ''Akira'', ''Dragon Ball'', ''Neon Genesis Evangelion'', and ''Pokémon'', made a larger impact on the fan experience and in the market than manga.", "Matters changed when translator-entrepreneur Toren Smith founded Studio Proteus in 1986.Smith and Studio Proteus acted as an agent and translator of many Japanese manga, including Masamune Shirow's ''Appleseed'' and Kōsuke Fujishima's ''Oh My Goddess!", "'', for Dark Horse and Eros Comix, eliminating the need for these publishers to seek their own contacts in Japan.Simultaneously, the Japanese publisher Shogakukan opened a U.S. market initiative with their U.S. subsidiary Viz, enabling Viz to draw directly on Shogakukan's catalogue and translation skills.Black Cat''Japanese publishers began pursuing a U.S. market in the mid-1990s, due to a stagnation in the domestic market for manga.", "The U.S. manga market took an upturn with mid-1990s anime and manga versions of Masamune Shirow's ''Ghost in the Shell'' (translated by Frederik L. Schodt and Toren Smith) becoming very popular among fans.", "An extremely successful manga and anime translated and dubbed in English in the mid-1990s was ''Sailor Moon''.", "By 1995–1998, the ''Sailor Moon'' manga had been exported to over 23 countries, including China, Brazil, Mexico, Australia, North America and most of Europe.", "In 1997, Mixx Entertainment began publishing ''Sailor Moon'', along with CLAMP's ''Magic Knight Rayearth'', Hitoshi Iwaaki's ''Parasyte'' and Tsutomu Takahashi's ''Ice Blade'' in the monthly manga magazine ''MixxZine''.", "Mixx Entertainment, later renamed Tokyopop, also published manga in trade paperbacks and, like Viz, began aggressive marketing of manga to both young male and young female demographics.During this period, Dark Horse Manga was a major publisher of translated manga.", "In addition to ''Oh My Goddess!", "'', the company published ''Akira'', ''Astro Boy'', ''Berserk'', ''Blade of the Immortal'', ''Ghost in the Shell'', ''Lone Wolf and Cub'', Yasuhiro Nightow's ''Trigun'' and ''Blood Blockade Battlefront'', ''Gantz'', Kouta Hirano's ''Hellsing'' and ''Drifters'', ''Blood+'', ''Multiple Personality Detective Psycho'', ''FLCL'', ''Mob Psycho 100'', and ''Oreimo''.", "The company received 13 Eisner Award nominations for its manga titles, and three of the four manga creators admitted to The Will Eisner Award Hall of Fame — Osamu Tezuka, Kazuo Koike, and Goseki Kojima — were published in Dark Horse translations.In the following years, manga became increasingly popular, and new publishers entered the field while the established publishers greatly expanded their catalogues.", "The ''Pokémon'' manga ''Electric Tale of Pikachu'' issue #1 sold over 1million copies in the United States, making it the best-selling single comic book in the United States since 1993.By 2008, the U.S. and Canadian manga market generated $175 million in annual sales.", "Simultaneously, mainstream U.S. media began to discuss manga, with articles in ''The New York Times'', ''Time'' magazine, ''The Wall Street Journal'', and ''Wired'' magazine.", "As of 2017, manga distributor Viz Media is the largest publisher of graphic novels and comic books in the United States, with a 23% share of the market.", "BookScan sales show that manga is one of the fastest-growing areas of the comic book and narrative fiction markets.", "From January 2019 to May 2019, the manga market grew 16%, compared to the overall comic book market's 5% growth.", "The NPD Group noted that, compared to other comic book readers, manga readers are younger (76% under 30) and more diverse, including a higher female readership (16% higher than other comic books).As of January 2020, manga is the second largest category in the US comic book and graphic novel market, accounting for 27% of the entire market share.", "During the COVID-19 pandemic some stores of the American bookseller Barnes & Noble saw up to a 500% increase in sales from graphic novel and manga sales due to the younger generations showing a high interest in the medium.", "Sales of print manga titles in the U.S. increased by 3.6 million units in the first quarter of 2021 compared to the same period in 2020.In 2021, 24.4 million units of manga were sold in the United States.", "This is an increase of about 15 million (160%) more sales than in 2020.In 2022, most of the top-selling comic creators in the United States were mangaka.", "The same year manga sales saw an increase of 9%." ], [ "Localized manga", "A number of artists in the United States have drawn comics and cartoons influenced by manga.", "As an early example, Vernon Grant drew manga-influenced comics while living in Japan in the late 1960s and early 1970s.", "Others include Frank Miller's mid-1980s ''Ronin'', Adam Warren and Toren Smith's 1988 ''The Dirty Pair'', Ben Dunn's 1987 ''Ninja High School'' and ''Manga Shi 2000'' from Crusade Comics (1997).By the beginning of the 21st century, several U.S. manga publishers had begun to produce work by U.S. artists under the broad marketing-label of manga.", "In 2002, I.C.", "Entertainment, formerly Studio Ironcat and now out of business, launched a series of manga by U.S. artists called ''Amerimanga''.", "In 2004, eigoMANGA launched the ''Rumble Pak'' and ''Sakura Pakk'' anthology series.", "Seven Seas Entertainment followed suit with ''World Manga''.", "Simultaneously, TokyoPop introduced original English-language manga (OEL manga) later renamed ''Global Manga''.Francophone artists have also developed their own versions of manga (''manfra''), like Frédéric Boilet's ''la nouvelle manga''.", "Boilet has worked in France and in Japan, sometimes collaborating with Japanese artists." ], [ "Awards", "The Japanese manga industry grants a large number of awards, mostly sponsored by publishers, with the winning prize usually including publication of the winning stories in magazines released by the sponsoring publisher.", "Examples of these awards include:* The Akatsuka Award for humorous manga* The Dengeki Comic Grand Prix for one-shot manga* The Japan Cartoonists Association Award various categories* The Kodansha Manga Award (multiple genre awards)* The Seiun Award for best science fiction comic of the year* The Shogakukan Manga Award (multiple genres)* The Tezuka Award for best new serial manga* The Tezuka Osamu Cultural Prize (multiple genres)The Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs has awarded the International Manga Award annually since May 2007." ], [ "University education", "Kyoto Seika University in Japan has offered a highly competitive course in manga since 2000.Then, several established universities and vocational schools (専門学校: ''Semmon gakkou'') established a training curriculum.Shuho Sato, who wrote ''Umizaru'' and ''Say Hello to Black Jack'', has created some controversy on Twitter.", "Sato says, \"Manga school is meaningless because those schools have very low success rates.", "Then, I could teach novices required skills on the job in three months.", "Meanwhile, those school students spend several million yen, and four years, yet they are good for nothing.\"", "and that, \"For instance, Keiko Takemiya, the then professor of Seika Univ., remarked in the Government Council that 'A complete novice will be able to understand where is \"Tachikiri\" (i.e., margin section) during four years.'", "On the other hand, I would imagine that, It takes about thirty minutes to completely understand that at work.\"" ], [ "See also", "* ACG (subculture) * Alternative manga* Anime* Anime and manga fandom * Cinema of Japan* Cool Japan * Culture of Japan* Emakimono* E-toki (horizontal, illustrated narrative form)* Japanese language * Japanese popular culture* Kamishibai* Lianhuanhua (small Chinese picture book)* Light novel* List of best-selling manga* List of films based on manga* List of licensed manga in English* List of manga distributors* List of manga magazines* List of Japanese manga magazines by circulation* Manga iconography* Manga outside Japan* Truyện tranh* Manhua* Manhwa* Q-version (cartoonification)* Ukiyo-e* Visual novel* Webtoon* ''Weekly Shōnen Jump''" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "References", "=== Inline citations ====== Works cited ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * Marcella Zaccagnino and Sebastiano Contrari. \"", "Manga: il Giappone alla conquista del mondo\" ( Archive) .", "''Limes, rivista italiana di geopolitica''.", "31 October 2007." ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mexico City" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Mexico City''' (, ; abbr.", ": '''CDMX'''; Central Nahuatl: , ; Maya: , Otomi: ) is the capital and largest city of Mexico, and the most populous city in North America.", "Mexico City is one of the most important cultural and financial centers in the world.", "It is located in the Valley of Mexico within the high Mexican central plateau, at an altitude of .", "The city has 16 boroughs or , which are in turn divided into neighborhoods or .The 2020 population for the city proper was 9,209,944, with a land area of .", "According to the most recent definition agreed upon by the federal and state governments, the population of Greater Mexico City is 21,804,515, which makes it the sixth-largest metropolitan area in the world, the second-largest urban agglomeration in the Western Hemisphere (behind São Paulo, Brazil), and the largest Spanish-speaking city (city proper) in the world.", "Greater Mexico City has a GDP of $411 billion in 2011, which makes it one of the most productive urban areas in the world.", "The city was responsible for generating 15.8% of Mexico's GDP, and the metropolitan area accounted for about 22% of the country's GDP.", "If it were an independent country in 2013, Mexico City would be the fifth-largest economy in Latin America.Mexico's capital is both the oldest capital city in the Americas and one of two founded by Indigenous people.", "The city was originally built on a group of islands in Lake Texcoco by the Mexica (Aztecs) around 1325, under the name Tenochtitlan.", "It was almost completely destroyed in the 1521 siege of Tenochtitlan and subsequently redesigned and rebuilt in accordance with the Spanish urban standards.", "In 1524, the municipality of Mexico City was established, known as , and as of 1585, it was officially known as (Mexico City).", "Mexico City was the political, administrative, and financial center of a major part of the Spanish colonial empire.", "After independence from Spain was achieved, the federal district was created in 1824.After years of demanding greater political autonomy, residents were finally given the right to elect both a head of government and the representatives of the unicameral Legislative Assembly by election in 1997.Ever since, left-wing parties (first the Party of the Democratic Revolution and later the National Regeneration Movement) have controlled both of them.", "The city has several progressive policies, such as elective abortions, a limited form of euthanasia, no-fault divorce, same-sex marriage, and legal gender change.", "On 29 January 2016, it ceased to be the ''Federal District'' ( or ) and is now officially known as (or ), with a greater degree of autonomy.", "A clause in the Constitution of Mexico, however, prevents it from becoming a state within the Mexican federation, as long it remains the capital of the country." ], [ "Nicknames and mottos", "Mexico City was traditionally known as ''La Ciudad de los Palacios'' (\"the City of the Palaces\"), a nickname attributed to Baron Alexander von Humboldt when visiting the city in the 19th century, who, sending a letter back to Germany, said Mexico City could rival any major city in Europe.", "But it was English politician Charles Latrobe who really penned the following: \"... look at their works: the moles, aqueducts, churches, roads—and the luxurious ''City of Palaces'' which has risen from the clay-built ruins of Tenochtitlan...\", on page 84 of the Letter V of ''The Rambler in Mexico''.During the colonial period, the city's motto was \"Muy Noble e Insigne, Muy Leal e Imperial\" (Very Noble and Distinguished, Very Loyal and Imperial).", "During Andrés Manuel López Obrador's administration a political slogan was introduced: ''la Ciudad de la Esperanza'' ().", "This motto was quickly adopted as a city nickname but has faded since the new motto, ''Capital en Movimiento'' (\"Capital in Movement\"), was adopted by the administration headed by Marcelo Ebrard, though the latter is not treated as often as a nickname in media.", "Up until 2013, it was common to refer to the city by the initialism \"DF\" from \"Distrito Federal de México\".", "Since 2013, the abbreviation \"CDMX\" (Ciudad de México) has been more common, particularly in relation to government campaigns.The city is colloquially known as ''Chilangolandia'' after the locals' nickname ''chilangos''.", "Chilango is used pejoratively by people living outside Mexico City to \"connote a loud, arrogant, ill-mannered, loutish person\".", "For their part those living in Mexico City designate insultingly those who live elsewhere as living in ''la provincia'' ('the provinces', 'the periphery') and many proudly embrace the term chilango.", "Residents of Mexico City are more recently called ''defeños'' (deriving from the postal abbreviation of the Federal District in Spanish: D.F., which is read \"De-Efe\").", "They are formally called ''capitalinos'' (in reference to the city being the capital of the country), but \"perhaps because capitalino is the more polite, specific, and correct word, it is almost never utilized\"." ], [ "History", "The oldest signs of human occupation in the area of Mexico City are those of the \"Peñón woman\" and others found in San Bartolo Atepehuacan (Gustavo A. Madero).", "They were believed to correspond to the lower Cenolithic period (9500–7000 BC).", "However, a 2003 study placed the age of the Peñon woman at 12,700 years old (calendar age), one of the oldest human remains discovered in the Americas.", "Studies of her mitochondrial DNA suggest she was either of Asian or European or Aboriginal Australian origin.The area was the destination of the migrations of the Teochichimecas during the 8th and 13th centuries, people that would give rise to the Toltec, and Mexica (Aztecs) cultures.", "The latter arrived around the 14th century to settle first on the shores of the lake.=== Aztec period ===The city was the place of Mexico-Tenochtitlan, the Aztec capital.The city of Mexico-Tenochtitlan was founded by the Mexica people in 1325 or 1327.The old Mexica city that is now referred to as Tenochtitlan was built on an island in the center of the inland lake system of the Valley of Mexico, which is shared with a smaller city-state called Tlatelolco.", "According to legend, the Mexicas' principal god, Huitzilopochtli, indicated the site where they were to build their home by presenting a golden eagle perched on a prickly pear devouring a rattlesnake.Between 1325 and 1521, Tenochtitlan grew in size and strength, eventually dominating the other city-states around Lake Texcoco and in the Valley of Mexico.", "When the Spaniards arrived, the Aztec Empire had reached much of Mesoamerica, touching both the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean.=== Spanish conquest ===Teocalli by Cortez and his Troops'' (1848) by Emanuel Leutze.After landing in Veracruz, Spanish explorer Hernán Cortés advanced upon Tenochtitlan with the aid of many of the other native peoples,arriving there on 8 November 1519.Cortés and his men marched along the causeway leading into the city from Iztapalapa (Ixtapalapa), and the city's ruler, Moctezuma II, greeted the Spaniards; they exchanged gifts, but the camaraderie did not last long.", "Cortés put Moctezuma under house arrest, hoping to rule through him.Tensions increased until, on the night of 30 June 1520 – during a struggle known as \"La Noche Triste\" – the Aztecs rose up against the Spanish intrusion and managed to capture or drive out the Europeans and their Tlaxcalan allies.", "Cortés regrouped at Tlaxcala.", "The Aztecs thought the Spaniards were permanently gone, and they elected a new king, Cuitláhuac, but he soon died; the next king was Cuauhtémoc.", "Cortés began a siege of Tenochtitlan in May 1521.For three months, the city suffered from the lack of food and water as well as the spread of smallpox brought by the Europeans.", "Cortés and his allies landed their forces in the south of the island and slowly fought their way through the city.", "Cuauhtémoc surrendered in August 1521.The Spaniards practically razed Tenochtitlan during the final siege of the conquest.Cortés first settled in Coyoacán, but decided to rebuild the Aztec site to erase all traces of the old order.", "He did not establish a territory under his own personal rule, but remained loyal to the Spanish crown.", "The first Spanish viceroy arrived in Mexico City fourteen years later.", "By that time, the city had again become a city-state, having power that extended far beyond its borders.", "Although the Spanish preserved Tenochtitlan's basic layout, they built Catholic churches over the old Aztec temples and claimed the imperial palaces for themselves.", "Tenochtitlan was renamed \"Mexico\" because the Spanish found the word easier to pronounce.=== Growth of colonial Mexico City ===Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral's (1571–1813) 18th century painting.", "The cathedral was built by the Spaniards over the ruins of the main Aztec temple.The city had been the capital of the Aztec Empire and in the colonial era, Mexico City became the capital of New Spain.", "The viceroy of Mexico or vice-king lived in the viceregal palace on the main square or Zócalo.", "The Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral, the seat of the Archbishopric of New Spain, was constructed on another side of the Zócalo, as was the archbishop's palace, and across from it the building housing the city council or ''ayuntamiento'' of the city.", "A late seventeenth-century painting of the Zócalo by Cristóbal de Villalpando depicts the main square, which had been the old Aztec ceremonial center.", "The existing central plaza of the Aztecs was effectively and permanently transformed to the ceremonial center and seat of power during the colonial period, and remains to this day in modern Mexico, the central plaza of the nation.", "The rebuilding of the city after the siege of Tenochtitlan was accomplished by the abundant indigenous labor in the surrounding area.", "Franciscan friar Toribio de Benavente Motolinia, one of the Twelve Apostles of Mexico who arrived in New Spain in 1524, described the rebuilding of the city as one of the afflictions or plagues of the early period:The seventh plague was the construction of the great City of Mexico, which, during the early years used more people than in the construction of Jerusalem.", "The crowds of laborers were so numerous that one could hardly move in the streets and causeways, although they are very wide.", "Many died from being crushed by beams, or falling from high places, or in tearing down old buildings for new ones.", "Mexico City in 1690.Atlas Van der Hagen.Preconquest Tenochtitlan was built in the center of the inland lake system, with the city reachable by canoe and by wide causeways to the mainland.", "The causeways were rebuilt under Spanish rule with indigenous labor.", "Colonial Spanish cities were constructed on a grid pattern, if no geographical obstacle prevented it.", "In Mexico City, the Zócalo (main square) was the central place from which the grid was then built outward.", "The Spanish lived in the area closest to the main square in what was known as the ''traza'', in orderly, well laid-out streets.", "Indigenous residences were outside that exclusive zone and houses were haphazardly located.", "Spaniards sought to keep indigenous people separate but since the Zócalo was a center of commerce for Amerindians, they were a constant presence in the central area, so strict segregation was never enforced.", "At intervals Zócalo was where major celebrations took place as well as executions.", "It was also the site of two major riots in the seventeenth century, one in 1624, the other in 1692.The city grew as the population did, coming up against the lake's waters.", "As the depth of the lake water fluctuated, Mexico City was subject to periodic flooding.", "A major labor draft, the ''desagüe'', compelled thousands of indigenous over the colonial period to work on infrastructure to prevent flooding.", "Floods were not only an inconvenience but also a health hazard, since during flood periods human waste polluted the city's streets.", "By draining the area, the mosquito population dropped as did the frequency of the diseases they spread.", "However, draining the wetlands also changed the habitat for fish and birds and the areas accessible for indigenous cultivation close to the capital.", "The 16th century saw a proliferation of churches, many of which can still be seen today in the historic center.Economically, Mexico City prospered as a result of trade.", "Unlike Brazil or Peru, Mexico had easy contact with both the Atlantic and Pacific worlds.", "Although the Spanish crown tried to completely regulate all commerce in the city, it had only partial success.Palacio de Minería, Mexico City.", "The elevation of silver mining as a profession and the ennoblement of silver miners was a development of the eighteenth-century Bourbon Reforms.The concept of nobility flourished in New Spain in a way not seen in other parts of the Americas.", "Spaniards encountered a society in which the concept of nobility mirrored that of their own.", "Spaniards respected the indigenous order of nobility and added to it.", "In the ensuing centuries, possession of a noble title in Mexico did not mean one exercised great political power, for one's power was limited even if the accumulation of wealth was not.", "The concept of nobility in Mexico was not political but rather a very conservative Spanish social one, based on proving the worthiness of the family.", "Most of these families proved their worth by making fortunes in New Spain outside of the city itself, then spending the revenues in the capital, building churches, supporting charities and building extravagant palatial homes.", "The craze to build the most opulent residence possible reached its height in the last half of the 18th century.", "Many of these palaces can still be seen today, leading to Mexico City's nickname of \"The city of palaces\" given by Alexander Von Humboldt.The Grito de Dolores (\"Cry of Dolores\"), also known as El Grito de la Independencia (\"Cry of Independence\"), marked the beginning of the Mexican War of Independence.", "The Battle of Guanajuato, the first major engagement of the insurgency, occurred four days later.", "After a decade of war, Mexico's independence from Spain was effectively declared in the Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire on 27 September 1821.Agustín de Iturbide is proclaimed Emperor of the First Mexican Empire by Congress, crowned in the Cathedral of Mexico.", "Unrest followed for the next several decades, as different factions fought for control of Mexico.The Mexican Federal District was established by the new government and by the signing of their new constitution, where the concept of a federal district was adapted from the United States Constitution.", "Before this designation, Mexico City had served as the seat of government for both the State of Mexico and the nation as a whole.", "Texcoco de Mora and then Toluca became the capital of the State of Mexico.=== Battle of Mexico City in the U.S.–Mexican War of 1847 ===''The American assault on the Chapultepec Castle'', 1847 by Nebel and BayotDuring the 19th century, Mexico City was the center stage of all the political disputes of the country.", "It was the imperial capital on two occasions (1821–1823 and 1864–1867), and of two federalist states and two centralist states that followed innumerable coups d'états in the space of half a century before the triumph of the Liberals after the Reform War.", "It was also the objective of one of the two French invasions to Mexico (1861–1867), and occupied for a year by American troops in the framework of the Mexican–American War (1847–1848).The Battle for Mexico City was the series of engagements from 8 to 15 September 1847, in the general vicinity of Mexico City during the U.S. Mexican War.", "Included are major actions at the battles of Molino del Rey and Chapultepec, culminating with the fall of Mexico City.", "The U.S. Army under Winfield Scott scored a major success that ended the war.", "The American invasion into the Federal District was first resisted during the Battle of Churubusco on 8 August, where the Saint Patrick's Battalion, which was composed primarily of Catholic Irish and German immigrants but also Canadians, English, French, Italians, Poles, Scots, Spaniards, Swiss, and Mexicans, fought for the Mexican cause, repelling the American attacks.", "After defeating the Saint Patrick's Battalion, the Mexican–American War came to a close after the United States deployed combat units deep into Mexico resulting in the capture of Mexico City and Veracruz by the U.S. Army's 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th Divisions.", "The invasion culminated with the storming of Chapultepec Castle in the city itself.During this battle, on 13 September, the 4th Division, under John A. Quitman, spearheaded the attack against Chapultepec and carried the castle.", "Future Confederate generals George E. Pickett and James Longstreet participated in the attack.", "Serving in the Mexican defense were the cadets later immortalized as ''Los Niños Héroes'' (the \"Boy Heroes\").", "The Mexican forces fell back from Chapultepec and retreated within the city.", "Attacks on the Belén and San Cosme Gates came afterwards.", "The treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed in what is now the far north of the city.=== Porfirian era (1876–1911) ===Mexican President and later dictator Porfirio Díaz (second from right) commissioned many of the ornate European style buildings constructed from the 1890–1910 and hoped for Mexico City to eventually rival European cities like Paris in opulence.Events such as the Mexican–American War, the French Intervention and the Reform War left the city relatively untouched and it continued to grow, especially during the rule of President Porfirio Díaz.", "During this time the city developed a modern infrastructure, such as roads, schools, transportation systems and communication systems.", "However the regime concentrated resources and wealth into the city while the rest of the country languished in poverty.Under the rule of Porfirio Díaz, Mexico City experienced a massive transformation.", "Díaz's goal was to create a city which could rival the great European cities.", "He and his government came to the conclusion that they would use Paris as a model, while still containing remnants of Amerindian and Hispanic elements.", "This style of Mexican-French fusion architecture became colloquially known as Porfirian Architecture.", "Porfirian architecture became very influenced by Paris' Haussmannization.During this era of Porfirian rule, the city underwent an extensive modernization.", "Many Spanish Colonial style buildings were destroyed, replaced by new much larger Porfirian institutions and many outlying rural zones were transformed into urban or industrialized districts with most having electrical, gas and sewage utilities by 1908.While the initial focus was on developing modern hospitals, schools, factories and massive public works, perhaps the most long-lasting effects of the Porfirian modernization were creation of the Colonia Roma area and the development of Reforma Avenue.", "Many of Mexico City's major attractions and landmarks were built during this era in this style.Diaz's plans called for the entire city to eventually be modernized or rebuilt in the Porfirian/French style of the Colonia Roma; but the Mexican Revolution began soon afterward and the plans never came to fruition, with many projects being left half-completed.", "One of the best examples of this is the Monument to the Mexican Revolution.", "Originally the monument was to be the main dome of Diaz's new senate hall, but when the revolution erupted only the dome of the senate hall and its supporting pillars were completed, this was subsequently seen as a symbol by many Mexicans that the Porfirian era was over once and for all and as such, it was turned into a monument to victory over Diaz.=== Mexican Revolution (1910–1920) ===Corpses in front of the National Palace during the Ten Tragic Days.", "Photographer, Manuel Ramos.The capital escaped the worst of the violence of the ten-year conflict of the Mexican Revolution.", "The most significant episode of this period for the city was the Decena Trágica (\"Ten Tragic Days\") of February 1913, when forces counter to the elected government of Francisco I. Madero staged a successful coup.", "The center of the city was subjected to artillery attacks from the army stronghold of the ''ciudadela'' or citadel, with significant civilian casualties and the undermining of confidence in the Madero government.", "Victoriano Huerta, chief general of the Federal Army, saw a chance to take power, forcing Madero and Pino Suarez to sign resignations.", "The two were murdered later while on their way to Lecumberri prison.", "Huerta's ouster in July 1914 saw the entry of the armies of Pancho Villa and Emiliano Zapata, but the city did not experience violence.", "Huerta had abandoned the capital and the conquering armies marched in.", "Venustiano Carranza's Constitutionalist faction ultimately prevailed in the revolutionary civil war and Carranza took up residence in the presidential palace.=== 20th century to present ===Frida Kahlo and Diego Rivera house in San Ángel designed by Juan O'GormanIn the 20th century the phenomenal growth of the city and its environmental and political consequences dominate.", "In 1900, the population of Mexico City was about 500,000.The city began to grow rapidly westward in the early part of the 20th century and then began to grow upwards in the 1950s, with the Torre Latinoamericana becoming the city's first skyscraper.The rapid development of Mexico City as a center for modernist architecture was most fully manifested in the mid-1950s construction of the Ciudad Universitaria, Mexico City, the main campus of the National Autonomous University of Mexico.", "Designed by the most prestigious architects of the era, including Mario Pani, Eugenio Peschard, and Enrique del Moral, the buildings feature murals by artists Diego Rivera, David Alfaro Siqueiros, and José Chávez Morado.", "It has since been recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.The 1968 Olympic Games brought about the construction of large sporting facilities.", "In 1969, the Mexico City Metro was inaugurated.", "Explosive growth in the population of the city started in the 1960s, with the population overflowing the boundaries of the Federal District into the neighboring State of Mexico, especially to the north, northwest, and northeast.", "Between 1960 and 1980 the city's population more than doubled to nearly 9 million.In 1980, half of all the industrial jobs in Mexico were located in Mexico City.", "Under relentless growth, the Mexico City government could barely keep up with services.", "Villagers from the countryside who continued to pour into the city to escape poverty only compounded the city's problems.", "With no housing available, they took over lands surrounding the city, creating huge shantytowns that extended for many miles.", "The inhabitants of Mexico City faced serious air pollution in Mexico City and water pollution problems, as well as groundwater-related subsidence.", "Air and water pollution has been contained and improved in several areas due to government programs, the renovation of vehicles and the modernization of public transportation.Students in a burned bus during the Tlatelolco massacre 1968 The autocratic government that ruled Mexico City since the Revolution was tolerated, mostly because of the continued economic expansion since World War II.", "This was the case even though this government could not handle the population and pollution problems adequately.", "Nevertheless, discontent and protests began in the 1960s leading to the massacre of an unknown number of protesting students in Tlatelolco.Three years later, a demonstration in the Maestros avenue, organized by former members of the 1968 student movement, was violently repressed by a paramilitary group called \"Los Halcones\", composed of gang members and teenagers from many sports clubs who received training in the U.S.First ladies Paloma Cordero of Mexico (left) and Nancy Reagan of the United States (right) with U.S.", "Ambassador to Mexico, John Gavin observing the damage done by the 1985 earthquakeOn Thursday, 19 September 1985, at 7:19 am Central Standard Time (CST), Mexico City was struck by an 1985 Mexico City earthquake.", "The earthquake proved to be a disaster politically for the one-party state government.", "The Mexican government was paralyzed by its own bureaucracy and corruption, forcing ordinary citizens to create and direct their own rescue efforts and to reconstruct much of the housing that was lost as well.However, the last straw may have been the controversial elections of 1988.That year, the presidency was set between the P.R.I.", "'s candidate, Carlos Salinas de Gortari, and a coalition of left-wing parties led by Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas, son of the former president Lázaro Cárdenas.", "The counting system \"fell\" because coincidentally the power went out and suddenly, when it returned, the winning candidate was Salinas, even though Cárdenas had the upper hand.As a result of the fraudulent election, Cárdenas became a member of the Party of the Democratic Revolution.", "Discontent over the election eventually led Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas to become the first elected mayor of Mexico City in 1997.Cárdenas promised a more democratic government, and his party claimed some victories against crime, pollution, and other major problems.", "He resigned in 1999 to run for the presidency." ], [ "Geography", "Satellite image of Mexico CityMexico City is located in the Valley of Mexico, sometimes called the Basin of Mexico.", "This valley is located in the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt in the high plateaus of south-central Mexico.It has a minimum altitude of above sea level and is surrounded by mountains and volcanoes that reach elevations of over .", "This valley has no natural drainage outlet for the waters that flow from the mountainsides, making the city vulnerable to flooding.", "Drainage was engineered through the use of canals and tunnels starting in the 17th century.Mexico City primarily rests on what was Lake Texcoco.", "Seismic activity is frequent there.", "Lake Texcoco was drained starting from the 17th century.", "Although none of the lake waters remain, the city rests on the lake bed's heavily saturated clay.", "This soft base is collapsing due to the over-extraction of groundwater, called ''groundwater-related subsidence''.Since the beginning of the 20th century the city has sunk as much as in some areas.", "On average Mexico City sinks 20 inches (1 foot and 8 inches) or 50 centimetres (1/2 meters) every year.", "This sinking is causing problems with runoff and wastewater management, leading to flooding problems, especially during the summer.", "The entire lake bed is now paved over and most of the city's remaining forested areas lie in the southern boroughs of Milpa Alta, Tlalpan and Xochimilco.Mexico City geophysical maps120px120px120pxTopographyHydrologyClimate patterns=== Environment ===Trajineras in the canals of Xochimilco.", "Xochimilco and the historic center of Mexico City were declared a World Heritage Site in 1987.Originally much of the valley lay beneath the waters of Lake Texcoco, a system of interconnected salt and freshwater lakes.", "The Aztecs built dikes to separate the fresh water used to raise crops in ''chinampas'' and to prevent recurrent floods.", "These dikes were destroyed during the siege of Tenochtitlan, and during colonial times the Spanish regularly drained the lake to prevent floods.", "Only a small section of the original lake remains, located outside Mexico City, in the municipality of Atenco, State of Mexico.Architects Teodoro González de León and Alberto Kalach along with a group of Mexican urbanists, engineers and biologists have developed the project plan for ''Recovering the City of Lakes''.", "If approved by the government the project will contribute to the supply of water from natural sources to the Valley of Mexico, the creation of new natural spaces, a great improvement in air quality, and greater population establishment planning.=== Pollution ===Air pollution over Mexico City.", "Air quality is poorest during the winter.By the 1990s Mexico City had become infamous as one of the world's most polluted cities; however, the city has since become a model for drastically lowering pollution levels.", "By 2014 carbon monoxide pollution had dropped drastically, while sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide were at levels about a third of those in 1992.The levels of signature pollutants in Mexico City are similar to those of Los Angeles.", "Despite the cleanup, the metropolitan area is still the most ozone-polluted part of the country, with ozone levels 2.5 times beyond WHO-defined safe limits.To clean up pollution, the federal and local governments implemented numerous plans including the constant monitoring and reporting of environmental conditions, such as ozone and nitrogen oxides.", "When the levels of these two pollutants reached critical levels, contingency actions were implemented which included closing factories, changing school hours, and extending the ''A day without a car'' program to two days of the week.", "The government also instituted industrial technology improvements, a strict biannual vehicle emission inspection and the reformulation of gasoline and diesel fuels.", "The introduction of Metrobús bus rapid transit and the Ecobici bike-sharing were among efforts to encourage alternate, greener forms of transportation.=== Parks and recreation ===The Chapultepec was an important park during the Aztecs whose access had been limited to its nobility, was declared open to the public by a decree of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor in 1530, it is one of the world's largest city parks.Chapultepec, the city's most iconic public park, has history back to the Aztec emperors who used the area as a retreat.", "It is south of Polanco district, and houses the Chapultepec Zoo the main city's zoo, several ponds and seven museums, including the National Museum of Anthropology.", "Other iconic city parks include the Alameda Central, it is recognized as the oldest public park in the Americas.", "Parque México and Parque España in the hip Condesa district; Parque Hundido and ''Parque de los Venados'' in Colonia del Valle, and Parque Lincoln in Polanco.", "There are many smaller parks throughout the city.", "Most are small \"squares\" occupying two or three square blocks amid residential or commercial districts.", "Several other larger parks such as the Bosque de Tlalpan and Viveros de Coyoacán, and in the east Alameda Oriente, offer many recreational activities.", "Northwest of the city is a large ecological reserve, the Bosque de Aragón.", "In the southeast is the Xochimilco Ecological Park and Plant Market, a World Heritage Site.", "West of Santa Fe district are the pine forests of the Desierto de los Leones National Park.", "Amusement parks include Six Flags México, in Ajusco neighborhood which is the largest in Latin America.", "There are numerous seasonal fairs present in the city.Mexico City has three zoos.", "Chapultepec Zoo, the San Juan de Aragon Zoo and Los Coyotes Zoo.", "Chapultepec Zoo is located in the first section of Chapultepec Park in the Miguel Hidalgo.", "It was opened in 1924.Visitors can see about 243 specimens of different species including kangaroos, giant panda, gorillas, caracal, hyena, hippos, jaguar, giraffe, lemur, lion, among others.", "Zoo San Juan de Aragon is near the San Juan de Aragon Park in the Gustavo A. Madero.", "In this zoo, opened in 1964, there are species that are in danger of extinction such as the jaguar and the Mexican wolf.", "Other guests are the golden eagle, pronghorn, bighorn sheep, caracara, zebras, African elephant, macaw, hippo, among others.", "Zoo Los Coyotes is a 27.68-acre (11.2 ha) zoo located south of Mexico City in the Coyoacan.", "It was inaugurated on 2 February 1999.It has more than 301 specimens of 51 species of wild native or endemic fauna from the area, featuring eagles, ajolotes, coyotes, macaws, bobcats, Mexican wolves, raccoons, mountain lions, teporingos, foxes, white-tailed deer.=== Climate ===Lightning in the background of the Torre MayorMexico City has a subtropical highland climate (Köppen climate classification ''Cwb''), due to its tropical location but high elevation.", "The lower region of the valley receives less rainfall than the upper regions of the south; the lower boroughs of Iztapalapa, Iztacalco, Venustiano Carranza and the east portion of Gustavo A. Madero are usually drier and warmer than the upper southern boroughs of Tlalpan and Milpa Alta, a mountainous region of pine and oak trees known as the range of Ajusco.", "The average annual temperature varies from , depending on the altitude of the borough.", "The temperature is rarely below or above .", "At the Tacubaya observatory, the lowest temperature ever registered was on 13 February 1960, and the highest temperature on record was on 9 May 1998.Overall precipitation is heavily concentrated in the summer months, and includes dense hail.Snow falls in the city very rarely, although somewhat more often in nearby mountaintops.", "Throughout its history, the Central Valley of Mexico was accustomed to having several snowfalls per decade (including a period between 1878 and 1895 in which every single year—except 1880—recorded snowfalls), mostly lake-effect snow.", "The effects of the draining of Lake Texcoco and global warming have greatly reduced snowfalls after the snow flurries of 12 February 1907.Since 1908, snow has only fallen three times, snow on 14 February 1920; snow flurries on 14 March 1940; and on 12 January 1967, when of snow fell on the city, the most on record.", "The 1967 snowstorm coincided with the operation of ''Deep Drainage System'' that resulted in the total draining of what was left of Lake Texcoco.", "After the disappearance of Lake Texcoco, snow has never fallen again over Mexico City.", "The region of the Valley of Mexico receives anti-cyclonic systems.", "The weak winds of these systems do not allow for the dispersion, outside the basin, of the air pollutants which are produced by the 50,000 industries and 4 million vehicles operating in and around the metropolitan area.The area receives about of annual rainfall, which is concentrated from May through October with little or no precipitation the remainder of the year.", "The area has two main seasons.", "The wet humid summer runs from May to October when winds bring in tropical moisture from the sea, the wettest month being July.", "The cool sunny winter runs from November to April, when the air is relatively drier, the driest month being December.", "This season is subdivided into a cold winter period and a warm spring period.", "The cold period spans from November to February, when polar air masses push down from the north and keep the air fairly dry.", "The warm period extends from March to May when subtropical winds again dominate but do not yet carry enough moisture for rain to form." ], [ "Demographics", "Historically, and since Pre-Columbian times, the Valley of Anahuac has been one of the most densely populated areas in Mexico.", "When the Federal District was created in 1824, the urban area of Mexico City extended approximately to the area of today's Cuauhtémoc borough.", "At the beginning of the 20th century, the ''elites'' began migrating to the south and west and soon the small towns of Mixcoac and San Ángel were incorporated by the growing conurbation.", "According to the 1921 census, 54.78% of the city's population was considered Mestizo (Indigenous mixed with European), 22.79% considered European, and 18.74% considered Indigenous.", "This was the last Mexican Census which asked people to self-identify with a heritage other than Amerindian.", "In 1921, Mexico City had less than one million inhabitants.Up to the 1990s, the Federal District was the most populous federal entity in Mexico, but since then, its population has remained stable at around 8.7 million.", "The growth of the city has extended beyond the limits of the city to 59 municipalities of the State of Mexico and 1 in the state of Hidalgo.", "With a population of approximately 19.8 million inhabitants (2008), it is one of the most populous conurbations in the world.", "Nonetheless, the annual rate of growth of the Metropolitan Area of Mexico City is much lower than that of other large urban agglomerations in Mexico, a phenomenon most likely attributable to the environmental policy of decentralization.", "The net migration rate of Mexico City from 1995 to 2000 was negative.=== Metropolitan area ===Greater Mexico City and Mexico CityThe metropolitan area, Greater Mexico City ('Zona Metropolitana del Valle de México' or 'ZMVM' in Spanish) consists of Mexico City itself plus 60 municipalities in the State of Mexico and one in Hidalgo state.", "With a population of 21,804,515 (2020 census), Greater Mexico City is both the biggest and the densest metropolitan area in the country.", "Of the ca.", "21.8 million, 9.2 million live in Mexico City proper and 12.4 million in the State of Mexico (ca.", "75% of the state's population), including the municipalities of:* Ecatepec de Morelos ( 1,645,352)* Nezahualcóyotl ( 1,077,208)* Naucalpan ( 834,434)* Chimalhuacán ( 705,193)* Tlalnepantla de Baz ( 672,202)====Megalopolis====The Mexico City Megalopolis as defined prior to 2019.Since then Querétaro state is also included.Greater Mexico City, in turn, forms part of an even larger megalopolis officially termed the ''Zona megalopolitana de la ZMVM'' (Mexico City megalopolis), with a population of 33.4 million, more than one quarter of the country's population according to the 2020 census.", "The megalopolis as defined by the Environmental Commission of the Megalopolis (''CAMe'') covers Mexico City and the states of Mexico, Hidalgo, Puebla, Tlaxcala, Morelos, and since 2019, Querétaro, thus encompassing the metropolitan areas of Mexico City, Puebla, Querétaro, Toluca, Cuernavaca, Pachuca, and others.====Growth====Greater Mexico City was the fastest growing metropolitan area in the country until the late 1980s.", "Since then, government policies have supported decentralization with the aim of reducing pollution in Greater Mexico City.", "While still growing, the annual rate of growth has decreased and is lower than that of Greater Guadalajara and Greater Monterrey.The net migration rate of Mexico City proper from 1995 to 2000 was negative, which implies that residents are moving to the suburbs of the metropolitan area, or to other states of Mexico.", "In addition, some inner suburbs are losing population to outer suburbs, indicating the continuing expansion of Greater Mexico City.=== Religion ===Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe in La Villa de Guadalupe, the main Catholic pilgrimage site in the Americas.", "It houses the original image of Our Lady of Guadalupe.The majority (82%) of the residents in Mexico City are Catholic, slightly lower than the 2010 census national percentage of 87%, making it the largest Christian denomination, though it has been decreasing over the last decades.", "Many other religions and philosophies are also practiced in the city: many different types of Protestant groups, different types of Jewish communities, Buddhist, Islamic and other spiritual and philosophical groups.", "There are also growing numbers of irreligious people, whether agnostic or atheist.The patron saint of Mexico City is Saint Philip of Jesus, a Mexican Catholic missionary who became one of the Twenty-six Martyrs of Japan.The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Mexico is the largest archdiocese in the world.", "There are two Catholic cathedrals in the city, the Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral and the Iztapalapa Cathedral, and three former Catholic churches who are now the cathedrals of other rites, the San José de Gracia Cathedral (Anglican church), the Porta Coeli Cathedral (Melkite Greek Catholic church) and the Valvanera Cathedral (Maronite church).=== Ethnic groups ===Representing around 18.74% of the city's population, indigenous peoples from different areas of Mexico have migrated to the capital in search of better economic opportunities.", "Nahuatl, Otomi, Mixtec, Zapotec and Mazahua are the indigenous languages with the greatest number of speakers in Mexico City.", "According to the 2020 Census, 2.03% of Mexico City's population identified as Black, Afro-Mexican, or of African descent.Additionally, Mexico City is home to large communities of expatriates and immigrants from the rest of North America (U.S. and Canada), from South America (mainly from Argentina and Colombia, but also from Brazil, Chile, Uruguay and Venezuela), from Central America and the Caribbean (mainly from Cuba, Guatemala, El Salvador, Haiti and Honduras); from Europe (mainly from Spain, Germany and Switzerland, but also from Czech Republic, Hungary, France, Italy, Ireland, the Netherlands, Poland and Romania), and from the Arab world (mostly from Lebanon, and other countries like Syria and Egypt).Mexico City is home to the largest population of Americans living outside the United States.", "Estimates are as high as 700,000 Americans living in Mexico City, while in 1999 the U.S. Bureau of Consular Affairs estimated over 440,000 Americans lived in the Mexico City Metropolitan Area.=== Health ===The XXI Century National Medical Center, managed by the Mexican Social Security Institute (IMSS)Mexico City is home to some of the best private hospitals in the country, including Hospital Ángeles, Hospital ABC and Médica Sur.", "The national public healthcare institution for private-sector employees, IMSS, has its largest facilities in Mexico City—including the National Medical Center and the La Raza Medical Center—and has an annual budget of over 6 billion pesos.", "The IMSS and other public health institutions, including the ISSSTE (Public Sector Employees' Social Security Institute) and the National Health Ministry (SSA) maintain large specialty facilities in the city.", "These include the National Institutes of Cardiology, Nutrition, Psychiatry, Oncology, Pediatrics, Rehabilitation, among others.The World Bank has sponsored a project to curb air pollution through public transport improvements and the Mexican government has started shutting down polluting factories.", "They have phased out diesel buses and mandated new emission controls on new cars; since 1993 all new cars must be fitted with a catalytic converter, which reduces the emissions released.", "Trucks must use only liquefied petroleum gas (LPG).", "Also construction of an underground rail system was begun in 1968 in order to help curb air pollution problems and alleviate traffic congestion.", "It has over of track and carries over 5 million people every day.", "Fees are kept low to encourage use of the system and during rush hours the crush is so great, that authorities have reserved a special carriage specifically for women.", "Due to these initiatives and others, the air quality in Mexico City has begun to improve; it is cleaner than it was in 1991, when the air quality was declared to be a public health risk for 355 days of the year.=== Education ===El Colegio de MéxicoUnlike those of Mexican states' schools, curricula of Mexico City's public schools is managed by the federal Secretary of Public Education.", "The whole funding is allocated by the government of Mexico City (in some specific cases, such as El Colegio de México, funding comes from both the city's government and other public and private national and international entities).", "The city's public high school system is the ''Instituto de Educación Media Superior de la Ciudad de México'' (IEMS-DF).", "A special case is that of El Colegio Nacional, created during the district's governmental period of Miguel Alemán Valdés to have, in Mexico, an institution similar to the College of France.Among its many public and private schools (K–13), the city offers multi-cultural, multi-lingual and international schools attended by Mexican and foreign students.", "Best known are the Colegio Alemán (German school with three main campuses), the Liceo Mexicano Japonés (Japanese), the Centro Cultural Coreano en México (Korean), the Lycée Franco-Mexicain (French), the American School, The Westhill Institute (American School), the Edron Academy and the Greengates School (British).", "Mexico City joined the UNESCO Global Network of Learning Cities in 2015.In the Plaza de las Tres Culturas is the Colegio de Santa Cruz de Tlatelolco that is recognized for being the first and oldest European school of higher learning in the Americas and the first major school of interpreters and translators in the New World.", "Other, the now-defunct Royal and Pontifical University of Mexico is considered the father of the UNAM, and it was located in the city and was the third oldest university in the Americas.University City of the UNAM.", "Since 2007 the University City is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.The National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM), located in Mexico City, is the largest university on the continent, with more than 300,000 students from all backgrounds.", "Three Nobel laureates, several Mexican entrepreneurs and most of Mexico's modern-day presidents are among its former students.", "UNAM conducts 50% of Mexico's scientific research and has presence all across the country with satellite campuses, observatories and research centers.", "UNAM ranked 74th in the Top 200 World University Ranking published by Times Higher Education (then called Times Higher Education Supplement) in 2006, making it the highest ranked Spanish-speaking university in the world.", "The sprawling main campus of the university, known as Ciudad Universitaria, was named a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 2007.The second largest higher-education institution is the National Polytechnic Institute (IPN), which includes among many other relevant centers the Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados (Cinvestav), where varied high-level scientific and technological research is done.", "Other major higher-education institutions in the city include the Metropolitan Autonomous University (UAM), the National School of Anthropology and History (ENAH), the Instituto Tecnológico Autónomo de México (ITAM), the Monterrey Institute of Technology and Higher Education (3 campuses), the Universidad Panamericana (UP), the Universidad La Salle, the Universidad Intercontinental (UIC), the Universidad del Valle de México (UVM), the Universidad Anáhuac, Simón Bolívar University (USB), the Universidad Intercontinental (UIC), the Alliant International University, the Universidad Iberoamericana, El Colegio de México (Colmex), Escuela Libre de Derecho and the Centro de Investigación y Docencia Económica, (CIDE).In addition, the prestigious University of California maintains a campus known as \"Casa de California\" in the city.", "The Universidad Tecnológica de México is also in Mexico City." ], [ "Politics", "=== Political structure ===The National Palace of MexicoSenate of the RepublicLegislative Palace of San LázaroOffices of the Secretariat of Foreign AffairsMexico City's Legislative Assembly buildingThe Acta Constitutiva de la Federación of 31 January 1824, and the Federal Constitution of 4 October 1824, fixed the political and administrative organization of the United Mexican States after the Mexican War of Independence.", "In addition, Section XXVIII of Article 50 gave the new Congress the right to choose where the federal government would be located.", "This location would then be appropriated as federal land, with the federal government acting as the local authority.", "The two main candidates to become the capital were Mexico City and Querétaro.Due in large part to the persuasion of representative Servando Teresa de Mier, Mexico City was chosen because it was the center of the country's population and history, even though Querétaro was closer to the center geographically.", "The choice was official on 18 November 1824, and Congress delineated a surface area of two leagues square (8,800 acres) centered on the Zocalo.", "This area was then separated from the State of Mexico, forcing that state's government to move from the Palace of the Inquisition (now Museum of Mexican Medicine) in the city to Texcoco.", "This area did not include the population centers of the towns of Coyoacán, Xochimilco, Mexicaltzingo and Tlalpan, all of which remained as part of the State of Mexico.In 1854 president Antonio López de Santa Anna enlarged the area of Mexico City almost eightfold from the original , annexing the rural and mountainous areas to secure the strategic mountain passes to the south and southwest to protect the city in event of a foreign invasion.", "(The Mexican–American War had just been fought.)", "The last changes to the limits of Mexico City were made between 1898 and 1902, reducing the area to the current by adjusting the southern border with the state of Morelos.", "By that time, the total number of municipalities within Mexico City was twenty-two.", "In 1941, the General Anaya borough was merged with the Central Department, which was then renamed \"Mexico City\" (thus reviving the name but not the autonomous municipality).", "From 1941 to 1970, the Federal District comprised twelve ''delegaciones'' and Mexico City.", "In 1970, Mexico City was split into four different ''delegaciones'': Cuauhtémoc, Miguel Hidalgo, Venustiano Carranza and Benito Juárez, increasing the number of ''delegaciones'' to 16.Since then, the whole Federal District, whose ''delegaciones'' had by then almost formed a single urban area, began to be considered ''de facto'' a synonym of Mexico City.The lack of a ''de jure'' stipulation left a legal vacuum that led to a number of sterile discussions about whether one concept had engulfed the other or if the latter had ceased to exist altogether.", "In 1993, the situation was solved by an amendment to the 44th article of the Constitution of Mexico; Mexico City and the Federal District were stated to be the same entity.", "The amendment was later introduced into the second article of the Statute of Government of the Federal District.On 29 January 2016, Mexico City ceased to be the ''Federal District'' (Spanish: ''Distrito Federal'' or D.F.", "), and was officially renamed \"Ciudad de México\" (or \"CDMX\").", "On that date, Mexico City began a transition to becoming the country's 32nd federal entity, giving it a level of autonomy comparable to that of a state.", "It will have its own constitution and its legislature, and its ''delegaciones'' will now be headed by mayors.", "Because of a clause in the Mexican Constitution, however, as it is the seat of the powers of the federation, it can never become a state, or the capital of the country has to be relocated elsewhere.In response to the demands, Mexico City received a greater degree of autonomy, with the 1987 elaboration the first Statute of Government (''Estatuto de Gobierno'') and the creation of an assembly of representatives.", "The city has a Statute of Government, and as of its ratification on 31 January 2017, a constitution, similar to the states of the Union.", "As part of the recent changes in autonomy, the budget is administered locally; it is proposed by the head of government and approved by the Legislative Assembly.", "Nonetheless, it is the Congress of the Union that sets the ceiling to internal and external public debt issued by the city government.The politics pursued by the administrations of heads of government in Mexico City at the end of the 20th century have usually been more liberal than those of the rest of the country, whether with the support of the federal government, as was the case with the approval of several comprehensive environmental laws in the 1980s, or by laws that were since approved by the Legislative Assembly.", "The Legislative Assembly expanded provisions on abortions, becoming the first federal entity to expand abortion in Mexico beyond cases of rape and economic reasons, to permit it at the choice of the mother before the 12th week of pregnancy.", "In December 2009, the then Federal District became the first city in Latin America and one of very few in the world to legalize same-sex marriage.=== Boroughs and neighborhoods ===The 16 boroughs of Mexico CityAfter the political reforms in 2016, the city is divided for administrative purposes into 16 boroughs (, colloquially ''alcaldías''), formerly called ''delegaciones''.", "While they are not fully equivalent to municipalities, the boroughs have gained significant autonomy.", "Formerly appointed by the Federal District's head of government, local authorities were first elected directly by plurality in 2000.From 2016, each borough is headed by a mayor, expanding their local government powers.The boroughs of Mexico City with their 2020 populations are:1.Álvaro Obregón (pop.", "759,137)2.Azcapotzalco (pop.", "432,205)3.Benito Juárez (pop.", "434,153)4.Coyoacán (pop.", "614,447)5.Cuajimalpa (pop.", "217,686)6.Cuauhtémoc (pop.", "545,884)7.Gustavo A. Madero (pop.", "1,173,351)8.Iztacalco (pop.", "404,695)9.Iztapalapa (pop.", "1,835,486)10.La Magdalena Contreras (pop.", "247,622)11.Miguel Hidalgo (pop.", "414,470)12.Milpa Alta (pop.", "152,685)13.Tláhuac (pop.", "392,313)14.Tlalpan (pop.", "699,928)15.Venustiano Carranza (pop.", "443,704)16.Xochimilco (pop.", "442,178)The Human Development Index report of 2005 shows that there were three boroughs with a very high Human Development Index, 12 with a high HDI value (9 above .85), and one with a medium HDI value (almost high).", "Benito Juárez borough had the highest HDI of the country (0.9510) followed by Miguel Hidalgo, which came up fourth nationally with an HDI of (0.9189), and Coyoacán was fifth nationally, with an HDI of (0.9169).", "Cuajimalpa (15th), Cuauhtémoc (23rd), and Azcapotzalco (25th) also had very high values of 0.8994, 0.8922, and 0.8915, respectively.In contrast, the boroughs of Xochimilco (172nd), Tláhuac (177th), and Iztapalapa (183rd) presented the lowest HDI values of Mexico City, with values of 0.8481, 0.8473, and 0.8464, respectively, which are still in the global high-HDI range.", "The only borough that did not have a high HDI was that of rural Milpa Alta, which had a \"medium\" HDI of 0.7984, far below those of all the other boroughs (627th nationally, the rest being in the top 200).", "Mexico City's HDI for the 2005 report was 0.9012 (very high), and its 2010 value of 0.9225 (very high), or (by newer methodology) 0.8307, was Mexico's highest.=== Law enforcement ===Federal Police headquarters in Mexico CityThe Secretariat of Public Security of Mexico City (Secretaría de Seguridad Pública de la Ciudad de México – SSP) manages a combined force of over 90,000 officers in Mexico City.", "The SSP is charged with maintaining public order and safety in the heart of Mexico City.", "The historic district is also roamed by tourist police, aiming to orient and serve tourists.", "These horse-mounted agents dress in traditional uniforms.", "The investigative Judicial Police of Mexico City (Policía Judicial de la Ciudad de México – PJCDMX) is organized under the Office of the Attorney General of Mexico City (the Procuraduría General de Justicia de la Ciudad de México).", "The PGJCDMX maintains 16 precincts (delegaciones) with an estimated 3,500 judicial police, 1,100 investigating agents for prosecuting attorneys (agentes del ministerio público), and nearly 1,000 criminology experts or specialists (peritos).Between 2000 and 2004 an average of 478 crimes were reported each day in Mexico City; however, the actual crime rate is thought to be much higher \"since most people are reluctant to report crime\".", "Under policies enacted by Mayor Marcelo Ebrard between 2009 and 2011, Mexico City underwent a major security upgrade with violent and petty crime rates both falling significantly despite the rise in violent crime in other parts of the country.", "Some of the policies enacted included the installation of 11,000 security cameras around the city and a very large expansion of the police force.", "Mexico City has one of the world's highest police officer-to-resident ratios, with one uniformed officer per 100 citizens.", "Since 1997 the prison population has increased by more than 500%.", "Political scientist Markus-Michael Müller argues that mostly informal street vendors are hit by these measures.", "He sees punishment \"related to the growing politicization of security and crime issues and the resulting criminalization of the people living at the margins of urban society, in particular those who work in the city's informal economy\".In 2016, the incidence of femicides was 3.2 per 100 000 inhabitants, the national average being 4.2.A 2015 city government report found that two of three women over the age of 15 in the capital suffered some form of violence.", "In addition to street harassment, one of the places where women in Mexico City are subjected to violence is on and around public transport.", "Annually the Metro of Mexico City receives 300 complaints of sexual harassment.", "While the violence against women in Mexico City is rising, there is still a large number of incidents of kidnappings and killings that go undetected and unreported due to the corruption in the police department.===International relations===Mexico City is twinned with:* Cusco, Peru, 1987* Berlin, Germany, 1993* Havana, Cuba, 1997* Quito, Ecuador, 1999* Tegucigalpa, Honduras, 1999* San Antonio de los Baños, Cuba, 1999* Cerro (Havana), Cuba, 1999* San José, Costa Rica, 2000* Buenos Aires, Argentina, 2006* Nagoya, Japan, 2007* Los Angeles, United States, 2007* Cádiz, Spain, 2009* Beijing, China, 2009* Istanbul, Turkey, 2010* Kuwait City, Kuwait, 2011* Chicago, United States" ], [ "Economy", "The Paseo de la Reforma is a wide avenue designed by Ferdinand von Rosenzweig in the 1860s and was modeled after the Champs-Élysées in Paris.Mexico City is one of the most important economic hubs in Latin America.", "The city proper produces 15.8% of the country's gross domestic product.", "In 2002, Mexico City had a Human Development Index score of 0.915, identical to that of South Korea.", "In 2007, residents in the top twelve percent of GDP per capita holders in the city had a mean disposable income of .", "The high spending power of Mexico City inhabitants makes the city attractive for companies offering prestige and luxury goods.", "According to a 2009 study conducted by PwC, Mexico City had a GDP of $390 billion, ranking it as the eighth richest city in the world and the richest in Latin America.", "In 2009, Mexico City alone would rank as the 30th largest economy in the world.Mexico City is the greatest contributor to the country's industrial GDP (15.8%) and also the greatest contributor to the country's GDP in the service sector (25.3%).", "Due to the limited non-urbanized space at the south—most of which is protected through environmental laws—the contribution of Mexico City in agriculture is the smallest of all federal entities in the country.", "The economic reforms of President Carlos Salinas de Gortari had a tremendous effect on the city, as a number of businesses, including banks and airlines, were privatized.", "He also signed the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA).", "This led to decentralization and a shift in Mexico City's economic base, from manufacturing to services, as most factories moved away to either the State of Mexico, or more commonly to the northern border.", "By contrast, corporate office buildings set their base in the city.Mexican Stock ExchangeMexico City offers an immense and varied consumer retail market, ranging from basic foods to ultra high-end luxury goods.", "Consumers may buy in fixed indoor markets, in mobile markets (''tianguis''), from street vendors, from downtown shops in a street dedicated to a certain type of good, in convenience stores and traditional neighborhood stores, in modern supermarkets, in warehouse and membership stores and the shopping centers that they anchor, in department stores, in big-box stores, and in modern shopping malls.", "In addition, \"tianguis\" or mobile markets set up shop on streets in many neighborhoods, depending on day of week.", "Sundays see the largest number of these markets.The city's main source of fresh produce is the Central de Abasto.", "This in itself is a self-contained mini-city in Iztapalapa borough covering an area equivalent to several dozen city blocks.", "The wholesale market supplies most of the city's \"mercados\", supermarkets and restaurants, as well as people who come to buy the produce for themselves.", "Tons of fresh produce are trucked in from all over Mexico every day.", "The principal fish market is known as La Nueva Viga, in the same complex as the Central de Abastos.", "The world-renowned market of Tepito occupies 25 blocks, and sells a variety of products.", "A staple for consumers in the city is the omnipresent \"mercado\".", "Every major neighborhood in the city has its own borough-regulated market, often more than one.", "These are large well-established facilities offering most basic products, such as fresh produce and meat/poultry, dry goods, tortillerías, and many other services such as locksmiths, herbal medicine, hardware goods, sewing implements; and a multitude of stands offering freshly made, home-style cooking and drinks in the tradition of aguas frescas and atole.Street vendors ply their trade from stalls in the ''tianguis'' as well as at non-officially controlled concentrations around metro stations and hospitals; at ''plazas comerciales'', where vendors of a certain \"theme\" (e.g.", "stationery) are housed; originally these were organized to accommodate vendors formerly selling on the street; or simply from improvised stalls on a city sidewalk.", "In addition, food and goods are sold from people walking with baskets, pushing carts, from bicycles or the backs of trucks, or simply from a tarp or cloth laid on the ground.", "In the center of the city informal street vendors are increasingly targeted by laws and prosecution.", "The weekly San Felipe de Jesús Tianguis is reported to be the largest in Latin America.The Historic Center of Mexico City is widely known for specialized, often low-cost retailers.", "Certain blocks or streets are dedicated to shops selling a certain type of merchandise, with areas dedicated to over 40 categories such as home appliances, lamps and electricals, closets and bathrooms, housewares, wedding dresses, jukeboxes, printing, office furniture and safes, books, photography, jewelry, and opticians.===Tourism===The Turibus runs through many of the most important tourist attractions in the city.Mexico City is a destination for many foreign tourists.", "The Historic center of Mexico City (''Centro Histórico'') and the \"floating gardens\" of Xochimilco in the southern borough have been declared World Heritage Sites by UNESCO.", "Landmarks in the Historic Center include the Plaza de la Constitución (Zócalo), the main central square with its epoch-contrasting Spanish-era Metropolitan Cathedral and National Palace, ancient Aztec temple ruins Templo Mayor (\"Major Temple\") and modern structures, all within a few steps of one another.", "(The Templo Mayor was discovered in 1978 while workers were digging to place underground electric cables).The most recognizable icon of Mexico City is the golden Angel of Independence on the wide, elegant avenue Paseo de la Reforma, modeled by the order of the Emperor Maximilian of Mexico after the Champs-Élysées in Paris.", "This avenue was designed over the Americas' oldest known major roadway in the 19th century to connect the National Palace (seat of government) with the Castle of Chapultepec, the imperial residence.", "Today, this avenue is an important financial district in which the Mexican Stock Exchange and several corporate headquarters are located.", "Another important avenue is the Avenida de los Insurgentes, which extends and is one of the longest single avenues in the world.Chapultepec Park houses the Chapultepec Castle, now a museum on a hill that overlooks the park and its numerous museums, monuments and the national zoo and the National Museum of Anthropology (which houses the Aztec Calendar Stone).", "The Aztec sun stone in the National Museum of AnthropologyAnother piece of architecture is the Palacio de Bellas Artes, a white marble theater/museum whose weight is such that it has gradually been sinking into the soft ground below.", "Its construction began during the presidency of Porfirio Díaz and ended in 1934, after being interrupted by the Mexican Revolution in the 1920s.The Plaza de las Tres Culturas, in this square are located the College of Santa Cruz de Tlatelolco, that is the first and oldest European school of higher learning in the Americas, and the archeological site of the city-state of Tlatelolco, and the shrine and Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe are also important sites.", "There is a double-decker bus, known as the \"Turibus\", that circles most of these sites, and has timed audio describing the sites in multiple languages as they are passed.In addition, according to the Secretariat of Tourism, the city has about 170 museums—is among the top ten of cities in the world with highest number of museums—over 100 art galleries, and some 30 concert halls, all of which maintain a constant cultural activity during the whole year.", "Many areas (e.g.", "Palacio Nacional and the National Institute of Cardiology) have murals painted by Diego Rivera.", "He and his wife Frida Kahlo lived in Coyoacán, where several of their homes, studios, and art collections are open to the public.", "The house where Leon Trotsky was initially granted asylum and finally murdered in 1940 is also in Coyoacán.", "In addition, there are several ''haciendas'' that are now restaurants, such as the San Ángel Inn, the Hacienda de Tlalpan, Hacienda de Cortés and the Hacienda de los Morales." ], [ "Transportation", "=== Airports ===Mexico City International AirportMexico City International Airport is Mexico City's primary airport (IATA Airport Code: MEX), and serves as the hub of Aeroméxico (Skyteam).", "Felipe Ángeles International Airport (IATA Airport Code: NLU) is Mexico City's secondary airport, and was opened in 2022, rebuilt from the former Santa Lucía Air Force Base.", "It is located in Zumpango, State of Mexico, north-northeast of the historic center of Mexico City by car.=== Sistema de Movilidad Integrada ===In 2019, the graphic designer Lance Wyman was engaged to create an integrated map of the multimodal public transportation system; he presented a new logo for the Sistema de Movilidad Integrada, describing eight distinct modes of transportation.", "The head of the government, Claudia Sheinbaum, said the branding would be used for a new single payment card to streamline public transportation fare collection.=== Metro ===Mexico City MetroMexico City is served by the Mexico City Metro, a metro system, which is the largest in Latin America.", "The first portions were opened in 1969 and it has expanded to 12 lines with 195 stations, transporting 4.4 million people every day.=== Tren Suburbano ===A suburban rail system, the Tren Suburbano serves the metropolitan area, beyond the reach of the metro, with one line serving to municipalities such as Tlalnepantla and Cuautitlán Izcalli, but with future lines planned to serve e.g.", "Chalco and La Paz.Electric transport other than the metro also exists, in the form of several Mexico City trolleybus routes and the Xochimilco Light Rail line, both of which are operated by Servicio de Transportes Eléctricos.", "The central area's last streetcar line (tramway, or ''tranvía'') closed in 1979.=== Bus ===Metrobús rapid transit bus stop station at MinaMexico City has an extensive bus network, consisting of public buses, bus rapid transit, and trolleybuses.=== Roads ===Mexico City has a large road network, and relatively high private car usage, estimated at more than 4.5 million in 2016.There is an environmental program, called Hoy No Circula (\"Today Does Not Run\", or \"One Day without a Car\"), whereby vehicles that have not passed emissions testing are restricted from circulating on certain days according to the ending digit of their license plates, in an attempt to cut down on pollution and traffic congestion.