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[ [ "Luminance" ], [ "Introduction", "A tea light-type candle, imaged with a luminance camera; false colors indicate luminance levels per the bar on the right (cd/m2)'''Luminance''' is a photometric measure of the luminous intensity per unit area of light travelling in a given direction.", "It describes the amount of light that passes through, is emitted from, or is reflected from a particular area, and falls within a given solid angle.The procedure for conversion from spectral radiance to luminance is standardized by the CIE and ISO.Brightness is the term for the ''subjective'' impression of the ''objective'' luminance measurement standard (see for the importance of this contrast).The SI unit for luminance is candela per square metre (cd/m2).", "A non-SI term for the same unit is the nit.", "The unit in the Centimetre–gram–second system of units (CGS) (which predated the SI system) is the stilb, which is equal to one candela per square centimetre or 10 kcd/m2." ], [ "Description", "Luminance is often used to characterize emission or reflection from flat, diffuse surfaces.", "Luminance levels indicate how much luminous power could be detected by the human eye looking at a particular surface from a particular angle of view.", "Luminance is thus an indicator of how bright the surface will appear.", "In this case, the solid angle of interest is the solid angle subtended by the eye's pupil.Luminance is used in the video industry to characterize the brightness of displays.", "A typical computer display emits between .", "The sun has a luminance of about at noon.Luminance is invariant in geometric optics.", "This means that for an ideal optical system, the luminance at the output is the same as the input luminance.For real, passive optical systems, the output luminance is equal to the input.", "As an example, if one uses a lens to form an image that is smaller than the source object, the luminous power is concentrated into a smaller area, meaning that the illuminance is higher at the image.", "The light at the image plane, however, fills a larger solid angle so the luminance comes out to be the same assuming there is no loss at the lens.", "The image can never be \"brighter\" than the source." ], [ "Health effects", "Retinal damage can occur when the eye is exposed to high luminance.", "Damage can occur because of local heating of the retina.", "Photochemical effects can also cause damage, especially at short wavelengths.The IEC 60825 series gives guidance on safety relating to exposure of the eye to lasers, which are high luminance sources.", "The IEC 62471 series gives guidance for evaluating the photobiological safety of lamps and lamp systems including luminaires.", "Specifically it specifies the exposure limits, reference measurement technique and classification scheme for the evaluation and control of photobiological hazards from all electrically powered incoherent broadband sources of optical radiation, including LEDs but excluding lasers, in the wavelength range from through .", "This standard was prepared as Standard CIE S 009:2002 by the International Commission on Illumination." ], [ "Luminance meter", "A '''luminance meter''' is a device used in photometry that can measure the luminance in a particular direction and with a particular solid angle.", "The simplest devices measure the luminance in a single direction while imaging luminance meters measure luminance in a way similar to the way a digital camera records color images." ], [ "Formulation", "Parameters for defining the luminanceThe luminance of a specified point of a light source, in a specified direction, is defined by the mixed partial derivativewhere* is the luminance (cd/m2);* is the luminous flux (lm) leaving the area in any direction contained inside the solid angle ;* is an infinitesimal area (m2) of the source containing the specified point;* is an infinitesimal solid angle (sr) containing the specified direction; and* is the angle between the normal to the surface and the specified direction.If light travels through a lossless medium, the luminance does not change along a given light ray.", "As the ray crosses an arbitrary surface , the luminance is given bywhere* is the infinitesimal area of seen from the source inside the solid angle ;* is the infinitesimal solid angle subtended by as seen from ; and* is the angle between the normal to and the direction of the light.More generally, the luminance along a light ray can be defined aswhere* is the etendue of an infinitesimally narrow beam containing the specified ray;* is the luminous flux carried by this beam; and* is the index of refraction of the medium." ], [ "Relation to illuminance", "Comparison of photometric and radiometric quantitiesThe luminance of a reflecting surface is related to the illuminance it receives:where the integral covers all the directions of emission ,* is the surface's luminous exitance;* is the received illuminance; and* is the reflectance.In the case of a perfectly diffuse reflector (also called a Lambertian reflector), the luminance is isotropic, per Lambert's cosine law.", "Then the relationship is simply" ], [ "Units", "A variety of units have been used for luminance, besides the candela per square metre." ], [ "See also", "Relative luminanceOrders of magnitude (luminance)Diffuse reflectionEtendue*Lambertian reflectanceLightness (color)Luma, the representation of luminance in a video monitorLumen (unit)Radiance, radiometric quantity analogous to luminanceBrightness, the subjective impression of luminanceGlare (vision)===Table of SI light-related units===" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " A Kodak guide to Estimating Luminance and Illuminance using a camera's exposure meter.", "Also available in PDF form.", "* Autodesk Design Academy Measuring Light Levels" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lycos" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lycos, Inc.''', is a web search engine and web portal established in 1994, spun out of Carnegie Mellon University.", "Lycos also encompasses a network of email, web hosting, social networking, and entertainment websites.", "The company is based in Waltham, Massachusetts, and is a subsidiary of Ybrant Digital." ], [ "Etymology", "The word \"Lycos\" is short for \"Lycosidae\", which is Latin for \"wolf spider\"." ], [ "History", "Lycos is a university spin-off that began in May 1994 as a research project by Michael Loren Mauldin of Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh.", "'''Lycos Inc.''' was formed with approximately US$2 million in venture capital funding from CMGI.", "Bob Davis became the CEO and first employee of the new company in 1995, and concentrated on building the company into an advertising-supported web portal, led by Bill Townsend, who served as Vice President, Advertising.", "Lycos enjoyed several years of growth during the 1990s and became the most visited online destination in the world in 1999, with a global presence in more than 40 countries.In April 1996, the company completed the fastest initial public offering from inception to offering in NASDAQ (LCOS) history, ending its first day with a market value of $300 million.", "It also became the first search engine to go public, before its big rivals Yahoo!", "and Excite.", "Lycos started offering e-mail services in October 1997, the same year it became one of the first profitable Internet businesses in the world.", "In 1998, Lycos acquired Tripod.com for $58 million in an attempt to \"break into the portal market\".Lycos Europe was a joint venture between Lycos and the Bertelsmann transnational media corporation, but it has always been a distinct corporate entity.", "Although Lycos Europe remains the largest of Lycos's overseas ventures, several other Lycos subsidiaries also entered into joint venture agreements including Lycos Canada, Lycos Korea and Lycos Asia.Lycos was one of the most popular websites on the internet, ranking 8th in 1997, and peaking at 4th in both 1999 and 2001.On May 16, 2000, near the peak of the dot-com bubble, Lycos announced its intent to be acquired by Terra Networks, the Internet arm of the Spanish telecommunications giant , for $12.5 billion.", "The acquisition price represented a return of nearly 3,000 times the company's initial venture capital investment and about 20 times its initial public offering valuation.", "The transaction closed in October 2000 and the merged company was renamed Terra Lycos, although the Lycos brand continued to be used in the United States.", "Overseas, the company continued to be known as Terra Networks.Having been set back by the dot-com bubble burst, Lycos abandoned its own search crawler in late 2001, and started using FAST.In August 2004, Terra announced that it was selling Lycos to Seoul, South Korea–based Daum Communications Corporation, now Kakao, for $95.4 million in cash, less than 2% of Terra's initial multibillion-dollar investment.", "In October 2004, the transaction closed and the company name was changed back to Lycos.Under new ownership, Lycos began to refocus its strategy.", "The company moved away from being a search-centric portal and toward a community destination for broadband entertainment content.", "With a new management team in place, Lycos also began divesting properties that were not core to its new strategy.", "In July 2006, Wired News, which had been part of Lycos since the purchase of Wired Digital in 1998, was sold to Condé Nast Publications and re-merged with ''Wired Magazine''.", "The Lycos Finance division, best known for Quote.com and RagingBull.com, was sold to FT Interactive Data Corporation in February 2006, while its online dating site, Matchmaker.com, was sold to Date.com.", "In 2006, Lycos regained ownership of the Lycos trademark from Carnegie Mellon University, allowing the company to rename to Lycos, Inc.During 2006, Lycos introduced several media services, including Lycos Phone which combined video chat, real-time video on demand, and an MP3 player.", "In November 2006, Lycos began to roll out applications centered on social media, including its video application, Lycos Cinema, that featured simultaneous watch and chat functionality.", "In February 2007, Lycos MIX was launched, allowing users to pull video clips from YouTube, Google Video, Yahoo!", "Video and MySpace Video.", "Lycos MIX also allowed users to create playlists where other users could add video comments and chat in real-time.As part of a corporate restructuring to focus on mobile, social networks and location-based services, Daum sold Lycos for $36 million in August 2010 to Ybrant Digital, an Internet marketing company based in Hyderabad, India.", "Ybrant Digital paid $20 million at signing and there has been a legal dispute over magnitude of the second installment between Ybrant and Daum.", "In 2018, a New York court ruled in favor of Daum and appointed Daum (by then merged with Kakao) as receiver of Ybrant's 56% ownership interest in Lycos.In May 2012, Lycos announced the appointment of former employee Rob Balazy as CEO of Media division of Lycos.In September 2014, Ed Noel was appointed in place of Rob and manages the operations under the title of General Manager of Lycos Media.In June 2015, Lycos announced a pair of wearable devices, called Band and Ring.Lycos Internet was renamed Brightcom Group in May 2018." ], [ "Lycos Network sites", "* Angelfire, a Lycos property which provides paid web hosting, blogging and web publishing tools* Tripod, a Lycos property providing paid web hosting, blogging and web publishing tools===Lycos-branded sites===* Lycos Chat, a photo chatting community.", "* Lycos Domains, Internet domain name purchasing* Lycos Mail, an e-mail provider formerly known as Mailcity.com.", "(As of 15 May 2018 providing only paid services.", ")* Lycos Weather* Lycos Yellow Pages===Former Lycos sites===* Chickmail, a free e-mail service sponsored by ChickClick* Chickpages, a free web hosting service sponsored by ChickClick* Estromail, a free e-mail service sponsored by Estronet* Estropages, a free web hosting service sponsored by Estronet* Gamesville, Lycos multi-player gaming site* GetRelevant.com, a Lycos online advertising site* Gurlmail, a free e-mail service sponsored by Delia's for Gurl.com* Gurlpages, a free web hosting service sponsored by Delia's for Gurl.com* Hotbot, a search engine* InsiderInfo* Lycos Radio, allowed users to create and host their own free Internet radio shows* Matchmaker.com, a dating site* Quote.com and RagingBull.com, finance sites* Weather Zombie, a Lycos property which provided weather forecasts, with a zombie theme, via AccuWeather* Webmonkey, web-building help and tutorials* WhoWhere.com, a people search engine* Wired.com, the online arm of ''Wired'' magazine" ], [ "See also", "* List of search engines* Search engine* Comparison of search engines" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Luton Town F.C." ], [ "Introduction", "'''Luton Town Football Club ''' () is a professional football club based in Luton, Bedfordshire, England, that competes in the Premier League, the top tier of English football.", "Founded in 1885, they are nicknamed the Hatters, due to the historical association of the town with the hat making trade, and have played home matches at Kenilworth Road since 1905.The club's history includes one major trophy win, several financial crises, as well as numerous promotions and relegations.", "Between 1982 and 1992, they were a member of the First Division; they won their first major honour, the Football League Cup, in 1988.Luton Town have a long-standing rivalry with nearby club Watford.Luton Town was the first in southern England to turn professional.", "It joined the Football League before the 1897–98 season, left in 1900 because of financial problems, and rejoined in 1920.Luton reached the First Division in 1955–56 and contested a major final for the first time against Nottingham Forest in the 1959 FA Cup final.", "The team was then relegated from the top division in 1959–60, and demoted twice more in the following five years, playing in the Fourth Division from the 1965–66 season, before they were promoted back to the top level in 1974–75.In 1981–82, the club won the Second Division and gained promotion to the First.", "Luton defeated Arsenal 3–2 in the 1988 Football League Cup final and remained in the First Division until relegation at the end of the 1991–92 season.", "Between 2007 and 2009, financial difficulties caused the club to fall from the second tier of English football to the fifth in successive seasons.", "The last of these relegations, in the 2008–09 season, followed a 30-point deduction for financial irregularities.", "Luton spent five seasons in non-League football before winning the Conference Premier in 2013–14, securing promotion back into the Football League.", "Luton were promoted from League Two and League One in successive seasons in 2017–18 and 2018–19 before being promoted to the Premier League in the 2022–23 EFL Championship play-off final on penalties against Coventry City.Luton Town are the first football team to return to the top tier of English football after successive relegations down to the fifth tier of English football." ], [ "History", "===Formation and election to the Southern League (1885–1890)===Luton Town Football Club was formed on 11 April 1885.Before this there were many clubs in the town, the most prominent of which were Luton Wanderers and Luton Excelsior.", "A Wanderers player, George Deacon, came up with the idea of a 'Town' club which would include all the best players in Luton.", "Wanderers secretary Herbert Spratley seized upon Deacon's idea and arranged a secret meeting on 13 January 1885 at the St Matthews school rooms in High Town.", "The Wanderers committee resolved to rename the club Luton Town—which was not well received by the wider community.", "The local newspapers referred to the club as 'Luton Town (late Wanderers)'.", "When George Deacon and John Charles Lomax then arranged a public meeting with the purpose of forming a 'Luton Town Football Club', Spratley protested, saying there was already a Luton Town club; and the atmosphere was tense when the meeting convened in the town hall on 11 April 1885.The meeting, attended by most football lovers in the town, heard about Spratley's secret January meeting and voted down his objections.", "The motion to form a 'Luton Town Football Club', put forward by G H Small and seconded by E H Lomax, was carried.", "A club committee was elected by ballot and the team colours were agreed to be pink and dark blue shirts and caps.alt=A formative photograph of an association football teamInitially based at Excelsior's Dallow Lane ground, Luton Town began making payments to certain individual players in 1890.The following year, Luton became the first club in southern England to be fully professional.", "The club was a founder member of the Southern Football League in the 1894–95 season and finished as runners-up in its first two seasons.", "It then left to help form the United League and came second in that league's inaugural season before joining the Football League (then based mostly in northern and central England) for 1897–98, concurrently moving to a new ground at Dunstable Road.", "The club continued to enter a team to the United League for two more seasons, winning the title in 1897–98.Poor attendance, high wages, in addition to the high travel and accommodation costs that resulted from Luton's distance from the northern heartlands of the Football League crippled the club financially; it became too expensive to compete in that league.", "A return to the Southern League was therefore arranged for the 1900–01 season.===Early 20th century (1900–1950)===Eight years after arriving at Dunstable Road, Luton moved again, settling at their current ground, Kenilworth Road, in 1905.Captain and left winger Bob Hawkes became Luton's first international player when he was picked to play for England against Ireland on 16 February 1907.A poor 1911–12 season saw Luton relegated to the Southern League's Second Division; the club won promotion back two years later.", "After the First World War broke out, Luton took part in The London Combination during 1915–16, and afterwards filled each season with friendly matches.", "A key player of the period was Ernie Simms, a forward.", "Simms was invalided back to England after being wounded on the Italian front, but recovered enough to regain his place in the Luton team and scored 40 goals during the 1916–17 season.Joe Payne ''(white shirt, left)'' scores one of his record-breaking 10 goals in one match\|alt=A black-and-white newspaper photograph: taken from behind the goalkeeper's left-hand goalpost, a football is pictured on the right-hand side, in the foreground; an association football player in a white shirt and black shorts is seen on the left-hand side.The Luton side first played in the white and black colours which it has retained for much of its history during the 1920–21 season, when the club rejoined the Football League; the players had previously worn an assortment of colour combinations, most permanently sky blue shirts with white shorts and navy socks.", "Such was the quality of Luton's team at this time that despite playing in the third tier, a fixture between Ireland and England at Windsor Park on 22 October 1921 saw three Luton players on the pitch—Louis Bookman and Allan Mathieson for Ireland, and the club's top goalscorer, Simms, for England.", "However, after Luton finished fourth in the division, the squad was broken up as Simms, Bookman and Mathieson joined South Shields, Port Vale and Exeter City respectively.", "Luton stayed in the Third Division South until 1936–37, when the team finished top and won promotion to the Second Division, at that time the second tier of English football.", "During the promotion season, striker Joe Payne scored 55 goals in 39 games; during the previous season he had scored 10 in one match against Bristol Rovers, which remains a Football League record today.===Success under Duncan and relegation (1950–1965)===During the early 1950s, one of Luton's greatest sides emerged under manager Dally Duncan.", "The team included Gordon Turner, who went on to become Luton's all-time top goalscorer, Bob Morton, who holds the record for the most club appearances, and Syd Owen, an England international.", "During this period, Luton sides also featured two England international goalkeepers, Ron Baynham and Bernard Streten, as well as Irish internationals Seamus Dunne, Tom Aherne and George Cummins.", "This team reached the top flight for the first time in 1955–56, after finishing the season in second place behind Birmingham City on goal average.", "A few years of success followed, including an FA Cup Final appearance against Nottingham Forest in 1958–59; at the end of the season, Owen was voted FWA Footballer of the Year.", "However, the club was relegated the following season and, by 1964–65, was playing in the fourth tier.A home match at alt=A professional football match in progress, viewed from behind one of the goals.", "One team is in white and the other is in yellow.===Back to the first tier and late century success (1965–1992)===In yo-yo club fashion, Luton were to return.", "A team including Bruce Rioch, John Moore and Graham French won the Fourth Division championship in 1967–68 under the leadership of former player Allan Brown; two years later Malcolm Macdonald's goals helped them to another promotion, while comedian Eric Morecambe became a director of the club.", "Luton Town won promotion back to the First Division in 1973–74, but were relegated the following season by a solitary point.", "Former Luton player David Pleat was made manager in 1978, and by 1982–83 the team was back in the top flight.", "The team which Pleat assembled at Kenilworth Road was notable at the time for the number of black players it included; during an era when many English squads were almost entirely white, Luton often fielded a mostly black team.", "Talented players such as Ricky Hill, Brian Stein and Emeka Nwajiobi made key contributions to the club's success during this period, causing it to accrue \"a richer history of black stars than any in the country\", in the words of journalist Gavin Willacy.On the last day of the 1982–83 season, the club's first back in the top tier, it narrowly escaped relegation: playing Manchester City at Maine Road, Luton needed to win to stay up, while City could escape with a draw.", "A late winner by Yugoslavian substitute Raddy Antić saved the team and prompted Pleat to dance across the pitch performing a \"jig of joy\", an image that has become iconic.", "The club achieved its highest ever league position, seventh, under John Moore in 1986–87, and, managed by Ray Harford, won the Football League Cup a year later with a 3–2 win over Arsenal.", "With ten minutes left on the clock and Arsenal 2–1 ahead, a penalty save from stand-in goalkeeper Andy Dibble sparked a late Luton rally: Danny Wilson equalised, before Brian Stein scored the winner with the last kick of the match.", "The club reached the League Cup Final once more in 1988–89, but lost 3–1 to Nottingham Forest.Conference Premier title in 2014\|alt=A crowd of men, some wearing grey suits and some wearing white shirts, navy shorts and white socks, celebrate raucously on a podium.", "An open bottle of champagne is visible in front of them, spiralling through the air as if somebody has thrown it===Resurgence and fall to non-League (1992–2009)===The club was relegated from the top division at the end of the 1991–92 season, and sank to the third tier four years later.", "Luton stayed in the third-tier Second Division until relegation at the end of the 2000–01 season.", "Under the management of Joe Kinnear, who had arrived halfway through the previous season, the team won promotion from the fourth tier at the first attempt.", "\"Controversial\" owner John Gurney unsettled the club in 2003, terminating Kinnear's contract on his arrival in May; Gurney replaced Kinnear with Mike Newell before leaving Luton as the club entered administration.", "Newell's team finished as champions of the rebranded third-tier Football League One in 2004–05.While Newell's place was taken first by Kevin Blackwell and later former player Mick Harford, the team was then relegated twice in a row, starting in 2006–07, and spent the latter part of the 2007–08 season in administration, thus incurring a ten-point deduction from that season's total.", "The club then had a total of 30 points docked from its 2008–09 record by the Football Association and the Football League for financial irregularities dating back several years.", "These deductions proved to be too large an obstacle to overcome, but Luton came from behind in the final of the Football League Trophy to win the competition for the first time.