=== Cycling ===Zona RosaThe Mexico City local government operates North America's second-largest bicycle sharing system, Ecobici.", "There are, as of September 2013, 276 stations with 4,000 bicycles across an area stretching from the Historic center to Polanco." ], [ "Culture", "=== Art ===Monument \"To the Meritorious Benito Juárez\", Mexico CityHaving been capital of a vast pre-Hispanic empire, and also the capital of the richest viceroyalty within the Spanish Empire (ruling over a vast territory in the Americas and Spanish West Indies), and, finally, the capital of the United Mexican States, Mexico City has a rich history of artistic expression.", "Since the mesoamerican pre-Classical period the inhabitants of the settlements around Lake Texcoco produced many works of art and complex craftsmanship, some of which are today displayed at the world-renowned National Museum of Anthropology and the ''Templo Mayor'' museum.", "While many pieces of pottery and stone-engraving have survived, the great majority of the Amerindian iconography was destroyed during the conquest of the Aztec Empire.Much of the early colonial art stemmed from the Aztec codices, aiming to recover and preserve some Aztec and other Amerindian iconography and history.", "From then, artistic expressions in Mexico were mostly religious in theme.", "The Metropolitan Cathedral still displays works by Juan de Rojas, Juan Correa and an oil painting whose authorship has been attributed to Murillo.", "Secular works of art of this period include the equestrian sculpture of Charles IV of Spain, locally known as ''El Caballito'' (\"The little horse\").", "This piece, in bronze, was the work of Manuel Tolsá and it has been placed at the Plaza Tolsá, in front of the Palacio de Mineria (Mining Palace).", "Directly in front of this building is the Museo Nacional de Arte (Munal) (the National Museum of Art).Receptions Hall at the Museo Nacional de ArteDuring the 19th century, an important producer of art was the Academia de San Carlos (San Carlos Art Academy), founded during colonial times, and which later became the Escuela Nacional de Artes Plásticas (the National School of Arts) including painting, sculpture and graphic design, one of UNAM's art schools.", "Many of the works produced by the students and faculty of that time are now displayed in the Museo Nacional de San Carlos (National Museum of San Carlos).", "One of the students, José María Velasco, is considered one of the greatest Mexican landscape painters of the 19th century.", "Porfirio Díaz's regime sponsored arts, especially those that followed the French school.", "Popular arts in the form of cartoons and illustrations flourished, e.g.", "those of José Guadalupe Posada and Manuel Manilla.", "The permanent collection of the San Carlos Museum also includes paintings by European masters such as Rembrandt, Velázquez, Murillo, and Rubens.After the Mexican Revolution, an avant-garde artistic movement originated in Mexico City: muralism.", "Many of the works of muralists José Clemente Orozco, David Alfaro Siqueiros and Diego Rivera are displayed in numerous buildings in the city, most notably at the National Palace and the Palacio de Bellas Artes.", "Frida Kahlo, wife of Rivera, with a strong nationalist expression, was also one of the most renowned of Mexican painters.", "Her house has become a museum that displays many of her works.The former home of Rivera muse Dolores Olmedo houses the namesake museum.", "The facility is in Xochimilco borough in southern Mexico City and includes several buildings surrounded by sprawling manicured lawns.", "It houses a large collection of Rivera and Kahlo paintings and drawings, as well as living ''Xoloizcuintles'' (Mexican Hairless Dog).", "It also regularly hosts small but important temporary exhibits of classical and modern art (e.g.", "Venetian Masters and Contemporary New York artists).During the 20th century, many artists immigrated to Mexico City from different regions of Mexico, such as Leopoldo Méndez, an engraver from Veracruz, who supported the creation of the socialist Taller de la Gráfica Popular (Popular Graphics Workshop), designed to help blue-collar workers find a venue to express their art.", "Other painters came from abroad, such as Catalan painter Remedios Varo and other Spanish and Jewish exiles.", "It was in the second half of the 20th century that the artistic movement began to drift apart from the Revolutionary theme.", "José Luis Cuevas opted for a modernist style in contrast to the muralist movement associated with social politics.=== Museums ===Reconstruction of the entrance to the Hochob temple in the National Museum of AnthropologyMuseo SoumayaMexico City has numerous museums dedicated to art, including Mexican colonial, modern and contemporary art, and international art.", "The Museo Tamayo was opened in the mid-1980s to house the collection of international contemporary art donated by Mexican painter Rufino Tamayo.", "The collection includes pieces by Picasso, Klee, Kandinsky, Warhol and many others, though most of the collection is stored while visiting exhibits are shown.", "The Museo de Arte Moderno is a repository of Mexican artists from the 20th century, including Rivera, Orozco, Siqueiros, Kahlo, Gerzso, Carrington, Tamayo, and also regularly hosts temporary exhibits of international modern art.", "In southern Mexico City, the Carrillo Gil Museum showcases avant-garde artists, as does the Museo Universitario Arte Contemporáneo, designed by Mexican architect Teodoro González de León, inaugurated in late 2008.The Museo Soumaya, named after the wife of Mexican magnate Carlos Slim, has the largest private collection of original Rodin sculptures outside of France.", "It also has a large collection of Dalí sculptures, and recently began showing pieces in its masters collection including El Greco, Velázquez, Picasso and Canaletto.", "The museum inaugurated a new futuristic-design facility in 2011 just north of Polanco, while maintaining a smaller facility in Plaza Loreto in southern Mexico City.", "The Colección Júmex is a contemporary art museum located on the sprawling grounds of the Jumex juice company in the northern industrial suburb of Ecatepec.", "It has the largest private contemporary art collection in Latin America and hosts pieces from its permanent collection as well as traveling exhibits.", "The Museo de San Ildefonso, housed in the Antiguo Colegio de San Ildefonso in Mexico City's historic downtown district is a 17th-century colonnaded palace housing an art museum that regularly hosts world-class exhibits of Mexican and international art.", "The Museo Nacional de Arte is also located in a former palace in the historic center.", "It houses a large collection of pieces by all major Mexican artists of the last 400 years and also hosts visiting exhibits.Jack Kerouac, the noted American author, spent extended periods of time in the city, and wrote his 1959 masterpiece volume of poetry ''Mexico City Blues'' here.", "Another American author, William S. Burroughs, also lived in Colonia Roma where he accidentally shot his wife.", "Most of Mexico City's museums can be visited from Tuesday to Sunday from 10am to 5pm, although some of them have extended schedules, such as the Museum of Anthropology and History, which is open to 7pm.", "In addition to this, entrance to most museums are free on Sunday.", "In some cases a modest fee may be charged.The Memory and Tolerance Museum, inaugurated in 2011, showcases historical events of discrimination and genocide.", "Permanent exhibits include those on the Holocaust and other large-scale atrocities.", "It also houses temporary exhibits; one on Tibet was inaugurated by the Dalai Lama in September 2011.=== Music, theater and entertainment ===City Theatre built in 1918Mexico City is home to a number of orchestras offering season programs.", "These include the Mexico City Philharmonic, which performs at the Sala Ollin Yoliztli; the National Symphony Orchestra, whose home base is the Palacio de Bellas Artes (Palace of the Fine Arts), a masterpiece of art nouveau and art decó styles; the Philharmonic Orchestra of the National Autonomous University of Mexico (OFUNAM), and the Minería Symphony Orchestra, both of which perform at the Sala Nezahualcóyotl, which was the first wrap-around concert hall in the western hemisphere when inaugurated in 1976.There are also many smaller ensembles that enrich the city's musical scene, including the Carlos Chávez Youth Symphony, the Cuarteto Latinoamericano, the New World Orchestra (Orquesta del Nuevo Mundo), the National Polytechnical Symphony and the Bellas Artes Chamber Orchestra (Orquesta de Cámara de Bellas Artes).The city is also a leading center of popular culture and music.", "There are a multitude of venues hosting Spanish and foreign-language performers.", "These include the 10,000-seat National Auditorium that regularly schedules the Spanish and English-language pop and rock artists, as well as many of the world's leading performing arts ensembles, the auditorium also broadcasts grand opera performances from New York's Metropolitan Opera on giant, high definition screens.", "In 2007 National Auditorium was selected world's best venue by multiple genre media.", "Other sites for pop-artist performances include the 3,000-seat Teatro Metropolitan, the 15,000-seat Palacio de los Deportes, and the larger 50,000-seat Foro Sol Stadium, where popular international artists perform on a regular basis.", "The Cirque du Soleil has held several seasons at the Carpa Santa Fe, in the Santa Fe district in the western part of the city.", "There are numerous venues for smaller musical ensembles and solo performers.", "These include the Hard Rock Live, Bataclán, Foro Scotiabank, Lunario, Circo Volador and Voilá Acoustique.", "Recent additions include the 20,000-seat Arena Ciudad de México, the 3,000-seat Pepsi Center World Trade Center, and the 2,500-seat Auditorio Blackberry.The Centro Nacional de las Artes (National Center for the Arts) has several venues for music, theater, dance.", "UNAM's main campus, also in the southern part of the city, is home to the Centro Cultural Universitario (the University Culture Center) (CCU).", "The CCU also houses the National Library, the interactive Universum, Museo de las Ciencias, the Sala Nezahualcóyotl concert hall, several theaters and cinemas, and the new University Museum of Contemporary Art (MUAC).", "A branch of the National University's CCU cultural center was inaugurated in 2007 in the facilities of the former Ministry of Foreign Affairs, known as Tlatelolco, in north-central Mexico City.Biblioteca VasconcelosThe José Vasconcelos Library, a national library, is located on the grounds of the former Buenavista railroad station in the northern part of the city.", "The Papalote Museo del Niño (Kite Children's Museum), which houses the world's largest dome screen, is located in the wooded park of Chapultepec, near the Museo Tecnológico, and La Feria, a former amusement park.", "The theme park Six Flags México (the largest amusement park in Latin America) is located in the Ajusco neighborhood, in Tlalpan borough, southern Mexico City.", "During the winter, the main square of the Zócalo is transformed into a gigantic ice skating rink, which is said to be the largest in the world behind that of Moscow's Red Square.The (Mexican Film Library), near the Coyoacán suburb, shows a variety of films, and stages many film festivals, including the annual International Showcase, and many smaller ones ranging from Scandinavian and Uruguayan cinema, to Jewish and LGBT-themed films.", "Cinépolis and Cinemex, the two biggest film business chains, also have several film festivals throughout the year, with both national and international movies.", "Mexico City has a number of IMAX theaters, providing residents and visitors access to films ranging from documentaries to blockbusters on these large screens.=== Cuisine ===Street tacos in Mexico CityOnce considered plebeian fare, by the 19th century tacos had become a standard of Mexico City's cuisine.", "Furthermore, as authorities struggled to tax local taquerias, imposing licensing requirements and penalties, they recorded some details of the types of foods being served by these establishments.", "The most frequent reference was for ''tacos de barbacoa''.", "Also mentioned are enchiladas, ''tacos de minero'' and ''gorditas'', along with oyster shops and fried fish stands.", "There is evidence of some regional specialties being made available for recent migrants; at least two shops were known to serve ''pozole'', a type of stew similar to hominy that is a staple of Guadalajara, Jalisco.", "Mexico City is known for having some of the freshest fish and seafood in Mexico's interior.", "La Nueva Viga Market is the second largest seafood market in the world after the Tsukiji fish market in Japan.Mexico City offers a variety of cuisines: restaurants specializing in the regional cuisines of Mexico's 31 states are available in the city, and the city also has several branches of internationally recognized restaurants.", "These include Paris' Au Pied de Cochon and Brasserie Lipp, Philippe (by Philippe Chow); Nobu, Quintonil, Morimoto; Pámpano, owned by Mexican-raised opera singer Plácido Domingo.", "There are branches of Japanese restaurant Suntory, Italian restaurant Alfredo, as well as New York steakhouses Morton's and The Palm, and Monte Carlo's BeefBar.", "Three of Lima's Haute restaurants, serving Peruvian cuisine, have locations in Mexico City: La Mar, Segundo Muelle and Astrid y Gastón.For the 2019 list of World's 50 Best Restaurants as named by the British magazine ''Restaurant'', Mexico City ranked 12th best with the Mexican avant-garde restaurant Pujol (owned by Mexican chef Enrique Olvera).", "Also notable is the Basque-Mexican fusion restaurant Biko (run and co-owned by Bruno Oteiza and Mikel Alonso), which placed outside the list at 59th, but in previous years has ranked within the top 50.Other that has been placed on the list in 2019 is the restaurant Sud 777 at 58th place.", "At the other end of the scale are working class pulque bars known as ''pulquerías'', a challenge for tourists to locate and experience.=== Media ===Televisa headquarters in Mexico CityMexico City is Mexico's most important hub for the printed media and book publishing industries.", "Dozens of daily newspapers are published, including ''El Universal'', ''Excélsior'', ''Reforma'' and ''La Jornada''.", "Other major papers include ''Milenio'', ''Crónica'', ''El Economista'' and .", "Leading magazines include , ''Proceso'', ''Poder'', as well as dozens of entertainment publications such as ''Vanidades'', ''Quién'', ''Chilango'', ''TV Notas'', and local editions of ''Vogue'', ''GQ'', and ''Architectural Digest''.It is also a leading center of the advertising industry.", "Most international ad firms have offices in the city, including Grey, JWT, Leo Burnett, Euro RSCG, BBDO, Ogilvy, Saatchi & Saatchi, and McCann Erickson.", "Many local firms also compete in the sector, including Alazraki, Olabuenaga/Chemistri, Terán, Augusto Elías, and Clemente Cámara, among others.", "There are 60 radio stations operating in the city and many local community radio transmission networks.The two largest media companies in the Spanish-speaking world, Televisa and TV Azteca, are headquartered in Mexico City.", "Televisa, it often presents itself as the largest producer of Spanish-language content.", "Other local television channels include:XHDF 1 (Azteca Uno),XEW 2 (Televisa W),XHCTMX 3,XHTV 4,XHGC 5,XHTDMX 6,XHIMT 7,XEQ 9,XEIPN 11,XHUNAM 20,XHCDM 21,XEIMT 22,XHTRES 28,XHTVM 40 andXHHCU 45.=== Sports ===Mexico City ArenaAssociation football is the country's most popular and most televised franchised sport.", "Its important venues in Mexico City include the Azteca Stadium, home to the Mexico national football team and giants América and Cruz Azul, which can seat 91,653 fans, making it the biggest stadium in Latin America.", "The Olympic Stadium in Ciudad Universitaria is home to the football club giants Universidad Nacional, with a seating capacity of over 52,000.The Sports City Stadium, which seats 33,042 fans, is near the World Trade Center Mexico City in the Nochebuena neighborhood, and is home to the historical Atlante.", "América, Cruz Azul and Universidad Nacional are based in Mexico City and play in the First Division; they are also part, with Guadalajara-based giants Club Deportivo Guadalajara, of Mexico's traditional \"Big Four\".", "The city's three derbies are the \"Clásico Joven\", played between América and Cruz Azul, the capital's two most popular and winningest teams; the \"Clásico Capitalino\", between América and Universidad Nacional, and the \"Clásico Metropolitano\", between Cruz Azul and Universidad Nacional.The country hosted the FIFA World Cup in 1970 and 1986, and Azteca Stadium is the first stadium in World Cup history to host the final twice.", "The city will be one of the host cities for the 2026 FIFA World Cup.", "Mexico City is the first Latin American city to host the Olympic Games, having held the Summer Olympics in 1968, winning bids against Buenos Aires, Lyon and Detroit.", "The city hosted the 1955 and 1975 Pan American Games, the latter after Santiago and São Paulo withdrew.", "The ICF Flatwater Racing World Championships were hosted here in 1974 and 1994.Lucha libre is a Mexican style of wrestling, and is one of the more popular sports throughout the country.", "The main venues in the city are Arena México and Arena Coliseo.Autódromo Hermanos RodríguezThe Autódromo Hermanos Rodríguez is the main venue for motorsport, and hosts the Formula 1 Mexican Grand Prix since its return to the sport in 2015, the event being held in the past from 1962 to 1970, and again from 1986 to 1992.From 1980 to 1981 and again from 2002 to 2007, the circuit hosted the Champ Car World Series Gran Premio de México.", "Beginning in 2005, the NASCAR Nationwide Series ran the Telcel-Motorola México 200.2005 also marked the first running of the Mexico City 250 by the Grand-Am Rolex Sports Car Series.", "Both races were removed from their series' schedules for 2009.Baseball is another sport played professionally in the city.", "Mexico City is home of the Mexico City Red Devils of the Mexican League, which is considered a Triple-A league by Major League Baseball.", "The Devils play their home games at Estadio Alfredo Harp Helú designed by international Mexican-American architect FGP Atelier Founder Francisco Gonzalez Pulido in collaboration with local architect Taller ADG.", "Mexico City has some 10 Little Leagues for young baseball players.", "In 2005, Mexico City became the first city to host an NFL regular season game outside of the United States, at the Azteca Stadium.", "The crowd of 103,467 people attending this game was the largest ever for a regular season game in NFL history until 2009.The city has also hosted several NBA pre-season games and has hosted international basketball's FIBA Americas Championship, along with north-of-the-border Major League Baseball exhibition games at Foro Sol.", "In 2017, NBA commissioner Adam Silver expressed interest in placing an NBA G League expansion team in Mexico City as early as 2018.This came to fruition on 12 December 2019 when commissioner Silver announced at a press conference in Mexico City Arena that LNBP team, Capitanes de Ciudad de México will be joining the G League in the 2020–21 season on a five-year agreement.Other sports facilities in Mexico City are the Palacio de los Deportes indoor arena, Francisco Márquez Olympic Swimming Pool, the Hipódromo de Las Américas, the Agustin Melgar Olympic Velodrome, and venues for equestrianism and horse racing, ice hockey, rugby, American-style football, baseball, and basketball.", "Bullfighting takes place every Sunday during bullfighting season at the 50,000-seat Plaza México, the world's largest bullring.", "Mexico City's golf courses have hosted Women's LPGA action, and two Men's Golf World Cups.", "Courses throughout the city are available as private as well as public venues." ], [ "See also", "*List of pre-columbian archaeological sites in Mexico City*List of colonial churches in Mexico City*List of colonial non-religious buildings in Mexico City* Cuisine of Mexico City* Six Flags México* Gentrification of Mexico City* Greater Mexico City* Historic center of Mexico City* Barrios Mágicos of Mexico City* Large Cities Climate Leadership Group* Largest cities in the Americas* Metropolitan areas of Mexico* Outline of Mexico" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * Mexico City Government" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Merlot" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Merlot''' ( ) is a dark blue–colored wine grape variety that is used as both a blending grape and for varietal wines.", "The name ''Merlot'' is thought to be a diminutive of ''merle'', the French name for the blackbird, probably a reference to the color of the grape.", "Its softness and \"fleshiness,\" combined with its earlier ripening, make Merlot a popular grape for blending with the sterner, later-ripening Cabernet Sauvignon, which tends to be higher in tannin.Along with Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc, Malbec and Petit Verdot, Merlot is one of the primary grapes used in Bordeaux wine, and it is the most widely planted grape in the Bordeaux wine regions.", "Merlot is also one of the most popular red wine varietals in many markets.", "This flexibility has helped to make it one of the world's most planted grape varieties.", "As of 2004, Merlot was estimated to be the third most grown variety at globally.The area planted to Merlot has continued to increase, with in 2015.While Merlot is made across the globe, there tend to be two main styles.", "The \"International style\" favored by many New World wine regions tends to emphasize late harvesting to gain physiological ripeness and produce inky, purple colored wines that are full in body with high alcohol and lush, velvety tannins with intense, plum and blackberry fruit.", "While this international style is practiced by many Bordeaux wine producers, the traditional \"Bordeaux style\" of Merlot involves harvesting Merlot earlier.", "This maintains the acidity and produces more medium-bodied wines with moderate alcohol levels that have fresh, red fruit flavors (raspberries, strawberries) and potentially leafy, vegetal notes." ], [ "History and name", "A main cluster and an attached \"wing cluster\" of Merlot grapes with its characteristic dark-blue colorThe earliest recorded mention of Merlot (under the synonym of ''Merlau'') was in the notes of a local Bordeaux official who in 1784 labeled wine made from the grape in the Libournais region as one of the area's best.", "In 1824, the word ''Merlot'' itself appeared in an article on Médoc wine which mentioned that the grape was named after the local black bird (called ''merlau'' in the local variant of Occitan language, ''merle'' in standard French) who liked eating the ripe grapes on the vine.", "Other descriptions of the grape from the 19th century called the variety ''lou seme doù flube'' (meaning \"the seedling from the river\") with the grape thought to have originated on one of the islands found along the Garonne river.By the 19th century it was being regularly planted in the Médoc on the \"Left Bank\" of the Gironde.", "After a series of setbacks that includes a severe frost in 1956 and several vintages in the 1960s lost to rot, French authorities in Bordeaux banned new plantings of Merlot vines between 1970 and 1975.It was first recorded in Italy around Venice under the synonym ''Bordò'' in 1855.The grape was introduced to the Swiss, from Bordeaux, sometime in the 19th century and was recorded in the Swiss canton of Ticino between 1905 and 1910.In the 1990s, Merlot saw an upswing of popularity in the United States.", "Red wine consumption, in general, increased in the US following the airing of the ''60 Minutes'' report on the French Paradox and the potential health benefits of wine and, possibly, the chemical resveratrol.", "The popularity of Merlot stemmed in part from the relative ease in pronouncing the name of the wine as well as its softer, fruity profile that made it more approachable to some wine drinkers.===Parentage and relationship to other grapes===Cabernet Franc, one of the parent varieties of Merlot.In the late 1990s, researchers at University of California, Davis, showed that Merlot is an offspring of Cabernet Franc and is a half-sibling of Carménère, Malbec and Cabernet Sauvignon.", "The identity of the second parent of Merlot wouldn't be discovered till the late 2000s when an obscure and unnamed variety, first sampled in 1996 from vines growing in an abandoned vineyard in Saint-Suliac in Brittany, was shown by DNA analysis to be the mother of Merlot.This grape, later discovered in front of houses as a decorative vine in the villages of Figers, Mainxe, Saint-Savinien and Tanzac in the Poitou-Charentes, was colloquially known as ''Madeleina'' or ''Raisin de La Madeleine'' due to its propensity to be fully ripe and ready for harvest around the July 22nd feast day of Mary Magdalene.", "As the connection to Merlot became known, the grape was formally registered under the name Magdeleine Noire des Charentes.", "Through its relationship with Magdeleine Noire des Charentes, Merlot is related to the Southwest France wine grape Abouriou, though the exact nature of that relationship (with Abouriou potentially being either a parent of Magdeleine Noire or an offspring) is not yet known.Grape breeders have used Merlot crossed with other grapes to create several new varieties including Carmine (an Olmo grape made by crossing a Carignan x Cabernet Sauvignon cross with Merlot), Ederena (with Abouriou), Evmolpia (with Mavrud), Fertilia (with Raboso Veronese), Mamaia (a Romanian wine grape made by crossing a Muscat Ottonel x Babeasca negra cross with Merlot), Nigra (with Barbera), Prodest (with Barbera) and Rebo (with Teroldego).Over the years, Merlot has spawned a color mutation that is used commercially, a pink-skinned variety known as ''Merlot gris''.", "However, unlike the relationship between Grenache noir and Grenache blanc or Pinot noir and Pinot blanc, the variety known as Merlot blanc is not a color mutation but rather an offspring variety of Merlot crossing with Folle blanche." ], [ "Viticulture", "Merlot leaf from Hedges vineyard in the Red Mountain AVAMerlot grapes are identified by their loose bunches of large berries.", "The color has less of a blue/black hue than Cabernet Sauvignon grapes and with a thinner skin and fewer tannins per unit volume.", "It normally ripens up to two weeks earlier than Cabernet Sauvignon.", "Also compared to Cabernet, Merlot grapes tend to have a higher sugar content and lower malic acid.", "Ampelographer J.M.", "Boursiquot has noted that Merlot has seemed to inherit some of the best characteristics from its parent varieties—its fertility and easy ripening ability from Magdeleine Noire des Charentes and its color, tannin and flavor phenolic potential from Cabernet Franc.Merlot thrives in cold soil, particularly ferrous clay.", "The vine tends to bud early which gives it some risk to cold frost and its thinner skin increases its susceptibility to the viticultural hazard of Botrytis bunch rot.", "If bad weather occurs during flowering, the Merlot vine is prone to develop coulure.", "The vine can also be susceptible to downy mildew (though it has better resistance to powdery mildew than other Bordeaux varieties) and to infection by leafhopper insect varieties.Water stress is important to the vine with it thriving in well-drained soil more so than at base of a slope.", "Pruning is a major component to the quality of the wine that is produced with some producing believing it is best to prune the vine \"short\" (cutting back to only a few buds).", "Wine consultant Michel Rolland is a major proponent of reducing the yields of Merlot grapes to improve quality.", "The age of the vine is also important, with older vines contributing character to the resulting wine.Merlot grape cluster ripening in Istria County, CroatiaA characteristic of the Merlot grape is the propensity to quickly overripen once it hits its initial ripeness level, sometimes in a matter of a few days.", "There are two schools of thought on the right time to harvest Merlot.", "The wine makers of Château Pétrus favor early picking to best maintain the wine's acidity and finesse as well as its potential for aging.", "Others, such as Rolland, favor late picking and the added fruit body that comes with a little bit of over-ripeness." ], [ "Wine regions", "Merlot is one of the world's most widely planted grape variety with plantings of the vine outpacing even the more well-known Cabernet Sauvignon in many regions, including the grape's homeland of France.", "Here, France is home to nearly two thirds of the world's total plantings of Merlot.", "Beyond France it is also grown in Italy (where it is the country's 5th most planted grape), Algeria, California, Romania, Australia, Argentina, Bulgaria, Canada, Chile, Greece, New Zealand, South Africa, Switzerland, Croatia, Hungary, Montenegro, Slovenia, Mexico and other parts of the United States such as Washington, Virginia and Long Island.", "It grows in many regions that also grow Cabernet Sauvignon but tends to be cultivated in the cooler portions of those areas.", "In areas that are too warm, Merlot will ripen too early.In places like Israel, Merlot is the second most widely planted grape variety after Cabernet Sauvignon with in cultivation, making very \"New World-style\" wines.", "The grape can also be found in Turkey with in 2010 as well as Malta and Cyprus.===France===Vineyards and winery exterior of Château PétrusMerlot is the most commonly grown grape variety in France.", "In 2004, total French plantations stood at .", "By 2017, that number had dropped slightly to .", "It is most prominent in Southwest France in regions like Bordeaux, Bergerac and Cahors where it is often blended with Malbec.", "The largest recent increase in Merlot plantations has occurred in the south of France, such as Languedoc-Roussillon, where it is often made under the designation of ''Vin de Pays'' wine.", "Here, Merlot accounted for , more than doubling the devoted to Cabernet Sauvignon in the Languedoc.In the traditional Bordeaux blend, Merlot's role is to add body and softness.", "Despite accounting for 50-60% of overall plantings in Bordeaux, the grape tends to account for an average of 25% of the blends—especially in the Bordeaux wine regions of Graves and Médoc.", "Of these Left Bank regions, the commune of St-Estephe uses the highest percentage of Merlot in the blends.", "However, Merlot is much more prominent on the Right Bank of the Gironde in the regions of Pomerol and Saint-Émilion, where it will commonly comprise the majority of the blend.", "One of the most famous and rare wines in the world, Château Pétrus, is almost all Merlot.", "In Pomerol, where Merlot usually accounts for around 80% of the blend, the iron-clay soils of the region give Merlot more of a tannic backbone than what is found in other Bordeaux regions.", "It was in Pomerol that the ''garagistes'' movement began with small-scale production of highly sought after Merlot-based wines.", "In the sandy, clay-limestone-based soils of Saint-Émilion, Merlot accounts for around 60% of the blend and is usually blended with Cabernet Franc.", "In limestone, Merlot tends to develop more perfume notes while in sandy soils the wines are generally softer than Merlot grown in clay dominant soils.", "Merlot can also be found in significant quantities in Provence, Loire Valley, Savoie, Ardèche, Charente, Corrèze, Drôme, Isère and Vienne.MOG.===Italy===In Italy, there were of the grape planted in 2000 with more than two-thirds of Italian Merlot being used in ''Indicazione geografica tipica'' (IGT) blends (such as the so-called \"Super Tuscans\") versus being used in classified ''Denominazione di origine controllata'' (DOC) or ''Denominazione di Origine Controllata e Garantita'' (DOCG) wines.", "A large portion of Merlot is planted in the Friuli wine region where it is made as a varietal or sometimes blended with Cabernet Sauvignon or Cabernet Franc.", "In other parts of Italy, such as the Maremma coast in Tuscany, it is often blended with Sangiovese to give the wine a similar softening effect as the Bordeaux blends.Italian Merlots are often characterized by their light bodies and herbal notes.", "Merlot's low acidity serves as a balance for the higher acidity in many Italian wine grapes with the grape often being used in blends in the Veneto, Alto Adige and Umbria.", "Global warming is potentially having an influence on Italian Merlot as more cooler-climate regions in northern Italy are being able to ripen the grape successfully while other regions already planted are encountering issues with over-ripeness.According to Master of Wine Jancis Robinson, some of the higher quality Italian Merlots are often from vineyards planted with cuttings sourced from France.", "Robinson describes the style of Fruili Merlots from regarded estates as having potentially a \"Pomerol-quality\" to them while Merlots from the warm plains of the Veneto can often be over-ripe with high yields giving them a \"sweet and sour\" quality.", "Robinson notes that the Merlots from Trentino-Alto-Adige can fall somewhere between those of Friuli and the Veneto.", "The ''Strada del Merlot'' is a popular tourist route through Italian Merlot regions along the Isonzo river.===Spain===In the hot continental climate of many of Spain's major wine regions, Merlot is less valued than it is in the damp maritime climate of Bordeaux or the warm Mediterranean climate of the Tuscan coast.", "But as the popularity of international varieties continue to grow on the world wine market, Spanish wine producers have been experimenting with the variety with even winemakers in Rioja petitioning authorities to allow Merlot to be a permitted grape to be blended with Tempranillo in the red wines of the region.In 2008, there were of Merlot, a significant increase from the that were being cultivated in the country only 4 years earlier.", "In 2015, this had dropped slightly to , making Merlot the eighth most planted red grape variety in Spain.", "The largest concentration of the grape is in the Mediterranean climate of Catalonia and the continental climate of Castilla–La Mancha, with significant plantings also in Navarra and Aragon.", "In Costers del Segre, the grape is often used in Bordeaux-style blends while in Aragon, Navarra, and Castilla-La Mancha it is sometimes blended with Tempranillo and other local Spanish wine grape varieties.===Central Europe===In Germany, there were of Merlot growing in 2008 with the grape mostly planted in the warmer German wine regions of the Palatinate and Rheinhessen.In Switzerland, Merlot accounts for nearly 85% of the wine production in Ticino where it is often made in a pale \"white Merlot\" style.", "In 2009, there were plantings of Swiss Merlot.Plantings of Merlot have increased in recent years in the Austrian wine region of Burgenland where vineyards previously growing Welschriesling are being uprooted to make room for more plantings.", "The grape still lags behind its parent variety, Cabernet Franc, with in cultivation in 2008.Outside of Burgenland, nearly half of all Austrian Merlot plantings are found in Lower Austria.===Rest of Europe===In the Eastern European countries of Bulgaria, Moldova, Croatia and Romania, Merlot is often produced as a full bodied wine that can be very similar to Cabernet Sauvignon.", "In Bulgaria, plantings of Merlot lag slightly behind Cabernet Sauvignon with in 2009 while Croatia had .", "In the Czech Republic, most of the country's were found in Moravia while Moldova had in 2009.In Slovenia, Merlot was the most widely planted grape variety of any color in the Vipava Valley in the Slovene Littoral and the second most widely planted variety in the Gorizia Hills located across the Italian border from Friuli.", "In the Slovene Littoral, collectively, Merlot accounts for around 15% of total vineyard plantings with of Merlot in cultivation across Slovenia in 2009.In Hungary, Merlot complements Kékfrankos, Kékoportó and Kadarka as a component in Bull's Blood.", "It is also made into varietal wine known as ''Egri Médoc Noir'' which is noted for its balanced acid levels and sweet taste.", "In 2009, there were of Merlot planted across Hungary.", "Most of these hectares can be found in the wine regions of Szekszárd and Villány on the warm Pannonian Basin with significant plantings also found in Kunság, Eger and Balaton.In Romania, Merlot is the most widely exported red wine grape variety with in cultivation in 2008.Most of these plantings are found along the Black Sea in Dobruja, further inland in the Muntenia region of Dealu Mare and in the western Romanian wine region of Drăgășani.", "Here the grape is often made a varietal but is sometimes blended with other international varieties such as Cabernet Sauvignon and with local grape varieties such as Fetească neagră.In 2009, Ukraine had of Merlot in cultivation.Russia had .Portugal, has only a very limited amount of Merlot compared to the abundance of native Portuguese grape varieties with planted in 2010, mostly in the Portuguese wine regions along the Tagus river.In Greece, Merlot is one of the top six grape varieties planted in the eastern wine regions of Macedonia ()and Western Thrace ().", "In central Greece, there were of Merlot in cultivation as of 2012.===United States===Merlot is grown across the United States—as of 2015, it is the fourth most planted wine grape—with California and Washington growing the most.", "Other regions producing significant quantities of Merlot include New York State with in 2006 with most of it in the maritime climate of the Long Island AVA and multiple regions in Ohio.", "In Texas, Merlot is the second most widely planted red wine grape after Cabernet Sauvignon with .", "In Virginia, the grape was the most widely planted red variety with in 2010, most of it in the Monticello AVA and Shenandoah Valley AVA, while Oregon had in 2008 with most planted in the Rogue Valley AVA.====California====The style of Merlot in California can vary with the grape being found all across the state in both warmer and cooler climate regions.", "While regional examples of California Merlot exist from places like Napa Valley and Sonoma, many bottles are labeled simply as ''California'' Merlot.In the early history of California wine, Merlot was used primarily as a 100% varietal wine until winemaker Warren Winiarski encouraged taking the grape back to its blending roots with Bordeaux style blends.", "Others saw its potential as a stand-alone labeled varietal: The first wineries to market Merlot as a varietal in the post WWII period were Louis M. Martini winery, which made a non-vintage dated Merlot, a blend of the 1968 and 1970 vintages, and Sterling Vineyards, which issued the first Merlot with a vintage, 1969 —Sterling's winemaker, Ric Forman, was an early advocate of Merlot as a varietal bottling.", "Following the \"Merlot wine craze\" of the 1990s, sparked by ''60 Minutes'' French Paradox report, sales of Merlot spiked, with the grape plantings of over in 2004.The 2004 movie ''Sideways'', where the lead character is a Pinot noir fan who expresses his disdain of Merlot, has been connected with declining Merlot sales in the US after its release (and an even larger spike of interest in Pinot noir).", "By 2010, plantings of California Merlot had dropped slightly to .", "Following that dip, Merlot plantings rebounded, totaling approximately 39,000 acres in 2020.In California, Merlot can range from very fruity simple wines (sometimes referred to by critics as a \"red Chardonnay\") to more serious, barrel aged examples.", "It can also be used as a primary component in Meritage blends.While Merlot is grown throughout the state, it is particularly prominent in Napa, Monterey and Sonoma County.", "In Napa, examples from Los Carneros, Mount Veeder, Oakville and Rutherford tend to show ripe blackberry and black raspberry notes.", "Sonoma Merlots from Alexander Valley, Carneros and Dry Creek Valley tend to show plum, tea leaf and black cherry notes.====Washington State====In the 1980s, Merlot helped put the Washington wine industry on the world's wine map.", "Prior to this period there was a general perception that the climate of Washington State was too cold to produce red wine varietals.", "Merlots from Leonetti Cellar, Andrew Will, Columbia Crest and Chateau Ste.", "Michelle demonstrated that areas of the Eastern Washington were warm enough for red wine production.", "Today it is the second most widely grown red wine grape in the state (after Cabernet Sauvignon), following many years of being the most widely planted variety, and accounts for nearly one fifth of the state's entire production.", "In 2011, there were of Washington Merlot in cultivation.Washington Merlots from the Columbia Valley are often noted for their deep color.It is widely planted throughout the Columbia Valley AVA but has earned particular notice from plantings grown in Walla Walla, Red Mountain and the Horse Heaven Hills.", "Washington Merlots are noted for their deep color and balanced acidity.", "The state's climate lends itself towards long days and hours of sunshine with cool nights that contributes to a significant diurnal temperature variation and produces wines with New World fruitiness and Old World structure.===Canada===In Canada, Merlot can be found across the country from Ontario, where there were of the grape in 2008, to British Columbia, where the grape is the most widely planted wine grape variety of either color at .", "Here Merlot accounts for almost a third of all red wine grape plantings and is used for both varietal and Bordeaux-style blends.===Mexico===In Mexico, Merlot is cultivated primarily in the Valle de Guadalupe of Baja California, the country's main wine-producing area.", "Plantings have increased substantially since the 1980s, and cultivation has spread into the nearby areas of Ojos Negros and Santo Tomás.", "The grape can also be found in the north eastern Mexican wine region of Coahuila, across the border from Texas.===Chile===In Chile, Merlot thrives in the Apalta region of Colchagua Province.", "It is also grown in significant quantities in Curicó, Casablanca and the Maipo Valley.", "Until the early 1990s, the Chilean wine industry mistakenly sold a large quantity of wine made from the Carménère grape as Merlot.", "Following the discovery that many Chilean vineyards thought to be planted with Sauvignon blanc was actually Sauvignonasse, the owners of the Chilean winery Domaine Paul Bruno (who previously worked with Château Margaux and Château Cos d'Estournel) invited ampelographers to comb through their vineyards to make sure that their wines were properly identified.", "Genetic studies discovered that much of what had been grown as Merlot was actually Carménère, an old French variety that had gone largely extinct in France due to its poor resistance to phylloxera.", "While the vines, leaves and grapes look very similar, both grapes produce wines with distinct characteristics—Carménère being more strongly flavored with green pepper notes and Merlot having softer fruit with chocolate notes.Today, \"true\" Merlot is the third most widely planted grape variety in Chile after Cabernet Sauvignon and Listán Prieto with in 2009.Most of these planting are in the Central Valley with Colchagua leading the way with followed by Maule Valley with and Curicó with .===South America===In Uruguay, Merlot is often blended with Tannat and is the 2nd most widely planted red grape variety, representing around 10% of total vineyard plantings.", "More widely planted than Cabernet Sauvignon, there were of the grape in cultivation in 2009.Brazil is home to of Merlot (as of 2007) with most of them in the Rio Grande do Sul region that is across the border with Uruguay.", "Other South American wine regions growing Merlot include Bolivia with as of 2012 and Peru.=== Argentina ===In Argentina, Merlot plantings have been increasing in the Mendoza region with the grape showing an affinity to the Tupungato region of the Uco Valley.", "Argentine Merlots grown in the higher elevations of Tunpungato have shown a balance of ripe fruit, tannic structure and acidity.", "The grape is not as widely planted here due to the natural fruity and fleshiness of the popular Malbec and Douce noir/Bonarda grapes that often don't need to be \"mellowed\" by Merlot as Cabernet Sauvignon and Cabernet Franc may benefit from.", "In 2008, there were of Merlot growing in Argentina, most of it in the Mendoza region and in the San Juan Province.===Oceania, South Africa and Asia===In New Zealand, plantings of Merlot have increased in the Hawke's Bay region, particularly in Gimblett Gravels where the grape has shown the ability to produce Bordeaux-style wine.", "The grape has been growing in favor among New Zealand producers due to its ability to ripen better, with less green flavors, than Cabernet Sauvignon.", "Other regions with significant plantings include Auckland, Marlborough and Martinborough.", "In 2008, Merlot was the second most widely red grape variety (after Pinot noir) in New Zealand and accounted for nearly 5% of all the country's plantings with in cultivation.In Australia, some vineyards labeled as \"Merlot\" were discovered to actually be Cabernet Franc.", "Merlot vines can also be found growing in the Barossa Valley, McLaren Vale and Wrattonbully in South Australia.", "In 2008, it was the third most widely planted red grape variety after Syrah and Cabernet Sauvignon with .", "As in California, the global \"Merlot craze\" spurred an increase of plantings, most of it in the warm, irrigated regions of Murray Darling, Riverina and Riverland where the grape variety could be mass-produced.", "Recent plantings, such as those in the Margaret River area of Western Australia have been focusing on making more Bordeaux-style blends.In South Africa, plantings of Merlot have focused on cooler sites within the Paarl and Stellenbosch regions.", "Here the grape is the third most widely planted red grape variety, accounting for nearly 15% of all red wine grape plantings, with of Merlot in cultivation in 2008.The majority of these plantings are found in the Stellenbosch region with and Paarl with .", "According to wine expert Jancis Robinson, South African Merlot tend to be made as a varietal in a \"chocolately, glossy California style\".In Asia, Merlot is planted in emerging wine regions in India.", "It can also be found in Japan with in 2009 and in China with ." ], [ "Wines", "As a varietal wine, Merlot can make soft, velvety wines with plum flavors.", "While Merlot wines tend to mature faster than Cabernet Sauvignon, some examples can continue to develop in the bottle for decades.", "There are three main styles of Merlot—a soft, fruity, smooth wine with very little tannins; a fruity wine with more tannic structure; and, finally, a brawny, highly tannic style made in the profile of Cabernet Sauvignon.", "Some of the fruit notes commonly associated with Merlot include cassis, black and red cherries, blackberry, blueberry, boysenberry, mulberry, ollalieberry and plum.", "Vegetable and earthy notes include black and green olives, cola nut, bell pepper, fennel, humus, leather, mushrooms, rhubarb and tobacco.", "Floral and herbal notes commonly associated with Merlot include green and black tea, eucalyptus, laurel, mint, oregano, pine, rosemary, sage, sarsaparilla and thyme.", "When Merlot has spent significant time in oak, the wine may show notes of caramel, chocolate, coconut, coffee bean, dill weed, mocha, molasses, smoke, vanilla and walnut.===White Merlot===White Merlot is made the same way as White Zinfandel.", "The grapes are crushed, and after very brief skin contact, the resulting pink juice is run off the must and is then fermented.", "It normally has a hint of raspberry.", "White Merlot was reputedly first marketed in the late 1990s.", "In Switzerland, a type of White Merlot is made in the Ticino region but has been considered more a rosé.White Merlot should not be confused with the grape variety Merlot blanc, which is a cross between Merlot and Folle blanche that was discovered in 1891, nor should it be confused with the white mutant variety of the Merlot grape." ], [ "Food pairing", "In food and wine pairings, the diversity of Merlot can lend itself to a wide array of matching options.", "Cabernet-like Merlots pair well with many of the same things that Cabernet Sauvignon would pair well with, such as grilled and charred meats.", "Softer, fruitier Merlots (particularly those with higher acidity from cooler climate regions like Washington State and Northeastern Italy) share many of the same food-pairing affinities with Pinot noir and go well with dishes like salmon, mushroom-based dishes and greens like chard and radicchio.", "Light-bodied Merlots can go well with shellfish like prawns or scallops, especially if wrapped in a protein-rich food such as bacon or prosciutto.", "Merlot tends not to go well with strong and blue-veined cheeses that can overwhelm the fruit flavors of the wine.", "The capsaicins of spicy foods can accentuate the perception of alcohol in Merlot and make it taste more tannic and bitter." ], [ "Synonyms", "Over the years, Merlot has been known under many synonyms across the globe, including Bégney, Bidal, Bidalhe, Bigney, Bigney rouge, Bini, Bini Ruzh, Bioney, Bordeleza belcha, Crabutet, Crabutet noir, Crabutet noir merlau, Hebigney, Higney, Higney rouge, Langon, Lecchumskij, Médoc noir, Merlau, Merlaut, Merlaut noir, Merle, Merle Petite, Merleau, Merlô, Merlot noir, Merlot black, Merlot blauer, Merlot crni, Merlot nero, Merlott, Merlou, Odzalesi, Odzhaleshi, Odzhaleshi Legkhumskii, Petit Merle, Picard, Pikard, Plan medre, Planet Medok, Plant du Médoc, Plant Médoc, Saint-Macaire, Same de la Canan, Same dou Flaube, Sème de la Canau, Sème Dou Flube, Semilhon rouge, Semilhoum rouge, Semilhoun rouge, Sémillon rouge, Sud des Graves, Vidal, Vini Ticinesi, Vitrai and Vitraille." ], [ "See also", "*International variety" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Growing Merlot grapes in the U.S. - information from Cooperative Extension" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "MM" ], [ "Introduction", "'''MM''' or variants may refer to:" ], [ "Alphabets", "* Meitei Mayek or Meetei Mayek, the writing system of Meitei language" ], [ "Arts, entertainment, and media", "===Music===* ''MM'' (album), 1989, by Marisa Monte * Maelzel's metronome, a music marking* Marilyn Manson, an American musician* Marshall Mathers, an American rapper (a.k.a.", "\"Eminem\")* Master of Music, an academic degree* ''Melody Maker'' British music publication* \"MM\", a 1993 song by Mr. President===Television===* MM (TV channel), Bulgaria* MM, the production code for the 1967 ''Doctor Who'' serial ''The Tomb of the Cybermen''===Other media===* ''MM!", "'', a Japanese light novel, manga and anime series by Akinari Matsuno* ''Media Molecule'', a video game developer in England* ''Monster Manual'', a 1977 ''Dungeons & Dragons'' source book* Mother's Milk (character), aka \"MM\", a fictional character in ''The Boys'' comicbook franchise" ], [ "Businesses, organizations, and teams", "* Middle-market company or mid-market companies have annual revenues of $50 million to $1 billion or between 100 and 1000 employees* Maryknoll, a Catholic religious institute* Maybach-Motorenbau GmbH and Maybach-Manufaktur and Mercedes-Maybach; an engine and car marque* Moderation Management, alcohol support group* Mumbai Magicians, a defunct Hockey India League franchise* Peach (airline) (IATA code: MM)* SAM Colombia (former IATA code: MM)" ], [ "Degrees, honorifics, and titles", "* Machinist's Mate in the US Navy* Master of Management, a degree* Master mariner* Master of Music, a degree* Military Medal, British and Commonwealth* Minister Mentor, a Singapore cabinet position* ''messieurs'', a plural honorific in French" ], [ "Latinisms", "* 2000 (number) in Roman numerals* The year 2000 in Roman numerals* ''Mutatis mutandis'' (\"''m.m.", "''\"), \"with things changed that should be changed\"" ], [ "Transportation", "*MM (New York City Subway service), a former New York City Subway service" ], [ "Places", "* Metro Manila, the Philippines' national capital region** Mega Manila, its larger metropolis* Myanmar (ISO 3166-1 country code: MM)" ], [ "Science, technology, and mathematics", "===Computing===* .mm, Internet country code top-level domain for Myanmar* \".mm\", the file extension for FreeMind and Freeplane data files* \".mm\", the file extension for source code files of Objective-C++* mm tree, the Andrew Morton's Linux kernel tree* MM algorithm, an iterative method for constructing optimization algorithms* Columbia MM, an early e-mail client* Multiple master fonts* Mattermost, an online chat service===Units of measurement===* Megametre (Mm) (rare) 1,000km*Mile Marker (MM)* Millimetre (mm)* Millimolar (mM), a unit of concentration of a solution* Momme, a unit of textile measurement* One million (MM), used in reference to currency* Percent concentration by mass (m/m%, %m/m, or m%), a unit of relative mass concentration===Other uses in science, technology, and mathematics===* Minimax or maximin, a decision rule* Modified Mercalli scale for the intensity of earthquakes* Molecular mechanics for the computational chemistry method* Moving magnet, phonograph cartridge type* Moving mean in statistics* Multiple myeloma" ], [ "See also", "* * * M (disambiguation)* M2 (disambiguation)* 2M (disambiguation)* MMS (disambiguation)* M&M (disambiguation)* MMM (disambiguation)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Martin Scorsese" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Martin Charles Scorsese''' ( , ; born November 17, 1942) is an American filmmaker.", "He emerged as one of the major figures of the New Hollywood era.", "Scorsese has received many accolades, including an Academy Award, four BAFTA Awards, three Emmy Awards, a Grammy Award, three Golden Globe Awards, and two Directors Guild of America Awards.", "He has been honored with the AFI Life Achievement Award in 1997, the Film Society of Lincoln Center tribute in 1998, the Kennedy Center Honor in 2007, the Cecil B. DeMille Award in 2010, and the BAFTA Fellowship in 2012.Five of his films have been inducted into the National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as \"culturally, historically or aesthetically significant\".Scorsese received a Master of Arts degree from New York University's Steinhardt School of Culture, Education, and Human Development in 1968.His directorial debut, ''Who's That Knocking at My Door'' (1967), was accepted into the Chicago Film Festival.", "In the 1970s and 1980s decades, Scorsese's films, much influenced by his Italian-American background and upbringing in New York City, center on macho-posturing men and explore crime, machismo, nihilism, and Catholic concepts of guilt and redemption.", "His trademark styles include extensive use of slow motion and freeze frames, graphic depictions of extreme violence, and liberal use of profanity.", "His 1973 crime film ''Mean Streets'' was a blueprint for his filmmaking styles.Scorsese won the at Cannes with his 1976 psychological thriller ''Taxi Driver'', which starred Robert De Niro, who became associated with Scorsese through eight more films including ''New York, New York'' (1977), ''Raging Bull'' (1980) ''The King of Comedy'' (1982), ''Goodfellas'' (1990), and ''Casino'' (1995).", "In the following decades, he garnered box office success with a series of collaborations with Leonardo DiCaprio.", "These films include ''Gangs of New York'' (2002), ''The Aviator'' (2004), ''The Departed'' (2006), ''Shutter Island'' (2010) and ''The Wolf of Wall Street'' (2013).", "He reunited with De Niro with ''The Irishman'' (2019) and ''Killers of the Flower Moon'' (2023), the latter also featuring DiCaprio.", "His other films include ''After Hours'' (1985), ''The Color of Money'' (1986), ''The Last Temptation of Christ'' (1988), ''The Age of Innocence'' (1993), ''Kundun'' (1997), ''Hugo'' (2011), and ''Silence'' (2016).In addition to film, Scorsese has directed episodes for some television series including the HBO series ''Boardwalk Empire'' (2011–2015), and ''Vinyl'' (2016), as well as the HBO documentary ''Public Speaking'' (2010), and the Netflix docu-series ''Pretend It's a City'' (2021).", "He is also known for several rock music documentaries including ''The Last Waltz'' (1978), ''No Direction Home'' (2005), ''Shine a Light'' (2008), and ''George Harrison: Living in the Material World'' (2011).", "An advocate for film preservation and restoration, he founded three nonprofit organizations: The Film Foundation in 1990, the World Cinema Foundation in 2007, and the African Film Heritage Project in 2017." ], [ "Early life and education", "From left: Salvo Cuccia, Scorsese, and Vittorio De Seta at the 2005 Tribeca Film FestivalMartin Charles Scorsese was born in the Flushing neighborhood of New York City's Queens borough on November 17, 1942.He grew up in the Little Italy neighborhood of the city's Manhattan borough.", "Both of his parents, Catherine Scorsese (née Cappa) and Charles Scorsese, worked in the Garment District.", "Charles was a clothes presser and actor, while Catherine was a seamstress and an actress.", "All four of Scorsese's grandparents were Italian immigrants from Sicily, hailing from Polizzi Generosa on his father's side and Ciminna on his mother's side.", "The original surname of the family was Scozzese, meaning \"Scot\" or \"Scottish\" in Italian, and was later changed to Scorsese because of a transcription error.Scorsese was raised in a predominantly Catholic environment.", "As a boy, he had asthma and could not play sports or take part in any activities with other children, so his parents and his older brother would often take him to movie theaters; it was at this stage in his life that he developed a passion for cinema.", "As a teenager in the Bronx, he frequently rented Powell and Pressburger's ''The Tales of Hoffmann'' (1951) from a store that had one copy of the reel.", "He was one of only two people who regularly rented it; the other, George A. Romero, would also become a film director.Scorsese has named Sabu and Victor Mature as his favorite actors during his youth.", "He has also spoken of the influence of the 1947–48 Powell and Pressburger films ''Black Narcissus'' and ''The Red Shoes'', whose innovative techniques later impacted his filmmaking.", "In his documentary titled ''A Personal Journey with Martin Scorsese Through American Movies'', Scorsese said that he was enamored of historical epics in his adolescence, and at least two films of the genre, ''Land of the Pharaohs'' and ''El Cid'', appear to have had a deep and lasting impact on his cinematic psyche.", "Scorsese also developed an admiration for neorealist cinema at this time.", "He recounted its influence in a documentary on Italian neorealism, and commented on how ''Bicycle Thieves'', ''Rome, Open City'' and especially ''Paisà'' inspired him and influenced his view or portrayal of his Sicilian roots.", "In his documentary, ''Il Mio Viaggio in Italia'' (''My Voyage to Italy''), Scorsese noted that the Sicilian episode of Roberto Rossellini's ''Paisà'', which he first saw on television with his relatives who were themselves Sicilian immigrants, had a significant impact on his life.", "He acknowledges owing a great debt to the French New Wave and has stated that \"the French New Wave has influenced all filmmakers who have worked since, whether they saw the films or not.\"", "He has also cited the works of Satyajit Ray, Ingmar Bergman, Andrzej Wajda, Michelangelo Antonioni, Federico Fellini, Ishirō Honda, and Eiji Tsuburaya as major influences on his career.Scorsese attended the all-boys Cardinal Hayes High School in the Bronx, graduating in 1960.He had initially desired to become a priest, attending a preparatory seminary but failed after the first year.", "This gave way to cinema and consequently Scorsese enrolled in NYU's Washington Square College (now known as the College of Arts and Science), where he earned a B.A.", "in English in 1964.He went on to earn his MA from New York University's School of Education (now the Steinhardt School of Culture, Education, and Human Development) in 1968, a year after the school was founded." ], [ "Career", "=== 1963–1972: Short films and feature debut ===While attending the Tisch School of the Arts, Scorsese made the short films ''What's a Nice Girl like You Doing in a Place like This?''", "(1963) and ''It's Not Just You, Murray!''", "(1964).", "His most famous short of the period is the darkly comic ''The Big Shave'' (1967), which features Peter Bernuth.", "The film is an indictment of America's involvement in Vietnam, suggested by its alternative title ''Viet '67''.", "Scorsese has mentioned on several occasions that he was greatly inspired in his early days at New York University by film professor Haig P. Manoogian.", "Scorsese's first professional job was when he was at NYU he was the assistant cameraman to cinematographer Baird Bryant on the John G. Avildsen directed short film ''Smiles'' (1964).", "Scorsese stated, \"It was really important because they were filming on 35mm\".", "He stated he was terrible at the job because he could not judge the distance of the focus.", "He also worked as a gaffer for Albert and David Maysles and as an editor for CBS News, the later of whom offered him a full time position but Scorsese declined due to his pursuit in film.In 1967, Scorsese made his first feature-length film, the black and white ''I Call First'', which was later retitled ''Who's That Knocking at My Door'', with his fellow students actor Harvey Keitel and editor Thelma Schoonmaker, both of whom were to become long-term collaborators.", "This film was intended to be the first of Scorsese's semi-autobiographical J. R. Trilogy, which would have included a later film, ''Mean Streets''.", "Film critic Roger Ebert saw the film at the 1967 Chicago International Film Festival and in his review praised Scorsese and the film, writing, \"'I Call First' brings these two kinds of films together into a work that is absolutely genuine, artistically satisfying and technically comparable to the best films being made anywhere.", "I have no reservations in describing it as a great moment in American movies.", "\"Scorsese became friends with the influential \"movie brats\" of the 1970s: Brian De Palma, Francis Ford Coppola, George Lucas, and Steven Spielberg.", "It was De Palma who introduced Scorsese to Robert De Niro.", "During this period, Scorsese worked as the assistant director and one of the editors on the documentary ''Woodstock'' (1970) and met actor–director John Cassavetes, who became a close friend and mentor.", "In 1972, Scorsese made the Depression-era exploiter ''Boxcar Bertha'' for B-movie producer Roger Corman, who also helped directors such as Francis Ford Coppola, James Cameron, and John Sayles launch their careers.", "It was Corman who taught Scorsese that entertaining films could be shot with very little money or time, preparing the young director well for the challenges to come with ''Mean Streets''.", "Following the film's release, Cassavetes encouraged Scorsese to make the films that he wanted to make, rather than someone else's projects.=== 1973–1989: Breakthrough and acclaim ===Scorsese collaborator Paul Schrader wrote the scripts for ''Taxi Driver'' (1976) and ''Raging Bull'' (1980)Championed by influential film critic Pauline Kael, ''Mean Streets'' was a breakthrough for Scorsese, De Niro, and Keitel.", "By now the signature Scorsese style was in place: macho posturing, bloody violence, Catholic guilt and redemption, gritty New York locale (though the majority of ''Mean Streets'' was shot in Los Angeles), rapid-fire editing and a soundtrack with contemporary music.", "Although the film was innovative, its wired atmosphere, edgy documentary style, and gritty street-level direction owed a debt to directors Cassavetes, Samuel Fuller and early Jean-Luc Godard.", "In 1974, actress Ellen Burstyn chose Scorsese to direct her in ''Alice Doesn't Live Here Anymore'', for which she won an Academy Award for Best Actress.", "Although well regarded, the film remains an anomaly in the director's early career as it focuses on a central female character.", "Returning to Little Italy to explore his ethnic roots, Scorsese next came up with ''Italianamerican'', a documentary featuring his parents Charles and Catherine Scorsese.Scorsese followed with ''Taxi Driver'' in 1976, which depicted a Vietnam veteran who takes the law into his own hands on New York's crime-ridden streets.", "The film established him as an accomplished filmmaker and also brought attention to cinematographer Michael Chapman, whose style tends towards high contrasts, strong colors, and complex camera movements.", "The film starred Robert De Niro as the angry and alienated Travis Bickle, and co-starred Jodie Foster in a highly controversial role as an underage prostitute, with Harvey Keitel as her pimp.", "''Taxi Driver'' also marked the start of a series of collaborations between Scorsese and writer Paul Schrader, whose influences included the diary of would-be assassin Arthur Bremer and ''Pickpocket'', a film by the French director Robert Bresson.", "Writer–director Schrader often returns to Bresson's work in films such as ''American Gigolo'', ''Light Sleeper'', and Scorsese's later ''Bringing Out the Dead''.", "Already controversial upon its release, ''Taxi Driver'' hit the headlines again five years later, when John Hinckley Jr. made an assassination attempt on then-president Ronald Reagan.", "He subsequently blamed his act on his obsession with Jodie Foster's ''Taxi Driver'' character (in the film, De Niro's character, Travis Bickle, makes an assassination attempt on a senator).", "''Taxi Driver'' won the at the 1976 Cannes Film Festival, also receiving four Oscar nominations, including Best Picture.", "The critical and financial success of ''Taxi Driver'' encouraged Scorsese to move ahead with his first big-budget project: the highly stylized musical ''New York, New York''.", "This tribute to Scorsese's home town and the classic Hollywood musical was a box-office failure.", "The film was the director's third collaboration with Robert De Niro, co-starring with Liza Minnelli.", "The film is best remembered today for the title theme song, which was popularized by Frank Sinatra.", "Although possessing Scorsese's usual visual panache and stylistic bravura, many critics felt its enclosed studio-bound atmosphere left it leaden in comparison with his earlier work.", "Despite its weak reception, the film is regarded positively by some critics.", "Richard Brody in ''The New Yorker'' wrote: In 1977, he directed the Broadway musical ''The Act'', starring Liza Minnelli.", "The disappointing reception that ''New York, New York'' received drove Scorsese into depression.", "By this stage the director had developed a serious cocaine addiction.", "However, he did find the creative drive to make the highly regarded ''The Last Waltz'', documenting the final concert by The Band.", "It was held at the Winterland Ballroom in San Francisco on American Thanksgiving Day, November 25, 1976, and featured one of the most extensive lineups of prominent guest performers at a single concert, including Bob Dylan, Neil Young, Ringo Starr, Muddy Waters, Joni Mitchell, Van Morrison, Paul Butterfield, Neil Diamond, Ronnie Wood, and Eric Clapton.", "However, Scorsese's commitments to other projects delayed the release of the film until 1978.Another Scorsese-directed documentary, titled ''American Boy'', also appeared in 1978, focusing on Steven Prince, the cocky gun salesman who appeared in ''Taxi Driver''.", "A period of wild partying followed, damaging the director's already fragile health.", "Scorsese helped provide footage for the documentary ''Elvis on Tour''.By several accounts (Scorsese's included), Robert De Niro saved Scorsese's life when he persuaded him to kick his cocaine addiction to make his highly regarded film ''Raging Bull''.", "Writing for ''The New Yorker'' in March 2000, Mark Singer summarized Scorsese's condition stating: He (Scorsese) was more than mildly depressed.", "Drug abuse, and abuse of his body in general, culminated in a terrifying episode of internal bleeding.", "Robert De Niro came to see him in the hospital and asked, in so many words, whether he wanted to live or die.", "If you want to live, De Niro proposed, let's make this picture—referring to ''Raging Bull'', an as-told-to book by Jake LaMotta, the former world middleweight boxing champion, that De Niro had given him to read years earlier.", "Convinced that he would never make another movie, he poured his energies into making the violent biopic of middleweight boxing champion Jake LaMotta, calling it a kamikaze method of film-making.", "The film is widely viewed as a masterpiece and was voted the greatest film of the 1980s by Britain's ''Sight & Sound'' magazine.", "It received eight Oscar nominations, including Best Picture, Best Actor for Robert De Niro, Best Supporting Actress for Cathy Moriarty, Best Supporting Actor for Joe Pesci, and Scorsese's first for Best Director.", "De Niro won, as did Thelma Schoonmaker for editing, but Best Director went to Robert Redford for ''Ordinary People''.", "From this work onwards, Scorsese's films are always labeled as \"A Martin Scorsese Picture\" on promotional material.", "''Raging Bull'', filmed in high contrast black and white, is where Scorsese's style reached its zenith: ''Taxi Driver'' and ''New York, New York'' had used elements of expressionism to replicate psychological points of view, but here the style was taken to new extremes, employing extensive slow-motion, complex tracking shots, and extravagant distortion of perspective (for example, the size of boxing rings would change from fight to fight).", "Thematically too, the concerns carried on from ''Mean Streets'' and ''Taxi Driver'': insecure males, violence, guilt, and redemption.Although the screenplay for ''Raging Bull'' was credited to Paul Schrader and Mardik Martin (who earlier co-wrote ''Mean Streets''), the finished script differed extensively from Schrader's original draft.", "It was rewritten several times by various writers including Jay Cocks (who went on to co-script later Scorsese films ''The Age of Innocence'' and ''Gangs of New York'').", "The final draft was largely written by Scorsese and Robert De Niro.", "The American Film Institute chose ''Raging Bull'' as the number one American sports film on their list of the top 10 sports films.", "In 1997, the Institute ranked ''Raging Bull'' as the twenty-fourth greatest film of all time on their AFI's 100 Years ... 100 Movies list.", "In 2007, they ranked ''Raging Bull'' as the fourth greatest film of all time on their AFI's 100 Years ... 100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition) list.Scorsese's next project was his fifth collaboration with Robert De Niro, ''The King of Comedy'' (1983).", "It is a satire on the world of media and celebrity, whose central character is a troubled loner who ironically becomes famous through a criminal act (kidnapping).", "The film was an obvious departure from the more emotionally committed films he had become associated with.", "Visually, it was far less kinetic than the style Scorsese had developed previously, often using a static camera and long takes.", "Here the expressionism of his previous work gave way to moments of almost total surrealism.", "It still bore many of Scorsese's trademarks, however.", "The ''King of Comedy'' failed at the box office, but has become increasingly well regarded by critics in the years since its release.", "German director Wim Wenders numbered it among his 15 favorite films.", "Also, in 1983, Scorsese made a brief cameo appearance in the film ''Anna Pavlova'' (also known as ''A Woman for All Time''), originally intended to be directed by one of his heroes, Michael Powell.", "This led to a more significant acting appearance in Bertrand Tavernier's jazz film ''Round Midnight''.", "He also made a brief venture into television, directing an episode of Steven Spielberg's ''Amazing Stories''.With ''After Hours'' (1985), for which he won a Best Director Award at Cannes, Scorsese made an esthetic shift back to a pared-down, almost \"underground\" film-making style.", "Filmed on an extremely low budget, on location, and at night in the SoHo neighborhood of Manhattan, the film is a black comedy about one increasingly misfortunate night for a mild New York word processor (Griffin Dunne) and features cameos by such disparate actors as Teri Garr and Cheech and Chong.", "Along with the 1987 Michael Jackson music video \"Bad\", in 1986 Scorsese made ''The Color of Money'', a sequel to the much admired Robert Rossen film ''The Hustler'' (1961) with Paul Newman, which co-starred Tom Cruise.", "Although adhering to Scorsese's established style, ''The Color of Money'' was the director's first official foray into mainstream film-making.", "The film finally won actor Paul Newman an Oscar and gave Scorsese the clout to finally secure backing for a project that had been a longtime goal for him: ''The Last Temptation of Christ''.In 1983, Scorsese began work on this long-cherished personal project.", "''The Last Temptation of Christ'', based on the 1955 novel written by Nikos Kazantzakis, retold the life of Christ in human rather than divine terms.", "Barbara Hershey recalls introducing Scorsese to the book while they were filming ''Boxcar Bertha''.", "The film was slated to shoot under the Paramount Pictures banner, but shortly before principal photography was to start, Paramount pulled the plug on the project, citing pressure from religious groups.", "In this aborted 1983 version, Aidan Quinn was cast as Jesus, and Sting was cast as Pontius Pilate.", "(In the 1988 version, these roles were played by Willem Dafoe and David Bowie respectively.)", "However, following his mid-1980s flirtation with commercial Hollywood, Scorsese made a major return to personal filmmaking with the project; Universal Pictures agreed to finance the film as Scorsese agreed to make a more mainstream film for the studio in the future (it eventually resulted in ''Cape Fear'').", "Even prior to its 1988 release, the film (adapted by ''Taxi Driver'' and ''Raging Bull'' veteran Paul Schrader) caused a massive furor, with worldwide protests against its perceived blasphemy effectively turning a low-budget independent film into a media sensation.", "Most of the controversy centered on the final passages of the film, which depicted Christ marrying and raising a family with Mary Magdalene in a Satan-induced hallucination while on the cross.In 1986, Scorsese directed the 18-minute short film ''Bad'' featuring Michael Jackson and Wesley Snipes (in his film debut).", "The short also serves as a music video and was shot in the Hoyt–Schermerhorn Streets station in Brooklyn over a 6-week period during November and December 1986.The short film's cinematographer was frequent Scorsese collaborator Michael Chapman.", "The dancing and filmmaking was heavily influenced by the 1961 film ''West Side Story''.", "Scorsese also noted the influence of his own film ''Taxi Driver'' (1976) in Spike Lee's documentary about the 25th anniversary of the short titled, ''Bad 25'' (2012).", "The short has been praised by critics as one of the most iconic and greatest videos of all time; Jackson's outfit has been cited as an influence on fashion.", "That year, he had signed a deal with upstart major The Walt Disney Studios to produce and direct features, following the success of ''The Color of Money'', and the company is currently soliciting material for possible development, and decided not to decide on projects he had hoped to produce under the company's two-year agreement with the studio, and the decision Scorsese wants to hire established directors like Elia Kazan and Arthur Penn.Looking past the controversy, ''The Last Temptation of Christ'' gained critical acclaim and remains an important work in Scorsese's canon: an explicit attempt to wrestle with the spirituality underpinning his films up until that point.", "The director went on to receive his second nomination for a Best Director Academy Award (again unsuccessfully, this time losing to Barry Levinson for ''Rain Man'').", "As a separate film project, and along with directors Woody Allen and Francis Ford Coppola in 1989, Scorsese provided one of three segments in the portmanteau film ''New York Stories'', called \"Life Lessons\".", "Roger Ebert's gave the film a mixed review, while praising Scorsese's short as \"really successful\".=== 1990–1999: Established director ===Scorsese collaborated with Robert De Niro on numerous projects.After a decade of films considered by critics to be mixed results, some considered Scorsese's gangster epic ''Goodfellas'' (1990) his return to directorial form, and his most confident and fully realized film since ''Raging Bull''.", "De Niro and Joe Pesci offered a virtuoso display of Scorsese's bravura cinematic technique in the film and re-established, enhanced, and consolidated his reputation.", "After the film was released, Roger Ebert, a friend and supporter of Scorsese, named ''Goodfellas'' \"the best mob movie ever\".", "It is ranked No.", "1 on Ebert's movie list for 1990, along with those of Gene Siskel and Peter Travers', and is widely considered one of the director's greatest achievements.", "The film was nominated for six Academy Awards, including Best Picture and Best Director, and Scorsese earned his third Best Director nomination but again lost to a first-time director, Kevin Costner (''Dances with Wolves'').", "Joe Pesci earned the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for his performance.", "Scorsese and the film also won many other awards, including five BAFTA Awards, a Silver Lion and more.", "The American Film Institute placed ''Goodfellas'' at No.", "94 on the AFI's 100 Years ... 100 Movies list.", "On the 2007 updated version, they moved ''Goodfellas'' up to No.", "92 on the AFI's 100 Years ... 100 Movies list (10th Anniversary Edition) and put ''Goodfellas'' at No.", "2 on their list of the top 10 gangster films (after ''The Godfather'').In 1990, he released his only short-form documentary: ''Made in Milan'' about fashion designer Giorgio Armani.", "The following year brought ''Cape Fear'', a remake of a cult 1962 movie of the same name and the director's seventh collaboration with De Niro.", "Another foray into the mainstream, the film was a stylized thriller taking its cues heavily from Alfred Hitchcock and Charles Laughton's ''The Night of the Hunter'' (1955).", "''Cape Fear'' received a mixed critical reception and was lambasted in many quarters for its scenes depicting misogynistic violence.", "However, the lurid subject matter gave Scorsese a chance to experiment with visual tricks and effects.", "The film garnered two Oscar nominations.", "Earning $80 million domestically, it stood as Scorsese's most commercially successful release until ''The Aviator'' (2004), and then ''The Departed'' (2006).", "The film also marked the first time Scorsese used wide-screen Panavision with an aspect ratio of 2.39:1.In 1990, Scorsese acted in a small role as Vincent van Gogh in the film ''Dreams'' by Japanese director Akira Kurosawa.", "Scorsese's 1994 cameo appearance in the Robert Redford film ''Quiz Show'' is remembered for the telling line: \"You see, the audience didn't tune in to watch some amazing display of intellectual ability.", "They just wanted to watch the money.\"", "De Fina-Cappa was the production company he formed that same year with producer Barbara De Fina.", "In the early 1990s, Scorsese also expanded his role as a film producer.", "He produced a wide range of films, including major Hollywood studio productions (''Mad Dog and Glory'', ''Clockers''), low-budget independent films (''The Grifters'', ''Naked in New York'', ''Grace of My Heart'', ''Search and Destroy'', ''The Hi-Lo Country''), and even the foreign film (''Con gli occhi chiusi'' (''With Closed Eyes'')).Scorsese in 1995''The Age of Innocence'' (1993) was a significant departure for Scorsese, a period adaptation of the Edith Wharton novel about the constrictive high society of late-19th century New York.", "It was highly lauded by critics upon its original release but was a box office bomb, making an overall loss.", "As noted in ''Scorsese on Scorsese'' by editor–interviewer Ian Christie, the news that Scorsese wanted to make a film about a failed 19th-century romance raised many eyebrows among the film fraternity; all the more when Scorsese made it clear that it was a personal project and not a studio for-hire job.Scorsese was interested in doing a \"romantic piece\", and he was strongly drawn to the characters and the story of Wharton's text.", "Scorsese wanted his film to be as rich an emotional experience as the book was to him rather than the traditional academic adaptations of literary works.", "To this end, Scorsese sought influence from diverse period films that had had an emotional impact on him.", "In ''Scorsese on Scorsese'', he documents influences from films such as Luchino Visconti's ''Senso'' and his ''Il Gattopardo'' (''The Leopard'') as well as Orson Welles's ''The Magnificent Ambersons'' and also Roberto Rossellini's ''La prise de pouvoir par Louis XIV'' (''The Taking of Power by Louis XIV'').", "Although ''The Age of Innocence'' was ultimately different from these films in terms of narrative, story, and thematic concern, the presence of a lost society, of lost values as well as detailed re-creations of social customs and rituals continues the tradition of these films.", "It came back into the public eye, especially in countries such as the UK and France, but still is largely neglected in North America.", "The film earned five Academy Award nominations (including Best Adapted Screenplay for Scorsese), winning the Costume Design Oscar.", "This was his first collaboration with the Academy Award-winning actor Daniel Day-Lewis, with whom he would work again on ''Gangs of New York''.", "This was Scorsese's first film to be shot on Super 35 format.", "''Casino'' (1995), like ''The Age of Innocence'' before it, focused on a tightly wound male whose well-ordered life is disrupted by the arrival of unpredictable forces.", "The fact that it was a violent gangster film made it more palatable to the director's fans who perhaps were baffled by the apparent departure of the earlier film.", "''Casino'' was a box office success, and it received generally positive notices from critics.", "Comparisons were drawn to his earlier film ''Goodfellas'', and Scorsese admitted ''Casino'' bore a superficial resemblance to it, but he maintained that the story was significantly larger in scope.", "Sharon Stone was nominated for the Best Actress Academy Award for her performance.", "During the filming, Scorsese played a background part as a gambler at one of the tables.Scorsese still found time for a four-hour documentary in 1995, titled ''A Personal Journey with Martin Scorsese Through American Movies'', offering a thorough trek through American cinema.", "It covered the silent era to 1969, a year after which Scorsese began his feature career.", "He said, \"I wouldn't feel right commenting on myself or my contemporaries.\"", "In the four-hour documentary, Scorsese lists the four aspects of the director he believes are the most important as (1) the director as storyteller; (2) the director as an illusionist: D. W. Griffith or F. W. Murnau, who created new editing techniques among other innovations that made the appearance of sound and color possible later on; (3) the director as a smuggler—filmmakers such as Douglas Sirk, Samuel Fuller, and Vincente Minnelli, who used to hide subversive messages in their films; and (4) the director as iconoclast.", "In the preface to this documentary, Scorsese states his commitment to the \"Director's Dilemma\", in which a successful contemporary director must be pragmatic about the realities of getting financing for films of personal esthetic interest by accepting the need of \"making one film for the studio, and (then) making one for oneself.", "\"If ''The Age of Innocence'' alienated and confused some fans, then ''Kundun'' (1997) went several steps further, offering an account of the early life of Tenzin Gyatso, the 14th Dalai Lama, the People's Liberation Army's entry into Tibet, and the Dalai Lama's subsequent exile to India.", "Not only a departure in subject matter, ''Kundun'' saw Scorsese employing a fresh narrative and visual approach.", "Traditional dramatic devices were substituted for a trance-like meditation achieved through an elaborate tableau of colorful visual images.", "The film was a source of turmoil for its distributor, Buena Vista Pictures, which was planning significant expansion into the Chinese market at the time.", "Initially defiant in the face of pressure from Chinese officials, Disney has since distanced itself from the project, hurting ''Kundun''s commercial profile.", "In the short term, the sheer eclecticism in evidence enhanced the director's reputation.", "In the long term, however, it appears ''Kundun'' has been sidelined in most critical appraisals of the director, mostly noted as a stylistic and thematic detour.", "''Kundun'' was the Scorsese's second attempt to profile the life of a great religious leader, following ''The Last Temptation of Christ''.", "''Bringing Out the Dead'' (1999) was a return to familiar territory, with the director and writer Paul Schrader constructing a pitch-black comic take on their own earlier ''Taxi Driver''.", "Like earlier Scorsese-Schrader collaborations, its final scenes of spiritual redemption explicitly recall the films of Robert Bresson.", "(It is also worth noting that the film's incident-filled nocturnal setting is reminiscent of ''After Hours''.)", "It received generally positive reviews, although not the universal critical acclaim of some of his other films.", "It stars Nicolas Cage, Ving Rhames, John Goodman, Tom Sizemore, and Patricia Arquette.On various occasions Scorsese has been asked to present the Honorary Academy Award during the Oscar telecast.", "In 1998, at the 70th Academy Awards, Scorsese presented the award to film legend Stanley Donen.", "When accepting the award Donen quipped, \"Marty this is backwards, I should be giving this to you, believe me\".", "In 1999, at the 71st Academy Awards, Scorsese and De Niro presented the award to film director Elia Kazan.", "This was a controversial pick for the academy due to Kazan's involvement with the Hollywood blacklist in the 1950s.", "Several members of the audience including Nick Nolte and Ed Harris refused to applaud Kazan when he received the award while others such as Warren Beatty, Meryl Streep, Kathy Bates, and Kurt Russell gave him a standing ovation.=== 2000–2015: Film and television work ===At the ''Gangs of New York'' screening at the 2002 Cannes Film Festival with Leonardo DiCaprio and Cameron DiazIn 1999, Scorsese directed a documentary on Italian filmmakers titled ''Il Mio Viaggio in Italia'', also known as ''My Voyage to Italy''.", "The documentary foreshadowed the director's next project, the epic ''Gangs of New York'' (2002), influenced by (amongst many others) major Italian directors such as Luchino Visconti and filmed in its entirety at Rome's famous Cinecittà film studios.", "With a production budget said to be in excess of $100 million, ''Gangs of New York'' was Scorsese's biggest and arguably most mainstream venture to date.", "Like ''The Age of Innocence'', it was set in 19th-century New York, although focusing on the other end of the social scale (and like that film, also starring Daniel Day-Lewis).", "The film marked the first collaboration between Scorsese and actor Leonardo DiCaprio, who became a fixture in later Scorsese films.", "The production was highly troubled, with many rumors referring to the director's conflict with Miramax boss Harvey Weinstein.", "Despite denials of artistic compromise, some felt that it was the director's most conventional film, featuring standard film tropes that the director had traditionally avoided, such as characters existing purely for exposition purposes and explanatory flashbacks.The final cut of the movie ran to 168 minutes, while the director's original cut was over 180 minutes long.", "Even so, the film received generally positive reviews with the review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reporting that 75 percent of the reviews for the film they tallied were positive and summarizing the critics writing, \"Though flawed, the sprawling, messy ''Gangs of New York'' is redeemed by impressive production design and Day-Lewis's electrifying performance.\"", "The film's central themes are consistent with the director's established concerns: New York, violence as culturally endemic, and subcultural divisions down ethnic lines.", "Originally filmed for a release in the winter of 2001 (to qualify for Academy Award nominations), Scorsese delayed the final production of the film until after the beginning of 2002; the studio consequently delayed the film until its release in the Oscar season of late 2002.", "''Gangs of New York'' earned Scorsese his first Golden Globe for Best Director.", "In February 2003, ''Gangs of New York'' received 10 Academy Award nominations, including Best Picture, Best Director, and Best Actor for Daniel Day-Lewis; however, it did not win in any category.The following year, Scorsese completed production of ''The Blues'', an expansive seven-part documentary tracing the history of blues music from its African roots to the Mississippi Delta and beyond.", "Seven film-makers including Wim Wenders, Clint Eastwood, Mike Figgis, and Scorsese himself each contributed a 90-minute film (Scorsese's entry was titled ''Feel Like Going Home'').", "In the early 2000s, Scorsese produced several films for up-and-coming directors, such as ''You Can Count on Me'' (directed by Kenneth Lonergan), ''Rain'' (directed by Katherine Lindberg), ''Lymelife'' (directed by Derick Martini) and ''The Young Victoria'' (directed by Jean-Marc Vallée).", "At that time, he established Sikelia Productions.", "In 2003, producer Emma Tillinger Koskoff joined the company.", "Scorsese also produced several documentaries, such as ''The Soul of a Man'' (directed by Wim Wenders) and ''Lightning in a Bottle'' (directed by Antoine Fuqua).Scorsese (L) with Leonardo DiCaprio (R) in 2007Scorsese's film ''The Aviator'' (2004) is a lavish, large-scale biopic of eccentric aviation pioneer and film mogul Howard Hughes and reunited Scorsese with actor Leonardo DiCaprio.", "The film received highly positive reviews.", "The film was a widespread box office success and gained Academy recognition.", "''The Aviator'' was nominated for six Golden Globe awards, including Best Motion Picture-Drama, Best Director, Best Screenplay, and Best Actor-Motion Picture Drama for Leonardo DiCaprio.", "It won three, including Best Motion Picture-Drama and Best Actor-Motion Picture Drama.", "In January 2005 ''The Aviator'' became the most-nominated film of the 77th Academy Awards nominations, nominated in 11 categories including Best Picture.", "The film also garnered nominations in nearly all the other major categories, including a fifth Best Director nomination for Scorsese.", "Despite having the most nominations, the film won only five Oscars.", "Scorsese lost again, this time to director Clint Eastwood for ''Million Dollar Baby'' (which also won Best Picture).", "''No Direction Home'' is a documentary film by Scorsese that tells of the life of Bob Dylan, and his impact on American popular music and the culture of the 20th century.", "The film does not cover Dylan's entire career; it focuses on his beginnings, his rise to fame in the 1960s, his then-controversial transformation from an acoustic guitar-based musician and performer to an electric guitar-influenced sound and his \"retirement\" from touring in 1966 following an infamous motorcycle accident.", "The film was first presented on television in both the United States (as part of the PBS ''American Masters'' series) and the United Kingdom (as part of the BBC Two ''Arena'' series) on September 26 to 27, 2005.A DVD version of the film was released the same month.", "The film won a Peabody Award and the Grammy Award for Best Long Form Music Video.", "In addition, Scorsese received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Directing for a Documentary/Nonfiction Program, losing to ''Baghdad ER''.Scorsese at the 65th Annual Peabody AwardsScorsese returned to the crime genre with the Boston-set thriller ''The Departed'', based on the Hong Kong police drama ''Infernal Affairs'' (which is co-directed by Andrew Lau and Alan Mak).", "The film continued Scorsese's collaboration with Leonardo DiCaprio and was the first time he worked with Matt Damon, Jack Nicholson, Mark Wahlberg, and Martin Sheen.", "''The Departed'' opened to widespread critical acclaim, with some proclaiming it as one of the best efforts Scorsese had brought to the screen since 1990's ''Goodfellas'', and still others putting it at the same level as Scorsese's most celebrated classics ''Taxi Driver'' and ''Raging Bull''.", "With domestic box office receipts surpassing million, ''The Departed'' was Scorsese's highest-grossing film (not accounting for inflation) until 2010's ''Shutter Island''.", "''The Departed'' earned Scorsese a second Golden Globe for Best Director, as well as a Critics' Choice Award, his first Directors Guild of America Award, and the Academy Award for Best Director.", "Presented with the latter, Scorsese poked fun at his track record of nominations, asking, \"Could you double-check the envelope?\"", "The award was presented by his longtime friends and colleagues Francis Ford Coppola, George Lucas and Steven Spielberg.", "''The Departed'' also received the Academy Award for the Best Motion Picture of 2006, Best Adapted Screenplay, and Best Film Editing by longtime Scorsese editor Thelma Schoonmaker, her third win for a Scorsese film.", "''Shine a Light'' captures rock and roll band The Rolling Stones' performing at New York City's Beacon Theatre on October 29 and November 1, 2006, intercut with brief news and interview footage from throughout their career.", "The film was initially scheduled for release on September 21, 2007, but Paramount Classics postponed its general release until April 2008.Its world premiere was at the opening of the 58th Berlinale Film Festival on February 7, 2008.", "\"Marty did an amazing job of making us look great...\" observed drummer Charlie Watts.", "\"It's all in the edits and the cuts.", "That's a movie maker rather than a guy just shooting a band onstage...", "It's not ''Casablanca'', but it's a great thing to have from our point of view, not being egotistical.", "It's a document.", "\"In 2009, Scorsese signed a petition in support of director Roman Polanski, who had been detained while traveling to a film festival in relation to his 1977 sexual abuse charges, which the petition argued would undermine the tradition of film festivals as a place for works to be shown \"freely and safely\", and that arresting filmmakers traveling to neutral countries could open the door \"for actions of which no-one can know the effects.", "\"On October 22, 2007, ''Daily Variety'' reported that Scorsese would reunite with Leonardo DiCaprio on a fourth picture, ''Shutter Island''.", "Principal photography on the Laeta Kalogridis screenplay, based on the novel of the same name by Dennis Lehane, began in Massachusetts in March 2008.In December 2007, actors Mark Ruffalo, Max von Sydow, Ben Kingsley, and Michelle Williams joined the cast, marking the first time these actors had worked with Scorsese.", "The film was released on February 19, 2010.On May 20, 2010, ''Shutter Island'' became Scorsese's highest-grossing film.", "In 2010, ''The Wall Street Journal'' reported that Scorsese was supporting the David Lynch Foundation's initiative to help 10,000 military veterans overcome posttraumatic stress disorder through Transcendental Meditation; Scorsese has publicly discussed his own practice of TM.Scorsese at Cannes in 2010Scorsese directed a television commercial for Chanel's then-new men's fragrance, ''Bleu de Chanel'', starring French actor Gaspard Ulliel.", "Filmed in New York City, it debuted online on August 25, 2010, and was released on TV in September 2010.Scorsese directed the series premiere for ''Boardwalk Empire'', an HBO drama series, starring Steve Buscemi and Michael Pitt, based on Nelson Johnson's book ''Boardwalk Empire: The Birth, High Times and Corruption of Atlantic City''.", "Terence Winter, who wrote for ''The Sopranos'', created the series.", "In addition to directing the pilot (for which he won the 2011 Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing), Scorsese also served as an executive producer on the series.", "The series premiered on September 19, 2010, and ran for five seasons.Scorsese directed the three-and-a-half-hour documentary ''George Harrison: Living in the Material World'' about the life and music of former Beatles' member George Harrison, which premiered in the United States on HBO over two parts on October 5 and 6, 2011.His next film ''Hugo'' is a 3D adventure drama film based on Brian Selznick's novel ''The Invention of Hugo Cabret''.", "The film stars Asa Butterfield, Chloë Grace Moretz, Ben Kingsley, Sacha Baron Cohen, Ray Winstone, Emily Mortimer, Christopher Lee, and Jude Law.", "The film has been met with critical acclaim and earned Scorsese his third Golden Globe Award for Best Director.", "The film was also nominated for 11 Academy Awards, winning five of them and becoming tied with Michel Hazanavicius's film ''The Artist'' for the most Academy Awards won by a single film in 2011.", "''Hugo'' also won two BAFTA awards, among numerous other awards and nominations.", "''Hugo'' was Scorsese's first 3D film and was released in the United States on November 23, 2011.At the Tribeca Film Festival in 2007Scorsese's 2013 film, ''The Wolf of Wall Street'', is an American biographical black comedy based on Jordan Belfort's memoir of the same name.", "The screenplay was written by Terence Winter and starred Leonardo DiCaprio as Belfort, along with Jonah Hill, Matthew McConaughey, and others.", "The film marked the fifth collaboration between Scorsese and DiCaprio and the second between Scorsese and Winter after ''Boardwalk Empire''.", "It was released on December 25, 2013.The film tells the story of a New York stockbroker, played by DiCaprio, who engages in a large securities fraud case involving illicit stock manipulation, by way of the practice of \"pump and dump\".", "DiCaprio was given the award for Best Actor-Motion Picture Musical or Comedy at the 2014 Golden Globe Awards.", "The film was also nominated for Best Motion Picture-Musical or Comedy as well.", "''The Wolf of Wall Street'' was nominated for five Academy Awards, including Best Picture, Best Actor for Leonardo DiCaprio, Best Supporting Actor for Jonah Hill, Best Director for Martin Scorsese, and Best Adapted Screenplay for Terence Winter but did not win in any category.", "In a 2016 critics' poll conducted by the BBC, the film was ranked among the 100 greatest motion pictures since 2000.Scorsese and David Tedeschi made a documentary about the history of the ''New York Review of Books'', titled ''The 50 Year Argument''.", "It screened as a work in progress at the Berlin International Film Festival in February 2014 and premiered in June 2014 at the Sheffield Doc/Fest.", "It was also screened in Oslo, and Jerusalem before being shown on the BBC's ''Arena'' series in July and at Telluride in August.", "In September, it was screened at the Toronto and Calgary International Film Festivals, and the New York Film Festival.", "It aired on HBO on September 29, 2014.Scorsese directed the pilot for ''Vinyl'' written by Terence Winter and George Mastras, with Mick Jagger producing and Mastras as showrunner.", "The series stars Bobby Cannavale as Richie Finestra, founder and president of a top-tier record label, set in 1970s New York City's drug-and sex-fueled music business as punk and disco were breaking out, all told through the eyes of Finestra trying to resurrect his label and find the next new sound.", "Filming began on July 25, 2014.Co-stars include Ray Romano, Olivia Wilde, Juno Temple, Andrew Dice Clay, Ato Essandoh, Max Casella, and James Jagger.", "On December 2, 2014, ''Vinyl'' was picked up by HBO.", "The series lasted one season.", "Scorsese has acted as executive producer of several indie films, like the 2014 ''The Third Side of the River'' (directed by his protege Celina Murga), another 2014 film ''Revenge of the Green Dragons'' (co-directed by Andrew Lau, whose film ''Infernal Affairs'' inspired ''The Departed''), as well as ''Bleed for This'' and ''Free Fire''.Scorsese directed ''The Audition'', a short film that also served as a promotional piece for casinos Studio City in Macau and City of Dreams in Manila, Philippines.", "The short brought together Scorsese's long-time muses Leonardo DiCaprio and Robert De Niro for the first time under his direction.", "The short film featured the two actors, playing fictionalized versions of themselves, competing for a role in Scorsese's next film.", "It was Scorsese's first collaboration with De Niro in two decades.", "The film premiered in October 2015 in conjunction with the grand opening of Studio City.=== 2016–present ===Scorsese profiled author Fran Lebowitz in the Netflix series ''Pretend It's a City'' (2020)Scorsese had long anticipated filming an adaptation of Shūsaku Endō's novel ''Silence'', a drama about the lives of two Portuguese Jesuit priests in Japan during the 17th century.", "He had originally planned ''Silence'' as his next project following ''Shutter Island.''", "On April 19, 2013, financing was secured for ''Silence'' by Emmett/Furla Films, and filming began in January 2015.By November 2016, the film had completed post-production.", "It was written by Jay Cocks and Scorsese, based on the novel, and stars Andrew Garfield, Liam Neeson, and Adam Driver.", "The film was released on December 23, 2016, to positive reviews from critics.", "Scorsese was recognized as an Italian citizen by ''jus sanguinis'' in 2018.On January 10, 2019, ''Variety''s Chris Willman reported that Scorsese's long-anticipated documentary of Bob Dylan's 1975 tour, the Rolling Thunder Revue, would be released by Netflix: \"''Rolling Thunder Revue: A Bob Dylan Story by Martin Scorsese'' captures the troubled spirit of America in 1975 and the joyous music that Dylan performed during the fall of that year.", "Part documentary, part concert film, part fever dream, ''Rolling Thunder'' is a one of a kind experience, from master filmmaker Martin Scorsese.\"", "On April 25, 2019, it was announced that the documentary would be released on Netflix on June 12, 2019, with a concurrent theatrical engagement in twenty American, European, and Australian cities the night before, and an extended theatrical schedule in Los Angeles and New York so that the film will qualify for award consideration.", "After years of development, principal photography on Scorsese's crime film ''The Irishman'', based on the book ''I Heard You Paint Houses'' by Charles Brandt, began in August 2017, starring Robert De Niro, Joe Pesci, and Al Pacino.", "The film had its world premiere at the 57th New York Film Festival on September 27, 2019.It received a limited theatrical release on November 1, 2019, followed by digital streaming on November 27, 2019, on Netflix.", "In January 2020, ''The Irishman'' received ten Academy Award nominations, including for Best Picture, Best Director, Best Adapted Screenplay, and Best Supporting Actor for Pacino and Pesci.On December 29, 2020, the trailer for Scorsese's Netflix documentary series ''Pretend It's a City'' was released.", "The series features Fran Lebowitz and Scorsese as they delve into her personal beliefs and thoughts on New York City.", "The project was released January 8, 2021, on Netflix.", "This is Scorsese's second documentary featuring Lebowitz, the first being ''Public Speaking'' (2010) which was released on HBO.", "In October 2022, Scorsese and David Tedeschi premiered their collaborative film ''Personality Crisis: One Night Only'', at the New York Film Festival.", "The film is a documentary about David Johansen, featuring both contemporary concert footage shot for the project as well as archival footage.Scorsese with Edgar Wright at the London Film Festival in 2023In July 2019, Scorsese started scouting locations in preparation for the 2020 filming of his next film ''Killers of the Flower Moon'', a film adaptation of the book of the same name by David Grann.", "Scorsese would team up with Leonardo DiCaprio for the sixth time and Robert De Niro for the tenth time.", "In December 2019, Scorsese's frequent cinematographer Rodrigo Prieto confirmed that ''Flower Moon'' was gearing up to start principal photography in March 2020, which was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic.", "In April 2020, it was announced that filming for ''Killers of the Flower Moon'' had been postponed indefinitely in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, that the potential cost of the film had ballooned to $200 million, and that Scorsese was in talks with Netflix or Apple Inc. to produce and distribute, with Paramount Pictures involved as a partner.", "On May 27, 2020, Apple bought the production and distribution rights to the film, which will be released theatrically by Paramount and stream on Apple TV+.", "Principal photography commenced in April 2021.It premiered at the 76th Cannes Film Festival on May 20, 2023, and was released theatrically on October 20, 2023.On May 16, 2023, while promoting ''Killers of the Flower Moon'', Scorsese spoke about his eagerness to continue working, stating that \"I'm old.", "I read stuff.", "I see things.", "I want to tell stories, and there's no more time.\"", "That same year he directed a commercial for Bleu de Chanel starring Timothée Chalamet.==== Upcoming projects ====In November 2021, Scorsese was set to direct a biopic feature about rock band the Grateful Dead for Apple Studios featuring Jonah Hill.", "In July 2022, it was announced Scorsese would direct an adaptation of David Grann's non-fiction novel ''The Wager'' for Apple Studios, reteaming once again with DiCaprio.", "In May 2023, after meeting with Pope Francis, Scorsese said he was considering writing and directing a new film about Jesus.", "More details were revealed in January 2024, revealing that it would likely be Scorsese's next film and that he had co-written it with Kent Jones, based on the Shūsaku Endō novel ''A Life of Jesus''.In 2023 during an interview with ''GQ'' it was revealed that Scorsese and film editor Thelma Schoonmaker were working on a documentary on British filmmakers Emeric Pressburger and Michael Powell.", "During the same interview Scorsese announced he was working on an adaptation of Marilynne Robinson's ''Home'' with Todd Field and Kent Jones." ], [ "Filmmaking style and technique", "Several recurring filmmaking techniques are identifiable in many of Scorsese's films.", "He has established a filmmaking history which involves repeat collaborations with actors, screenwriters, film editors, and cinematographers, sometimes extending over several decades, such as that with recurring cinematographers Michael Ballhaus, Robert Richardson, and Rodrigo Prieto.===Slow motion and freeze frame===Scorsese is known for his frequent use of slow motion, for example, in ''Who's That Knocking at My Door'' (1967) and ''Mean Streets'' (1973).", "He is also known for using freeze frames, such as: in the opening credits of ''The King of Comedy'' (1983), throughout ''Goodfellas'' (1990), ''Casino'' (1995), ''The Departed'' (2006), and in ''The Irishman'' (2019).", "His blonde leading ladies are usually seen through the eyes of the protagonist as angelic and ethereal; they wear white in their first scene and are photographed in slow motion—Cybill Shepherd in ''Taxi Driver''; Cathy Moriarty's white bikini in ''Raging Bull''; Sharon Stone's white minidress in ''Casino''.", "This may be a nod to director Alfred Hitchcock.", "Scorsese often uses long tracking shots, as seen in ''Taxi Driver'', ''Goodfellas'', ''Casino'', ''Gangs of New York'', and ''Hugo''.", "MOS sequences set to popular music or voice-over are regularly seen in his films, often involving aggressive camera movement or rapid editing.", "Scorsese sometimes highlights characters in a scene with an iris, an homage to 1920s silent film cinema (as scenes at the time sometimes used this transition).", "This effect can be seen in ''Casino'' (it is used on Sharon Stone and Joe Pesci), ''Life Lessons'', ''The Departed'' (on Matt Damon), and ''Hugo''.", "Some of his films include references/allusions to Westerns, particularly ''Rio Bravo'', ''The Great Train Robbery'', ''Shane'', ''The Searchers'', and ''The Oklahoma Kid''.", "Slow motion flashbulbs and accented camera/flash/shutter sounds are often used, as is the song \"Gimme Shelter\" by The Rolling Stones heard in several of Scorsese's films: ''Goodfellas'', ''Casino'', and ''The Departed''.===Cameo appearances===Scorsese usually has a quick cameo in his films (''Who's That Knocking at My Door'', ''Boxcar Bertha'', ''Mean Streets'', ''Alice Doesn't Live Here Anymore'', ''Taxi Driver'', ''The King of Comedy'', ''After Hours'', ''The Last Temptation of Christ'' (albeit hidden under a hood), ''The Age of Innocence'', ''Gangs of New York'', ''Hugo'', ''Killers of the Flower Moon''), he is also known to contribute his voice to a film without appearing on screen (e.g.", "as in ''The Aviator'' and ''The Wolf of Wall Street'').", "In ''The Age of Innocence'', for example, he appears in the non-speaking role of a large format portrait photographer in one of the passing scenes of the film.", "He provides the opening voice-over narration in ''Mean Streets'' and ''The Color of Money''; plays the off-screen dressing room attendant in the final scene of ''Raging Bull'', and provides the voice of the unseen ambulance dispatcher in ''Bringing Out the Dead''.", "He also appears as the director of fictional newly formed Vatican Television in the Italian comedy ''In the Pope's Eye''.===Religious guilt===Guilt is a prominent theme in many of his films, as is the role of Catholicism in creating and dealing with guilt (''Who's That Knocking at My Door'', ''Mean Streets'', ''Raging Bull'', ''Bringing Out the Dead'', ''The Departed'', ''Shutter Island'', and ''The Irishman'').", "In a similar manner, Scorsese considered ''Silence'' a \"passion project\": it had been in development since 1990, two years after the release of his film ''The Last Temptation of Christ'', which also contained strongly religious themes.", "When asked why he retained interest in a project dealing with strong theological themes for over 26 years, Scorsese said,As you get older, ideas go and come.", "Questions, answers, loss of the answer again and more questions, and this is what really interests me.", "Yes, the cinema and the people in my life and my family are most important, but ultimately as you get older, there's got to be more ... ''Silence'' is just something that I'm drawn to in that way.", "It's been an obsession, it has to be done ... it's a strong, wonderful true story, a thriller in a way, but it deals with those questions.===Political corruption===More recently, his films have featured corrupt authority figures, such as policemen in ''The Departed'' and politicians in ''Gangs of New York'' and ''The Aviator''.", "He is also known for his liberal usage of profanity, dark humor, and violence.Scorsese's interest in political corruption as depicted in his films was expanded further in his 2019 film ''The Irishman''.", "Richard Brody writing for ''The New Yorker'' found the main interpretation of the film to be a dark allegory of a realist reading of American politics and American society stating: The real-life Hoffa... (was) a crucial player in both gangland politics and the actual practical politics of the day, and the movie's key through line is the inseparability of those two realms.", "''The Irishman'' is a sociopolitical horror story that views much of modern American history as a continuous crime in motion, in which every level of society—from domestic life through local business through big business through national and international politics—is poisoned by graft and bribery, shady deals and dirty money, threats of violence and its gruesome enactment, and the hard-baked impunity that keeps the entire system running.=== Frequent collaborators ===Scorsese often casts the same actors in his projects, particularly Robert De Niro, who has collaborated with Scorsese on ten feature films and one short film.", "Included are the three films (''Taxi Driver'', ''Raging Bull'', and ''Goodfellas'') that made AFI's 100 Years ... 100 Movies list.", "Scorsese has often said he thinks De Niro's best work under his direction was Rupert Pupkin in ''The King of Comedy''.", "After the turn of the century, Scorsese found a new muse with younger actor Leonardo DiCaprio, collaborating on six feature films and one short to date.", "Several critics have compared Scorsese's new partnership with DiCaprio with his previous one with De Niro.", "Frequent collaborators also include: Victor Argo (6), Harvey Keitel (6), Harry Northup (6), J. C. MacKenzie (5), Murray Moston (5), Illeana Douglas (4), Joe Pesci (4), Frank Vincent (3), Barry Primus (3), and Verna Bloom (3).", "Others who have appeared in multiple Scorsese projects include Daniel Day-Lewis, who had become very reclusive to the Hollywood scene, Alec Baldwin, Willem Dafoe, Ben Kingsley, Jude Law, Dick Miller, Liam Neeson, Emily Mortimer, Jesse Plemons, John C. Reilly, David Carradine, Barbara Hershey, Kevin Corrigan, Jake Hoffman, Frank Sivero, Ray Winstone and Nick Nolte.", "Before their deaths, Scorsese's parents, Charles Scorsese and Catherine Scorsese, appeared in bit parts, walk-ons or supporting roles, such as in ''Goodfellas''.For his crew, Scorsese frequently worked with editors Marcia Lucas and Thelma Schoonmaker, cinematographers Michael Ballhaus, Robert Richardson, Michael Chapman and Rodrigo Prieto, screenwriters Paul Schrader, Mardik Martin, Jay Cocks, Terrence Winter, John Logan and Steven Zaillian, costume designer Sandy Powell, production designers Dante Ferretti and Bob Shaw, music producer Robbie Robertson, and composers Howard Shore and Elmer Bernstein.", "Schoonmaker, Richardson, Powell, and Ferretti have each won Academy Awards in their respective categories on collaborations with Scorsese.", "Elaine and Saul Bass, the latter being Hitchcock's frequent title designer, designed the opening credits for ''Goodfellas'', ''The Age of Innocence'', ''Casino'' and ''Cape Fear''." ], [ "Personal life", "=== Marriages ===In 1965, Scorsese married his first wife Laraine Marie Brennan, and they remained together for six years between 1965 and 1971; they have a daughter, Catherine, who was named after Scorsese's mother.In 1976, Scorsese married the writer Julia Cameron.", "They have a daughter, Domenica Cameron-Scorsese, an actress who appeared in ''The Age of Innocence.''", "After one year of marriage, the couple had an acrimonious divorce which served as the basis of Cameron's first feature, the dark comedy ''God's Will'', which also starred their daughter.", "She had a small role in ''Cape Fear'' using the name Domenica Scorsese and has continued to act, write, direct, and produce.Before the end of 1979, Scorsese married actress Isabella Rossellini, and they stayed together for four years, divorcing in 1983.Scorsese married producer Barbara De Fina in 1985, his fourth of five marriages; they divorced in 1991.From 1989 to 1997, Scorsese was romantically involved with actress Illeana Douglas.In 1999, Scorsese married his current spouse of over twenty years, Helen Schermerhorn Morris.", "They have a daughter, actress and filmmaker Francesca, who appeared in his films ''The Departed'', ''Hugo'', and ''The Aviator'', and had a leading role in HBO/Sky's miniseries ''We Are Who We Are'' in 2020.=== Politics ===Scorsese was an opponent of the Iraq War, wearing a white dove pin to the 75th Academy Awards in 2003 and clapping for Michael Moore's acceptance speech wherein he criticized President George W. Bush and the invasion.=== Religious beliefs ===Scorsese identifies as a lapsed Catholic, declaring \"I'm a lapsed Catholic.", "But I am Roman Catholic; there's no way out of it.\"", "In 2016, Scorsese identified himself as a Catholic again, saying, \"my way has been, and is, Catholicism.", "After many years of thinking about other things, dabbling here and there, I am most comfortable as a Catholic.", "I believe in the tenets of Catholicism.\"" ], [ "Filmography", ", Scorsese has directed 26 full-length films and 16 full-length documentary films.+Directed features Year Title Distributor 1967 ''Who's That Knocking at My Door'' Joseph Brenner Associates 1972 ''Boxcar Bertha'' American International Pictures 1973 ''Mean Streets'' Warner Bros. 1974 ''Alice Doesn't Live Here Anymore'' 1976 ''Taxi Driver'' Columbia Pictures 1977 ''New York, New York'' United Artists 1980 ''Raging Bull'' 1982 ''The King of Comedy'' 20th Century Fox 1985 ''After Hours'' Warner Bros. 1986 ''The Color of Money'' Buena Vista Distribution 1988 ''The Last Temptation of Christ'' Universal Pictures 1990 ''Goodfellas'' Warner Bros. 1991 ''Cape Fear'' Universal Pictures 1993 ''The Age of Innocence'' Columbia Pictures 1995 ''Casino'' Universal Pictures 1997 ''Kundun'' Buena Vista Distribution 1999 ''Bringing Out the Dead'' Paramount Pictures / Buena Vista Distribution 2002 ''Gangs of New York'' Buena Vista Distribution / Miramax Films 2004 ''The Aviator'' Warner Bros. Pictures / Miramax 2006 ''The Departed'' Warner Bros. Pictures 2010 ''Shutter Island'' Paramount Pictures 2011 ''Hugo'' 2013 ''The Wolf of Wall Street'' 2016 ''Silence'' 2019 ''The Irishman'' Netflix 2023 ''Killers of the Flower Moon'' Paramount Pictures / Apple TV+" ], [ "Other work", "=== Film preservation ===Scorsese had been at the forefront in film preservation and restoration ever since 1990, when he created The Film Foundation, a non-profit film organization which collaborates with film studios to restore prints of old or damaged films.", "Scorsese launched the organization with Woody Allen, Robert Altman, Francis Ford Coppola, Clint Eastwood, Stanley Kubrick, George Lucas, Sydney Pollack, Robert Redford, and Steven Spielberg, who all sat on the foundation's original board of directors.", "In 2006, Paul Thomas Anderson, Wes Anderson, Curtis Hanson, Peter Jackson, Ang Lee and Alexander Payne joined them.", "In 2015, Christopher Nolan also joined the board.", "Recent members include Spike Lee, Sofia Coppola, Guillermo del Toro, Barry Jenkins, Lynne Ramsay, Joanna Hogg and Kathryn Bigelow.The foundation has restored more than 800 films from around the world and conducts a free educational curriculum for young people on the language and history of film.", "Scorsese and the Foundation spearheaded fundraising for the film restoration of Michael Powell, and Emeric Pressburger's ''The Red Shoes'' (1948).", "For his advocacy in film restoration he received the Robert Osborne Award at the 2018 TCM Film Festival.", "The award was given to Scorsese as \"an individual who has significantly contributed to preserving the cultural heritage of classic films\".In November 2020, the Criterion Channel released a 30-minute video titled, ''30 Years of The Film Foundation: Martin Scorsese and Ari Aster in Conversation'', celebrating the \"mission, evolution, and ongoing work of The Film Foundation\".", "Scorsese stated as of 2020, the Foundation has helped restore 850 films.==== The World Cinema Project ====In 2007, Scorsese established the World Cinema Project with the mission to preserve and present marginalized and infrequently screened films from regions generally ill-equipped to preserve their own cinema history.", "Scorsese's organization has worked with the Criterion Collection to not only preserve the films but to allow them to be released on DVD and Blu-ray boxsets and on streaming services such as The Criterion Channel.", "Films in the WCP include Ousmane Sembène's ''Black Girl'' (1966), and Djibril Diop Mambéty's ''Touki Bouki'' (1973).The Criterion Collection so far has released four Vol.", "boxsets on DVD and Blu-ray, titled, ''Martin Scorsese's World Cinema Project''.", "The first Volume includes 6 titles, ''Touki Bouki'' (1973), ''Redes'' (1936), ''A River Called Titas'' (1973), ''Dry Summer'' (1964), ''Trances'' (1981) and ''The Housemaid'' (1960).", "The second volume also includes 6 titles, ''Insiang'' (1976), ''Mysterious Object at Noon'' (2000), ''Revenge'' (1989), ''Limite'' (1931), ''Law of the Border'' (1967), and ''Taipei Story'' (1985).", "The third volume includes 6 titles as well: ''Lucía'' (1968), ''After the Curfew'' (1954), ''Pixote'' (1980), ''Dos monjes'' (1934), ''Soleil Ô'' (1970), and ''Downpour'' (1972).", "The 6 films included in the fourth set are ''Sambizanga'' (1972), ''Prisioneros de la tierra'' (1939), ''Chess of the Wind'' (1979), ''Muna Moto'' (1975), ''Two Girls on the Street'' (1939), and ''Kalpana'' (1948).==== The African Film Heritage Project ====In 2017, Scorsese also introduced The African Film Heritage Project (AFHP), which is a joint initiative between Scorsese's non-profit The Film Foundation, UNESCO, Cineteca di Bologna, and the Pan African Federation of Filmmakers (FEPACI).", "The project aims to locate and preserve 50 classic African films, some thought lost and others beyond repair, with hopes to make them available to audiences everywhere.", "In an interview with ''Cinema Escapist'' in 2018, Scorsese talked about the ambitious collaboration saying, \"Our first goal is to launch and conduct a thorough investigation in film archives and laboratories around the world, in order to locate the best surviving elements—original negatives, we hope—for our first 50 titles.\"", "He also stated that \"Restoration is always the primary goal, of course, but within the initiative, it's also a starting point of a process that follows through with exhibition and dissemination in Africa and abroad.", "And of course, our restoration process always includes the creation of preservation elements.", "\"In 2019, the AFHP, announced that they would screen restorations of four African films on their home continent for the first time as part of the 50th anniversary of the Pan African Film Festival of Ouagadougou.", "The movies in question are Med Hondo's ''Soleil Ô'' (1970), Mohammed Lakhdar-Hamina's ''Chronique des années de braise'' (1975), Timité Bassori's ''La Femme au couteau'' (1969), and Jean-Pierre Dikongue-Pipa's ''Muna Moto'' (1975).=== Film activism ===Scorsese has mentioned his mentors being such filmmakers as John Cassavetes, Roger Corman, and Michael Powell.", "In film critic Roger Ebert's book, ''Scorsese by Ebert'', Ebert praised Scorsese for championing and supporting other filmmakers by serving as an executive producer on projects of filmmakers such as Antoine Fuqua, Wim Wenders, Kenneth Lonergan, Stephen Frears, Allison Anders, Spike Lee, and John McNaughton.", "More recently he has executive produced the films of the Safdie Brothers, Joanna Hogg, Kornél Mundruczó, Josephine Decker, Danielle Lessovitz, Alice Rohrwacher, Jonas Carpignano, Amélie van Elmbt, and Celina Murga.", "Scorsese has also chosen to name filmmakers throughout the years that he admires such as fellow New York City-based directors Woody Allen and Spike Lee, as well as other artists such as Wes Anderson, Bong Joon-ho, Greta Gerwig, Ari Aster, Kelly Reichardt, Claire Denis, Noah Baumbach, Paul Thomas Anderson, Christopher Nolan, the Coen Brothers, and Kathryn Bigelow.=== Favorite films ===In 2012, Scorsese participated in the ''Sight & Sound'' film polls of that year.", "Held every ten years to select the greatest films of all time, contemporary directors were asked to select ten films of their choice.", "Scorsese, however, picked 12, which are listed below in alphabetical order:* ''2001: A Space Odyssey'' (US/UK,1968)* ''8½'' (Italy, 1963)* ''Ashes and Diamonds'' (Poland, 1958)* ''Citizen Kane'' (US, 1941)* ''The Leopard'' (Italy, 1963)* ''Paisà'' (Italy, 1946)* ''The Red Shoes'' (UK, 1948)* ''The River'' (US, 1951)* ''Salvatore Giuliano'' (Italy, 1962)* ''The Searchers'' (US, 1956)* ''Ugetsu'' (Japan, 1953)* ''Vertigo'' (US, 1958)Ten years later, Scorsese participated again in the ''Sight & Sound'' polls, picking 15 films, the same 12 of the 2012 list, plus the following:* ''Diary of a Country Priest'' (France, 1951)* ''Ikiru'' (Japan, 1952)* ''Ordet'' (Denmark, 1955)In 1999, after the death of Gene Siskel, Scorsese joined Roger Ebert as the guest co-host for an episode of ''Siskel & Ebert'' where they each stated their 10 favorite films of the 1990s.", "Scorsese's list numerically is:#''The Horse Thief'' (China, 1986)#''The Thin Red Line'' (US, 1998)#''A Borrowed Life'' (Taiwan, 1994) #''Eyes Wide Shut'' (US/UK, 1999)#''Bad Lieutenant'' (US, 1992)#''Breaking the Waves'' (Denmark/UK, 1996)#''Bottle Rocket'' (US, 1996)#''Crash'' (Canada, 1996)#''Fargo'' (US, 1996)#''Malcolm X'' (US, 1992) and ''Heat'' (US, 1995) (tie)In 2012, Scorsese recommended 39 foreign films to Colin Levy." ], [ "Legacy and honors", "Scorsese receives the Golden Lion for Lifetime Achievement from actress Monica Vitti at the Venice Film Festival in 1995Scorsese's films have been nominated for numerous awards both nationally and internationally, with an Academy Award win for ''The Departed''.", "In 1991, he received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement.", "In 1997, Scorsese received the AFI Life Achievement Award.", "In 1998, the American Film Institute placed three Scorsese films on their list of the greatest American movies: ''Raging Bull'' at No.", "24, ''Taxi Driver'' at No.", "47, and ''Goodfellas'' at No.", "94.For the tenth-anniversary edition of their list, ''Raging Bull'' was moved to No.", "4, ''Taxi Driver'' was moved to No.", "52, and ''Goodfellas'' was moved to No.", "92.In 2001, the American Film Institute placed two Scorsese films on their list of the most \"heart-pounding movies\" in American cinema: ''Taxi Driver'' at No.", "22 and ''Raging Bull'' at No.", "51.At a ceremony in Paris, France, on January 5, 2005, Martin Scorsese was awarded the French Legion of Honour in recognition of his contribution to cinema.", "On February 8, 2006, at the 48th Annual Grammy Awards, Scorsese was awarded the Grammy Award for Best Long Form Music Video for ''No Direction Home''.In 2007, Scorsese was listed among ''Time'' magazine's 100 Most Influential People in The World.", "In August 2007, Scorsese was named the second-greatest director of all time in a poll by ''Total Film'' magazine, in front of Steven Spielberg and behind Alfred Hitchcock.", "In 2007, Scorsese was honored by the National Italian American Foundation (N.I.A.F.)", "at the nonprofit's thirty-second Anniversary Gala.", "During the ceremony, Scorsese helped launch N.I.A.F.", "'s Jack Valenti Institute in memory of former foundation board member and past president of the Motion Picture Association of America (M.P.A.A.)", "Jack Valenti.", "The Institute provides support to Italian film students in the U.S. Scorsese received his award from Mary Margaret Valenti, Jack Valenti's widow.", "Certain pieces of Scorsese's film-related material and personal papers are contained in the Wesleyan University Cinema Archives, to which scholars and media experts from around the world may have full access.", "On September 11, 2007, the Kennedy Center Honors committee, which recognizes career excellence and cultural influence, named Scorsese as one of the honorees for the year.", "On June 17, 2008, the American Film Institute placed two of Scorsese's films on the AFI's 10 Top 10 list: ''Raging Bull'' at number one for the Sports genre and ''Goodfellas'' at number two for the Gangster genre.", "In 2013, the staff of ''Entertainment Weekly'' voted ''Mean Streets'' the seventh greatest film ever made.Leon Fleisher, Martin Scorsese, Diana Ross, Brian Wilson and Steve Martin with President George W. Bush and Laura Bush in 2007On January 17, 2010, at the 67th Golden Globe Awards, Scorsese was the recipient of the Golden Globe Cecil B. DeMille Award.", "On September 18, 2011, at the 63rd Primetime Emmy Awards, Scorsese won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series for his work on the series premiere of ''Boardwalk Empire''.", "In 2011, Scorsese received an honorary doctorate from the National Film School in Lodz.", "At the awards ceremony he said, \"I feel like I'm a part of this school and that I attended it,\" paying tribute to the films of Wajda, Munk, Has, Polanski and Skolimowski.", "King Missile wrote \"Martin Scorsese\" in his honor.", "On February 12, 2012, at the 65th British Academy Film Awards, Scorsese was the recipient of the BAFTA Academy Fellowship Award.On September 16, 2012, Scorsese won two Emmy Awards for Outstanding Directing for Nonfiction Programming and Outstanding Nonfiction Special for his work on the documentary ''George Harrison: Living in the Material World''.", "In 2013, the National Endowment for the Humanities selected Scorsese for the Jefferson Lecture, the U.S. federal government's highest honor for achievement in the humanities.", "He was the first filmmaker chosen for the honor.", "His lecture, delivered on April 1, 2013, at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts, was titled \"Persistence of Vision: Reading the Language of Cinema\".", "Scorsese was awarded the Polish Gold Medal for Merit to Culture – Gloria Artis on April 11, 2017, in recognition of his contribution to Polish cinema.Jon Stewart with Scorsese at the Peabody Awards in 2006Scorsese has also garnered favorable responses from numerous film giants including Ingmar Bergman, Frank Capra, Jean-Luc Godard, Werner Herzog, Elia Kazan, Akira Kurosawa, David Lean, Michael Powell, Satyajit Ray, and François Truffaut.", "He was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 2008.He was awarded an Honorary Doctorate from the University of Oxford on June 20, 2018.As of 2021, five of Scorsese's films have been selected by the Library of Congress for preservation in the National Film Registry for being \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\".", "In commenting on Scorsese's 2019 film ''The Irishman'', Guillermo del Toro cited Scorsese's ability as a director for the depiction of character development comparable to the films of \"Renoir, Bresson, Bergman, Oliveira or Kurosawa\".", "Sam Mendes, in his acceptance speech after winning the 2020 Golden Globe Award for Best Director for ''1917'', praised Scorsese's contribution to cinema, stating, \"There's not one director in this room, not one director in the world, that is not in the shadow of Martin Scorsese...", "I just have to say that.\"", "Bong Joon-ho, in his acceptance speech for the 2020 Academy Award for Best Director for ''Parasite'', said, \"When I was young and studying cinema, there was a saying that I carved deep into my heart, which is, the most personal is the most creative.\"", "He then said that this quote had come from Scorsese, which prompted the audience to give Scorsese a standing ovation.in 2021, lifelong friend George Lucas and his wife Mellody Hobson through the Hobson/Lucas Family Foundation made a donation to NYU to establish the Martin Scorsese Institute of Global Cinematic Arts." ], [ "Awards and nominations", "Scorsese's motion picture star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame+Accolades for Martin Scorsese Year Title Academy Awards BAFTA Awards Golden Globe Awards Nominations Wins Nominations Wins Nominations Wins1974''Alice Doesn't Live Here Anymore''317421976''Taxi Driver''47321977''New York, New York''241980''Raging Bull''8242711983''The King of Comedy''411985''After Hours''111986''The Color of Money''4121988''The Last Temptation of Christ''121990''Goodfellas''617551991''Cape Fear''2221993''The Age of Innocence''5141411995''Casino''1211997''Kundun''412002''Gangs of New York''10121522004''The Aviator''115144632006''The Departed''546612011''Hugo''11592312013''The Wolf of Wall Street''54212016''Silence''12019''The Irishman''101052023''Killers of the Flower Moon''10971'''Total'''10120102236811" ], [ "See also", "*Martin Scorsese's unrealized projects" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * * * Martin Scorsese on Letterboxd* * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mean Streets" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Mean Streets''''' is a 1973 American crime film directed by Martin Scorsese, co-written by Scorsese and Mardik Martin, and starring Robert De Niro and Harvey Keitel.", "It was produced by Warner Bros.", "The film premiered at the New York Film Festival on October 2, 1973, and was released on October14.De Niro won the National Society of Film Critics and the New York Film Critics Circle award for Best Supporting Actor for his role as \"Johnny Boy\" Civello.The film was the first of several collaborations between Scorsese and De Niro.", "It was also Scorsese's first critical and commercial success.", "In 1997, ''Mean Streets'' was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress, who deemed it \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\"." ], [ "Plot", "Charlie Cappa, a young Italian-American in the Little Italy neighborhood of New York City, is hampered by his feeling of responsibility toward his reckless younger friend John \"Johnny Boy\" Civello, a small-time gambler and degenerate who refuses to work and owes money to many loan sharks.", "Charlie is also having a secret affair with Johnny's cousin Teresa, who has epilepsy and is ostracized because of her condition — especially by Charlie's Uncle Giovanni, a powerful mafioso, and is told to stay away from her.", "Giovanni also wants Charlie to distance himself from Johnny, saying \"honorable men go with honorable men.", "\"Charlie is torn between his devout Catholicism and his illicit Mafia work for Giovanni.", "Johnny becomes increasingly self-destructive and disrespectful of his Mafia-connected creditors.", "Failing to receive redemption in the Church, Charlie seeks it through sacrificing himself on Johnny's behalf.", "At Tony's bar, a loan shark and friend named Michael comes looking for Johnny again to pay up: he has been doing so for a few days and is increasingly getting frustrated, thinking Johnny is taking advantage of him and that he is not going to pay up, with Charlie promising to convince Johnny.", "To his surprise, Johnny insults him and tells him he is not going to pay back the money.", "Michael lunges at Johnny, who pulls a gun.", "After a tense standoff, Michael walks away and Charlie convinces Johnny that they should leave town for a brief period.", "Teresa insists on coming with them.", "Charlie borrows a car and they drive off, leaving the neighborhood without incident.A car that has been following them suddenly pulls up, with Michael at the wheel and his henchman, Jimmy Shorts, in the backseat.", "Jimmy fires several shots at Charlie's car, hitting Johnny in the neck and Charlie in the arm, causing Charlie to crash the car into a fire hydrant.", "Teresa is injured in the crash, Johnny is seen in an alleyway staggering toward a white light which is revealed to be a police car, and Charlie gets out of the crashed vehicle and kneels in the spurting water from the hydrant, dazed and bleeding.", "Paramedics take Teresa and Charlie away while Johnny's fate remains unknown." ], [ "Cast", "* Robert De Niro as John \"Johnny Boy\" Civello* Harvey Keitel as Charlie Cappa* David Proval as Tony DeVienazo* Amy Robinson as Teresa Ronchelli* Victor Argo as Mario* Richard Romanus as Michael Longo* Cesare Danova as Giovanni Cappa* George Memmoli as Joey * Jeannie Bell as Diane* Harry Northup as Soldier* David Carradine as Drunk* Martin Scorsese as Jimmy Shorts" ], [ "Production", "Apart from his first actual feature, ''Who's That Knocking at My Door'', and a directing project given to him by early independent film maker Roger Corman, ''Boxcar Bertha'', this was Scorsese's first feature film of his own design.", "Director John Cassavetes told him after he completed ''Boxcar Bertha'': \"You've just spent a year of your life making a piece of shit.\"", "This inspired Scorsese to make a film about his own experiences.", "Cassavetes told Scorsese he should do something like ''Who's That Knocking at My Door'', which Cassavetes had liked.", "''Mean Streets'' was based on events Scorsese saw almost regularly while growing up in New York City's Little Italy.The screenplay began as a continuation of the characters in ''Who's That Knocking''.", "Scorsese changed the title from ''Season of the Witch'' to ''Mean Streets'', a reference to Raymond Chandler's essay \"The Simple Art of Murder\", where Chandler writes: \"But down these mean streets a man must go who is not himself mean, who is neither tarnished nor afraid.\"", "Scorsese sent the script to Corman, who agreed to back the film if all the characters were black.", "Scorsese was anxious to make the film so he considered this option, but actress Verna Bloom arranged a meeting with potential financial backer Jonathan Taplin, the road manager for The Band.", "Taplin liked the script and was willing to raise the $300,000 Scorsese wanted if Corman promised, in writing, to distribute the film.", "The blaxploitation suggestion came to nothing when funding from Warner Bros. allowed him to make the film with Italian-American characters." ], [ "Reception", "Director Martin Scorsese''Mean Streets'' received immense critical acclaim.", "Pauline Kael was among the enthusiastic critics, calling it \"a true original, and a triumph of personal filmmaking\" and \"dizzyingly sensual\".", "Vincent Canby of ''The New York Times'' reflected that \"no matter how bleak the milieu, no matter how heartbreaking the narrative, some films are so thoroughly, beautifully realized they have a kind of tonic effect that has no relation to the subject matter\".", "''Time Out'' magazine called it \"one of the best American films of the decade\".", "David Denby, writing for ''Sight and Sound'', praised the film's acting, saying that Scorsese had used improvisation \"better than anyone in American movies so far.\"", "He concluded by saying that: \"Scorsese's impulse to express all he feels about life in every scene (a cannier, more prudent director wouldn't have started his film with that great De Niro monologue), and thus to wrench his audience upwards into a new state of consciousness with one prolonged and devastating gesture, infinitely hurting and infinitely tender.", "''Mean Streets'' comes close enough to this feverish ideal to warrant our love and much of our respect.", "\"Retrospectively, Roger Ebert of the ''Chicago Sun-Times'' inducted ''Mean Streets'' on his Great Movies list and wrote: \"In countless ways, right down to the detail of modern TV crime shows, ''Mean Streets'' is one of the source points of modern movies.\"", "In 2013, the staff of ''Entertainment Weekly'' voted the film the seventh greatest of all time.", "In 2015, it was ranked 93rd on the BBC's list of the 100 greatest American films.", "James Gandolfini, when asked on ''Inside the Actors Studio'' (season 11, episode two) which films most influenced him, cited ''Mean Streets'', saying \"I saw that ten times in a row.\"", "Likewise, director Kathryn Bigelow said that ''Mean Streets'' was one of her five favorite movies.", "In an interview with ''GQ'', Spike Lee named ''Mean Streets'' as one of his influences, along with ''On The Waterfront''.", "In 2011, ''Empire'' listed the film as #1 on its \"50 Greatest American Independent Films\" list.In 2022, the film appeared on \"''Variety'''s 100 Greatest Films of All Time\" list.On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 93% based on 75 reviews, with an average rating of 8.80/10.The website's critics consensus reads: \"''Mean Streets'' is a powerful tale of urban sin and guilt that marks Scorsese's arrival as an important cinematic voice and features electrifying performances from Harvey Keitel and Robert De Niro.\"", "According to Metacritic, which assigned a weighted average of 96 out of 100 based on eleven critics, the film received \"universal acclaim\"." ], [ "Home media", "''Mean Streets'' was released on VHS and Betamax in 1985.The film debuted as a letterboxed LaserDisc on October 7, 1991, in the US.", "It was released on Blu-ray on April 6, 2011, in France, and in America on July 17, 2012.The home media releases use the original mono audio track, rather than a modern surround sound mix as is common even for films that originally had mono audio.", "A May 18, 2015 release in the UK altered the color timing, and included a lossless stereo audio track.", "The film received a 4K Ultra HD and Blu-ray release from The Criterion Collection on November 21, 2023.Second Sight is releasing the 4K restoration on 4K Ultra HD in the UK." ], [ "Soundtrack", "Scorsese used mainly vintage pop songs as the movie soundtrack, a revolutionary move at the time.", "The opening titles along \"Be My Baby\" by the Ronettes, is considered one of the most memorable moments of his career, and according to critic Owen Gleiberman, \"arguably the single greatest use of a pop song in Hollywood history\".Other songs that appear on the film are:* \"Tell Me\" by The Rolling Stones* \"I Looked Away\" by Eric Clapton* \"Jumpin' Jack Flash\" by The Rolling Stones* \"Desiree\" by The Charts* \"I Met Him On A Sunday\" by The Shirelles* \"Florence\" by The Paragons* \"Those Oldies But Goodies\" by Little Caesar and The Romans* \"Please Mr. Postman\" by The Marvelettes* \"You\" by The Aquatones* \"It's In His Kiss\" by Betty Everett* \"I Love You So\" by The Chantels* \"Ship Of Love\" by The Nutmegs* \"Rubber Biscuit\" by The Chips* \"Pledging My Love\" by Johnny Ace* \"Baby Oh Baby\" by The Shells* \"Mickey's Monkey\" by The Miracles* \"Stepping Out\" by Cream (band)No official release of the soundtrack has been published." ], [ "See also", "* ''Goncharov'' - Internet meme originating in the early 2020s about a fictional Scorsese film made in 1973.", "* List of American films of 1973" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Marcel Achard" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Marcel Achard''' (5 July 1899 – 4 September 1974) was a French playwright and screenwriter whose popular sentimental comedies maintained his position as a highly recognizable name in his country's theatrical and literary circles for five decades.", "He was elected to the Académie française in 1959." ], [ "Themes and variations within a philosophical outlook", "A native of the Rhône département's Urban Community of Lyon, France's second largest metropolitan area, '''Marcel-Auguste Ferréol''' was born in Sainte-Foy-lès-Lyon, one of the city's suburbs, and adopted his pen name at the start of his writing career in the early 1920s.", "Able to absorb knowledge quickly, he became, in 1916, in the midst of World War I, a village schoolteacher at the age of 17.In 1919, a few months after the end of the war, the 20-year-old aspiring writer arrived in Paris and found jobs as a prompter at the Théâtre du Vieux-Colombier and as a journalist for various publications, including the major daily newspaper, ''Le Figaro''.Marcel Achard wrote his first play in 1922 and had a major success the following year when renowned actor-director Charles Dullin staged his play ''Voulez-vous jouer avec moâ?''", "''Would You Like to Play with Me?", "'', a sensitively delicate comedy about circus and its clowns, casting the playwright in a small part, as one of the clowns.", "The production set a pattern for the remainder of his theatrical output, most of which can be considered as 20th century reworkings of stock characters and situations from the Italian traditional Commedia dell'arte.", "The personages of Pierrot and Columbine are transported into modern-day settings and inserted into an occasionally mawkish or nostalgic love plot with equal doses of laughter mingled with pain and regret.These themes were expanded upon in two of his most popular plays of the period—1929's ''Jean de la Lune'' ''John of the Moon'' a/k/a ''The Dreamer'' and 1932's ''Domino''.", "''Jean'' showed how the unwavering trust of Jef, the faithful Pierrot prototype, transforms his scandalously adulterous wife into his idealized image of her, while ''Domino'' presented another unfaithful wife who pays a gigolo to make a pretense of courting her so as to distract her husband from her real lover, but the gigolo manages to act his character with such pretend sincerity that she winds up falling in love with this fictional persona.The distinctive quality of Achard's plays was their dreamlike mood of sentimental melancholy, underscored by the very titles which were primarily taken from popular bittersweet songs of the day.", "1924's ''Marlbrough s'en va-t-en guerre'' ''Marlborough Gets Himself Off to War'', 1935's ''Noix de coco'' ''Coconuts'', 1946's ''Auprès de ma blonde'' ''Close to My Girlfriend'' and ''Savez-vous planter les choux?''", "''Do You Know How to Plant Cabbage?''", "and 1948's ''Nous irons à Valparaiso'' ''We're Going to Valparaiso'' are among some examples of this specific style." ], [ "Career peak in the interwar period", "Achard's greatest successes and popularity were in the period between the two World Wars when contemporary critics favorably compared him to some of his renowned French predecessors such as Pierre de Marivaux and Alfred de Musset.", "Postwar pundits were not as kind, pointing out the rather narrow scope of human psyche that he represented and deprecatingly referring to him as a \"spécialiste de l'amour\" \"love specialist\" for the sickly-sweet characteristics of his poetic imagination.The critics focused, of course, on Achard's most popular plays, disregarding the fact that the reason Achard continued to write them is precisely because they met with such unvarying success.", "His less-well known works, however, show innovative techniques and original themes.", "1929's ''La Belle Marinière'' ''The Beautiful Lady of the Canals'' a/k/a ''The Beautiful Bargewoman'' still has some of the excessively-poetic dialogue, but is overall a realistic play about a love triangle involving a bargeman, his wife and his best friend and companion.", "Similarly, 1933's ''La femme en blanc'' ''The Woman in White'' uses a then-new technique of recreating for the audience events as they are being described by the play's characters.", "In 1938's ''Le corsaire'' ''The Privateer'', a \"play-in-a-play\" device, pioneered by Luigi Pirandello, depicts film actors portraying the life of a long-ago pirate, finding themselves caught in an endless loop of similarities.", "The same year saw the production of his most controversial play, ''Adam'', which strove to give insight into the conflicted emotions of an unhappy homosexual.", "Although the very subject matter caused it to be considered scandalous at the time, its brief revival three decades later, in the open and radicalized culture of the late 1960s, when the author was approaching his 70th birthday, found the once-ahead-of-its-time work judged as a tame and dated period piece below Achard's usual literary standard." ], [ "Successful postwar plays", "After World War II, despite the criticism, Achard's literary output continued unabated.", "Among his most successful later plays were 1952's ''Les compagnons de la Marjolaine'' ''The Companions of Marjoram'' and 1955's ''Le mal d'amour'' ''Love Sickness''.", "The greatest popularity, however, was achieved by a 1957 comedy about a testy, ill-tempered character nicknamed ''Patate'' ''Spud'' and a 1962 comic mystery ''L'Idiote'' ''The Idiot'', best known in America as the basis for the play and film ''A Shot in the Dark''.Four of Achard's plays also had Broadway runs.", "''Domino'', adapted by actress-writer Grace George, opened at the Playhouse Theatre on 16 August 1932 and closed after seven performances.", "The title role went to Rod La Rocque, a top star of the silent cinema, whose career was on the wane following the advent of the talkies, and the lead actress was Jessie Royce Landis.", "Seventeen years later, a much better run was enjoyed by ''Auprès de ma blonde'', which was reworked by S. N. Behrman into ''I Know My Love''.", "It opened at the Shubert Theatre on 2 November 1949 and ran for 247 performances, closing on 3 June 1950.It was directed by and starred Alfred Lunt and his leading lady was, as always, his wife, Lynn Fontanne.", "Nine years after that premiere, however, ''Patate'', which played to sold-out theaters in Paris, could not translate its elusive charm to American audiences and repeated the seven-performance fiasco of the previous single-name character, ''Domino''.", "The fellow whose nickname made up the title was played by Tom Ewell, and the female lead, Susan Oliver, won the Theatre World Award for her performance, while the Irwin Shaw adaptation opened at Henry Miller's Theatre on 28 October 1958 and closed on November 1.Ultimately, it would be ''A Shot in the Dark'', three years later, which would boast the longest run.", "Adapted by Harry Kurnitz and directed by Harold Clurman, it racked up an impressive 389 performances, opening at the Booth Theatre on 18 October 1961 and closing on 22 September 1962.The stars were Julie Harris, Walter Matthau and William Shatner.Achard's numerous screenplays, frequently centering on relatively recent historical events and personalities, include 1936's ''Mayerling'', 1938's ''Orage'' and 1942's ''Félicie Nanteuil''.", "He presided over the Cannes Film Festival in 1958 and 1959 and had a similar role at the Venice Film Festival in 1960.It was also in 1959 that he was finally, at the age of 60, elected to the Académie française." ], [ "Death", "Marcel Achard died of diabetes in his Paris home two months after his 75th birthday.", "He was survived by his wife, Lily." ], [ "Filmography", "*''Jean de la Lune'', directed by Jean Choux (France, 1931, based on the play ''Jean de la Lune'') *''Mistigri'', directed by Harry Lachman (France, 1931, based on the play ''Mistigri'') *''The Beautiful Sailor'', directed by Harry Lachman (France, 1932, based on the play ''La Belle Marinière'') *''Cocoanut'', directed by Jean Boyer (France, 1939, based on the play ''Noix de coco'') * ''The Strange Monsieur Victor'' (1938)*'''', directed by Schamyl Bauman (Sweden, 1939, based on the play ''Pétrus'') *''Domino'', directed by Roger Richebé (France, 1943, based on the play ''Domino'') *''Pétrus'', directed by Marc Allégret (France, 1946, based on the play ''Pétrus'') *''Jean de la Lune'', directed by Marcel Achard (France, 1949, based on the play ''Jean de la Lune'') *''A Shot in the Dark'', directed by Blake Edwards (1964, based on the play ''L'Idiote'') *''Patate'', directed by Robert Thomas (France, 1964, based on the play ''Patate'')" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "References", "** (obituary)" ], [ "External links", "**" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Myasthenia gravis" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Myasthenia gravis''' ('''MG''') is a long-term neuromuscular junction disease that leads to varying degrees of skeletal muscle weakness.", "The most commonly affected muscles are those of the eyes, face, and swallowing.", "It can result in double vision, drooping eyelids, and difficulties in talking and walking.", "Onset can be sudden.", "Those affected often have a large thymus or develop a thymoma.Myasthenia gravis is an autoimmune disease of the neuro-muscular junction which results from antibodies that block or destroy nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (AChR) at the junction between the nerve and muscle.", "This prevents nerve impulses from triggering muscle contractions.", "Most cases are due to immunoglobulin G1 (IgG1) and IgG3 antibodies that attack AChR in the postsynaptic membrane, causing complement-mediated damage and muscle weakness.", "Rarely, an inherited genetic defect in the neuromuscular junction results in a similar condition known as congenital myasthenia.", "Babies of mothers with myasthenia may have symptoms during their first few months of life, known as neonatal myasthenia.", "Diagnosis can be supported by blood tests for specific antibodies, the edrophonium test, or a nerve conduction study.MG is generally treated with medications known as acetylcholinesterase inhibitors, such as neostigmine and pyridostigmine.", "Immunosuppressants, such as prednisone or azathioprine, may also be used.", "The surgical removal of the thymus may improve symptoms in certain cases.", "Plasmapheresis and high-dose intravenous immunoglobulin may be used during sudden flares of the condition.", "If the breathing muscles become significantly weak, mechanical ventilation may be required.", "Once intubated acetylcholinesterase inhibitors may be temporarily held to reduce airway secretions.MG affects 50 to 200 people per million.", "It is newly diagnosed in 3 to 30 people per million each year.", "Diagnosis has become more common due to increased awareness.", "MG most commonly occurs in women under the age of 40 and in men over the age of 60.It is uncommon in children.", "With treatment, most live to an average life expectancy.", "The word is from the Greek ''mys'', \"muscle\" and ''astheneia'' \"weakness\", and the Latin ''gravis'', \"serious\"." ], [ "Signs and symptoms", "The initial, main symptom in MG is painless weakness of specific muscles, not fatigue.", "The muscle weakness becomes progressively worse during periods of physical activity and improves after periods of rest.", "Typically, the weakness and fatigue are worse toward the end of the day.", "MG generally starts with ocular (eye) weakness; it might then progress to a more severe generalized form, characterized by weakness in the extremities or in muscles that govern basic life functions.===Eyes===In about two-thirds of individuals, the initial symptom of MG is related to the muscles around the eye.", "Eyelid drooping (ptosis may occur due to weakness of m. levator palpebrae superioris) and double vision (diplopia, due to weakness of the extraocular muscles).", "Eye symptoms tend to get worse when watching television, reading, or driving, particularly in bright conditions.", "Consequently, some affected individuals choose to wear sunglasses.", "The term \"ocular myasthenia gravis\" describes a subtype of MG where muscle weakness is confined to the eyes, i.e.", "extraocular muscles, m. levator palpebrae superioris, and m. orbicularis oculi.", "Typically, this subtype evolves into generalized MG, usually after a few years.===Eating===The weakness of the muscles involved in swallowing may lead to swallowing difficulty (dysphagia).", "Typically, this means that some food may be left in the mouth after an attempt to swallow, or food and liquids may regurgitate into the nose rather than go down the throat (velopharyngeal insufficiency).", "Weakness of the muscles that move the jaw (muscles of mastication) may cause difficulty chewing.", "In individuals with MG, chewing tends to become more tiring when chewing tough, fibrous foods.", "Difficulty in swallowing, chewing, and speaking is the first symptom in about one-sixth of individuals.===Speaking===Weakness of the muscles involved in speaking may lead to dysarthria and hypophonia.", "Speech may be slow and slurred, or have a nasal quality.", "In some cases, a singing hobby or profession must be abandoned.===Head and neck===Due to weakness of the muscles of facial expression and muscles of mastication, facial weakness may manifest as the inability to hold the mouth closed (the \"hanging jaw sign\") and as a snarling expression when attempting to smile.", "With drooping eyelids, facial weakness may make the individual appear sleepy or sad.", "Difficulty in holding the head upright may occur.===Other===The muscles that control breathing and limb movements can also be affected; rarely do these present as the first symptoms of MG, but develop over months to years.", "In a myasthenic crisis, a paralysis of the respiratory muscles occurs, necessitating assisted ventilation to sustain life.", "Crises may be triggered by various biological stressors such as infection, fever, an adverse reaction to medication, or emotional stress." ], [ "Pathophysiology", "MG is an autoimmune synaptopathy.", "The disorder occurs when the immune system malfunctions and generates antibodies that attack the body's tissues.", "The antibodies in MG attack a normal human protein, the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor, or a related protein called MuSK, a muscle-specific kinase.", "Other, less frequent antibodies are found against LRP4, agrin, and titin proteins.Human leukocyte antigen haplotypes are associated with increased susceptibility to myasthenia gravis and other autoimmune disorders.", "Relatives of people with myasthenia gravis have a higher percentage of other immune disorders.The thymus gland cells form part of the body's immune system.", "In those with myasthenia gravis, the thymus gland is large and abnormal.", "It sometimes contains clusters of immune cells that indicate lymphoid hyperplasia, and the thymus gland may give wrong instructions to immune cells.File:Synapse diag4.png|Neuromuscular junction: 1.Axon 2.Muscle cell membrane 3.Synaptic vesicle 4.Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor 5.MitochondrionFile:Gray1178.png|A juvenile thymus shrinks with age.File:Nicotinic Acetylcholine receptor.png|The nicotinic acetylcholine receptor===In pregnancy===For women who are pregnant and already have MG, in a third of cases, they have been known to experience an exacerbation of their symptoms, and in those cases, it usually occurs in the first trimester of pregnancy.", "Signs and symptoms in pregnant mothers tend to improve during the second and third trimesters.", "Complete remission can occur in some mothers.", "Immunosuppressive therapy should be maintained throughout pregnancy, as this reduces the chance of neonatal muscle weakness, and controls the mother's myasthenia.About 10–20% of infants with mothers affected by the condition are born with transient neonatal myasthenia (TNM), which generally produces feeding and respiratory difficulties that develop about 12 hours to several days after birth.", "A child with TNM typically responds very well to acetylcholinesterase inhibitors, and the condition generally resolves over a period of three weeks, as the antibodies diminish, and generally does not result in any complications.", "Very rarely, an infant can be born with arthrogryposis multiplex congenita, secondary to profound intrauterine weakness.", "This is due to maternal antibodies that target an infant's acetylcholine receptors.", "In some cases, the mother remains asymptomatic." ], [ "Diagnosis", "MG can be difficult to diagnose, as the symptoms can be subtle and hard to distinguish from both normal variants and other neurological disorders.Three types of myasthenic symptoms in children can be distinguished:# Transient neonatal myasthenia occurs in 10 to 15% of babies born to mothers afflicted with the disorder, and disappears after a few weeks.# Congenital myasthenia, the rarest form, occurs when genes are present from both parents.# Juvenile myasthenia gravis is most common in females.Congenital myasthenias cause muscle weakness and fatigability similar to those of MG.The signs of congenital myasthenia usually are present in the first years of childhood, although they may not be recognized until adulthood.===Classification===+ '''Myasthenia Gravis Foundation of America Clinical Classification''' Class Description I Any eye muscle weakness, possible ptosis, no other evidence of muscle weakness elsewhere II Eye muscle weakness of any severity, mild weakness of other muscles IIa Predominantly limb or axial muscles IIb Predominantly bulbar and/or respiratory muscles III Eye muscle weakness of any severity, moderate weakness of other muscles IIIa Predominantly limb or axial muscles IIIb Predominantly bulbar and/or respiratory muscles IV Eye muscle weakness of any severity, severe weakness of other muscles IVa Predominantly limb or axial muscles IVb Predominantly bulbar and/or respiratory muscles V Intubation needed to maintain airwayWhen diagnosed with MG, a person is assessed for his or her neurological status and the level of illness is established.", "This is usually done using the accepted Myasthenia Gravis Foundation of America Clinical Classification scale.===Physical examination===During a physical examination to check for MG, a doctor might ask the person to perform repetitive movements.", "For instance, the doctor may ask one to look at a fixed point for 30 seconds and to relax the muscles of the forehead, because a person with MG and ptosis of the eyes might be involuntarily using the forehead muscles to compensate for the weakness in the eyelids.", "The clinical examiner might also try to elicit the \"curtain sign\" in a person by holding one of the person's eyes open, which in the case of MG will lead the other eye to close.===Blood tests===If the diagnosis is suspected, serology can be performed:* One test is for antibodies against the acetylcholine receptor; the test has a reasonable sensitivity of 80–96%, but in ocular myasthenia, the sensitivity falls to 50%.", "* A proportion of the people without antibodies against the acetylcholine receptor have antibodies against the MuSK protein.", "* In specific situations, testing is performed for Lambert-Eaton syndrome.===Electrodiagnostics===A chest CT-scan showing a thymoma (red circle)Photograph of a person showing right partial ptosis (left picture), the left lid shows compensatory pseudo lid retraction because of equal innervation of the m. levator palpabrae superioris (Hering's law of equal innervation): Right picture: after an edrophonium test, note the improvement in ptosis.Muscle fibers of people with MG are easily fatigued, which the repetitive nerve stimulation test can help diagnose.", "In single-fiber electromyography, which is considered to be the most sensitive (although not the most specific) test for MG, a thin needle electrode is inserted into different areas of a particular muscle to record the action potentials from several samplings of different individual muscle fibers.", "Two muscle fibers belonging to the same motor unit are identified, and the temporal variability in their firing patterns is measured.", "Frequency and proportion of particular abnormal action potential patterns, called \"jitter\" and \"blocking\", are diagnostic.", "Jitter refers to the abnormal variation in the time interval between action potentials of adjacent muscle fibers in the same motor unit.", "Blocking refers to the failure of nerve impulses to elicit action potentials in adjacent muscle fibers of the same motor unit.===Ice test===Applying ice for 2–5 minutes to the muscles reportedly has a sensitivity and specificity of 76.9% and 98.3%, respectively, for the identification of MG. Acetylcholinesterase is thought to be inhibited at the lower temperature, which is the basis for this diagnostic test.", "This generally is performed on the eyelids when ptosis is present and is deemed positive if a ≥2-mm rise in the eyelid occurs after the ice is removed.===Edrophonium test===This test requires the intravenous administration of edrophonium chloride or neostigmine, drugs that block the breakdown of acetylcholine by cholinesterase (acetylcholinesterase inhibitors).", "This test is no longer typically performed, as its use can lead to life-threatening bradycardia (slow heart rate) which requires immediate emergency attention.", "Production of edrophonium was discontinued in 2008.===Imaging===A chest X-ray may identify widening of the mediastinum suggestive of thymoma, but computed tomography or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are more sensitive ways to identify thymomas and are generally done for this reason.", "MRI of the cranium and orbits may also be performed to exclude compressive and inflammatory lesions of the cranial nerves and ocular muscles.===Pulmonary function test===The forced vital capacity may be monitored at intervals to detect increasing muscular weakness.", "Acutely, negative inspiratory force may be used to determine adequacy of ventilation; it is performed on those individuals with MG.=== Differential diagnoses ===The muscle weakness that worsens with activity (abnormal muscle fatigue) in myasthenia gravis is a symptom shared by other neuromuscular diseases.", "Most of the metabolic myopathies, such as McArdle disease (GSD-V), have abnormal muscle fatigue rather than fixed muscle weakness.", "Also, like myasthenia gravis, exercise intolerance in McArdle disease improves with regular physical activity (performed safely using activity adaptations such as getting into second wind, the \"30 for 80 rule,\" and \"six second rule\").", "A small minority of patients with McArdle disease also have the comorbidity of ptosis (drooping upper eyelid).", "Late-onset GSD-II (Pompe disease) and GSD-XV also have muscle weakness or fatigue with comorbidities of ptosis and opthalmoplegia; as do many of the mitochondrial myopathies.Other diseases that involve abnormal muscle fatigue (which may be described as exercise-induced muscle weakness, reversible muscle weakness, or muscle weakness that improves with rest) include: endocrine myopathies (such as Hoffman syndrome), Tubular aggregate myopathy (TAM), ischemia (such as intermittent claudication, popliteal artery entrapment syndrome, and chronic venous insufficiency), and poor diet or malabsorption diseases that lead to vitamin D deficiency (osteomalic myopathy).", "Although limb-girdle muscular dystrophies (LGMDs) involve fixed muscle weakness, LGMDR8 also involves muscle fatigue; as do some limb-girdle muscular dystrophy-dystroglycanopathies such as MDDGC3 (formerly known as LGMDR15 and LGMD2O).", "Myofibrillar myopathy 10, dimethylglycine dehydrogenase deficiency, erythrocyte lactate transporter defect, and myopathy with myalgia, increased serum creatine kinase, with or without episodic rhabdomyolysis (MMCKR) also include muscle fatigue.X-linked episodic muscle weakness (EMWX) includes general muscle weakness, ptosis, and fluctuations in strength.", "In some individuals, fatiguability was demonstrable, the phenotype having features comparable to congenital myasthenic syndromes and channelopathies.Signs and symptoms of myasthenia presenting from infancy or childhood may be one of the congenital myasthenic syndromes, which can be inherited in either an autosomal dominant or recessive manner.", "There are currently over two dozen types of congenital myasthenic syndromes." ], [ "Management", "Treatment is by medication and/or surgery.", "Medication consists mainly of acetylcholinesterase inhibitors to directly improve muscle function and immunosuppressant drugs to reduce the autoimmune process.", "Thymectomy is a surgical method to treat MG.===Medication===Neostigmine, chemical structureAzathioprine, chemical structureWorsening may occur with medication such as fluoroquinolones, aminoglycosides, and magnesium.", "About 10% of people with generalized MG are considered treatment-refractory.", "Autologous hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) is sometimes used in severe, treatment-refractory MG.", "Available data provide preliminary evidence that HSCT can be an effective therapeutic option in carefully selected cases.Efgartigimod alfa (Vyvgart) was approved for medical use in the United States in December 2021.Efgartigimod alfa/hyaluronidase (Vyvgart Hytrulo) was approved for medical use in the United States in June 2023.Rozanolixizumab (Rystiggo) was approved for medical use in the United States in June 2023.====Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors====Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors can provide symptomatic benefit and may not fully remove a person's weakness from MG.", "While they might not fully remove all symptoms of MG, they still may allow a person the ability to perform normal daily activities.", "Usually, acetylcholinesterase inhibitors are started at a low dose and increased until the desired result is achieved.", "If taken 30 minutes before a meal, symptoms will be mild during eating, which is helpful for those who have difficulty swallowing due to their illness.", "Another medication used for MG, atropine, can reduce the muscarinic side effects of acetylcholinesterase inhibitors.", "Pyridostigmine is a relatively long-acting drug (when compared to other cholinergic agonists), with a half-life around four hours with relatively few side effects.", "Generally, it is discontinued in those who are being mechanically ventilated, as it is known to increase the amount of salivary secretions.", "A few high-quality studies have directly compared cholinesterase inhibitors with other treatments (or placebo); their practical benefit may be so significant that conducting studies in which they would be withheld from some people would be difficult.====Immune suppressants====The steroid prednisone might also be used to achieve a better result, but it can lead to the worsening of symptoms and takes weeks to achieve its maximal effectiveness.", "Research suggests that up to 15% of patients do not positively respond to immune suppressants.", "Due to the myriad symptoms that steroid treatments can cause, it is not the preferred method of treatment.", "Other immune suppressing medications may also be used including rituximab or azathioprine.===Plasmapheresis and IVIG===If the myasthenia is serious (myasthenic crisis), plasmapheresis can be used to remove the putative antibodies from the circulation.", "Also, intravenous immunoglobulins (IVIGs) can be used to bind the circulating antibodies.", "Both of these treatments have relatively short-lived benefits, typically measured in weeks, and often are associated with high costs, which make them prohibitive; they are generally reserved for when MG requires hospitalization.===Surgery===As thymomas are seen in 10% of all people with the MG, they are often given a chest X-ray and CT scan to evaluate their need for surgical removal of their thymus glands and any cancerous tissue that may be present.", "Even if surgery is performed to remove a thymoma, it generally does not lead to the remission of MG.", "Surgery in the case of MG involves the removal of the thymus, although in 2013, no clear benefit was indicated except in the presence of a thymoma.", "A 2016 randomized, controlled trial, however, found some benefits.===Physical measures===People with MG should be educated regarding the fluctuating nature of their symptoms, including weakness and exercise-induced fatigue.", "Exercise participation should be encouraged with frequent rest.", "In people with generalized MG, some evidence indicates a partial home program including training in diaphragmatic breathing, pursed-lip breathing, and interval-based muscle therapy may improve respiratory muscle strength, chest wall mobility, respiratory pattern, and respiratory endurance.===Medical imaging===In people with myasthenia gravis, older forms of iodinated contrast used for medical imaging have caused an increased risk of exacerbation of the disease, but modern forms have no immediate increased risk." ], [ "Prognosis", "The prognosis of people with MG is generally good, as is quality of life, when given very good treatment.", "Monitoring of a person with MG is very important, as at least 20% of people diagnosed with it will experience a myasthenic crisis within two years of their diagnosis, requiring rapid medical intervention.", "Generally, the most disabling period of MG might be years after the initial diagnosis.", "Assistive devices may be needed to assist with mobility.", "In the early 1900s, 70% of detected cases died from lung problems; now, that number is estimated to be around 3–5%, an improvement attributed to increased awareness and medications to manage symptoms." ], [ "Epidemiology", "MG occurs in all ethnic groups and both sexes.", "It most commonly affects women under 40 and people from 50 to 70 years old of either sex, but it has been known to occur at any age.", "Younger people rarely have thymoma.", "Prevalence in the United States is estimated at between 0.5 and 20.4 cases per 100,000, with an estimated 60,000 Americans affected.", "In the United Kingdom, an estimated 15 cases of MG occur per 100,000 people." ], [ "History", "The first to write about MG were Thomas Willis, Samuel Wilks, Erb, and Goldflam.", "The term \"myasthenia gravis pseudo-paralytica\" was proposed in 1895 by Jolly, a German physician.", "Mary Walker treated a person with MG with physostigmine in 1934.Simpson and Nastuck detailed the autoimmune nature of the condition.", "In 1973, Patrick and Lindstrom used rabbits to show that immunization with purified muscle-like acetylcholine receptors caused the development of MG-like symptoms." ], [ "Research", "Immunomodulating substances, such as drugs that prevent acetylcholine receptor modulation by the immune system, are currently being researched.", "Some research recently has been on anti-c5 inhibitors for treatment research as they are safe and used in the treatment of other diseases.", "Ephedrine seems to benefit some people more than other medications, but it has not been properly studied as of 2014.In the laboratory, MG is mostly studied in model organisms, such as rodents.", "In addition, in 2015, scientists developed an ''in vitro'' functional, all-human, neuromuscular junction assay from human embryonic stem cells and somatic-muscle stem cells.", "After the addition of pathogenic antibodies against the acetylcholine receptor and activation of the complement system, the neuromuscular co-culture shows symptoms such as weaker muscle contractions." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Motala ström" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Motala ström''' is the river system that drains lake Vättern, the second largest lake in Sweden, into the Baltic Sea in Norrköping.", "It is named from the city Motala where it begins.", "In the early 19th century, the Göta Canal was constructed in parallel with Motala ström." ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Microsoft" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Microsoft Corporation''' is an American multinational technology corporation headquartered in Redmond, Washington.", "Microsoft's best-known software products are the Windows line of operating systems, the Microsoft 365 suite of productivity applications, and the Edge web browser.", "Its flagship hardware products are the Xbox video game consoles and the Microsoft Surface lineup of touchscreen personal computers.", "Microsoft ranked No.", "14 in the 2022 Fortune 500 rankings of the largest United States corporations by total revenue; it was the world's largest software maker by revenue as of 2022.It is considered one of the Big Five American information technology companies, alongside Alphabet (parent company of Google), Amazon, Apple, and Meta (parent company of Facebook).Microsoft was founded by Bill Gates and Paul Allen on April 4, 1975, to develop and sell BASIC interpreters for the Altair 8800.It rose to dominate the personal computer operating system market with MS-DOS in the mid-1980s, followed by Windows.", "The company's 1986 initial public offering (IPO) and subsequent rise in its share price created three billionaires and an estimated 12,000 millionaires among Microsoft employees.", "Since the 1990s, it has increasingly diversified from the operating system market and has made several corporate acquisitions, the largest being the acquisition of Activision Blizzard for $68.7 billion in October 2023, followed by its acquisition of LinkedIn for $26.2 billion in December 2016, and its acquisition of Skype Technologies for $8.5 billion in May 2011., Microsoft is market-dominant in the IBM PC compatible operating system market and the office software suite market, although it has lost the majority of the overall operating system market to Android.", "The company also produces a wide range of other consumer and enterprise software for desktops, laptops, tabs, gadgets, and servers, including Internet search (with Bing), the digital services market (through MSN), mixed reality (HoloLens), cloud computing (Azure), and software development (Visual Studio).Steve Ballmer replaced Gates as CEO in 2000 and later envisioned a \"devices and services\" strategy.", "This unfolded with Microsoft acquiring Danger Inc. in 2008, entering the personal computer production market for the first time in June 2012 with the launch of the Microsoft Surface line of tablet computers, and later forming Microsoft Mobile through the acquisition of Nokia's devices and services division.", "Since Satya Nadella took over as CEO in 2014, the company has scaled back on hardware and instead focused on cloud computing, a move that helped the company's shares reach their highest value since December 1999.Under Nadella's direction, the company has also heavily expanded its gaming business to support the Xbox brand, establishing the Microsoft Gaming division in 2022, dedicated to operating Xbox in addition to its three subsidiaries (publishers).", "Microsoft Gaming is the third-largest gaming company in the world by revenue as of 2023.Earlier dethroned by Apple in 2010, and in 2018, Microsoft reclaimed its position as the most valuable publicly traded company in the world.", "In April 2019, Microsoft reached a market cap, becoming the third U.S. public company to be valued at over $1 trillion after Apple and Amazon, respectively.", ", Microsoft has the third-highest global brand valuation.Microsoft has been criticized for its monopolistic practices and the company's software has been criticized for problems with ease of use, robustness, and security." ], [ "History", "===1972–1985: Founding===An Altair 8800 computer (left) with the popular Model 33 ASR Teletype as terminal, paper tape reader, and paper tape punchPaul Allen and Bill Gates on October 19, 1981, after signing a pivotal contract with IBMBill Gates and Paul Allen's Original Business Cards located in the Microsoft Visitor Center.Childhood friends Bill Gates and Paul Allen sought to make a business using their skills in computer programming.", "In 1972, they founded Traf-O-Data, which sold a rudimentary computer to track and analyze automobile traffic data.", "Gates enrolled at Harvard University while Allen pursued a degree in computer science at Washington State University, though he later dropped out to work at Honeywell.", "The January 1975 issue of ''Popular Electronics'' featured Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems's (MITS) Altair 8800 microcomputer, which inspired Allen to suggest that they could program a BASIC interpreter for the device.", "Gates called MITS and claimed that he had a working interpreter, and MITS requested a demonstration.", "Allen worked on a simulator for the Altair while Gates developed the interpreter, and it worked flawlessly when they demonstrated it to MITS in March 1975 in Albuquerque, New Mexico.", "MITS agreed to distribute it, marketing it as Altair BASIC.", "Gates and Allen established Microsoft on April 4, 1975, with Gates as CEO, and Allen suggested the name \"Micro-Soft,\" short for micro-computer software.", "In August 1977, the company formed an agreement with ASCII Magazine in Japan, resulting in its first international office of ASCII Microsoft.", "Microsoft moved its headquarters to Bellevue, Washington, in January 1979.Microsoft entered the operating system (OS) business in 1980 with its own version of Unix called Xenix, but it was MS-DOS that solidified the company's dominance.", "IBM awarded a contract to Microsoft in November 1980 to provide a version of the CP/M OS to be used in the IBM Personal Computer (IBM PC).", "For this deal, Microsoft purchased a CP/M clone called 86-DOS from Seattle Computer Products which it branded as MS-DOS, although IBM rebranded it to IBM PC DOS.", "Microsoft retained ownership of MS-DOS following the release of the IBM PC in August 1981.IBM had copyrighted the IBM PC BIOS, so other companies had to reverse engineer it for non-IBM hardware to run as IBM PC compatibles, but no such restriction applied to the operating systems.", "Microsoft eventually became the leading PC operating systems vendor.", "The company expanded into new markets with the release of the Microsoft Mouse in 1983, as well as with a publishing division named Microsoft Press.Paul Allen resigned from Microsoft in 1983 after developing Hodgkin's lymphoma.", "Allen claimed in ''Idea Man: A Memoir by the co-founder of Microsoft'' that Gates wanted to dilute his share in the company when he was diagnosed with Hodgkin's disease because he did not think that he was working hard enough.", "Allen later invested in low-tech sectors, sports teams, commercial real estate, neuroscience, private space flight, and more.===1985–1994: Windows and Office===Windows 1.0 was released on November 20, 1985, as the first version of the Windows line.Microsoft released Windows on November 20, 1985, as a graphical extension for MS-DOS, despite having begun jointly developing OS/2 with IBM that August.", "Microsoft moved its headquarters from Bellevue to Redmond, Washington, on February 26, 1986, and went public on March 13, with the resulting rise in stock making an estimated four billionaires and 12,000 millionaires from Microsoft employees.", "Microsoft released its version of OS/2 to original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) on April 2, 1987.In 1990, the Federal Trade Commission examined Microsoft for possible collusion due to the partnership with IBM, marking the beginning of more than a decade of legal clashes with the government.", "Meanwhile, the company was at work on Microsoft Windows NT, which was heavily based on their copy of the OS/2 code.", "It shipped on July 21, 1993, with a new modular kernel and the 32-bit Win32 application programming interface (API), making it easier to port from 16-bit (MS-DOS-based) Windows.", "Microsoft informed IBM of Windows NT, and the OS/2 partnership deteriorated.In 1990, Microsoft introduced the Microsoft Office suite which bundled separate applications such as Microsoft Word and Microsoft Excel.", "On May 22, Microsoft launched Windows 3.0, featuring streamlined user interface graphics and improved protected mode capability for the Intel 386 processor, and both Office and Windows became dominant in their respective areas.On July 27, 1994, the Department of Justice's Antitrust Division filed a competitive impact statement that said: \"Beginning in 1988 and continuing until July 15, 1994, Microsoft induced many OEMs to execute anti-competitive 'per processor licenses.", "Under a per-processor license, an OEM pays Microsoft a royalty for each computer it sells containing a particular microprocessor, whether the OEM sells the computer with a Microsoft operating system or a non-Microsoft operating system.", "In effect, the royalty payment to Microsoft when no Microsoft product is being used acts as a penalty, or tax, on the OEM's use of a competing PC operating system.", "Since 1988, Microsoft's use of per processor licenses has increased.", "\"===1995–2007: Foray into the Web, Windows 95, Windows XP, and Xbox===In 1996, Microsoft released Windows CE, a version of the operating system meant for personal digital assistants and other tiny computers, shown here on the HP 300LX.Following Bill Gates's internal \"Internet Tidal Wave memo\" on May 26, 1995, Microsoft began to redefine its offerings and expand its product line into computer networking and the World Wide Web.", "With a few exceptions of new companies, like Netscape, Microsoft was the only major and established company that acted fast enough to be a part of the World Wide Web practically from the start.", "Other companies like Borland, WordPerfect, Novell, IBM and Lotus, being much slower to adapt to the new situation, would give Microsoft market dominance.", "The company released Windows 95 on August 24, 1995, featuring pre-emptive multitasking, a completely new user interface with a novel start button, and 32-bit compatibility; similar to NT, it provided the Win32 API.", "Windows 95 came bundled with the online service MSN, which was at first intended to be a competitor to the Internet, and (for OEMs) Internet Explorer, a Web browser.", "Internet Explorer has not bundled with the retail Windows 95 boxes, because the boxes were printed before the team finished the Web browser, and instead were included in the Windows 95 Plus!", "pack.", "Backed by a high-profile marketing campaign and what ''The New York Times'' called \"the splashiest, most frenzied, most expensive introduction of a computer product in the industry's history,\" Windows 95 quickly became a success.", "Branching out into new markets in 1996, Microsoft and General Electric's NBC unit created a new 24/7 cable news channel, MSNBC.", "Microsoft created Windows CE 1.0, a new OS designed for devices with low memory and other constraints, such as personal digital assistants.", "In October 1997, the Justice Department filed a motion in the Federal District Court, stating that Microsoft violated an agreement signed in 1994 and asked the court to stop the bundling of Internet Explorer with Windows.Microsoft released the first installment in the Xbox series of consoles in 2001.The Xbox, graphically powerful compared to its rivals, featured a standard PC's 733 MHz Intel Pentium III processor.On January 13, 2000, Bill Gates handed over the CEO position to Steve Ballmer, an old college friend of Gates and employee of the company since 1980, while creating a new position for himself as Chief Software Architect.", "Various companies including Microsoft formed the Trusted Computing Platform Alliance in October 1999 to (among other things) increase security and protect intellectual property through identifying changes in hardware and software.", "Critics decried the alliance as a way to enforce indiscriminate restrictions over how consumers use software, and over how computers behave, and as a form of digital rights management: for example, the scenario where a computer is not only secured for its owner but also secured against its owner as well.", "On April 3, 2000, a judgment was handed down in the case of ''United States v. Microsoft Corp.'', calling the company an \"abusive monopoly.\"", "Microsoft later settled with the U.S. Department of Justice in 2004.On October 25, 2001, Microsoft released Windows XP, unifying the mainstream and NT lines of OS under the NT codebase.", "The company released the Xbox later that year, entering the video game console market dominated by Sony and Nintendo.", "In March 2004 the European Union brought antitrust legal action against the company, citing it abused its dominance with the Windows OS, resulting in a judgment of €497 million ($613 million) and requiring Microsoft to produce new versions of Windows XP without Windows Media Player: Windows XP Home Edition N and Windows XP Professional N. In November 2005, the company's second video game console, the Xbox 360, was released.", "There were two versions, a basic version for $299.99 and a deluxe version for $399.99.Increasingly present in the hardware business following Xbox, Microsoft 2006 released the Zune series of digital media players, a successor of its previous software platform Portable Media Center.", "These expanded on previous hardware commitments from Microsoft following its original Microsoft Mouse in 1983; as of 2007 the company sold the best-selling wired keyboard (Natural Ergonomic Keyboard 4000), mouse (IntelliMouse), and desktop webcam (LifeCam) in the United States.", "That year the company also launched the Surface \"digital table\", later renamed PixelSense.===2007–2011: Microsoft Azure, Windows Vista, Windows 7, and Microsoft Stores===CEO Steve Ballmer at the MIX event in 2008.In an interview about his management style in 2005, he mentioned that his first priority was to get the people he delegates to in order.", "Ballmer also emphasized the need to continue pursuing new technologies even if initial attempts fail, citing the original attempts with Windows as an example.Headquarters of the European Commission, which has imposed several fines on MicrosoftReleased in January 2007, the next version of Windows, Vista, focused on features, security and a redesigned user interface dubbed Aero.", "Microsoft Office 2007, released at the same time, featured a \"Ribbon\" user interface which was a significant departure from its predecessors.", "Relatively strong sales of both products helped to produce a record profit in 2007.The European Union imposed another fine of €899 million ($1.4 billion) for Microsoft's lack of compliance with the March 2004 judgment on February 27, 2008, saying that the company charged rivals unreasonable prices for key information about its workgroup and backoffice servers.", "Microsoft stated that it was in compliance and that \"these fines are about the past issues that have been resolved\".", "2007 also saw the creation of a multi-core unit at Microsoft, following the steps of server companies such as Sun and IBM.Gates retired from his role as Chief Software Architect on June 27, 2008, a decision announced in June 2006, while retaining other positions related to the company in addition to being an advisor for the company on key projects.", "Azure Services Platform, the company's entry into the cloud computing market for Windows, launched on October 27, 2008.On February 12, 2009, Microsoft announced its intent to open a chain of Microsoft-branded retail stores, and on October 22, 2009, the first retail Microsoft Store opened in Scottsdale, Arizona; the same day Windows 7 was officially released to the public.", "Windows 7's focus was on refining Vista with ease-of-use features and performance enhancements, rather than an extensive reworking of Windows.As the smartphone industry boomed in the late 2000s, Microsoft had struggled to keep up with its rivals in providing a modern smartphone operating system, falling behind Apple and Google-sponsored Android in the United States.", "As a result, in 2010 Microsoft revamped their aging flagship mobile operating system, Windows Mobile, replacing it with the new Windows Phone OS that was released in October that year.", "It used a new user interface design language, codenamed \"Metro,\" which prominently used simple shapes, typography, and iconography, utilizing the concept of minimalism.", "Microsoft implemented a new strategy for the software industry, providing a consistent user experience across all smartphones using the Windows Phone OS.", "It launched an alliance with Nokia in 2011 and Microsoft worked closely with the company to co-develop Windows Phone, but remained partners with long-time Windows Mobile OEM HTC.", "Microsoft is a founding member of the Open Networking Foundation started on March 23, 2011.Fellow founders were Google, HP Networking, Yahoo!, Verizon Communications, Deutsche Telekom and 17 other companies.", "This nonprofit organization is focused on providing support for a cloud computing initiative called Software-Defined Networking.", "The initiative is meant to speed innovation through simple software changes in telecommunications networks, wireless networks, data centers, and other networking areas.===2011–2014: Windows 8/8.1, Xbox One, Outlook.com, and Surface devices===Surface Pro 3, part of the Surface series of laplets by MicrosoftFollowing the release of Windows Phone, Microsoft undertook a gradual rebranding of its product range throughout 2011 and 2012, with the corporation's logos, products, services, and websites adopting the principles and concepts of the Metro design language.", "Microsoft unveiled Windows 8, an operating system designed to power both personal computers and tablet computers, in Taipei in June 2011.A developer preview was released on September 13, which was subsequently replaced by a consumer preview on February 29, 2012, and released to the public in May.", "The Surface was unveiled on June 18, becoming the first computer in the company's history to have its hardware made by Microsoft.", "On June 25, Microsoft paid US$1.2 billion to buy the social network Yammer.", "On July 31, they launched the Outlook.com webmail service to compete with Gmail.", "On September 4, 2012, Microsoft released Windows Server 2012.In July 2012, Microsoft sold its 50% stake in MSNBC, which it had run as a joint venture with NBC since 1996.On October 1, Microsoft announced its intention to launch a news operation, part of a new-look MSN, with Windows 8 later in the month.", "On October 26, 2012, Microsoft launched Windows 8 and the Microsoft Surface.", "Three days later, Windows Phone 8 was launched.", "To cope with the potential for an increase in demand for products and services, Microsoft opened a number of \"holiday stores\" across the U.S. to complement the increasing number of \"bricks-and-mortar\" Microsoft Stores that opened in 2012.On March 29, 2013, Microsoft launched a Patent Tracker.In August 2012, the New York City Police Department announced a partnership with Microsoft for the development of the Domain Awareness System which is used for Police surveillance in New York City.The Xbox One console, released in 2013The Kinect, a motion-sensing input device made by Microsoft and designed as a video game controller, first introduced in November 2010, was upgraded for the 2013 release of the Xbox One video game console.", "Kinect's capabilities were revealed in May 2013: an ultra-wide 1080p camera, function in the dark due to an infrared sensor, higher-end processing power and new software, the ability to distinguish between fine movements (such as a thumb movement), and determining a user's heart rate by looking at their face.", "Microsoft filed a patent application in 2011 that suggests that the corporation may use the Kinect camera system to monitor the behavior of television viewers as part of a plan to make the viewing experience more interactive.", "On July 19, 2013, Microsoft stocks suffered their biggest one-day percentage sell-off since the year 2000, after its fourth-quarter report raised concerns among investors on the poor showings of both Windows 8 and the Surface tablet.", "Microsoft suffered a loss of more than US$32 billion.In line with the maturing PC business, in July 2013, Microsoft announced that it would reorganize the business into four new business divisions, namely Operating systems, Apps, Cloud, and Devices.", "All previous divisions will be dissolved into new divisions without any workforce cuts.", "On September 3, 2013, Microsoft agreed to buy Nokia's mobile unit for $7 billion, following Amy Hood taking the role of CFO.===2014–2020: Windows 10, Microsoft Edge, and HoloLens===Satya Nadella succeeded Steve Ballmer as the CEO of Microsoft in February 2014.On February 4, 2014, Steve Ballmer stepped down as CEO of Microsoft and was succeeded by Satya Nadella, who previously led Microsoft's Cloud and Enterprise division.", "On the same day, John W. Thompson took on the role of chairman, in place of Bill Gates, who continued to participate as a technology advisor.", "Thompson became the second chairman in Microsoft's history.", "On April 25, 2014, Microsoft acquired Nokia Devices and Services for $7.2 billion.", "This new subsidiary was renamed Microsoft Mobile Oy.", "On September 15, 2014, Microsoft acquired the video game development company Mojang, best known for ''Minecraft'', for $2.5 billion.", "On June 8, 2017, Microsoft acquired Hexadite, an Israeli security firm, for $100 million.On January 21, 2015, Microsoft announced the release of their first Interactive whiteboard, Microsoft Surface Hub.", "On July 29, 2015, Windows 10 was released, with its server sibling, Windows Server 2016, released in September 2016.In Q1 2015, Microsoft was the third largest maker of mobile phones, selling 33 million units (7.2% of all).", "While a large majority (at least 75%) of them do not run any version of Windows Phone— those other phones are not categorized as smartphones by Gartnerin the same time frame 8 million Windows smartphones (2.5% of all smartphones) were made by all manufacturers (but mostly by Microsoft).", "Microsoft's share of the U.S. smartphone market in January 2016 was 2.7%.", "During the summer of 2015 the company lost $7.6 billion related to its mobile-phone business, firing 7,800 employees.On March 1, 2016, Microsoft announced the merger of its PC and Xbox divisions, with Phil Spencer announcing that Universal Windows Platform (UWP) apps would be the focus for Microsoft's gaming in the future.", "On January 24, 2017, Microsoft showcased Intune for Education at the BETT 2017 education technology conference in London.", "Intune for Education is a new cloud-based application and device management service for the education sector.", "In May 2016, the company announced it was laying off 1,850 workers, and taking an impairment and restructuring charge of $950 million.", "In June 2016, Microsoft announced a project named Microsoft Azure Information Protection.", "It aims to help enterprises protect their data as it moves between servers and devices.", "In November 2016, Microsoft joined the Linux Foundation as a Platinum member during Microsoft's Connect(); developer event in New York.", "The cost of each Platinum membership is US$500,000 per year.", "Some analysts deemed this unthinkable ten years prior, however, as in 2001 then-CEO Steve Ballmer called Linux \"cancer\".", "Microsoft planned to launch a preview of Intune for Education \"in the coming weeks,\" with general availability scheduled for spring 2017, priced at $30 per device, or through volume licensing agreements.The Nokia Lumia 1320, the Microsoft Lumia 535 and the Nokia Lumia 530, which all run on one of the now-discontinued Windows Phone operating systemsIn January 2018, Microsoft patched Windows 10 to account for CPU problems related to Intel's Meltdown security breach.", "The patch led to issues with the Microsoft Azure virtual machines reliant on Intel's CPU architecture.", "On January 12, Microsoft released PowerShell Core 6.0 for the macOS and Linux operating systems.", "In February 2018, Microsoft killed notification support for their Windows Phone devices which effectively ended firmware updates for the discontinued devices.", "In March 2018, Microsoft recalled Windows 10 S to change it to a mode for the Windows operating system rather than a separate and unique operating system.", "In March the company also established guidelines that censor users of Office 365 from using profanity in private documents.", "In April 2018, Microsoft released the source code for Windows File Manager under the MIT License to celebrate the program's 20th anniversary.", "In April the company further expressed willingness to embrace open source initiatives by announcing Azure Sphere as its own derivative of the Linux operating system.", "In May 2018, Microsoft partnered with 17 American intelligence agencies to develop cloud computing products.", "The project is dubbed \"Azure Government\" and has ties to the Joint Enterprise Defense Infrastructure (JEDI) surveillance program.", "On June 4, 2018, Microsoft officially announced the acquisition of GitHub for $7.5 billion, a deal that closed on October 26, 2018.On July 10, 2018, Microsoft revealed the Surface Go platform to the public.", "Later in the month, it converted Microsoft Teams to gratis.", "In August 2018, Microsoft released two projects called Microsoft AccountGuard and Defending Democracy.", "It also unveiled Snapdragon 850 compatibility for Windows 10 on the ARM architecture.Apollo 11 astronaut Buzz Aldrin using a Microsoft HoloLens mixed reality headset in September 2016In August 2018, Toyota Tsusho began a partnership with Microsoft to create fish farming tools using the Microsoft Azure application suite for Internet of things (IoT) technologies related to water management.", "Developed in part by researchers from Kindai University, the water pump mechanisms use artificial intelligence to count the number of fish on a conveyor belt, analyze the number of fish, and deduce the effectiveness of water flow from the data the fish provide.", "The specific computer programs used in the process fall under the Azure Machine Learning and the Azure IoT Hub platforms.", "In September 2018, Microsoft discontinued Skype Classic.", "On October 10, 2018, Microsoft joined the Open Invention Network community despite holding more than 60,000 patents.", "In November 2018, Microsoft agreed to supply 100,000 Microsoft HoloLens headsets to the United States military in order to \"increase lethality by enhancing the ability to detect, decide and engage before the enemy.\"", "In November 2018, Microsoft introduced Azure Multi-Factor Authentication for Microsoft Azure.", "In December 2018, Microsoft announced Project Mu, an open source release of the Unified Extensible Firmware Interface (UEFI) core used in Microsoft Surface and Hyper-V products.", "The project promotes the idea of Firmware as a Service.", "In the same month, Microsoft announced the open source implementation of Windows Forms and the Windows Presentation Foundation (WPF) which will allow for further movement of the company toward the transparent release of key frameworks used in developing Windows desktop applications and software.", "December also saw the company discontinue the Microsoft Edge project in favor of Chromium backends for their browsers.On February 20, 2019, Microsoft Corp said it will offer its cyber security service AccountGuard to 12 new markets in Europe including Germany, France and Spain, to close security gaps and protect customers in political space from hacking.", "In February 2019, hundreds of Microsoft employees protested the company's war profiteering from a $480 million contract to develop virtual reality headsets for the United States Army.===2020–present: Acquisitions, Xbox Series X/S, and Windows 11===On March 26, 2020, Microsoft announced it was acquiring Affirmed Networks for about $1.35 billion.", "Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, Microsoft closed all of its retail stores indefinitely due to health concerns.", "On July 22, 2020, Microsoft announced plans to close its Mixer service, planning to move existing partners to Facebook Gaming.On July 31, 2020, it was reported that Microsoft was in talks to acquire TikTok after the Trump administration ordered ByteDance to divest ownership of the application to the U.S. On August 3, 2020, after speculation on the deal, Donald Trump stated that Microsoft could buy the application, however, it should be completed by September 15, 2020, and that the United States Department of the Treasury should receive a portion if it were to go through.On August 5, 2020, Microsoft stopped its xCloud game streaming test for iOS devices.", "According to Microsoft, the future of xCloud on iOS remains unclear and potentially out of Microsoft's hands.", "Apple has imposed a strict limit on \"remote desktop clients\" which means applications are only allowed to connect to a user-owned host device or gaming console owned by the user.", "On September 21, 2020, Microsoft announced its intent to acquire video game company ZeniMax Media, the parent company of Bethesda Softworks, for about $7.5 billion, with the deal expected to occur in the second half of 2021 fiscal year.", "On March 9, 2021, the acquisition was finalized and ZeniMax Media became part of Microsoft's Xbox Game Studios division.", "The total price of the deal was $8.1 billion.On September 22, 2020, Microsoft announced that it had an exclusive license to use OpenAI's GPT-3 artificial intelligence language generator.", "The previous version of GPT-3, called GPT-2, made headlines for being \"too dangerous to release\" and had numerous capabilities, including designing websites, prescribing medication, answering questions, and penning articles.On November 10, 2020, Microsoft released the Xbox Series X and Xbox Series S video game consoles.In April 2021, Microsoft announced it would buy Nuance Communications for approximately $16 billion.", "The acquisition of Nuance was completed in March 2022.In 2021, in part due to the strong quarterly earnings spurred by the COVID-19 pandemic, Microsoft's valuation came to nearly $2 trillion.", "The increased necessity for remote work and distance education drove demand for cloud computing and grew the company's gaming sales.On June 24, 2021, Microsoft announced Windows 11 during a Livestream.", "The announcement came with confusion after Microsoft announced Windows 10 would be the last version of the operating system; set to be released in the third quarter of 2021.It was released to the general public on October 5, 2021.In early September 2021, it was announced that the company had acquired Takelessons, an online platform that connects students and tutors in numerous subjects.", "The acquisition positioned Microsoft to grow its presence in the market of providing online education to large numbers of people.", "In the same month, Microsoft acquired Australia-based video editing software company Clipchamp.In October 2021, Microsoft announced that it began rolling out end-to-end encryption (E2EE) support for Microsoft Teams calls in order to secure business communication while using video conferencing software.", "Users can ensure that their calls are encrypted and can utilize a security code that both parties on a call must verify on their respective ends.", "On October 7, Microsoft acquired Ally.io, a software service that measures companies' progress against OKRs.", "Microsoft plans to incorporate Ally.io into its Viva family of employee experience products.On January 18, 2022, Microsoft announced the acquisition of American video game developer and holding company Activision Blizzard in an all-cash deal worth $68.7 billion.", "Activision Blizzard is best known for producing franchises, including but not limited to ''Warcraft'', ''Diablo'', ''Call of Duty'', ''StarCraft'', ''Candy Crush Saga'', ''Crash Bandicoot'', ''Spyro'', ''Tony Hawk's'', ''Guitar Hero'', and ''Overwatch''.", "Activision and Microsoft each released statements saying the acquisition was to benefit their businesses in the metaverse, many saw Microsoft's acquisition of video game studios as an attempt to compete against Meta Platforms, with ''TheStreet'' referring to Microsoft wanting to become \"the Disney of the metaverse\".", "Microsoft also named Phil Spencer, head of the Xbox brand since 2014, the inaugural CEO of the newly established Microsoft Gaming division, which now houses the Xbox operations team and the three publishers in the company's portfolio (Xbox Game Studios, ZeniMax Media, Activision Blizzard).", "Microsoft has not released statements regarding Activision's recent legal controversies regarding employee abuse, but reports have alleged that Activision CEO Bobby Kotick, a major target of the controversy, will leave the company after the acquisition is finalized.", "The deal was closed on October 13, 2023.In December 2022, Microsoft announced a new 10-year deal with the London Stock Exchange for products including Microsoft Azure; Microsoft acquired ~4% of the LSE as part of the deal.In January 2023, CEO Satya Nadella announced Microsoft would lay off some 10,000 employees.", "The announcement came a day after hosting a Sting concert for 50 people, including Microsoft executives, in Davos, Switzerland.On January 23, 2023, Microsoft announced a new multi-year, multi-billion dollar investment deal with ChatGPT developer OpenAI.At a November 2023 developer conference, Microsoft announced two new custom-designed computing chips: The Maia chip, designed to run large language models, and Cobalt CPU, designed to power general cloud services on Azure.On November 20, 2023, Satya Nadella announced the former OpenAI CEO Sam Altman and former president and Chairman of Greg Brockman will be joining Microsoft to lead a new advanced AI research team.In January 2024, Microsoft became the most valued publicly traded company.", "Meanwhile, that month, the company announced a subscription offering of artificial intelligence for small businesses via Copilot Pro." ], [ "Corporate affairs", "===Board of directors===The company is run by a board of directors made up of mostly company outsiders, as is customary for publicly traded companies.", "Members of the board of directors as of December 2023 are Satya Nadella, Reid Hoffman, Hugh Johnston, Teri List, Sandi Peterson, Penny Pritzker, Carlos Rodriguez, Charles Scharf, John W. Stanton, John W. Thompson, Emma Walmsley and Padmasree Warrior.", "Board members are elected every year at the annual shareholders' meeting using a majority vote system.", "There are four committees within the board that oversee more specific matters.", "These committees include the Audit Committee, which handles accounting issues with the company including auditing and reporting; the Compensation Committee, which approves compensation for the CEO and other employees of the company; the Governance and Nominating Committee, which handles various corporate matters including the nomination of the board; and the Regulatory and Public Policy Committee, which includes legal/antitrust matters, along with privacy, trade, digital safety, artificial intelligence, and environmental sustainability.On March 13, 2020, Gates announced that he is leaving the board of directors of Microsoft and Berkshire Hathaway to focus more on his philanthropic efforts.", "According to Aaron Tilley of ''The Wall Street Journal'' this is \"marking the biggest boardroom departure in the tech industry since the death of longtime rival and Apple Inc. co-founder Steve Jobs.", "\"On January 13, 2022, The Wall Street Journal reported that Microsoft's board of directors plans to hire an external law firm to review its sexual harassment and gender discrimination policies, and to release a summary of how the company handled past allegations of misconduct against Bill Gates and other corporate executives.===Chief executives===# Bill Gates (1975–2000)# Steve Ballmer (2000–2014)# Satya Nadella (2014–present)===Financial===Five year history graph of stock on July 17, 2013When Microsoft went public and launched its initial public offering (IPO) in 1986, the opening stock price was $21; after the trading day, the price closed at $27.75.As of July 2010, with the company's nine stock splits, any IPO shares would be multiplied by 288; if one were to buy the IPO today, given the splits and other factors, it would cost about 9 cents.", "The stock price peaked in 1999 at around $119 ($60.928, adjusting for splits).", "The company began to offer a dividend on January 16, 2003, starting at eight cents per share for the fiscal year followed by a dividend of sixteen cents per share the subsequent year, switching from yearly to quarterly dividends in 2005 with eight cents a share per quarter and a special one-time payout of three dollars per share for the second quarter of the fiscal year.", "Though the company had subsequent increases in dividend payouts, the price of Microsoft's stock remained steady for years.Standard & Poor's and Moody's Investors Service have both given a AAA rating to Microsoft, whose assets were valued at $41 billion as compared to only $8.5 billion in unsecured debt.", "Consequently, in February 2011 Microsoft released a corporate bond amounting to $2.25 billion with relatively low borrowing rates compared to government bonds.", "For the first time in 20 years Apple Inc. surpassed Microsoft in Q1 2011 quarterly profits and revenues due to a slowdown in PC sales and continuing huge losses in Microsoft's Online Services Division (which contains its search engine Bing).", "Microsoft profits were $5.2 billion, while Apple Inc. profits were $6 billion, on revenues of $14.5 billion and $24.7 billion respectively.", "Microsoft's Online Services Division has been continuously loss-making since 2006 and in Q1 2011 it lost $726 million.", "This follows a loss of $2.5 billion for the year 2010.On July 20, 2012, Microsoft posted its first quarterly loss ever, despite earning record revenues for the quarter and fiscal year, with a net loss of $492 million due to a writedown related to the advertising company aQuantive, which had been acquired for $6.2 billion back in 2007.As of January 2014, Microsoft's market capitalization stood at $314B, making it the 8th largest company in the world by market capitalization.", "On November 14, 2014, Microsoft overtook ExxonMobil to become the second most-valuable company by market capitalization, behind only Apple Inc. Its total market value was over $410B—with the stock price hitting $50.04 a share, the highest since early 2000.In 2015, Reuters reported that Microsoft Corp had earnings abroad of $76.4 billion which were untaxed by the Internal Revenue Service.", "Under U.S. law, corporations do not pay income tax on overseas profits until the profits are brought into the United States.YearRevenuein mil.", "US$Net incomein mil.", "US$Total Assetsin mil.", "US$Employees 2005 39,788 12,254 70,815 61,000 2006 44,282 12,599 69,597 71,000 2007 51,122 14,065 63,171 79,000 2008 60,420 17,681 72,793 91,000 2009 58,437 14,569 77,888 93,000 2010 62,484 18,760 86,113 89,000 2011 69,943 23,150 108,704 90,000 2012 73,723 16,978 121,271 94,000 2013 77,849 21,863 142,431 99,000 2014 86,833 22,074 172,384 128,000 2015 93,580 12,193 174,472 118,000 2016 91,154 20,539 193,468 114,000 2017 96,571 25,489 250,312 124,000 2018 110,360 16,571 258,848 131,000 2019 125,843 39,240 286,556 144,1062020143,01544,281301,311163,0002021168,08861,271333,779181,0002022198,27072,738364,840221,0002023211,91573,307411,976238,000In November 2018, the company won a $480 million military contract with the U.S. government to bring augmented reality (AR) headset technology into the weapon repertoires of American soldiers.", "The two-year contract may result in follow-on orders of more than 100,000 headsets, according to documentation describing the bidding process.", "One of the contract's tag lines for the augmented reality technology seems to be its ability to enable \"25 bloodless battles before the 1st battle,\" suggesting that actual combat training is going to be an essential aspect of the augmented reality headset capabilities.===Subsidiaries===Microsoft is an international business.", "As such, it needs subsidiaries present in whatever national markets it chooses to harvest.", "An example is Microsoft Canada, which it established in 1985.Other countries have similar installations, to funnel profits back up to Redmond and to distribute the dividends to the holders of MSFT stock.===Marketing===Windows 8 Launch Event in Akihabara, Tokyo on October 25, 2012In 2004, Microsoft commissioned research firms to do independent studies comparing the total cost of ownership (TCO) of Windows Server 2003 to Linux; the firms concluded that companies found Windows easier to administrate than Linux, thus those using Windows would administrate faster resulting in lower costs for their company (i.e.", "lower TCO).", "This spurred a wave of related studies; a study by the Yankee Group concluded that upgrading from one version of Windows Server to another costs a fraction of the switching costs from Windows Server to Linux, although companies surveyed noted the increased security and reliability of Linux servers and concern about being locked into using Microsoft products.", "Another study, released by the Open Source Development Labs, claimed that the Microsoft studies were \"simply outdated and one-sided\" and their survey concluded that the TCO of Linux was lower due to Linux administrators managing more servers on average and other reasons.As part of the \"Get the Facts\" campaign, Microsoft highlighted the .NET Framework trading platform that it had developed in partnership with Accenture for the London Stock Exchange, claiming that it provided \"five nines\" reliability.", "After suffering extended downtime and unreliability the London Stock Exchange announced in 2009 that it was planning to drop its Microsoft solution and switch to a Linux-based one in 2010.In 2012, Microsoft hired a political pollster named Mark Penn, whom ''The New York Times'' called \"famous for bulldozing\" his political opponents as Executive Vice-president, Advertising and Strategy.", "Penn created a series of negative advertisements targeting one of Microsoft's chief competitors, Google.", "The advertisements, called \"Scroogled,\" attempt to make the case that Google is \"screwing\" consumers with search results rigged to favor Google's paid advertisers, that Gmail violates the privacy of its users to place ad results related to the content of their emails and shopping results, which favor Google products.", "Tech publications like TechCrunch have been highly critical of the advertising campaign, while Google employees have embraced it.===Layoffs===In July 2014, Microsoft announced plans to lay off 18,000 employees.", "Microsoft employed 127,104 people as of June 5, 2014, making this about a 14 percent reduction of its workforce as the biggest Microsoft layoff ever.", "This included 12,500 professional and factory personnel.", "Previously, Microsoft had eliminated 5,800 jobs in 2009 in line with the Great Recession of 2008–2017.In September 2014, Microsoft laid off 2,100 people, including 747 people in the Seattle–Redmond area, where the company is headquartered.", "The firings came as a second wave of the layoffs that were previously announced.", "This brought the total number to over 15,000 out of the 18,000 expected cuts.", "In October 2014, Microsoft revealed that it was almost done with eliminating 18,000 employees, which was its largest-ever layoff sweep.", "In July 2015, Microsoft announced another 7,800 job cuts in the next several months.", "In May 2016, Microsoft announced another 1,850 job cuts mostly in its Nokia mobile phone division.", "As a result, the company will record an impairment and restructuring charge of approximately $950 million, of which approximately $200 million will relate to severance payments.Microsoft laid off 1,900 employees in its gaming division in January 2024.The layoffs primarily affected Activision Blizzard employees, but some Xbox and ZeniMax employees were also affected.", "Blizzard president Mike Ybarra and Blizzard's chief design officer Allen Adham also resigned.===United States government===Microsoft provides information about reported bugs in their software to intelligence agencies of the United States government, prior to the public release of the fix.", "A Microsoft spokesperson has stated that the corporation runs several programs that facilitate the sharing of such information with the U.S. government.", "Following media reports about PRISM, NSA's massive electronic surveillance program, in May 2013, several technology companies were identified as participants, including Microsoft.", "According to leaks of said program, Microsoft joined the PRISM program in 2007.However, in June 2013, an official statement from Microsoft flatly denied their participation in the program: During the first six months of 2013, Microsoft received requests that affected between 15,000 and 15,999 accounts.", "In December 2013, the company made a statement to further emphasize the fact that they take their customers' privacy and data protection very seriously, even saying that \"government snooping potentially now constitutes an 'advanced persistent threat,' alongside sophisticated malware and cyber attacks\".", "The statement also marked the beginning of three-part program to enhance Microsoft's encryption and transparency efforts.", "On July 1, 2014, as part of this program, they opened the first (of many) Microsoft Transparency Center, which provides \"participating governments with the ability to review source code for our key products, assure themselves of their software integrity, and confirm there are no \"back doors.\"", "Microsoft has also argued that the United States Congress should enact strong privacy regulations to protect consumer data.In April 2016, the company sued the U.S. government, argued that secrecy orders were preventing the company from disclosing warrants to customers in violation of the company's and customers' rights.", "Microsoft argued that it was unconstitutional for the government to indefinitely ban Microsoft from informing its users that the government was requesting their emails and other documents and that the Fourth Amendment made it so people or businesses had the right to know if the government searches or seizes their property.", "On October 23, 2017, Microsoft said it would drop the lawsuit as a result of a policy change by the United States Department of Justice (DoJ).", "The DoJ had \"changed data request rules on alerting the Internet users about agencies accessing their information.", "\"=== Security challenges ===On a Friday afternoon in January 2024, Microsoft disclosed that a Russian state-sponsored group hacked into its corporate systems.", "The group, accessed \"a very small percentage\" of Microsoft corporate email accounts, which also included members of its senior leadership team and employees in its cybersecurity and legal teams.", "Microsoft noted in a blog post that the attack might have been prevented if the accounts in question had enabled multi-factor authentication, a defensive measure which is widely recommended in the industry, including by Microsoft itself." ], [ "Corporate identity", "===Corporate culture===Technical references for developers and articles for various Microsoft magazines such as ''Microsoft Systems Journal'' (MSJ) are available through the Microsoft Developer Network (MSDN).", "MSDN also offers subscriptions for companies and individuals, and the more expensive subscriptions usually offer access to pre-release beta versions of Microsoft software.", "In April 2004, Microsoft launched a community site for developers and users, titled Channel 9, that provides a wiki and an Internet forum.", "Another community site that provides daily videocasts and other services, On10.net, launched on March 3, 2006.Free technical support is traditionally provided through online Usenet newsgroups, and CompuServe in the past, monitored by Microsoft employees; there can be several newsgroups for a single product.", "Helpful people can be elected by peers or Microsoft employees for Microsoft Most Valuable Professional (MVP) status, which entitles them to a sort of special social status and possibilities for awards and other benefits.Noted for its internal lexicon, the expression \"eating your own dog food\" is used to describe the policy of using pre-release and beta versions of products inside Microsoft to test them in \"real-world\" situations.", "This is usually shortened to just \"dog food\" and is used as a noun, verb, and adjective.", "Another bit of jargon, FYIFV or FYIV (\"Fuck You, I'm Fully Vested\"), is used by an employee to indicate they are financially independent and can avoid work anytime they wish.Microsoft is an outspoken opponent of the cap on H-1B visas, which allows companies in the U.S. to employ certain foreign workers.", "Bill Gates claims the cap on H1B visas makes it difficult to hire employees for the company, stating \"I'd certainly get rid of the H1B cap\" in 2005.Critics of H1B visas argue that relaxing the limits would result in increased unemployment for U.S. citizens due to H1B workers working for lower salaries.The Human Rights Campaign Corporate Equality Index, a report of how progressive the organization deems company policies towards LGBT employees, rated Microsoft as 87% from 2002 to 2004 and as 100% from 2005 to 2010 after they allowed gender expression.In August 2018, Microsoft implemented a policy for all companies providing subcontractors to require 12 weeks of paid parental leave to each employee.", "This expands on the former requirement from 2015 requiring 15 days of paid vacation and sick leave each year.", "In 2015, Microsoft established its own parental leave policy to allow 12 weeks off for parental leave with an additional 8 weeks for the parent who gave birth.===Environment===In 2011, Greenpeace released a report rating the top ten big brands in cloud computing on their sources of electricity for their data centers.", "At the time, data centers consumed up to 2% of all global electricity, and this amount was projected to increase.", "Phil Radford of Greenpeace said \"we are concerned that this new explosion in electricity use could lock us into old, polluting energy sources instead of the clean energy available today,\" and called on \"Amazon, Microsoft and other leaders of the information-technology industry must embrace clean energy to power their cloud-based data centers.\"", "In 2013, Microsoft agreed to buy power generated by a Texas wind project to power one of its data centers.", "Microsoft is ranked on the 17th place in Greenpeace's ''Guide to Greener Electronics'' (16th Edition) that ranks 18 electronics manufacturers according to their policies on toxic chemicals, recycling, and climate change.", "Microsoft's timeline for phasing out brominated flame retardant (BFRs) and phthalates in all products is 2012 but its commitment to phasing out PVC is not clear.", "it has no products that are completely free from PVC and BFRs.Microsoft's main U.S. campus received a silver certification from the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) program in 2008, and it installed over 2,000 solar panels on top of its buildings at its Silicon Valley campus, generating approximately 15 percent of the total energy needed by the facilities in April 2005.Microsoft makes use of alternative forms of transit.", "It created one of the world's largest private bus systems, the \"Connector,\" to transport people from outside the company; for on-campus transportation, the \"Shuttle Connect\" uses a large fleet of hybrid cars to save fuel.", "The \"Connector\" does not compete with the public bus system and works with it to provide a cohesive transportation network not just for its employees but also for the public.", "The company also subsidizes regional public transport, provided by Sound Transit and King County Metro, as an incentive.", "In February 2010, however, Microsoft took a stance against adding additional public transport and high-occupancy vehicle (HOV) lanes to the State Route 520 and its floating bridge connecting Redmond to Seattle; the company did not want to delay the construction any further.", "Microsoft was ranked number 1 in the list of the World's Best Multinational Workplaces by the Great Place to Work Institute in 2011.In January 2020, the company announced a strategy to take the company carbon negative by 2030 and to remove all carbon that it has emitted since its foundation in 1975.On October 9, 2020, Microsoft permanently allowed remote work.", "In January 2021, the company announced on Twitter to join the Climate Neutral Data Centre Pact, which engages the cloud infrastructure and data centers industries to reach carbon neutrality in Europe by 2030, and also disclosed an investment in Climeworks, a direct air capture company partnered with Carbfix for carbon sequestration.", "In the same year, it was awarded the EPA's Green Power Leadership Award, citing the company's use of 100 percent renewable energy since 2014.In September 2023, Microsoft announced that it purchased $200 million in carbon credits to offset 315,000 metric tons of carbon dioxide over 10 years from Heirloom Carbon, a carbon removal company that mixes calcium oxide from heated crushed limestone with water to form carbon hydroxide to absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to mineralize back into limestone while the released carbon dioxide is stored underground or injected into concrete.===Headquarters===The west campus of the Microsoft Redmond campusThe corporate headquarters, informally known as the Microsoft Redmond campus, is located at One Microsoft Way in Redmond, Washington.", "Microsoft initially moved onto the grounds of the campus on February 26, 1986, weeks before the company went public on March 13.The headquarters has since experienced multiple expansions since its establishment.", "It is estimated to encompass over 8 million ft2 (750,000 m2) of office space and 30,000–40,000 employees.", "Additional offices are located in Bellevue and Issaquah, Washington (90,000 employees worldwide).", "The company is planning to upgrade its Mountain View, California, campus on a grand scale.", "The company has occupied this campus since 1981.In 2016, the company bought the campus, with plans to renovate and expand it by 25%.", "Microsoft operates an East Coast headquarters in Charlotte, North Carolina, where the construction of a data center led to the destruction of a historic black cemetery.===Flagship stores===Microsoft's Toronto flagship storeOn October 26, 2015, the company opened its retail location on Fifth Avenue in New York City.", "The location features a five-story glass storefront and is 22,270 square feet.", "As per company executives, Microsoft had been on the lookout for a flagship location since 2009.The company's retail locations are part of a greater strategy to help build a connection with its consumers.", "The opening of the store coincided with the launch of the Surface Book and Surface Pro 4.On November 12, 2015, Microsoft opened a second flagship store, located in Sydney's Pitt Street Mall.===Logo===Microsoft adopted the so-called \"''Pac-Man'' Logo,\" designed by Scott Baker, in 1987.Baker stated \"The new logo, in Helvetica italic typeface, has a slash between the ''o'' and ''s'' to emphasize the \"soft\" part of the name and convey motion and speed.\"", "Dave Norris ran an internal joke campaign to save the old logo, which was green, in all uppercase, and featured a fanciful letter ''O'', nicknamed the ''blibbet'', but it was discarded.", "Microsoft's logo with the tagline \"Your potential.", "Our passion.", "\"—below the main corporate name—is based on a slogan Microsoft used in 2008.In 2002, the company started using the logo in the United States and eventually started a television campaign with the slogan, changed from the previous tagline of ''\"Where do you want to go today?\"''", "During the private MGX (Microsoft Global Exchange) conference in 2010, Microsoft unveiled the company's next tagline, ''\"Be What's Next.\"''", "They also had a slogan/tagline \"Making it all make sense.", "\"On August 23, 2012, Microsoft unveiled a new corporate logo at the opening of its 23rd Microsoft store in Boston, indicating the company's shift of focus from the classic style to the tile-centric modern interface, which it uses/will use on the Windows Phone platform, Xbox 360, Windows 8 and the upcoming Office Suites.", "The new logo also includes four squares with the colors of the then-current Windows logo which have been used to represent Microsoft's four major products: Windows (blue), Office (orange), Xbox (green) and Bing (yellow).", "The logo also resembles the opening of one of the commercials for Windows 95.File:Microsoft logo (1975).svg|1975–1980: First Microsoft logo, in 1975File:Microsoft logo (1980).svg|1980–1982: Second Microsoft logo, in 1980File:Microsoft Logo Historical.svg|1982–1987: Third Microsoft logo, in 1982File:Microsoft logo (1987).svg|1987–2012: Microsoft \"Pac-Man\" logo, designed by Scott Baker and used from 1987 to 2012File:Microsoft logo and wordmark.svg|2012–present: Fifth Microsoft logo, introduced on August 23, 2012===Sponsorship===alt=Toyota Yaris WRC.jpgThe company was the official jersey sponsor of Finland's national basketball team at EuroBasket 2015.The company was a major sponsor of the Toyota Gazoo Racing WRT (2017–2020).The company was a sponsor of the Renault F1 Team (2016–2020).===Philanthropy===In 2015, Microsoft Philanthropies, an internal charitable organization, was established.", "Its mission is to bring the benefits of technology to parts of the world and segments of the population that have been denied the benefits of the digital revolution.", "Key areas of focus: donating cloud computing resources to university researchers and nonprofit groups; supporting the expansion of broadband access worldwide; funding international computer science education through YouthSpark; supporting tech education in the U.S. from kindergarten to high school; and donating to global child and refugee relief organizations.During the COVID-19 pandemic, Microsoft's president, Brad Smith, announced that an initial batch of supplies, including 15,000 protection goggles, infrared thermometers, medical caps, and protective suits, was donated to Seattle, with further aid to come soon.During 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine Microsoft started monitoring cyberattacks originating from the Russian government and Russia-backed hackers.", "In June 2022, Microsoft published the report on Russian cyber attacks and concluded that state-backed Russian hackers \"have engaged in \"strategic espionage\" against governments, think tanks, businesses and aid groups\" in 42 countries supporting Kyiv.===Controversies===Criticism of Microsoft has followed various aspects of its products and business practices.", "Frequently criticized are the ease of use, robustness, and security of the company's software.", "They have also been criticized for the use of permatemp employees (employees employed for years as \"temporary,\" and therefore without medical benefits), the use of forced retention tactics, which means that employees would be sued if they tried to leave.", "Historically, Microsoft has also been accused of overworking employees, in many cases, leading to burnout within just a few years of joining the company.", "The company is often referred to as a \"Velvet Sweatshop\", a term which originated in a 1989 ''Seattle Times'' article, and later became used to describe the company by some of Microsoft's own employees.", "This characterization is derived from the perception that Microsoft provides nearly everything for its employees in a convenient place, but in turn overworks them to a point where it would be bad for their (possibly long-term) health.As reported by several news outlets, an Irish subsidiary of Microsoft based in the Republic of Ireland declared £220 bn in profits but paid no corporation tax for the year 2020.This is due to the company being tax resident in Bermuda as mentioned in the accounts for 'Microsoft Round Island One, a subsidiary that collects license fees from the use of Microsoft software worldwide.", "Dame Margaret Hodge, a Labour MP in the UK said, \"It is unsurprising – yet still shocking – that massively wealthy global corporations openly, unashamedly and blatantly refuse to pay tax on the profits they make in the countries where they undertake business\".In 2020, ProPublica reported that the company had diverted more than $39 billion in U.S. profits to Puerto Rico using a mechanism structured to make it seem as if the company was unprofitable on paper.", "As a result, the company paid a tax rate on those profits of \"nearly 0%.\"", "When the Internal Revenue Service audited these transactions, ProPublica reported that Microsoft aggressively fought back, including successfully lobbying Congress to change the law to make it harder for the agency to conduct audits of large corporations.", "\"Embrace, extend, and extinguish\" (EEE), also known as \"embrace, extend, and exterminate,\" is a phrase that the U.S. Department of Justice found that was used internally by Microsoft to describe its strategy for entering product categories involving widely used standards, extending those standards with proprietary capabilities, and then using those differences to strongly disadvantage competitors.", "Microsoft is frequently accused of using anticompetitive tactics and abusing its monopolistic power.", "People who use their products and services often end up becoming dependent on them, a process is known as vendor lock-in.Microsoft was the first company to participate in the PRISM surveillance program, according to leaked NSA documents obtained by ''The Guardian'' and ''The Washington Post'' in June 2013, and acknowledged by government officials following the leak.", "The program authorizes the government to secretly access data of non-US citizens hosted by American companies without a warrant.", "Microsoft has denied participation in such a program.Jesse Jackson believes Microsoft should hire more minorities and women.", "In 2015, he praised Microsoft for appointing two women to its board of directors.In 2020, Salesforce, the manufacturer of the Slack platform, complained to European regulators about Microsoft due to the integration of the Teams service into Office 365.Negotiations with the European Commission continued until the summer of 2023, but, as it became known to the media, they reached an impasse.", "Microsoft is now facing an antitrust investigation." ], [ "See also", "* List of Microsoft software* Microsoft hardware* List of mergers and acquisitions by Microsoft* Microsoft engineering groups* Microsoft Enterprise Agreement" ], [ "References", "; Bundled references" ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Microserfs" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Microserfs''''', published by HarperCollins in 1995, is an epistolary novel by Douglas Coupland.", "It first appeared in short story form as the cover article for the January 1994 issue of ''Wired'' magazine and was subsequently expanded to full novel length.", "Set in the early 1990s, it captures the state of the technology industry before Windows 95, and anticipates the dot-com bubble of the late 1990s.The novel is presented in the form of diary entries maintained on a PowerBook by the narrator, Daniel.", "Because of this, as well as its formatting and usage of emoticons, this novel is similar to what emerged a decade later as the blog format.Coupland revisited many of the ideas in ''Microserfs'' in his 2006 novel ''JPod'', which has been labeled \"''Microserfs'' for the Google generation\"." ], [ "Plot", "The plot of the novel has two distinct movements: the events at Microsoft in Redmond, Washington, and the move to Silicon Valley and the \"Oop!