===From non-League to Premier League (2009–present)===Relegation meant that 2009–10 saw Luton playing in the Conference Premier, a competition in which the club had never before participated.", "The club unsuccessfully contested the promotion play-offs three times in four seasons during their time as a non-League club, employing five different managers.", "In the 2012–13 FA Cup fourth round, Luton won their away tie against Premier League club Norwich City 1–0 and, in doing so, became the first non-League team to beat a side from England's top division since 1989.In the 2013–14 season, under the management of John Still, Luton won the Conference Premier title with three games to spare, and thereby secured a return to the Football League from 2014–15.After reaching the League Two play-offs in 2016–17, when they were beaten 6–5 on aggregate by Blackpool in the semi-final, Luton were promoted back to League One the following season as runners-up.", "Luton achieved a second successive promotion in 2018–19, after they won the League One title, marking the club's return to the Championship after a 12-year absence.", "Luton reached the Championship play-offs in 2021–22, where they were beaten 2–1 on aggregate by Huddersfield Town in the semi-final.", "At the end of the 2022–23 season, Luton Town secured a consecutive place in the Championship play-offs having finished in 3rd place.", "Luton Town beat Sunderland 3–2 on aggregate in the play-off semi-finals to reach the play-off final against Coventry City.", "They went on to beat Coventry City 6–5 on penalties after a tense 1–1 draw to secure promotion to the Premier League for the first time.", "After collecting only one point in their first five matches of the season, Luton won their first ever Premier League game on 30 September 2023, beating Everton 2–1 away at Goodison Park." ], [ "Club identity", "Luton Town badge, late 1980s and early 1990s.alt=See accompanying textThe club's nickname, \"the Hatters\", reflects Luton's historical connection with the hat making trade, which has been prominent there since the 17th century.", "The nickname was originally a variant on the now rarely seen straw-plaiters.", "Supporters of the club are also called Hatters.The club is associated with two very different colour schemes—white and black (first permanently adopted in 1920), and orange, navy and white (first used in 1973, and worn by the team as of the 2015–16 season).", "Luton mainly wore a combination of light blue and white before 1920, when white shirts and black shorts were first adopted.", "These colours were retained for over half a century, with the colour of the socks varying between white and black, until Luton changed to orange, navy and white at the start of the 1973–74 season.", "Luton began playing in white shirts, shorts and socks in 1979, with the orange and navy motif reduced to trim; navy shorts were adopted in 1984.This palette was retained until the 1999–2000 season, when the team played in orange shirts and blue shorts.", "From 2000 to 2008, Luton returned to white shirts and black shorts; orange was included as trim until 2007.The white, navy and orange palette favoured in the 1980s was brought back in 2008, following the results of a club poll, but a year later the colours were changed yet again, this time to a predominantly orange strip with white shorts.", "Navy shorts were readopted in 2011.Luton wore orange shirts, navy shorts and white socks during the 2015–16 season.Luton Town have traditionally used the town's crest as its own in a manner similar to many other teams.", "The club's first badge was a white eight-pointed star, which was emblazoned across the team's shirts (then a deep cochineal red) in 1892.Four years later a crest comprising the club's initials intertwined was briefly adopted.", "The shirts were thereafter plain until 1933, when Luton first adopted a badge depicting a straw boater, which appeared on Luton shirts.", "The letters \"LTFC\" were added in 1935, and this basic design remained until 1947.The club then played without a badge until 1970, when the club began to wear the town crest regularly, having first done so in the 1959 FA Cup Final.In 1973, concurrently with the club's switch to the orange kit, a new badge was introduced featuring the new colours.", "The new emblem depicted a stylised orange football, bearing the letters \"Lt\", surrounded by the club's name in navy blue text.", "In 1987, the club switched back to a derivative of the town emblem, with the shield portion of the heraldic crest becoming the team's badge; the only similarity with the previous design was the inclusion of the club name around the shield in navy blue.", "The \"rainbow\" badge, introduced in 1994, featured the town crest below an orange and blue bow which curved around to meet two footballs, positioned on either side of the shield, with the club name underneath.", "This badge was used until 2005, when a replacement very similar to the 1987 version was adopted, featuring black text rather than blue and a straw boater in place of the outstretched arm depicted in the older design.", "The club's founding year, 1885, was added in 2008.The badge was altered once more during the 2009–10 pre-season, with the red of the town crest being replaced with orange to better reflect the club colours.The club released the song \"Hatters, Hatters\", a collaboration between the Luton team and the Bedfordshire-based musical comedy group the Barron Knights, in 1974.Eight years later another song featuring vocals by the Luton players, \"We're Luton Town\", was released to celebrate the club's promotion to the First Division." ], [ "Shirt sponsors", "The first sponsor to appear on a Luton Town shirt was Tricentrol, a local motor company based in Dunstable, who sponsored the club from March 1980 to 1982; the deal was worth £50,000.A list of subsequent Luton Town shirt sponsors are as follow:* 1981-1982: Tricentrol* 1982–1990: Bedford Trucks* 1990–1991: Vauxhall* 1991–1999: Universal Salvage Auctions* 1999–2003: SKF* 2003–2005: Travel Extras* 2005–2008: Electrolux* 2008–2009: Carbrini Sportswear* 2009–2015: EasyJet and NICEIC* 2015–2016: Barnfield College and NICEIC* 2016–2018: NICEIC and SsangYong Motor UK* 2018–2019: Indigo Residential (home), Star Platforms (away), Northern Gas & Power (third)* 2019–2020: Indigo Residential (home), Star Platforms (away), Ryebridge Construction (third)* 2020–2022: JB Developments (home), Star Platforms (away), Ryebridge Construction (third)* 2022–2023: Utilita (home), Star Platforms (away), Ryebridge Construction (third), The Wood Veneer Hub (training)2023–2024: Utilita (main), FREE NOW (sleeve), TUI (training)" ], [ "Stadium", "alt=An old-fashioned association football stadium.", "On the left a large wooden grandstand is visible, filled with blue seats; straight ahead, a smaller stand is seen, also with blue seats.", "On the latter stand, the word \"LUTON\" is spelled out in white seats among the blue.1946–47 to 2016–17.Attendances rose with Luton's promotion in 1955 before plummeting during the early 1960s as the club suffered three relegations.", "Spectators returned with the promotions of the late 1960s and mid 1970s, before seeing a decline with the introduction of an all-seater stadium in 1986.\|alt=See accompanying textLuton Town's first ground was at Dallow Lane, the former ground of Excelsior.", "The ground was next to the Dunstable to Luton railway line, and players regularly claimed to have trouble seeing the ball because of smoke from the trains.", "A damaging financial loss during 1896–97 forced Luton to sell the stadium to stay afloat and, as a result, the club moved across the tracks to a stadium between the railway and Dunstable Road.", "The Dunstable Road ground was opened by Herbrand Russell, 11th Duke of Bedford, who also donated £50 towards the £800 building costs.", "When the site was sold for housing in 1905, the club was forced to move again at short notice, to its present Kenilworth Road site, in time for the start of the 1905–06 season.The stadium now has an all-seater capacity of 11,500 and is situated in the Bury Park area of Luton.", "It was named after the road that runs along one end of it, although the official address of the club is 1 Maple Road.", "Opposite the eponymous Kenilworth Stand is the Oak Road End, which has evolved from a stand first used exclusively by Luton supporters, then later by away supporters, and now used by both except in times of high ticket demand from away clubs.", "The Main Stand is flanked by the David Preece Stand, and opposite them stands a row of executive boxes.", "These boxes replaced the Bobbers Stand in 1986, as the club sought to maximise income.The original Main Stand burnt down in 1921, and was replaced by the current stand before the 1922–23 season.", "The ground underwent extensive redevelopment during the 1930s, and the capacity by the start of the Second World War was 30,000.Floodlights were installed before the 1953–54 season, but it was 20 years before any further modernisation was carried out.", "In 1973 the Bobbers Stand became all-seated, and in 1985 the grass pitch was replaced with an artificial playing surface; it quickly became unpopular and was derided as \"the plastic pitch\".A serious incident involving hooliganism before, during and after a match against Millwall in 1985 led to the club's then chairman, Conservative Member of Parliament (MP) David Evans, introducing a scheme effective from the start of 1986–87 supposedly banning all visiting supporters from the ground, and requiring home fans to carry membership cards when attending matches.", "Conversion to an all-seater ground also began in 1986.Away fans returned for 1990–91, and grass a year later.", "The David Preece Stand was erected in 1991, and the conversion of the Kenilworth Stand to an all-seater was completed in 2005.===New stadium===The club first expressed an interest in building a new stadium away from Kenilworth Road in 1955, the year it won promotion to the First Division for the first time.", "Even then the ground was small compared to those of most First and Second Division clubs, and its location made significant redevelopment difficult.", "The team has since made several attempts to relocate.", "Leaving Luton for the nearby new town of Milton Keynes was unsuccessfully proposed several times, most notably in the 1980s.", "The club sold Kenilworth Road to Luton Council in 1989, and has since leased it.", "A planning application for a new 20,000-seater indoor stadium, the \"Kohlerdome\" proposed by chairman David Kohler in 1995, was turned down by the Secretary of State in 1998, and Kohler left soon after.In 2007, the club's then-owners proposed a controversial plan to relocate to a site near Junction 12 of the M1 motorway, near Harlington and Toddington.", "A planning application was made on the club's behalf by former chairman Cliff Bassett, but the application was withdrawn almost immediately following the club's takeover in 2008.In 2009, the club began an independent feasibility study to determine a viable location to move to.", "The club did not rule out redeveloping Kenilworth Road and, in October 2012, entered talks to buy the stadium back from Luton Borough Council.", "By 2015, these plans had been dropped in favour of a move to a new location, with managing director Gary Sweet confirming that the club was in a position to \"buy land, secure the best possible professional advice ... and to see the planning application process through to the receipt of consent.", "\"In April 2016, the club announced its intention to build and move into a 17,500-capacity stadium on the Power Court site in central Luton.", "Outline planning permission for this ground, with potential to expand to 23,000 seats, was granted by Luton Borough Council on 16 January 2019.In March 2021, the club announced that it intended to make a number of changes to the initial scheme to reflect changes caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, but that the capacity of the new stadium was still to be 23,000 and had a target opening date of 2024.This plan was revised in 2023, to delivering the first phase, a 19,500-seat stadium, by 2026, followed by the second, a further 4,000 safe standing seats, at a later date." ], [ "Supporters and rivalries", "Luton supporters at alt=A three-tiered football stadium stand, the bottom two full of people clad mostly in white and orange.", "Several white and orange flags are visible.During the 2014–15 season, Luton Town had an average home league attendance of 8,702—the second highest in League Two behind only Portsmouth.", "In the 2013–14 season, when the club were in the Conference Premier, the club had significantly higher support than the other clubs in its league, with an average home attendance of 7,387; more than twice compared to the second highest of 3,568.Average attendances at Kenilworth Road fell with the installation of seats and the club's reduction in stature, dropping from 13,452 in 1982–83 to their 2014–15 level—a slump of 35% over 32 years.", "A supporters' trust, Trust in Luton, owns shares in the club and elects a representative to the club's board.", "The club's official supporters' group, Luton Town Supporters' Club, merged with Trust in Luton in 2014.The club is associated with another supporters' group, the breakaway Loyal Luton Supporters Club.", "Trust in Luton has, since March 2014, held the legal right to veto any changes to the club's identity, including name, nickname, colours, club crest and mascot.Luton Town supporters maintain a bitter rivalry with Hertfordshire-based Watford.", "Watford were the higher ranked team at the end of every season from 1997 until 2022.However, overall Luton still hold the superior record in the fixture between the two clubs; out of 120 competitive matches there have been 55 Luton victories and 38 for Watford, with 29 draws.", "The 2003 Football Fans Census showed that there was also animosity between Luton Town fans and those of west London club Queens Park Rangers.The club produces an official match programme for home matches, entitled ''Our Town''.", "A character known as Happy Harry, a smiling man wearing a straw boater, serves as the team's mascot and appears on the Kenilworth Road pitch before matches.", "In December 2014, after the seafront statue of Eric Morecambe in his birthplace Morecambe was restored, Luton and Morecambe F.C.", "jointly announced that the winners of future Luton–Morecambe fixtures would be awarded the \"Eric Morecambe Trophy\"." ], [ "Records and statistics", "Luton Town's yearly performance from the club's election into the Football League to the present.The record for the most appearances for Luton is held by Bob Morton, who turned out for Luton 562 times in all competitions.", "Morton also holds the record for the most Football League appearances for the club, with 495.Fred Hawkes holds the record for the most league appearances for Luton, having played in 509 league matches.", "Six players, Gordon Turner, Andy Rennie, Brian Stein, Ernie Simms, Herbert Moody and Steve Howard, have scored more than 100 goals for Luton.The first player to be capped while playing for Luton was left winger Robert Hawkes, who took to the field for England against Ireland at Goodison Park on 16 February 1907.The most capped player is Mal Donaghy, who earned 58 Northern Ireland caps while at the club.", "The first player to score in an international match was Joe Payne, who scored twice in his only game for England against Finland on 20 May 1937.Payne also holds the Football League record for the most goals in a game—he hit 10 past Bristol Rovers on 13 April 1936.The club's largest wins have been a 15–0 victory over Great Yarmouth Town on 21 November 1914 in the FA Cup and a 12–0 win over Bristol Rovers in the Third Division South on 13 April 1936.Luton's heaviest loss was a 9–0 defeat against Small Heath in the Second Division on 12 November 1898.Luton's highest home attendances are 30,069 against Blackpool in the FA Cup on 4 March 1959 and 27,911 against Wolverhampton Wanderers in the First Division on 5 November 1955.The highest transfer fee received for a Luton Town player is the fee Leicester City paid for Luton-born full-back James Justin on 28 June 2019.The most expensive player Luton Town have ever bought was wing-back Ryan Giles, for a reported fee of £5 million from Wolverhampton Wanderers on 27 July 2023.The youngest player to make a first-team appearance for Luton Town is Connor Tomlinson at 15 years and 199 days old in the EFL Trophy, replacing Zane Banton as a 92nd-minute substitute in a 2–1 win over Gillingham on 30 August 2016, after the club were given permission for him to play from his headteacher." ], [ "Players", "===Current squad=== ===Out on loan======Youth team===The club operates a Development Squad, made up of contracted senior players, youth team scholars and trialists, which plays in the Southern Division of The Central League.", "The club also fields an under-18 team in the Football League Youth Alliance South East Conference.", "Luton's youth set-up consists of ten Soccer Centres across Bedfordshire and North Hertfordshire, two Centres of Excellence (one in Luton, one in Dunstable), and an academy in Baldock that caters for players in the under-9 to under-16 age groups.===Development squad=== ===Under 18s squad======Notable former players===" ], [ "Backroom staff", ":''As of 24 October 2021''===Shareholders=== Kailesh Karavadra* Luton Town Supporters' Trust===Directors===* Chairman: David Wilkinson* Chief executive officer: Gary Sweet* Directors: Paul Ballantyne, Stephen Browne, Bob Curson, Mike Herrick, Rob Stringer===Management===* Chief Recruitment Officer: Mick Harford* First-Team Manager: Rob Edwards* First-Team Assistant Managers: Richie Kyle and Paul Trollope* Head of goalkeeping: Kevin Dearden* First-Team Goalkeeper coach: Kevin Pilkington* First-Team Set Piece coach: Alan McCormack* Head of sports science: Jared Roberts-Smith* Head of performance development: James Redden* Head of coaching and player development/Under 21s Lead Coach: Adrian Forbes* Head of scouting operations: Phil Chapple* Head of recruitment analysis: Jay Socik* Strength and conditioning coach: Elliott Plant* Performance analyst: Peter Booker* Analyst Coach: Andy Findlay* Head of medical: Simon Parsell* Physiotherapist: Chris Phillips* Therapist and kitman: Darren Cook* Academy and development managers: Paul Benson and Wayne Turner* Transitional Coach: Kevin Foley* Under 18s Head Coach: Alex Lawless* Lead Coach for Under 15s and Under 16s: Craig Alcock* Under 9s to Under 16s Head of Coaching: Dan Walder" ], [ "Managers", "alt=A grey-haired man in a black suit walks out of a building.Richard Money ''(2007 photograph)'', a player for Luton during the 1982–83 season, managed the club from 2009 to 2011.\|alt=A middle-aged, balding man in a dark suit looks at the camera with a neutral expression on his face.", ":''As of 18 February 2024.Only managers in charge for a minimum of 50 competitive matches are counted.", "'':''Key: M = matches; W = matches won; D = matches drawn; L = matches lost''NameNationFromToMWDLWin %Present" ], [ "Honours", "::''Luton Town's major honours are detailed below.", "For a list of '''all''' club honours, see List of Luton Town F.C.", "records and statistics : Honours and achievements''.", "'''League'''* Second Division / Championship (level 2)Champions: 1981–82Runners-up: 1954–55, 1973–74*Play-off winners: 2023 Third Division South / Third Division / League One (level 3)Champions: 1936–37 (South), 2004–05, 2018–19Runners-up: 1935–36 (South), 1969–70* Fourth Division / Third Division / League Two (level 4)Champions: 1967–68Runners-up: 2001–02, 2017–18* Conference Premier (level 5)*Champions: 2013–14'''Cup''' FA Cup*Runners-up: 1958–59 Football League CupWinners: 1987–88Runners-up: 1988–89* Football League Trophy*Winners: 2008–09 Full Members' CupRunners-up: 1987–88" ], [ "Footnotes", ":A.", "The only other club from the south of England in the Football League at the time was Woolwich Arsenal.:B.", "Calculated by adding together all the home league attendances for the 2014–15 season to calculate the total attendance (200,157) and then dividing by the number of home league matches (23) to reach an average of 8,702.Attendances taken from BBC report for match that day and Soccerbase statistics.:C.", "Calculated by adding together all the home league attendances for the 2013–14 season to calculate the total attendance (169,906) and then dividing by the number of home league matches (23) to reach an average of 7,387.Attendances taken from BBC report for match that day and Soccerbase statistics.:D.", "Before the start of the 2004–05 season, Football League re-branding saw the First Division become the Football League Championship.", "The Second and Third Divisions became Leagues One and Two, respectively.:E.", "On its formation for the 1992–93 season, the FA Premier League became the top tier of English football; the First, Second and Third Divisions then became the second, third and fourth tiers, respectively." ], [ "References", "===Bibliography===" ], [ "External links", " * * Luton Town FC at Premier League* Luton Town FC at UEFA" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lunar calendar" ], [ "Introduction", "Iranian Islamic calendar dedicated to Qajar ruler Naser al-Din Shah in 1280, Linden Museum, Stuttgart, GermanyA '''lunar calendar''' is a calendar based on the monthly cycles of the Moon's phases (synodic months, lunations), in contrast to solar calendars, whose annual cycles are based on the solar year.", "The most widely observed purely lunar calendar is the Islamic calendar.", "A purely lunar calendar is distinguished from a lunisolar calendar, whose lunar months are brought into alignment with the solar year through some process of intercalationsuch as by insertion of a leap month.", "The details of when months begin vary from calendar to calendar, with some using new, full, or crescent moons and others employing detailed calculations.Since each lunation is approximately days, it is common for the months of a lunar calendar to alternate between 29 and 30 days.", "Since the period of 12 such lunations, a '''lunar year''', is 354 days, 8 hours, 48 minutes, 34 seconds (354.36707 days), purely lunar calendars are 11 to 12 days shorter than the solar year.", "In purely lunar calendars, which do not make use of intercalation, the lunar months cycle through all the seasons of a solar year over the course of a 33–34 lunar-year cycle (see, e.g., list of Islamic years)." ], [ "History", "A lunisolar calendar was found at Warren Field in Scotland and has been dated to , during the Mesolithic period.", "Some scholars argue for lunar calendars still earlier—Rappenglück in the marks on a year-old cave painting at Lascaux and Marshack in the marks on a year-old bone baton—but their findings remain controversial.", "Scholars have argued that ancient hunters conducted regular astronomical observations of the Moon back in the Upper Palaeolithic.", "Samuel L. Macey dates the earliest uses of the Moon as a time-measuring device back to 28,000–30,000 years ago." ], [ "Start of the lunar month", "Lunar and lunisolar calendars differ as to which day is the first day of the month.", "Some are based on the first sighting of the lunar crescent, such as the Hijri calendar observed by most of Islam.", "Alternatively, in some lunisolar calendars, such as the Hebrew calendar and Chinese calendar, the first day of a month is the day when an astronomical new moon occurs in a particular time zone.", "In others, such as some Hindu calendars, each month begins on the day after the full moon." ], [ "Length of the lunar month", "The length of each lunar cycle varies slightly from the average value.", "In addition, observations are subject to uncertainty and weather conditions.", "Thus, to minimise uncertainty, there have been attempts to create fixed arithmetical rules to determine the start of each calendar month.", "The best known of these is the Tabular Islamic calendar: in brief, it has a 30-year cycle with 11 leap years of 355 days and 19 years of 354 days.", "In the long term, it is accurate to one day in about 2,500 solar years or 2,570 lunar years.", "It also deviates from observation by up to about one or two days in the short term.", "The algorithm was introduced by Muslim astronomers in the 8th century CE to predict the approximate date of the first crescent moon, which is used to determine the first day of each month in the Islamic lunar calendar." ], [ "List of lunar calendars <span class=\"anchor\" id=\"List of lunar calendars\"></span> <!-- [[List of lunar calendars]] redirects here -->", "* Islamic Hijri calendar* Javanese calendar" ], [ "Lunisolar calendars", "Most calendars referred to as \"lunar\" calendars are in fact lunisolar calendars.", "Their months are based on observations of the lunar cycle, with periodic intercalation being used to restore them into general agreement with the solar year.", "The solar \"civic calendar\" that was used in ancient Egypt showed traces of its origin in the earlier lunar calendar, which continued to be used alongside it for religious and agricultural purposes.", "Present-day lunisolar calendars include the Chinese, Korean, Vietnamese, Hindu, Hebrew and Thai calendars.The most common form of intercalation is to add an additional month every second or third year.", "Some lunisolar calendars are also calibrated by annual natural events which are affected by lunar cycles as well as the solar cycle.", "An example of this is the lunisolar calendar of the Banks Islands, which includes three months in which the edible palolo worms mass on the beaches.", "These events occur at the last quarter of the lunar month, as the reproductive cycle of the palolos is synchronized with the moon." ], [ "See also", "* List of calendars* Lunar phase* Epact* Paschal Full Moon" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Mount Lykaion" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Mount Lykaion''' (, ''Lýkaion Óros''; ) is a mountain in Arcadia, Greece.", "Lykaion has two peaks: ''Stefani'' to the north and St. Ilias (, ''Agios Īlías'') to the south where the altar of Zeus is located.The northern peak is higher, 1,421 m, than the southern, 1,382 m ().", "Mount Lykaion was sacred to Zeus Lykaios, who was said to have been born and brought up on it, and was the home of Pelasgus and his son Lycaon, who were said to have founded the ritual of Zeus practiced on its summit.", "This seems to have involved a human sacrifice and a feast in which the man who received the portion of a human victim was changed to a wolf, as Lycaon had been after sacrificing a child.", "The altar of Zeus consists of a great mound of ashes with a retaining wall.", "It was said that no shadows fell within the precincts and that any who entered it died within the year.", "The sanctuary of Zeus played host to athletic games held every four years, the Lykaia.Archaeological excavations were first carried out in 1897 by K. Kontopoulos for the Greek Archaeological Service, followed by K. Kourouniotes between 1902 and 1909.The Mt.", "Lykaion Excavation and Survey Project, a joint effort of the University of Pennsylvania and the University of Arizona began work at the site in 2004, with the aim of continuing the topographical survey begun in 1996 and carrying out a full topographical and architectural analysis not only of the altar and ''temenos'', but of the nearby valley where the Lykaian Games were held.", "The detailed digital records and drawings of every architectural stone block.", "To date, a complete map of the area has been made, including not only the Ash Altar and ''temenos'', but also two fountains, including the Hagno fountain mentioned by Pausanias, the hippodrome, the stadium, a building that was probably a bathhouse, the ''xenon'' (hotel), a stoa, several rows of seats, and a group of statue bases.Many of these buildings seem to have been planned in relation to each other: the baths at the northern end of the hippodrome are on the same alignment as it is, and the stoa, the ''xenon'', the lower fountain, and the rows of seats all appear to have been built in an intentionally similar alignment.", "Just to the north of the stoa four rows of seats were excavated, with the remains of a group of stelae and statue bases nearby.", "These would have bordered the hippodrome's southern edge, and correspond to an earlier excavated row of seats on the south-eastern edge of the racetrack.", "The majority of the spectators of events in the hippodrome, however, would have sat on the surrounding hills." ], [ "In the literary record", "Mt.", "Lykaion, its religious significance, and its quadrennial athletic games appear with some frequency in the ancient literary sources.", "The 2nd-century Greek geographer Pausanias provides the greatest amount of information in the eighth book of his ''Description of Greece'', where he discusses Lykaion's mythological, historical, and physical characteristics in detail.", "More isolated references occur, however, in sources ranging from Plato to Virgil.