\"", "project.The novel begins in Redmond as the characters are working on different projects at Microsoft's main campus.", "Life at the campus feels like a feudalistic society, with Bill Gates as the lord, and the employees the serfs.", "The majority of the main characters—Daniel (the narrator), Susan, Todd, Bug, Michael, and Abe—are living together in a \"geek house\", and their lives are dedicated to their projects and the company.", "Daniel's foundations are shaken when his father, a longtime employee of IBM, is laid off.", "The lifespan of a Microsoft coder weighs heavily on Daniel's mind.The second movement of the novel begins when the characters are offered jobs in Silicon Valley working on a project for Michael, who has by then left Redmond.", "All of the housemates—some immediately, some after thought—decide to move to the Valley.The characters' lives change drastically once they leave the limited sphere of the Microsoft campus and enter the world of \"One-Point-Oh\".", "They begin to work on a project called \"Oop!\"", "(a reference to object-oriented programming).", "Oop!", "is a Lego-like design program, allowing dynamic creation of many objects, bearing a resemblance to 2009's ''Minecraft'' (Coupland appears on the rear cover of the novel's hardcover editions photographed in Denmark's Legoland Billund, holding a Lego 777.", ").One of the undercurrents of the plot is Daniel and his family's relationship to Jed, Daniel's younger brother who died in a boating accident while they were children." ], [ "Characters", "; Daniel: The book's narrator and main character.", "Initially a software tester for Microsoft.", "His thoughts are funneled into the book through the epistolary format of the novel, and also as he records stream of consciousness lists of terms that he believes exist in a computer's subconscious.", "; Susan: A programmer initially working for Microsoft.", "Throughout the novel, Susan attempts (not always successfully) to find and maintain a meaning to life outside of work.", "She eventually gains semi-celebrity status after founding Chyx, a feminist support group for Valley women who code.", "; Todd: A tester and coworker of Daniel's who is obsessed with bodybuilding and is continually searching for something to believe in.", "His family is very Christian, while Todd has rejected his parents' faith.", "; Bug Barbecue: A tester and coworker of Daniel's; \"the World's Most Bitter Man\".", "He is older than most of the other characters, and likes to remind them of his greater experience in the software industry.", "Eventually he comes out of the closet.", "His primary reason for leaving Microsoft for Oop!", "was to \"leave the old me behind\" and start over.", "; Michael: A gifted programmer with high-functioning autism (specifically developmental coordination disorder) initially working for Microsoft.", "Michael's decision to leave Microsoft and found a startup company is the impetus for the change in lives of the other characters.", "Michael lives on a \"Flatlander\" diet, meaning that he eats only things that are two dimensional; this began after a period during which he barred himself in his office, eating only what his co-workers slid under the door.", "His screen name is \"Kraft Singles\".", "Michael is addicted to Robitussin cough syrup, which contains the dissociative drug dextromethorphan.", "; Karla: A coder, coworker, and girlfriend of Daniel.", "Karla's relationship with her family is tense, and she actively avoids contact with them.", "She begins the story as a closed-off person, but as the novel unfolds her character begins to be more open and understanding.", "She has a history of an eating disorder.", "; Abe: MIT graduate coder and multimillionaire who stays with Microsoft when the rest of the characters leave for California.", "His email conversations with Daniel appear throughout the novel.", "Abe, who dearly missed his friends, eventually joins Oop!", "and saves the company from financial ruin.", "; Ethan: President and co-founder of Oop!.", "Primarily business-minded, he has been a millionaire three times over with various (eventually failed) projects.", "He devotes his time to seeking venture capital for the startup company.", "Ethan's personality is diametrically opposed to the other characters, in part because of his relative lack of technical knowledge.", "He suffers from bad dandruff and his skin is pocked by scars from procedures to remove cancerous growths.", "; Dusty: Female bodybuilder and coder who is introduced later in the novel.", "She is romantically involved with Todd, and they have a baby together (Lindsay).", "She becomes an employee at Oop!.", "She and Todd are obsessed with transforming their bodies into perfect \"machines\" by going to the gym every day and taking protein pills and drinks.", "; Amy: A Canadian computer engineering student who is introduced later in the novel.", "She and Michael meet on the internet and fall in love despite never meeting in person or even knowing each other's genders.", "Due to Michael's fear of rejection, Daniel is sent to the University of Waterloo to meet her.", "Amy becomes engaged to Michael and joins the Oop!", "team after graduating from university.", "; Emmett: Introduced later in the novel, Emmett is a meek and asthmatic storyboard artist hired by Oop!", "who enters into a submissive relationship with Susan.", "He collects manga despite his hatred of Japan's influence on American animation.", "; Anatole: French coder who is Daniel's neighbor and used to work for Apple.", "Although not an Oop!", "employee, he visits the team often and accompanies them to Las Vegas for the CES convention.", "His accent becomes stronger around women.", "; Daniel's father: A mid-level manager at IBM who represents an older generation of technical workers.", "After being laid off, he begins to work closely with Michael on a secret project that evokes feelings of jealousy from Daniel.", "; Daniel's mother: A librarian with little technical knowledge, she serves to give the group insight into what the laypeople understand about technology.", "; Jed: Daniel's younger brother who died in a childhood drowning accident.", "He is a looming presence in Daniel's mind throughout the novel.", "; Misty: The Underwoods' overweight dog.", "She was originally trained to be a seeing eye dog, but failed the exam because she was too affectionate." ], [ "Influences", "===Microsoft, Silicon Valley, and geek culture===Coupland lived in Redmond, Washington for six weeks and Palo Alto, Silicon Valley for four months researching the lives of Microsoft workers.", "\"It was a 'Gorillas in the Mist' kind of observation… What do they put in their glove compartments?", "What snack foods do they eat?", "What posters are on their bedroom walls?\"", "Friends from Microsoft and Apple also helped him with research.The novel was a radical departure from Coupland's previous novel, ''Life After God''.", "\"I wrote the two books under radically different mind-sets, and ''Serfs'' was a willful rerouting into a different realm\".", "Coupland first noticed that his art school friends were working in computers in 1992.===Digital faith===Coupland's research turned up links to the themes of ''Life After God''.", "\"What surprised me about Microsoft is that no one has any conception of an afterlife.", "There is so little thought given to eternal issues that their very absence make them pointedly there.", "These people are so locked into the world, by default some sort of transcendence is located elsewhere, and obviously machines become the totem they imbue with sacred properties, wishes, hopes, goals, desires, dreams.", "That sounds like 1940s SF, but it's become the world.", "\"===Allusions to history, geography, and science===The book takes place first at Microsoft in Redmond, Washington (near Seattle) and then Silicon Valley (near San Francisco).", "The time period is 1993–1995, at a time when Microsoft has reached dominance in the software industry and emerged victorious from the \"Look & Feel\" lawsuit by Apple Inc., a company that had at times seemed in danger of falling apart.The Northridge earthquake takes place during the story and has a profound effect on Ethan, who eventually constructs a replica highway interchange out of Lego pieces to honor the infrastructure destroyed by the earthquake." ], [ "History", "Coupland's interest in the world of Microsoft and technology workers began with the publication of a short story in ''Wired'' magazine in 1994.The story would later be expanded into the novel.Shortly before the publication of ''Microserfs'', Coupland began to distance himself from his label as spokesperson for Generation X.Coupland's novel anticipated the outcome of the late-1990s dot-com bubble with his depiction of the Oop!", "project's search for capital.The abridged audiobook for ''Microserfs'' was read by Matthew Perry." ], [ "Coded messages", "Several coded messages are included within the text:* On pages 104–105 there is an encoded binary message that reads, when decoded:This message is an adapted version of the Rifleman's Creed.", "* On pages 308–309, consonants appear on one page and vowels on the other.", "This text is taken from a letter written by Patty Hearst to her parents when she was kidnapped." ], [ "Release", "* 1995, USA, Regan Books , Pub date June 1995, Hardback* 1995, Canada, HarperCollins , Pub date June 1995, Hardback* 1996, USA, Regan Books , Pub date June 19, 1996, Paperback" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* David Louis Edelman's review of the book, published in the Baltimore Evening Sun, June 26, 1995" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Moscow" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Moscow''' ( , US chiefly ; ) is the capital and largest city of Russia.", "The city stands on the Moskva River in Central Russia, with a population estimated at 13.0 million residents within the city limits, over 18.8 million residents in the urban area, and over 21.5 million residents in the metropolitan area.", "The city covers an area of , while the urban area covers , and the metropolitan area covers over .", "Moscow is among the world's largest cities, being the most populous city entirely in Europe, the largest urban and metropolitan area in Europe, and the largest city by land area on the European continent.First documented in 1147, Moscow grew to become a prosperous and powerful city that served as the capital of the Grand Duchy of Moscow.", "When the Tsardom of Russia was proclaimed, Moscow remained the political and economic center for most of its history.", "Under the reign of Peter the Great, the Russian capital was moved to the newly founded city of Saint Petersburg in 1712, diminishing Moscow's influence.", "Following the Russian Revolution and the establishment of the Russian SFSR, the capital was moved back to Moscow in 1918, where it later became the political center of the Soviet Union.", "In the aftermath of the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Moscow remained the capital city of the newly established Russian Federation.The northernmost and coldest megacity in the world, Moscow is governed as a federal city, where it serves as the political, economic, cultural, and scientific center of Russia and Eastern Europe.", "As an alpha world city, Moscow has one of the world's largest urban economies.", "The city is one of the fastest-growing tourist destinations in the world, and is one of Europe's most visited cities.", "Moscow is home to the sixth-highest number of billionaires of any city in the world.", "The Moscow International Business Center is one of the largest financial centers in Europe and the world, and features the majority of Europe's tallest skyscrapers.", "Moscow was the host city of the 1980 Summer Olympics, and one of the host cities of the 2018 FIFA World Cup.As the historic core of Russia, Moscow serves as the home of numerous Russian artists, scientists, and sports figures due to the presence of its various museums, academic and political institutions, and theaters.", "The city is home to several UNESCO World Heritage Sites and is well known for its display of Russian architecture, particularly its historic Red Square, and buildings such as the Saint Basil's Cathedral and the Moscow Kremlin, of which the latter serves as the seat of power of the Government of Russia.", "Moscow is home to many Russian companies in numerous industries and is served by a comprehensive transit network, which includes four international airports, ten railway terminals, a tram system, a monorail system, and most notably the Moscow Metro, the busiest metro system in Europe, and one of the largest rapid transit systems in the world.", "The city has over 40 percent of its territory covered by greenery, making it one of the greenest cities in the world." ], [ "Etymology", "The name of the city is thought to be derived from the name of the Moskva River.", "Several theories of the origin of the name of the river have been proposed.", "Finno-Ugric Merya and Muroma people, who were among the several pre-Slavic tribes which originally inhabited the area, called the river supposedly ''Mustajoki'', in English: ''Black river''.", "It has been suggested that the name of the city derives from this term.The most linguistically well-grounded and widely accepted is from the Proto-Balto-Slavic root *''mŭzg''-/''muzg''- from the Proto-Indo-European *''''- \"wet\", so the name ''Moskva'' might signify a river at a wetland or a marsh.", "Its cognates include , \"pool, puddle\", and \"to wash\", \"to drown\", \"to dip, immerse\".", "In many Slavic countries Moskov is a surname, most common in Russia, Bulgaria, Ukraine and North Macedonia.", "Additionally, there are similarly named places in Poland like Mozgawa.The original Old Russian form of the name is reconstructed as *, *, hence it was one of a few Slavic ''ū''-stem nouns.", "As with other nouns of that declension, it had been undergoing a morphological transformation at the early stage of the development of the language, as a result, the first written mentions in the 12th century were , (accusative case), , (locative case), , (genitive case).", "From the latter forms came to the modern Russian name , , which is a result of morphological generalization with the numerous Slavic ''ā''-stem nouns.However, the form ''Moskovĭ'' has left some traces in many other languages, including , , , , , , , , , and .", "In a similar manner the Latin name has been formed, later it became a colloquial name for Russia used in Western Europe in the 16th–17th centuries.", "From it as well came English ''Muscovy'' and ''muscovite''.Various other theories (of Celtic, Iranian, Caucasic origins), having little or no scientific ground, are now largely rejected by contemporary linguists.===Other names===Moscow has acquired several epithets, most referring to its size and preeminent status within the nation: The ''Third Rome'' (), the ''Whitestone One'' (), the ''First Throne'' (), the ''Forty Soroks'' () (\"sorok\" meaning both \"forty, a great many\" and \"a district or parish\" in Old Russian).", "Moscow is also one of the twelve Hero Cities.", "The demonym for a Moscow resident is \"\" (''moskvich'') for male or \"ка\" (''moskvichka'') for female, rendered in English as ''Muscovite''.", "The name \"Moscow\" is abbreviated \"MSK\" ( in Russian)." ], [ "History", "===Prehistory===Archaeological digs show that the site of today's Moscow and the surrounding area have been inhabited since time immemorial.", "Among the earliest finds are relics of the Lyalovo culture, which experts assign to the Neolithic period, the last phase of the Stone Age.They confirm that the first inhabitants of the area were hunters and gatherers.", "Around 950 AD, two Slavic tribes, Vyatichi and Krivichi, settled here.", "Possibly the Vyatichi formed the core of Moscow's indigenous population.===Early history (1147–1284)===Vladimir-Suzdal, a principality on the northeastern periphery of Kievan Rus', grew into the Grand Duchy of Moscow.The first known reference to Moscow dates from 1147 as a meeting place of Yuri Dolgoruky and Sviatoslav Olgovich.", "At the time it was a minor town on the western border of Vladimir-Suzdal Principality.", "The chronicle says, \"Come, my brother, to Moskov\" ().In 1156, Knyaz Yuri Dolgorukiy fortified the town with a timber fence and a moat.", "In the course of the Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus', the Mongols under Batu Khan burned the city to the ground and killed its inhabitants.The timber fort ''na Moskvě'' \"on the Moscow River\" was inherited by Daniel, the youngest son of Alexander Nevsky, in the 1260s, at the time considered the least valuable of his father's possessions.Daniel was still a child at the time, and the big fort was governed by (deputies), appointed by Daniel's paternal uncle, Yaroslav of Tver.Daniel came of age in the 1270s and became involved in the power struggles of the principality with lasting success, siding with his brother Dmitry in his bid for the rule of Novgorod.", "From 1283 he acted as the ruler of an independent principality alongside Dmitry, who became Grand Duke of Vladimir.Daniel has been credited with founding the first Moscow monasteries, dedicated to the Lord's Epiphany and to Saint Daniel.===Grand Duchy (1283–1547)=== +350px150px310pxThe Moscow Kremlin in the late 16th centuryThe 1382 siege of MoscowRed SquareDaniel ruled Moscow as Grand Duke until 1303 and established it as a prosperous city that would eclipse its parent principality of Vladimir by the 1320s.On the right bank of the Moskva River, at a distance of from the Kremlin, not later than in 1282, Daniel founded the first monastery with the wooden church of St. Daniel-Stylite, which is now the Danilov Monastery.", "Daniel died in 1303, at the age of 42.Before his death, he became a monk and, according to his will, was buried in the cemetery of the St. Daniel Monastery.Moscow was quite stable and prosperous for many years and attracted a large number of refugees from across Russia.", "The Rurikids maintained large landholdings by practicing primogeniture, whereby all land was passed to the eldest sons, rather than dividing it up among all sons.", "By 1304, Yury of Moscow contested with Mikhail of Tver for the throne of the principality of Vladimir.", "Ivan I eventually defeated Tver to become the sole collector of taxes for the Mongol rulers, making Moscow the capital of Vladimir-Suzdal.", "By paying high tribute, Ivan won an important concession from the Khan.leftWhile the Khan of the Golden Horde initially attempted to limit Moscow's influence, when the growth of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania began to threaten all of Russia, the Khan strengthened Moscow to counterbalance Lithuania, allowing it to become one of the most powerful cities in Russia.", "In 1380, prince Dmitry Donskoy of Moscow led a united Russian army to an important victory over the Mongols in the Battle of Kulikovo.", "Afterward, Moscow took the leading role in liberating Russia from Mongol domination.", "In 1480, Ivan III had finally broken the Russians free from Tatar control, and Moscow became the capital of an empire that would eventually encompass all of Russia and Siberia, and parts of many other lands.The alt=In 1462 Ivan III, (1440–1505) became Grand Prince of Moscow (then part of the medieval Muscovy state).", "He began fighting the Tatars, enlarged the territory of Muscovy, and enriched his capital city.", "By 1500 it had a population of 100,000 and was one of the largest cities in the world.", "He conquered the far larger principality of Novgorod to the north, which had been allied to the hostile Lithuanians.", "Thus he enlarged the territory sevenfold, from .", "He took control of the ancient \"Novgorod Chronicle\" and made it a propaganda vehicle for his regime.The original Moscow Kremlin was built in the 14th century.", "It was reconstructed by Ivan, who in the 1480s invited architects from Renaissance Italy, such as Petrus Antonius Solarius, who designed the new Kremlin wall and its towers, and Marco Ruffo who designed the new palace for the prince.", "The Kremlin walls as they now appear are those designed by Solarius, completed in 1495.The Kremlin's Great Bell Tower was built in 1505–08 and augmented to its present height in 1600.A trading settlement, or ''posad'', grew up to the east of the Kremlin, in the area known as ''Zaradye'' (Зарядье).", "In the time of Ivan III, the Red Square, originally named the Hollow Field (Полое поле) appeared.In 1508–1516, the Italian architect Aleviz Fryazin (Novy) arranged for the construction of a moat in front of the eastern wall, which would connect the Moskva and Neglinnaya and be filled in with water from Neglinnaya.", "This moat, known as the Alevizov moat and having a length of , width of , and a depth of was lined with limestone and, in 1533, fenced on both sides with low, cogged-brick walls.===Tsardom (1547–1721)===Saint Basil's Cathedral, built in 1561In the 16th and 17th centuries, the three circular defenses were built: Kitay-gorod (Китай-город), the White City (Белый город) and the Earthen City (Земляной город).", "However, in 1547, two fires destroyed much of the town, and in 1571 the Crimean Tatars captured Moscow, burning everything except the Kremlin.", "The annals record that only 30,000 of 200,000 inhabitants survived.View of 17th-century Moscow (1922 drawing by Apollinary Vasnetsov)The Crimean Tatars attacked again in 1591, but this time were held back by new defense walls, built between 1584 and 1591 by a craftsman named Fyodor Kon.", "In 1592, an outer earth rampart with 50 towers was erected around the city, including an area on the right bank of the Moscow River.", "As an outermost line of defense, a chain of strongly fortified monasteries was established beyond the ramparts to the south and east, principally the Novodevichy Convent and Donskoy, Danilov, Simonov, Novospasskiy, and Andronikov monasteries, most of which now house museums.", "From its ramparts, the city became poetically known as ''Bielokamennaya'', the \"White-Walled.\"", "The city's limits as marked by the ramparts built in 1592 are now marked by the Garden Ring.Three square gates existed on the eastern side of the Kremlin wall, which in the 17th century, were known as Konstantino-Eleninsky, Spassky, Nikolsky (owing their names to the icons of Constantine and Helen, the Saviour and St. Nicholas that hung over them).", "The last two were directly opposite the Red Square, while the Konstantino-Elenensky gate was located behind Saint Basil's Cathedral.", "\"Sigismundian\" Plan of Moscow (1610), named after Sigismund III of Poland, is the last city plan compiled before the destruction of the city in 1612 by retreating Polish troops and subsequent changes to the street network.", "Orientation: north is at the right, west at the top.The Russian famine of 1601–03 killed perhaps 100,000 in Moscow.", "From 1610 through 1612, troops of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth occupied Moscow, as its ruler Sigismund III tried to take the Russian throne.", "In 1612, the people of Nizhny Novgorod and other Russian cities conducted by prince Dmitry Pozharsky and Kuzma Minin rose against the Polish occupants, besieged the Kremlin, and expelled them.", "In 1613, the Zemsky sobor elected Michael Romanov tsar, establishing the Romanov dynasty.", "The 17th century was rich in popular risings, such as the liberation of Moscow from the Polish–Lithuanian invaders (1612), the Salt Riot (1648), the Copper Riot (1662), and the Moscow Uprising of 1682.During the first half of the 17th century, the population of Moscow doubled from roughly 100,000 to 200,000.It expanded beyond its ramparts in the later 17th century.", "It is estimated, that in the middle of the 17th century, 20% of Moscow suburb's inhabitants were from the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, practically all of them being driven from their homeland to Moscow by Muscovite invaders.", "By 1682, there were 692 households established north of the ramparts, by Ukrainians and Belarusians abducted from their hometowns in the course of the Russo-Polish War (1654–1667).", "These new outskirts of the city came to be known as the ''Meshchanskaya sloboda'', after Ruthenian ''meshchane'' \"town people\".", "The term ''meshchane'' (мещане) acquired pejorative connotations in 18th-century Russia and today means \"petty bourgeois\" or \"narrow-minded philistine\".The entire city of the late 17th century, including the slobodas that grew up outside the city ramparts, are contained within what is today Moscow's Central Administrative Okrug.Numerous disasters befell the city.", "The plague epidemics ravaged Moscow in 1570–1571, 1592 and 1654–1656.The plague killed upwards of 80% of the people in 1654–55.Fires burned out much of the wooden city in 1626 and 1648.In 1712 Peter the Great moved his government to the newly built Saint Petersburg on the Baltic coast.", "Moscow ceased to be Russia's capital, except for a brief period from 1728 to 1732 under the influence of the Supreme Privy Council.===Empire (1721–1917)===Moskva riverfront in the 19th centuryAfter losing the status as the capital of the empire, the population of Moscow at first decreased, from 200,000 in the 17th century to 130,000 in 1750.But after 1750, the population grew more than tenfold over the remaining duration of the Russian Empire, reaching 1.8 million by 1915.The 1770–1772 Russian plague killed up to 100,000 people in Moscow.Bookshops at the Novospassky Bridge in the 17th century, by Apollinary VasnetsovBy 1700, the building of cobbled roads had begun.", "In November 1730, the permanent street light was introduced, and by 1867 many streets had a gaslight.", "In 1883, near the Prechistinskiye Gates, arc lamps were installed.", "In 1741 Moscow was surrounded by a barricade long, the Kamer-Kollezhskiy barrier, with 16 gates at which customs tolls were collected.", "Its line is traced today by a number of streets called ''val'' (\"ramparts\").Between 1781 and 1804 the Mytischinskiy water pipe (the first in Russia) was built.", "In 1813, following the destruction of much of the city during the French occupation, a Commission for the Construction of the City of Moscow was established.", "It launched a great program of rebuilding, including a partial replanning of the city-centre.", "Among many buildings constructed or reconstructed at this time was the Grand Kremlin Palace and the Kremlin Armoury, the Moscow University, the Moscow Manege (Riding School), and the Bolshoi Theatre.", "In 1903 the Moskvoretskaya water supply was completed.In the early 19th century, the Arch of Konstantino-Elenensky gate was paved with bricks, but the Spassky Gate was the main front gate of the Kremlin and used for royal entrances.", "From this gate, wooden and (following the 17th-century improvements) stone bridges stretched across the moat.", "Books were sold on this bridge and stone platforms were built nearby for guns – \"raskats\".", "The Tsar Cannon was located on the platform of the Lobnoye mesto.The road connecting Moscow with St. Petersburg, now the M10 highway, was completed in 1746, its Moscow end following the old Tver road, which had existed since the 16th century.", "It became known as ''Peterburskoye Schosse'' after it was paved in the 1780s.", "Petrovsky Palace was built in 1776–1780 by Matvey Kazakov.Fire of Moscow, after the failed French Invasion of RussiaWhen Napoleon invaded Russia in 1812, the Moscovites were evacuated.", "It is suspected that the Moscow fire was principally the effect of Russian sabotage.", "Napoleon's ''Grande Armée'' was forced to retreat and was nearly annihilated by the devastating Russian winter and sporadic attacks by Russian military forces.", "As many as 400,000 of Napoleon's soldiers died during this time.Cathedral Square during the coronation of Alexander I, 1802, by Fyodor AlekseyevMoscow State University was established in 1755.Its main building was reconstructed after the 1812 fire by Domenico Giliardi.", "The ''Moskovskiye Vedomosti'' newspaper appeared from 1756, originally in weekly intervals, and from 1859 as a daily newspaper.The Arbat Street had been in existence since at least the 15th century, but it was developed into a prestigious area during the 18th century.", "It was destroyed in the fire of 1812 and was rebuilt completely in the early 19th century.In the 1830s, general Alexander Bashilov planned the first regular grid of city streets north from Petrovsky Palace.", "Khodynka field south of the highway was used for military training.", "Smolensky Rail station (forerunner of present-day Belorussky Rail Terminal) was inaugurated in 1870.Sokolniki Park, in the 18th century the home of the tsar's falconers well outside Moscow, became contiguous with the expanding city in the later 19th century and was developed into a public municipal park in 1878.The suburban Savyolovsky Rail Terminal was built in 1902.In January 1905, the institution of the City Governor, or Mayor, was officially introduced in Moscow, and Alexander Adrianov became Moscow's first official mayor.When Catherine II came to power in 1762, the city's filth and the smell of sewage were depicted by observers as a symptom of disorderly lifestyles of lower-class Russians recently arrived from the farms.", "Elites called for improving sanitation, which became part of Catherine's plans for increasing control over social life.", "National political and military successes from 1812 through 1855 calmed the critics and validated efforts to produce a more enlightened and stable society.", "There was less talk about the smell and the poor conditions of public health.", "However, in the wake of Russia's failures in the Crimean War in 1855–56, confidence in the ability of the state to maintain order in the slums eroded, and demands for improved public health put filth back on the agenda.===Soviet period (1917–1991)===City plan of Moscow, 1917In November 1917, upon learning of the uprising happening in Petrograd, Moscow's Bolsheviks also began their uprising.", "On November 2 (15), 1917, after heavy fighting, Soviet power was established in Moscow.Then Vladimir Lenin, fearing possible foreign invasion, moved the capital from Petrograd (Saint Petersburg) back to Moscow on March 12, 1918.The Kremlin once again became the seat of power and the political centre of the new state.With the change in values imposed by communist ideology, the tradition of preservation of cultural heritage was broken.", "Independent preservation societies, even those that defended only secular landmarks such as Moscow-based OIRU were disbanded by the end of the 1920s.", "A new anti-religious campaign, launched in 1929, coincided with the collectivization of peasants; the destruction of churches in the cities peaked around 1932.In 1937 several letters were written to the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union to rename Moscow to \"Stalindar\" or \"Stalinodar,\" one from an elderly pensioner whose dream was to \"live in Stalinodar\" and had selected the name to represent the \"gift\" (dar) of the genius of Stalin.", "Stalin rejected this suggestion, and after it was suggested again to him by Nikolai Yezhov, he was outraged, saying \"What do I need this for?\".", "This was following Stalin banning the renaming of places in his name in 1936.During World War II, the Soviet State Committee of Defence and the General Staff of the Red Army were located in Moscow.", "In 1941, 16 divisions of the national volunteers (more than 160,000 people), 25 battalions (18,000 people), and four engineering regiments were formed among the Muscovites.", "Between October 1941 and January 1942, the German Army Group Centre was stopped at the outskirts of the city and then driven off in the course of the Battle of Moscow.", "Many factories were evacuated, together with much of the government, and from October 20 the city was declared to be in a state of siege.", "Its remaining inhabitants built and manned antitank defenses, while the city was bombarded from the air.", "On May 1, 1944, a medal \"For the defence of Moscow\" and in 1947 another medal \"In memory of the 800th anniversary of Moscow\" was instituted.Both German and Soviet casualties during the Battle of Moscow have been a subject of debate, as various sources provide somewhat different estimates.", "Total casualties between September 30, 1941, and January 7, 1942, are estimated to be between 248,000 and 400,000 for the Wehrmacht and between 650,000 and 1,280,000 for the Red Army.Funeral procession at the funeral of Joseph Stalin, 1953During the postwar years, there was a serious housing crisis, solved by the invention of high-rise apartments.", "There are over 11,000 of these standardised and prefabricated apartment blocks, housing the majority of Moscow's population, making it by far the city with the most high-rise buildings.", "Apartments were built and partly furnished in the factory before being raised and stacked into tall columns.", "The popular Soviet-era comic film ''Irony of Fate'' parodies this construction method.The city of Zelenograd was built in 1958 at from the city centre to the north-west, along with the Leningradskoye Shosse, and incorporated as one of Moscow's administrative okrugs.", "Moscow State University moved to its campus on Sparrow Hills in 1953.In 1959 Nikita Khrushchev launched his anti-religious campaign.", "By 1964 over 10 thousand churches out of 20 thousand were shut down (mostly in rural areas) and many were demolished.", "Of 58 monasteries and convents operating in 1959, only sixteen remained by 1964; of Moscow's fifty churches operating in 1959, thirty were closed and six demolished.Hotel Moskva on the Manezhnaya Square, 1964On May 8, 1965, due to the actual 20th anniversary of the victory in World War II, Moscow was awarded a title of the Hero City.Victory Day celebration on Red Square, May 9, 1975The Moscow Ring Road (MKAD) was opened in 1961.It had four lanes running along the city borders.", "The MKAD marked the administrative boundaries of the city of Moscow until the 1980s when outlying suburbs beyond the ring road began to be incorporated.", "In 1980, Moscow hosted the Summer Olympic Games, which were boycotted by the United States and several other Western countries due to the Soviet Union's involvement in Afghanistan in late 1979.In 1991 Moscow was the scene of a coup attempt by conservative communists opposed to the liberal reforms of Mikhail Gorbachev.===Recent history (1991–present)===View of the Floating bridge in Zaryadye Park, with the Red Square and the Moscow Kremlin in the distanceTverskaya Street, the main radial street in the cityWhen the USSR was dissolved in the same year, Moscow remained the capital of the Russian SFSR (on December 25, 1991, the Russian SFSR was renamed the Russian Federation).", "Since then, a market economy has emerged in Moscow, producing an explosion of Western-style retailing, services, architecture, and lifestyles.The city has continued to grow during the 1990s to 2000s, its population rising from below nine to above ten million.", "Mason and Nigmatullina argue that Soviet-era urban-growth controls (before 1991) produced controlled and sustainable metropolitan development, typified by the greenbelt built in 1935.Since then, however, there has been a dramatic growth of low-density suburban sprawl, created by heavy demand for single-family dwellings as opposed to crowded apartments.", "In 1995–1997 the MKAD ring road was widened from the initial four to ten lanes.In December 2002 Bulvar Dmitriya Donskogo became the first Moscow Metro station that opened beyond the limits of MKAD.", "The Third Ring Road, intermediate between the early 19th-century Garden Ring and the Soviet-era outer ring road, was completed in 2004.The greenbelt is becoming more and more fragmented, and satellite cities are appearing at the fringe.", "Summer dachas are being converted into year-round residences, and with the proliferation of automobiles there is heavy traffic congestion.", "Multiple old churches and other examples of architectural heritage that had been demolished during the Stalin era have been restored, such as the Cathedral of Christ the Saviour.In 2010s Moscow's Administration has launched some long duration projects like the ''Moja Ulitsa'' (in English: ''My Street'') urban redevelopment program or the Residency renovation one.By its territorial expansion on July 1, 2012, southwest into the Moscow Oblast the area of the capital more than doubled, going from , resulting in Moscow becoming the largest city on the European continent by area; it also gained an additional population of 233,000 people.", "The annexed territory was officially named ''Новая Москва'' (New Moscow)." ], [ "Geography", "===Location===Satellite view of Moscow and its nearby suburbsMoscow is situated on the banks of the Moskva River, which flows for just over through the East European Plain in central Russia, not far from the natural border of the forest and forest-steppe zone.", "49 bridges span the river and its canals within the city's limits.", "The elevation of Moscow at the All-Russia Exhibition Center (VVC), where the leading Moscow weather station is situated, is .", "Teplostan Upland is the city's highest point at .", "The width of Moscow city (not limiting MKAD) from west to east is , and the length from north to south is .===Time===Moscow serves as the reference point for the time zone used in most of European Russia, Belarus and the Republic of Crimea.", "The areas operate in what is referred to in international standards as ''Moscow Standard Time (MSK, )'', which is 3 hours ahead of UTC, or UTC+3.Daylight saving time is no longer observed.", "According to the geographical longitude the average solar noon in Moscow occurs at 12:30.===Climate===VDNKh after rainMoscow has a humid continental climate (Köppen: ''Dfb'') with long, cold (although average by Russian standards) winters usually lasting from mid-November to the end of March, and warm summers.", "More extreme continental climates at the same latitude- such as parts of Eastern Canada or Siberia- have much colder winters than Moscow, suggesting that there is still significant moderation from the Atlantic Ocean despite the fact that Moscow is far from the sea.", "Weather can fluctuate widely, with temperatures ranging from in the city and in the suburbs to above in the winter, and from in the summer.Petrovsky Palace on Leningradsky Avenue in winterTypical high temperatures in the warm months of June, July, and August are around a comfortable , but during heat waves (which can occur between May and September), daytime high temperatures often exceed , sometimes for a week or two at a time.", "In the winter, average temperatures normally drop to approximately , though almost every winter there are periods of warmth with day temperatures rising above , and periods of cooling with night temperatures falling below .", "These periods usually last about a week or two.", "The growing season in Moscow normally lasts for 156 days usually around May 1 to October 5.The highest temperature ever recorded was at the VVC weather station and in the center of Moscow and Domodedovo airport on July 29, 2010, during the unusual 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves.", "Record high and average temperatures were recorded for January, March, April, May, June, July, August, November, and December in 2007–2022.The average July temperature from 1991 to 2020 is .", "The lowest ever recorded temperature was in January 1940.Snow, which is present for about five months a year, often begins to fall mid-October, while snow cover lies in November and melts at the beginning of April.On average, Moscow has 1731 hours of sunshine per year, varying from a low of 8% in December to 52% from May to August.", "This large annual variation is due to convective cloud formation.", "In the winter, moist air from the Atlantic condenses in the cold continental interior, resulting in very overcast conditions.", "However, this same continental influence results in considerably sunnier summers than oceanic cities of similar latitude such as Edinburgh.", "Between 2004 and 2010, the average was between 1800 and 2000 hours with a tendency to more sunshine in summer months, up to a record 411 hours in July 2014, 79% of possible sunshine.", "December 2017 was the darkest month in Moscow since records began, with only six minutes of sunlight.Temperatures in the centre of Moscow are often significantly higher than in the outskirts and nearby suburbs, especially in winter.", "For example, if the average February temperature in the north-east of Moscow is , in the suburbs it is about .", "The temperature difference between the centre of Moscow and nearby areas of Moscow Oblast can sometimes be more than on frosty winter nights.Recent changes in Moscow's regional climate, since it is in the mid-latitudes of the northern hemisphere, are often cited by climate scientists as evidence of global warming, though by definition, climate change is global, not regional.", "During the summer, extreme heat is often observed in the city (2001, 2002, 2003, 2010, 2011, 2021).", "Along with a southern part of Central Russia, after recent years of hot summer seasons, the climate of the city gets hot-summer classification trends.", "Winter also became significantly milder: for example, the average January temperature in the early 1900s was , while now it is about .", "At the end of January–February it is often colder, with frosts reaching a few nights per year (2006, 2010, 2011, 2012, and 2013).The last decade was the warmest in the history of meteorological observations of Moscow.", "Temperature changes in the city are depicted in the table below:Wind direction in Moscow from 2002 to 2012 (average values)NorthNortheastEastSouth EastSouthernSouthwestWestNorthwest15%6.8%7.8%12.2%12.6%14.6%16.4%14.5% ''Source: world-weather.ru''" ], [ "Demographics", "===Population===Moscow population pyramid as of the 2021 censusAccording to the results of the 2021 Census, the population of Moscow was 13,010,112; up from 11,503,501 recorded in the 2010 Census.Life expectancy at birth in Moscow, with calculated gender difference===Ethnic groups=== EthnicityYear189719391959197019791989200220102021Number%Number%Number%Number%Number%Number%Number%Population %% of ethnicity declaredPopulation %% of ethnicity declared Russians987,04495.0%3,614,43087.4%4,507,89988.6%6,301,24789.2%7,146,68290.1%7,963,24689.7%8,808,00984.8%9,930,410 86.3%91.6%9,074,37569.7%90.2% Tatars4,2880.1%57,6871.4%80,4891.6%109,2521.5%131,3281.7%157,3761.8%166,0831.6%149,0431.3%1.4%84,3730.6%0.8% Armenians1,6040.1%13,6820.3%18,3790.4%25,5840.4%31,4140.4%43,9890.5%124,4251.2%106,466 0.9%1.0%68,0180.5%0.7% Ukrainians4,4780.4%90,4792.2%115,4892.3%184,8852.6%206,8752.6%252,6702.8%253,6442.4%154,1041.3%1.4%58,7880.5%0.6% Azerbaijanis – –677 –2,528 –4,889 –7,9670.1%20,7270.2%95,5630.9%57,123 0.5%0.5%37,2590.3%0.4% Uzbeks – –659 –2,478 –5,973 –4,222 –9,1830.1%9,1830.1%35,595 0.3%0.3%29,5260.2%0.3% Jews5,0700.4%250,1816.0%239,2464.7%251,3503.6%222,9002.8%174,7282.0%79,3590.8%53,145 0.5%0.5%28,0140.2%0.3% Georgians – –4,2510.1%6,3650.1%9,5630.1%12,1800.2%19,6080.2%54,3870.5%38,934 0.3%0.4%26,2220.2%0.3% Tajiks – –184 –1,005 –1,652 –1,221 –2,893 –35,3850.4%27,280 0.2%0.2%22,7830.2%0.2% Belarusians1,016 –24,9520.6%34,3700.7%50,2570.7%59,1930.7%73,0050.8%59,3530.6%39,225 0.3%0.4%17,6320.1%0.2% Kyrgyz – –77 –– –– –1,173 –3,044 –4,102–18,736 0.2%0.2%16,858 0.1%0.2% Others ––76,173 225,0312.0%2.1%595,5434.6%5.9%No ethnicity declared – –668,4095.8%–2,950,72122.7%–Total1,038,591100%4,137,018100%5,085,581100%7,061,008100%7,931,602100%8,875,579100%10,382,754100%11,503,501100%100% (10,835,092)13,010,112100%100% (10,059,391);Notes* 668,409 people were registered from administrative databases, and could not declare an ethnicity.", "It is estimated that the proportion of ethnicities in this group is the same as that of the declared group.===Vital statistics===The official population of Moscow is based on those holding \"permanent residency\".", "According to Russia's Federal Migration Service, Moscow holds 1.8 million official \"guests\" who have temporary residency on the basis of visas or other documentation, giving a legal population of 14.8 million.", "The number of Illegal immigrants, the vast majority originating from Central Asia, is estimated to be an additional 1 million people, giving a total population of about 15.8 million.", "'''Vital statistics for 2022:'''*Births: 123,654 (9.8 per 1,000)*Deaths: 126,988 (10.1 per 1,000) '''Total fertility rate (2022):''' 1.42 children per woman'''Life expectancy (2021):'''Total — 74.55 years (male — 71.00, female — 77.94)===Religion===Christians form the majority of the city's population; most of whom adhere Russian Orthodox Church.", "The Patriarch of Moscow serves as the head of the church and resides in the Danilov Monastery.", "Moscow was called the \"city of 40 times 40 churches\"—prior to 1917.Moscow is Russia's capital of Eastern Orthodox Christianity, which has been the country's traditional religion.Other religions practiced in Moscow include Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam, Judaism, Yazidism, and Rodnovery.", "The Moscow Mufti Council claimed that Muslims numbered around 1.5 million of 10.5 million of the city's population in 2010; There are four mosques in the city." ], [ "Cityscape", "===Architecture===Saint Basil's Cathedral in Moscow, a masterpiece of Russian architectureThe State Historical Museum, an example of the Neo-Russian styleThe Cathedral of Christ the Saviour, an example of Neo-Byzantine architectureMoscow's architecture is world-renowned.", "Moscow is the site of Saint Basil's Cathedral, with its elegant onion domes, as well as the Cathedral of Christ the Savior and the Seven Sisters.", "The first Kremlin was built in the middle of the 12th century.Medieval Moscow's design was of concentric walls and intersecting radial thoroughfares.", "This layout, as well as Moscow's rivers, helped shape Moscow's design in subsequent centuries.The Kremlin was rebuilt in the 15th century.", "Its towers and some of its churches were built by Italian architects, lending the city some of the aurae of the renaissance.", "From the end of the 15th century, the city was embellished by masonry structures such as monasteries, palaces, walls, towers, and churches.The city's appearance had not changed much by the 18th century.", "Houses were made of pine and spruce logs, with shingled roofs plastered with sod or covered by birch bark.", "The rebuilding of Moscow in the second half of the 18th century was necessitated by constant fires and the needs of the nobility.", "Much of the wooden city was replaced by buildings in the classical style.For much of its architectural history, Moscow was dominated by Orthodox churches.", "However, the overall appearance of the city changed drastically during Soviet times, especially as a result of Joseph Stalin's large-scale effort to \"modernize\" Moscow.", "Stalin's plans for the city included a network of broad avenues and roadways, some of them over ten lanes wide, which, while greatly simplifying movement through the city, were constructed at the expense of a great number of historical buildings and districts.", "Among the many casualties of Stalin's demolitions was the Sukharev Tower, a longtime city landmark, as well as mansions and commercial buildings.", "The city's newfound status as the capital of a deeply secular nation, made religiously significant buildings especially vulnerable to demolition.", "Many of the city's churches, which in most cases were some of Moscow's oldest and most prominent buildings, were destroyed; some notable examples include the Kazan Cathedral and the Cathedral of Christ the Savior.", "During the 1990s, both were rebuilt.", "Many smaller churches, however, were lost.GUM department store, facing the Red SquareOstankino Tower, the tallest freestanding structure in Europe, and the eighth-tallest in the worldWhile the later Stalinist period was characterized by the curtailing of creativity and architectural innovation, the earlier post-revolutionary years saw a plethora of radical new buildings created in the city.", "Especially notable were the constructivist architects associated with VKHUTEMAS, responsible for such landmarks as Lenin's Mausoleum.", "Another prominent architect was Vladimir Shukhov, famous for Shukhov Tower, just one of many hyperboloid towers designed by Shukhov.", "It was built between 1919 and 1922 as a transmission tower for a Russian broadcasting company.", "Shukhov also left a lasting legacy to the Constructivist architecture of early Soviet Russia.", "He designed spacious elongated shop galleries, most notably the GUM department store on Red Square, bridged with innovative metal-and-glass vaults.Seven Sisters, Hotel Ukraina, is the tallest hotel in Europe, and one of the tallest hotels in the world.|thumbZhivopisny Bridge, the highest cable-stayed bridge in EuropePerhaps the most recognizable contributions of the Stalinist period are the so-called Seven Sisters, seven massive skyscrapers scattered throughout the city at about an equal distance from the Kremlin.", "A defining feature of Moscow's skyline, their imposing form was allegedly inspired by the Manhattan Municipal Building in New York City, and their style—with intricate exteriors and a large central spire—has been described as Stalinist Gothic architecture.", "All seven towers can be seen from most high points in the city; they are among the tallest constructions in central Moscow apart from the Ostankino Tower, which, when it was completed in 1967, was the highest free-standing land structure in the world and today remains the world's seventy-second tallest, ranking among buildings such as the Burj Khalifa in Dubai, Taipei 101 in Taiwan and the CN Tower in Toronto.The Soviet goal of providing housing for every family, and the rapid growth of Moscow's population, led to the construction of large, monotonous housing blocks.", "Most of these date from the post-Stalin era and the styles are often named after the leader then in power (Brezhnev, Khrushchev, etc.).", "They are usually badly maintained.Although the city still has some five-story apartment buildings constructed before the mid-1960s, more recent apartment buildings are usually at least nine floors tall, and have elevators.", "It is estimated that Moscow has over twice as many elevators as New York City and four times as many as Chicago.", "Moslift, one of the city's major elevator operating companies, has about 1500 elevator mechanics on call, to release residents trapped in elevators.Stalinist-era buildings, mostly found in the central part of the city, are massive and usually ornamented with Socialist realism motifs that imitate classical themes.", "However, small churches—almost always Eastern Orthodox– found across the city provide glimpses of its past.", "The Old Arbat Street, a tourist street that was once the heart of a bohemian area, preserves most of its buildings from prior to the 20th century.", "Many buildings found off the main streets of the inner city (behind the Stalinist façades of Tverskaya Street, for example) are also examples of bourgeois architecture typical of Tsarist times.", "Ostankino Palace, Kuskovo, Uzkoye and other large estates just outside Moscow originally belong to nobles from the Tsarist era, and some convents, and monasteries, both inside and outside the city, are open to Muscovites and tourists.MIBC.Attempts are being made to restore many of the city's best-kept examples of pre-Soviet architecture.", "These restored structures are easily spotted by their bright new colors and spotless façades.", "There are a few examples of notable, early Soviet avant-garde work too, such as the house of the architect Konstantin Melnikov in the Arbat area.", "Many of these restorations were criticized for alleged disrespect of historical authenticity.", "Facadism is also widely practiced.", "Later examples of interesting Soviet architecture are usually marked by their impressive size and the semi-Modernist styles employed, such as with the Novy Arbat project, familiarly known as \"false teeth of Moscow\" and notorious for the wide-scale disruption of a historic area in central Moscow involved in the project.Borovitskaya square, Monument to Vladimir the Great and Pashkov HousePlaques on house exteriors will inform passers-by that a well-known personality once lived there.", "Frequently, the plaques are dedicated to Soviet celebrities not well known outside (or often, like with decorated generals and revolutionaries, now both inside) of Russia.", "There are also many \"museum houses\" of famous Russian writers, composers, and artists in the city.Moscow's skyline is quickly modernizing, with several new towers under construction.In recent years, the city administration has been widely criticized for heavy destruction that has affected many historical buildings.", "As much as a third of historic Moscow has been destroyed in the past few years to make space for luxury apartments and hotels.", "Other historical buildings, including such landmarks as the 1930 Moskva hotel and the 1913 department store Voyentorg, have been razed and reconstructed anew, with the inevitable loss of historical value.", "Critics blame the government for not enforcing conservation laws: in the last 12 years, more than 50 buildings with monument status were torn down, several of those dating back to the 17th century.", "Some critics also wonder if the money used for the reconstruction of razed buildings could not be used for the renovation of decaying structures, which include many works by architect Konstantin Melnikov and Mayakovskaya metro station.Some organizations, such as Moscow Architecture Preservation Society and Save Europe's Heritage, are trying to draw the international public attention to these problems.", "+550px550pxPanoramic view of MoscowPanoramic view of Moscow===Parks and landmarks===There are 96 parks and 18 gardens in Moscow, including four botanical gardens.", "There are of green zones besides of forests.", "Moscow is a very green city, if compared to other cities of comparable size in Western Europe and North America; this is partly due to a history of having green \"yards\" with trees and grass, between residential buildings.", "There are on average of parks per person in Moscow compared with 6 for Paris, 7.5 in London and 8.6 in New York.Gorky Park|alt=Gorky Park (officially the Central Park of Culture and Rest named after Maxim Gorky), was founded in 1928.The main part () along the Moskva river contains estrades, children's attractions (including the ''Observation Wheel'' water ponds with boats and water bicycles), dancing, tennis courts and other sports facilities.", "It borders the Neskuchny Garden (), the oldest park in Moscow and a former imperial residence, created as a result of the integration of three estates in the 18th century.", "The Garden features the Green Theater, one of the largest open amphitheaters in Europe, able to hold up to 15 thousand people.", "Several parks include a section known as a \"Park of Culture and Rest\", sometimes alongside a much wilder area (this includes parks such as Izmaylovsky, Fili and Sokolniki).", "Some parks are designated as Forest Parks (lesopark).Dream Island, the largest indoor theme park in EuropeIzmaylovsky Park, created in 1931, is one of the largest urban parks in the world along with Richmond Park in London.", "Its area of is six times greater than that of Central Park in New York.Bauman Garden, officially founded in 1920 and renamed in 1922 after the bolshevik Nikolay Bauman, is one of the oldest parks in Moscow.", "It is standing on the site of the former Golitsyn estate and eighteenth-century public garden.", "Novodevichy Convent is a World Heritage Site.|alt= Sokolniki Park, named after the falcon hunting that occurred there in the past, is one of the oldest parks in Moscow and has an area of .", "A central circle with a large fountain is surrounded by birch, maple, and elm tree alleys.", "A labyrinth composed of green paths lies beyond the park's ponds.Losiny Ostrov National Park (\"Elk Island\" National Park), with a total area of more than , borders Sokolniki Park and was Russia's first national park.", "It is quite wild, and is also known as the \"city taiga\" – elk can be seen there.The Church of Ascension in Kolomenskoye is a World Heritage Site.Tsytsin Main Botanical Garden of Academy of Sciences, founded in 1945 is the largest in Europe.", "It covers the territory of bordering the All-Russia Exhibition Center and contains a live exhibition of more than 20 thousand species of plants from around the world, as well as a lab for scientific research.", "It contains a rosarium with 20 thousand rose bushes, a dendrarium, and an oak forest, with the average age of trees exceeding 100 years.", "There is a greenhouse taking up more than of land.The All-Russian Exhibition Center (Всероссийский выставочный центр), formerly known as the All-Union Agricultural Exhibition (VSKhV) and later Exhibition of Achievements of the National Economy (VDNKh), though officially named a \"permanent trade show\", is one of the most prominent examples of Stalinist-era monumental architecture.", "Among the large spans of a recreational park, areas are scores of elaborate pavilions, each representing either a branch of Soviet industry and science or a USSR republic.", "Even though during the 1990s it was, and for some part still is, misused as a gigantic shopping center (most of the pavilions are rented out for small businesses), it still retains the bulk of its architectural landmarks, including two monumental fountains (''Stone Flower'' and ''Friendship of Nations'') and a 360 degrees panoramic cinema.", "In 2014 the park returned to the name Exhibition of Achievements of National Economy, and in the same year, huge renovation works had been started.", "''Lilac Park'', founded in 1958, has a permanent sculpture display and a large rosarium.", "Moscow has always been a popular destination for tourists.", "Some of the more famous attractions include the city's UNESCO World Heritage Site, Moscow Kremlin and Red Square, which was built between the 14th and 17th centuries.", "The Church of the Ascension at Kolomenskoye, which dates from 1532, is also a UNESCO World Heritage Site and another popular attraction.Near the new Tretyakov Gallery there is a sculpture garden, Museon, often called \"the graveyard of fallen monuments\" that displays statues of the former Soviet Union that were removed from their place after its dissolution.Other attractions include the Moscow Zoo, a zoological garden in two sections (the valleys of two streams) linked by a bridge, with nearly a thousand species and more than 6,500 specimens.", "Each year, the zoo attracts more than 1.2 million visitors.", "Many of Moscow's parks and landscaped gardens are protected natural environments.", "+350px350px350pxZaryadye ParkVDNKhVictory park on Poklonnaya Hill" ], [ "Moscow rings", "Moscow's road system is centered roughly on the Kremlin at the heart of the city.", "From there, roads generally span outwards to intersect with a sequence of circular roads (\"rings\").# The first and innermost major ring, Bulvarnoye Koltso (Boulevard Ring), was built at the former location of the 16th-century city wall around what used to be called Bely Gorod (White Town).", "The Bulvarnoye Koltso is technically not a ring; it does not form a complete circle, but instead a horseshoe-shaped arc that begins at the Cathedral of Christ the Savior and ends at the Yauza River.# The second primary ring, located outside the Boulevard Ring, is the Sadovoye Koltso (Garden Ring).", "Like the Boulevard Ring, the Garden Ring follows the path of a 16th-century wall that used to encompass part of Moscow.", "Moscow as viewed from the International Space Station, January 29, 2014# The Third Ring Road, was completed in 2003 as a high-speed freeway.# The Fourth Transport Ring, another freeway, was planned, but cancelled in 2011.A system of chordal highways will replace it.Aside from the aforementioned hierarchy, line 5 of Moscow Metro is a circle-shaped looped subway line (hence the name ''Koltsevaya Liniya'', literally \"ring line\"), which is located between the ''Sadovoye Koltso'' and Third Transport Ring.Two modern overlapping lines of Moscow Metro form \"two hearts\":* Line 14.Since September 10, 2016, ''Moscow Central Circle'' renovated railroad (former ''Moskovskaya Okruzhnaya Zheleznaya Doroga'') was introduced as Line 14 of Moscow Metro.", "The cone-shaped railroad initially opened in 1908 (freight-only railway from 1934 until the 2016 reopening).", "* Line 11.Another circle metro line - ''Big Circle Line'' (''Bolshaya Koltsevaya Liniya'') is under construction and will be finished in 2023.Kakhovskaya-Savyolovskaya western half of the line was launched in late 2021.The outermost ring within Moscow is the Moscow Ring Road (often called ''MKAD'', acronym word for Russian ''Московская Кольцевая Автомобильная Дорога''), which forms the cultural boundary of the city, and was established in the 1950s.", "It is to note the method of building the road (usage of ground elevation instead of concrete columns throughout the whole way) formed a wall-like barrier that obstacles building roads under the MKAD highway itself).", "* Before 2012 expansion of Moscow, MKAD was considered an approximate border for Moscow boundaries.Outside Moscow, some of the roads encompassing the city continue to follow this circular pattern seen inside city limits, with the notable examples of ''Betonka'' roads (highways A107 and A108), originally made of concrete pads.In order to reduce transit traffic on MKAD, the new ring road (called ''CKAD'' - ''Centralnaya Koltsevaya Avtomobilnaya Doroga'', ''Central Ring Road'') is now under construction beyond the MKAD.===Transport rings in Moscow=== Length Name Type 9 km Boulevard Ring – Bulvarnoye Koltso (not a full ring) Road 16 km Garden Ring – Sadovoye Koltso (\"B\") Road 19 km Koltsevaya line (Line 5) Metro 35 km Third Ring Road – Third Transport Ring – Tretye Transportnoye Koltso (TTK) Road 54 km Little Ring of the Moscow Railway, re-opened as Moscow Central Ring (MCC) – Line 14 Railway 20.2 km Bolshaya Koltsevaya line – Line 11 Metro 109 km Moscow Automobile Ring Road – Moskovskaya Koltsevaya Avtomobilnaya Doroga (MKAD) Road" ], [ "Culture", "===Museums and galleries===One of the most notable art museums in Moscow is the Tretyakov Gallery, which was founded by Pavel Tretyakov, a wealthy patron of the arts who donated a large private collection to the city.", "The Tretyakov Gallery is split into two buildings.", "The Old Tretyakov gallery, the original gallery in the Tretyakovskaya area on the south bank of the Moskva River, houses works in the classic Russian tradition.", "The works of famous pre-Revolutionary painters, such as Ilya Repin, as well as the works of early Russian icon painters can be found here.", "Visitors can even see rare originals by early 15th-century iconographer Andrei Rublev.The New Tretyakov gallery, created in Soviet times, mainly contains the works of Soviet artists, as well as of a few contemporary paintings, but there is some overlap with the Old Tretyakov Gallery for early 20th-century art.", "The new gallery includes a small reconstruction of Vladimir Tatlin's famous ''Monument to the Third International'' and a mixture of other avant-garde works by artists like Kazimir Malevich and Wassily Kandinsky.", "Socialist realism features can also be found within the halls of the New Tretyakov Gallery.Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts|alt=Another art museum in the city of Moscow is the Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts, which was founded by, among others, the father of Marina Tsvetaeva.", "The Pushkin Museum is similar to the British Museum in London in that its halls are a cross-section of exhibits on world civilisations, with many copies of ancient sculptures.", "However, it also hosts paintings from every major Western era; works by Claude Monet, Paul Cézanne, and Pablo Picasso are present in the museum's collection.The State Historical Museum of Russia (Государственный Исторический музей) is a museum of Russian history located between Red Square and Manege Square in Moscow.", "Its exhibitions range from relics of the prehistoric tribes inhabiting present-day Russia, through priceless artworks acquired by members of the Romanov dynasty.", "The total number of objects in the museum's collection numbers is several million.", "The Polytechnical Museum, founded in 1872 is the largest technical museum in Russia, offering a wide array of historical inventions and technological achievements, including humanoid automata from the 18th century and the first Soviet computers.", "Its collection contains more than 160,000 items.", "The Borodino Panorama museum located on Kutuzov Avenue provides an opportunity for visitors to experience being on a battlefield with a 360° diorama.", "It is a part of the large historical memorial commemorating the victory in the Patriotic War of 1812 over Napoleon's army, that includes also the triumphal arch, erected in 1827.There is also a military history museum that includes statues, and military hardware.Memorial Museum of Cosmonautics under the Monument to the Conquerors of Space at the end of Cosmonauts Alley is the central memorial place for the Russian space officials.The Shchusev State Museum of Architecture is the national museum of Russian architecture by the name of the architect Alexey Shchusev near the Kremlin area.Moscow will get its own branch of the Hermitage Museum in 2024, with authorities having agreed upon the final project, to be executed by Hani Rashid, co-founder of New York-based 'Asymptote Architecture' - the same bureau that's behind the city's stock market building, the Busan-based World Business Center Solomon Tower and the Strata Tower in Abu-Dhabi.===Performing arts===Moscow is the heart of the Russian performing arts, including ballet and film, with 68 museums 103 theaters, 132 cinemas and 24 concert halls.", "Among Moscow's theaters and ballet studios is the Bolshoi Theatre and the Malyi Theatre as well as Vakhtangov Theatre and Moscow Art Theatre.The Moscow International Performance Arts Center, opened in 2003, also known as Moscow International House of Music, is known for its performances in classical music.", "It has the largest organ in Russia installed in Svetlanov Hall.There are also two large circuses in Moscow: Moscow State Circus and Moscow Circus on Tsvetnoy Boulevard named after Yuri Nikulin.The Mosfilm studio was at the heart of many classic films, as it is responsible for both artistic and mainstream productions.", "However, despite the continued presence and reputation of internationally renowned Russian filmmakers, the once prolific native studios are much quieter.", "Rare and historical films may be seen in the Salut cinema, where films from the Museum of Cinema collection are shown regularly.", "International film festivals such as the Moscow International Film Festival, Stalker, Artdocfest, and Moscow Jewish Film Festival are staged in Moscow." ], [ "Sports", "The Luzhniki Stadium hosted the 1980 Summer Olympics and the 2018 FIFA World Cup Final.Sparrow Hills fanzone during 2018 FIFA World CupSC Olimpiyskiy was built for the 1980 Summer Olympics.Over 500 Olympic sports champions lived in the city by 2005.Moscow is home to 63 stadiums (besides eight football and eleven light athletics maneges), of which Luzhniki Stadium is the largest and the 4th biggest in Europe (it hosted the 1998–99 UEFA Cup, 2007–08 UEFA Champions League finals, the 1980 Summer Olympics, and the 2018 FIFA World Cup with 7 games total, including the final).", "Forty other sports complexes are located within the city, including 24 with artificial ice.", "The Olympic Stadium was the world's first indoor arena for bandy and hosted the Bandy World Championship twice.", "Moscow was again the host of the competition in 2010, this time in Krylatskoye.", "That arena has also hosted the World Speed Skating Championships.", "There are also seven horse racing tracks in Moscow, of which Central Moscow Hippodrome, founded in 1834, is the largest.CSKA Arena during a game of KHL, considered to be the second-best ice hockey league in the worldMoscow was the host city of the 1980 Summer Olympics, with the yachting events being held at Tallinn, in present-day Estonia.", "Large sports facilities and the main international airport, Sheremetyevo Terminal 2, were built in preparation for the 1980 Summer Olympics.", "Moscow had made a bid for the 2012 Summer Olympics.", "However, when final voting commenced on July 6, 2005, Moscow was the first city to be eliminated from further rounds.", "The Games were awarded to London.The most titled ice hockey team in the Soviet Union and in the world, HC CSKA Moscow comes from Moscow.", "Other big ice hockey clubs from Moscow are HC Dynamo Moscow, which was the second most titled team in the Soviet Union, and HC Spartak Moscow.The most titled Soviet, Russian, and one of the most titled Euroleague clubs, is the basketball club from Moscow PBC CSKA Moscow.", "Moscow hosted the EuroBasket in 1953 and 1965.Moscow had more winners at the USSR and Russian Chess Championship than any other city.The most titled volleyball team in the Soviet Union and in Europe (CEV Champions League) is VC CSKA Moscow.In football, FC Spartak Moscow has won more championship titles in the Russian Premier League than any other team.", "They were second only to FC Dynamo Kyiv in Soviet times.", "PFC CSKA Moscow became the first Russian football team to win a UEFA title, the UEFA Cup (present-day UEFA Europa League).", "FC Lokomotiv Moscow, FC Dynamo Moscow and FC Torpedo Moscow are other professional football teams also based in Moscow.File:Стадион «Лукойл Арена» в Москве (08.01.2024) 01.jpg|Lukoil Arena, home of FC Spartak MoscowFile:Arena CSKA.jpg|VEB Arena, home of PFC CSKA MoscowFile:VTB Arena8.jpg|VTB Arena, home of FC Dynamo Moscow and HC Dynamo MoscowFile:Lokomotiv Stadium.jpg|RZD Arena, home of FC Lokomotiv MoscowMoscow houses other prominent football, ice hockey, and basketball teams.", "Because sports organisations in the Soviet Union were once highly centralized, two of the best Union-level teams represented defence and law-enforcing agencies: the Armed Forces (CSKA) and the Ministry of Internal Affairs (Dinamo).", "There were army and police teams in most major cities.", "As a result, Spartak, CSKA, and Dinamo were among the best-funded teams in the USSR.The Irina Viner-Usmanova Gymnastics Palace is located in the Luzniki Olympic Complex.", "The building works started in 2017 and the opening ceremony took place on June 18, 2019.The investor of the Palace is the billionaire Alisher Usmanov, husband of the former gymnast and gymnastics coach Irina Viner-Usmanova.", "The total surface of the building is 23,500 m2, which include 3 fitness rooms, locker rooms, rooms reserved for referees and coaches, saunas, a canteen, a cafeteria, 2 ball halls, a Medical center, a hall reserved for journalists, and a hotel for athletes.Because of Moscow's cold local climate, winter sports have a following.", "Many of Moscow's large parks offer marked trails for skiing and frozen ponds for skating.The Luzhniki Stadium in Moscow, which hosted games of the 2018 FIFA World CupMoscow hosts the annual Kremlin Cup, a popular tennis tournament on both the WTA and ATP tours.", "It is one of the ten Tier-I events on the women's tour and a host of Russian players feature every year.SC Olimpiyskiy hosted the Eurovision Song Contest 2009, the first and so far the only Eurovision Song Contest arranged in Russia.Slava Moscow is a professional rugby club, competing in the national Professional Rugby League.", "Former rugby league heavyweights RC Lokomotiv have entered the same league .", "The Luzhniki Stadium also hosted the 2013 Rugby World Cup Sevens.In bandy, one of the most successful clubs in the world is 20 times Russian League champions Dynamo Moscow.", "They have also won the World Cup thrice and European Cup six times.MFK Dinamo Moskva is one of the major futsal clubs in Europe, having won the Futsal Champions League title once.When Russia was selected to host the 2018 FIFA World Cup, the Luzhniki Stadium got an increased capacity, by almost 10,000 new seats, in addition to a further two stadiums that have been built: the Dynamo Stadium, and the Spartak Stadium, although the first one later was dismissed from having World Cup matches.===Football clubs=== Club Founded League League Rank Stadium Spartak Moscow 1922 Premier League 1st Lukoil Arena CSKA Moscow 1911 Premier League 1st VEB Arena Lokomotiv Moscow 1923 Premier League 1st RZD Arena Dynamo Moscow 1923 Premier League 1st VTB Arena Torpedo Moscow 1924 First League 2nd Eduard Streltsov Stadium Rodina Moscow 2015 First League 2nd Spartakovets Stadium Veles Moscow 2016 Second League 3rd Avangard Stadium" ], [ "Entertainment", "Arbat Street, in the historical centre of MoscowThe city is full of clubs, restaurants, and bars.", "Tverskaya Street is also one of the busiest shopping streets in Moscow.The adjoining Tretyakovsky Proyezd, also south of Tverskaya Street, in Kitai-gorod, is host to upmarket boutique stores such as Bulgari, Tiffany & Co., Armani, Prada and Bentley.", "Nightlife in Moscow has moved on since Soviet times and today the city has many of the world's largest nightclubs.", "Clubs, bars, creative spaces and restaurants-turned-into-dancefloors are flooding Moscow streets with new openings every year.", "The hottest area is located around the old chocolate factory, where bars, nightclubs, galleries, cafés and restaurants are placed.Dream Island is an amusement park in Moscow that opened on February 29, 2020.It is the largest indoor theme park in Europe.The park covers 300,000 square meters.", "During the park's construction, 150 acres of nature trees unique and rare animals and birds and plants on the peninsula were destroyed.", "The appearance is in the style of a fairytale castle similar to Disneyland.", "The park has 29 unique attractions with many rides, as well as pedestrian malls with fountains and cycle paths.", "The complex includes a landscaped park along with a concert hall, a cinema, a hotel, a children's sailing school, restaurants, and shops." ], [ "Authorities", "===Moscow authorities===Government of MoscowAccording to the Constitution of the Russian Federation, Moscow is an independent federal subject of the Russian Federation, the so-called city of federal importance.The Mayor of Moscow is the leading official in the executive, leading the Government of Moscow, which is the highest organ of executive power.The Moscow City Duma is the City Duma (city council or local parliament) and local laws must be approved by it.", "It includes 45 members who are elected for a five-year term on Single-mandate constituency basis.From 2006 to 2012, direct elections of the mayor were not held due to changes in the Charter of the city of Moscow, the mayor was appointed by presidential decree.", "The first direct elections from the time of the 2003 vote were to be held after the expiration of the current mayor in 2015, however, in connection with his resignation of his own free will, they took place in September 2013.Local administration is carried out through eleven prefectures, uniting the districts of Moscow into administrative districts on a territorial basis, and 125 regional administrations.", "According to the law \"On the organization of local self-government in the city of Moscow\", since the beginning of 2003, the executive bodies of local self-government are municipalities, representative bodies are municipal assemblies, whose members are elected in accordance with the Charter of the intracity municipality.===Federal authorities===The House of the Government of the Russian FederationIn Moscow, as in a city endowed with the Constitution of the Russian Federation, the legislative, executive, and judicial federal authorities of the country are located, with the exception of the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation, which has been located in Saint Petersburg since 2008.The supreme executive authority - the Government of the Russian Federation - is located in the House of the Government of the Russian Federation on Krasnopresnenskaya Embankment in the center of Moscow.", "The State Duma sits on Okhotny Ryad.", "The Federation Council is located in a building on Bolshaya Dmitrovka.", "The Supreme Court of the Russian Federation and the Supreme Court of Arbitration of the Russian Federation are also located in Moscow.In addition, the Moscow Kremlin is the official residence of the President of the Russian Federation.", "The president's working residence in the Kremlin is located in the Senate Palace.=== Safety ===A BMW 5 Series of the Moscow Police on patrolAccording to the ranking of the safest cities made by The Economist Moscow occupies the 37th position with a score of 68,5 points percent.", "The general level of crime is quite low.", "More than 170,000 surveillance cameras in Moscow are connected to the facial recognition system.", "The authorities recognized the successful two-month experiment with automatic recognition of faces, gender, and age of people in real-time - and then they deployed the system to the whole city.", "The network of video surveillance unites access video cameras (95% of residential apartment buildings in the capital), cameras in the territory and in buildings of schools and kindergartens, at the MCC stations, stadiums, public transport stops, and bus stations, in parks, underground passages.The emergency numbers are the same as in all the other regions of Russia: 112 is the Single Emergency Number, 101 is the number of the Fire Service and Ministry of Emergency Situations, 102 is the Police one, 103 is the ambulance one, 104 is the Emergency Gas number.", "Moscow's EMS is the second most efficient one among the world's megacities, as reported by PwC during the presentation of the international study Analysis of EMS Efficiency in Megacities of the World." ], [ "Administrative divisions", " Federal city of Moscow Coat of arms of Moscow '''City administrative divisions''' 12 '''City districts''' 125 '''City settlements''' 21Moscow is divided into '''12 administrative districts''':320px# Central Administrative Okrug# Northern Administrative Okrug# North-Eastern Administrative Okrug# Eastern Administrative Okrug# South-Eastern Administrative Okrug# Southern Administrative Okrug# South-Western Administrative Okrug# Western Administrative Okrug# North-Western Administrative Okrug# Zelenogradsky Administrative Okrug# Novomoskovsky Administrative Okrug# Troitsky Administrative OkrugTerritorial change of Moscow from 1922 to 1995The entire city of Moscow is headed by one mayor (Sergey Sobyanin).", "The city of Moscow is divided into twelve administrative okrugs and 125 districts.The Russian capital's town-planning development began to show as early as the 12th century when the city was founded.", "The central part of Moscow grew by consolidating with suburbs in line with medieval principles of urban development when strong fortress walls would gradually spread along the circle streets of adjacent new settlements.", "The first circular defence walls set the trajectory of Moscow's rings, laying the groundwork for the future planning of the Russian capital.The following fortifications served as the city's circular defense boundaries at some point in history: the Kremlin walls, Zemlyanoy Gorod (Earthwork Town), the Kamer-Kollezhsky Rampart, the Garden Ring, and the small railway ring.", "The Moscow Ring Road (MKAD) has been Moscow's boundary since 1960.Also in the form of a circle are the main Moscow subway line, the Ring Line, and the so-called Third Automobile Ring, which was completed in 2005.Hence, the characteristic radial-circle planning continues to define Moscow's further development.", "However, contemporary Moscow has also engulfed a number of territories outside the MKAD, such as Solntsevo, Butovo, and the town of Zelenograd.", "A part of Moscow Oblast's territory was merged into Moscow on July 1, 2012; as a result, Moscow is no longer fully surrounded by Moscow Oblast and now also has a border with Kaluga Oblast.", "In all, Moscow gained about and 230,000 inhabitants.", "Moscow's Mayor Sergey Sobyanin lauded the expansion that will help Moscow and the neighboring region, a \"mega-city\" of twenty million people, to develop \"harmonically\".All administrative okrugs and districts have their own coats of arms and flags as well as individual heads of the area.In addition to the districts, there are Territorial Units with Special Status.", "These usually include areas with small or no permanent populations.", "Such is the case with the All-Russia Exhibition Centre, the Botanical Garden, large parks, and industrial zones.", "In recent years, some territories have been merged with different districts.", "There are no ethnic-specific regions in Moscow, as in the Chinatowns that exist in some North American and East Asian cities.", "And although districts are not designated by income, as with most cities, those areas that are closer to the city center, metro stations or green zones are considered more prestigious.Moscow also hosts some of the government bodies of Moscow Oblast, although the city itself is not a part of the oblast." ], [ "Economy", "===Overview==='''Largest private companies basedin Moscow '''(ranked by 2019 revenues)'''Russia'''Lukoil|1 X5 Retail Group|3Novatek|6Nornickel|9 UC Rusal|11 Sibur|13 SUEK|15MTS|17Metalloinvest|18EuroChem|21MegaFon|22M.video|24TMK|25Mechel|26'''Source:''' ''Forbes''leftMoscow has one of the largest municipal economies in Europe and it accounts more than one-fifth of Russia's gross domestic product (GDP).", ", the GRP of Moscow reached almost ₽24.5 trillion(US$332 billion).", "GMP of Moscow Region was ₽31.3 trillion or around US$425 billion.Moscow ExchangeThe average gross monthly wage in the city is ₽123,688 (US$2,000), which is around twice the national average of ₽66,572 (US$1,000), and one of the highest among the federal subjects of Russia.Moscow is home to the third-highest number of billionaires of any city in the world, and has the highest number of billionaires of any city in Europe.", "It is the financial center of Russia and home to the country's largest banks and many of its largest companies, such as oil giant Rosneft.", "Moscow accounts for 17% of retail sales in Russia and for 13% of all construction activity in the country.", "Since the 1998 Russian financial crisis, business sectors in Moscow have shown exponential rates of growth.", "Many new business centers and office buildings have been built in recent years, but Moscow still experiences shortages in office space.", "As a result, many former industrial and research facilities are being reconstructed to become suitable for office use.", "Overall, economic stability has improved in recent years; nonetheless, crime and corruption still hinder business development.===Industry===Primary industries in Moscow include the chemical, metallurgy, food, textile, furniture, energy production, software development and machinery industries.The Mil Moscow Helicopter Plant is one of the world's leading producers of military and civil helicopters.", "Khrunichev State Research and Production Space Center produces various space equipment, including modules for space stations Mir, Salyut and the ISS as well as Proton launch vehicles and military ICBMs.", "Sukhoi, Ilyushin, Mikoyan, Tupolev and Yakovlev aircraft design bureaus also situated in Moscow.", "NPO Energomash, producing the rocket engines for Russian and American space programs, as well as Lavochkin design bureau, which built fighter planes during WWII, but switched to space probes since the Space Race, are in nearby Khimki, an independent city in Moscow Oblast that have largely been enclosed by Moscow from its sides.", "Automobile plants ZiL and AZLK, as well as the Voitovich Rail Vehicle plant, are situated in Moscow and Metrovagonmash metro wagon plant is located just outside the city limits.", "The Poljot Moscow watch factory produces military, professional and sport watches well known in Russia and abroad.", "Yuri Gagarin in his trip into space used \"Shturmanskie\" produced by this factory.The Electrozavod factory was the first transformer factory in Russia.", "The Kristall distillery is the oldest distillery in Russia producing vodka types, including \"Stolichnaya\" while wines are produced at Moscow wine plants, including the Moscow Interrepublican Vinery.", "The Moscow Jewelry Factory and the Jewellerprom are producers of jewelry in Russia; Jewellerprom used to produce the exclusive Order of Victory, awarded to those aiding the Soviet Union's Red Army during World War II.There are other industries located just outside the city of Moscow, as well as microelectronic industries in Zelenograd, including Ruselectronics companies.Gazprom, the largest extractor of natural gas in the world and the largest Russian company, has head offices also in Moscow, as well as other oil, gas, and electricity companies.Moscow hosts headquarters of the many of telecommunication and technology companies, including 1C, ABBYY, Beeline, Kaspersky Lab, Mail.Ru Group, MegaFon, MTS, Rambler&Co, Rostelecom, Yandex, and Yota.Some industry is being transferred out of the city to improve the ecological state of the city.===Cost of living===Tretyakovsky ProyezdleftA microdistrict in Mitino built in the 1990sDuring Soviet times, apartments were lent to people by the government according to the square meters-per-person norm (some groups, including people's artists, heroes, and prominent scientists had bonuses according to their honors).", "Private ownership of apartments was limited until the 1990s when people were permitted to secure property rights to their inhabited places.", "Since the Soviet era, estate owners have had to pay the service charge for their residences, a fixed amount based on persons per living area.The price of real estate in Moscow continues to rise.", "Today, one could expect to pay $4,000 on average per square meter (11 sq ft) on the outskirts of the city or US$6,500–$8,000 per square meter in a prestigious district.", "The price sometimes may exceed US$40,000 per square meter in a flat.", "It costs about US$1,200 per month to rent a one-bedroom apartment and about US$1,000 per month for a studio in the center of Moscow.A typical one-bedroom apartment is about , a typical two-bedroom apartment is , and a typical three-bedroom apartment is .", "Many cannot move out of their apartments, especially if a family lives in a two-room apartment originally granted by the state during the Soviet era.", "Some city residents have attempted to cope with the cost of living by renting their apartments while staying in dachas (country houses) outside the city.In 2006, Mercer Human Resources Consulting named Moscow the world's most expensive city for expatriate employees, ahead of perennial winner Tokyo, due to the stable Russian ruble as well as increasing housing prices within the city.", "Moscow also ranked first in the 2007 edition and 2008 edition of the survey.", "However, Tokyo has overtaken Moscow as the most expensive city in the world, placing Moscow at third behind Osaka in second place.In 2008, Moscow ranked top on the list of most expensive cities for the third year in a row.In 2014, according to ''Forbes'', Moscow was ranked the 9th most expensive city in the world.", "''Forbes'' ranked Moscow the 2nd most expensive city the year prior.In 2019 the Economist Intelligence Unit's Worldwide Cost of Living survey put Moscow to 102nd place in the biannual ranking of 133 most expensive cities.", "ECA International's Cost of Living 2019 Survey ranked Moscow at number 120 among 482 locations worldwide.===Public utilities=======Heating====The heating of buildings in Moscow, like in other cities in Russia is done using central heating system.", "Before 2004, state unitary enterprises were responsible to produce and supply heat to the clients by the operation of heating stations and heating distribution system of Mosgorteplo, Mosteploenergo, and Teploremontnaladka which gave service to the heating substations in the north-eastern part of the city.", "Clients were divided between the various enterprises based on their geographical location.", "A major reform launched in 2004 consolidated the various companies under the umbrella of MIPC which became the municipal heat supplier.", "Its subsidiaries were the newly transformed Joint-stock companies.", "The city's main source of heating is the power station of Mosenergo which was reformed in 2005, when around ten subsidiaries were separated from it.", "One of the newly independent companies was the District Heating Network Company (MTK) ().", "In 2007 the Government of Moscow bought controlling stakes in the company.====City services====\"Our city\" is a geo-information portal created in 2011 under the mayor of Moscow Sergei Sobyanin with the aim of building a constructive dialogue between Moscow residents and the city's executive authorities.", "The portal is being developed by the State Public Institution \"New Management Technologies\" together with the Moscow Department of Information Technologies.", "In its 10 years of operation, more than 1.7 million users have joined the portal, and during this time it has become an effective tool for monitoring the state of urban infrastructure." ], [ "Education", "leftThere are 1,696 high schools in Moscow, as well as 91 colleges.", "Besides these, there are 222 institutions of higher education, including 60 state universities and the Lomonosov Moscow State University, which was founded in 1755.The main university building located in Vorobyovy Gory (Sparrow Hills) is tall and when completed, was the tallest building on the continent.", "The university has over 30,000 undergraduate and 7,000 postgraduate students, who have a choice of twenty-nine faculties and 450 departments for study.", "Additionally, approximately 10,000 high school students take courses at the university, while over two thousand researchers work.", "The Moscow State University library contains over nine million books, making it one of the largest libraries in all of Russia.", "Its acclaim throughout the international academic community has meant that over 11,000 international students have graduated from the university, with many coming to Moscow to become fluent in the Russian language.The I.M.", "Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University named after Ivan Sechenov or formerly known as Moscow Medical Academy (1stMSMU) is a medical university situated in Moscow, Russia.", "It was founded in 1785 as the faculty of the Moscow State University.", "It is a Russian Federal Agency for Health and Social Development.", "It is one of the largest medical universities in Russia and Europe.", "More than 9200 students are enrolled in 115 academic departments.", "It offers courses for post-graduate studies.leftThe Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University (formerly known as Russian State Medical University) is a medical higher education institution in Moscow, Russia founded in 1906.It is fully accredited and recognized by Russia's Ministry of Education and Science and is currently under the authority of the Ministry of Health and Social Development.", "Named after Russian surgeon and pedagogue N.I.", "Pirogov (1810-1888), it is one of the largest medical institutions and the first university in Russia to allow women to acquire degrees.Moscow is one of the financial centers of the Russian Federation and CIS countries and is known for its business schools.", "Among them are the Financial University under the Government of the Russian Federation; Plekhanov Russian University of Economics; The State University of Management, and the National Research University - Higher School of Economics.", "They offer undergraduate degrees in management, finance, accounting, marketing, real estate, and economic theory, as well as Masters programs and MBAs.", "Most of them have branches in other regions of Russia and countries around the world.The main building of the Bauman Moscow State Technical UniversityBauman Moscow State Technical University, founded in 1830, is located in the center of Moscow and provides 18,000 undergraduate and 1,000 postgraduate students with an education in science and engineering, offering technical degrees.The leftThe Moscow Conservatory, founded in 1866, is a prominent music school in Russia whose graduates include Sergey Rachmaninoff, Alexander Scriabin, Aram Khachaturian, Mstislav Rostropovich, and Alfred Schnittke.Russian State Institute of Cinematography, the world's oldestfilm school|alt=|leftThe Gerasimov All-Russian State Institute of Cinematography, abbreviated as VGIK, is the world's oldest educational institution in Cinematography, founded by Vladimir Gardin in 1919.Sergei Eisenstein, Vsevolod Pudovkin, and Aleksey Batalov were among its most distinguished professors and Mikhail Vartanov, Sergei Parajanov, Andrei Tarkovsky, Nikita Mikhalkov, Eldar Ryazanov, Alexander Sokurov, Yuriy Norshteyn, Aleksandr Petrov, Vasily Shukshin, Konrad Wolf among graduates.Moscow State Institute of International Relations, founded in 1944, remains Russia's best- known school of international relations and diplomacy, with six schools focused on international relations.", "Approximately 4,500 students make up the university's student body and over 700,000 Russian and foreign-language books—of which 20,000 are considered rare—can be found in the library of the Moscow State Institute of International Relations.Other institutions are the Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, also known as Phystech, the Fyodorov Eye Microsurgery Complex, founded in 1988 by Russian eye surgeon Svyatoslav Fyodorov, the Moscow Aviation Institute, the Moscow Motorway Institute (State Technical University), and the Moscow Engineering Physics Institute.", "Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology has taught numerous Nobel Prize winners, including Pyotr Kapitsa, Nikolay Semyonov, Lev Landau and Alexander Prokhorov, while the Moscow Engineering Physics Institute is known for its research in nuclear physics.", "The highest Russian military school is the Combined Arms Academy of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation.Although Moscow has a number of famous Soviet-era higher educational institutions, most of which are more oriented towards engineering or the fundamental sciences, in recent years Moscow has seen a growth in the number of commercial and private institutions that offer classes in business and management.", "Many state institutions have expanded their education scope and introduced new courses or departments.", "Institutions in Moscow, as well as the rest of post-Soviet Russia, have begun to offer new international certificates and postgraduate degrees, including the Master of Business Administration.", "Student exchange programs with numerous countries, specially with the rest of Europe, have also become widespread in Moscow's universities, while schools within the Russian capital also offer seminars, lectures, and courses for corporate employees and businessmen.Russian Academy of SciencesMoscow is one of the largest science centers in Russia.", "The headquarters of the Russian Academy of Sciences are located in Moscow as well as research and applied science institutions.", "The Kurchatov Institute, Russia's leading research and development institution in the fields of nuclear energy, where the first nuclear reactor in Europe was built, the Landau Institute for Theoretical Physics, Institute for Theoretical and Experimental Physics, Kapitza Institute for Physical Problems and Steklov Institute of Mathematics are all situated in Moscow.There are 452 libraries in the city, including 168 for children.", "The Russian State Library, founded in 1862, is the national library of Russia.", "The library is home to over of shelves and 42 million items, including over 17 million books and serial volumes, 13 million journals, 350,000 music scores and sound records, and 150,000 maps, making it the largest library in Russia and one of the largest in the world.", "Items in 247 languages account for 29% of the collection.The State Public Historical Library, founded in 1863, is the largest library specialising in Russian history.", "Its collection contains four million items in 112 languages (including 47 languages of the former USSR), mostly on Russian and world history, heraldry, numismatics, and the history of science.In regard to primary and secondary education, in 2011, Clifford J.", "Levy of ''The New York Times'' wrote, \"Moscow has some strong public schools, but the system as a whole is dispiriting, in part because it is being corroded by the corruption that is a post-Soviet scourge.", "Parents often pay bribes to get their children admitted to better public schools.", "There are additional payoffs for good grades.\"" ], [ "Transportation", "===Metro===Moscow Metro route map with planned stationsMayakovskaya station, opened in 1938The Moscow Metro system is famous for its art, murals, mosaics, and ornate chandeliers.", "It started operation in 1935 and immediately became the centrepiece of the transportation system.", "More than that it was a Stalinist device to awe and reward the populace, and give them an appreciation of Soviet realist art.", "It became the prototype for future Soviet large-scale technologies.", "Lazar Kaganovich was in charge; he designed the subway so that citizens would absorb the values and ethos of Stalinist civilisation as they rode.", "The artwork of the 13 original stations became nationally and internationally famous.", "For example, the Sverdlov Square subway station featured porcelain bas-reliefs depicting the daily life of the Soviet peoples, and the bas-reliefs at the Dynamo Stadium sports complex glorified sports and the physical prowess of the powerful new \"Homo Sovieticus\" (Soviet man).The metro was touted as the symbol of the new social order—a sort of Communist cathedral of engineering modernity.", "Soviet workers did the labour and the artwork, but the main engineering designs, routes, and construction plans were handled by specialists recruited from the London Underground.", "The Britons called for tunneling instead of the \"cut-and-cover\" technique, the use of escalators instead of lifts, and designed the routes and the rolling stock.", "The paranoia of Stalin and the NKVD was evident when the secret police arrested numerous British engineers for espionage—that is for gaining an in-depth knowledge of the city's physical layout.", "Engineers for the Metropolitan Vickers Electrical Company were given a show trial and deported in 1933, ending the role of British business in the USSR.Today, the Moscow Metro comprises twelve lines, mostly underground with a total of 203 stations.", "The Metro is one of the deepest subway systems in the world; for instance, the Park Pobedy station, completed in 2003, at underground, has the longest escalators in Europe.", "The Moscow Metro is the busiest metro system in Europe, as well as one of the world's busiest metro systems, serving about ten million passengers daily (300,000,000 people every month).", "Facing serious transportation problems, Moscow has plans for expanding its Metro.", "In 2016, the authorities launched a new circle metro railway that contributed to solving transportation issues, namely daily congestion at Koltsevaya Line.Due to the treatment of Metro stations as possible canvas for art, characterized by the fact that workers of Moscow would get to see them every day, many Stalin-era metro stations were built in different \"custom\" designs (where each station's design would be, initially, a massive installation on a certain theme.", "For example, Elektrozavodskaya station was themed solely after nearby lightbulb factory and ceramic ribbed lightbulb sockets); the tradition of \"Grand Designs\" and, basically, decorating metro stations as single-themed installations, was restored in late 1979.More recently, Moscow mayor Sergei Sobyanin has introduced comforts ranging from WiFi and USB ports and Apple Pay — while opening new stations at a breakneck pace.", "Moscow's metro is one of the world's busiest, handling 2.6 billion passengers in 2019.In the Russian capital, there are over 21.5 thousand Wi-Fi access points, in student dormitories, in parks, cultural and sports institutions, and within the Garden Ring and the Third Transport Ring.", "From September 2020 to August 2021, 1,700 new access points to urban Wi-Fi were launched in Moscow.", "The structure of the Wi-Fi network allows citizens to use the Internet without re-authorization.===Monorail===Two trains of the Moscow MonorailThe Moscow Metro operates a short monorail line (line 13).", "The line connects Timiryazevskaya metro station and Ulitsa Sergeya Eisensteina, passing close to VDNH (and Line 6 Metro station \"V.D.N.Kh.\").", "The line opened in 2004.It accepts overground interchanges, no additional fare is needed if a ride was spent at Moscow Metro within previous 90 minutes.===Bus, trolleybus and electric bus===largest fleet of electric buses in Europe, with 500 operating .As Metro stations outside the city center are far apart in comparison to other cities, up to , a bus network radiates from each station to the surrounding residential zones.", "Moscow has a bus terminal for long-range and intercity passenger buses (Central Bus Terminal) with a daily turnover of about 25 thousand passengers serving about 40% of long-range bus routes in Moscow.Every major street in the city is served by at least one bus route.", "Many of these routes are doubled by a trolleybus route and have trolley wires over them.With the total line length of almost of a single wire, 8 depots, 104 routes, and 1740 vehicles, the Moscow trolleybus system was the largest in the world.", "But municipal authority, headed by Sergey Sobyanin, began to destroy the trolleybus system in Moscow in 2014 due the planned replacement of trolleybuses by electric buses.", "In 2018 Moscow trolleybus system has only 4 depots and dozens of kilometers of unused wires.", "Almost all trolleybus wires inside Garden Ring (Sadovoe Koltso) were cut in 2016–2017 due to the reconstruction of central streets (\"Moya Ulitsa\").", "Opened on November 15, 1933, it is also the world's 6th oldest operating trolleybus system.In 2018 the vehicle companies Kamaz and GAZ have won the Mosgortrans tender for delivering 200 electric buses and 62 ultra-fast charging stations to the city transport system.", "The manufacturers will be responsible for the quality and reliable operation of the buses and charging stations for the next 15 years.", "The city will be procuring only electric buses as of 2021, replacing the diesel bus fleet gradually.", "According to expectations, Moscow will become the leader amongst the European cities in terms of electric and gas fuel share in public transport by 2019.All bus stations and terminals of Moscow are now connected to free Wi-Fi.", "One may use it in international bus stations Salaryevo, South Gate and North Gate, and in bus terminals Varshavskaya and Orekhovo.", "As much as 48 hot spots were installed there.===Moscow cable car===Cable cars passing across the Moskva River and the Luzhniki StadiumOn November 26, 2018, the mayor of Moscow Sergey Sobyanin took part in the ceremony to open the cable car above the Moskva River.", "The cable car will connect the Luzhniki sports complex with Sparrow Hills and Kosygin Street.The journey from the well-known viewpoint on Vorobyovy Gory to Luzhniki Stadium will last for five minutes instead of 20 minutes that one would have to spend on the same journey by car.", "The cable car will work every day from 11 a.m. till 11 p.m.The cable car is long.", "It was built to transport 1,600 passengers per hour in all weathers.", "There are 35 closed capsules designed by Porsche Design Studio to transport passengers.", "The booths are equipped with media screens, LED lights, hooks for bikes, skis, and snowboards.", "Passengers will also be able to use audio guides in English, German, Chinese and Russian.===Tram===A Vityaz-M tram passing by the Tverskaya Zastava SquareMoscow has an extensive tram system, which first opened in 1899.The newest line was built in 1984.Its daily usage by Muscovites is low, making up for approximately 5% of trips because many vital connections in the network have been withdrawn.", "Trams still remain important in some districts as feeders to Metro stations.", "The trams also provide important cross-links between metro lines, for example between Universitet station of Sokolnicheskaya Line (#1 red line) and Profsoyuznaya station of Kaluzhsko-Rizhskaya Line (#6 orange line) or between Voykovskaya and Strogino.", "Some routes used to connect downtown with sleep districts, like route 3.Tram map of MoscowThere are three tram networks in the city:* Krasnopresnenskoye depot network with the westernmost point at Strogino (depot location) and the easternmost point near platform Dmitrovskaya.", "This network became separated in 1973, but until 1997 it could easily have been reconnected by about of track and three switches.", "The network has the highest usage in Moscow and no weak points based on turnover except to-depot lane (passengers serviced by bus) and tram ring at Dmitrovskaya (because now it is neither a normal transfer point nor a repair terminal).", "* The Apakov depot services the south-western part from the Varshavsky lane – Simferopolsky boulevard in the east to the Universitet station in the west and Boulevard lane at the center.", "This network is connected only by the four-way Dubininskaya and Kozhevnicheskaya streets.", "A second connection by Vostochnaya (Eastern) street was withdrawn in 1987 due to a fire at the Dinamo plant and has not been recovered, and remains lost (Avtozavodsky bridge) at 1992.The network may be serviced anyway by another depot (now route 35, 38).", "* Main three depot networks with railway gate and tram-repair plant.In addition, tram advocates have suggested that the new rapid transit services (metro to City, Butovo light metro, Monorail) would be more effective as at-grade tram lines and that the problems with trams are only due to poor management and operation, not the technical properties of trams.", "New tram models have been developed for the Moscow network despite the lack of expansion.===Taxi===Commercial taxi services and route taxis are in widespread use.", "In the mid-2010s, service platforms such as Yandex.Taxi, Uber and Gett displaced many private drivers and small service providers and were in 2015 servicing more than 50% of all taxi orders in Moscow.Russian tech firm Yandex is testing self-driving taxis in Moscow.", "Yandex's fleet of around 170 driverless cars has travelled more than 14 million kilometres.", "Robotaxis will available through the company's Yandex.Go application in Yasenevo district.===Railway===Komsomolskaya Square known as \"Three Station Square\" thanks to three ornate rail terminal situated there: Leningradsky, Yaroslavsky, and Kazansky.", "Several train stations serve the city.", "Moscow's ten rail terminals (or ) are:*Belorussky Rail Terminal*Kazansky Rail Terminal*Kiyevsky Rail Terminal*Kursky Rail Terminal*Leningradsky Rail Terminal*Paveletsky Rail Terminal*Rizhsky Rail Terminal*Savyolovsky Rail Terminal*Yaroslavsky Rail Terminal*Vostochny railway TerminalThe high-speed Sapsan train links Moscow with Saint Petersburg.The terminals are located close to the city center, along with the metro ringline 5 or close to it, and connect to a metro line to the centre of town.", "Each station handles trains from different parts of Europe and Asia.", "There are many smaller railway stations in Moscow.", "As train tickets are cheap, they are the preferred mode of travel for Russians, especially when departing to Saint Petersburg, Russia's second-largest city.", "Moscow is the western terminus of the Trans-Siberian Railway, which traverses nearly of Russian territory to Vladivostok on the Pacific coast.Suburbs and satellite cities are connected by commuter elektrichka (electric rail) network.", "Elektrichkas depart from each of these terminals to the nearby (up to ) large railway stations.During the 2010s, the Little Ring of the Moscow Railway was converted to be used for frequent passenger service; it is fully integrated with Moscow Metro; the passenger service started on September 10, 2016.A connecting railway line on the North side of the town connects Belorussky terminal with other railway lines.", "This is used by some suburban trains.==== Moscow Central Circle ====Luzhniki\" station (Line 14)The Moskovskaya Okruzhnaya Zheleznaya Doroga formed a ring around the now-downtown Moscow since 1903, but only served as a non-electrified, fueled locomotive-only railway prior to reconstruction into MCC in 2010's.The Moscow Central Circle is a urban-metro railway orbital line that encircles historical Moscow.", "It was built alongside Little Ring of the Moscow Railway, taking some of its tracks into itself as well.", "M.C.C.", "was opened for passenger use on September 10, 2016.MOZD is integrated as \"Line 14 of Moscow Metro\", and, while using railway-sized trains, can be perceived as \"S-train-design circle line\".The line is operated by the Moscow Government owned company MKZD through the Moscow Metro, with the Federal Government owned Russian Railways selected as the operation subcontractor.", "The track infrastructure and most platforms are owned by Russian Railways, while MKZD owns most station buildings.", "However, in ''S-bahn'' way, Moscow unified tickets \"Ediniiy\" and \"Troika\" are accepted by MCC stations.", "There is one zero-fee interchange for any ticket used on Moscow Metro station less than 90 minutes before entering an MCC station (and vice versa: a passenger of MCC gets 1 free interchange to Moscow Metro within 90 minutes after entering MCC station)==== Moscow Central Diameters ====EG2Tv train arriving at the Moscow Belorussky railway stationMap of the Moscow Central DiametersAnother system, which forms \"genuine ''S-Bahn''\" as in \"suburbia-city-suburbia\"-designed railway, is the Moscow Central Diameters, a pass-through railways system, created by constructing bypasses from \"vokzals\" final stations (e.g.", "by avoiding the central stations of already existing Moscow Railway, used for both intercity and urban-suburban travel before) and forming a train line across Moscow's centre.Out of 5 projected lines, the first 2 lines were completed and launched on 2019-11-21 (e.g.", "November 21, 2019).While using the same rails as \"regular\" suburban trains to vokzals, MCD trains (\"''Ivolga''\" model) got distinguishing features (shape; red cabin, different windows, lesser amount of seats; big red \"MЦΔ\" train logo).===Roads===Intersection at Tverskaya Zastava SquareThere are over 2.6 million cars in the city daily.", "Recent years have seen growth in the number of cars, which have caused traffic jams and lack of parking space to become major problems.The Moscow Ring Road (MKAD), along with the Third Transport Ring and the canceled Fourth Transport Ring, is one of only three freeways that run within Moscow city limits.", "Several other roadway systems form concentric circles around the city.===Air===There are five primary commercial airports serving Moscow: Sheremetyevo (SVO), Domodedovo (DME), Vnukovo (VKO), Zhukovsky (ZIA), Ostafyevo (OSF).busiest airport in Russia, is ranked as the second-busiest airport in Europe.Sheremetyevo International Airport is the most globally connected of Moscow's airports, handling 60% of all international flights.", "It is also a home to all SkyTeam members, and the main hub for Aeroflot (itself a member of SkyTeam).", "Domodedovo International Airport is the leading airport in Russia in terms of passenger throughput and is the primary gateway to long-haul domestic and CIS destinations and its international traffic rivals Sheremetyevo.", "It is a hub for S7 airlines, and most of OneWorld and Star Alliance members use Domodedovo as their international hub.", "Vnukovo International Airport handles flights of Turkish Airlines, Wizz Air Abu Dhabi and others.", "Ostafyevo International Airport caters primarily to business aviation.Moscow's airports vary in distances from the MKAD beltway: Domodedovo is the farthest at ; Vnukovo is ; Sheremetyevo is ; and Ostafievo, the nearest, is about from MKAD.There are a number of smaller airports close to Moscow (19 in Moscow Oblast) such as Myachkovo Airport, that are intended for private aircraft, helicopters and charters.===Water===Moscow has two passenger terminals, (South River Terminal and North River Terminal or Rechnoy vokzal), on the river and regular ship routes and cruises along the Moskva and Oka rivers, which are used mostly for entertainment.", "The North River Terminal, built in 1937, is the main hub for long-range river routes.", "There are three freight ports serving Moscow.===Sharing system===largest fleet of carsharing vehicles in the world, with more than 30,000 cars.Moscow has different vehicle sharing options that are sponsored by the local government.", "There are several car sharing companies which are in charge of providing cars to the population.", "To drive the automobiles, the user has to book them through the app of the owning company.", "In 2018 the mayor Sergey Sobyanin said Moscow's car sharing system has become the biggest in Europe in terms of vehicle fleet.", "Every day about 25,000 people use this service.", "In the end of the same year Moscow carsharing became the second in the world in therms of fleet with 16.5K available vehicles.", "Another sharing system is bike sharing (''Velobike'') of a fleet formed by 3000 traditional and electrical bicycles.", "The ''Delisamokat'' is a new sharing service that provides electrical scooters.", "There are companies that provide different vehicles to the population in proximity to Moscow's big parks.===Future development===The 2020 development concept of Moscow International Business Center and its adjacent territory implies the construction of even more skyscrapers during the period of 2020–2027.In 1992, the Moscow government began planning a projected new part of central Moscow, the Moscow International Business Center, with the goal of creating a zone, the first in Russia, and in all of Eastern Europe, that will combine business activity, living space and entertainment.", "Situated in Presnensky District and located at the Third Ring, the Moscow City area is under intense development.", "The construction of the MIBC takes place on the Krasnopresnenskaya embankment.", "The whole project takes up to .", "The area is the only spot in downtown Moscow that can accommodate a project of this magnitude.", "Today, most of the buildings there are old factories and industrial complexes.The Federation Tower, completed in 2016, is the second-tallest building in Europe.", "It is planned to include a water park and other recreational facilities; business, office, entertainment, and residential buildings, a transport network and a new site for the Moscow government.", "The construction of four new metro stations in the territory has been completed, two of which have opened and two others are reserved for future metro lines crossing MIBC, some additional stations were planned.", "* A rail shuttle service, directly connecting MIBC with the Sheremetyevo International Airport is also planned.Major thoroughfares through MIBC are the Third Ring and Kutuzovsky Prospekt.Three metro stations were initially planned for the Filyovskaya Line.", "The station Delovoi Tsentr opened in 2005 and was later renamed Vystavochnaya in 2009.The branch extended to the Mezhdunarodnaya station in 2006, and all work on the third station, Dorogomilovskaya (between Kiyevskaya and Delovoi Tsentr), has been postponed.", "There are plans to extend the branch as far as the Savyolovskaya station, on the Serpukhovsko-Timiryazevskaya Line.", "Line 4 of Moscow Metro had the longest time intervals between train arrivals (approximately 8 minutes for Mezhdunarodnaya and Vystavochnaya branch of line 4) throughout the 2010s.", "However, Vystavochnaya has been expanded with Line 8A platforms (segment of future Line 11), and Mezhdunarodnaya has been upgraded with line 14 platform.The cellphone service provider MTS announced on March 5, 2021, that they would begin the country's first pilot 5G network in Moscow.", "14 hotspots were positioned across the city's main tourist attractions, including Lubyanka Square near Red Square, the Moscow City financial district and the VDNKh exhibition center." ], [ "Media", "Moscow is home to nearly all of Russia's nationwide television networks, radio stations, newspapers, and magazines.===Newspapers===English-language media include ''The Moscow Times'' and ''Moscow News'', which are, respectively, the largest and oldest English-language weekly newspapers in all of Russia.", ", ''Vedomosti'' and ''Novaya Gazeta'' are Russian-language media headquartered in Moscow.", "and ''Vedomosti'' are among the country's leading and oldest Russian-language business newspapers.===TV and radio===RTRN buildingOther media in Moscow include the ''Echo of Moscow'', the first Soviet and Russian private news radio and information agency, and NTV, one of the first privately owned Russian television stations.", "The total number of radio stations in Moscow in the FM band is near 50.", "'''Moscow television networks:'''* Channel One* Russia-1* Russia-2* NTV* TV Tsentr* Channel 5* Rossiya Kultura* Russia-24* Public Television of Russia* REN TV* STS* TNT* TV-3* Zvezda* Domashny* Carousel* Peretz* Euronews* 2x2* Pyatnica!", "* Disney Channel* RBC* Moskva 24* Dozhd* RU.TV* Petersburg – Channel 5'''Moscow radio stations:'''* \"Russian (Russkoye) Radio\"* \"Europa Plus\"* \"DFM\"* \"NRJ (Russia)\"* \"Radio Maximum\"* \"Voice of Russia (in English)\"* \"Radio Freedom (Svoboda)\"* \"Megapolis FM\"* \"Radio Kultura (Culture)\"* \"Pioneer FM\"* \"Zvezda\"* \"Komsomolskaya Pravda\"* \"Orpheus\"* \"Monte Carlo\"* \"Love Radio\"* \"The Main\" Главная* \"Govorit Moskva\"* \"Radio Dacha\"* \"Nashe Radio\"* \"Radio 7\"* \"Humor FM\"* \"Retro FM\"* \"Ultra\"* \"Keks FM\"* \"Carnival\"* \"Dobrye Pesni (Good Songs)\"* \"Voyage FM\"* \"Kino FM\"* \"Finam FM\"* \"First Popular\"* \"Politseiskaya Volna (Police Wave)\"* \"Radio Sport\"* \"Radio Rossii\"* \"Radio Podmoskovye\"* \"Radiocompany Moscow\"* \"UFM\"* \"Mayak\"* \"Business FM\"* \"Autoradio\"* \"Moya Semia (My Family)\"* \"XFM\"* \"Fresh Radio\"* \"Silver Rain\"* \"Chanson\"* \"M-Radio\"* \"Orphey\"* \"Echo of Moscow\"* \"Radio Jazz\"* \"Classic Radio\"* \"Vesti FM\"* \"City FM\"* \"Relax FM\"* \"Kommersant FM\"* \"Rock FM\"* \"Children's Radio\"* \"Radio Alla\"* \"Best FM\"* \"Next FM\"* \"Hit FM\"* \"Radio Record\"* \"Capital FM Moscow\"" ], [ "People", "File: Portrait of Alexander Pushkin (Orest Kiprensky, 1827).PNG|Alexander Pushkin, the founder of modern Russian literature, was born in Moscow in 1799.File:Vasily Perov - Портрет Ф.М.Достоевского - Google Art Project.jpg|Fyodor Dostoyevsky was born in Moscow in 1821.File:Joseph Kreutzinger - Portrait of Count Alexander Suvorov - WGA12281.jpg|Alexander Suvorov was born in Moscow in 1730.File:Peter de Grote.jpg|Peter the Great was born in Moscow in 1672." ], [ "International relations", "===Twin towns – sister cities===Moscow is twinned with:*Almaty, Kazakhstan*Ankara, Turkey*Astana, Kazakhstan*Baku, Azerbaijan*Bangkok, Thailand*Beijing, China*Berlin, Germany*Bucharest, Romania*Buenos Aires, Argentina*Cusco, Peru*Dubai, United Arab Emirates*Ganja, Azerbaijan*Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam*Jakarta, Indonesia *Ljubljana, Slovenia*London, United Kingdom*Manila, Philippines*New Delhi, India*Pyongyang, North Korea*Rasht, Iran*Reykjavík, Iceland*Riga, Latvia*Seoul, South Korea*Tashkent, Uzbekistan*Tehran, Iran*Tokyo, Japan*Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia===Cooperation agreements===Moscow has cooperation agreements with:* Bangkok, Thailand (1997)* Lisbon, Portugal (1997)* Madrid, Spain (2006)* Tel Aviv, Israel (2001)* Tunis, Tunisia (1998)* Yerevan, Armenia (1995)===Former twin towns and sister cities===* Brno, Czech Republic (terminated due to the Russian invasion of Ukraine)* Chicago, United States (suspended due to the Russian invasion of Ukraine)* Düsseldorf, Germany (suspended due to the Russian invasion of Ukraine)*Kharkiv, Ukraine*Kyiv, Ukraine*Prague, Czech Republic (suspended since 2014 due to the Russian invasion of Ukraine)*Tallinn, Estonia*Vilnius, Lithuania* Warsaw, Poland (terminated due to the Russian invasion of Ukraine)" ], [ "See also", "* List of churches in Moscow* List of Moscow tourist attractions* List of museums in Moscow* List of shopping malls in Moscow* Mayor of Moscow* Moscow Millionaire Fair" ], [ "References" ], [ "Literature", "* *" ], [ "External links", "* * * Interactive map of housing in Moscow from 1785–2018..* Travel2moscow.com – Official Moscow Guide* Official Moscow Administration Site* Informational website of Moscow * Old maps of Moscow.", ".", "Eran Laor Cartographic Collection.", "The National Library of Israel.", "In Historic Cities Research Project.", "." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mediterranean Sea" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Mediterranean Sea''' ( ) is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by the Mediterranean Basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Southern Europe and Anatolia, on the south by North Africa, and on the east by the Levant in West Asia.", "The Mediterranean has played a central role in the history of Western civilization.", "Geological evidence indicates that around 5.9 million years ago the Mediterranean was cut off from the Atlantic and was partly or completely desiccated over a period of some 600,000 years during the Messinian salinity crisis before being refilled by the Zanclean flood about 5.3 million years ago.The Mediterranean Sea covers an area of about , representing 0.7% of the global ocean surface, but its connection to the Atlantic via the Strait of Gibraltar—the narrow strait that connects the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea and separates the Iberian Peninsula in Europe from Morocco in Africa—is only wide.", "The Mediterranean Sea encompasses a vast number of islands, some of them of volcanic origin.", "The two largest islands, in both area and population, are Sicily and Sardinia.The Mediterranean Sea has an average depth of and the deepest recorded point is ± in the Calypso Deep in the Ionian Sea.", "It lies between latitudes 30° and 46° N and longitudes 6° W and 36° E. Its west–east length, from the Strait of Gibraltar to the Gulf of Alexandretta, on the southeastern coast of Turkey, is about .", "The north–south length varies greatly between different shorelines and whether only straight routes are considered.", "Also including longitudinal changes, the shortest shipping route between the multinational Gulf of Trieste and the Libyan coastline of the Gulf of Sidra is about .", "The water temperatures are mild in winter and warm in summer and give name to the Mediterranean climate type due to the majority of precipitation falling in the cooler months.", "Its southern and eastern coastlines are lined with hot deserts not far inland, but the immediate coastline on all sides of the Mediterranean tends to have strong maritime moderation.The sea was an important route for merchants and travellers of ancient times, facilitating trade and cultural exchange between the peoples of the region.", "The history of the Mediterranean region is crucial to understanding the origins and development of many modern societies.", "The Roman Empire maintained nautical hegemony over the sea for centuries and is the only state to have ever controlled all of its coast.The countries surrounding the Mediterranean and its marginal seas in clockwise order are Spain, France, Monaco, Italy, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Albania, Greece, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco; Malta and Cyprus are island countries in the sea.", "In addition, Gibraltar, an overseas territory of the United Kingdom, is located on the coast of the Mediterranean.", "The drainage basin encompasses a large number of other countries, the Nile being the longest river ending in the Mediterranean Sea." ], [ "Names and etymology", "Wadj-Ur, or Wadj-Wer, ancient Egyptian name of the Mediterranean SeaWith its highly indented coastline and large number of islands, Greece has the longest Mediterranean coastline.The Ancient Egyptians called the Mediterranean Wadj-wr/Wadj-Wer/Wadj-Ur.", "This term (literally \"great green\") was the name given by the Ancient Egyptians to the semi-solid, semi-aquatic region characterized by papyrus forests to the north of the cultivated Nile delta, and, by extension, the sea beyond.The Ancient Greeks called the Mediterranean simply (''hē thálassa''; \"the Sea\") or sometimes (''hē megálē thálassa''; \"the Great Sea\"), (''hē hēmetérā thálassa''; \"Our Sea\"), or (''hē thálassa hē kath’hēmâs''; \"the sea around us\").The Romans called it ''Mare Magnum'' (\"Great Sea\") or ''Mare Internum'' (\"Internal Sea\") and, starting with the Roman Empire, ''Mare Nostrum'' (\"Our Sea\").", "The term ''Mare Mediterrāneum'' appears later: Solinus apparently used this in the 3rd century, but the earliest extant witness to it is in the 6th century, in Isidore of Seville.", "It means 'in the middle of land, inland' in Latin, a compound of ''medius'' (\"middle\"), ''terra'' (\"land, earth\"), and ''-āneus'' (\"having the nature of\").The modern Greek name (''mesógeios''; \"inland\") is a calque of the Latin name, from (''mésos'', \"in the middle\") and (''gḗinos'', \"of the earth\"), from (''gê'', \"land, earth\").", "The original meaning may have been 'the sea in the middle of the earth', rather than 'the sea enclosed by land'.Ancient Iranians called it the \"Roman Sea\", and in Classical Persian texts, it was called ''Daryāy-e Rōm'' (دریای روم), which may be from Middle Persian form, ''Zrēh ī Hrōm'' (𐭦𐭫𐭩𐭤 𐭩 𐭤𐭫𐭥𐭬).The Carthaginians called it the \"Syrian Sea\".", "In ancient Syrian texts, Phoenician epics and in the Hebrew Bible, it was primarily known as the \"Great Sea\", הים הגדול ''HaYam HaGadol'', (Numbers; Book of Joshua; Ezekiel) or simply as \"The Sea\" (1 Kings).", "However, it has also been called the \"Hinder Sea\" because of its location on the west coast of Greater Syria or the Holy Land (and therefore behind a person facing the east), which is sometimes translated as \"Western Sea\".", "Another name was the \"Sea of the Philistines\", (Book of Exodus), from the people inhabiting a large portion of its shores near the Israelites.", "In Modern Hebrew, it is called הים התיכון ''HaYam HaTikhon'' 'the Middle Sea'.", "In Classic Persian texts was called Daryāy-e Šām (دریای شام) \"The Western Sea\" or \"Syrian Sea\".In Modern Standard Arabic, it is known as '''' () 'the White Middle Sea'.", "In Islamic and older Arabic literature, it was ''Baḥr al-Rūm(ī)'' ( or ) 'the Sea of the Romans' or 'the Roman Sea'.", "At first, that name referred only to the eastern Mediterranean, but the term was later extended to the whole Mediterranean.", "Other Arabic names were ''Baḥr al-šām(ī)'' () (\"the Sea of Syria\") and ''Baḥr al-Maghrib'' () (\"the Sea of the West\").In Turkish, it is the ''Akdeniz'' 'the White Sea'; in Ottoman, , which sometimes means only the Aegean Sea.", "The origin of the name is not clear, as it is not known in earlier Greek, Byzantine or Islamic sources.", "It may be to contrast with the Black Sea.", "In Persian, the name was translated as ''Baḥr-i Safīd'', which was also used in later Ottoman Turkish.", "Similarly, in 19th century Greek, the name was (''áspri thálassa''; \"white sea\").According to Johann Knobloch, in classical antiquity, cultures in the Levant used colours to refer to the cardinal points: black referred to the north (explaining the name Black Sea), yellow or blue to east, red to south (e.g., the Red Sea) and white to west.", "That would explain the Bulgarian ''Byalo More'', the Turkish ''Akdeniz'', and the Arab nomenclature described above, \"White Sea\"." ], [ "History", "===Ancient civilizations===Greek (red) and Phoenician (yellow) colonies in antiquity c. the 6th century BCMajor ancient civilizations were located around the Mediterranean.", "The sea provided routes for trade, colonization, and war, as well as food (from fishing and the gathering of other seafood) for numerous communities throughout the ages.", "The earliest advanced civilizations in the Mediterranean were the Egyptians and the Minoans, who traded extensively with each other.", "Other notable civilizations that appeared somewhat later are the Hittites and other Anatolian peoples, the Phoenicians, and Mycenean Greece.", "Around 1200 BC the eastern Mediterranean was greatly affected by the Bronze Age Collapse, which resulted in the destruction of many cities and trade routes.The most notable Mediterranean civilizations in classical antiquity were the Greek city states and the Phoenicians, both of which extensively colonized the coastlines of the Mediterranean.Darius I of Persia, who conquered Ancient Egypt, built a canal linking the Red Sea to the Nile, and thus the Mediterranean.", "Darius's canal was wide enough for two triremes to pass each other with oars extended and required four days to traverse.Following the Punic Wars in the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC, the Roman Republic defeated the Carthaginians to become the preeminent power in the Mediterranean.", "When Augustus founded the Roman Empire, the Romans referred to the Mediterranean as ''Mare Nostrum'' (\"Our Sea\").", "For the next 400 years, the Roman Empire completely controlled the Mediterranean Sea and virtually all its coastal regions from Gibraltar to the Levant, being the only state in history to ever do so, being given the nickname \"Roman Lake\".", "===Middle Ages and empires===The Western Roman Empire collapsed around 476 AD.", "The east was again dominant as Roman power lived on in the Byzantine Empire formed in the 4th century from the eastern half of the Roman Empire.", "Though the Eastern Roman Empire would continue to hold almost all of the Mediterranean, another power arose in the 7th century, and with it the religion of Islam, which soon swept across from the east; at its greatest extent, the Arabs, under the Umayyads, controlled most of the Mediterranean region and left a lasting footprint on its eastern and southern shores.The Arab invasions disrupted the trade relations between Western and Eastern Europe while disrupting trade routes with Eastern Asian Empires.", "This, however, had the indirect effect of promoting trade across the Caspian Sea.", "The export of grains from Egypt was re-routed towards the Eastern world.", "Products from East Asian empires, like silk and spices, were carried from Egypt to ports like Venice and Constantinople by sailors and Jewish merchants.", "The Viking raids further disrupted the trade in western Europe and brought it to a halt.", "However, the Norsemen developed the trade from Norway to the White Sea, while also trading in luxury goods from Spain and the Mediterranean.", "The Byzantines in the mid-8th century retook control of the area around the north-eastern part of the Mediterranean.", "Venetian ships from the 9th century armed themselves to counter the harassment by Arabs while concentrating trade of Asian goods in Venice.The Battle of Lepanto, 1571, ended in victory for the European Holy League against the Ottoman Turks.The Fatimids maintained trade relations with the Italian city-states like Amalfi and Genoa before the Crusades, according to the Cairo Geniza documents.", "A document dated 996 mentions Amalfian merchants living in Cairo.", "Another letter states that the Genoese had traded with Alexandria.", "The caliph al-Mustansir had allowed Amalfian merchants to reside in Jerusalem about 1060 in place of the Latin hospice.The Crusades led to the flourishing of trade between Europe and the ''outremer'' region.", "Genoa, Venice and Pisa created colonies in regions controlled by the Crusaders and came to control the trade with the Orient.", "These colonies also allowed them to trade with the Eastern world.", "Though the fall of the Crusader states and attempts at banning of trade relations with Muslim states by the Popes temporarily disrupted the trade with the Orient, it however continued.Europe started to revive, however, as more organized and centralized states began to form in the later Middle Ages after the Renaissance of the 12th century.bombardment of Algiers by the Anglo-Dutch fleet in support of an ultimatum to release European slaves, August 1816Ottoman power based in Anatolia continued to grow, and in 1453 extinguished the Byzantine Empire with the Conquest of Constantinople.", "Ottomans gained control of much of the eastern part sea in the 16th century and also maintained naval bases in southern France (1543–1544), Algeria and Tunisia.", "Barbarossa, the Ottoman captain is a symbol of this domination with the victory of the Battle of Preveza (1538).", "The Battle of Djerba (1560) marked the apex of Ottoman naval domination in the eastern Mediterranean.", "As the naval prowess of the European powers increased, they confronted Ottoman expansion in the region when the Battle of Lepanto (1571) checked the power of the Ottoman Navy.", "This was the last naval battle to be fought primarily between galleys.The Barbary pirates of Northwest Africa preyed on Christian shipping and coastlines in the Western Mediterranean Sea.", "According to Robert Davis, from the 16th to 19th centuries, pirates captured 1 million to 1.25 million Europeans as slaves.The development of oceanic shipping began to affect the entire Mediterranean.", "Once, most of the trade between Western Europe and the East was passing through the region, but after the 1490s the development of a sea route to the Indian Ocean allowed the importation of Asian spices and other goods through the Atlantic ports of western Europe.The sea remained strategically important.", "British mastery of Gibraltar ensured their influence in Africa and Southwest Asia.", "Especially after the naval battles of Abukir (1799, Battle of the Nile) and Trafalgar (1805), the British had for a long time strengthened their dominance in the Mediterranean.", "Wars included Naval warfare in the Mediterranean during World War I and Mediterranean theatre of World War II.With the opening of the lockless Suez Canal in 1869, the flow of trade between Europe and Asia changed fundamentally.", "The fastest route now led through the Mediterranean towards East Africa and Asia.", "This led to a preference for the Mediterranean countries and their ports like Trieste with direct connections to Central and Eastern Europe experienced a rapid economic rise.", "In the 20th century, the 1st and 2nd World Wars as well as the Suez Crisis and the Cold War led to a shift of trade routes to the European northern ports, which changed again towards the southern ports through European integration, the activation of the Silk Road and free world trade.===21st century and migrations===In 2013, the Maltese president described the Mediterranean Sea as a \"cemetery\" due to the large number of migrants who drowned there after their boats capsized.", "European Parliament president Martin Schulz said in 2014 that Europe's migration policy \"turned the Mediterranean into a graveyard\", referring to the number of drowned refugees in the region as a direct result of the policies.", "An Azerbaijani official described the sea as \"a burial ground ... where people die\".Following the 2013 Lampedusa migrant shipwreck, the Italian government decided to strengthen the national system for the patrolling of the Mediterranean Sea by authorising \"Operation Mare Nostrum\", a military and humanitarian mission in order to rescue the migrants and arrest the traffickers of immigrants.", "In 2015, more than one million migrants crossed the Mediterranean Sea into Europe.Italy was particularly affected by the European migrant crisis.", "Since 2013, over 700,000 migrants have landed in Italy, mainly sub-Saharan Africans." ], [ "Geography", "The Mediterranean Sea connects:* to the Atlantic Ocean by the Strait of Gibraltar (known in Homer's writings as the \"Pillars of Hercules\") in the west* to the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea, by the Straits of the Dardanelles and the Bosporus respectively, in the eastThe long artificial Suez Canal in the southeast connects the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea without ship lock, because the water level is essentially the same.The westernmost point of the Mediterranean is located at the transition from the Alborán Sea to the Strait of Gibraltar, the easternmost point is on the coast of the Gulf of Iskenderun in southeastern Turkey.", "The northernmost point of the Mediterranean is on the coast of the Gulf of Trieste near Monfalcone in northern Italy while the southernmost point is on the coast of the Gulf of Sidra near the Libyan town of El Agheila.Large islands in the Mediterranean include:* Cyprus, Crete, Euboea, Rhodes, Lesbos, Chios, Kefalonia, Corfu, Limnos, Samos, Naxos, and Andros in the Eastern Mediterranean* Sicily, Cres, Krk, Brač, Hvar, Pag, Korčula, and Malta in the central Mediterranean* Sardinia, Corsica, and the Balearic Islands: Ibiza, Majorca, and Menorca in the Western MediterraneanThe Alpine arc, which also has a great meteorological impact on the Mediterranean area, touches the Mediterranean in the west in the area around Nice.The typical Mediterranean climate has hot, dry summers and mild, rainy winters.", "Crops of the region include olives, grapes, oranges, tangerines, carobs and cork.===Marginal seas===The Elaphiti Islands off the coast of Croatia; the Adriatic Sea contains over 1200 islands and islets.Es Malvins, Balearic SeaThe Ionian Sea, view from the island Lefkada, GreeceThe Mediterranean Sea includes 15 marginal seas:NumberSeaArea (km2)Marginal countries and territories1 '''Libyan Sea''' 350,000 Libya, Turkey, Greece, Malta, Italy2 '''Levantine Sea''' 320,000 Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Egypt, Greece, Cyprus, Akrotiri & Dhekelia3 '''Tyrrhenian Sea''' 275,000 Italy, France4 '''Aegean Sea''' 214,000 Greece, Turkey5 '''Icarian Sea''' (Part of Aegean) Greece6 '''Myrtoan Sea''' (Part of Aegean) Greece7 '''Thracian Sea''' (Part of Aegean) Greece, Turkey8 '''Ionian Sea''' 169,000 Greece, Albania, Italy9 '''Balearic Sea''' 150,000 Spain10 '''Adriatic Sea''' 138,000 Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Italy, Montenegro, Slovenia11 '''Sea of Sardinia''' 120,000 Italy, Spain12 '''Sea of Crete''' 95,000 (Part of Aegean) Greece13 '''Ligurian Sea''' 80,000 Italy, France14 '''Alboran Sea''' 53,000 Spain, Morocco, Algeria, Gibraltar15 '''Sea of Marmara''' 11,500 Turkey– '''Other''' ~500,000 Consists of gulfs, straits, channels and other parts that do not have the name of a specific sea.TotalMediterranean Sea~2,500,000* List of seas* Category:Marginal seas of the Mediterranean* Category:Gulfs of the Mediterranean* Category:Straits of the Mediterranean Sea* Category:Channels of the Mediterranean SeaNote 1: The International Hydrographic Organization defines the area as generic Mediterranean Sea, in the Western Basin.", "It does not recognize the label Sea of Sardinia.Note 2: Thracian Sea and Myrtoan Sea are seas that are part of the Aegean Sea.Note 3: The Black Sea is not considered part of it.===Extent===Borders of the Mediterranean SeaThe International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Mediterranean Sea as follows: Stretching from the Strait of Gibraltar in the west to the entrances to the Dardanelles and the Suez Canal in the east, the Mediterranean Sea is bounded by the coasts of Europe, Africa, and Asia and is divided into two deep basins:* Western Basin:** On the west: A line joining the extremities of Cape Trafalgar (Spain) and Cape Spartel (Africa)** On the northeast: The west coast of Italy.", "In the Strait of Messina, a line joining the north extreme of Cape Paci (15°42′E) with Cape Peloro, the east extreme of the Island of Sicily.", "The north coast of Sicily** On the east: A line joining Cape Lilibeo the western point of Sicily (), through the Adventure Bank to Cape Bon (Tunisia)* Eastern Basin:** On the west: The northeastern and eastern limits of the Western Basin** On the northeast: A line joining Kum Kale (26°11′E) and Cape Helles, the western entrance to the Dardanelles** On the southeast: The entrance to the Suez Canal** On the east: The coasts of Lebanon, Syria, and Israel===Hydrography===Approximate extent of the Mediterranean drainage basin (dark green).", "Nile basin only partially shownThe drainage basin of the Mediterranean Sea is particularly heterogeneous and extends much further than the Mediterranean region.", "Its size has been estimated between and , depending on whether non-active parts (deserts) are included or not.", "The longest river ending in the Mediterranean Sea is the Nile, which takes its sources in equatorial Africa.", "The basin of the Nile constitutes about two-thirds of the Mediterranean drainage basin and encompasses areas as high as the Ruwenzori Mountains.", "Among other important rivers in Africa, are the Moulouya and the Chelif, both on the north side of the Atlas Mountains.", "In Asia, are the Ceyhan and Seyhan, both on the south side of the Taurus Mountains.", "In Europe, the largest basins are those of the Rhône, Ebro, Po, and Maritsa.", "The basin of the Rhône is the largest and extends up as far north as the Jura Mountains, encompassing areas even on the north side of the Alps.", "The basins of the Ebro, Po, and Maritsa, are respectively south of the Pyrenees, Alps, and Balkan Mountains, which are the major ranges bordering Southern Europe.Total annual precipitation is significantly higher on the European part of the Mediterranean basin, especially near the Alps (the 'water tower of Europe') and other high mountain ranges.", "As a consequence, the river discharges of the Rhône and Po are similar to that of the Nile, despite the latter having a much larger basin.", "These are the only three rivers with an average discharge of over .", "Among large natural fresh bodies of water are Lake Victoria (Nile basin), Lake Geneva (Rhône), and the Italian Lakes (Po).", "While the Mediterranean watershed is bordered by other river basins in Europe, it is essentially bordered by endorheic basins or deserts elsewhere.The following countries are in the Mediterranean drainage basin while ''not'' having a coastline on the Mediterranean Sea:* In Europe, through various rivers: Andorra, Bulgaria, Kosovo, North Macedonia, San Marino, Serbia, and Switzerland.", "* In Africa, through the Nile: Congo, Burundi, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, South Sudan, Sudan, Tanzania and Uganda.===Coastal countries===Map of the Mediterranean Sea from open Natural Earth data, 2020The following countries have a coastline on the Mediterranean Sea:* '''Northern shore''' (from west to east): Spain, France, Monaco, Italy, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Albania, Greece, Turkey.", "* '''Eastern shore''' (from north to south): Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Egypt.", "* '''Southern shore''' (from west to east): Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt.", "* '''Island nations''': Malta, Cyprus.Several other territories also border the Mediterranean Sea (from west to east):* the British overseas territory of Gibraltar* the Spanish autonomous cities of Ceuta and Melilla and nearby islands* the Sovereign Base Areas on Cyprus* the Palestinian Gaza StripAlexandria, the largest city on the MediterraneanBarcelona, the second largest metropolitan area on the Mediterranean Sea (after Alexandria) and the headquarters of the Union for the MediterraneanThe Acropolis of Athens with the Mediterranean Sea in the backgroundThe ancient port of Jaffa (now in Tel Aviv-Yafo), from which the biblical Jonah set sail before being swallowed by a whaleCatania, Sicily, Italy, with Mount Etna in the backgroundİzmir, the third metropolis of Turkey (after Istanbul and Ankara)===Exclusive economic zone===Exclusive economic zones in Mediterranean Sea:NumberCountryArea (Km2)1 '''''' 541,9152 '''''' 493,7083 '''''' 355,6044 '''''' 260,0005 '''''' 169,1256 '''''' 128,8437 '''''' 102,0478 '''''' 98,0889 '''''' 88,38910 '''''' 72,19511 '''''' 59,03212 '''''' 55,54213 '''''' 25,13914 '''''' 19,26515 '''''' 18,30216 '''''' 13,69117 '''''' 10,18918 '''''' 7,74519 '''''' 2,59120 '''''' 28821 '''''' 22022 '''''' 5023 '''''' 6.8 Total'''Mediterranean Sea''' '''2,500,000'''===Coastline length===The Coastline length is about 46,000 km.===Coastal cities===Major cities (municipalities), with populations larger than 200,000 people, bordering the Mediterranean Sea include:* Algeria: Algiers, Annaba, Oran* Egypt: Alexandria, Damietta, Port Said* France: Marseille, Toulon, Nice* Greece: Athens, Thessaloniki, Patras, Heraklion* Israel: Ashdod, Haifa, Netanya, Rishon LeZion, Tel Aviv* Italy: Bari, Catania, Genoa, Messina, Naples, Palermo, Rome, Pescara, Taranto, Trieste, Venice* Lebanon: Beirut, Tripoli* Libya: Benghazi, Misrata, Tripoli, Zawiya, Zliten* Malta: Valletta* Morocco: Tétouan, Tangier* Palestine: Gaza City* Spain: Alicante, Almería, Badalona, Barcelona, Cartagena, Málaga, Palma de Mallorca, Valencia.", "* Syria: Latakia, Tartus* Tunisia: Sfax, Sousse, Tunis* Turkey: Alanya, Antalya, Çanakkale, İskenderun, İzmir, Mersin===Subdivisions===Africa (left, on horizon) and Europe (right), as seen from GibraltarThe International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) divides the Mediterranean into a number of smaller waterbodies, each with their own designation (from west to east):* the Strait of Gibraltar* the Alboran Sea, between Spain and Morocco* the Balearic Sea, between mainland Spain and its Balearic Islands* the Ligurian Sea between Corsica and Liguria (Italy)* the Tyrrhenian Sea enclosed by Sardinia, Corsica, Italian peninsula and Sicily* the Ionian Sea between Italy, Albania and Greece* the Adriatic Sea between Italy, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro and Albania* the Aegean Sea between Greece and Turkey====Other seas====Positano, Italy, Tyrrhenian SeaSome other seas whose names have been in common use from the ancient times, or in the present:* the Sea of Sardinia, between Sardinia and Balearic Islands, as a part of the Balearic Sea* the Sea of Sicily between Sicily and Tunisia* the Libyan Sea between Libya and Crete* In the Aegean Sea,** the Thracian Sea in its north** the Myrtoan Sea between the Cyclades and the Peloponnese** the Sea of Crete north of Crete** the Icarian Sea between Kos and Chios* the Cilician Sea between Turkey and Cyprus* the Levantine Sea at the eastern end of the MediterraneanMany of these smaller seas feature in local myth and folklore and derive their names from such associations.====Other features====View of the Saint George Bay, and snow-capped Mount Sannine from a tower in the Beirut Central DistrictThe Port of Marseille seen from L'EstaqueSarandë, Albania, stands on an open-sea gulf of the Ionian sea in the central Mediterranean.", "''Serra de Tramuntana'', MallorcaIn addition to the seas, a number of gulfs and straits are recognised:* the Saint George Bay in Beirut, Lebanon* the Ras Ibn Hani cape in Latakia, Syria* the Ras al-Bassit cape in northern Syria.", "* the Minet el-Beida (\"White Harbour\") bay near ancient Ugarit, Syria* the Strait of Gibraltar, connects the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea and separates Spain from Morocco* the Bay of Algeciras, at the southern end of the Iberian Peninsula* the Gulf of Corinth, an enclosed sea between the Ionian Sea and the Corinth Canal* the Pagasetic Gulf, the gulf of Volos, south of the Thermaic Gulf, formed by the Mount Pelion peninsula* the Saronic Gulf, the gulf of Athens, between the Corinth Canal and the Mirtoan Sea* the Thermaic Gulf, the gulf of Thessaloniki, located in the northern Greek region of Macedonia* the Kvarner Gulf, Croatia* the Gulf of Almeria, southeast of Spain* the Gulf of Lion, south of France* the Gulf of Valencia, east of Spain* the Strait of Messina, between Sicily and Calabrian peninsula* the Gulf of Genoa, northwestern Italy* the Gulf of Venice, northeastern Italy* the Gulf of Trieste, northeastern Italy* the Gulf of Taranto, southern Italy* the Gulf of Saint Euphemia, southern Italy, with the international airport nearby* the Gulf of Salerno, southwestern Italy* the Gulf of Gaeta, southwestern Italy* the Gulf of Squillace, southern Italy* the Strait of Otranto, between Italy and Albania* the Gulf of Haifa, northern Israel* the Gulf of Sidra, between Tripolitania (western Libya) and Cyrenaica (eastern Libya)* the Strait of Sicily, between Sicily and Tunisia* the Corsica Channel, between Corsica and Italy* the Strait of Bonifacio, between Sardinia and Corsica* the Gulf of Antalya, between west and east shores of Antalya (Turkey)* the Gulf of İskenderun, between İskenderun and Adana (Turkey)* the Gulf of İzmir, in İzmir (Turkey)* the Gulf of Fethiye, in Fethiye (Turkey)* the Gulf of Kuşadası, in İzmir (Turkey)* the Bay of Kotor, in south-western Montenegro and south-eastern Croatia* the Malta Channel, between Sicily and Malta* the Gozo Channel, between Malta Island and Gozo===Largest islands===The two biggest islands of the Mediterranean: Sicily and Sardinia (Italy)Medieval watchtower on the coast of SardiniaThe Mediterranean Sea encompasses about 10,000 islands and islets, of which about 250 are permanently inhabited.", "In the table below are listed the ten largest by size.CountryIslandArea in km2PopulationItalySicily25,4605,048,995ItalySardinia23,8211,672,804CyprusCyprus9,2511,088,503FranceCorsica8,680299,209GreeceCrete8,336623,666GreeceEuboea3,655218,000SpainMajorca3,640869,067GreeceLesbos1,63290,643GreeceRhodes1,400117,007GreeceChios84251,936===Climate===Much of the Mediterranean coast enjoys a hot-summer Mediterranean climate.", "However, most of its southeastern coast has a hot desert climate, and much of Spain's eastern (Mediterranean) coast has a cold semi-arid climate, while most of Italy's northern (Adriatic) coast has a humid subtropical climate.", "Although they are rare, tropical cyclones occasionally form in the Mediterranean Sea, typically in September–November.====Sea temperature====+Mean sea temperature (°C)JanFebMarAprMayJunJulAugSepOctNovDecYearMálaga16151616182022232220181718.6Barcelona13121314172023252320171517.8Marseille13131314161821222118161416.6Naples15141415182225272522191619.3Malta16161516182124262523211819.9Venice11101113182225262320161417.4Athens16151516182124242421191819.3Heraklion16151516192224252422201819.7Antalya17171617212427292725221921.8Limassol18171718202426282725221921.7Mersin18171718212528292825221922.3Tel Aviv18171718212427282826232022.3Alexandria18171718202325262625222021.4" ], [ "Oceanography", "Predominant surface currents for JuneBeing nearly landlocked affects conditions in the Mediterranean Sea: for instance, tides are very limited as a result of the narrow connection with the Atlantic Ocean.", "The Mediterranean is characterised and immediately recognised by its deep blue colour.Evaporation greatly exceeds precipitation and river runoff in the Mediterranean, a fact that is central to the water circulation within the basin.", "Evaporation is especially high in its eastern half, causing the water level to decrease and salinity to increase eastward.", "The average salinity in the basin is 38 PSU at 5 m depth.The temperature of the water in the deepest part of the Mediterranean Sea is .The net water influx from the Atlantic Ocean is ca.", "70,000 m3/s or .", "Without this Atlantic water, the sea level of the Mediterranean Sea would fall at a rate of about 1 m per year.In oceanography, it is sometimes called the ''Eurafrican Mediterranean Sea'', the ''European Mediterranean Sea'' or the ''African Mediterranean Sea'' to distinguish it from mediterranean seas elsewhere.===General circulation===Water circulation in the Mediterranean can be attributed to the surface waters entering from the Atlantic through the Strait of Gibraltar (and also low salinity water entering the Mediterranean from the Black Sea through the Bosphorus).", "The cool and relatively low-salinity Atlantic water circulates eastwards along the North African coasts.", "A part of the surface water does not pass the Strait of Sicily, but deviates towards Corsica before exiting the Mediterranean.", "The surface waters entering the eastern Mediterranean basin circulate along the Libyan and Israeli coasts.", "Upon reaching the Levantine Sea, the surface waters having warmed and increased its salinity from its initial Atlantic state, is now denser and sinks to form the Levantine Intermediate Waters (LIW).", "Most of the water found anywhere between 50 and 600 m deep in the Mediterranean originates from the LIW.", "LIW are formed along the coasts of Turkey and circulate westwards along the Greek and South Italian coasts.", "LIW are the only waters passing the Sicily Strait westwards.", "After the Strait of Sicily, the LIW waters circulate along the Italian, French and Spanish coasts before exiting the Mediterranean through the depths of the Strait of Gibraltar.", "Deep water in the Mediterranean originates from three main areas: the Adriatic Sea, from which most of the deep water in the eastern Mediterranean originates, the Aegean Sea, and the Gulf of Lion.", "Deep water formation in the Mediterranean is triggered by strong winter convection fueled by intense cold winds like the Bora.", "When new deep water is formed, the older waters mix with the overlaying intermediate waters and eventually exit the Mediterranean.", "The residence time of water in the Mediterranean is approximately 100 years, making the Mediterranean especially sensitive to climate change.===Other events affecting water circulation===Being a semi-enclosed basin, the Mediterranean experiences transitory events that can affect the water circulation on short time scales.", "In the mid-1990s, the Aegean Sea became the main area for deep water formation in the eastern Mediterranean after particularly cold winter conditions.", "This transitory switch in the origin of deep waters in the eastern Mediterranean was termed Eastern Mediterranean Transient (EMT) and had major consequences on water circulation of the Mediterranean.Another example of a transient event affecting the Mediterranean circulation is the periodic inversion of the North Ionian Gyre, which is an anticyclonic ocean gyre observed in the northern part of the Ionian Sea, off the Greek coast.", "The transition from anticyclonic to cyclonic rotation of this gyre changes the origin of the waters fueling it; when the circulation is anticyclonic (most common), the waters of the gyre originate from the Adriatic Sea.", "When the circulation is cyclonic, the waters originate from the Levantine Sea.", "These waters have different physical and chemical characteristics, and the periodic inversion of the North Ionian Gyre (called Bimodal Oscillating System or BiOS) changes the Mediterranean circulation and biogeochemistry around the Adriatic and Levantine regions.