===Legendary period===Pausanias states that the Arcadians claimed Cretea atop Mt.", "Lykaion as the birthplace of Zeus, although tradition had handed down at least two other locations for Zeus’ birth.Lycaon, son of Pelasgus, the mythical founder of the Greek race, is said to have instituted the worship of Zeus at Mt.", "Lykaion, giving the god the epithet Lykaios and establishing games in his honor.", "The ''Bibliotheca'', a Roman-era mythological compendium, adds the story that Lycaon attempted to test Zeus’ omniscience by tricking him into eating a sacrifice mixed with human flesh.", "In punishment, Zeus slew Lycaon and his fifty sons.", "Other sources, including the Roman poet Ovid, claim instead that Lycaon's punishment was transformation into a wolf, an early example of lycanthropy.===Historical events===According to Pausanias and the Greek historian Polybius, an inscribed pillar (''stele'') was erected near the altar of Zeus on Mt.", "Lykaion during the Second Messenian War, a revolt against the Spartans.", "The inscription supposedly commemorated the execution of Aristocrates of Arcadia, who had betrayed the Messenian hero Aristomenes at the battle of the Great Trench.Thucydides, a Greek historian of the Peloponnesian War, writes that the Spartan king Pleistoanax lived on Mt.", "Lykaion while in exile from the mid-440s BC until 427, where he built a house straddling the sacred region (''temenos'') of Zeus to avoid further persecution.In his ''Stratagems'', the 2nd-century Macedonian rhetorician Polyaenus describes a battle between the Spartans and Demetrius of Macedon in 294 BC.", "Mt.", "Lykaion extended between the camps of the two sides, causing some consternation among the Macedonians due to their unfamiliarity with the terrain.", "Nevertheless, Demetrius’ forces won the battle with relative ease.Polybius and Plutarch, a Greek author writing under the Roman empire, cite a battle at Mt.", "Lykaion in 227 BC between the Achaean League under Aratus and the Spartans under Cleomenes III.", "Although the details are vague, both authors make it clear that the Achaeans were defeated and that Aratus was believed (mistakenly) to have been killed.===Religious worship=======Pan====Mt.", "Lykaion was an important site of religious worship in ancient Greece.", "Pausanias describes a sanctuary of Pan surrounded by a grove of trees.", "At the sanctuary were bases of statues, which by Pausanias’ time had been deprived of the statues themselves, as well as a hippodrome, where the athletic games had once been held.", "References to Lykaian Pan are especially abundant in Latin poetry, as for instance in Virgil's epic, the ''Aeneid'': “''Lupercal / Parrhasio dictum Panos de more Lycaei'',” “...the Lupercal, named after the Parrhasian worship of Lykaian Pan,” and in Horace's Odes: “''Velox amoenum saepe Lucretilem / mutat Lycaeo Faunus'',” “Often swift Faunus Pan exchanges Lykaion for pleasant Lucretilis.”====Zeus Lykaios====Pausanias records the presence of a mound of earth on the highest point of the mountain, an altar to Zeus Lykaios.", "He describes two pillars near the altar which had once been topped by golden eagles.", "Although Pausanias alludes to secret sacrifices which took place on this altar, he explains that he was reluctant to inquire into these rites due to their extreme antiquity.", "Pausanias also discusses the ''temenos'' of Zeus, a sacred precinct which humans were forbidden to enter.", "He notes the common belief that any person entering the ''temenos'' would die within a year, along with the legend that all creatures, human and animal alike, cast no shadow while inside the sacred area.====Games====The athletic competitions at Lykaion, held every four years, receive occasional mention in the literary record.", "Authors are in disagreement as to when exactly the games were first instituted: Aristotle is said to have ranked the Lykaion games fourth in order of institution after the Eleusinia, the Panathenaia, and the Argive games, while Pausanias argues for the Lykaian competition's priority to the Panathenaia.", "Pliny the Elder, an imperial Roman polymath, states that the games at Lykaion were the first to introduce gymnastic competition.", "The ancient Greek lyric poet Pindar records the victories of several athletes in his ''Victory Odes'', and two inscribed ''stelae'' recently excavated from the Lykaian hippodrome provide information about the events, participants, and winners at the games." ], [ "Modern study", "After 1832, when Greece had gained independence from the Ottoman Empire, European travelers and scholars began to systematically tour Sparta and the Peloponnese.", "Ernst Curtius, Charles Beulé, and Guillaume Blouet published scholarly studies of the area, and discussions of the region appeared in German and British travelogues as well.", "Many of these writers used Pausanias as their guide to the geography and sights of the region, but were also concerned to correlate modern Greek place-names with ancient evidence.Beulé described the hippodrome and surrounding area, including large stones that he assumed formed had formed the seats of the judges and magistrates, and the remains of a building he called a temple to Pan, but which probably corresponds to the stoa of the modern excavations.", "The German writer Ross described the bathhouse and its ancient but still-visible cisterns, which site he noted the locals called the Skaphidia.Mt.", "Lykaion was initially excavated by the Greek Archaeological Service, first in 1897 by archaeologist K. Kontopoulos and again in 1902 by K. Kourouniotes.", "Kontopoulos dug several trial trenches near the hippodrome and the altar.", "Kourouniotes's excavations of the altar and surrounding area (the ''temenos'') were particularly informative; he learned that the altar consisted of a raised mound of blackened earth as described by Pausanias.", "Excavation of the earth of the altar yielded burnt stones, small animal (cow and pig) bones, tiny pottery fragments, iron knives, clay figures, coins from Aegina, a clay figure of a bird, and two small bronze tripods.", "Further trenches dug in the ''temenos'' produced several bronze figures, some iron objects, and roof tiles.", "In 1909 Kourouniotes excavated an area at the east of the mountain and beneath the summit, the site of the hippodrome, stadium, and bathhouse.Since Kourouniotes's excavation, anthropologists and scholars of Arcadian religion have studied the site in terms of its development as a sanctuary, but there was no further systematic or scientific investigation until 1996, when Dr. David Gilman Romano of the University of Pennsylvania conducted a topographical and architectural survey of the site.", "Romano continued his work with the Mt.", "Lykaion Excavation and Survey Project under the auspices of the University of Pennsylvania and the University of Arizona.", "A preliminary planning phase of cleaning and surveying took place in 2004 and 2005, and was followed by a five-year excavation program beginning in June 2006.A two-year period during which the findings will be studied is scheduled to begin in the summer of 2011." ], [ "Hippodrome", "The hippodrome at Mount Lykaion, located in a valley below and to the north of the altar, is the only extant hippodrome from Greek antiquity, and is therefore crucial to our understanding of Greek athletic festivals.", "The hippodrome was constructed on roughly a north-south orientation with a retaining wall of about 140 meters along the eastern side curving around the northern end.", "Modern excavations have discovered portions tapering column drums that may belonged to the turning posts at either end of the race-course, from whose location it appears that the hippodrome could have had a length of 320 meters and a width of 140.A bath building is being excavated about 35 meters to the northeast of the hippodrome; a large portion of it appears to have been dedicated to a cistern, and large stone basins from the middle of the structure have been uncovered.The Lykaian hippodrome is further unique in apparently having encompassed the stadium racecourse.", "The early 20th century excavator of Lykaion, Kouriouniotis discovered stone blocks in the middle of the hippodrome that would have formed the starting line of the stadium.", "The topological survey of 1996 confirmed 6 starting line blocks, four of which were grouped together and were thus possibly found near their original orientation and position.", "From this, archaeologist David Romano speculated that a stadium racecourse of 170–180 meters would have been enclosed within the hippodrome.", "The apparently double-use of the space is particularly interesting because inscriptional evidence concerning the Lykaian Games of the 4th century BCE indicates that horse and foot-races were held during the same festivals, and possibly on the same day.Two inscriptions were uncovered in the excavations of Kouriouniotis that give the names of winning athletes in the various contests of the Lykaian Games that were held every four years between 320 and 304 BCE.", "These contests included footraces for men and for boys, various chariot races with teams of adult and juvenile horses, boxing, wrestling, and a pentathlon.===Ash altar ===A circular altar of blackened earth about 1.5 meters in height and 30 meters in diameter seems to date from before the migration of Indo-European peoples into the area.", "The excavations of Kourouniotes in 1903 of the altar and its nearby ''temenos'' determined definite cult activity at the Lykaion altar from the late 7th century b.c.e, including animals bones, miniature tripods, knives, and statuettes of Zeus holding an eagle and a lightning bolt.", "These objects were primarily found in the ''temenos''.", "The earth-altar may correspond to a Linear B mention of an \"open-fire altar\"; Linear B (14th–13th centuries BCE) inscriptions also give the first mentions of offerings to Zeus and of the sacred precinct (temenos) near the altar, such as has been excavated at Lykaion.An excavation in 2007 revealed pottery fragments and signs of activity in the ash altar believed to have been used as early as 3000 BCE.", "Nearby Olympia (only 22 miles away) has a similar ash altar, and both settlements held ancient athletic games.", "The extremely early date of activity at Lykaion could suggest that these customs originated there.", "Stratigraphic analysis from the most recent excavations showed prehistoric human activity at the altar site, which seems to have been in continuous use from the Late Neolithic period through to the Hellenistic era.", "A number of drinking vessels and bones of sheep and goats from the Late Helladic period indicates that the altar was the site of Mycenean drinking and feasting rituals, probably in honor of Zeus.", "An especially interesting discovery was a seal ring from the Late Minoan period (1500–1400 BCE), which could indicate some interaction between Mt.", "Lykaion and Crete, both of which are given as the birthplace of Zeus by ancient sources.In 2016, excavations of the ash altar revealed a 3000-year-old skeleton of an adolescent boy thought to be a human sacrifice.", "The researchers explained it is not a cemetery, and the skeleton was lined with stones, showing that it was not a typical human burial.", "Plato and other ancient writers linked Mount Lykaion specifically to human sacrifices to Zeus—the legends say a sacrificed boy would be cooked with sacrificed animal meat and those who consumed the human portion would become a wolf for 9 years." ], [ "Notes and references" ], [ "External links", "** Lykaion Excavation and Survey Project" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lake Eyre" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lake Eyre''' ( ), officially known as '''Kati Thanda–Lake Eyre''', is an endorheic lake in the east-central part of the Far North region of South Australia, some north of Adelaide.", "The shallow lake is the depocentre of the vast endorheic Lake Eyre basin, and contains the lowest natural point in Australia, at approximately below sea level.", "On the rare occasions that it fills completely, it is the largest lake in Australia, covering an area of up to .", "When the lake is full, it has the same salinity as seawater, but becomes hypersaline as the lake dries up and the water evaporates.The lake was named in honour of Edward John Eyre, the first European to see it in 1840.It was officially renamed in December 2012 to include its Aboriginal name, '''Kati Thanda''', in accordance with a policy of dual naming.", "The native title over the lake and surrounding region is held by the Arabana people." ], [ "Geography", "Kati Thanda–Lake Eyre salt crustKati Thanda–Lake Eyre seen from an aircraft, showing pink colouration from algaeKati Thanda–Lake Eyre SouthKati Thanda–Lake Eyre is in the deserts of central Australia, in northern South Australia.", "The Lake Eyre Basin is a large endorheic system surrounding the lakebed, the lowest part of which is filled with the characteristic salt pan caused by the seasonal expansion and subsequent evaporation of the trapped waters.", "Even in the dry season, there is usually some water remaining in Kati Thanda–Lake Eyre, normally collecting in over 200 smaller sub-lakes within its margins.", "The lake was formed by aeolian processes after tectonic upwarping occurred to the south subsequent to the end of the Pleistocene epoch.During the rainy season, rivers from the north-east part of the Lake Eyre Basin—in outback (south-west and central) Queensland—flow towards the lake through the Channel Country.", "The amount of water from the monsoon determines whether water will reach the lake and, if it does, how deep the lake will get.", "The average rainfall in the area of the lake is per year.The altitude usually attributed to Kati Thanda–Lake Eyre refers to the deepest parts of the lake floor, in Belt Bay and the Madigan Gulf.", "The shoreline lies at .", "The lake is the area of maximum deposition of sediment in the Lake Eyre Basin.Lake Eyre is divided into two sections which are joined by the Goyder Channel.", "These are known as Lake Eyre North, which is in length and wide, and Lake Eyre South, which measures .", "The salt crusts are thickest—up to —in the southern Belt Bay, Jackboot Bay and Madigan Gulf sub-basins of Lake Eyre North.Since 1883, proposals have been made to flood Lake Eyre with seawater brought to the basin via a canal or pipeline.", "The purpose was, in part, to increase evaporation and thereby increase rainfall in the region downwind of an enlarged Lake Eyre.", "The added rainfall has been modelled as small.", "Due to the basin's low elevation below sea level and the region's high annual evaporation rate (between ), such schemes have generally been considered impractical, as it is likely that accumulation of salt deposits would rapidly block the engineered channel.", "At a rate of evaporation per day, a viaduct flowing a would supply enough water to create a sea.", "If brine water were not sent back to the ocean, it would precipitate of salt every year." ], [ "Salinity", "The salinity in the lake increases as the salt crust dissolves over a period of six months of a major flood, resulting in a massive fish kill.", "When over deep, the lake is no saltier than the sea, but salinity increases as the water evaporates, with saturation occurring at about a depth.", "The lake takes on a pink hue when saturated, due to the presence of beta-carotene pigment caused by the alga ''Dunaliella salina''." ], [ "History", "''Wangkangurru (''also known as ''Arabana/Wangkangurru, Wangganguru, Wanggangurru, Wongkangurru)'' is an Australian Aboriginal language spoken on Wangkangurru country.", "It is closely related to Arabana language of South Australia.", "The Wangkangurru language region was traditionally in the South Australian-Queensland border region taking in Birdsville and extending south towards Innamincka and Kati Thanda, including the local government areas of the Shire of Diamantina as well as the Outback Communities Authority of South Australia''.''" ], [ "Floods", "Map of the shape and depth (bathymetry) of the Eyre lake, 2020Typically a flood occurs every three years, a flood every decade, and a fill or near fill a few times a century.", "The water in the lake soon evaporates, with a minor or medium flood drying by the end of the following summer.", "Most of the water entering the lakes arrives via Warburton River.In strong La Niña years, the lake can fill.", "Since 1885, this has occurred in 1886–1887, 1889–1890, 1916–1917, 1950, 1955, 1974–1977, and 1999–2001, with the highest flood of in 1974.Local rain can also fill Kati Thanda–Lake Eyre to , as occurred in 1984 and 1989.Torrential rain in January 2007 took about six weeks to reach the lake but only placed a small amount of water into it.When recently flooded, the lake is almost fresh, and native freshwater fish, including bony bream (''Nematolosa erebi''), the Lake Eyre Basin sub-species of golden perch (''Macquaria ambigua'') and various small hardyhead species (''Craterocephalus'' spp.)", "can survive in it.===2009 to 2011===Space Shuttle ''Columbia''The 2009 Lake Eyre flood peaked at deep in late May, which is a quarter of its maximum recorded depth of .", "of water crossed the Queensland–South Australian border with most of it coming from massive floods in the Georgina River.", "However, owing to the very low rainfall in the lower reaches of these rivers (contrasting with heavy rainfall in the upper catchments), the greater proportion soaked into the desert or evaporated en route to the lake, leaving less than in the lake, which covered an area of , or 12% of the total.", "As the flood did not start filling the lake's deepest point (Belt Bay) until late March, little bird life appeared, preferring instead to nest in the upper reaches of the Lake Eyre Basin, north of Birdsville, where large lakes appeared in January as a result of monsoonal rain.The high rainfall in summer 2010 sent flood water into the Diamantina, Georgina and Cooper Creek catchments of the Lake Eyre basin, with the Cooper Creek reaching the lake for the first time since 1990.The higher rainfall prompted many different birds to migrate back to the area for breeding.Heavy local rain in early March 2011 in the Stuart Creek and Warriner catchments filled Lake Eyre South, with Lake Eyre North about 75 per cent covered with water firstly from the Neales and Macumba Rivers, and later from the Warburton River.=== 2015 to 2016 ===In late 2015, water began flowing into Lake Eyre following heavy rain in the north-east of the state.===2019===In late March 2019, floodwaters began arriving as a result of torrential rains in northern Queensland in January.", "In the past, the water had taken anywhere from three to 10 months to reach the lake, but this time it arrived in two.", "The first flooding would be closely followed by another surge, following rains produced by Cyclone Trevor.", "Traditional owners and graziers agree that it is essential that the river run its course and should not be harvested during floods, as any interference in the natural systems could damage the ecosystem." ], [ "Yacht club", "The Lake Eyre Yacht Club is a dedicated group of sailors who sail on the lake's floods, including recent trips in 1997, 2000, 2001, 2004, 2007 and 2009.A number of trailer sailers sailed on Kati Thanda–Lake Eyre in 1975, 1976, and 1984, when the flood depth reached .", "In July 2010 The Yacht Club held its first regatta since 1976 and its first on Lake Killamperpunna, a freshwater lake on Cooper Creek.", "The Cooper had reached Kati Thanda–Lake Eyre for the first time since 1990.It is estimated that these waters reach Lake Eyre roughly 8 years in 100.When the lake is full, a notable phenomenon is that around midday the surface can often become very flat.", "The surface then reflects the sky in a way that leaves both the horizon and water surface virtually impossible to see.", "The commodore of the Lake Eyre Yacht Club has stated that sailing during this time has the appearance of sailing in the sky." ], [ "Land speed record attempts", "Campbell plaque at Level Post BayKati Thanda–Lake Eyre has been a site for various land speed record attempts on its salt flats, similar to those found in the Bonneville Salt Flats, especially those by Donald Campbell with the Bluebird-Proteus CN7." ], [ "Biota", "Phytoplankton in the lake includes ''Nodularia spumigena'' and a number of species of ''Dunaliella''.===Birds===Birds such as pelicans and banded stilts are drawn to a filled lake from southern coastal regions of Australia, and from as far afield as Papua New Guinea.", "During the 1989–1990 flood, it was estimated that 200,000 pelicans, 80% of Australia's total population, came to feed & roost at Lake Eyre.", "Scientists are presently unable to determine how such birds appear able to detect the filling of the lake, even when hundreds or thousands of kilometres away from the basin." ], [ "Protected area status", "===Statutory===The extent of the lake is covered by two protected areas declared by the Government of South Australia: the Kati Thanda–Lake Eyre National Park and the Elliot Price Conservation Park.===Non-statutory=======Wetlands====Lake Eyre is on the list of wetlands of national importance known as A Directory of Important Wetlands in Australia.====Important bird area====Lake Eyre has been identified by BirdLife International as an Important Bird Area (IBA) known as the Lake Eyre Important Bird Area, because, when flooded, it supports major breeding events of the banded stilt and Australian pelican, as well as over 1% of the world populations of red-necked avocets, sharp-tailed sandpipers, red-necked stints, silver gulls and Caspian terns." ], [ "Lake Eyre in Popular Culture", "The Lake featured in the 1953 radio play ''The Happy Hippopotamus''." ], [ "See also", "* Lake Torrens* List of lakes of Australia* Pluvial lake" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * ** * * " ], [ "External links", " Multimedia & Aerial View of the Lake Eyre" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Locksmithing" ], [ "Introduction", "An illustration of a German locksmith, 1451.", "'''Locksmithing''' is the science and art of making and defeating locks.", "Locksmithing is a traditional trade and in many countries requires completion of an apprenticeship.", "The level of formal education legally required varies from country to country from none at all, to a simple training certificate awarded by an employer, to a full diploma from an engineering college, in addition to time spent working as an apprentice." ], [ "Terminology", "A lock is a mechanism that secures buildings, rooms, cabinets, objects, or other storage facilities.", "A \"smith\" is a metalworker who shapes metal pieces, often using a forge or mould, into useful objects or to be part of a more complex structure.", "Thus locksmithing, as its name implies, is the assembly and designing of locks and their respective keys by hand.", "Most locksmiths use automatic and manual cutting tools to mould keys; most are power tools having battery or mains electricity as their power source." ], [ "Work", "Locks have been constructed for over 2500 years, initially out of wood and later out of metal.", "Historically, locksmiths would make the entire lock, working for hours hand cutting screws and doing much file-work.", "Lock designs became significantly more complicated in the 18th century, and locksmiths often specialized in repairing or designing locks.Although fitting of keys to replace lost keys to automobiles and homes, and the changing of keys for homes and businesses to maintain security is still an important part of locksmithing, according to a 1976 US Government publication, locksmiths today are primarily involved in the installation of higher quality lock-sets and the design, implementation, and management of keying and key control systems.", "=== Locksmith specialisations ===Most locksmiths also do electronic lock servicing, such as making smart keys for transponder-equipped vehicles and the implementation and application of access control systems protecting individuals and assets for many large institutions.", "Many also specialise in other areas such as: * Auto Locksmithing* Safes" ], [ "Regulation by country", "=== Australia ===In Australia, prospective locksmiths are required to take a Technical and Further Education (TAFE) course in locksmithing, completion of which leads to issuance of a Level 3 Australian Qualifications Framework certificate, and complete an apprenticeship.", "They must also pass a criminal records check certifying that they are not currently wanted by the police.", "Apprenticeships can last one to four years.", "Course requirements are variable: there is a minimal requirements version that requires fewer total training units, and a fuller version that teaches more advanced skills, but takes more time to complete.", "Apprenticeship and course availability vary by state or territory.=== Ireland ===In Ireland, licensing for locksmiths was introduced in 2016, with locksmiths having to obtain a Private Security Authority license.The Irish Locksmith Organisation has 50 members with ongoing training to ensure all members are up-to-date with knowledge and skills.=== United Kingdom ===In the UK, there is no current government regulation for locksmithing, so effectively anyone can trade and operate as a locksmith with no skill or knowledge of the industry.