===Climate change===Because of the short residence time of waters, the Mediterranean Sea is considered a hot spot for climate change effects.", "Deep water temperatures have increased by between 1959 and 1989.According to climate projections, the Mediterranean Sea could become warmer.", "The decrease in precipitation over the region could lead to more evaporation ultimately increasing the Mediterranean Sea salinity.", "Because of the changes in temperature and salinity, the Mediterranean Sea may become more stratified by the end of the 21st century, with notable consequences on water circulation and biogeochemistry.", "The stratification and warming have already led to the eastern Mediterranean to become a net source of CO2 to the atmosphere notably during summer.", "This strong summer degassing, combined with the prolonged and pronounced stratification results in the formation of aragonite crystals abiotically in the water column.", "The cumulative warming at the surface of the Mediterranean has a significant impact on the ecological system.", "Extreme warming has led to biodiversity loss and presents an existential threat to some habitats while making conditions more hospitable to invasive tropical species." ], [ "Biogeochemistry", "In spite of its great biodiversity, concentrations of chlorophyll and nutrients in the Mediterranean Sea are very low, making it one of the most oligotrophic ocean regions in the world.", "The Mediterranean Sea is commonly referred to as an LNLC (Low-Nutrient, Low-Chlorophyll) area.", "The Mediterranean Sea fits the definition of a desert in which its nutrient contents are low, making it difficult for plants and animals to develop.There are steep gradients in nutrient concentrations, chlorophyll concentrations and primary productivity in the Mediterranean.", "Nutrient concentrations in the western part of the basin are about double the concentrations in the eastern basin.", "The Alboran Sea, close to the Strait of Gibraltar, has a daily primary productivity of about 0.25 g C (grams of carbon) m−2 day−1 whereas the eastern basin has an average daily productivity of 0.16 g C m−2 day−1.For this reason, the eastern part of the Mediterranean Sea is termed \"ultraoligotrophic\".", "The productive areas of the Mediterranean Sea are few and small.", "High (i.e.", "more than 0.5 grams of Chlorophyll ''a'' per cubic meter) productivity occurs in coastal areas, close to the river mouths which are the primary suppliers of dissolved nutrients.", "The Gulf of Lion has a relatively high productivity because it is an area of high vertical mixing, bringing nutrients to the surface waters that can be used by phytoplankton to produce Chlorophyll ''a''.Primary productivity in the Mediterranean is also marked by an intense seasonal variability.", "In winter, the strong winds and precipitation over the basin generate vertical mixing, bringing nutrients from the deep waters to the surface, where phytoplankton can convert it into biomass.", "However, in winter, light may be the limiting factor for primary productivity.", "Between March and April, spring offers the ideal trade-off between light intensity and nutrient concentrations in surface for a spring bloom to occur.", "In summer, high atmospheric temperatures lead to the warming of the surface waters.", "The resulting density difference virtually isolates the surface waters from the rest of the water column and nutrient exchanges are limited.", "As a consequence, primary productivity is very low between June and October.Oceanographic expeditions uncovered a characteristic feature of the Mediterranean Sea biogeochemistry: most of the chlorophyll production does not occur on the surface, but in sub-surface waters between 80 and 200 meters deep.", "Another key characteristic of the Mediterranean is its high nitrogen-to-phosphorus ratio (N:P).", "Redfield demonstrated that most of the world's oceans have an average N:P ratio around 16.However, the Mediterranean Sea has an average N:P between 24 and 29, which translates a widespread phosphorus limitation.Because of its low productivity, plankton assemblages in the Mediterranean Sea are dominated by small organisms such as picophytoplankton and bacteria." ], [ "Geology", "A submarine karst spring, called ''vrulja'', near Omiš; observed through several ripplings of an otherwise calm sea surface.The geologic history of the Mediterranean Sea is complex.", "Underlain by oceanic crust, the sea basin was once thought to be a tectonic remnant of the ancient Tethys Ocean; it is now known to be a structurally younger basin, called the Neotethys, which was first formed by the convergence of the African and Eurasian plates during the Late Triassic and Early Jurassic.", "Because it is a near-landlocked body of water in a normally dry climate, the Mediterranean is subject to intensive evaporation and the precipitation of evaporites.", "The Messinian salinity crisis started about six million years ago (mya) when the Mediterranean became landlocked, and then essentially dried up.", "There are salt deposits accumulated on the bottom of the basin of more than a million cubic kilometres—in some places more than three kilometres thick.Scientists estimate that the sea was last filled about 5.3 million years ago (mya) in less than two years by the Zanclean flood.", "Water poured in from the Atlantic Ocean through a newly breached gateway now called the Strait of Gibraltar at an estimated rate of about three orders of magnitude (one thousand times) larger than the current flow of the Amazon River.The Mediterranean Sea has an average depth of and the deepest recorded point is in the Calypso Deep in the Ionian Sea.", "The coastline extends for .", "A shallow submarine ridge (the Strait of Sicily) between the island of Sicily and the coast of Tunisia divides the sea in two main subregions: the Western Mediterranean, with an area of about 850,000 km2 (330,000 mi2); and the Eastern Mediterranean, of about 1.65 million km2 (640,000 mi2).", "Coastal areas have submarine karst springs or s, which discharge pressurised groundwater into the water from below the surface; the discharge water is usually fresh, and sometimes may be thermal.===Tectonics and paleoenvironmental analysis===The Mediterranean basin and sea system were established by the ancient African-Arabian continent colliding with the Eurasian continent.", "As Africa-Arabia drifted northward, it closed over the ancient Tethys Ocean which had earlier separated the two supercontinents Laurasia and Gondwana.At about that time in the middle Jurassic period (roughly 170 million years ago ) a much smaller sea basin, dubbed the Neotethys, was formed shortly before the Tethys Ocean closed at its western (Arabian) end.", "The broad line of collisions pushed up a very long system of mountains from the Pyrenees in Spain to the Zagros Mountains in Iran in an episode of mountain-building tectonics known as the Alpine orogeny.", "The Neotethys grew larger during the episodes of collisions (and associated foldings and subductions) that occurred during the Oligocene and Miocene epochs (34 to 5.33 mya); see animation: Africa-Arabia colliding with Eurasia.", "Accordingly, the Mediterranean basin consists of several stretched tectonic plates in subduction which are the foundation of the eastern part of the Mediterranean Sea.", "Various zones of subduction contain the highest oceanic ridges, east of the Ionian Sea and south of the Aegean.", "The Central Indian Ridge runs east of the Mediterranean Sea south-east across the in-between of Africa and the Arabian Peninsula into the Indian Ocean.====Messinian salinity crisis====Messinian salinity crisis before the Zanclean floodAnimation: Messinian salinity crisisDuring Mesozoic and Cenozoic times, as the northwest corner of Africa converged on Iberia, it lifted the Betic-Rif mountain belts across southern Iberia and northwest Africa.", "There the development of the intramontane Betic and Rif basins created two roughly parallel marine gateways between the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea.", "Dubbed the Betic and Rifian corridors, they gradually closed during the middle and late Miocene: perhaps several times.", "In the late Miocene the closure of the Betic Corridor triggered the so-called \"Messinian salinity crisis\" (MSC), characterized by the deposition of a thick evaporitic sequence – with salt deposits up to 2 km thick in the Levantine sea – and by a massive drop in water level in much of the Basin.", "This event was for long the subject of acute scientific controversy, now much appeased, regarding its sequence, geographic range, processes leading to evaporite facies and salt deposits.", "The start of the MSC was recently estimated astronomically at 5.96 mya, and it persisted for some 630,000 years until about 5.3 mya; see Animation: Messinian salinity crisis, at right.After the initial drawdown and re-flooding, there followed more episodes—the total number is debated—of sea drawdowns and re-floodings for the duration of the MSC.", "It ended when the Atlantic Ocean last re-flooded the basin—creating the Strait of Gibraltar and causing the Zanclean flood—at the end of the Miocene (5.33 mya).", "Some research has suggested that a desiccation-flooding-desiccation cycle may have repeated several times, which could explain several events of large amounts of salt deposition.", "Recent studies, however, show that repeated desiccation and re-flooding is unlikely from a geodynamic point of view.====Desiccation and exchanges of flora and fauna====The present-day Atlantic gateway, the Strait of Gibraltar, originated in the early Pliocene via the Zanclean Flood.", "As mentioned, there were two earlier gateways: the Betic Corridor across southern Spain and the Rifian Corridor across northern Morocco.", "The Betic closed about 6 mya, causing the Messinian salinity crisis (MSC); the Rifian or possibly both gateways closed during the earlier Tortonian times, causing a \"Tortonian salinity crisis\" (from 11.6 to 7.2 mya), long before the MSC and lasting much longer.", "Both \"crises\" resulted in broad connections between the mainlands of Africa and Europe, which allowed migrations of flora and fauna—especially large mammals including primates—between the two continents.", "The Vallesian crisis indicates a typical extinction and replacement of mammal species in Europe during Tortonian times following climatic upheaval and overland migrations of new species: see Animation: Messinian salinity crisis (and mammal migrations), at right.The almost complete enclosure of the Mediterranean basin has enabled the oceanic gateways to dominate seawater circulation and the environmental evolution of the sea and basin.", "Circulation patterns are also affected by several other factors—including climate, bathymetry, and water chemistry and temperature—which are interactive and can induce precipitation of evaporites.", "Deposits of evaporites accumulated earlier in the nearby Carpathian foredeep during the Middle Miocene, and the adjacent Red Sea Basin (during the Late Miocene), and in the whole Mediterranean basin (during the MSC and the Messinian age).", "Many diatomites are found underneath the evaporite deposits, suggesting a connection between their formations.Today, evaporation of surface seawater (output) is more than the supply (input) of fresh water by precipitation and coastal drainage systems, causing the salinity of the Mediterranean to be much higher than that of the Atlantic—so much so that the saltier Mediterranean waters sink below the waters incoming from the Atlantic, causing a two-layer flow across the Strait of Gibraltar: that is, an outflow ''submarine current'' of warm saline Mediterranean water, counterbalanced by an inflow surface current of less saline cold oceanic water from the Atlantic.", "In the 1920s, Herman Sörgel proposed the building of a hydroelectric dam (the Atlantropa project) across the Straits, using the inflow current to provide a large amount of hydroelectric energy.", "The underlying energy grid was also intended to support a political union between Europe and, at least, the Maghreb part of Africa (compare Eurafrika for the later impact and Desertec for a later project with some parallels in the planned grid).====Shift to a \"Mediterranean climate\"====The end of the Miocene also marked a change in the climate of the Mediterranean basin.", "Fossil evidence from that period reveals that the larger basin had a humid subtropical climate with rainfall in the summer supporting laurel forests.", "The shift to a \"Mediterranean climate\" occurred largely within the last three million years (the late Pliocene epoch) as summer rainfall decreased.", "The subtropical laurel forests retreated; and even as they persisted on the islands of Macaronesia off the Atlantic coast of Iberia and North Africa, the present Mediterranean vegetation evolved, dominated by coniferous trees and sclerophyllous trees and shrubs with small, hard, waxy leaves that prevent moisture loss in the dry summers.", "Much of these forests and shrublands have been altered beyond recognition by thousands of years of human habitation.", "There are now very few relatively intact natural areas in what was once a heavily wooded region." ], [ "Paleoclimate", "Because of its latitude and its landlocked position, the Mediterranean is especially sensitive to astronomically induced climatic variations, which are well documented in its sedimentary record.", "Since the Mediterranean is subject to the deposition of eolian dust from the Sahara during dry periods, whereas riverine detrital input prevails during wet ones, the Mediterranean marine sapropel-bearing sequences provide high-resolution climatic information.", "These data have been employed in reconstructing astronomically calibrated time scales for the last 9 Ma of the Earth's history, helping to constrain the time of past geomagnetic reversals.", "Furthermore, the exceptional accuracy of these paleoclimatic records has improved our knowledge of the Earth's orbital variations in the past." ], [ "Biodiversity", "Soft coral ''Eunicella cavolini''Unlike the vast multidirectional ocean currents in open oceans within their respective oceanic zones; biodiversity in the Mediterranean Sea is stable due to the subtle but strong locked nature of currents which is favourable to life, even the smallest macroscopic type of volcanic life form.", "The stable marine ecosystem of the Mediterranean Sea and sea temperature provides a nourishing environment for life in the deep sea to flourish while assuring a balanced aquatic ecosystem excluded from any external deep oceanic factors.", "It is estimated that there are more than 17,000 marine species in the Mediterranean Sea with generally higher marine biodiversity in coastal areas, continental shelves, and decreases with depth.As a result of the drying of the sea during the Messinian salinity crisis, the marine biota of the Mediterranean are derived primarily from the Atlantic Ocean.", "The North Atlantic is considerably colder and more nutrient-rich than the Mediterranean, and the marine life of the Mediterranean has had to adapt to its differing conditions in the five million years since the basin was reflooded.The Alboran Sea is a transition zone between the two seas, containing a mix of Mediterranean and Atlantic species.", "The Alboran Sea has the largest population of bottlenose dolphins in the Western Mediterranean, is home to the last population of harbour porpoises in the Mediterranean and is the most important feeding grounds for loggerhead sea turtles in Europe.", "The Alboran Sea also hosts important commercial fisheries, including sardines and swordfish.", "The Mediterranean monk seals live in the Aegean Sea in Greece.", "In 2003, the World Wildlife Fund raised concerns about the widespread drift net fishing endangering populations of dolphins, turtles, and other marine animals such as the spiny squat lobster.There was a resident population of orcas in the Mediterranean until the 1980s, when they went extinct, probably due to long-term PCB exposure.", "There are still annual sightings of orca vagrants." ], [ "Environmental issues", "For 4,000 years, human activity has transformed most parts of Mediterranean Europe, and the \"humanisation of the landscape\" overlapped with the appearance of the present Mediterranean climate.", "The image of a simplistic, environmental determinist notion of a Mediterranean paradise on Earth in antiquity, which was destroyed by later civilisations, dates back to at least the 18th century and was for centuries fashionable in archaeological and historical circles.", "Based on a broad variety of methods, e.g.", "historical documents, analysis of trade relations, floodplain sediments, pollen, tree-ring and further archaeometric analyses and population studies, Alfred Thomas Grove's and Oliver Rackham's work on \"The Nature of Mediterranean Europe\" challenges this common wisdom of a Mediterranean Europe as a \"Lost Eden\", a formerly fertile and forested region, that had been progressively degraded and desertified by human mismanagement.", "The belief stems more from the failure of the recent landscape to measure up to the imaginary past of the classics as idealised by artists, poets and scientists of the early modern Enlightenment.The thermonuclear bomb that fell into the sea recovered off Palomares, Almería, 1966The historical evolution of climate, vegetation and landscape in southern Europe from prehistoric times to the present is much more complex and underwent various changes.", "For example, some of the deforestation had already taken place before the Roman age.", "While in the Roman age large enterprises such as the latifundia took effective care of forests and agriculture, the largest depopulation effects came with the end of the empire.", "Some assume that the major deforestation took place in modern times—the later usage patterns were also quite different e.g.", "in southern and northern Italy.", "Also, the climate has usually been unstable and there is evidence of various ancient and modern \"Little Ice Ages\", and plant cover accommodated to various extremes and became resilient to various patterns of human activity.Human activity was therefore not the cause of climate change but followed it.", "The wide ecological diversity typical of Mediterranean Europe is predominantly based on human behaviour, as it is and has been closely related to human usage patterns.", "The diversity range was enhanced by the widespread exchange and interaction of the longstanding and highly diverse local agriculture, intense transport and trade relations, and the interaction with settlements, pasture and other land use.", "The greatest human-induced changes, however, came after World War II, in line with the \"1950s syndrome\" as rural populations throughout the region abandoned traditional subsistence economies.", "Grove and Rackham suggest that the locals left the traditional agricultural patterns and instead became scenery-setting agents for tourism.", "This resulted in more uniform, large-scale formations.", "Among further current important threats to Mediterranean landscapes are overdevelopment of coastal areas, abandonment of mountains and, as mentioned, the loss of variety via the reduction of traditional agricultural occupations.===Natural hazards===Stromboli volcano in ItalyThe region has a variety of geological hazards, which have closely interacted with human activity and land use patterns.", "Among others, in the eastern Mediterranean, the Thera eruption, dated to the 17th or 16th century BC, caused a large tsunami that some experts hypothesise devastated the Minoan civilisation on the nearby island of Crete, further leading some to believe that this may have been the catastrophe that inspired the Atlantis legend.", "Mount Vesuvius is the only active volcano on the European mainland, while others, Mount Etna and Stromboli, are on neighbouring islands.", "The region around Vesuvius including the Phlegraean Fields Caldera west of Naples are quite active and constitute the most densely populated volcanic region in the world where an eruptive event may occur within decades.Vesuvius itself is regarded as quite dangerous due to a tendency towards explosive (Plinian) eruptions.", "It is best known for its eruption in AD 79 that led to the burying and destruction of the Roman cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum.The large experience of member states and regional authorities has led to exchange on the international level with the cooperation of NGOs, states, regional and municipality authorities and private persons.", "The Greek–Turkish earthquake diplomacy is a quite positive example of natural hazards leading to improved relations between traditional rivals in the region after earthquakes in İzmit and Athens in 1999.The European Union Solidarity Fund (EUSF) was set up to respond to major natural disasters and express European solidarity to disaster-stricken regions within all of Europe.", "The largest amount of funding requests in the EU relates to forest fires, followed by floods and earthquakes.", "Forest fires, whether human-made or natural, are a frequent and dangerous hazard in the Mediterranean region.", "Tsunamis are also an often-underestimated hazard in the region.", "For example, the 1908 Messina earthquake and tsunami took more than 123,000 lives in Sicily and Calabria and were among the deadliest natural disasters in modern Europe.===Invasive species===The reticulate whipray is one of the species that colonised the Eastern Mediterranean through the Suez Canal as part of the ongoing Lessepsian migration.The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 created the first salt-water passage between the Mediterranean and the Red Sea.", "The Red Sea is higher than the Eastern Mediterranean, so the canal functions as a tidal strait that pours Red Sea water into the Mediterranean.", "The Bitter Lakes, which are hyper-saline natural lakes that form part of the canal, blocked the migration of Red Sea species into the Mediterranean for many decades, but as the salinity of the lakes gradually equalised with that of the Red Sea, the barrier to migration was removed, and plants and animals from the Red Sea have begun to colonise the Eastern Mediterranean.", "The Red Sea is generally saltier and more nutrient-poor than the Atlantic, so the Red Sea species have advantages over Atlantic species in the salty and nutrient-poor Eastern Mediterranean.", "Accordingly, Red Sea species invade the Mediterranean biota, and not vice versa; this phenomenon is known as the Lessepsian migration (after Ferdinand de Lesseps, the French engineer) or Erythrean (\"red\") invasion.", "The construction of the Aswan High Dam across the Nile River in the 1960s reduced the inflow of freshwater and nutrient-rich silt from the Nile into the Eastern Mediterranean, making conditions there even more like the Red Sea and worsening the impact of the invasive species.Invasive species have become a major component of the Mediterranean ecosystem and have serious impacts on the Mediterranean ecology, endangering a number of local and endemic Mediterranean species.", "A first look at some groups of marine species shows that over 70% of exotic decapods and some 2/3 of exotic fishes found in the Mediterranean are of Indo-Pacific origin, introduced from the Red Sea via the Suez Canal.", "This makes the Canal the first pathway of arrival of alien species into the Mediterranean.", "The impacts of some Lessepsian species have proven to be considerable, mainly in the Levantine basin of the Mediterranean, where they are replacing native species and becoming a familiar sight.According to definitions by the Mediterranean Science Commission and the International Union for Conservation of Nature, and to Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and Ramsar Convention terminologies, they are alien species, as they are non-native (non-indigenous) to the Mediterranean Sea, and are found outside their normal, non-adjacent area of distribution.", "When these species succeed in establishing populations in the Mediterranean Sea, compete with and begin to replace native species they are \"Alien Invasive Species\", as they are an agent of change and a threat to the native biodiversity.", "In the context of CBD, \"introduction\" refers to the movement by human agency, indirect or direct, of an alien species outside of its natural range (past or present).", "The Suez Canal, being an artificial (human-made) canal, is a human agency.", "Lessepsian migrants are therefore \"introduced\" species (indirect, and unintentional).", "Whatever wording is chosen, they represent a threat to the native Mediterranean biodiversity, because they are non-indigenous to this sea.", "In recent years, the Egyptian government's announcement of its intentions to deepen and widen the Canal raised concerns from marine biologists, fearing that such an act will only worsen the invasion of Red Sea species into the Mediterranean, and lead to even more species passing through the Canal.====Arrival of new tropical Atlantic species====In recent decades, the arrival of exotic species from the tropical Atlantic has become noticeable.", "In many cases this reflects an expansion – favoured by a warming trend of sub-tropical Atlantic waters, and also by a fast-growing maritime traffic – of the natural range of species that now enter the Mediterranean through the Strait of Gibraltar.", "While not as intense as Lessepsian migration, the process is of importance and is therefore receiving increased levels of scientific coverage.===Sea-level rise===By 2100 the overall level of the Mediterranean could rise between as a result of the effects of climate change.", "This could have adverse effects on populations across the Mediterranean:* Rising sea levels will submerge parts of Malta.", "Rising sea levels will also mean rising salt water levels in Malta's groundwater supply and reduce the availability of drinking water.", "* A rise in sea level would flood of the Nile Delta, displacing over 500,000 Egyptians.", "* Cyprus wetlands are also in danger of being destroyed by the rising temperatures and sea levels.Coastal ecosystems also appear to be threatened by sea level rise, especially enclosed seas such as the Baltic, the Mediterranean and the Black Sea.", "These seas have only small and primarily east–west movement corridors, which may restrict northward displacement of organisms in these areas.", "Sea level rise for the next century (2100) could be between and and temperature shifts of a mere 0.05–0.1 °C in the deep sea are sufficient to induce significant changes in species richness and functional diversity.===Pollution===Pollution in this region has been extremely high in recent years.", "The United Nations Environment Programme has estimated that of sewage, of mineral oil, of mercury, of lead and of phosphates are dumped into the Mediterranean each year.", "The Barcelona Convention aims to 'reduce pollution in the Mediterranean Sea and protect and improve the marine environment in the area, thereby contributing to its sustainable development.", "'Many marine species have been almost wiped out because of the sea's pollution.", "One of them is the Mediterranean monk seal which is considered to be among the world's most endangered marine mammals.", "The Mediterranean is also plagued by marine debris.", "A 1994 study of the seabed using trawl nets around the coasts of Spain, France and Italy reported a particularly high mean concentration of debris; an average of 1,935 items per km2.===Shipping===A cargo ship cruises towards the Strait of MessinaSome of the world's busiest shipping routes are in the Mediterranean Sea.", "In particular, the Maritime Silk Road from Asia and Africa leads through the Suez Canal directly into the Mediterranean Sea to its deep-water ports in Valencia, Piraeus, Trieste, Genoa, Marseilles and Barcelona.", "It is estimated that approximately 220,000 merchant vessels of more than 100 tonnes cross the Mediterranean Sea each year—about one-third of the world's total merchant shipping.", "These ships often carry hazardous cargo, which if lost would result in severe damage to the marine environment.The discharge of chemical tank washings and oily wastes also represent a significant source of marine pollution.", "The Mediterranean Sea constitutes 0.7% of the global water surface and yet receives 17% of global marine oil pollution.", "It is estimated that every year between and of crude oil are deliberately released into the sea from shipping activities.Port of TriesteApproximately of oil are transported annually in the Mediterranean Sea (more than 20% of the world total), with around 250–300 oil tankers crossing the sea every day.", "An important destination is the Port of Trieste, the starting point of the Transalpine Pipeline, which covers 40% of Germany's oil demand (100% of the federal states of Bavaria and Baden-Württemberg), 90% of Austria and 50% of the Czech Republic.", "Accidental oil spills happen frequently with an average of 10 spills per year.", "A major oil spill could occur at any time in any part of the Mediterranean.===Tourism===Kemer Beach in Antalya on the Turkish Riviera (Turquoise Coast).", "In 2019, Turkey ranked sixth in the world in terms of the number of international tourist arrivals, with 51.2 million foreign tourists visiting the country.The coast of the Mediterranean has been used for tourism since ancient times, as the Roman villa buildings on the Amalfi Coast or in Barcola show.", "From the end of the 19th century, in particular, the beaches became places of longing for many Europeans and travellers.", "From then on, and especially after World War II, mass tourism to the Mediterranean began with all its advantages and disadvantages.", "While initially, the journey was by train and later by bus or car, today the plane is increasingly used.Tourism is today one of the most important sources of income for many Mediterranean countries, despite the human-made geopolitical conflicts in the region.", "The countries have tried to extinguish rising human-made chaotic zones that might affect the region's economies and societies in neighbouring coastal countries, and shipping routes.", "Naval and rescue components in the Mediterranean Sea are considered to be among the best due to the rapid cooperation between various naval fleets.", "Unlike the vast open oceans, the sea's closed position facilitates effective naval and rescue missions, considered the safest and regardless of any human-made or natural disaster.Tourism is a source of income for small coastal communities, including islands, independent of urban centres.", "However, tourism has also played a major role in the degradation of the coastal and marine environment.", "Rapid development has been encouraged by Mediterranean governments to support the large numbers of tourists visiting the region, but this has caused serious disturbance to marine habitats by erosion and pollution in many places along the Mediterranean coasts.Tourism often concentrates in areas of high natural wealth, causing a serious threat to the habitats of endangered species such as sea turtles and monk seals.", "Reductions in natural wealth may reduce the incentive for tourists to visit.===Overfishing===Fish stock levels in the Mediterranean Sea are alarmingly low.", "The European Environment Agency says that more than 65% of all fish stocks in the region are outside safe biological limits and the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation, that some of the most important fisheries—such as albacore and bluefin tuna, hake, marlin, swordfish, red mullet and sea bream—are threatened.There are clear indications that catch size and quality have declined, often dramatically, and in many areas, larger and longer-lived species have disappeared entirely from commercial catches.Large open-water fish like tuna have been a shared fisheries resource for thousands of years but the stocks are now dangerously low.", "In 1999, Greenpeace published a report revealing that the amount of bluefin tuna in the Mediterranean had decreased by over 80% in the previous 20 years and government scientists warn that without immediate action the stock will collapse.===Marine heatwaves===A study showed that climate change-related exceptional marine heatwaves in the Mediterranean Sea during 2015–2019 resulted in widespread mass sealife die-offs in five consecutive years." ], [ "Gallery", "File:Gibraltar-Europa-Point-LH-from-the-sea.jpg|Europa Point, GibraltarFile:ForbysIbizaTown 02.jpg|Old city of Ibiza Town, SpainFile:Monaco City 001.jpg|Panoramic view of La Condamine, MonacoFile:Plage-de-la-courtade.jpg|The beach of la Courtade in the Îles d'Hyères, FranceFile:Chia beach, Sardinia, Italy.jpg|Sardinia's south coast, ItalyFile:Malta - Birzebbuga - Triq il-Bajja s-Sabiha + Pretty Bay + Gnien Mons.", "Guzeppi Minuti 03 ies.jpg|Pretty Bay in Birżebbuġa, MaltaFile:Piran Stadtpanorama.jpg|Panoramic view of Piran, SloveniaFile:Cavtat Croatia 2008-10-07.JPG|Panoramic view of Cavtat, CroatiaFile:Neum02451.JPG|View of Neum, Bosnia and HerzegovinaFile:svetistefan1756.JPG|A view of Sveti Stefan, MontenegroFile:Ksamill-1.jpg|Ksamil Islands, AlbaniaFile:Panagiotis wreck.jpg|Navagio, GreeceFile:Blue_Lagoon_-_2014.10_-_panoramio.jpg|Ölüdeniz, Turquoise Coast, TurkeyFile:Petra tou romiou beach.jpg|Paphos, CyprusFile:Burjeslam.jpg|Burj Islam Beach, Latakia, SyriaFile:BeirutRaouche1.jpg|A view of Raouché off the coast of Beirut, LebanonFile:Bat Galim neighborhood and Haifa Bay.jpg|A view of Haifa, IsraelFile:شاطئ دير البلح horizon adjusted.jpg|Sunset at the Deir al-Balah beach, Gaza StripFile:Coast of Alexandria, A view From Bibliotheca Alexandrina, Egypt.jpg|Coast of Alexandria, view From Bibliotheca Alexandrina, EgyptFile:Ras Elhilal Coast Sea Cave's.jpg|Ras El Hilal sea caves, LibyaFile:Hammametgolf.jpg|Beach of Hammamet, TunisiaFile:Les Aiguades.jpg|Les Aiguades near Béjaïa, AlgeriaFile:EL Jebha1.jpg|El Jebha, a port town in Morocco" ], [ "See also", "* * * , the site of the Mediterranean cultures* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * – Early cartographer of the Mediterranean* * – also known as the Japanese Mediterranean Sea* *" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Mediterranean Sea Microorganisms: 180+ images of Foraminifera* Eastern Mediterranean Sea Long Term Ecological Research Station" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Mercury" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Mercury''' most commonly refers to:* Mercury (planet), the nearest planet to the Sun* Mercury (element), a metallic chemical element with the symbol Hg* Mercury (mythology), a Roman god'''Mercury''' or '''The Mercury''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Companies", "* Mercury (company), a financial technology company* Mercury (toy manufacturer), a brand of diecast toy cars manufactured in Italy* Mercury Communications, a British telecommunications firm set up in the 1980s* Mercury Corporation, an American aircraft manufacturer * Mercury Cyclecar Company, a defunct American car company * Mercury Drug, a Philippine pharmacy chain* Mercury Energy, an electricity generation and retail company in New Zealand* Mercury Filmworks, a Canadian independent animation studio* Mercury General, a multiple-line American insurance organization* Mercury Interactive, a software testing tools vendor* Mercury Marine, a manufacturer of marine engines, particularly outboard motors* Mercury Systems, a defense-related information technology company* Mercury Truck & Tractor Company, a defunct English manufacturer of industrial vehicles* Shenzhen Mercury Communication Technology Co., Ltd., a Chinese market subsidiary of TP-Link" ], [ "Computing", "* Mercury (programming language), a functional logic programming language* Mercury (metadata search system), a data search system for earth science research * Ferranti Mercury, an early 1950s commercial computer* Mercury Browser, a freeware mobile browser* Mercury Mail Transport System, an email server" ], [ "Film and television", "* ''Mercury'' (film), a 2018 Indian silent horror thriller by Karthik Subbaraj* ''Mercury'' (TV series), an Australian television series* Mercury Black, a character in the ''RWBY'' web series* Sailor Mercury, a character in the ''Sailor Moon'' manga and anime franchise" ], [ "Literature", "===Comics===* Mercury (Marvel Comics), a character who can turn herself into a mercurial substance* Makkari (comics) or Mercury, an Eternal, a Marvel Comics race of superhumans* Mercury, a member of the Metal Men, a DC Comics team* Mercury, a member of Cerebro's X-Men* Mercury, an Amalgam Comics character===Magazines===* ''Mercury'' (magazine), an astronomy magazine* ''The American Mercury'', originally a literary magazine, gradually more political===Newspapers===* ''The Mercury'' (Hobart), Tasmania, Australia* ''The Mercury'' (South Africa), Durban* ''The Mercury'' (Pennsylvania), US* ''Mercury'' (Newport), Rhode Island, US* ''The Mercury'', former name of the ''Reading Mercury''* The Mercury News, San Jose, California daily newspaper* List of newspapers named ''Mercury'', for newspapers whose titles include that word===Novels===* ''Mercury'' (Bova novel), a novel by Ben Bova* ''Mercury'' (Livesey novel), a novel by Margot Livesey* ''Mercury'', a novel by Anna Kavan" ], [ "Music", "* Mercury Nashville, a record label* Mercury Records, a record label* Mercury Prize, an annual music prize awarded for the best album from the United Kingdom* \"Mercury, the Winged Messenger\", a movement in Gustav Holst's ''The Planets''===Albums===* ''Mercury'' (American Music Club album) (1993)* ''Mercury'' (Longview album) (2003)* ''Mercury'' (Madder Mortem album) (1999)* ''Mercury – Act 1'' (2021), by Imagine Dragons* ''Mercury – Acts 1 & 2'' (2022), by Imagine Dragons===Songs===* \"Mercury\" (song), a 2008 song by Bloc Party* \"Mercury\", a song by Counting Crows from ''Recovering the Satellites''* \"Mercury\", a song by Kathleen Edwards from ''Failer''* \"Mercury\", a song by Sufjan Stevens, Bryce Dessner, Nico Muhly and James McAlister from ''Planetarium''" ], [ "Military", "* Operation Mercury, codename for the German invasion of Crete during World War II* Boeing E-6 Mercury, an American aircraft used as an airborne command post and communications relay* Miles Mercury, a British aircraft designed during the Second World War* , various vessels or shore establishments of that name* , seven vessels of that name* , an 1820 warship* Mercury (pigeon), honored for bravery during World War II" ], [ "People", "* Mercury (name), including a list of people with that surname or given name" ], [ "Places", "* Mercury, Savoie, a commune in southeastern France* Mercury Bay, New Zealand* Mercury, a place in Alabama* Mercury, Nevada, a closed city within the Nevada Test Site, United States* Mercury, Texas, United States" ], [ "Plants", "* Mercury (plant), members of the plant genus ''Mercurialis''* Annual mercury (''Mercurialis annua''), a species of flowering plant* English mercury, or mercury goosefoot (''Blitum bonus-henricus''), a species of goosefoot" ], [ "Radio", "* Mercury FM, a radio station in Surrey, United Kingdom* Mercury 96.6 or Heart Hertfordshire, a radio station in Hertfordshire, United Kingdom" ], [ "Sports", "* Edmonton Mercurys, a 1940s and 1950s intermediate ice hockey team from Canada* Fujita Soccer Club Mercury, a Japanese women's football team active from 1989 to 1999* Memphis Mercury, American women's soccer team* Phoenix Mercury, a Women's National Basketball Association team from Arizona, United States* Toledo Mercurys, a defunct International Hockey League franchise from Ohio, United States" ], [ "Theatres", "* Mercury Theatre (disambiguation), a list of Mercury theatres" ], [ "Vehicles", "===Air===* Blackburn Mercury, a British aircraft from 1911* Bristol Mercury, a nine-cylinder aircraft engine===Land===* Mercury (automobile), brand of automobiles produced by the Ford Motor Company from 1938 to 2011:*List of Mercury vehicles* Mercury (cyclecar), an American cyclecar from 1914* ''Mercury'' (train), a family of New York Central streamliner passenger trains (1936–1958)===Sea===* , several ships of that name * Cape Cod Mercury 15, an American sailboat design* Mercury 18, an American sailboat design===Space===* Project Mercury, a United States human spaceflight program, 1958–1963* Mercury (satellite), a series of American spy satellites" ], [ "Other uses", "* ''Archer Maclean's Mercury'', a 2005 PlayStation Portable video game* Mercury (cipher machine), a 1950s British cipher machine* Mercury Boulevard in Virginia, United States* Mercury Cinema, a theatre in Adelaide, Australia* Shuttle America's callsign* The Mercury Mall, a shopping centre in Romford, England" ], [ "See also", "* * ''The American Mercury'', an American magazine published from 1924 to 1981* Mercuri, a surname and list of people with the surname* Mercury 1 (disambiguation)* Mercury 2 (disambiguation)* Mercury 3 (disambiguation)* Mercury 4 (disambiguation)* Mercury 5 (disambiguation)* Mercury 6 (disambiguation)* Mercury 7 (disambiguation)* Mercury 8 (disambiguation)* Mercury City (disambiguation)* Mercury FM (disambiguation)* Mercury House (disambiguation)* Mercury mission (disambiguation)* Mercury program (disambiguation)* Mercury project (disambiguation)*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Milgram experiment" ], [ "Introduction", "confederate.", "The subject is led to believe that for each wrong answer, the learner was receiving actual electric shocks, though in reality there were no such punishments.", "Being separated from the subject, the confederate set up a tape recorder integrated with the electro-shock generator, which played pre-recorded sounds for each shock level.Beginning on August 7, 1961, a series of social psychology experiments were conducted by Yale University psychologist Stanley Milgram, who intended to measure the willingness of study participants to obey an authority figure who instructed them to perform acts conflicting with their personal conscience.", "Participants were led to believe that they were assisting an unrelated experiment, in which they had to administer electric shocks to a \"learner\".", "These sham or fake electric shocks gradually increased to levels that would have been fatal had they been real.The experiments found, unexpectedly, that a very high proportion of subjects would fully obey the instructions, with every participant going up to 300 volts, and 65% going up to the full 450 volts.", "Milgram first described his research in a 1963 article in the ''Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology'' and later discussed his findings in greater depth in his 1974 book, ''Obedience to Authority: An Experimental View.", "''The experiments began on August 7, 1961 (after a grant proposal was approved in July), in the basement of Linsly-Chittenden Hall at Yale University, three months after the start of the trial of German Nazi war criminal Adolf Eichmann in Jerusalem.", "Milgram devised his psychological study to explain the psychology of genocide and answer the popular contemporary question: \"Could it be that Eichmann and his million accomplices in the Holocaust were just following orders?", "Could we call them all accomplices?", "\"While the experiment itself was repeated many times around the globe, with fairly consistent results, both its interpretations as well as its applicability to the Holocaust are disputed." ], [ "Procedure", "alt=Three individuals took part in each session of the experiment:* The \"experimenter\", who was in charge of the session.", "* The \"teacher\", a volunteer for a single session.", "The \"teachers\" were led to believe that they were merely assisting, whereas they were actually the subjects of the experiment.", "* The \"learner\", an actor and confederate of the experimenter, who pretended to be a volunteer.The subject and the actor arrived at the session together.", "The experimenter told them that they were taking part in \"a scientific study of memory and learning\", to see what the effect of punishment is on a subject's ability to memorize content.", "Also, he always clarified that the payment for their participation in the experiment was secured regardless of its development.", "The subject and actor drew slips of paper to determine their roles.", "Unknown to the subject, both slips said \"teacher\".", "The actor would always claim to have drawn the slip that read \"learner\", thus guaranteeing that the subject would always be the \"teacher\".Next, the teacher and learner were taken into an adjacent room where the learner was strapped into what appeared to be an electric chair.", "The experimenter, dressed in a lab coat in order to appear to have more authority, told the participants this was to ensure that the learner would not escape.", "In a later variation of the experiment, the confederate would eventually plead for mercy and yell that he had a heart condition.", "At some point prior to the actual test, the teacher was given a sample electric shock from the electroshock generator in order to experience firsthand what the shock that the learner would supposedly receive during the experiment would feel like.The teacher and learner were then separated so that they could communicate, but not see each other.", "The teacher was then given a list of word pairs that he was to teach the learner.", "The teacher began by reading the list of word pairs to the learner.", "The teacher would then read the first word of each pair and read four possible answers.", "The learner would press a button to indicate his response.", "If the answer was incorrect, the teacher would administer a shock to the learner, with the voltage increasing in 15-volt increments for each wrong answer (if correct, the teacher would read the next word pair).", "The volts ranged from 15 to 450.The shock generator included verbal markings that vary from \"Slight Shock\" to \"Danger: Severe Shock.", "\"The subjects believed that for each wrong answer the learner was receiving actual shocks.", "In reality, there were no shocks.", "After the learner was separated from the teacher, the learner set up a tape recorder integrated with the electroshock generator, which played previously recorded sounds for each shock level.", "As the voltage of the fake shocks increased, the learner began making audible protests, such as banging repeatedly on the wall that separated him from the teacher.", "In every condition the learner makes/says a predetermined sound or word.", "When the highest voltages were reached, the learner fell silent.If at any time the teacher indicated a desire to halt the experiment, the experimenter was instructed to give specific verbal prods.", "The prods were, in this order:# Please continue ''or'' Please go on.# The experiment requires that you continue.# It is absolutely essential that you continue.# You have no other choice; you ''must'' go on.Prod 2 could only be used if prod 1 was unsuccessful.", "If the subject still wished to stop after all four successive verbal prods, the experiment was halted.", "Otherwise, the experiment was halted after the subject had elicited the maximum 450-volt shock three times in succession.The experimenter also had prods to use if the teacher made specific comments.", "If the teacher asked whether the learner might suffer permanent physical harm, the experimenter replied, \"Although the shocks may be painful, there is no permanent tissue damage, so please go on.\"", "If the teacher said that the learner clearly wants to stop, the experimenter replied, \"Whether the learner likes it or not, you must go on until he has learned all the word pairs correctly, so please go on.\"" ], [ "Predictions", "Before conducting the experiment, Milgram polled fourteen Yale University senior-year psychology majors to predict the behavior of 100 hypothetical teachers.", "All of the poll respondents believed that only a very small fraction of teachers (the range was from zero to 3 out of 100, with an average of 1.2) would be prepared to inflict the maximum voltage.", "Milgram also informally polled his colleagues and found that they, too, believed very few subjects would progress beyond a very strong shock.", "He also reached out to honorary Harvard University graduate Chaim Homnick, who noted that this experiment would not be concrete evidence of the Nazis' innocence, due to the fact that \"poor people are more likely to cooperate\".", "Milgram also polled forty psychiatrists from a medical school, and they believed that by the tenth shock, when the victim demands to be free, most subjects would stop the experiment.", "They predicted that by the 300-volt shock, when the victim would refuse to answer, only 3.73 percent of the subjects would still continue, and they believed that \"only a little over one-tenth of one percent of the subjects would administer the highest shock on the board.", "\"Milgram suspected before the experiment that the obedience exhibited by Nazis reflected of a distinct German character, and planned to use the American participants as a control group before using German participants, expected to behave closer to the Nazis.", "However, the unexpected results stopped him from conducting the same experiment on German participants." ], [ "Results", "Subjects were uncomfortable administering the shocks, and displayed varying degrees of tension and stress.", "These signs included sweating, trembling, stuttering, biting their lips, groaning, and digging their fingernails into their skin, and some were even having nervous laughing fits or seizures.", "14 of the 40 subjects showed definite signs of nervous laughing or smiling.", "Every participant paused the experiment at least once to question it.", "Most continued after being assured by the experimenter.", "Some said they would refund the money they were paid for participating.Milgram summarized the experiment in his 1974 article \"The Perils of Obedience\", writing:The original Simulated Shock Generator and Event Recorder, or ''shock box'', is located in the Archives of the History of American Psychology.Later, Milgram and other psychologists performed variations of the experiment throughout the world, with similar results.", "Milgram later investigated the effect of the experiment's locale on obedience levels by holding an experiment in an unregistered, backstreet office in a bustling city, as opposed to at Yale, a respectable university.", "The level of obedience, \"although somewhat reduced, was not significantly lower.\"", "What made more of a difference was the proximity of the \"learner\" and the experimenter,and diminished empathy the further away.", "There were also variations tested involving groups.Thomas Blass of the University of Maryland, Baltimore County performed a meta-analysis on the results of repeated performances of the experiment.", "He found that while the percentage of participants who are prepared to inflict fatal voltages ranged from 28% to 91%, there was no significant trend over time and the average percentage for US studies (61%) was close to the one for non-US studies (66%).The participants who refused to administer the final shocks neither insisted that the experiment be terminated, nor left the room to check the health of the victim without requesting permission to leave, as per Milgram's notes and recollections, when fellow psychologist Philip Zimbardo asked him about that point.Milgram created a documentary film titled ''Obedience'' showing the experiment and its results.", "He also produced a series of five social psychology films, some of which dealt with his experiments." ], [ "Critical reception", "===Ethics===The Milgram Shock Experiment raised questions about the research ethics of scientific experimentation because of the extreme emotional stress and inflicted insight suffered by the participants.", "Some critics such as Gina Perry argued that participants were not properly debriefed.", "In Milgram's defense, 84 percent of former participants surveyed later said they were \"glad\" or \"very glad\" to have participated; 15 percent chose neutral responses (92% of all former participants responding).", "Many later wrote expressing thanks.", "Milgram repeatedly received offers of assistance and requests to join his staff from former participants.", "Six years later (at the height of the Vietnam War), one of the participants in the experiment wrote to Milgram, explaining why he was glad to have participated despite the stress:On June 10, 1964, the ''American Psychologist'' published a brief but influential article by Diana Baumrind titled \"Some Thoughts on Ethics of Research: After Reading Milgram's' Behavioral Study of Obedience.'\"", "Baumrind's criticisms of the treatment of human participants in Milgram's studies stimulated a thorough revision of the ethical standards of psychological research.", "She argued that even though Milgram had obtained informed consent, he was still ethically responsible to ensure their well-being.", "When participants displayed signs of distress such as sweating and trembling, the experimenter should have stepped in and halted the experiment.===Applicability to the Holocaust===Milgram sparked direct critical response in the scientific community by claiming that \"a common psychological process is centrally involved in both his laboratory experiments and Nazi Germany events.\"", "James Waller, chair of Holocaust and Genocide Studies at Keene State College, formerly chair of Whitworth College Psychology Department, expressed the opinion that Milgram experiments ''do not correspond well'' to the Holocaust events:# The subjects of Milgram experiments, wrote James Waller (''Becoming Evil''), were assured in advance that no permanent physical damage would result from their actions''.''", "However, the Holocaust perpetrators were fully aware of their hands-on killing and maiming of the victims.# The laboratory subjects themselves did not know their victims and were not motivated by racism or other biases.", "On the other hand, the Holocaust perpetrators displayed an intense devaluation of the victims through a lifetime of personal development.# Those serving punishment at the lab were not sadists, nor hate-mongers, and often exhibited great anguish and conflict in the experiment, unlike the designers and executioners of the Final Solution, who had a clear \"goal\" on their hands, set beforehand.# The experiment lasted for an hour, with no time for the subjects to contemplate the implications of their behavior.", "Meanwhile, the Holocaust lasted for years with ample time for a moral assessment of all individuals and organizations involved.In the opinion of Thomas Blass—who is the author of a scholarly monograph on the experiment (''The Man Who Shocked The World'') published in 2004—the historical evidence pertaining to actions of the Holocaust perpetrators speaks louder than words:===Validity===In a 2004 issue of the journal ''Jewish Currents'', Joseph Dimow, a participant in the 1961 experiment at Yale University, wrote about his early withdrawal as a \"teacher\", suspicious \"that the whole experiment was designed to see if ordinary Americans would obey immoral orders, as many Germans had done during the Nazi period.", "\"In 2012 Australian psychologist Gina Perry investigated Milgram's data and writings and concluded that Milgram had manipulated the results, and that there was a \"troubling mismatch between (published) descriptions of the experiment and evidence of what actually transpired.\"", "She wrote that \"only half of the people who undertook the experiment fully believed it was real and of those, 66% disobeyed the experimenter\".", "She described her findings as \"an unexpected outcome\" that \"leaves social psychology in a difficult situation.", "\"In a book review critical of Gina Perry's findings, Nestar Russell and John Picard take issue with Perry for not mentioning that \"there have been well over a score, not just several, replications or slight variations on Milgram’s basic experimental procedure, and these have been performed in many different countries, several different settings and using different types of victims.", "And most, although certainly not all of these experiments have tended to lend weight to Milgram's original findings.\"" ], [ "Interpretations", "Milgram elaborated two theories:* The first is the ''theory of conformism'', based on Solomon Asch conformity experiments, describing the fundamental relationship between the group of reference and the individual person.", "A subject who has neither ability nor expertise to make decisions, especially in a crisis, will leave decision making to the group and its hierarchy.", "The group is the person's behavioral model.", "* The second is the ''agentic state theory'', wherein, per Milgram, \"the essence of obedience consists in the fact that a person comes to view themselves as the instrument for carrying out another person's wishes, and they therefore no longer see themselves as responsible for their actions.", "Once this critical shift of viewpoint has occurred in the person, all of the essential features of obedience follow\".===Alternative interpretations===In his book ''Irrational Exuberance'', Yale finance professor Robert J. Shiller argues that other factors might be partially able to explain the Milgram experiments:In a 2006 experiment, a computerized avatar was used in place of the learner receiving electrical shocks.", "Although the participants administering the shocks were aware that the learner was unreal, the experimenters reported that participants responded to the situation physiologically \"as if it were real\".Another explanation of Milgram's results invokes belief perseverance as the underlying cause.", "What \"people cannot be counted on is to realize that a seemingly benevolent authority is in fact malevolent, even when they are faced with overwhelming evidence which suggests that this authority is indeed malevolent.", "Hence, the underlying cause for the subjects' striking conduct could well be conceptual, and not the alleged 'capacity of man to abandon his humanity ... as he merges his unique personality into larger institutional structures.", "\"'This last explanation receives some support from a 2009 episode of the BBC science documentary series ''Horizon'', which involved replication of the Milgram experiment.", "Of the twelve participants, only three refused to continue to the end of the experiment.", "Speaking during the episode, social psychologist Clifford Stott discussed the influence that the idealism of scientific inquiry had on the volunteers.", "He remarked: \"The influence is ideological.", "It's about what they believe science to be, that science is a positive product, it produces beneficial findings and knowledge to society that are helpful for society.", "So there's that sense of science is providing some kind of system for good.", "\"Building on the importance of idealism, some recent researchers suggest the \"engaged followership\" perspective.", "Based on an examination of Milgram's archive, in a recent study, social psychologists Alexander Haslam, Stephen Reicher and Megan Birney, at the University of Queensland, discovered that people are less likely to follow the prods of an experimental leader when the prod resembles an order.", "However, when the prod stresses the importance of the experiment for science (i.e.", "\"The experiment requires you to continue\"), people are more likely to obey.", "The researchers suggest the perspective of \"engaged followership\": that people are not simply obeying the orders of a leader, but instead are willing to continue the experiment because of their desire to support the scientific goals of the leader and because of a lack of identification with the learner.", "Also a neuroscientific study supports this perspective, namely that watching the learner receive electric shocks does not activate brain regions involving empathic concerns." ], [ "Replications and variations", "===Milgram's variations===In ''Obedience to Authority: An Experimental View'' (1974), Milgram describes 19 variations of his experiment, some of which had not been previously reported.Several experiments varied the distance between the participant (teacher) and the learner.", "Generally, when the participant was physically closer to the learner, the participant's compliance decreased.", "In the variation where the learner's physical immediacy was closest—where the participant had to hold the learner's arm onto a shock plate—30 percent of participants completed the experiment.", "The participant's compliance also decreased if the experimenter was physically farther away (Experiments 1–4).", "For example, in Experiment 2, where participants received telephonic instructions from the experimenter, compliance decreased to 21 percent.", "Some participants deceived the experimenter by ''pretending'' to continue the experiment.In Experiment 8, an all-female contingent was used; previously, all participants had been men.", "Obedience did not significantly differ, though the women communicated experiencing higher levels of stress.Experiment 10 took place in a modest office in Bridgeport, Connecticut, purporting to be the commercial entity \"Research Associates of Bridgeport\" without apparent connection to Yale University, to eliminate the university's prestige as a possible factor influencing the participants' behavior.", "In those conditions, obedience dropped to 47.5 percent, though the difference was not statistically significant.Milgram also combined the effect of authority with that of conformity.", "In those experiments, the participant was joined by one or two additional \"teachers\" (also actors, like the \"learner\").", "The behavior of the participants' peers strongly affected the results.", "In Experiment 17, when two additional teachers refused to comply, only four of 40 participants continued in the experiment.", "In Experiment 18, the participant performed a subsidiary task (reading the questions via microphone or recording the learner's answers) with another \"teacher\" who complied fully.", "In that variation, 37 of 40 continued with the experiment.===Replications===avatar serving as the learnerAround the time of the release of ''Obedience to Authority'' in 1973–1974, a version of the experiment was conducted at La Trobe University in Australia.", "As reported by Perry in her 2012 book ''Behind the Shock Machine'', some of the participants experienced long-lasting psychological effects, possibly due to the lack of proper debriefing by the experimenter.In 2002, the British artist Rod Dickinson created ''The Milgram Re-enactment'', an exact reconstruction of parts of the original experiment, including the uniforms, lighting, and rooms used.", "An audience watched the four-hour performance through one-way glass windows.", "A video of this performance was first shown at the CCA Gallery in Glasgow in 2002.A partial replication of the experiment was staged by British illusionist Derren Brown and broadcast on UK's Channel 4 in ''The Heist ''(2006).", "Another partial replication of the experiment was conducted by Jerry M. Burger in 2006 and broadcast on the Primetime series ''Basic Instincts''.", "Burger noted that \"current standards for the ethical treatment of participants clearly place Milgram's studies out of bounds.\"", "In 2009, Burger was able to receive approval from the institutional review board by modifying several of the experimental protocols.", "Burger found obedience rates virtually identical to those reported by Milgram in 1961–62, even while meeting current ethical regulations of informing participants.", "In addition, half the replication participants were female, and their rate of obedience was virtually identical to that of the male participants.", "Burger also included a condition in which participants first saw another participant refuse to continue.", "However, participants in this condition obeyed at the same rate as participants in the base condition.In the 2010 French documentary ''Le Jeu de la Mort'' (''The Game of Death''), researchers recreated the Milgram experiment with an added critique of reality television by presenting the scenario as a game show pilot.", "Volunteers were given €40 and told that they would not win any money from the game, as this was only a trial.", "Only 16 of 80 \"contestants\" (teachers) chose to end the game before delivering the highest-voltage punishment.The experiment was performed on ''Dateline NBC'' on an episode airing April 25, 2010.The Discovery Channel aired the \"How Evil are You?\"", "segment of ''Curiosity'' on October 30, 2011.The episode was hosted by Eli Roth, who produced results similar to the original Milgram experiment, though the highest-voltage punishment used was 165 volts, rather than 450 volts.", "Roth added a segment in which a second person (an actor) in the room would defy the authority ordering the shocks, finding more often than not, the subjects would stand up to the authority figure in this case.===Other variations===Charles Sheridan and Richard King (at the University of Missouri and the University of California, Berkeley, respectively) hypothesized that some of Milgram's subjects may have suspected that the victim was faking, so they repeated the experiment with a real victim: a \"cute, fluffy puppy\" who was given real, albeit apparently harmless, electric shocks.", "Their findings were similar to those of Milgram: seven out of 13 of the male subjects and all 13 of the female subjects obeyed throughout.", "Many subjects showed high levels of distress during the experiment, and some openly wept.", "In addition, Sheridan and King found that the duration for which the shock button was pressed decreased as the shocks got higher, meaning that for higher shock levels, subjects were more hesitant." ], [ "Media depictions", "* ''Obedience to Authority'' () is Milgram's own account of the experiment, written for a mass audience.", "* ''Obedience'' is a black-and-white film of the experiment, shot by Milgram himself.", "It is distributed by Alexander Street Press.", "* ''The Tenth Level'' was a fictionalized 1975 CBS television drama about the experiment, featuring William Shatner and Ossie Davis.", "* Henri Verneuil's ''I as in Icarus'' (1979) has a lengthy 15-min scene replicating Milgram's experiment.", "* Peter Gabriel's 1986 album ''So'' features the song \"We Do What We're Told (Milgram's 37)\" based on the experiment and its results.", "* ''Batch '81'' is a 1982 Filipino film that features a scene based on the Milgram experiment.", "* ''Atrocity'' is a 2005 film re-enactment of the Milgram Experiment.", "* ''The Heist'', a 2006 TV special by Derren Brown, features a reenactment of the Milgram experiment.", "* ''Fallout: New Vegas'', a 2010 video game published by Bethesda Softworks plays verbal prods told by the experimenter inside a death chamber in Vault 11.", "* \"Authority\" is an episode of ''Law & Order: Special Victims Unit'' inspired by the Milgram experiment.", "* ''Experimenter'', a 2015 film about Milgram, by Michael Almereyda, was screened to favorable reactions at the 2015 Sundance Film Festival.", "* ''Ted'' satirically depicts and cites the Milgram Experiment in one episode as Ted prods drunk partygoers to celebrate the invasion of Poland." ], [ "See also", "* Argument from authority * Authority bias* Acali Experiment* Banality of evil* Belief perseverance* Graduated Electronic Decelerator* Hofling hospital experiment* Human experimentation in the United States* Law of Due Obedience* Little Eichmanns* Moral disengagement* My Lai Massacre* ''Ordinary Men'' (book)* Social influence* Stanford prison experiment* Superior orders* The Third Wave (experiment)* ''The Tenth Level'' (1976 video starring William Shatner)" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "General and cited references", "* * Book review of ''The Man Who Shocked the World''* * * Includes an interview with one of Milgram's volunteers, and discusses modern interest in, and scepticism about, the experiment.", "* *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * *" ], [ "External links", "* Milgram S. The Milgram Experiment ( full documentary film on YouTube).", "* * Stanley Milgram Redux, TBIYTB — Description of a 2007 iteration of Milgram's experiment at Yale University, published in ''The Yale Hippolytic'', January 22, 2007.", "(Internet Archive)* A Powerpoint presentation describing Milgram's experiment* Synthesis of book A faithful synthesis of ''Obedience to Authority'' – Stanley Milgram* ''Obedience To Authority'' — A commentary extracted from ''50 Psychology Classics'' (2007)* A personal account of a participant in the Milgram obedience experiments* Summary and evaluation of the 1963 obedience experiment* The Science of Evil from ABC News ''Primetime''* The Lucifer Effect: How Good People Turn Evil — Video lecture of Philip Zimbardo talking about the Milgram Experiment.", "* — Article on the 45th anniversary of the Milgram experiment.", "* * * People 'still willing to torture'—BBC News* ''Beyond the Shock Machine'', a radio documentary with the people who took part in the experiment.", "Includes original audio recordings of the experiment" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Miocene" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Miocene''' ( ) is the first geological epoch of the Neogene Period and extends from about (Ma).", "The Miocene was named by Scottish geologist Charles Lyell; the name comes from the Greek words ('''', \"less\") and ('''', \"new\") and means \"less recent\" because it has 18% fewer modern marine invertebrates than the Pliocene has.", "The Miocene is preceded by the Oligocene and is followed by the Pliocene.As Earth went from the Oligocene through the Miocene and into the Pliocene, the climate slowly cooled towards a series of ice ages.", "The Miocene boundaries are not marked by a single distinct global event but consist rather of regionally defined boundaries between the warmer Oligocene and the cooler Pliocene Epoch.During the Early Miocene, Afro-Arabia collided with Eurasia, severing the connection between the Mediterranean and Indian Oceans, and allowing a faunal interchange to occur between Eurasia and Africa, including the dispersal of proboscideans into Eurasia.", "During the late Miocene, the connections between the Atlantic and Mediterranean closed, causing the Mediterranean Sea to nearly completely evaporate, in an event called the Messinian salinity crisis.", "The Strait of Gibraltar opened and the Mediterranean refilled at the Miocene–Pliocene boundary, in an event called the Zanclean flood.The apes first evolved and diversified during the early Miocene (Aquitanian and Burdigalian Stages), becoming widespread in the Old World.", "By the end of this epoch and the start of the following one, the ancestors of humans had split away from the ancestors of the chimpanzees to follow their own evolutionary path during the final Messinian Stage (7.5–5.3 Ma) of the Miocene.", "As in the Oligocene before it, grasslands continued to expand and forests to dwindle in extent.", "In the seas of the Miocene, kelp forests made their first appearance and soon became one of Earth's most productive ecosystems.The plants and animals of the Miocene were recognizably modern.", "Mammals and birds were well-established.", "Whales, pinnipeds, and kelp spread.The Miocene is of particular interest to geologists and palaeoclimatologists as major phases of the geology of the Himalaya occurred during the Miocene, affecting monsoonal patterns in Asia, which were interlinked with glacial periods in the northern hemisphere." ], [ "Subdivisions", "Subdivisions of the MioceneThe Miocene faunal stages from youngest to oldest are typically named according to the International Commission on Stratigraphy: Sub-epoch Faunal stage Time range Late Miocene Messinian 7.246–5.333 Ma Tortonian 11.63–7.246 Ma Middle Miocene Serravallian 13.82–11.63 Ma Langhian 15.97–13.82 Ma Early Miocene Burdigalian 20.44–15.97 Ma Aquitanian 23.03–20.44 MaRegionally, other systems are used, based on characteristic land mammals; some of them overlap with the preceding Oligocene and following Pliocene Epochs:'''European Land Mammal Ages'''* Turolian (9.0 to 5.3 Ma)* Vallesian (11.6 to 9.0 Ma)* Astaracian (16.0 to 11.6 Ma)* Orleanian (20.0 to 16.0 Ma)* Agenian (23.8 to 20.0 Ma)'''North American Land Mammal Ages'''* Hemphillian (10.3 to 4.9 Ma)* Clarendonian (13.6 to 10.3 Ma)* Barstovian (16.3 to 13.6 Ma)* Hemingfordian (20.6 to 16.3 Ma)* Arikareean (30.6 to 20.6 Ma)'''South American Land Mammal Ages'''* Montehermosan (6.8 to 4.0 Ma)* Huayquerian (9.0 to 6.8 Ma)* Mayoan (11.8 to 9.0 Ma)* Laventan (13.8 to 11.8 Ma)* Colloncuran (15.5 to 13.8 Ma)* Friasian (16.3 to 15.5 Ma)* Santacrucian (17.5 to 16.3 Ma)* Colhuehuapian (21.0 to 17.5 Ma)" ], [ "Paleogeography", "Japan during the Early MioceneThe Mediterranean during the Late MioceneContinents continued to drift toward their present positions.", "Of the modern geologic features, only the land bridge between South America and North America was absent, although South America was approaching the western subduction zone in the Pacific Ocean, causing both the rise of the Andes and a southward extension of the Meso-American peninsula.Mountain building took place in western North America, Europe, and East Asia.", "Both continental and marine Miocene deposits are common worldwide with marine outcrops common near modern shorelines.", "Well studied continental exposures occur in the North American Great Plains and in Argentina.The global trend was towards increasing aridity caused primarily by global cooling reducing the ability of the atmosphere to absorb moisture, particularly after 7 to 8 million years ago.", "Uplift of East Africa in the late Miocene was partly responsible for the shrinking of tropical rain forests in that region, and Australia got drier as it entered a zone of low rainfall in the Late Miocene.=== Eurasia ===The Indian Plate continued to collide with the Eurasian Plate, creating new mountain ranges and uplifting the Tibetan Plateau, resulting in the rain shadowing and aridification of the Asian interior.", "The Tian Shan experienced significant uplift in the Late Miocene, blocking westerlies from coming into the Tarim Basin and drying it as a result.At the beginning of the Miocene, the northern margin of the Arabian plate, then part of the African landmass, collided with Eurasia; as a result, the Tethys seaway continued to shrink and then disappeared as Africa collided with Eurasia in the Turkish–Arabian region.", "The first step of this closure occurred 20 Ma, reducing water mass exchange by 90%, while the second step occurred around 13.8 Ma, coincident with a major expansion of Antarctic glaciers.", "This severed the connection between the Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea and formed the present land connection between Afro-Arabia and Eurasia.", "The subsequent uplift of mountains in the western Mediterranean region and a global fall in sea levels combined to cause a temporary drying up of the Mediterranean Sea (known as the Messinian salinity crisis) near the end of the Miocene.The Paratethys underwent a significant transgression during the early Middle Miocene.", "Around 13.8 Ma, during a global sea level drop, the Eastern Paratethys was cut off from the global ocean by the closure of the Bârlad Strait, effectively turning it into a saltwater lake.", "From 13.8 to 13.36 Ma, an evaporite period similar to the later Messinian Salinity Crisis in the Mediterranean ensued in the Central Paratethys, cut off from sources of freshwater input by its separation from the Eastern Paratethys.", "From 13.36 to 12.65 Ma, the Central Paratethys was characterised by open marine conditions, before the reopening of the Bârlad Strait resulted in a shift to brackish-marine conditions in the Central Paratethys, causing the Badenian-Sarmatian Extinction Event.", "As a result of the Bârlad Strait's reopening, the lake levels of the Eastern Paratethys dropped as it once again became a sea.The Fram Strait opened during the Miocene and acted as the only throughflow for Atlantic Water into the Arctic Ocean until the Quaternary period.", "Due to regional uplift of the continental shelf, this water could not move through the Barents Seaway in the Miocene.The modern day Mekong Delta took shape after 8 Ma.", "Geochemistry of the Qiongdongnan Basin in the northern South China Sea indicates the Pearl River was a major source of sediment flux into the sea during the Early Miocene and was a major fluvial system as in the present.===South America===During the Oligocene and Early Miocene, the coast of northern Brazil, Colombia, south-central Peru, central Chile and large swathes of inland Patagonia were subject to a marine transgression.", "The transgressions in the west coast of South America are thought to be caused by a regional phenomenon while the steadily rising central segment of the Andes represents an exception.", "While there are numerous registers of Oligo-Miocene transgressions around the world it is doubtful that these correlate.It is thought that the Oligo-Miocene transgression in Patagonia could have temporarily linked the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, as inferred from the findings of marine invertebrate fossils of both Atlantic and Pacific affinity in La Cascada Formation.", "Connection would have occurred through narrow epicontinental seaways that formed channels in a dissected topography.The Antarctic Plate started to subduct beneath South America 14 million years ago in the Miocene, forming the Chile Triple Junction.", "At first the Antarctic Plate subducted only in the southernmost tip of Patagonia, meaning that the Chile Triple Junction lay near the Strait of Magellan.", "As the southern part of Nazca Plate and the Chile Rise became consumed by subduction the more northerly regions of the Antarctic Plate begun to subduct beneath Patagonia so that the Chile Triple Junction advanced to the north over time.", "The asthenospheric window associated to the triple junction disturbed previous patterns of mantle convection beneath Patagonia inducing an uplift of ca.", "1 km that reversed the Oligocene–Miocene transgression.As the southern Andes rose in the Middle Miocene (14–12 million years ago) the resulting rain shadow originated the Patagonian Desert to the east.