=== United States ===Fifteen states in the United States require licensure for locksmiths.", "Nassau County and New York City in New York State, and Hillsborough County and Miami-Dade County in Florida have their own licensing laws.", "State and local laws are described in the table below.+ US Locksmith Licensing State Regulatory body Requirements Alabama Alabama Electronic Security Board of Licensure Certification course, continuing education, background check every two years California California Department of Consumer Affairs, California Contractors State License Board; California Bureau of Security and Investigative Services California requires a C-28 Lock and Security Equipment Contractor license, with renewal every two years, in addition to a background check.", "Connecticut Department of Consumer Protection Background check, registration (renews biennially)Florida No statewide regulation.", "Counties of Hillsborough and Miami-Dade require licensure for locksmiths and locksmith firms.", "Miami-Dade's ordinance covers locksmithing, as well as the installation of security alarm closed-circuit television systems.", "Miami-Dade: must register with county and receive license.", "Each business performing locksmith services must have at least one license-holder in its employ.", "Fingerprinting and criminal background check accompany license application.", "Initial applicants must have a locksmith permit for one year before full licensure.", "Any work involving electrical systems must be done by someone who also holds a state electrician's or contractor's license.", "Hillsborough: must apply for a biennial locksmith license.", "The cost is $500 for an individual or firm of up to five employees, $750 for a firm of six to ten employees, and $1000 for a firm of more than ten employees.", "A background check and proof of insurance are also required.", "Pinellas: City of clearwater requires fingerprints applied by clearwater police.", "Illinois Illinois Department of Financial and Professional Regulation Must not have been convicted of a felony in the last ten years, must take twenty-hour licensure course, must pass examination Louisiana Louisiana Office of State Fire Marshall Must pass examination, pay initial registration of $250, and maintain registration for $50 annually thereafter.", "Additional training and certification are required for locksmiths dealing with locks on fire and safety equipment and alarm systems.", "Maryland Maryland Locksmith Licensing Program, Maryland Department of Labor Must apply for a license and submit to a criminal records check, and after issue, must carry a state-issued locksmith license card at all times when performing work.", "Prior felony and misdemeanor convictions will be weighed by the Secretary of Labor according to statutorily-determined factors, including length of time since the offense and applicant's behavior since, when deciding to grant or withhold a license.", "The licensee must carry liability insurance, and submit proof of insurance to the secretary.", "Nebraska County Clerk Registration with the county clerk in the county in which the locksmith's business is located Nevada County Sheriff Must not be in arrears on child support, and must register with the county sheriff of the county in which the business is located New Jersey New Jersey Board of Examiners of Electrical Contractors Must be at least eighteen years of age, must complete three years of supervised locksmith work, working an average of at least twenty hours a week, or complete a formal two-year apprenticeship in a program approved by the United States Department of Labor, must not have been convicted of certain crimes within a ten-year period prior to application, and must pass an examination before being granted license.", "New York No statewide licensing requirement.", "In Nassau County, a county license is required.", "Nassau County requirements include submission of passport-style photos for photo identification license card for the principal applicant; business or home address and phone number and proof of number operability in the form of a recent telephone bill; a listing of all employees and officers of the company along with passport photos; recent utility bill for the business location if the business is not operated from home; a statement of all criminal convictions for all employees and officers, along with court records if requested; statement all trade names used by the business, and incorporation documents, if applicable; proof of insurance; proof of workers' compensation registration; a federal employee identification number, and a state sales tax number, if applicable; and fingerprint records for all applicants, in addition to a non-refundable processing fee.", "North Carolina North Carolina Locksmith Licensing Board Must submit documentation of criminal history.", "Must submit documentation of out-of-state licenses, immigration status, and military discharge, if applicable.", "May optionally submit training certifications and other data.", "Must pay an initial license fee and subsequent annual renewal fees and keep license on person at all times.", "Must notify state of any employees operating under the owner's locksmith license.", "All apprentices must be themselves licensed under an apprentice license, and may not perform certain services, except under the direct supervision of a full locksmith license holder.", "Oklahoma Alarm, Locksmith, & Fire Sprinkler Program, Oklahoma Department of Labor Must not have been convicted of a felony and must register with Alarm, Locksmith, & Fire Sprinkler Program Oregon Oregon Construction Contractors Board Must pass a criminal background check, pass a license examination, and renew registration biennially Tennessee Tennessee Department of Commerce and Insurance Must provide documentation of citizenship or legal residency, any criminal convictions, all changes of address; business license in county or city where business operates, or a notarized statement that services will be for an employer or association and not offered directly to the public; otherwise, must submit documentation of application for, or employment by, a Tennessee Locksmith Company duly registered with the state.", "Conviction of a felony, or any level of drug, burglary, or breaking and entering offense may bar the applicant from licensure.", "Texas Department of Public Safety Private Security Board The owner or manager of a company providing locksmith services must hold a Locksmith Company License.", "To qualify for a license, the applicant must have two years service as a locksmith for a licensed company alternatively, the applicant may substitute one year's experience plus successful completion of a forty-eight hour licensure course, followed by successful completion of a comprehensive license examination.", "Virginia Department of Criminal Justice Services Must be over eighteen years of age.", "Must complete an eighteen-hour training course.", "Must undergo a criminal records check and submit fingerprints.", "Anyone convicted of a felony or misdemeanor (excluding traffic violations) in Virginia or any other jurisdiction must complete a supplemental Criminal History form detailing the circumstances of arrest and conviction, completion of sentence, and any record pertaining to parole or probation.", "Any false statements or omissions can provide grounds for denial of license and possible criminal sanctions." ], [ "Employment", "Locksmith, 2013Locksmiths may be commercial (working out of a storefront), mobile (working out of a vehicle), institutional (employed by an institution) or investigatory (forensic locksmiths) or may specialize in one aspect of the skill, such as an automotive lock specialist, a master key system specialist or a safe technician.", "Many are also security consultants, but not every security consultant has the skills and knowledge of a locksmith.", "Locksmiths are frequently certified in specific skill areas or to a level of skill within the trade.", "This is separate from certificates of completion of training courses.", "In determining skill levels, certifications from manufacturers or locksmith associations are usually more valid criteria than certificates of completion.", "Some locksmiths decide to call themselves \"Master Locksmiths\" whether they are fully trained or not, and some training certificates appear quite authoritative.The majority of locksmiths also work on any existing door hardware, not just locking mechanisms.", "This includes door closers, door hinges, electric strikes, frame repairs and other door hardware." ], [ "Full disclosure", "The issue of full disclosure was first raised in the context of locksmithing, in a 19th-century controversy regarding whether weaknesses in lock systems should be kept secret in the locksmithing community, or revealed to the public.According to A. C. Hobbs:A commercial, and in some respects a social doubt has been started within the last year or two, whether or not it is right to discuss so openly the security or insecurity of locks.", "Many well-meaning persons suppose that the discussion respecting the means for baffling the supposed safety of locks offers a premium for dishonesty, by showing others how to be dishonest.", "This is a fallacy.", "Rogues are very keen in their profession, and know already much more than we can teach them respecting their several kinds of roguery.Rogues knew a good deal about lock-picking long before locksmiths discussed it among themselves, as they have lately done.", "If a lock, let it have been made in whatever country, or by whatever maker, is not so inviolable as it has hitherto been deemed to be, surely it is to the interest of honest persons to know this fact, because the dishonest are tolerably certain to apply the knowledge practically; and the spread of the knowledge is necessary to give fair play to those who might suffer by ignorance.It cannot be too earnestly urged that an acquaintance with real facts will, in the end, be better for all parties.", "Some time ago, when the reading public was alarmed at being told how London milk is adulterated, timid persons deprecated the exposure, on the plea that it would give instructions in the art of adulterating milk; a vain fear, milkmen knew all about it before, whether they practised it or not; and the exposure only taught purchasers the necessity of a little scrutiny and caution, leaving them to obey this necessity or not, as they pleased.", ":: -- From A. C. Hobbs (Charles Tomlinson, ed.", "), ''Locks and Safes: The Construction of Locks.''", "Published by Virtue & Co., London, 1853 (revised 1868)." ], [ "Notable locksmiths", "* William F. Banham, founder of Banham Security, invented the first automatic latch bolt lock in 1926 after a series of burglaries on his wife's dress shop.", "He opened up his own locksmith shop on Oxford Street, London, and offered £25 to anyone who could pick or break one of his patented locks Banham Group still offer the patented locks.", "* Robert Barron patented a double-acting tumbler lock in 1778, the first reasonable improvement in lock security.", "* Joseph Bramah patented the Bramah lock in 1784.It was considered unpickable for 67 years until A.C. Hobbs picked it, taking over 50 hours.", "* Jeremiah Chubb patented his detector lock in 1818.It won him the reward offered by the Government for a lock that could not be opened by any but its own key.", "* James Sargent described the first successful key-changeable combination lock in 1857.His lock became popular with safe manufacturers and the United States Treasury Department.", "In 1873, he patented a time lock mechanism, the prototype for those used in contemporary bank vaults.", "* Samuel Segal of the Segal Lock and Hardware Company invented the first jimmy-proof locks in 1916.", "* Harry Soref founded the Master Lock Company in 1921 and patented an improved padlock in 1924 with a patent lock casing constructed out of laminated steel.", "* Linus Yale Sr. invented a pin tumbler lock in 1848.", "* Linus Yale Jr. improved upon his father's lock in 1861, using a smaller, flat key with serrated edges that is the basis of modern pin-tumbler locks.", "Yale Jr. developed the modern combination lock in 1862.", "* Alfred Charles Hobbs demonstrated the inadequacy of several respected locks of the time in 1851 at The Great Exhibition, and popularized the practice of full disclosure." ], [ "See also", "* Associated Locksmiths of America* Door security* Glossary of locksmithing terms * Immobiliser* Locksport* Master Locksmiths Association''The National Locksmith''" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "https://www.emergencylocksmithtaylor.com" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Loran-C" ], [ "Introduction", "A Loran-C receiver for use on merchant shipsLoran-C sound as received on an AM receiver at 100 kHz'''Loran-C''' is a hyperbolic radio navigation system that allows a receiver to determine its position by listening to low frequency radio signals that are transmitted by fixed land-based radio beacons.", "Loran-C combined two different techniques to provide a signal that was both long-range and highly accurate, features that had been incompatible.", "Its disadvantage was the expense of the equipment needed to interpret the signals, which meant that Loran-C was used primarily by militaries after it was introduced in 1957.By the 1970s, the cost, weight and size of electronics needed to implement Loran-C had been dramatically reduced because of the introduction of solid-state electronics and, from the mid-1970s, early microcontrollers to process the signal.", "Low-cost and easy-to-use Loran-C units became common from the late 1970s, especially in the early 1980s, and the earlier LORAN system was discontinued in favor of installing more Loran-C stations around the world.", "Loran-C became one of the most common and widely-used navigation systems for large areas of North America, Europe, Japan and the entire Atlantic and Pacific areas.", "The Soviet Union operated a nearly identical system, CHAYKA.The introduction of civilian satellite navigation in the 1990s led to a rapid drop-off in Loran-C use.", "Discussions about the future of Loran-C began in the 1990s; several turn-off dates were announced and then cancelled.", "In 2010, the US and Canadian systems were shut down, along with Loran-C/CHAYKA stations that were shared with Russia.", "Several other chains remained active; some were upgraded for continued use.", "At the end of 2015, navigation chains in most of Europe were turned off.", "In December 2015 in the United States, there was also renewed discussion of funding an '''eLoran''' system, and NIST offered to fund development of a microchip-sized eLoran receiver for distribution of timing signals.United States legislation introduced later, such as the National Timing Resilience and Security Act of 2017, proposed resurrecting Loran." ], [ "History", "===Loran-A===The original LORAN was proposed in 1940 by Alfred Lee Loomis at a meeting of the U.S. Army's Microwave Committee.", "The Army Air Corps were interested in the concept for aircraft navigation, and after some discussion they returned a requirement for a system offering accuracy of about at a range of , and a maximum range as great as for high-flying aircraft.", "The Microwave Committee, by this time organized into what would become the MIT Radiation Laboratory, took up development as '''Project 3'''.", "During the initial meetings, a member of the UK liaison team, Taffy Bowen, mentioned that he was aware the British were also working on a similar concept, but had no information on its performance.The development team, led by Loomis, made rapid progress on the transmitter design and tested several systems during 1940 before settling on a 3 MHz design.", "Extensive signal-strength measurements were made by mounting a conventional radio receiver in a station wagon and driving around the eastern states.", "However, the custom receiver design and its associated cathode-ray tube displays proved to be a bigger problem.", "In spite of several efforts to design around the problem, instability in the display prevented accurate measurements as the output shifted back and forth on the face of the oscilloscope.By this time the team had become much more familiar with the British Gee system, and were aware of their related work on \"strobes\", a time base generator that produced well-positioned \"pips\" on the display that could be used for accurate measurement.", "This meant that inaccuracy of the positioning on the display had no effect, the any inaccuracy in the position of the signal was also in the strobe so the two remained aligned.", "The Project 3 team met with the Gee team in 1941, and immediately adopted this solution.", "This meeting also revealed that Project 3 and Gee called for almost identical systems, with similar performance, range and accuracy, but Gee had already completed basic development and was entering into initial production, making Project 3 superfluous.In response, the Project 3 team told the Army Air Force to adopt Gee, and instead, at the behest of the British team, realigned their efforts to provide long-range navigation on the oceans where Gee was not useful.", "This led to United States Navy interest, and a series of experiments quickly demonstrated that systems using the basic Gee concept, but operating at a lower frequency around 2 MHz would offer reasonable accuracy on the order of a few miles over distances on the order of , at least at night when signals of this frequency range were able to skip off the ionosphere.", "Rapid development followed, and a system covering the western Atlantic was operational in 1943.Additional stations followed, first covering the European side of the Atlantic, and then a large expansion in the Pacific.", "By the end of the war, there were 72 operational LORAN stations and as many as 75,000 receivers.In 1958 the operation of the LORAN system was handed over to the United States Coast Guard, which renamed the system \"Loran-A\", the lower-case name being introduced at that time.===LF LORAN===There are two ways to implement the timing measurements needed for a hyperbolic navigation system, pulse timing systems like Gee and LORAN, and phase-timing systems like the Decca Navigator System.The former requires sharp pulses of signal, and their accuracy is generally limited to how rapidly the pulses can be turned on and off, which is a function of the carrier frequency.", "There is an ambiguity in the signal; the same measurements can be valid at two locations relative to the broadcasters, but in normal operation, they are hundreds of kilometres apart, so one possibility can be eliminated.The second system uses constant signals (\"continuous wave\") and takes measurements by comparing the phase of two signals.", "This system is easy to use even at very low frequencies.", "However, its signal is ambiguous over the distance of a wavelength, meaning there are hundreds of locations that will return the same signal.", "Decca referred to these ambiguous locations as ''cells''.", "This demands some other navigation method to be used in conjunction to pick which cell the receiver is within, and then using the phase measurements to place the receiver accurately within the cell.Numerous efforts were made to provide some sort of secondary low-accuracy system that could be used with a phase-comparison system like Decca in order to resolve the ambiguity.", "Among the many methods was a directional broadcast system known as POPI, and a variety of systems combining pulse-timing for low-accuracy navigation and then using phase-comparison for fine adjustment.", "Decca themselves had set aside one frequency, \"9f\", for testing this combined-signal concept, but did not have the chance to do so until much later.", "Similar concepts were also used in the experimental Navarho system in the United States.It was known from the start of the LORAN project that the same CRT displays that showed the LORAN pulses could, when suitably magnified, also show the individual waves of the intermediate frequency.", "This meant that pulse-matching could be used to get a rough fix, and then the operator could gain additional timing accuracy by lining up the individual waves within the pulse, like Decca.", "This could either be used to greatly increase the accuracy of LORAN, or alternately, offer similar accuracy using much lower carrier frequencies, and thus greatly extend the effective range.", "This would require the transmitter stations to be synchronized both in time and phase, but much of this problem had already been solved by Decca engineers.The long-range option was of considerable interest to the Coast Guard, who set up an experimental system known as '''LF LORAN''' in 1945.This operated at much lower frequencies than the original LORAN, at 180 kHz, and required very long balloon-borne antennas.", "Testing was carried out throughout the year, including several long-distance flights as far as Brazil.", "The experimental system was then sent to Canada where it was used during Operation Muskox in the Arctic.", "Accuracy was found to be at , a significant advance over LORAN.", "With the ending of Muskox, it was decided to keep the system running under what became known as \"Operation Musk Calf\", run by a group consisting of the United States Air Force, Royal Canadian Air Force, Royal Canadian Navy and the UK Royal Corps of Signals.", "The system ran until September 1947.This led to another major test series, this time by the newly-formed United States Air Force, known as Operation Beetle.", "Beetle was located in the far north, on the Canada-Alaska border, and used new guy-stayed steel towers, replacing the earlier system's balloon-lofted cable antennas.", "The system became operational in 1948 and ran for two years until February 1950.Unfortunately, the stations proved poorly sited, as the radio transmission over the permafrost was much shorter than expected and synchronization of the signals between the stations using ground waves proved impossible.", "The tests also showed that the system was extremely difficult to use in practice; it was easy for the operator to select the wrong sections of the waveforms on their display, leading to significant real-world inaccuracy.===CYCLAN and Whyn===In 1946 the Rome Air Development Center sent out contracts for longer-ranged and more-accurate navigation systems that would be used for long-range bombing navigation.", "As the United States Army Air Forces were moving towards smaller crews, only three in the Boeing B-47 Stratojet for instance, a high degree of automation was desired.", "Two contracts were accepted; Sperry Gyroscope proposed the '''CYCLAN''' system (CYCLe matching LorAN) which was broadly similar to LF LORAN but with additional automation, and Sylvania proposed '''Whyn''' using continuous wave navigation like Decca, but with additional coding using frequency modulation.", "In spite of great efforts, Whyn could never be made to work, and was abandoned.CYCLAN operated by sending the same LF LORAN-like signals on two frequencies, LF LORAN's 180 kHz and again on 200 kHz.", "The associated equipment would look for a rising amplitude that indicated the start of the signal pulse, and then use sampling gates to extract the carrier phase.", "Using two receivers solved the problem of mis-aligning the pulses, because the phases would only align properly between the two copies of the signal when the same pulses were being compared.", "None of this was trivial; using the era's tube-based electronics, the experimental CYCLAN system filled much of a semi-trailer.CYCLAN proved highly successful, so much so that it became increasingly clear that the problems that led the engineers to use two frequencies were simply not as bad as expected.", "It appeared that a system using a single frequency would work just as well, given the right electronics.", "This was especially good news, as the 200 kHz frequency was interfering with existing broadcasts, and had to be moved to 160 kHz during testing.Through this period the issue of radio spectrum use was becoming a major concern, and had led to international efforts to decide on a frequency band suitable for long-range navigation.", "This process eventually settled on the band from 90 to 100 kHz.", "CYCLAN appeared to suggest that accuracy at even lower frequencies was not a problem, and the only real concern was the expense of the equipment involved.===Cytac===The success of the CYCLAN system led to a further contract with Sperry in 1952 for a new system with the twin goals of working in the 100 kHz range while being equally accurate, less complex and less expensive.", "These goals would normally be contradictory, but the CYCLAN system gave all involved the confidence that these could be met.", "The resulting system was known as Cytac.To solve the complexity problem, a new circuit was developed to properly time the sampling of the signal.", "This consisted of a circuit to extract the envelope of the pulse, another to extract the derivative of the envelope, and finally another that subtracted the derivative from the envelope.", "The result of this final operation would become negative during a very specific and stable part of the rising edge of the pulse, and this zero-crossing was used to trigger a very short-time sampling gate.", "This system replaced the complex system of clocks used in CYCLAN.", "By simply measuring the time between the zero-crossings of the master and secondary, pulse-timing was extracted.The output of the envelope sampler was also sent to a phase-shifter that adjusted the output of a local clock that locked to the master carrier using a phase-locked loop.", "This retained the phase of the master signal long enough for the secondary signal to arrive.", "Gating on the secondary signal was then compared to this master signal in a phase detector, and a varying voltage was produced depending on the difference in phase.", "This voltage represented the fine-positioning measurement.The system was generally successful during testing through 1953, but there were concerns raised about the signal power at long range and the possibility of jamming.", "This led to further modifications of the basic signal.", "The first was to broadcast a series of pulses instead of just one, broadcasting more energy during a given time and improving the ability of the receivers to tune in a useful signal.", "They also added a fixed 45° phase shift to every pulse, so simple continuous-wave jamming signals could be identified and rejected.The Cytac system underwent an enormous series of tests across the United States and offshore.", "Given the potential accuracy of the system, even minor changes to the groundwave synchronization were found to cause errors that could be eliminated — issues such as the number of rivers the signal crossed caused predictable delays that could be measured and then factored into navigation solutions.", "This led to a series of ''correction contours'' that could be added to the received signal to adjust for these concerns, and these were printed on the Cytac charts.", "Using prominent features on dams as target points, a series of tests demonstrated that the uncorrected signals provided accuracy on the order of 100 yards, while adding the correction contour adjustments reduced this to the order of ten yards.===Loran-B and -C===It was at this moment that the United States Air Force, having taken over these efforts while moving from the United States Army Air Forces, dropped their interest in the project.", "Although the reasons are not well recorded, it appears the idea of a fully automated bombing system using radio aids was no longer considered possible.", "The AAF had been involved in missions covering about 1000 km (the distance from London to Berlin) and the Cytac system would work well at these ranges, but as the mission changed to trans-polar missions of 5,000 km or more, even Cytac did not offer the range and accuracy needed.", "They turned their attention to the use of inertial platforms and Doppler radar systems, cancelling work on Cytac as well as a competing system known as Navarho.Around this period the United States Navy began work on a similar system using combined pulse and phase comparison, but based on the existing LORAN frequency of 200 kHz.", "By this time the United States Navy had handed operational control of the LORAN system to the Coast Guard, and it was assumed the same arrangement would be true for any new system as well.", "Thus, the United States Coast Guard was given the choice of naming the systems, and decided to rename the existing system Loran-A, and the new system Loran-B.With Cytac fully developed and its test system on the east coast of the United States mothballed, the United States Navy also decided to re-commission Cytac for tests in the long-range role.", "An extensive series of tests across the Atlantic were carried out by the USCGC ''Androscoggin'' starting in April 1956.Meanwhile, Loran-B proved to have serious problems keeping their transmitters in phase, and that work was abandoned.", "Minor changes were made to the Cytac systems to further simplify it, including a reduction in the pulse-chain spacing from 1200 to 1000 µs, the pulse rate changed to 20 pps to match the existing Loran-A system, and the phase-shifting between pulses to an alternating 0, 180-degree shift instead of 45 degrees at every pulse within the chain.The result was Loran-C.", "Testing of the new system was intensive, and over-water flights around Bermuda demonstrated that 50% of fixes lay within a circle of radius, a dramatic improvement over the original Loran-A, meeting the accuracy of the Gee system, but at much greater range.", "The first chain was set up using the original experimental Cytac system, and a second one in the Mediterranean in 1957.Further chains covering the North Atlantic and large areas of the Pacific followed.", "At the time global charts were printed with shaded sections representing the area where a accurate fix could be obtained under most operational conditions.", "Loran-C operated in the 90 to 110 kHz frequency range.===Improving systems===Loran-C had originally been designed to be highly automated, allowing the system to be operated more rapidly than the original LORAN's multi-minute measurement.", "It was also operated in \"chains\" of linked stations, allowing a fix to be made by simultaneously comparing two secondaries to a single master.", "The downside of this approach was that the required electronic equipment, built using 1950s-era tube technology, was very large.", "Looking for companies with knowledge of seaborne, multi-channel phase-comparison electronics led, ironically, to Decca, who built the AN/SPN-31, the first widely used Loran-C receiver.", "The AN/SPN-31 weighed over and had 52 controls.Airborne units followed, and an adapted AN/SPN-31 was tested in an Avro Vulcan in 1963.By the mid-1960s, units with some transistorization were becoming more common, and a chain was set up in Vietnam to support the United States' war efforts there.", "A number of commercial airline operators experimented with the system as well, using it for navigation on the great circle route between North America and Europe.", "However, inertial platforms ultimately became more common in this role.In 1969, Decca sued the United States Navy for patent infringement, producing ample documentation of their work on the basic concept as early as 1944, along with the \"missing\" 9f frequency at 98 kHz that had been set aside for experiments using this system.", "Decca won the initial suit, but the judgement was overturned on appeal when the Navy claimed \"wartime expediency\".===Loran-D and -F===When Loran-C became widespread, the United States Air Force once again became interested in using it as a guidance system.", "They proposed a new system layered on top of Loran-C to provide even higher accuracy, using the Loran-C fix as the coarse guidance signal in much the same way that Loran-C extracted coarse location from pulse timing to remove the ambiguity in the fine measurement.", "To provide an extra-fine guidance signal, '''Loran-D''' interleaved another train of eight pulses immediately after the signals from one of the existing Loran-C stations, folding the two signals together.", "This technique became known as \"Supernumary Interpulse Modulation\" (SIM).", "These were broadcast from low-power portable transmitters, offering relatively short-range service of high accuracy.Loran-D was used only experimentally during war-games in the 1960s from a transmitter set in the UK.", "The system was also used in a limited fashion during the Vietnam War, combined with the Pave Spot laser designator system, a combination known as Pave Nail.", "Using mobile transmitters, the AN/ARN-92 LORAN navigation receiver could achieve accuracy on the order of , which the Spot laser improved to about .", "The SIM concept later became a system for sending additional data.At about the same time, Motorola proposed a new system using pseudo-random pulse-chains.", "This mechanism ensures that no two chains within a given period (on the order of many seconds) will have the same pattern, making it easy to determine if the signal is a groundwave from a recent transmission or a multi-hop signal from a previous one.", "The system, '''Multi-User Tactical Navigation Systems''' (MUTNS) was used briefly but it was found that Loran-D met the same requirements but had the added advantage of being a standard Loran-C signal as well.", "Although MUTNS was unrelated to the Loran systems, it was sometimes referred to as '''Loran-F'''.===Decline===In spite of its many advantages, the high cost of implementing a Loran-C receiver made it uneconomical for many users.", "Additionally, as military users upgraded from Loran-A to Loran-C, large numbers of surplus Loran-A receivers were dumped on the market.", "This made Loran-A popular in spite of being less accurate and fairly difficult to operate.", "By the early 1970s the introduction of integrated circuits combining a complete radio receiver began to greatly reduce the complexity of Loran-A measurements, and fully automated units the size of a stereo receiver became common.", "For those users requiring higher accuracy, Decca had considerable success with their Decca Navigator system, and produced units that combined both receivers, using Loran to eliminate the ambiguities in Decca.The same rapid development of microelectronics that made Loran-A so easy to operate worked equally well on the Loran-C signals, and the obvious desire to have a long-range system that could also provide enough accuracy for lake and harbour navigation led to the \"opening\" of the Loran-C system to public use in 1974.Civilian receivers quickly followed, and dual-system A/C receivers were also common for a time.", "The switch from A to C was extremely rapid, due largely to rapidly falling prices which led to many users' first receiver being Loran-C. By the late 1970s the Coast Guard decided to turn off Loran-A, in favour of adding additional Loran-C stations to cover gaps is its coverage.", "The original Loran-A network was shut down in 1979 and 1980, with a few units used in the Pacific for some time.", "Given the widespread availability of Loran-A charts, many Loran-C receivers included a system for converting coordinates between A and C units.One of the reasons for Loran-C's opening to the public was the move from Loran to new forms of navigation, including inertial navigation systems, Transit and OMEGA, meant that the security of Loran was no longer as stringent as it was as a primary form of navigation.", "As these newer systems gave way to GPS through the 1980s and 90s, this process repeated itself, but this time the military was able to separate GPS's signals in such a way that it could provide both secure military and insecure civilian signals at the same time.", "GPS was more difficult to receive and decode, but by the 1990s the required electronics were already as small and inexpensive as Loran-C, leading to rapid adoption that has become largely universal.===Loran-C in the 21st century===Although Loran-C was largely redundant by 2000, it has not universally disappeared due to a number of concerns.", "One is that the GPS system can be jammed through a variety of means.", "Although the same is true of Loran-C, the transmitters are close-at-hand and can be adjusted if necessary.", "More importantly, there are effects that might cause the GPS system to become unusable over wide areas, notably space weather events and potential EMP events.", "Loran, located entirely under the atmosphere, offers more resilience to these issues.", "There has been considerable debate about the relative merits of keeping the Loran-C system operational as a result of such considerations.In November 2009, the United States Coast Guard announced that Loran-C was not needed by the U.S. for maritime navigation.", "This decision left the fate of LORAN and eLORAN in the United States to the Secretary of the Department of Homeland Security.", "Per a subsequent announcement, the US Coast Guard, in accordance with the DHS Appropriations Act, terminated the transmission of all U.S. Loran-C signals on 8 February 2010.On 1 August 2010 the U.S. transmission of the Russian American signal was terminated, and on 3 August 2010 all Canadian signals were shut down by the USCG and the CCG.The European Union had decided that the potential security advantages of Loran are worthy not only of keeping the system operational, but upgrading it and adding new stations.", "This is part of the wider Eurofix system which combines GPS, Galileo and nine Loran stations into a single integrated system.In 2014, Norway and France both announced that all of their remaining transmitters, which make up a significant part of the Eurofix system, would be shut down on 31 December 2015.The two remaining transmitters in Europe (Anthorn, UK and Sylt, Germany) would no longer be able to sustain a positioning and navigation Loran service, with the result that the UK announced its trial eLoran service would be discontinued from the same date." ], [ "Description", "===Hyperbolic navigation===A crude diagram of the LORAN principle—the difference between the time of reception of synchronized signals from radio stations A and B is constant along each hyperbolic curve; when demarcated on a map, such curves are known as \"TD lines\".", "\"TD\" stands for \"Time Difference\".In conventional navigation, measuring one's location, or ''taking a fix'', is accomplished by taking two measurements against well known locations.", "In optical systems this is typically accomplished by measuring the angle to two landmarks, and then drawing lines on a nautical chart at those angles, producing an intersection that reveals the ship's location.", "Radio methods can also use the same concept with the aid of a radio direction finder, but due to the nature of radio propagation, such instruments are subject to significant errors, especially at night.", "More accurate radio navigation can be made using pulse timing or phase comparison techniques, which rely on the time-of-flight of the signals.", "In comparison to angle measurements, these remain fairly steady over time, and most of the effects that change these values are fixed objects like rivers and lakes that can be accounted for on charts.Timing systems can reveal the absolute distance to an object, as is the case in radar.", "The problem in the navigational case is that the receiver has to know when the original signal was sent.", "In theory, one could synchronize an accurate clock to the signal before leaving port, and then use that to compare the timing of the signal during the voyage.", "However, in the 1940s no suitable system was available that could hold an accurate signal over the time span of an operational mission.Instead, radio navigation systems adopted the ''multilateration'' concept which is based on the difference in times (or phase) instead of the absolute time.", "The basic idea is that it is relatively easy to synchronize two ground stations, using a signal shared over a phone line for instance, so one can be sure that the signals received were sent at exactly the same time.", "They will not be received at exactly the same time, however, as the receiver will receive the signal from the closer station first.", "Timing the difference between two signals can be easily accomplished, first by physically measuring them on a cathode-ray tube, or simple electronics in the case of phase comparison.The difference in signal timing does not reveal the location by itself.", "Instead, it determines a series of locations where that timing is possible.", "For instance, if the two stations are 300 km apart and the receiver measures no difference in the two signals, that implies that the receiver is somewhere along a line equidistant between the two.", "If the signal from one is received exactly 100 µs after, then the receiver is closer to one station than the other.", "Plotting all the locations where one station is 30 km closer than the other produces a curved line.", "Taking a fix is accomplished by making two such measurements with different pairs of stations, and then looking up both curves on a navigational chart.", "The curves are known as ''lines of position'' or LOP.In practice, radio navigation systems normally use a ''chain'' of three or four stations, all synchronized to a ''master'' signal that is broadcast from one of the stations.", "The others, the ''secondaries'', are positioned so their LOPs cross at acute angles, which increases the accuracy of the fix.", "So for instance, a given chain might have four stations with the master in the center, allowing a receiver to pick the signals from two secondaries that are currently as close to right angles as possible given their current location.", "Modern systems, which know the locations of all the broadcasters, can automate which stations to pick.===LORAN method===LORAN pulseIn the case of LORAN, one station remains constant in each application of the principle, the ''primary'', being paired up separately with two other ''secondary'' stations.", "Given two secondary stations, the time difference (TD) between the primary and first secondary identifies one curve, and the time difference between the primary and second secondary identifies another curve, the intersections of which will determine a geographic point in relation to the position of the three stations.", "These curves are referred to as ''TD lines''.In practice, LORAN is implemented in integrated regional arrays, or ''chains'', consisting of one ''primary'' station and at least two (but often more) ''secondary'' stations, with a uniform ''group repetition interval'' (GRI) defined in microseconds.", "The amount of time before transmitting the next set of pulses is defined by the distance between the start of transmission of primary to the next start of transmission of primary signal.The secondary stations receive this pulse signal from the primary, then wait a preset number of milliseconds, known as the ''secondary coding delay'', to transmit a response signal.", "In a given chain, each secondary's coding delay is different, allowing for separate identification of each secondary's signal.", "(In practice, however, modern LORAN receivers do not rely on this for secondary identification.", ")===LORAN chains (GRIs)===LORAN Station Malone, Malone, Florida Great Lakes chain (GRI 8970)/Southeast U.S. chain (GRI 7980)Every LORAN chain in the world uses a unique Group Repetition Interval, the number of which, when multiplied by ten, gives how many microseconds pass between pulses from a given station in the chain.", "In practice, the delays in many, but not all, chains are multiples of 100 microseconds.", "LORAN chains are often referred to by this designation, ''e.g.", "'', GRI 9960, the designation for the LORAN chain serving the Northeastern United States.Due to the nature of hyperbolic curves, a particular combination of a primary and two secondary stations can possibly result in a \"grid\" where the grid lines intersect at shallow angles.", "For ideal positional accuracy, it is desirable to operate on a navigational grid where the grid lines are closer to right angles (orthogonal) to each other.", "As the receiver travels through a chain, a certain selection of secondaries whose TD lines initially formed a near-orthogonal grid can become a grid that is significantly skewed.", "As a result, the selection of one or both secondaries should be changed so that the TD lines of the new combination are closer to right angles.", "To allow this, nearly all chains provide at least three, and as many as five, secondaries.===LORAN charts===New York Harbor includes LORAN-A TD lines.", "Note that the printed lines do not extend into inland waterway areas.Where available, common marine nautical charts include visible representations of TD lines at regular intervals over water areas.", "The TD lines representing a given primary-secondary pairing are printed with distinct colors, and note the specific time difference indicated by each line.", "On a nautical chart, the denotation for each Line of Position from a receiver, relative to axis and color, can be found at the bottom of the chart.", "The color on official charts for stations and the timed-lines of position follow no specific conformance for the purpose of the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO).", "However, local chart producers may color these in a specific conformance to their standard.", "Always consult the chart notes, administrations Chart1 reference, and information given on the chart for the most accurate information regarding surveys, datum, and reliability.There are three major factors when considering signal delay and propagation in relation to LORAN-C:# Primary Phase Factor (PF) – This allows for the fact that the speed of the propagated signal in the atmosphere is slightly lower than in a vacuum.# Secondary Phase Factor (SF) – This allows for the fact that the speed of propagation of the signal is slowed when traveling over the seawater because of the greater conductivity of seawater compared to land.# Additional Secondary Factors (ASF) – Because LORAN-C transmitters are mainly land based, the signal will travel partly over land and partly over seawater.", "ASF may be treated as land and water segments, each with a uniform conductivity depending on whether the path is over land or water.The chart notes should indicate whether ASF corrections have been made (Canadian Hydrographic Service (CHS) charts, for example, include them).", "Otherwise, the appropriate correction factors must be obtained before use.Due to interference and propagation issues suffered from land features and artificial structures such as tall buildings, the accuracy of the LORAN signal can be degraded considerably in inland areas (see Limitations).", "As a result, nautical charts will not show TD lines in those areas, to prevent reliance on LORAN-C for navigation.Traditional LORAN receivers display the time difference between each pairing of the primary and one of the two selected secondary stations, which is then used to find the appropriate TD line on the chart.", "Modern LORAN receivers display latitude and longitude coordinates instead of time differences, and, with the advent of time difference comparison and electronics, provide improved accuracy and better position fixing, allowing the observer to plot their position on a nautical chart more easily.", "When using such coordinates, the datum used by the receiver (usually WGS84) must match that of the chart, or manual conversion calculations must be performed before the coordinates can be used." ], [ "Timing and synchronization", "Cesium atomic clocksEach LORAN station is equipped with a suite of specialized equipment to generate the precisely timed signals used to modulate / drive the transmitting equipment.", "Up to three commercial cesium atomic clocks are used to generate 5 MHz and pulse per second (or 1 Hz) signals that are used by timing equipment to generate the various GRI-dependent drive signals for the transmitting equipment.While each U.S.-operated LORAN station is supposed to be synchronized to within 100 ns of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), the actual accuracy achieved as of 1994 was within 500 ns." ], [ "Transmitters and antennas", "LORAN transmitter bankLORAN-C transmitters operate at peak powers of 100–4,000 kilowatts, comparable to longwave broadcasting stations.", "Most use 190–220 metre tall mast radiators, insulated from ground.", "The masts are inductively lengthened and fed by a loading coil (see: electrical length).", "A well known-example of a station using such an antenna is Rantum.", "Free-standing tower radiators in this height range are also used.", "Carolina Beach uses a free-standing antenna tower.", "Some LORAN-C transmitters with output powers of 1,000 kW and higher used extremely tall mast radiators (see below).", "Other high power LORAN-C stations, like George, used four T-antennas mounted on four guyed masts arranged in a square.All LORAN-C antennas are designed to radiate an omnidirectional pattern.", "Unlike longwave broadcasting stations, LORAN-C stations cannot use backup antennas because the exact position of the antenna is a part of the navigation calculation.", "The slightly different physical location of a backup antenna would produce Lines of Position different from those of the primary antenna." ], [ "Limitations", "File:NGA-Atlantic_Loran.png\|Atlantic Ocean LORAN coverage (2006)File:NGA-Pacific_Loran.png\|Pacific Ocean LORAN coverage (2006)LORAN suffers from electronic effects of weather and the ionospheric effects of sunrise and sunset.", "The most accurate signal is the groundwave that follows the Earth's surface, ideally over seawater.", "At night the indirect skywave, bent back to the surface by the ionosphere, is a problem as multiple signals may arrive via different paths (multipath interference).", "The ionosphere's reaction to sunrise and sunset accounts for the particular disturbance during those periods.", "Geomagnetic storms have serious effects, as with any radio based system.LORAN uses ground-based transmitters that only cover certain regions.", "Coverage is quite good in North America, Europe, and the Pacific Rim.The absolute accuracy of LORAN-C varies from .", "Repeatable accuracy is much greater, typically from ." ], [ "LORAN Data Channel (LDC)", "LORAN Data Channel (LDC) is a project underway between the FAA and United States Coast Guard to send low bit rate data using the LORAN system.", "Messages to be sent include station identification, absolute time, and position correction messages.", "In 2001, data similar to Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) GPS correction messages were sent as part of a test of the Alaskan LORAN chain.", "As of November 2005, test messages using LDC were being broadcast from several U.S. LORAN stations.In recent years, LORAN-C has been used in Europe to send differential GPS and other messages, employing a similar method of transmission known as EUROFIX.A system called SPS (Saudi Positioning System), similar to EUROFIX, is in use in Saudi Arabia.", "GPS differential corrections and GPS integrity information are added to the LORAN signal.", "A combined GPS/LORAN receiver is used, and if a GPS fix is not available it automatically switches over to LORAN." ], [ "Future", "As LORAN systems are maintained and operated by governments, their continued existence is subject to public policy.", "With the evolution of other electronic navigation systems, such as satellite navigation systems, funding for existing systems is not always assured.Critics, who have called for the elimination of the system, state that the LORAN system has too few users, lacks cost-effectiveness, and that Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) signals are superior to LORAN.", "Supporters of continued and improved LORAN operation note that LORAN uses a strong signal, which is difficult to jam, and that LORAN is an independent, dissimilar, and complementary system to other forms of electronic navigation, which helps ensure availability of navigation signals.On 26 February 2009, the U.S. Office of Management and Budget released the first blueprint for the Fiscal Year 2010 budget.", "This document identified the LORAN-C system as \"outdated\" and supported its termination at an estimated savings of $36 million in 2010 and $190 million over five years.On 21 April 2009 the U.S. Senate Committee on Commerce, Science and Transportation and the Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs released inputs to the FY 2010 Concurrent Budget Resolution with backing for the continued support for the LORAN system, acknowledging the investment already made in infrastructure upgrades and recognizing the studies performed and multi-departmental conclusion that eLORAN is the best backup to GPS.Senator Jay Rockefeller, Chairman of the Committee on Commerce, Science and Transportation, wrote that the committee recognized the priority in \"Maintaining LORAN-C while transitioning to eLORAN\" as means of enhancing the national security, marine safety and environmental protection missions of the Coast Guard.Senator Collins, the ranking member on the Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs wrote that the President's budget overview proposal to terminate the LORAN-C system is inconsistent with the recent investments, recognized studies and the mission of the U.S. Coast Guard.", "The committee also recognizes the $160 million investment already made toward upgrading the LORAN-C system to support the full deployment of eLORAN.Further, the Committees also recognize the many studies which evaluated GPS backup systems and concluded both the need to back up GPS and identified eLORAN as the best and most viable backup.", "\"This proposal is inconsistent with the recently released (January 2009) Federal Radionavigation Plan (FRP), which was jointly prepared by DHS and the Departments of Defense (DOD) and Transportation (DOT).", "The FRP proposed the eLORAN program to serve as a Position, Navigation and Timing (PNT) backup to GPS (Global Positioning System).", "\"On 7 May 2009, President Barack Obama proposed cutting funding (approx.", "$35 million/year) for LORAN, citing its redundancy alongside GPS.", "In regard to the pending Congressional bill, H.R.", "2892, it was subsequently announced that \"the Administration supports the Committee's aim to achieve an orderly termination through a phased decommissioning beginning in January 2010, and the requirement that certifications be provided to document that the LORAN-C termination will not impair maritime safety or the development of possible GPS backup capabilities or needs.", "\"Also on 7 May 2009, the U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO), the investigative arm of Congress, released a report citing the very real potential for the GPS system to degrade or fail in light of program delays which have resulted in scheduled GPS satellite launches slipping by up to three years.On 12 May 2009 the March 2007 Independent Assessment Team (IAT) report on LORAN was released to the public.", "In its report the ITA stated that it \"unanimously recommends that the U.S. government complete the eLORAN upgrade and commit to eLORAN as the national backup to GPS for 20 years.