===Australia===Far northern Australia was monsoonal during the Miocene.", "Although northern Australia is often believed to have been much wetter during the Miocene, this interpretation may be an artefact of preservation bias of riparian and lacustrine plants; this finding has itself been challenged by other papers.", "Western Australia, like today, was arid, particularly so during the Middle Miocene." ], [ "Climate", "Climates remained moderately warm, although the slow global cooling that eventually led to the Pleistocene glaciations continued.", "Although a long-term cooling trend was well underway, there is evidence of a warm period during the Miocene when the global climate rivalled that of the Oligocene.", "The climate of the Miocene has been suggested as a good analogue for future warmer climates caused by anthropogenic global warming, with this being especially true of the global climate during the Middle Miocene Climatic Optimum (MMCO), because the last time carbon dioxide levels were comparable to projected future atmospheric carbon dioxide levels resulting from so-called anthropogenic climate change was during the MMCO.The Miocene began with the Early Miocene Cool Event (Mi-1) around 23 million years ago, which marked the start of the Early Miocene Cool Interval (EMCI).", "This cool event occurred immediately after the Oligocene-Miocene Transition (OMT) during a major expansion of Antarctica's ice sheets, but was not associated with a significant drop in atmospheric carbon dioxide levels.", "Both continental and oceanic thermal gradients in mid-latitudes during the Early Miocene were very similar to those in the present.", "Global cooling caused the East Asian Summer Monsoon (EASM) to begin to take on its modern form during the Early Miocene.", "From 22.1 to 19.7 Ma, the Xining Basin experienced relative warmth and humidity amidst a broader aridification trend.The EMCI ended 18 million years ago, giving way to the Middle Miocene Warm Interval (MMWI), the warmest part of which was the MMCO that began 16 million years ago.", "As the world transitioned into the MMCO, carbon dioxide concentrations varied between 300 and 500 ppm.", "Global annual mean surface temperature during the MMCO was about 18.4 °C.", "MMCO warmth was driven by the activity of the Columbia River Basalts and enhanced by decreased albedo from the reduction of deserts and expansion of forests.", "Climate modelling suggests additional, currently unknown, factors also worked to create the warm conditions of the MMCO.", "The MMCO saw the expansion of the tropical climatic zone to much larger than its current size.", "The July ITCZ, the zone of maximal monsoonal rainfall, moved to the north, increasing precipitation over southern China whilst simultaneously decreasing it over Indochina during the EASM.", "Western Australia was at this time characterised by exceptional aridity.", "In Antarctica, average summer temperatures on land reached 10 °C.", "In the oceans, the lysocline shoaled by approximately half of a kilometre during warm phases that corresponded to orbital eccentricity maxima.", "The MMCO ended around 14 million years ago, when global temperatures fell in the Middle Miocene Climate Transition (MMCT).", "Abrupt increases in opal deposition indicate this cooling was driven by enhanced drawdown of carbon dioxide via silicate weathering.", "The MMCT caused a sea surface temperature (SST) drop of approximately 6 °C in the North Atlantic.", "The drop in benthic foraminiferal δ18O values was most noticeable in the waters around Antarctica, suggesting cooling was most intense there.", "Around this time the Mi3b glacial event (a massive expansion of Antarctic glaciers) occurred.", "The East Antarctic Ice Sheet (EAIS) markedly stabilised following the MMCT.", "The intensification of glaciation caused a decoherence of sediment deposition from the 405 kyr eccentricity cycle.", "Restoration of the volcanic eruption in Harney Basin, of the western US, represented by the Rattlesnake Formation The MMWI ended about 11 Ma, when the Late Miocene Cool Interval (LMCI) started.", "A major but transient warming occurred around 10.8-10.7 Ma.", "During the Late Miocene, the Earth's climate began to display a high degree of similarity to that of the present day.", "The 173 kyr obliquity modulation cycle governed by Earth's interactions with Saturn became detectable in the Late Miocene.", "By 12 Ma, Oregon was a savanna akin to that of the western margins of the Sierra Nevada of northern California.", "Central Australia became progressively drier, although southwestern Australia experienced significant wettening from around 12 to 8 Ma.", "The South Asian Winter Monsoon (SAWM) underwent strengthening ~9.2–8.5 Ma.", "From 7.9 to 5.8 Ma, the East Asian Winter Monsoon (EAWM) became stronger synchronously with a southward shift of the subarctic front.", "Greenland may have begun to have large glaciers as early as 8 to 7 Ma, although the climate for the most part remained warm enough to support forests there well into the Pliocene.", "In the Great Rift Valley of Kenya, there was a gradual and progressive trend of increasing aridification, though it was not unidirectional, and wet humid episodes continued to occur.", "Between 7 and 5.3 Ma, temperatures dropped sharply again in the Late Miocene Cooling (LMC), most likely as a result of a decline in atmospheric carbon dioxide and a drop in the amplitude of Earth's obliquity, and the Antarctic ice sheet was approaching its present-day size and thickness.", "Ocean temperatures plummeted to near-modern values during the LMC; extratropical sea surface temperatures dropped substantially by approximately 7-9 °C.", "Benthic δ18O values show significant glaciation occurred from 6.26 to 5.50 Ma, during which glacial-interglacial cycles were governed by the 41 kyr obliquity cycle.", "A major reorganisation of the carbon cycle occurred approximately 6 Ma, causing continental carbon reservoirs to no longer expand during cold spells, as they had done during cold periods in the Oligocene and most of the Miocene.", "At the end of the Miocene, global temperatures rose again as the amplitude of Earth's obliquity increased, which caused increased aridity in Central Asia.", "Around 5.5 Ma, the EAWM underwent a period of rapid intensification." ], [ "Life", "Life during the Miocene Epoch was mostly supported by the two newly formed biomes, kelp forests and grasslands.", "Grasslands allow for more grazers, such as horses, rhinoceroses, and hippos.", "Ninety-five percent of modern plants existed by the end of this epoch.", "Modern bony fish genera were established.", "A modern-style latitudinal biodiversity gradient appeared ~15 Ma.===Flora===dragon blood tree is considered a remnant of the Mio-Pliocene Laurasian subtropical forests that are now almost extinct in North Africa.The coevolution of gritty, fibrous, fire-tolerant grasses and long-legged gregarious ungulates with high-crowned teeth, led to a major expansion of grass-grazer ecosystems.", "Herds of large, swift grazers were hunted by predators across broad sweeps of open grasslands, displacing desert, woodland, and browsers.The higher organic content and water retention of the deeper and richer grassland soils, with long-term burial of carbon in sediments, produced a carbon and water vapor sink.", "This, combined with higher surface albedo and lower evapotranspiration of grassland, contributed to a cooler, drier climate.", "C4 grasses, which are able to assimilate carbon dioxide and water more efficiently than C3 grasses, expanded to become ecologically significant near the end of the Miocene between 6 and 7 million years ago.", "The expansion of grasslands and radiations among terrestrial herbivores correlates to fluctuations in CO2.One study, however, has attributed the expansion of grasslands not to a CO2 drop but to the increasing seasonality and aridity, coupled with a monsoon climate, which made wildfires highly prevalent compared to before.", "The Late Miocene expansion of grasslands had cascading effects on the global carbon cycle, evidenced by the imprint it left in carbon isotope records.Cycads between 11.5 and 5 million years ago began to rediversify after previous declines in variety due to climatic changes, and thus modern cycads are not a good model for a \"living fossil\".", "Eucalyptus fossil leaves occur in the Miocene of New Zealand, where the genus is not native today, but have been introduced from Australia.===Fauna===Cameloid footprint (''Lamaichnum alfi'' Sarjeant and Reynolds, 1999; convex hyporelief) from the Barstow Formation (Miocene) of Rainbow Basin, California.Life restoration of ''Daeodon''Both marine and continental fauna were fairly modern, although marine mammals were less numerous.", "Only in isolated South America and Australia did widely divergent fauna exist.In the Early Miocene, several Oligocene groups were still diverse, including nimravids, entelodonts, and three-toed equids.", "As in the previous Oligocene Epoch, oreodonts were still diverse, only to disappear in the earliest Pliocene.", "During the later Miocene mammals were more modern, with easily recognizable canids, bears, red pandas, procyonids, equids, beavers, deer, camelids, and whales, along with now-extinct groups like borophagine canids, certain gomphotheres, three-toed horses, and hornless rhinos like ''Teleoceras'' and ''Aphelos.''", "The late Miocene also marks the extinction of the last-surviving members of the hyaenodonts.", "Islands began to form between South and North America in the Late Miocene, allowing ground sloths like ''Thinobadistes'' to island-hop to North America.", "The expansion of silica-rich C4 grasses led to worldwide extinctions of herbivorous species without high-crowned teeth.", "Mustelids diversified into their largest forms as terrestrial predators like ''Ekorus'', ''Eomellivora'', and ''Megalictis'' and bunodont otters like ''Enhydriodon'' and ''Sivaonyx'' appeared.", "Eulipotyphlans were widespread in Europe, being less diverse in Southern Europe than farther north due to the aridity of the former.Unequivocally-recognizable dabbling ducks, plovers, typical owls, cockatoos and crows appear during the Miocene.", "By the epoch's end, all or almost all modern bird groups are believed to have been present; the few post-Miocene bird fossils which cannot be placed in the evolutionary tree with full confidence are simply too badly preserved, rather than too equivocal in character.", "Marine birds reached their highest diversity ever in the course of this epoch.The youngest representatives of Choristodera, an extinct order of aquatic reptiles that first appeared in the Middle Jurassic, are known from the Miocene of Europe, belonging to the genus ''Lazarussuchus,'' which had been the only known surviving genus of the group since the beginning of the Eocene.The last known representatives of the archaic primitive mammal order Meridiolestida, which dominated South America during the Late Cretaceous, are known from the Miocene of Patagonia, represented by the mole-like ''Necrolestes.", "''The youngest known representatives of metatherians (the broader grouping to which marsupials belong) in Europe, Asia and Africa are known from the Miocene, including the European herpetotheriid ''Amphiperatherium,'' the peradectids ''Siamoperadectes'' and ''Sinoperadectes'' from Asia, and the possible herpetotheriid ''Morotodon'' from the late Early Miocene of Uganda.Approximately 100 species of apes lived during this time, ranging throughout Africa, Asia and Europe and varying widely in size, diet, and anatomy.", "Due to scanty fossil evidence it is unclear which ape or apes contributed to the modern hominid clade, but molecular evidence indicates this ape lived between 18 and 13 million years ago.", "The first hominins (bipedal apes of the human lineage) appeared in Africa at the very end of the Miocene, including ''Sahelanthropus'', ''Orrorin'', and an early form of ''Ardipithecus'' (''A.", "kadabba'').", "The chimpanzee–human divergence is thought to have occurred at this time.The expansion of grasslands in North America also led to an explosive radiation among snakes.", "Previously, snakes were a minor component of the North American fauna, but during the Miocene, the number of species and their prevalence increased dramatically with the first appearances of vipers and elapids in North America and the significant diversification of Colubridae (including the origin of many modern genera such as ''Nerodia'', ''Lampropeltis'', ''Pituophis'' and ''Pantherophis'').Fossils from the Calvert Formation, Zone 10, Calvert Co., MD (Miocene)A Miocene crab (''Tumidocarcinus giganteus'') from the collection of the Children's Museum of IndianapolisIn the oceans, brown algae, called kelp, proliferated, supporting new species of sea life, including otters, fish and various invertebrates.Corals suffered a significant local decline along the northeastern coast of Australia during the Tortonian, most likely due to warming seawater.Cetaceans attained their greatest diversity during the Miocene, with over 20 recognized genera of baleen whales in comparison to only six living genera.", "This diversification correlates with emergence of gigantic macro-predators such as megatoothed sharks and raptorial sperm whales.", "Prominent examples are ''O.", "megalodon'' and ''L.", "melvillei''.", "Other notable large sharks were ''O.", "chubutensis'', ''Isurus hastalis'', and ''Hemipristis serra''.Crocodilians also showed signs of diversification during the Miocene.", "The largest form among them was a gigantic caiman ''Purussaurus'' which inhabited South America.", "Another gigantic form was a false gharial ''Rhamphosuchus'', which inhabited modern age India.", "A strange form, ''Mourasuchus'' also thrived alongside ''Purussaurus''.", "This species developed a specialized filter-feeding mechanism, and it likely preyed upon small fauna despite its gigantic size.The youngest members of Sebecidae, a clade of large terrestrial predatory crocodyliformes distantly related to modern crocodilians, from which they likely diverged over 180 million years ago, are known from the Miocene of South America.The last Desmostylians thrived during this period before becoming the only extinct marine mammal order.The pinnipeds, which appeared near the end of the Oligocene, became more aquatic.", "A prominent genus was ''Allodesmus''.", "A ferocious walrus, ''Pelagiarctos'' may have preyed upon other species of pinnipeds including ''Allodesmus''.Furthermore, South American waters witnessed the arrival of ''Megapiranha paranensis'', which were considerably larger than modern age piranhas.New Zealand's Miocene fossil record is particularly rich.", "Marine deposits showcase a variety of cetaceans and penguins, illustrating the evolution of both groups into modern representatives.", "The early Miocene Saint Bathans Fauna is the only Cenozoic terrestrial fossil record of the landmass, showcasing a wide variety of not only bird species, including early representatives of clades such as moas, kiwis and adzebills, but also a diverse herpetofauna of sphenodontians, crocodiles and turtles as well as a rich terrestrial mammal fauna composed of various species of bats and the enigmatic Saint Bathans Mammal.===Microbiota===Microbial life in the igneous crust of the Fennoscandian Shield shifted from being dominated by methanogens to being primarily composed of sulphate-reducing prokaryotes.", "The change resulted from fracture reactivation during the Pyrenean-Alpine orogeny, enabling sulphate-reducing microbes to permeate into the Fennoscandian Shield via descending surficial waters.Diatom diversity was inversely correlated with carbon dioxide levels and global temperatures during the Miocene.", "Most modern lineages of diatoms appeared by the Late Miocene." ], [ "Oceans", "Artistic impression of two ''Eobalaenoptera'' whales pursued by the giant shark ''Otodus megalodon'' There is evidence from oxygen isotopes at Deep Sea Drilling Program sites that ice began to build up in Antarctica about 36 Ma during the Eocene.", "Further marked decreases in temperature during the Middle Miocene at 15 Ma probably reflect increased ice growth in Antarctica.", "It can therefore be assumed that East Antarctica had some glaciers during the early to mid Miocene (23–15 Ma).", "Oceans cooled partly due to the formation of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current, and about 15 million years ago the ice cap in the southern hemisphere started to grow to its present form.", "The Greenland ice cap developed later, in the Middle Pliocene time, about 3 million years ago." ], [ "Middle Miocene disruption", "The \"Middle Miocene disruption\" refers to a wave of extinctions of terrestrial and aquatic life forms that occurred following the Miocene Climatic Optimum (18 to 16 Ma), around 14.8 to 14.5 million years ago, during the Langhian Stage of the mid-Miocene.", "A major and permanent cooling step occurred between 14.8 and 14.1 Ma, associated with increased production of cold Antarctic deep waters and a major expansion of the East Antarctic ice sheet.", "The closure of the Indonesian Throughflow, which caused an accumulation of warm water in the western Pacific that then spread eastward and reduced upwelling in the eastern Pacific, may also have been responsible.", "A Middle Miocene δ18O increase, that is, a relative increase in the heavier isotope of oxygen, has been noted in the Pacific, the Southern Ocean and the South Atlantic.", "Barium and uranium became enriched in seafloor sediments." ], [ "Impact event", "A large impact event occurred either during the Miocene (23 Ma – 5.3 Ma) or the Pliocene (5.3 Ma – 2.6 Ma).", "The event formed the Karakul crater (52 km diameter), in Tajikistan which is estimated to have an age of less than 23 Ma or less than 5 Ma." ], [ "See also", "* Geologic time scale* List of fossil sites* :Category:Miocene animals" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Cox, C. Barry & Moore, Peter D. (1993): ''Biogeography.", "An ecological and evolutionary approach'' (5th ed.).", "Blackwell Scientific Publications, Cambridge.", "* Ogg, Jim (2004): \" Overview of Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points (GSSP's)\".", "Retrieved 2006-04-30." ], [ "External links", "* PBS Deep Time: Miocene* UCMP Berkeley Miocene Epoch Page* Miocene Microfossils: 200+ images of Miocene Foraminifera* Human Timeline (Interactive) – Smithsonian, National Museum of Natural History (August 2016)." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Monarch" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''monarch''' is a head of state for life or until abdication, and therefore the head of state of a monarchy.", "A monarch may exercise the highest authority and power in the state, or others may wield that power on behalf of the monarch.", "Usually a monarch either personally inherits the lawful right to exercise the state's sovereign rights (often referred to as ''the throne'' or ''the crown'') or is selected by an established process from a family or cohort eligible to provide the nation's monarch.", "Alternatively, an individual may proclaim oneself monarch, which may be backed and legitimated through acclamation, right of conquest or a combination of means.If a young child is crowned the monarch, then a regent is often appointed to govern until the monarch reaches the requisite adult age to rule.", "Monarchs' actual powers vary from one monarchy to another and in different eras; on one extreme, they may be autocrats (absolute monarchy) wielding genuine sovereignty; on the other they may be ceremonial heads of state who exercise little or no direct power or only reserve powers, with actual authority vested in a parliament or other body (constitutional monarchy).A monarch can reign in multiple monarchies simultaneously.", "For example, the 15 Commonwealth realms are all separate sovereign states, but share the same monarch through personal union." ], [ "Characteristics", "Monarchs, as such, bear a variety of titles – king or queen, prince or princess (e.g., Sovereign Prince of Monaco), emperor or empress (e.g., Emperor of China, Emperor of Ethiopia, Emperor of Japan, Emperor of India), archduke, duke or grand duke (e.g., Grand Duke of Luxembourg), emir (e.g., Emir of Qatar), sultan (e.g., Sultan of Oman), or pharaoh.Monarchy is political or sociocultural in nature, and is generally (but not always) associated with hereditary rule.", "Most monarchs, both historically and in the present day, have been born and brought up within a royal family (whose rule over a period of time is referred to as a dynasty) and trained for future duties.", "Different systems of succession have been used, such as proximity of blood (male preference or absolute), primogeniture, agnatic seniority, Salic law, etc.", "While traditionally most monarchs have been male, female monarchs have also ruled, and the term queen regnant refers to a ruling monarch, as distinct from a queen consort, the wife of a reigning king.Some monarchies are non-hereditary.", "In an elective monarchy, the monarch is elected but otherwise serves as any other monarch.", "Historical examples of elective monarchy include the Holy Roman Emperors (chosen by prince-electors, but often coming from the same dynasty) and the free election of kings of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.", "Modern examples include the Yang di-Pertuan Agong (lit.", "\"He Who is Made Lord') of Malaysia, who is appointed by the Conference of Rulers every five years or after the king's death, and the pope of the Roman Catholic Church, who serves as sovereign of the Vatican City State and is elected to a life term by the College of Cardinals.In recent centuries, many states have abolished the monarchy and become republics.", "Advocacy of government by a republic is called republicanism, while advocacy of monarchy is called monarchism.", "A principal advantage of hereditary monarchy is the immediate continuity of national leadership, as illustrated in the classic phrase \":The King is dead.", "Long live the King.|The old King is dead.", "Long live the new King!\".", "In cases where the monarch serves mostly as a ceremonial figure (e.g., most modern constitutional monarchies), real leadership does not depend on the monarch.A form of government may, in fact, be hereditary without being considered a monarchy, such as a family dictatorship." ], [ "Classification", "Monarchies take a wide variety of forms, such as the two co-princes of Andorra, positions held simultaneously by the Roman Catholic bishop of Urgel (Spain) and the elected president of France (although strictly Andorra is a diarchy).", "Similarly, the Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia is considered a monarch despite only holding the position for five years at a time." ], [ "Succession", "Contemporary European monarchies by type of succession Windsor for the funeral of King Edward VII, photographed on 20 May 1910.Standing, from left to right: King Haakon VII of Norway, Tsar (King) Ferdinand of the Bulgarians, King Manuel II of Portugal and the Algarve, Kaiser (Emperor) Wilhelm II of Germany, King George I of the Hellenes and King Albert I of the Belgians.", "Seated, from left to right: King Alfonso XIII of Spain, King George V of the United Kingdom and King Frederik VIII of Denmark.King Rama V/Chulalongkorn of Siam (modern Thailand), King George I of Greece, King Peter I of Serbia, King Carol I of Romania, Emperor and King Franz Joseph of Austria-Hungary, Tzar (King) Ferdinand I of Bulgaria, Padishah (Emperor) Abdul Hamid II of the Ottoman Empire, King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy, Emperor Nicholas II of the Russia, King Edward VII of the United Kingdom, Emperor Wilhelm II of Germany, King Gustav V of Sweden, King Haakon VII of Norway, King Frederik VIII of Denmark, Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands, Guangxu Emperor of China, Meiji Emperor of Japan, King Manuel II of Portugal and King Alfonso XIII of Spain.Hereditary succession within one patrilineal family has been most common (but see the Rain Queen), with a preference for children over siblings, and sons over daughters.", "In Europe, some peoples practiced equal division of land and regalian rights among sons or brothers, as in the Germanic states of the Holy Roman Empire, until after the medieval era and sometimes (e.g., Ernestine duchies) into the 19th century.", "Other European realms practiced one or another form of primogeniture, in which a lord was succeeded by his eldest son or, if he had none, by his brother, his daughters or sons of daughters.The system of tanistry practiced among Celtic tribes was semi-elective and gave weight also to ability and merit.The Salic law, practiced in France and in the Italian territories of the House of Savoy, stipulated that only men could inherit the crown.", "In most fiefs, in the event of the demise of all legitimate male members of the patrilineage, a female of the family could succeed (semi-Salic law).", "In most realms, daughters and sisters were eligible to succeed a ruling kinsman before more distant male relatives (male-preference primogeniture), but sometimes the husband of the heiress became the ruler, and most often also received the title, ''jure uxoris''.", "Spain today continues this model of succession law, in the form of cognatic primogeniture.", "In more complex medieval cases, the sometimes conflicting principles of proximity and primogeniture battled, and outcomes were often idiosyncratic.As the average life span increased, the eldest son was more likely to reach majority age before the death of his father, and primogeniture became increasingly favored over proximity, tanistry, seniority, and election.In 1980, Sweden became the first monarchy to declare ''equal primogeniture'', ''absolute primogeniture'' or ''full cognatic primogeniture'', meaning that the eldest child of the monarch, whether female or male, ascends to the throne.", "Other nations have since adopted this practice: Netherlands in 1983, Norway in 1990, Belgium in 1991, Denmark in 2009, and Luxembourg in 2011.The United Kingdom adopted absolute (equal) primogeniture on April 25, 2013, following agreement by the prime ministers of the sixteen Commonwealth Realms at the 22nd Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting.In some monarchies, such as Saudi Arabia, succession to the throne usually first passes to the monarch's next eldest brother and so on through his other brothers, and only after them to the monarch's children (''agnatic seniority'').", "In some other monarchies (e.g., Jordan), the monarch chooses who will be his successor within the royal family, who need not necessarily be his eldest son.Whatever the rules of succession, there have been many cases of a monarch being overthrown and replaced by a usurper who would often install his own family on the throne." ], [ "History", "===Monarchs in Africa===Ramesses II (r. 1279–1213 BC), the third Pharaoh of the Nineteenth Dynasty of EgyptA series of pharaohs ruled Ancient Egypt over the course of three millennia ( to 31 BC) until it was conquered by the Roman Empire.", "In the same time period several kingdoms flourished in the nearby Nubia region, with at least one of them, that of the so-called A-Group culture, apparently influencing the customs of Egypt itself.", "From the 6th to 19th centuries, Egypt was variously part of the Byzantine Empire, Islamic Empire, Mamluk Sultanate, Ottoman Empire and British Empire with a distant monarch.", "The Sultanate of Egypt was a short-lived protectorate of the United Kingdom from 1914 until 1922 when it became the Kingdom of Egypt and Sultan Fuad I changed his title to King.", "After the Egyptian Revolution of 1952, the monarchy was dissolved and Egypt became a republic.West Africa hosted the Kanem Empire (700–1376) and its successor, the Bornu principality which survives to the present day as one of the traditional states of Nigeria.Mohamoud Ali Shire, the 26th Sultan of the Somali Warsangali SultanateIn the Horn of Africa, the Kingdom of Aksum and later the Zagwe dynasty, Ethiopian Empire (1270–1974), and Aussa Sultanate were ruled by a series of monarchs.", "Haile Selassie, the last Emperor of Ethiopia, was deposed in a communist coup.", "Various Somali Sultanates also existed, including the Adal Sultanate (led by the Walashma dynasty of the Ifat Sultanate), Sultanate of Mogadishu, Ajuran Sultanate, Warsangali Sultanate, Geledi Sultanate, Majeerteen Sultanate and Sultanate of Hobyo.Central and Southern Africa were largely isolated from other regions until the modern era, but they did later feature kingdoms like the Kingdom of Kongo (1400–1914).The Zulu people formed a powerful Zulu Kingdom in 1816, one that was subsequently absorbed into the Colony of Natal in 1897.The Zulu king continues to hold a hereditary title and an influential cultural position in contemporary South Africa, although he has no direct political power.", "Other tribes in the country, such as the Xhosa and the Tswana, have also had and continue to have a series of kings and chiefs (namely the ''Inkosis'' and the ''Kgosis'') whose local precedence is recognised, but who exercise no legal authority.As part of the Scramble for Africa, Europeans conquered, bought, or established African kingdoms and styled themselves as monarchs due to them.Currently, the African nations of Morocco, Lesotho, and Eswatini (Swaziland) are sovereign monarchies under dynasties that are native to the continent.", "Places like St. Helena, Ceuta, Melilla and the Canary Islands are ruled by the king of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland or the king of Spain.", "So-called \"sub-national monarchies\" of varying sizes can be found all over the rest of the continent, e.g., the Yoruba city-state of Akure in south-western Nigeria is something of an elective monarchy: its reigning Oba, the ''Deji'', has to be chosen by an electoral college of nobles from amongst a finite collection of royal princes of the realm upon the death or removal of an incumbent.===Monarchs in Europe===A map of Europe exhibiting the continent's monarchies (red) and republics (blue)Elizabeth II was the monarch of independent countries in Europe, Asia, Africa, Oceania and the Americas.Within the Holy Roman Empire different titles were used by nobles exercising various degrees of sovereignty within their borders (see below).", "Such titles were granted or recognised by the emperor or pope.", "Adoption of a new title to indicate sovereign or semi-sovereign status was not always recognized by other governments or nations, sometimes causing diplomatic problems.During the nineteenth century, many small monarchies in Europe merged with other territories to form larger entities, and following World War I and World War II, many monarchies were abolished, but of those remaining, all except Luxembourg, Liechtenstein, Andorra, Vatican City, and Monaco were headed by a king or queen., in Europe there are twelve monarchies: seven kingdoms (Belgium, Denmark, Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden and the United Kingdom), one grand duchy (Luxembourg), one papacy (Vatican City), and two principalities (Liechtenstein and Monaco), as well as one diarchy principality (Andorra).===Monarchs in Asia===Emperor Hirohito, Crown Prince Akihito, Crown Princess Michiko and Empress Nagako, 1959In China, before the abolition of the monarchy in 1912, the emperor of China was traditionally regarded as the ruler of \"All under heaven\".", "\"King\" is the usual translation for the term (), the sovereign before the Qin dynasty and during the Ten Kingdoms period.", "During the early Han dynasty, China had a number of kingdoms, each about the size of a province and subordinate to the Emperor.In Korea, (great king), or (king), was a Chinese royal style used in many states rising from the dissolution of Gojoseon, Buyeo, Goguryeo, Baekje, Silla and Balhae, Goryeo, Joseon.", "The legendary Dangun Wanggeom founded the first kingdom, Gojoseon.", "Some scholars maintain that the term also refers to a title used by all rulers of Gojoseon and that is the proper name of the founder.", "(1675) describes The Annals of the as a collection of nationalistic legends.", "The monarchs of Goguryeo and some monarchs of Silla used the title , meaning \"Greatest King\".", "The early monarchs of Silla used the titles of , , , and finally until 503.The title (prince) can refer to the dethroned rulers of the Joseon dynasty as well.", "Under the Korean Empire (1897–1910), the rulers of Korea were given the title of , meaning the \"Emperor\".", "Today, Members of the Korean Imperial family continue to participate in numerous traditional ceremonies, and groups exist to preserve Korea's imperial heritage.The Japanese monarchy is now the only monarchy to still use the title of Emperor.In modern history, between 1925 and 1979, Iran was ruled by two emperors from the Pahlavi dynasty that used the title of \"Shahanshah\" (or \"King of Kings\").", "The last Iranian Shahanshah was King Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, who was forced to abdicate the throne as a result of a revolution in Iran.", "In fact the Persian (Iranian) kingdom goes back to about 2,700 BC (see list of Kings of Persia), but reached its ultimate height and glory when King Cyrus the Great (known as \"The Great Kourosh\" in Iran) started the Achaemenid dynasty.", "Under his rule, the empire embraced all the previous civilized states of the ancient Near East, expanded vastly and eventually conquered most of Southwest Asia and much of Central Asia and the Caucasus.", "From the Mediterranean Sea and Hellespont in the west to the Indus River in the east, Cyrus the Great created the largest empire the world had yet seen.Thailand and Bhutan are like the United Kingdom in that they are constitutional monarchies ruled by a king.", "Jordan and many other Middle Eastern monarchies are ruled by a Malik and parts of the United Arab Emirates, such as Dubai, are still ruled by monarchs.Sultan Mehmed III of the Ottoman dynastySaudi Arabia is the largest Arab state in Western Asia by land area and the second-largest in the Arab world (after Algeria).", "It was founded by Abdul-Aziz bin Saud in 1932, although the conquests which eventually led to the creation of the Kingdom began in 1902 when he captured Riyadh, the ancestral home of his family, the House of Saud; succession to the throne was limited to sons of Ibn Saud until 2015, when a grandson was elevated to Crown Prince.", "The Saudi Arabian government has been an absolute monarchy since its inception, and designates itself as Islamic.", "The King bears the title \"Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques\" in reference to the two holiest places in Islam: Masjid al-Haram in Mecca, and Masjid al-Nabawi in Medina.Oman is led by Sultan Haitham bin Tariq Al Said.", "The Kingdom of Jordan is one of the Middle East's more modern monarchies is also ruled by a Malik.", "In Arab and Arabized countries, Malik (absolute King) is the absolute word to render a monarch and is superior to all other titles.", "Nepal abolished their monarchy in 2008.Sri Lanka had a complex system of monarchies from 543 BC to 1815.Between 47–42 BC, Anula of Sri Lanka became the country's first female head of state as well as Asia's first head of state.In Malaysia's constitutional monarchy, the Yang di-Pertuan Agong (the Supreme Lord of the Federation) is ''de facto'' rotated every five years among the nine Rulers of the Malay states of Malaysia (those nine of the thirteen states of Malaysia that have hereditary royal rulers), elected by ''Majlis Raja-Raja'' (Conference of Rulers).Under Brunei's 1959 constitution, the Sultan of Brunei is the head of state with full executive authority, including emergency powers, since 1962.The Prime Minister of Brunei is a title held by the Sultan.", "As the prime minister, the Sultan presides over the cabinet.King Norodom Sihanouk of CambodiaCambodia has been a kingdom since the 1st century.", "The power of the absolute monarchy was reduced when it became the French Protectorate of Cambodia from 1863 to 1953.It returned to an absolute monarchy from 1953 until the establishment of a republic following the 1970 coup.", "The monarchy was restored as a constitutional monarchy in 1993 with the king as a largely symbolic figurehead.King Devanampiya Tissa, Queen consort Anula, and Prince Uththiya, In the Philippines, the pre-Colonial Filipino nobility, variously titled the ''harì'' (today meaning \"king\"), ''Lakan'', ''Raja'' and ''Datu'' belonged to the caste called ''Uring Maharlika'' (Noble Class).", "When the islands were annexed to the Spanish Empire in the late 16th century, the Spanish monarch became the sovereign while local rulers often retained their prestige as part of the Christianised nobility called the ''Principalía''.", "After the Spanish–American War, the country was ceded to the United States of America and made into a territory and eventually a Commonwealth, thus ending monarchism.", "While the Philippines is currently a republic, the Sultan of Sulu and Sultan of Maguindanao retain their titles only for ceremonial purposes but are considered ordinary citizens by the 1987 Constitution.Bhutan has been an independent kingdom since 1907.The first Druk Gyalpo (''Dragon King'') was elected and thereafter became a hereditary absolute monarchy.", "It became a constitutional monarchy in 2008.Tibet was a monarchy since the Tibetan Empire in the 6th century.", "It was ruled by the Yuan dynasty following the Mongol invasion in the 13th century and became an effective diarchy with the Dalai Lama as co-ruler.", "It came under the rule of the Chinese Qing dynasty from 1724 until 1912 when it gained de facto independence.", "The Dalai Lama became an absolute temporal monarch until the annexation of Tibet by the People's Republic of China in 1951.Nepal was a monarchy for most of its history until becoming a federal republic in 2008.===Monarchs in the Americas===Jacques I, Emperor of Haiti, 1804Pedro II, Emperor of Brazil, by Delfim da CâmaraFrancisco Pizarro meets with the Inca emperor Atahualpa, 1532The concept of monarchy existed in the Americas long before the arrival of European colonialists.", "When the Europeans arrived they referred to these tracts of land within territories of different aboriginal groups to be kingdoms, and the leaders of these groups were often referred to by the Europeans as Kings, particularly hereditary leaders.Pre-colonial titles that were used included:* Cacique – Aboriginal Hispaniola and Borinquen* Tlatoani – Nahuas* Ajaw – Maya* Qhapaq Inka – Tawuantin Suyu (Inca Empire)* Morubixaba – Tupi tribes* Sha-quan – King of the world used in some Native American tribesThe first local monarch to emerge in North America after colonization was Jean-Jacques Dessalines, who declared himself Emperor of Haiti on September 22, 1804.Haiti again had an emperor, Faustin I from 1849 to 1859.In South America, Brazil had a royal house ruling as emperor between 1822 and 1889, under emperors Pedro I and Pedro II.Between 1931 and 1983 nine other previous British colonies attained independence as kingdoms.", "All, including Canada, are in a personal union relationship under a shared monarch.", "Therefore, though today there are legally ten American monarchs, one person occupies each distinct position.In addition to these sovereign states, there are also a number of sub-national ones.", "In Bolivia, for example, the Afro-Bolivian king claims descent from an African dynasty that was taken from its homeland and sold into slavery.", "Though largely a ceremonial title today, the position of ''king of the Afro-Bolivians'' is officially recognized by the government of Bolivia.Male titleFemale titleRealmExamplesEmperorEmpressEmpireHaiti (1804–1806) & (1849–1859), Brazil (1822–1889), Mexico (1821–1823) & (1864–1867), Sapa IncaKingQueenKingdomHaiti (1811–1820), Brazil (1815–1822), Canada, Jamaica, the Bahamas, Grenada, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Antigua and Barbuda, Belize, Saint Kitts and Nevis===Monarchs in Oceania===Kamehameha IV, King of HawaiiPolynesian societies were ruled by an ''ariki'' from ancient times.", "The title is variously translated as \"supreme chief\", \"paramount chief\" or \"king\".The Kingdom of Tahiti was founded in 1788.Sovereignty was ceded to France in 1880 although descendants of the Pōmare dynasty claim the title of King of Tahiti.The Kingdom of Hawaii was established in 1795 and overthrown in 1893.An independent Kingdom of Rarotonga was established in 1858.It became a protectorate of the United Kingdom at its own request in 1893.Seru Epenisa Cakobau ruled the short-lived Kingdom of Fiji, a constitutional monarchy, from 1871 to 1874 when he voluntarily ceded sovereignty of the islands to the United Kingdom.", "After independence in 1970, the Dominion of Fiji retained the British monarch as head of state until it became a republic following a military coup in 1987.Australia, New Zealand (including the Cook Islands and Niue), Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands and Tuvalu are sovereign states within the Commonwealth of Nations that currently have Charles III as their reigning constitutional monarch.The Pitcairn Islands are part of the British Overseas Territories with Charles III as the reigning constitutional monarch.Tonga is the only remaining sovereign kingdom in Oceania.", "It has had a monarch since the 10th century and became a constitutional monarchy in 1875.In 2008, King George Tupou V relinquished most of the powers of the monarchy and the position is now largely ceremonial.In New Zealand the position of Māori King was established in 1858.The role is largely cultural and ceremonial and has no legal power.Uvea, Alo and Sigave in the French territory of Wallis and Futuna have non-sovereign elective monarchs." ], [ "See also", "* Lists of monarchs" ], [ "References", "'''Sources'''* *" ], [ "External links", "* A Glossary of European Noble, Princely, Royal and Imperial Titles* Regnal Chronologies King lists worldwide (archived 14 November 2007)* Archontology* African Kingdoms Imperial Throne Leadership and Enthronements (archived 25 December 2018)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Monarchy" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''monarchy''' is a form of government in which a person, the monarch, is head of state for life or until abdication.", "The political legitimacy and authority of the monarch may vary from restricted and largely symbolic (constitutional monarchy), to fully autocratic (absolute monarchy), and can span across executive, legislative, and judicial domains.The succession of monarchs has mostly been hereditary, often building dynastic periods.", "However, elective and self-proclaimed monarchies have also often occurred throughout history.", "Aristocrats, though not inherent to monarchies, often serve as the pool of persons from which the monarch is chosen, and to fill the constituting institutions (e.g.", "diet and court), giving many monarchies oligarchic elements.Monarchs can carry various titles such as emperor, empress, king, and queen.", "Monarchies can form federations, personal unions and realms with vassals through personal association with the monarch, which is a common reason for monarchs carrying several titles.Monarchies were the most common form of government until the 20th century, by which time republics had replaced many monarchies.", "Today forty-three sovereign nations in the world have a monarch, including fifteen Commonwealth realms that share King Charles III as their head of state.", "Other than that, there is a range of sub-national monarchical entities.", "Most of the modern monarchies tend to be constitutional monarchies, retaining under a constitution unique legal and ceremonial roles for the monarch, exercising limited or no political power, similar to heads of state in a parliamentary republic." ], [ "Etymology", "The word \"monarch\" () comes from the Ancient Greek word (), derived from (, \"one, single\") and (, \"to rule\"): compare (, \"ruler, chief\").", "It referred to a single at least nominally absolute ruler.", "In current usage the word ''monarchy'' usually refers to a traditional system of hereditary rule, as elective monarchies are quite rare." ], [ "History", "The Weld-Blundell Prism, inscribed with the Sumerian King ListThe similar form of societal hierarchy known as chiefdom or tribal kingship is prehistoric.", "Chiefdoms provided the concept of state formation, which started with civilizations such as Mesopotamia, Ancient Egypt and the Indus Valley civilization.", "In some parts of the world, chiefdoms became monarchies.", "Some of the oldest recorded and evidenced monarchies were Narmer, Pharaoh of Ancient Egypt , and Enmebaragesi, a Sumerian King of Kish .From earliest records, monarchs could be directly hereditary, while others were elected from among eligible members.", "With the Egyptian, Chinese, Indian, Mesopotamian, Sudanic, reconstructed Proto-Indo-European religion, and others, the monarch held sacral functions directly connected to sacrifice and was sometimes identified with having divine ancestry, possibly establishing a notion of the divine right of kings.Polybius identified monarchy as one of three \"benign\" basic forms of government (monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy), opposed to the three \"malignant\" basic forms of government (tyranny, oligarchy, and ochlocracy).", "The monarch in classical antiquity is often identified as \"king\" or \"ruler\" (translating ''archon'', ''basileus'', ''rex'', ''tyrannos'', etc.)", "or as \"queen\" (''basilinna'', ''basilissa'', ''basileia'' or ''basilis''; ''regina'').", "Polybius originally understood monarchy as a component of republics, but since antiquity monarchy has contrasted with forms of republic, where executive power is wielded by free citizens and their assemblies.", "The 4th-century BCE Hindu text ''Arthasastra'' laid out the ethics of monarchism.", "In antiquity, some monarchies were abolished in favour of such assemblies in Rome (Roman Republic, 509 BCE), and Athens (Athenian democracy, 500 BCE).Map of monarchies and republics in Europe, 1648By the 17th century, monarchy was challenged by evolving parliamentarism e.g.", "through regional assemblies (such as the Icelandic Commonwealth, the Swiss ''Landsgemeinde'' and later ''Tagsatzung'', and the High Medieval communal movement linked to the rise of medieval town privileges) and by modern anti-monarchism e.g.", "of the temporary overthrow of the English monarchy by the Parliament of England in 1649, the American Revolution of 1776 and the French Revolution of 1789.One of many opponents of that trend was Elizabeth Dawbarn, whose anonymous ''Dialogue between Clara Neville and Louisa Mills, on Loyalty'' (1794) features \"silly Louisa, who admires liberty, Tom Paine and the US, who is lectured by Clara on God's approval of monarchy\" and on the influence women can exert on men.Since then advocacy of the abolition of a monarchy or respectively of republics has been called republicanism, while the advocacy of monarchies is called monarchism.", "As such republics have become the opposing and alternative form of government to monarchy, despite some having seen infringements through lifelong or even hereditary heads of state, such as in North Korea.With the rise of republicanism, a diverse division between republicanism developed in the 19th-century politics (such as anti-monarchist radicalism) and conservative or even reactionary monarchism.", "In the following 20th century many countries abolished the monarchy and became republics, especially in the wake of World War I and World War II.Today forty-three sovereign nations in the world have a monarch, including fifteen Commonwealth realms that have Charles III as the head of state.", "Most modern monarchs are constitutional monarchs, who retain a unique legal and ceremonial role but exercise limited or no political power under a constitution.", "Many are so-called crowned republics, surviving particularly in small states.In some nations, however, such as Morocco, Qatar, Liechtenstein, and Thailand, the hereditary monarch has more political influence than any other single source of authority in the state, even if it is by a constitutional mandate.According to a 2020 study, monarchy arose as a system of governance because of an efficiency in governing large populations and expansive territories during periods when coordinating such populations was difficult.", "The authors argue that monarchy declined as an efficient regime type with innovations in communications and transportation technology, as the efficiency of monarchy relative to other regime types declined.According to a 2023 study, monarchy has persisted as a regime type because it can accommodate demands for democratization better than other forms of autocratic rule: \"Monarchies can democratize without destabilizing the leadership through transitioning to a democratic constitutional monarchy.", "The prospect of retaining the ruler appeals to opposition groups who value both democracy and stability, but it also has implications for their ability to organize and sustain mass protest.\"" ], [ "Characteristics and role", "King George III of the United Kingdom, portrait by Allan Ramsay, 1762Monarchies are associated with hereditary reign, in which monarchs reign for life and the responsibilities and power of the position pass to their child or another member of their family when they die.", "Most monarchs, both historically and in the modern-day, have been born and brought up within a royal family, the centre of the royal household and court.", "Growing up in a royal family (called a dynasty when it continues for several generations), future monarchs are often trained for their expected future responsibilities as monarch.Different systems of hereditary succession have been used, such as proximity of blood, primogeniture, and agnatic seniority (Salic law).", "While most monarchs in history have been male, many female monarchs also have reigned.", "The term \"queen regnant\" refers to a ruling monarch, while \"queen consort\" refers to the wife of a reigning king.", "Rule may be hereditary in practice without being considered a monarchy: there have been some family dictatorships (and also political families) in many democracies.The principal advantage of hereditary monarchy is the immediate continuity of leadership (as evidenced in the classic phrase \"The King is dead.", "Long live the King!", "\").Some monarchies are not hereditary.", "In an elective monarchy, monarchs are elected or appointed by some body (an electoral college) for life or a defined period.", "Four elective monarchies exist today: Cambodia, Malaysia and the United Arab Emirates are 20th-century creations, while one (the papacy) is ancient.A self-proclaimed monarchy is established when a person claims the monarchy without any historical ties to a previous dynasty.", "There are examples of republican leaders who have proclaimed themselves monarchs: Napoleon I of France declared himself Emperor of the French and ruled the First French Empire after having held the title of First Consul of the French Republic for five years from his seizing power in the coup of 18 Brumaire.", "President Jean-Bédel Bokassa of the Central African Republic declared himself Emperor of the Central African Empire in 1976.Yuan Shikai, the first formal President of the Republic of China, crowned himself Emperor of the short-lived \"Empire of China\" a few years after the Republic of China was founded.===Powers of the monarch===King Salman of Saudi Arabia is an absolute monarch.", "* In an absolute monarchy, the monarch rules as an autocrat, with absolute power over the state and government—for example, the right to rule by decree, promulgate laws, and impose punishments.", "* In a constitutional monarchy, the monarch's power is subject to a constitution.", "In most current constitutional monarchies, the monarch is mainly a ceremonial figurehead symbol of national unity and state continuity.", "Although nominally sovereign, the electorate (through the legislature) exercises political sovereignty.", "Constitutional monarchs' political power is limited.", "Typical monarchical powers include granting pardons, granting honours, and reserve powers, e.g.", "to dismiss the prime minister, refuse to dissolve parliament, or veto legislation (\"withhold Royal Assent\").", "They often also have privileges of inviolability and sovereign immunity.", "A monarch's powers and influence will depend on tradition, precedent, popular opinion, and law.", "** Semi-constitutional monarchies exhibit fewer parliamentary powers or simply monarchs with more authority.", "The term \"parliamentary monarchy\" may be used to differentiate from semi-constitutional monarchies.", "* Monarchical reign has often been linked with military authority.", "In the late Roman Empire, the Praetorian Guard several times deposed Roman emperors and installed new emperors.", "Similarly, in the Abbasid Caliphate, the Ghilmans (slave soldiers) deposed Caliphs once they became prominent, allowing new ones to come to power.", "The Hellenistic kings of Macedon and of Epirus were elected by the army, which was similar in composition to the ''ecclesia'' of democracies, the council of all free citizens; military service was often linked with citizenship among the male members of the royal house.", "The military has dominated the monarch in modern Thailand and in medieval Japan (where a hereditary military chief, the ''shōgun'', was the ''de facto'' ruler, although the Japanese emperor nominally reigned).", "In Fascist Italy, the Savoy monarchy under King Victor Emmanuel III coexisted with the Fascist single-party rule of Benito Mussolini; Romania under the Iron Guard and Greece during the first months of the Colonels' regime were similar.", "Spain under Francisco Franco was officially a monarchy, although there was no monarch on the throne.", "Upon his death, Franco was succeeded as head of state by the Bourbon heir, Juan Carlos I, and Spain became a democracy with the king as a figurehead constitutional monarch.===Person of monarch===King Manuel II of Portugal) and November (death of the Guangxu Emperor)|uprightMost monarchies only have a single person acting as monarch at any given time, although two monarchs have ruled simultaneously in some countries, a situation known as diarchy.", "Historically this was the case in the ancient Greek city-state of Sparta.", "There are examples of joint sovereignty of spouses, parent and child or other relatives (such as William III and Mary II in the kingdoms of England and Scotland, Tsars Peter I and Ivan V of Russia, and Charles I and Joanna of Castile).Andorra currently is the world's only constitutional diarchy, a co-principality.", "Located in the Pyrenees between Spain and France, it has two co-princes: the bishop of Urgell in Spain (a prince-bishop) and the president of France (derived ''ex officio'' from the French kings, who themselves inherited the title from the counts of Foix).", "It is the only case in which an independent country's (co-)monarch is democratically elected by the citizens of another country.In a personal union, separate independent states share the same person as monarch, but each realm retains separate laws and government.", "The fifteen separate Commonwealth realms are sometimes described as being in a personal union with King Charles III as monarch; however, they can also be described as being in a shared monarchy.A regent may rule when the monarch is a minor, absent, or debilitated.A pretender is a claimant to an abolished throne or a throne already occupied by somebody else.Abdication is the act of formally giving up one's monarchical power and status.Monarchs may mark the ceremonial beginning of their reigns with a coronation or enthronement.===Role of monarch===Monarchy, especially absolute monarchy, is sometimes linked to religious aspects; many monarchs once claimed the right to rule by the will of a deity (Divine Right of Kings, Mandate of Heaven), or a special connection to a deity (sacred king), or even purported to be divine kings, or incarnations of deities themselves (imperial cult).", "Many European monarchs have been styled (Defender of the Faith); some hold official positions relating to the state religion or established church.In the Western political tradition, a morally based, balanced monarchy was stressed as the ideal form of government, and little attention was paid to modern-day ideals of egalitarian democracy: e.g.", "Saint Thomas Aquinas unapologetically declared: \"Tyranny is wont to occur not less but more frequently on the basis of polyarchy rule by many, i.e.", "oligarchy or democracy than on the basis of monarchy.\"", "(''On Kingship'').", "However, Thomas Aquinas also stated that the ideal monarchical system would also have at lower levels of government both an aristocracy and elements of democracy in order to create a balance of power.", "The monarch would also be subject to both natural and divine law, and to the Church in matters of religion.In Dante Alighieri's ''De Monarchia'', a spiritualised, imperial Catholic monarchy is strongly promoted according to a Ghibelline world-view in which the \"royal religion of Melchizedek\" is emphasised against the priestly claims of the rival papal ideology.In Saudi Arabia, the king is a head of state who is both the absolute monarch of the country and the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques of Islam (خادم الحرمين الشريفين).The roles of monarchs can overlap with other monarchies through personal union or dynastic union, with maybe becoming institutional real union and possibly a larger federal, composite or unitary monarchy, realm and state.===Titles of monarchs===Tewodros II, Emperor of Ethiopia|uprightMonarchs can have various titles.", "Common European titles of monarchs (in that hierarchical order of nobility) are emperor or empress (from Latin: ''imperator'' or ''imperatrix''), king or queen, grand duke or grand duchess, prince or princess, duke or duchess.", "Some early modern European titles (especially in German states) included elector (German: , Prince-Elector, literally \"electing prince\"), margrave (German: , equivalent to the French title ''marquis'', literally \"count of the borderland\"), and burgrave (German: , literally \"count of the castle\").", "Lesser titles include count and princely count.", "Slavic titles include knyaz and tsar (ц︢рь) or tsaritsa (царица), a word derived from the Roman imperial title ''Caesar''.In the Muslim world, titles of monarchs include caliph (successor to the Islamic prophet Muhammad and a leader of the entire Muslim community), padishah (emperor), sultan or sultana, shâhanshâh (emperor), shah, malik (king) or malikah (queen), emir (commander, prince) or emira (princess), sheikh or sheikha, imam (used in Oman).", "East Asian titles of monarchs include ''huángdì'' (emperor) or ''nǚhuáng'' (empress regnant), ''tiānzǐ'' (son of heaven), ''tennō'' (emperor) or ''josei tennō'' (empress regnant), ''wang'' (king) or ''yeowang'' (queen regnant), ''hwangje'' (emperor) or ''yeoje'' (empress regnant).", "South Asian and South East Asian titles included ''mahārāja'' (high king) or ''maharani'' (high queen), ''raja'' (king) and ''rana'' (king) or ''rani'' (queen) and ''ratu'' (South East Asian queen).", "Historically, Mongolic and Turkic monarchs have used the title ''khan'' and ''khagan'' (emperor) or ''khatun'' and ''khanum''; Ancient Egyptian monarchs have used the title ''pharaoh'' for men and women.", "In Ethiopian Empire, monarchs used title ''nəgusä nägäst'' (king of kings) or ''nəgəstä nägäst'' (queen of kings).Many monarchs are addressed with particular styles or manners of address, like \"Majesty\", \"Royal Highness\", \"By the Grace of God\", ''Amīr al-Mu'minīn'' (\"Leader of the Faithful\"), ''Hünkar-i Khanedan-i Âl-i Osman'', \"Sovereign of the Sublime House of Osman\"), ''Duli Yang Maha Mulia Seri Paduka Baginda'' (\"Majesty\"), ''Jeonha'' (\"Majesty\"), ''Tennō Heika'' (literally \"His Majesty the heavenly sovereign\"), ''Bìxià'' (\"Bottom of the Steps\").Sometimes titles are used to express claims to territories that are not held in fact (for example, English claims to the French throne), or titles not recognised (antipopes).", "Also, after a monarchy is deposed, often former monarchs and their descendants are given alternative titles (the King of Portugal was given the hereditary title Duke of Braganza).===Non-sovereign monarchies===A non-sovereign monarchy is one where the monarch is subject to a temporal authority higher than their own.", "Some are dependent on other powers (see vassals, suzerainty, puppet state, hegemony).", "In the British colonial era, indirect rule under a paramount power existed, such as the princely states under the British Raj.In Botswana, South Africa, Ghana and Uganda, the ancient kingdoms and chiefdoms that were met by the colonialists when they first arrived on the continent are now constitutionally protected as regional or sectional entities.Furthermore, in Nigeria, though the hundreds of sub-regional polities that exist there are not provided for in the current constitution, they are nevertheless legally recognised aspects of the structure of governance that operates in the nation.", "For example, the Yoruba city-state of Akure in south-western Nigeria is something of an elective monarchy: its reigning ''Oba Deji'' has to be chosen by an electoral college of nobles from amongst a finite collection of royal princes of the realm upon the death or removal of an incumbent.In addition to these five countries, non-sovereign monarchies of varied sizes and complexities exist all over the rest of the continent of Africa.===Statehood===Monarchies pre-date polities like nation states and even territorial states.", "A nation or constitution is not necessary in a monarchy since a person, the monarch, binds the separate territories and political legitimacy (e.g.", "in personal union) together.Monarchies, though, have applied state symbols like insignia or abstracts like the concept of the Crown to create a state identity, which is to be carried and occupied by the monarch, but represents the monarchy even in absence and succession of the monarch.Nevertheless, monarchies can also be bound to territories (e.g., the King of Norway) and peoples (e.g., the King of the Belgians)." ], [ "Succession", "===Hereditary monarchies===Current European monarchies by succession method:In a hereditary monarchy, the position of monarch is inherited according to a statutory or customary order of succession, usually within one royal family tracing its origin through a historical dynasty or bloodline.", "This usually means that the heir to the throne is known well in advance of becoming monarch to ensure a smooth succession.Primogeniture, in which the eldest child of the monarch is first in line to become monarch, is the most common system in hereditary monarchy.", "The order of succession is usually affected by rules on gender.", "Historically \"agnatic primogeniture\" or \"patrilineal primogeniture\" was favoured, that is inheritance according to seniority of birth among the sons of a monarch or head of family, with sons and their male issue inheriting before brothers and their male issue, to the total exclusion of females and descendants through females from succession.", "This complete exclusion of females from dynastic succession is commonly referred to as application of the Salic law.", "Another variation on agnatic primogeniture was the so-called semi-Salic law, or \"agnatic-cognatic primogeniture\", which allowed women to succeed only at the extinction of all the male descendants in the male line of the particular legislator.Before primogeniture was enshrined in European law and tradition, kings would often secure the succession by having their successor (usually their eldest son) crowned during their own lifetime, so for a time there would be two kings in coregency—a senior king and a junior king.", "Examples were Henry the Young King of England and the early Direct Capetians in France.", "Sometimes, however, primogeniture can operate through the female line.Leopold I, an elected founder of the hereditary monarchy of BelgiumIn 1980, Sweden became the first monarchy to declare equal (full cognatic) primogeniture, meaning that the eldest child of the monarch, whether female or male, ascends to the throne.", "Other kingdoms (such as the Netherlands in 1983, Norway in 1990, Belgium in 1991, Denmark in 2009, and Luxembourg in 2011) have since followed suit.", "The United Kingdom adopted absolute (equal) primogeniture (subject to the claims of existing heirs) on April 25, 2013, following agreement by the prime ministers of the sixteen Commonwealth Realms at the 22nd Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting.In the absence of children, the next most senior member of the collateral line (for example, a younger sibling of the previous monarch) becomes monarch.", "In complex cases, this can mean that there are closer blood relatives to the deceased monarch than the next in line according to primogeniture.", "This has often led, especially in Europe in the Middle Ages, to conflict between the principle of primogeniture and the principle of proximity of blood.Other hereditary systems of succession included tanistry, which is semi-elective and gives weight to merit and Agnatic seniority.", "In some monarchies, such as Saudi Arabia, succession to the throne first passes to the monarch's next eldest brother, and only after that to the monarch's children (agnatic seniority).", "However, on June 21, 2017, King Salman of Saudi Arabi revolted against this style of monarchy and elected his son to inherit the throne.===Elective monarchies===Pope Francis, Sovereign of the Vatican City StateIn an elective monarchy, monarchs are elected or appointed by somebody (an electoral college) for life or a defined period, but then reign like any other monarch.", "There is no popular vote involved in elective monarchies, as the elective body usually consists of a small number of eligible people.", "Historical examples of elective monarchy are the Holy Roman Emperors (chosen by prince-electors but often coming from the same dynasty) and the free election of kings of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.", "For example, Pepin the Short (father of Charlemagne) was elected King of the Franks by an assembly of Frankish leading men; nobleman Stanisław August Poniatowski of Poland was an elected king, as was Frederick I of Denmark.", "Gallic and Germanic peoples also had elective monarchies.Six forms of elective monarchies exist today.", "The Pope of the Roman Catholic Church (who rules as Sovereign of the Vatican City State) is elected for life by the College of Cardinals.", "In the Sovereign Military Order of Malta, the Prince and Grand Master is elected for life tenure by the Council Complete of State from within its members.", "In Malaysia, the federal king, called the Yang di-Pertuan Agong or Paramount Ruler, is elected for a five-year term from among and by the hereditary rulers (mostly sultans) of nine of the federation's constitutive states, all on the Malay peninsula.", "The United Arab Emirates also chooses its federal leaders from among emirs of the federated states.", "Furthermore, Andorra has a unique constitutional arrangement as one of its heads of state is the President of the French Republic in the form of a Co-Prince.", "This is the only instance in the world where the monarch of a state is elected by the citizens of a different country.", "In New Zealand, the Maori King, head of the Kingitanga Movement, is elected by a council of Maori elders at the funeral of their predecessor, which is also where their coronation takes place.", "All of the Heads of the Maori King Movement have been descendants of the first Maori King, Potatau Te Wherowhero, who was elected and became King in June 1858.The current monarch is King Tuheitia Potatau Te Wherowhero VII, who was elected and became King on 21 August 2006, the same day as the funeral of his mother, Te Arikinui Dame Te Atairangikaahu, the first Maori Queen.", "As well as being King and head of the Kingitanga Movement, King Tuheitia is also ''ex officio'' the Paramount Chief of the Waikato-Tainui tribe.Appointment by the current monarch is another system, used in Jordan.", "It also was used in Imperial Russia; however, it was soon changed to semi-Salic because the instability of the appointment system resulted in an age of palace revolutions.", "In this system, the monarch chooses the successor, who is always his relative.===Other ways of succession===Other ways to succeed to a monarchy can be through claiming alternative votes (e.g.", "as in the case of the Western Schism), claims of a mandate to rule (e.g.", "a popular or divine mandate), military occupation, a coup d'état, a will of the previous monarch or treaties between factions inside and outside of a monarchy (e.g.", "as in the case of the War of the Spanish Succession).====By accession====The legitimacy and authorities of monarchs are often proclaimed and recognized through occupying and being invested with insignia, seats, deeds and titles, like in the course of coronations.This is especially employed to legitimize and settle disputed successions, changes in ways of succession, status of a monarch (e.g.", "as in the case of the ''privilegium maius'' deed) or new monarchies altogether (e.g.", "as in the case of the coronation of Napoleon I).====Dynasties====Succession is often based on the expected continuation of a dynastic period or association in a dynastic union, which is sometimes challenged by diverging lineage and legitimism.====Succession crisis====In cases of succession challenges, it can be instrumental for pretenders to secure or install legitimacy through the above, for example proof of accession like insignia, through treaties or a claim of a divine mandate to rule (e.g.", "by Hong Xiuquan and his Taiping Heavenly Kingdom)." ], [ "Current monarchies", "Currently, there are 43 nations and a population of roughly half a billion people in the world with a monarch as head of state.", "They fall roughly into the following categories:=== Commonwealth realms ===King Charles III is, separately, monarch of fifteen Commonwealth realms (Antigua and Barbuda, the Commonwealth of Australia, the Commonwealth of the Bahamas, Belize, Canada, Grenada, Jamaica, New Zealand, the Independent State of Papua New Guinea, the Federation of Saint Christopher and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, the Solomon Islands, Tuvalu and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland).", "They evolved out of the British Empire into fully independent states within the Commonwealth of Nations that retain the King as head of state.", "All fifteen realms are constitutional monarchies and full democracies where the King has limited powers or a largely ceremonial role.", "The King is head of the Church of England (the established church of England), while the other 14 realms do not have a state religion.=== Other European constitutional monarchies ===The Principality of Andorra, the Kingdom of Belgium, the Kingdom of Denmark, the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the Kingdom of Norway, the Kingdom of Spain, and the Kingdom of Sweden are fully democratic states in which the monarch has a limited or largely ceremonial role.", "Some countries have established a Christian religion as the official church.", "This is the Lutheran form of Protestantism in Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, while Andorra is a Roman Catholic country.", "Spain, Belgium, and the Netherlands have no official state religion.", "Luxembourg, which is predominantly Roman Catholic, has five so-called ''officially recognized cults of national importance'' (Roman Catholicism, Protestantism, Greek Orthodoxy, Judaism, and Islam), a status which gives those religions some privileges like the payment of a state salary to their priests.Andorra is unique among all existing monarchies, as it is a diarchy, with the co-princes being shared by the president of France and the bishop of Urgell.", "This situation, based on historical precedence, has created a peculiar situation among monarchies, as:* neither of the co-princes is of Andorran descent;* one is elected by citizens of a foreign country (France), but not by Andorrans as they cannot vote in the French presidential elections; and* the other, the bishop of Urgell, is appointed by a foreign head of state, the pope.===European semi-constitutional monarchies===A semi-constitutional monarchy is a monarchy where the monarch rules according to a democratic constitution but still retains substantial powers.", "The Principality of Liechtenstein and the Principality of Monaco are European semi-constitutional monarchies.", "For example, the 2003 Constitution referendum gave the Prince of Liechtenstein the power to veto any law that the ''Landtag'' (parliament) proposes, while the Landtag can veto any law that the Prince tries to pass.", "The prince can appoint or dismiss any elective member or government employee.", "However, he is not an absolute monarch, as the people can call for a referendum to end the monarch's reign.", "When Hereditary Prince Alois threatened to veto a referendum to legalize abortion in 2011, it came as a surprise because the prince had not vetoed any law for over 30 years.", "The prince of Monaco has simpler powers; he cannot appoint or dismiss any elective member or government employee to or from his or her post, but he can elect the minister of state, government council and judges.", "Both Albert II, Prince of Monaco, and Hans-Adam II, Prince of Liechtenstein, are theoretically very powerful within their small states, but they have very limited power compared to the Islamic monarchs (see below).", "They also own huge tracts of land and are shareholders in many companies.===Monarchies in the Muslim world===The monarchies of the Kingdom of Bahrain, the Brunei Darussalam, the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, the State of Kuwait, Malaysia, the Kingdom of Morocco, the Sultanate of Oman, the State of Qatar, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates generally retain far more powers than their European or Commonwealth counterparts.", "Brunei Darussalam, Oman, and Saudi Arabia remain absolute monarchies; Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar and United Arab Emirates are classified as mixed, meaning there are representative bodies of some kind, but the monarch retains most of his powers.", "Jordan, Malaysia, and Morocco are constitutional monarchies, but their monarchs still retain more substantial powers than European equivalents.===East and Southeast Asian constitutional monarchies===The kingdoms of Bhutan, Cambodia, Thailand, and Japan are constitutional monarchies where the monarch has a limited or merely ceremonial role.", "Bhutan made the change in 2008.Cambodia had its own monarchy after independence from the French colonial empire, but it was deposed after the Khmer Rouge came into power.", "The monarchy was subsequently restored in the peace agreement of 1993.Thailand transitioned into a constitutional monarchy over the course of the 20th century.", "Japan has had a monarchy, an emperor, according to legend, since Emperor Jimmu (reigned 660–585 BCE), making it the world's oldest existing monarchy.", "After their defeat in the Second World War, Japan was forced into limiting the power of the Emperor, giving almost all of it to the National Diet.===Other monarchies===Four monarchies do not fit into any of the above groups by virtue of geography or class of monarchy: the Kingdom of Tonga in Polynesia; the Kingdom of Eswatini and the Kingdom of Lesotho in Africa and the Vatican City State in Europe.", "Of these, Lesotho and Tonga are constitutional monarchies, while Eswatini and the Vatican City are absolute monarchies.Eswatini is unique among these monarchies, often being considered a diarchy: the King, or Ngwenyama, rules alongside his mother, the Ndlovukati, as dual heads of state.", "This was originally intended to provide a check on political power.", "The Ngwenyama, however, is considered the administrative head of state, while the Ndlovukati is considered the spiritual and national head of state, a position which more or less has become symbolic in recent years.The Pope is the absolute monarch of the Vatican City State (a separate entity from the Holy See) by virtue of his position as head of the Roman Catholic Church and Bishop of Rome; he is an elected rather than a hereditary ruler, and does not have to be a citizen of the territory prior to his election by the cardinals.The Order of Malta describes itself as a \"sovereign subject\" based on its unique history and unusual present circumstances, but its exact status in international law is a subject of debate.In Samoa, the position of head of state is described in Part III of the 1960 Samoan constitution.", "At the time the constitution was adopted, it was anticipated that future heads of state would be chosen from among the four Tama a 'Aiga \"royal\" paramount chiefs.", "However, this is not required by the constitution, and, for this reason, Samoa can be considered a republic rather than a constitutional monarchy.The ruling Kim family in North Korea (Kim Il Sung, Kim Jong Il and Kim Jong Un) has been described as a ''de facto'' absolute monarchy or a \"hereditary dictatorship\".", "In 2013, Clause 2 of Article 10 of the new edited Ten Fundamental Principles of the Korean Workers' Party states that the party and revolution must be carried \"eternally\" by the \"Baekdu (Kim's) bloodline\".", "This though does not mean it is a ''de jure'' absolute monarchy, as the country's official name is the Democratic People's Republic of Korea.", "The al-Assad family, ruling Syria since 1971, has similarly been categorized as such.=== Long form titles for the country ===* Kingdom: , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , * State: , , '' (de facto)'', * Principality: , , * Federation: , '' (de facto)''* Commonwealth: , * Sultanate: * Nation: * Grand Duchy: * Independent State: * Emirate: * None: , , , , , , , , , , ," ], [ "See also", "* Absolute monarchy* Abolition of monarchy* Autocracy* Cloistered rule* Criticism of monarchy* Diarchy* Empire* Family as a model for the state* Federal monarchy* Hereditary monarchy* List of current monarchies* List of current monarchs of sovereign states* List of living former sovereign monarchs* List of current non-sovereign monarchs* List of fictional monarchs* List of monarchies* List of monarchs by nickname* List of royalty by net worth* List of usurpers* Monarchism* Order of succession* President for life* Pretender* Personal union* Royal family* Royal and noble ranks* Universal monarchy" ], [ "Notes and references", "=== Notes ====== References ===" ], [ "External links", "** Constitutional Monarchy Association" ] ]
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