\"", "The release of the report followed an extensive Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) battle waged by industry representatives against the federal government.", "Originally completed 20 March 2007 and presented to the co-sponsoring Department of Transportation and Department of Homeland Security (DHS) Executive Committees, the report carefully considered existing navigation systems, including GPS.", "The unanimous recommendation for keeping the LORAN system and upgrading to eLORAN was based on the team's conclusion that LORAN is operational, deployed and sufficiently accurate to supplement GPS.", "The team also concluded that the cost to decommission the LORAN system would exceed the cost of deploying eLORAN, thus negating any stated savings as offered by the Obama administration and revealing the vulnerability of the U.S. to GPS disruption.In November 2009, the U.S. Coast Guard announced that the LORAN-C stations under its control would be closed down for budgetary reasons after 4 January 2010 provided the Secretary of the Department of Homeland Security certified that LORAN is not needed as a backup for GPS.On 7 January 2010, Homeland Security published a notice of the permanent discontinuation of LORAN-C operation.", "Effective 2000 UTC 8 February 2010, the United States Coast Guard terminated all operation and broadcast of LORAN-C signals in the United States.", "The United States Coast Guard transmission of the Russian American CHAYKA signal was terminated on 1 August 2010.The transmission of Canadian LORAN-C signals was terminated on 3 August 2010.===eLORAN===With the potential vulnerability of GNSS systems, and their own propagation and reception limitations, renewed interest in LORAN applications and development has appeared.", "Enhanced LORAN, also known as '''eLORAN''' or '''E-LORAN''', comprises an advancement in receiver design and transmission characteristics which increase the accuracy and usefulness of traditional LORAN.", "With reported accuracy as good as ± 8 meters, the system becomes competitive with unenhanced GPS.", "eLORAN also includes additional pulses which can transmit auxiliary data such as Differential GPS (DGPS) corrections, as well ensure data integrity against spoofing.eLORAN receivers use \"all in view\" reception, incorporating signals from all stations in range, not solely those from a single GRI, incorporating time signals and other data from up to forty stations.", "These enhancements in LORAN make it adequate as a substitute for scenarios where GPS is unavailable or degraded.In 2017 it was reported by the United States Maritime Association that the United States Coast Guard had reported several episodes of GPS interference in the Black Sea.", "South Korea has claimed that North Korea has jammed GPS near the border, interfering with airplanes and ships.", "By 2018, the United States planned to build a new eLoran system as a complement to and backup for the GPS system.", "The South Korean government has pushed plans to have three eLoran beacons active by 2019, which would be enough to provide accurate corrections for all shipments in the region if North Korea (or anyone else) tries to block GPS again.", "As of November 2021, no eLoran system has deployed.=== United Kingdom eLORAN implementation === On 31 May 2007, the UK Department for Transport (DfT), via the general lighthouse authorities, awarded a 15-year contract to provide a state-of-the-art enhanced LORAN (eLORAN) service to improve the safety of mariners in the UK and Western Europe.", "The service contract was to operate in two phases, with development work and further focus for European agreement on eLORAN service provision from 2007 through 2010, and full operation of the eLORAN service from 2010 through 2022.The first eLORAN transmitter was situated at Anthorn Radio Station Cumbria, UK, and was operated by Babcock International (previously Babcock Communications).The UK government granted approval for seven differential eLoran ship-positioning technology stations to be built along the south and east coasts of the UK to help counter the threat of jamming of global positioning systems.", "They were set to reach initial operational capability by summer 2014.The general lighthouse authorities of the UK and Ireland announced 31 October 2014 the initial operational capability of UK maritime eLoran.", "Seven differential reference stations provided additional position, navigation, and timing (PNT) information via low-frequency pulses to ships fitted with eLoran receivers.", "The service was to help ensure they could navigate safely in the event of GPS failure in one of the busiest shipping regions in the world, with expected annual traffic of 200,000 vessels by 2020.Despite these plans, in light of the decision by France and Norway to cease Loran transmissions on 31 December 2015, the UK announced at the start of that month that its eLoran service would be discontinued on the same day.", "However to allow for further research and PNT development, the eLoran timing signal is still active from the government facility in Anthorn." ], [ "List of LORAN-C transmitters", "Map of LORAN stations.A list of LORAN-C transmitters.", "Stations with an antenna tower taller than 300 metres (984 feet) are shown in bold.", "Station Country Chain Coordinates RemarksAfif Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabia South (GRI 7030)Saudi Arabia North (GRI 8830) 400 kWAl Khamasin Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabia South (GRI 7030)Saudi Arabia North (GRI 8830) '''dismantled'''Al Muwassam Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabia South (GRI 7030)Saudi Arabia North (GRI 8830) '''dismantled''''''Angissoq''' Greenland '''shut down''' '''shut down''' 31 December 1994; used a 411.48 metre tower until 27 July 1964, '''demolished'''Anthorn United Kingdom Lessay (GRI 6731) Master and Slave on 9 January 2016.Replacement for transmitter Rugby eLoran timing signal remains active.", "Ash Shaykh Humayd Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabia South (GRI 7030)Saudi Arabia North (GRI 8830) Attu Island United States North Pacific (GRI 9990)Russian-American (GRI 5980)'''shut down''' '''demolished''' August 2010 Balasore India Calcutta (GRI 5543) Barrigada ''Guam'' '''shut down''' '''demolished''' Baudette United States '''shut down'''North Central U.S. (GRI 8290)Great Lakes (GRI 8970) '''dismantled''' Berlevåg Norway Bø (GRI 7001)'''shut down''' '''shut down''' 31 December 2015 Bilimora India Bombay (GRI 6042) Boise City United States '''shut down'''Great Lakes (GRI 8970)South Central U.S. (GRI 9610) Bø, Vesterålen Norway Bø (GRI 7001)Eiði (GRI 9007)'''shut down''' '''shut down''' 31 December 2015, '''demolished''' October 2016.Cambridge Bay Canada '''shut down''' '''shut down'''; free-standing lattice tower still in use for a non-directional beacon, '''demolished''' '''Cape Race''' Canada '''shut down'''Canadian East Coast (GRI 5930)Newfoundland East Coast (GRI 7270) used a 411.48 metre tall tower until 2 February 1993, now uses a 260.3 metre tall tower.", "The latter however, was shut down in 2012.", "'''Demolished''' Caribou, Maine United States '''shut down'''Canadian East Coast (GRI 5930)Northeast U.S. (GRI 9960) '''demolished''' Carolina Beach United States '''shut down'''Southeast U.S. (GRI 7980)Northeast US (GRI 9960) '''demolished''' Chongzuo China China South Sea (GRI 6780) Comfort Cove Canada '''shut down'''Newfoundland East Coast (GRI 7270) '''demolished''' Dana United States '''shut down'''Great Lakes (GRI 8970)Northeast US (GRI 9960) Dhrangadhra India Bombay (GRI 6042) Diamond Harbor India Calcutta (GRI 5543) Eiði ''Faroe Islands'' '''shut down'''Eiði (GRI 9007) '''demolished'''Estaca de VaresSpainNATO \"C\"'''shut down''' Estartit Spain Mediterranean Sea (GRI 7990)'''shut down''' '''demolished''' Fallon United States '''shut down'''U.S.", "West Coast (GRI 9940) Fox Harbour Canada '''shut down'''Canadian East Coast (GRI 5930)Newfoundland East Coast (GRI 7270) '''demolished''' George United States '''shut down'''Canadian West Coast (GRI 5990)U.S. West Coast (GRI 9940) Gesashi Japan '''shut down'''North West Pacific (GRI 8930)East Asia (GRI 9930) '''demolished''' Gillette United States '''shut down'''North Central U.S. (GRI 8290)South Central U.S. (GRI 9610) Grangeville United States '''shut down'''Southeast U.S. (GRI 7980)South Central U.S. (GRI 9610) '''dismantled''' Havre United States '''shut down'''North Central U.S. (GRI 8290) '''Hellissandur''' Iceland '''shut down''' '''shut down''' 31 December 1994; 411.48 metre tall tower now used for RÚV longwave broadcast on 189 kHz Helong China China North Sea (GRI 7430) Hexian China China South Sea (GRI 6780) '''Iwo Jima''' Japan '''shut down''' '''shut down''' September 1993; '''dismantled'''; used a 411.48 metre tall tower Jan Mayen Norway Bø (GRI 7001)Ejde (GRI 9007)'''shut down''' '''shut down''' 31 December 2015; '''demolished''' October 2017.Johnston Island United States '''shut down''' '''shut down, demolished''' Jupiter United States '''shut down'''Southeast U.S. (GRI 7980) '''demolished''' Kargaburun Turkey Mediterranean Sea (GRI 7990)'''shut down''' '''demolished''' Kwang Ju South Korea East Asia (GRI 9930) Lampedusa Italy Mediterranean Sea (GRI 7990)'''shut down''' '''shut down''' Las Cruces United States '''shut down'''South Central U.S. (GRI 9610) Lessay France Lessay (GRI 6731)Sylt (GRI 7499)'''shut down''' '''shut down''' 31 December 2015, '''demolished''' Loop Head Ireland Lessay (GRI 6731)Eiði (GRI 9007)'''never built''' '''never built''' 250 kW ; '''never built''' Malone United States '''shut down'''Southeast U.S. (GRI 7980)Great Lakes (GRI 8970) '''dismantled''' Middletown United States '''shut down'''U.S.", "West Coast (GRI 9940) '''demolished''' '''Minami-Tori-shima''' Japan '''shut down'''North West Pacific (GRI 8930) used a 411.48 metre tall tower until 1985'''demolished''' Nantucket United States '''shut down'''Canadian East Coast (GRI 5930)Northeast U.S. (GRI 9960) '''demolished''' Narrow Cape United States '''shut down''' 0)North Pacific (GRI 9990) Niijima Japan '''shut down'''North West Pacific (GRI 8930)East Asia (GRI 9930) '''demolished''' Patapur India Calcutta (GRI 5543) Pohang South Korea North West Pacific (GRI 8930)East Asia (GRI 9930) '''Port Clarence''' United States Gulf of Alaska (GRI 7960)North Pacific (GRI 9990)'''shut down''' '''demolished''' 28 April 2010; used a 411.48 metre tall tower Port Hardy Canada '''shut down'''Canadian West Coast (GRI 5990) '''demolished''' Rantum (Sylt) Germany Lessay (GRI 6731)Sylt (GRI 7499 )'''shut down''' '''shut down''' 31 Dec 2015 Raymondville United States '''shut down'''Southeast U.S. (GRI 7980)South Central U.S. (GRI 9610) '''dismantled''' Raoping China China South Sea (GRI 6780)China East Sea (GRI 8390) Rongcheng China China North Sea (GRI 7430)China East Sea (GRI 8390) Rugby United Kingdom Experimental (GRI 6731)'''shut down''' '''shut down''' July 2007, '''demolished''' Saint Paul United States '''shut down'''North Pacific (GRI 9990) '''demolished''' Salwa Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabia South (GRI 7030)Saudi Arabia North (GRI 8830) Searchlight United States '''shut down'''South Central U.S. (GRI 9610)U.S. West Coast (GRI 9940) '''demolished''' Sellia Marina Italy Mediterranean Sea (GRI 7990)'''shut down''' '''shut down''' Seneca United States '''shut down'''Great Lakes (GRI 8970)Northeast U.S. (GRI 9960) '''dismantled''' Shoal Cove United States '''shut down'''Canadian West Coast (GRI 5990)Gulf of Alaska (GRI 7960) '''dismantled''' Soustons France Lessay (GRI 6731)'''shut down''' '''shut down''' 31 December 2015, '''demolished''' Tok United States '''shut down'''Gulf of Alaska (GRI 7960) '''demolished''' Tokachibuto Japan '''shut down'''Eastern Russia Chayka (GRI 7950)North West Pacific (GRI 8930) '''dismantled''' Upolo Point United States '''shut down''' '''shut down''' Værlandet Norway Sylt (GRI 7499)Ejde (GRI 9007)'''shut down''' '''shut down''' 31 December 2015; demolished 19 Sep 2017 Veraval India Bombay (GRI 6042) Williams Lake Canada '''shut down'''Canadian West Coast (GRI 5990)North Central U.S. (GRI 8290) '''dismantled''' Xuancheng China China North Sea (GRI 7430)China East Sea (GRI 8390) Yap Federated States of Micronesia '''shut down''' '''shut down''' 1987; '''demolished'''; used a 304.8 metre tower" ], [ "See also", "* Alpha (navigation), the Russian counterpart of the OMEGA Navigation System, still in use as of 2006.", "* CHAYKA, the Russian counterpart of LORAN* Decca Navigator System, a British system that used phase difference instead of time difference.", "* Gee (navigation)* Gee-H (navigation)* Global Positioning System* Local positioning system* Oboe (navigation)* Omega (navigation system), the Western counterpart of the Alpha Navigation System, no longer in use.", "* SHORAN* Tactical air navigation system* Trilateration* VHF omnidirectional range" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Bibliography===* * * * L. E. Gatterer \"The Development of Loran-C Navigation and Timing\", National Bureau of Standards, October 1972* " ], [ "External links", " United States National Institute of Standards and Technology Site- Using LORAN C for time-keeping.", "* European Loran-C network website* * :former LORAN-C transmitter mast, now used for longwave broadcasting* * * Jerry Proc, VE3FAB: Hyperbolic Radionavigation Systems: In-depth discussion of the Loran-A system.", " Histories of Loran-B, -D, and -F** Loran-C Introduction: eLoran* Integrated GPS/Loran Prototypes for Aviation Applications* The Migration to Enhanced or eLoran* GNSS/eLoran for Timing and Frequency by Locus, Inc.* Loran's Capability to Mitigate the Impact of a GPS Outage on GPS Position, Navigation, and Time Applications by Locus, Inc.* New Potential of Low-Frequency Radionavigation in the 21st Century PhD dissertation* LORAN-C chains in service * List of active LORAN-C transmitters* SDR in action: The last LORAN-C receiver is a technical description of using a software-defined radio to decode LORAN-C signals* New UK eLORAN service provision news article News article re: UK leading the way in eLORAN service provision.", "* eLORAN vs Loran-C at Inside GNSS—Short article describing the innovations in eLORAN* History of LORAN*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lunatic" ], [ "Introduction", "alt=From The Women's Library: Suffrage Collection; Created by the Suffrage Atelier \|A suffragist postcard depicting a lunatic, symbolized by a moon.", "'''Lunatic''' is a term referring to a person who is seen as mentally ill, dangerous, foolish, or crazy—conditions once attributed to \"lunacy\".", "The word derives from ''lunaticus'' meaning \"of the moon\" or \"moonstruck\"." ], [ "History", "horoscope of a \"Lunatic\" according to an astrologer who describes how the positions of the planets Saturn and Mars with respect to the moon are the cause of \"diseases of the mind\".The term \"lunatic\" derives from the Latin word ''lunaticus'', which originally referred mainly to epilepsy and madness, as diseases thought to be caused by the moon.", "The King James Version of the Bible records \"lunatick\" in the Gospel of Matthew, which has been interpreted as a reference to epilepsy.", "By the fourth and fifth centuries, astrologers were commonly using the term to refer to neurological and psychiatric diseases.", "Pliny the Elder argued that the full moon induced individuals to lunacy and epilepsy by effects on the brain analogous to the nocturnal dew.", "Until at least 1700, it was also a common belief that the moon influenced fevers, rheumatism, episodes of epilepsy and other diseases.", "There is also a Greek goddess named luna." ], [ "Use of the term \"lunatic\" in legislation", "In the jurisdiction of England and Wales the Lunacy Acts 1890–1922 referred to \"lunatics\", but the Mental Treatment Act 1930 changed the legal term to \"person of unsound mind\", an expression which was replaced under the Mental Health Act 1959 by \"mental illness\".", "\"Person of unsound mind\" was the term used in 1950 in the English version of the European Convention on Human Rights as one of the types of person who could be deprived of liberty by a judicial process.", "The 1930 Act also replaced the term \"asylum\" with \"mental hospital\".", "Criminal lunatics became Broadmoor patients in 1948 under the National Health Service Act 1946.On December 5, 2012, the US House of Representatives passed legislation approved earlier by the US Senate removing the word \"lunatic\" from all federal laws in the United States.", "President Barack Obama signed the 21st Century Language Act of 2012 into law on December 28, 2012.", "\"Of unsound mind\" or ''non compos mentis'' are alternatives to \"lunatic\", the most conspicuous term used for insanity in the law in the late 19th century." ], [ "Lunar distance", "The term ''lunatic'' was sometimes used to describe those who sought to discover a reliable method of determining longitude (before John Harrison developed the marine chronometer method of determining longitude, the main theory was the Method of Lunar Distances, advanced by Astronomer Royal Nevil Maskelyne).", "The artist William Hogarth portrayed a \"longitude lunatic\" in the eight scene of his 1733 work ''A Rake's Progress''.", "Twenty years later, though, Hogarth described John Harrison's H-1 chronometer as \"one of the most exquisite movements ever made.", "\"Later, members of the Lunar Society of Birmingham called themselves ''lunaticks''.", "In an age with little street lighting, the society met on or near the night of the full moon." ], [ "See also", "* Bedlam* Lunar effect* History of psychiatry* History of psychiatric institutions" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Does the full moon have any effects on mood?", "(cites research studies: 2 negative, 1 positive)* Crackdown on lunar-fuelled crime – BBC News, 5 June 2007" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Linear timecode" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Linear (or Longitudinal) Timecode''' ('''LTC''') is an encoding of SMPTE timecode data in an audio signal, as defined in SMPTE 12M specification.", "The audio signal is commonly recorded on a VTR track or other storage media.", "The bits are encoded using the biphase mark code (also known as ''FM''): a 0 bit has a single transition at the start of the bit period.", "A 1 bit has two transitions, at the beginning and middle of the period.", "This encoding is self-clocking.", "Each frame is terminated by a 'sync word' which has a special predefined sync relationship with any video or film content.A special bit in the linear timecode frame, the ''biphase mark correction'' bit, ensures that there are an even number of AC transitions in each timecode frame.The sound of linear timecode is a jarring and distinctive noise and has been used as a sound-effects shorthand to imply ''telemetry'' or ''computers''.As of 2019-01-21, this recommendation was withdrawn by ITU-R" ], [ "Generation and Distribution", "In broadcast video situations, the LTC generator should be tied into house black burst, as should all devices using timecode, '''to ensure correct color framing and correct synchronization of all digital clocks.'''", "When synchronizing multiple clock-dependent digital devices together with video, such as digital audio recorders, the devices must be connected to a common word clock signal that is derived from the house black burst signal.", "This can be accomplished by using a generator that generates both black burst and video-resolved word clock, or by synchronizing the master digital device to video, and synchronizing all subsequent devices to the word clock output of the master digital device (and to LTC).Made up of 80 bits per frame, where there may be 24, 25 or 30 frames per second, LTC timecode varies from 960 Hz (binary zeros at 24 frames/s) to 2400 Hz (binary ones at 30 frames/s), and thus is comfortably in the audio frequency range.", "LTC can exist as either a balanced or unbalanced signal, and can be treated as an audio signal in regards to distribution.", "Like audio, LTC can be distributed by standard audio wiring, connectors, distribution amplifiers, and patchbays, and can be ground-isolated with audio transformers.", "It can also be distributed via 75 ohm video cable and video distribution amplifiers, although the voltage attenuation caused by using a 75 ohm system may cause the signal to drop to a level that can not be read by some equipment.Care has to be taken with analog audio to avoid audible 'breakthrough' (aka \"crosstalk\") from the LTC track to the audio tracks.", "'''LTC care''':Avoid percussive sounds close to LTCNever process an LTC with noise reduction, eq or compressorAllow pre roll and post rollTo create negative time code add one hour to time (avoid ''midnight effect'')Always put slowest device as a masterLongitudinal SMPTE timecode should be played back at a middle-level when recorded on an audio track, as both low and high levels will introduce distortion." ], [ "Longitudinal timecode data format", "Linear timecode waveform as displayed in Audacity with 80 bit data frame highlightedThe basic format is an 80-bit code that gives the time of day to the second, and the frame number within the second.", "Values are stored in binary-coded decimal, least significant bit first.There are thirty-two bits of user data, usually used for a reel number and date.+ SMPTE linear timecode Bit Weight Meaning Bit Weight Meaning Bit Weight Meaning Bit Weight Meaning Bit Value Meaning 00 1 Frame numberunits(0–9) 16 1 Secondsunits(0–9) 32 1 Minutesunits(0–9) 48 1 Hoursunits(0–9) 64 0 Sync word,fixed bitpattern0011 11111111 1101 01 2 17 2 33 2 49 2 65 0 02 4 18 4 34 4 50 4 66 1 03 8 19 8 35 8 51 8 67 1 04 User bitsfield 1 20 User bitsfield 3 36 User bitsfield 5 52 User bitsfield 7 68 1 05 21 37 53 69 1 06 22 38 54 70 1 07 23 39 55 71 1 08 10 Frame numbertens (0-2) 24 10 Secondstens(0–5) 40 10 Minutestens(0–5) 56 10 Hourstens (0-2) 72 1 09 20 25 20 41 20 57 20 73 1 10 D Drop frame flag.", "26 40 42 40 58 BGF1 Clock flag 74 1 11 C \"Color frame\" flag 27 (flag, see below) 43 (flag, see below) 59 (flag, see below) 75 1 12 User bitsfield 2 28 User bitsfield 4 44 User bitsfield 6 60 User bitsfield 8 76 1 13 29 45 61 77 1 14 30 46 62 78 0 15 31 47 63 79 1 Bit 10 is set to 1 if drop frame numbering is in use; frame numbers 0 and 1 are skipped during the first second of every minute, except multiples of 10 minutes.", "This converts 30 frame/second time code to the 29.97 frame/second NTSC standard.", "* Bit 11, the color framing bit, is set to 1 if the time code is synchronized to a color video signal.", "The frame number modulo 2 (for NTSC and SECAM) or modulo 4 (for PAL) should be preserved across cuts in order to avoid phase jumps in the chrominance subcarrier.", "* Bits 27, 43, and 59 differ between 25 frame/s time code, and other frame rates (30, 29.97, or 24).", "The bits are: \"Polarity correction bit\" (bit 59 at 25 frame/s, bit 27 at other rates): this bit is chosen to provide an even number of 0 bits in the whole frame, including the sync code.", "(Since the frame is an even number of bits long, this implies an even number of 1 bits, and is thus an even parity bit.", "Since the sync code includes an odd number of 1 bits, it is an odd parity bit over the data.)", "This keeps the phase of each frame consistent, so it always starts with a rising edge at the beginning of bit 0.This allows seamless splicing of different time codes, and lets it be more easily read with an oscilloscope.", " \"Binary group flag\" bits BGF0 and BGF2 (bits 27 and 43 at 25 frame/s, bits 43 and 59 at other rates): these indicate the format of the user bits.", "Both 0 indicates no (or unspecified) format.", "Only BGF0 set indicates four 8-bit characters (transmitted little-endian).", "The combinations with BGF2 set are reserved.", "* Bit 58, unused in earlier versions of the specification, is now defined as \"binary group flag 1\" and indicates that the time code is synchronized to an external clock.", "if zero, the time origin is arbitrary.", "* The sync pattern in bits 64 through 79 includes 12 consecutive 1 bits, which cannot appear anywhere else in the time code.", "Assuming all user bits are set to 1, the longest run of 1 bits that can appear elsewhere in the time code is 10, bits 9 to 18 inclusive.", "* The sync pattern is preceded by 00 and followed by 01.This is used to determine whether an audio tape is running forward or backward." ], [ "See also", "AES-EBU embedded timecodeBurnt-in timecodeControl track longitudinal timecodeMIDI timecodeManchester code, Differential Manchester encodingRewritable consumer timecodeVertical interval timecode" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " LGPL library to en/decode LTC in software" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh" ], [ "Introduction", "'''John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh''', (; 12 November 1842 – 30 June 1919) was a British mathematician and physicist who made extensive contributions to science.", "He spent all of his academic career at the University of Cambridge.", "Among many honours, he received the 1904 Nobel Prize in Physics \"for his investigations of the densities of the most important gases and for his discovery of argon in connection with these studies.\"", "He served as president of the Royal Society from 1905 to 1908 and as chancellor of the University of Cambridge from 1908 to 1919.Rayleigh provided the first theoretical treatment of the elastic scattering of light by particles much smaller than the light's wavelength, a phenomenon now known as \"Rayleigh scattering\", which notably explains why the sky is blue.", "He studied and described transverse surface waves in solids, now known as \"Rayleigh waves\".", "He contributed extensively to fluid dynamics, with concepts such as the Rayleigh number (a dimensionless number associated with natural convection), Rayleigh flow, the Rayleigh–Taylor instability, and Rayleigh's criterion for the stability of Taylor–Couette flow.", "He also formulated the circulation theory of aerodynamic lift.", "In optics, Rayleigh proposed a well-known criterion for angular resolution.", "His derivation of the Rayleigh–Jeans law for classical black-body radiation later played an important role in the birth of quantum mechanics (see Ultraviolet catastrophe).", "Rayleigh's textbook ''The Theory of Sound'' (1877) is still used today by acousticians and engineers.", "He introduced the Rayleigh test for circular non-uniformity, of which the Rayleigh plot visualizes." ], [ "Biography", "Strutt was born on 12 November 1842 at Langford Grove in Maldon, Essex.", "In his early years he suffered from frailty and poor health.", "He attended Eton College and Harrow School (each for only a short period), before going on to the University of Cambridge in 1861 where he studied mathematics at Trinity College, Cambridge.", "He obtained a Bachelor of Arts degree (Senior Wrangler and 1st Smith's Prize) in 1865, and a Master of Arts in 1868.He was subsequently elected to a fellowship of Trinity.", "He held the post until his marriage to Evelyn Balfour, daughter of James Maitland Balfour, in 1871.He had three sons with her.", "In 1873, on the death of his father, John Strutt, 2nd Baron Rayleigh, he inherited the Barony of Rayleigh.He was the second Cavendish Professor of Physics at the University of Cambridge (following James Clerk Maxwell), from 1879 to 1884.He first described dynamic soaring by seabirds in 1883, in the British journal ''Nature''.", "From 1887 to 1905 he was professor of Natural Philosophy at the Royal Institution.Around the year 1900 Rayleigh developed the ''duplex'' (combination of two) theory of human sound localisation using two binaural cues, interaural phase difference (IPD) and interaural level difference (ILD) (based on analysis of a spherical head with no external pinnae).", "The theory posits that we use two primary cues for sound lateralisation, using the difference in the phases of sinusoidal components of the sound and the difference in amplitude (level) between the two ears.Vanity Fair'', 1899In 1904 he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics \"for his investigations of the densities of the most important gases and for his discovery of argon in connection with these studies\".During the First World War, he was president of the government's Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, which was located at the National Physical Laboratory, and chaired by Richard Glazebrook.In 1919, Rayleigh served as president of the Society for Psychical Research.", "As an advocate that simplicity and theory be part of the scientific method, Rayleigh argued for the principle of similitude.Rayleigh was elected fellow of the Royal Society on 12 June 1873, and served as president of the Royal Society from 1905 to 1908.From time to time he participated in the House of Lords; however, he spoke up only if politics attempted to become involved in science.Many of the papers that he wrote on lubrication are now recognized as early classical contributions to the field of tribology.", "For these contributions, he was named as one of the 23 \"Men of Tribology\" by Duncan Dowson.He died on 30 June 1919, at his home in Witham, Essex.", "He was succeeded, as the 4th Lord Rayleigh, by his son Robert John Strutt, another well-known physicist.", "Lord Rayleigh was buried in the graveyard of All Saints' Church in Terling in Essex.", "There is a memorial to him by Derwent Wood in St Andrew's Chapel at Westminster Abbey." ], [ "Religious views", "Rayleigh was an Anglican.", "Though he did not write about the relationship of science and religion, he retained a personal interest in spiritual matters.", "When his scientific papers were to be published in a collection by the Cambridge University Press, Strutt wanted to include a quotation from the Bible, but he was discouraged from doing so, as he later reported:Still, he had his wish and the quotation was printed in the five-volume collection of scientific papers.", "In a letter to a family member, he wrote about his rejection of materialism and spoke of Jesus Christ as a moral teacher:He held an interest in parapsychology and was an early member of the Society for Psychical Research (SPR).", "He was not convinced of spiritualism but remained open to the possibility of supernatural phenomena.", "Rayleigh was the president of the SPR in 1919.He gave a presidential address in the year of his death but did not come to any definite conclusions." ], [ "Honours and awards", "The lunar crater ''Rayleigh'' as well as the Martian crater ''Rayleigh'' were named in his honour.", "The asteroid 22740 Rayleigh was named after him on 1 June 2007.A type of surface waves are known as Rayleigh waves, and the elastic scattering of electromagnetic waves is called Rayleigh scattering.", "The rayl, a unit of specific acoustic impedance, is also named for him.", "Rayleigh was also awarded with (in chronological order):* Smith's Prize (1864)* Royal Medal (1882)Member of the American Philosophical Society (1886) Matteucci Medal (1894)* Member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences (1897)* Copley Medal (1899)* Nobel Prize in Physics (1904)* Elliott Cresson Medal (1913)* Rumford Medal (1914)Lord Rayleigh was among the original recipients of the Order of Merit (OM) in the 1902 Coronation Honours list published on 26 June 1902, and received the order from King Edward VII at Buckingham Palace on 8 August 1902.He received the degree of ''Doctor mathematicae (honoris causa)'' from the Royal Frederick University on 6 September 1902, when they celebrated the centennial of the birth of mathematician Niels Henrik Abel.Sir William Ramsay, his co-worker in the investigation to discover argon described Rayleigh as \"the greatest man alive\" while speaking to Lady Ramsay during his last illness.H.", "M. Hyndman said of Rayleigh that \"no man ever showed less consciousness of great genius\"." ], [ "Bibliography", "''Theory of sound'', 1894* '' The Theory of Sound vol.", "I'' (London : Macmillan, 1877, 1894) (alternative link: Bibliothèque Nationale de France OR (Cambridge: University Press, reissued 2011, )* '' The Theory of Sound vol.II'' (London : Macmillan, 1878, 1896) (alternative link: Bibliothèque Nationale de France) OR (Cambridge: University Press, reissued 2011, )* '' Scientific papers (Vol.", "1: 1869–1881)'' (Cambridge : University Press, 1899–1920, reissued by the publisher 2011, )* '' Scientific papers (Vol.", "2: 1881–1887)'' (Cambridge : University Press, 1899–1920, reissued by the publisher 2011, )* '' Scientific papers (Vol.", "3: 1887–1892)'' (Cambridge : University Press, 1899–1920, reissued by the publisher 2011, )* '' Scientific papers (Vol.", "4: 1892–1901)'' (Cambridge : University Press, 1899–1920, reissued by the publisher 2011, )* '' Scientific papers (Vol.", "5: 1902–1910)'' (Cambridge : University Press, 1899–1920, reissued by the publisher 2011, )* '' Scientific papers (Vol.", "6: 1911–1919)'' (Cambridge : University Press, 1899–1920, reissued by the publisher 2011, )" ], [ "See also" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* ''Life of John William Strutt: Third Baron Rayleigh, O.M., F.R.S.", "'', (1924) Longmans, Green & Co.:: A biography written by his son, Robert Strutt, 4th Baron Rayleigh" ], [ "External links", "* About John William Strutt Lord Rayleigh – the Last of the Great Victorian Polymaths, GEC Review, Volume 7, No.", "3, 1992" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lunisolar calendar" ], [ "Introduction", "Record of the Chinese lunisolar calendar for 1834, 1835, and 1836 during the Qing dynasty under the Daoguang Emperor's Reign (道光十四年，道光十五年，道光十六年)A '''lunisolar calendar''' (陰陽曆) is a calendar in many cultures, incorporating lunar calendars and solar calendars.", "The date of lunisolar calendars therefore indicates both the Moon phase (月相) and the time of the solar year, that is the position of the Sun in the Earth's sky.", "If the sidereal year (such as in a sidereal solar calendar) is used instead of the solar year, then the calendar will predict the constellation near which the full moon (滿月) may occur.", "As with all calendars which divide the year into months there is an additional requirement that the year have a whole number of months.", "In some case ordinary years (平年) consist of twelve months but every second or third year is an embolismic year (閏年), which adds a thirteenth intercalary, embolismic, or leap month.The Five Phases and Four Seasons of the traditional Chinese lunisolar calendar, with English translation.1729 Japanese calendar, which used the Jōkyō calendar procedure, published by Ise Grand ShrineTheir months are based on the regular cycle of the Moon's phases.", "So lunisolar calendars are lunar calendars with – in contrast to them – additional intercalation rules being used to bring them into a rough agreement with the solar year and thus with the seasons." ], [ "Examples", "The Chinese, Buddhist, Burmese, Assyrian,Hebrew, Jain and Kurdish as well as the traditional Nepali, Hindu, Japanese, Korean, Mongolian, Tibetan, and Vietnamese calendars (in the East Asian Chinese cultural sphere), plus the ancient Hellenic, Coligny, and Babylonian calendars are all lunisolar.", "Also, some of the ancient pre-Islamic calendars in south Arabia followed a lunisolar system.", "The Chinese, Coligny andHebrew lunisolar calendars track more or less the tropical year whereas the Buddhist and Hindu lunisolar calendars track the sidereal year.", "Therefore, the first three give an idea of the seasons whereas the last two give an idea of the position among the constellations of the full moon.===Chinese lunisolar calendar===The Chinese calendar or Chinese lunisolar calendar is also called Agricultural Calendar 農曆; 农历; Nónglì; 'farming calendar', or Yin Calendar 陰曆; 阴历; Yīnlì; 'yin calendar'), based on the concept of Yin Yang and astronomical phenomena, as movements of the sun, moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn (known as the seven luminaries) are the references for the Chinese lunisolar calendar calculations.", "The Chinese lunisolar calendar is believed to be the origin of some similar calendars used in other neighboring countries, such as Vietnam and Korea.", "The earliest record of the Chinese lunisolar calendar is the Zhou dynasty (1050 BC – 771 BC).", "Throughout history, the Chinese lunisolar calendar had many variations and evolved with different dynasties with increasing accuracy, including the \"six ancient calendars\" in the Warring States period, the Qin calendar in the Qin dynasty, the Han calendar or the Taichu calendar in the Han dynasty and Tang dynasty, the Shoushi calendar in the Yuan dynasty, and the Daming calendar in the Ming dynasty, etc.", "Starting 1912, the solar calendar is used together with the lunar calendar in China.The most celebrated Chinese holidays, like the Spring Festival (Chunjie, 春節), or the Chinese New Year, Lantern Festival (元宵節), Mid-Autumn Festival (中秋節), Dragon Boat Festival (端午節), Qingming Festival (清明節), etc.", "are all based on the Chinese lunisolar calendar.", "And the popular Chinese zodiac is a classification scheme based on the Chinese calendar that assigns an animal and its reputed attributes to each year in a repeating twelve-year cycle." ], [ "Movable feasts in the Christian calendars, related to the lunar cycle", "The Gregorian calendar (the world's most commonly used) is a solar one but the Western Christian churches use a lunar-based algorithm to determine the date of Easter and consequent movable feasts.", "Briefly, the date is determined with respect to the ecclesiastical full moon that follows the ecclesiastical equinox in March.", "(These events are almost, but not quite, the same as the actual astronomical observations.)", "The Eastern Christian churches have a similar algorithm that is based on the Julian calendar." ], [ "Reconciling lunar and solar cycles", "===Determining leap months===A tropical year is approximately 365.2422 days long and a synodic month is approximately 29.5306 days long, so a tropical year is approximately months long.", "Because 0.36826 is between and , a typical year of 12 months needs to be supplemented with one intercalary or leap month every 2 to 3 years.", "More precisely, 0.36826 is quite close to (about 0.3684211): several lunisolar calendars have 7 leap months in every cycle of 19 years (called a 'Metonic cycle').", "The Babylonians applied the 19-year cycle in the late sixth century BCE.Intercalation of leap months is frequently controlled by the \"epact\", which is the difference between the lunar and solar years (approximately 11 days).", "The classic Metonic cycle can be reproduced by assigning an initial epact value of 1 to the last year of the cycle and incrementing by 11 each year.", "Between the last year of one cycle and the first year of the next the increment is 12 the which causes the epacts to repeat every 19 years.", "When the epact reaches 30 or higher, an intercalary month is added and 30 is subtracted.", "The Metonic cycle states that 7 of 19 years will contain an additional intercalary month and those years are numbered: 3, 6, 8, 11, 14, 17 and 19.Both the Hebrew calendar and the Julian calendar use this sequence.The Buddhist and Hebrew calendars restrict the leap month to a single month of the year; the number of common months between leap months is, therefore, usually 36, but occasionally only 24 months.", "Because the Chinese and Hindu lunisolar calendars allow the leap month to occur after or before (respectively) any month but use the true apparent motion of the Sun, their leap months do not usually occur within a couple of months of perihelion, when the apparent speed of the Sun along the ecliptic is fastest (now about 3 January).", "This increases the usual number of common months between leap months to roughly 34 months when a doublet of common years occurs, while reducing the number to about 29 months when only a common singleton occurs.===With uncounted time===An alternative way of dealing with the fact that a solar year does not contain an integer number of lunar months is by including uncounted time in a period of the year that is not assigned to a named month.", "Some Coast Salish peoples used a calendar of this kind.", "For instance, the Chehalis began their count of lunar months from the arrival of spawning chinook salmon (in Gregorian calendar October), and counted 10 months, leaving an uncounted period until the next chinook salmon run." ], [ "List of lunisolar calendars <span class=\"anchor\" id=\"List of lunisolar calendars\"></span> <!-- [[List of lunisolar calendars]] redirects here -->", "The following is a list of lunisolar calendars sorted by family.", "* Babylonian calendar family – common use of the Metonic cycle Ancient Macedonian calendar Hebrew calendar** Umma calendar* Hindu calendar family – shared astronomical roots Assamese calendar Bengali calendar Burmese calendar Chula Sakarat Jain calendar Odia calendar Thai lunar calendar Vikram Samvat* Chinese calendar family – years start on second new moon after winter solstice (save for leaps) Japanese calendar Korean calendar Mongolian calendar Tibetan calendar** Vietnamese calendar* Unclassified or independent Attic calendar Egyptian calendar, Ptolemaic Inca Empire Celtic calendar, including Coligny calendar Javanese calendar Muisca calendar Nisg̱a'a Old Eastern Ojibwe calendar" ], [ "See also", "List of calendarsCallippic cycleCalendar reformNasi'Other non-solar calendars Roman calendar (probably a lunisolar calendar with common years of 355 days and leap years of 378 days.", ")Rune calendarTamil calendar" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "" ], [ "External links", "* Introduction to Calendars , US Naval Observatory, Astronomical Applications Department.", "* Luni-Solar Calendar" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Leonids" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Leonids''' ( ) are a prolific annual meteor shower associated with the comet Tempel–Tuttle, and are also known for their spectacular meteor storms that occur about every 33 years.", "The Leonids get their name from the location of their radiant in the constellation Leo: the meteors appear to radiate from that point in the sky.", "Their proper Greek name should be Leon'''t'''ids (), but the word was initially constructed as a Greek/Latin hybrid and it has been used since.", "The meteor shower peak should be on 17 November, but any outburst in 2023 is likely to be from the 1767 meteoroid stream.Earth moves through meteoroid streams left from passages of a comet.", "The streams consist of solid particles, known as meteoroids, normally ejected by the comet as its frozen gases evaporate under the heat of the Sun when it is near the Sun – typically closer than Jupiter's orbit.", "Due to the retrograde orbit of 55P/Tempel–Tuttle, the Leonids are fast moving streams which encounter the path of Earth and impact at .", "It is the fastest annual meteor shower.", "Larger Leonids which are about across have a mass of and are known for generating bright (apparent magnitude −1.5) meteors.", "An annual Leonid shower may deposit 12 or 13 tons of particles across the entire planet.The meteoroids left by the comet are organized in trails in orbits similar tothough different fromthat of the comet.", "They are differentially disturbed by the planets, in particular Jupiter, and to a lesser extent by radiation pressure from the Sunthe Poynting–Robertson effect and the Yarkovsky effect.", "These trails of meteoroids cause meteor showers when Earth encounters them.", "Old trails are spatially not dense and compose the meteor shower with a few meteors per minute.", "In the case of the Leonids, that tends to peak around 18 November, but some are spread through several days on either side and the specific peak changes every year.", "Conversely, young trails are spatially very dense and the cause of meteor outbursts when the Earth enters one.The Leonids also produce '''meteor storms''' (very large outbursts) about every 33 years, during which activity exceeds 1,000 meteors per hour, with some events exceeding 100,000 meteors per hour, in contrast to the sporadic background (5 to 8 meteors per hour) and the shower background (several meteors per hour).+Meteoroids Size Apparent Magnitude Comparable in brightness +3.7 (visual) Delta Ursae Majoris −1.5 (bright) Sirius −3.8 (Fireball) Venus" ], [ "History", "===1800s===The Leonids are famous because their meteor showers, or storms, can be among the most spectacular.", "Because of the storm of 1833 and the developments in scientific thought of the time (see for example the identification of Halley's Comet), the Leonids have had a major effect on the scientific study of meteors, which had previously been thought to be atmospheric phenomena.", "Although it has been suggested the Leonid meteor shower and storms have been noted in ancient times, it was the meteor storm of November 12-13, 1833 that broke into people's modern-day awareness.", "One estimate of the peak rate is over one hundred thousand meteors an hour, while another, done as the storm abated, estimated in excess of 240,000 meteors during the nine hours of the storm, over the entire region of North America east of the Rocky Mountains.The event was marked by several nations of Native Americans: the Cheyenne established a peace treaty and the Lakota calendar was reset.", "Many Native American birthdays were calculated by reference to the 1833 Leonid event.", "Abolitionists including Harriet Tubman and Frederick Douglass as well as slave-owners took note and others.", "The ''New York Evening Post'' carried a series of articles on the event including reports from Canada to Jamaica, it made news in several states beyond New York and, though it appeared in North America, was talked about in Europe.", "The journalism of the event tended to rise above the partisan debates of the time and reviewed facts as they could be sought out.", "Abraham Lincoln commented on it years later.", "Near Independence, Missouri, in Clay County, a refugee Mormon community watched the meteor shower on the banks of the Missouri River after having been driven from their homes by local settlers.", "Joseph Smith, the founder and first leader of Mormonism, afterwards noted in his journal for November 1833 his belief that this event was \"a litteral ''sic'' fulfillment of the word of God\" and a harbinger of the imminent second coming of Christ.", "Though it was noted in the midwest and eastern areas it was also noted in Far West, Missouri.Denison Olmsted explained the event most accurately.", "After spending the last weeks of 1833 collecting information, he presented his findings in January 1834 to the ''American Journal of Science and Arts'', published in January–April 1834, and January 1836.He noted the shower was of short duration and was not seen in Europe, and that the meteors radiated from a point in the constellation of Leo and he speculated the meteors had originated from a cloud of particles in space.", "Accounts of the 1866 repeat of the Leonids counted hundreds per minute/a few thousand per hr in Europe.", "The Leonids were again seen in 1867, when moonlight reduced the rates to 1,000 meteors per hour.", "Another strong appearance of the Leonids in 1868 reached an intensity of 1,000 meteors per hour in dark skies.", "It was in 1866–67 that information on Comet Tempel-Tuttle was gathered, pointing it out as the source of the meteor shower and meteor storms.", "When the storms failed to return in 1899, it was generally thought that the dust had moved on and the storms were a thing of the past.The November Meteors by Étienne Léopold Trouvelot, 1868===1900s===In 1966, a spectacular meteor storm was seen over the Americas.", "Historical notes were gathered thus noting the Leonids back to 900 AD.", "Radar studies showed the 1966 storm included a relatively high percentage of smaller particles while 1965's lower activity had a much higher proportion of larger particles.", "In 1981 Donald K. Yeomans of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory reviewed the history of meteor showers for the Leonids and the history of the dynamic orbit of Comet Tempel-Tuttle.", "A graph from it was adapted and re-published in ''Sky and Telescope''.", "It showed relative positions of the Earth and Tempel-Tuttle and marks where Earth encountered dense dust.", "This showed that the meteoroids are mostly behind and outside the path of the comet, but paths of the Earth through the cloud of particles resulting in powerful storms were very near paths of nearly no activity.", "But overall the 1998 Leonids were in a favorable position so interest was rising.Leading up to the 1998 return, an airborne observing campaign was organized to mobilize modern observing techniques by Peter Jenniskens at NASA Ames Research Center.", "In 1999, there were also efforts to observe impacts of meteoroids on the Moon, as an example of transient lunar phenomenon.", "A particular reason to observe the Moon is that our vantage from a location on Earth sees only meteors coming into the atmosphere relatively close to us, while impacts on the Moon would be visible from across the Moon in a single view.", "The sodium tail of the Moon tripled just after the 1998 Leonid shower which was composed of larger meteoroids (which in the case of the Earth was witnessed as fireballs).", "However, in 1999 the sodium tail of the Moon did not change from the Leonid impacts.Research by Kondrat'eva, Reznikov and colleagues at Kazan University had shown how meteor storms could be accurately predicted, but for some years the worldwide meteor community remained largely unaware of these results.", "The work of David J. Asher, Armagh Observatory and Robert H. McNaught, Siding Spring Observatory and independently by Esko Lyytinen in 1999, following on from the Kazan research, is considered by most meteor experts as the breakthrough in modern analysis of meteor storms.", "Whereas previously it was hazardous to guess if there would be a storm or little activity, the predictions of Asher and McNaught timed bursts in activity down to ten minutes by narrowing down the clouds of particles to individual streams from each passage of the comet, and their trajectories amended by subsequent passage near planets.", "However, whether a specific meteoroid trail will be primarily composed of small or large particles, and thus the relative brightness of the meteors, was not understood.", "But McNaught did extend the work to examine the placement of the Moon with trails and saw a large chance of a storm impacting in 1999 from a trail while there were less direct impacts from trails in 2000 and 2001 (successive contact with trails through 2006 showed no hits).Leonids as seen from space in 1997, NASA===2000s===Viewing campaigns resulted in spectacular footage from the 1999, 2001, and 2002 storms which produced up to 3,000 Leonid meteors per hour.", "Predictions for the Moon's Leonid impacts also noted that in 2000 the side of the Moon facing the stream was away from the Earth, but that impacts should be in number enough to raise a cloud of particles kicked off the Moon which could cause a detectable increase in the sodium tail of the Moon.", "Research using the explanation of meteor trails/streams have explained the storms of the past.", "The 1833 storm was not due to the recent passage of the comet, but from a direct impact with the previous 1800 dust trail.", "The meteoroids from the 1733 passage of Comet Tempel-Tuttle resulted in the 1866 storm and the 1966 storm was from the 1899 passage of the comet.", "The double spikes in Leonid activity in 2001 and in 2002 were due to the passage of the comet's dust ejected in 1767 and 1866.This ground breaking work was soon applied to other meteor showers – for example the 2004 June Bootids.", "Peter Jenniskens has published predictions for the next 50 years.", "However, a close encounter with Jupiter is expected to perturb the comet's path, and many streams, making storms of historic magnitude unlikely for many decades.", "Recent work tries to take into account the roles of differences in parent bodies and the specifics of their orbits, ejection velocities off the solid mass of the core of a comet, radiation pressure from the Sun, the Poynting–Robertson effect, and the Yarkovsky effect on the particles of different sizes and rates of rotation to explain differences between meteor showers in terms of being predominantly fireballs or small meteors.", "Year Leonids active between Peak of shower ZHRmax2006 19 Nov. Outburst of ZHR=35–40 was predicted from the 1932 trail.782007 19 Nov. Outburst of ZHR=~30 from the 1932 trail was predicted for 18 Nov.35200814–22 November 17 Nov.", "Considerable outburst of ZHR=130 from the 1466 trail was predicted for 17 Nov.99200910–21 November ZHRmax ranging from 100 to over 500 on 17 Nov.", "The peak was observed at predicted time.79201010–23 November 18 Nov32±420116–30 November 18 Nov22±320126–30 November 20 Nov. Nov 17 ZHR=5–10 (''predicted'') / 20 Nov ZHR=10–15 (''predicted'' from 1400 trail)47±11201315–20 November 17 Nov but was washed out by a Full moon on 17 Nov–20146–30 November 18 Nov15±420156–30 November 18 Nov1520166–30 November 17 Nov10–1520176–30 November 17 Nov~1720186–30 November 17 Nov15–2020196–30 November 17 Nov10–1520206–30 November 17 Nov10–1520216–30 November 17 Nov10–15202217-21 November 17 Nov (there was a low possibility of an outburst from the 1733 meteoroid stream on 19 November)15 (predicted) - 300 (unlikely)20233 Nov - 2 Dec 17 Nov (a modest increase is possible from the 1767 meteoroid stream on 21 November)15 (predicted)2024 17 Nov15–20 (predicted)2025 17 Nov (any outburst is likely to be from the 1699 meteoroid stream) 10–15 (predicted)2026 17 Nov15 (predicted)2027 17 Nov (possible activity from 1167 meteoroid stream on 20 November)40–50 (predicted)2028 17 Nov30–40 (predicted)2029 17 Nov (possible activity from 1998 meteoroid stream)30–40 (predicted)2030 17 Nov15-20 (predicted)2031 17 Nov<10 (predicted)2032 17 Nov<10 (predicted)2033 17 Nov (Outburst likely from 1899 meteoroid stream.", "Encountering a younger stream typically generates more activity.", ")35-400 (predicted)2034 17–18 Nov (probable outburst from the young 1932 meteoroid stream on 18 November)40–500 (predicted)2061 (Possible outburst from the young 1998 meteoroid stream on 19 November)50 (predicted) – 5100 (unlikely)2099 (Possible outburst from dense stream)1000+?Predictions until the end of the 21st century have been published by Mikhail Maslov." ], [ "See also", "* List of meteor showers* \"Stars Fell on Alabama\", based on the 1833 Leonid shower* Perseids, associated with the comet Swift–Tuttle" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* " ], [ "External links", " The Discovery of the Perseid Meteors (after the Leonids and) Prior to 1837, nobody realized the Perseids were an annual event, by Mark Littmann* Lunar Leonids: Encounters of the Moon with Leonid dust trails by Robert H. McNaught* NASA: Background facts on meteors and meteor showers* NASA: Estimate the best viewing times for your part of the world* How to hear the Leonid Meteor Shower* Observatorio ARVAL – The Leonid Meteors* Animation of the Leonid Meteor Shower at shadow&substance.com" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Labarum" ], [ "Introduction", "The Labarum of Constantine I, reconstructed from the depiction on a follis minted .", "The three dots represent \"medallions\" which are said to have shown portraits of Constantine and his sons.The '''labarum''' () was a ''vexillum'' (military standard) that displayed the \"Chi-Rho\" symbol ☧, a christogram formed from the first two Greek letters of the word \"Christ\" (, or Χριστός) – ''Chi'' (χ) and ''Rho'' (ρ).", "It was first used by the Roman emperor Constantine the Great.Ancient sources draw an unambiguous distinction between the two terms \"labarum\" and \"Chi-Rho\", even though later usage sometimes regards the two as synonyms.", "The name labarum was applied both to the original standard used by Constantine the Great and to the many standards produced in imitation of it in the Late Antique world, and subsequently." ], [ "Etymology", "Beyond its derivation from Latin ''labarum'', the etymology of the word is unclear.", "The Oxford English Dictionary offers no further derivation from within Latin.", "Some derive it from Latin /labāre/ 'to totter, to waver' (in the sense of the \"waving\" of a flag in the breeze) or ''laureum vexillum'' (\"laurel standard\").", "An origin as a loan into Latin from a Celtic language or Basque has also been postulated.", "There is a traditional Basque symbol called the lauburu; though the name is only attested from the 19th century onwards the motif occurs in engravings dating as early as the 2nd century AD.Harry Thurston Peck in his ''Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities'' wrote: \"The etymology of the term itself has given rise to many conflicting opinions.", "Some derive the name from labor; others from εὐλάβεια, “reverence”; others from λαμβάνειν, “to take”; and others, again, from λάφυρα, “spoils.” One writer makes Labarum to be like S.P.Q.R., only a notatio, or combination of initials to represent an equal number of terms; and thus, L.A.B.A.R.V.M.", "will stand for ''Legionum aquila Byzantium antiqua Roma urbe mutavit''.\"" ], [ "Vision of Constantine", "A follis of Constantine () showing a depiction of his labarum spearing a serpent on the reverse; the inscription reads ''SPES PVBLICA''On the evening of October 27, 312 AD, with his army preparing for the Battle of the Milvian Bridge, the emperor Constantine I claimed to have had a vision which led him to believe he was fighting under the protection of the Christian God.Lactantius states that in the night before the battle Constantine was commanded in a dream to \"delineate the heavenly sign on the shields of his soldiers\".", "Obeying this command, \"he marked on their shields the letter X, with a perpendicular line drawn through it and turned round thus at the top, being the cipher of Christ\".", "Having had their shields marked in this fashion, Constantine's troops readied themselves for battle.From Eusebius, two accounts of a battle survive.", "The first, shorter one in the ''Ecclesiastical History'' leaves no doubt that God helped Constantine but does not mention any vision.", "In his later ''Life of Constantine'', Eusebius gives a detailed account of a vision and stresses that he had heard the story from the emperor himself.", "According to this version, Constantine with his army was marching somewhere (Eusebius does not specify the actual location of the event, but it clearly is not in the camp at Rome) when he looked up to the sun and saw a cross of light above it, and with it the Greek words ''Ἐν Τούτῳ Νίκα''.", "The traditionally employed Latin translation of the Greek is ''in hoc signo vinces''— literally \"In this sign, you will conquer.\"", "However, a direct translation from the original Greek text of Eusebius into English gives the phrase \"By this, conquer!", "\"At first he was unsure of the meaning of the apparition, but the following night he had a dream in which Christ explained to him that he should use the sign against his enemies.", "Eusebius then continues to describe the labarum, the military standard used by Constantine in his later wars against Licinius, showing the Chi Rho sign.Those two accounts have been merged in popular notion into Constantine seeing the Chi-Rho sign on the evening before the battle.", "Both authors agree that the sign was not readily understandable as denoting Christ, which corresponds with the fact that there is no certain evidence of the use of the letters chi and rho as a Christian sign before Constantine.", "Its first appearance is on a Constantinian silver coin from c. 317, which proves that Constantine did use the sign at that time.", "He made extensive use of the Chi-Rho and the labarum later in the conflict with Licinius.The vision has been interpreted in a solar context (e.g., as a sun dog phenomenon), which would have been reshaped to fit with the Christian beliefs of the later Constantine.An alternate explanation of the intersecting celestial symbol has been advanced by George Latura, which claims that Plato's visible god in ''Timaeus'' is in fact the intersection of the Milky Way and the zodiacal light, a rare apparition important to pagan beliefs that Christian bishops reinvented as a Christian symbol." ], [ "Eusebius' description of the labarum", "wreathed Chi Rho from an antique silver medal\"A Description of the Standard of the Cross, which the Romans now call the Labarum.", "\"\"Now it was made in the following manner.", "A long spear, overlaid with gold, formed the figure of the cross by means of a transverse bar laid over it.", "On the top of the whole was fixed a wreath of gold and precious stones; and within this, the symbol of the Saviour’s name, two letters indicating the name of Christ by means of its initial characters, the letter P being intersected by X in its centre: and these letters the emperor was in the habit of wearing on his helmet at a later period.", "From the cross-bar of the spear was suspended a cloth, a royal piece, covered with a profuse embroidery of most brilliant precious stones; and which, being also richly interlaced with gold, presented an indescribable degree of beauty to the beholder.", "This banner was of a square form, and the upright staff, whose lower section was of great length, of the pious emperor and his children on its upper part, beneath the trophy of the cross, and immediately above the embroidered banner.", "\"\"The emperor constantly made use of this sign of salvation as a safeguard against every adverse and hostile power, and commanded that others similar to it should be carried at the head of all his armies.\"" ], [ "Iconographic career under Constantine", "Coin of Vetranio, a soldier is holding two labara.", "Notably, they differ from the labarum of Constantine in having the Chi-Rho depicted on the cloth rather than above it, and in having their staves decorated with phalerae as were earlier Roman military unit standards.Honorius holding a variant of the labarum - the Latin phrase on the cloth means \"In the name of Christ rendered by the Greek letters XPI be ever victorious.", "\"The labarum does not appear on any of several standards depicted on the Arch of Constantine, which was erected just three years after the battle.", "If Eusebius' oath-confirmed account of Constantine's vision and the role it played in his victory and conversion can be trusted, then a grand opportunity for the kind of political propaganda that the Arch was built to present was missed.", "Many historians have argued that in the early years after the battle, the Emperor had not yet decided to give clear public support to Christianity, whether from a lack of personal faith or because of fear of religious friction.", "The arch's inscription does say that the Emperor had saved the ''res publica'' INSTINCTV DIVINITATIS MENTIS MAGNITVDINE (\"by greatness of mind and by instinct or impulse of divinity\").", "Continuing the iconography of his predecessors, Constantine's coinage at the time was inscribed with solar symbolism, interpreted as representing ''Sol Invictus'' (the Unconquered Sun), Helios, Apollo, or Mithras, but in 325 and thereafter the coinage ceases to be explicitly pagan, and Sol Invictus disappears.", "And although Eusebius' ''Historia Ecclesiae'' further reports that Constantine had a statue of himself \"holding the sign of the Savior the cross in his right hand\" erected after his victorious entry into Rome, there are no other reports to confirm such a monument.Historians still dispute whether Constantine was the first Christian Emperor to support a peaceful transition to Christianity during his rule, or an undecided pagan believer until middle age, and also how strongly influenced he was in his political-religious decisions by his Christian mother St. Helena.As for the labarum itself, there is little evidence for its use before 317.In the course of Constantine's second war against Licinius in 324, the latter developed a superstitious dread of Constantine's standard.", "During the attack of Constantine's troops at the Battle of Adrianople the guard of the labarum standard were directed to move it to any part of the field where his soldiers seemed to be faltering.", "The appearance of this talismanic object appeared to embolden Constantine's troops and dismay those of Licinius.", "At the final battle of the war, the Battle of Chrysopolis, Licinius, though prominently displaying the images of Rome's pagan pantheon on his own battle line, forbade his troops from actively attacking the labarum, or even looking at it directly.Constantine felt that both Licinius and Arius were agents of Satan, and associated them with the serpent described in the Book of Revelation (12:9).", "Constantine represented Licinius as a snake on his coins.Eusebius stated that in addition to the singular labarum of Constantine, other similar standards (labara) were issued to the Roman army.", "This is confirmed by the two labara depicted being held by a soldier on a coin of Vetranio (illustrated) dating from 350." ], [ "Later usage", "Modern ecclesiastical labara (Southern Germany).The emperor Constantine IX Monomachos (centre panel of a Byzantine enamelled crown) holding a miniature labarumA later Byzantine manuscript indicates that a jewelled labarum standard believed to have been that of Constantine was preserved for centuries, as an object of great veneration, in the imperial treasury at Constantinople.", "The labarum, with minor variations in its form, was widely used by the Christian Roman emperors who followed Constantine.A miniature version of the labarum became part of the imperial regalia of Byzantine rulers, who were often depicted carrying it in their right hands.The term \"labarum\" can be generally applied to any ecclesiastical banner, such as those carried in religious processions.", "\"The Holy Lavaro\" were a set of early national Greek flags, blessed by the Greek Orthodox Church.", "Under these banners the Greeks united throughout the Greek Revolution (1821), a war of liberation waged against the Ottoman Empire.Labarum also gives its name (Labaro) to a suburb of Rome adjacent to Prima Porta, one of the sites where the 'Vision of Constantine' is placed by tradition." ], [ "See also", "* Gonfalone* Christian symbolism* Constantine I and Christianity* Cantabrian Labarum* Arch of Constantine, triumphal arch to the victory at Milvian Bridge.", "* Christianity* Constantinian shift* Khorugv* Michaelion* XI monogramBiertan Donarium" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Bibliography", "Grabar, ''Christian Iconography: A Study of its Origins'' (Princeton University Press) 1968:165ffGrant, Michael (1993), The Emperor Constantine, London.", "R. Grosse, \"Labarum\", ''Realencyclopädie der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft'' vol.", "12, pt 1(Stuttgart) 1924:240-42.H.", "Grégoire, \"L'étymologie de 'Labarum'\" ''Byzantion'' '''4''' (1929:477-82).J.", "Harries (2012) ''Imperial Rome AD 284 to 363'', Ch.", "5: ''The Victory of Constantine, AD 311–37'', Edinburgh University Press.", "* A. Lipinsky, \"Labarum\" ''Lexikon der christlichen Ikonographie'' '''3''' (Rome:1970)Lieu, S.N.C and Montserrat, D. (Ed.s) (1996), From Constantine to Julian, London.", "Odahl, C.M., (2004) ''Constantine and the Christian Empire,'' Routledge 2004.", "Smith, J.H., (1971) ''Constantine the Great'', Hamilton, *Stephenson, P., (2009) ''Constantine: Unconquered Emperor, Christian Victor'', Quercus, London." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lactantius" ], [ "Introduction", "Fourth-century mural possibly depicting Lactantius'''Lucius Caecilius Firmianus''' '''Lactantius''' (c. 250 – c. 325) was an early Christian author who became an advisor to Roman emperor Constantine I, guiding his Christian religious policy in its initial stages of emergence, and a tutor to his son Crispus.", "His most important work is the ''Institutiones Divinae'' (\"The Divine Institutes\"), an apologetic treatise intended to establish the reasonableness and truth of Christianity to pagan critics.He is best known for his apologetic works, widely read during the Renaissance by humanists, who called Lactantius the \"Christian Cicero\".", "Also often attributed to Lactantius is the poem ''The Phoenix'', which is based on the myth of the phoenix from Egypt and Arabia.", "Though the poem is not clearly Christian in its motifs, modern scholars have found some literary evidence in the text to suggest the author had a Christian interpretation of the eastern myth as a symbol of resurrection." ], [ "Biography", "Lactantius was of Punic or Berber origin, born into a pagan family.", "He was a pupil of Arnobius who taught at Sicca Veneria, an important city in Numidia (corresponding to today's city of El Kef in Tunisia).", "In his early life, he taught rhetoric in his native town, which may have been Cirta in Numidia, where an inscription mentions a certain \"L. Caecilius Firmianus\".Lactantius had a successful public career at first.", "At the request of the Roman emperor Diocletian, he became an official professor of rhetoric in Nicomedia; the voyage from Africa is described in his poem ''Hodoeporicum'' (now lost).", "There, he associated in the imperial circle with the administrator and polemicist Sossianus Hierocles and the pagan philosopher Porphyry; he first met Constantine, and Galerius, whom he cast as villain in the persecutions.", "Having converted to Christianity, he resigned his post before Diocletian's purging of Christians from his immediate staff and before the publication of Diocletian's first \"Edict against the Christians\" (February 24, 303).As a Latin ''rhetor'' in a Greek city, he subsequently lived in poverty according to Saint Jerome and eked out a living by writing until Constantine I became his patron.", "The persecution forced him to leave Nicomedia, perhaps re-locating to North Africa.", "The emperor Constantine appointed the elderly Lactantius Latin tutor to his son Crispus in 309-310 who was probably 10-15 years old at the time.", "Lactantius followed Crispus to Trier in 317, when Crispus was made Caesar (subordinate co-emperor) and sent to the city.", "Crispus was put to death by order of his father Constantine I in 326.The time and circumstances of Lactantius' death are unknown." ], [ "Works", "Like many of the early Christian authors, Lactantius depended on classical models.", "Saint Jerome praised his writing style while faulting his ability as a Christian apologist, saying: \"Lactantius has a flow of eloquence worthy of Tully: would that he had been as ready to teach our doctrines as to pull down those of others!\"", "Similarly, the early humanists called him the \"Christian Cicero\" (''Cicero Christianus'').", "A translator of the ''Divine Institutes'' wrote: \"Lactantius has always held a very high place among the Christian Fathers, not only on account of the subject-matter of his writings, but also on account of the varied erudition, the sweetness of expression, and the grace and elegance of style, by which they are characterized.", "\"===Prophetic exegesis===Beginning of Lactantius’ ''Divinae institutiones'' in a Renaissance manuscript written in Florence ca.", "1420–1430 by Guglielmino TanagliaLike many writers in the first few centuries of the early church, Lactantius took a premillennialist view, holding that the second coming of Christ will precede a millennium or a thousand-year reign of Christ on earth.", "According to Charles E. Hill, \"With Lactantius in the early fourth century we see a determined attempt to revive a more “genuine” form of chiliasm.\"", "Lactantius quoted the Sibyls extensively (although the Sibylline Oracles are now considered to be pseudepigrapha).", "Book VII of ''The Divine Institutes'' indicates a familiarity with Jewish, Christian, Egyptian and Iranian apocalyptic material.Attempts to determine the time of the End were viewed as in contradiction to Acts 1:7: \"It is not for you to know the times or seasons that the Father has established by his own authority,\" and Mark 13:32: \"But of that day or hour, no one knows, neither the angels in heaven, nor the Son, but only the Father.", "\"===Apologetics===He wrote apologetic works explaining Christianity in terms that would be palatable to educated people who still practiced the traditional religions of the Empire.", "He defended Christian beliefs against the criticisms of Hellenistic philosophers.", "His ''Divinae Institutiones'' (\"Divine Institutes\") were an early example of a systematic presentation of Christian thought.", "''De opificio Dei'' (\"The Works of God\"), an apologetic work, written in 303 or 304 during Diocletian's persecution and dedicated to a former pupil, a rich Christian named Demetrianius.", "The apologetic principles underlying all the works of Lactantius are well set forth in this treatise.", "''Institutiones Divinae'' (\"The Divine Institutes\"), written between 303 and 311.This is the most important of the writings of Lactantius.", "It was \"one of the first books printed in Italy and the first dated Italian imprint.\"", "As an apologetic treatise, it was intended to point out the futility of pagan beliefs and to establish the reasonableness and truth of Christianity as a response to pagan critics.", "It was also the first attempt at a systematic exposition of Christian theology in Latin and was planned on a scale sufficiently broad to silence all opponents.", "Patrick Healy argues that \"The strengths and the weakness of Lactantius are nowhere better shown than in his work.", "The beauty of the style, the choice and aptness of the terminology, cannot hide the author's lack of grasp on Christian principles and his almost utter ignorance of Scripture.\"", "Included in this treatise is a quote from the nineteenth of the Odes of Solomon, one of only two known texts of the Odes until the early twentieth century.", "However, his mockery of the idea of a round earth was criticised by Copernicus as \"childish\".", "''De mortibus persecutorum'' (\"On the Deaths of the Persecutors\") has an apologetic character but given Lactantius's presence at the court of Diocletian in Nicomedia and the court of Constantine in Gaul, it is considered a valuable primary source for the events it records.", "Lactantius describes the goal of the work as follows: \"I relate all those things on the authority of well-informed persons, and I thought it proper to commit them to writing exactly as they happened, lest the memory of events so important should perish, and lest any future historian of the persecutors should corrupt the truth.\"", "The point of the work is to describe the deaths of the persecutors of Christians before Lactantius (Nero, Domitian, Decius, Valerian, Aurelian) as well as those who were the contemporaries of Lactantius himself: Diocletian, Maximian, Galerius, Maximinus and Maxentius.", "This work is taken as a chronicle of the last and greatest of the persecutions in spite of the moral point that each anecdote has been arranged to tell.", "Here, Lactantius preserves the story of Constantine's vision of the Chi Rho before his conversion to Christianity.", "The full text is found in only one manuscript, which bears the title ''Lucii Caecilii liber ad Donatum Confessorem de Mortibus Persecutorum''.Page from the ''Opera'', a manuscript from 1465, featuring various colours of pen-workAn ''Epitome'' of the ''Divine institutes'' is a summary treatment of the subject.===Other===''De ira Dei'' (\"On the Wrath of God\" or \"On the Anger of God\"), directed against the Stoics and Epicureans.", "Widely attributed to Lactantius although it shows only cryptic signs of Christianity, the poem ''The Phoenix'' (''de Ave Phoenice'') tells the story of the death and rebirth of that mythical bird.", "That poem in turn appears to have been the principal source for the famous Old English poem to which the modern title ''The Phoenix'' is given.", "''Opera'' (\"Works\") A second edition printed in the monastery at Subiaco, Lazio, is still extant.", "It remained in Italy until the late eighteenth century, when it was known to be in the library of Prince Vincenzo Maria Carafa in Messina.", "The Bodleian Library in Oxford, England, acquired this volume in 1817." ], [ "Later heritage", "For unclear reasons, he became considered somewhat heretical after his death.", "The Gelasian Decree of the 6th century condemns his work as apocryphal and not to be read.", "Renaissance humanists took a renewed interest in him, more for his elaborately rhetorical Latin style than for his theology.", "His works were copied in manuscript several times in the 15th century and were first printed in 1465 by the Germans Arnold Pannartz and Konrad Sweynheim at the Abbey of Subiaco.", "This edition was the first book printed in Italy to have a date of printing, as well as the first use of a Greek alphabet font anywhere, which was apparently produced in the course of printing, as the early pages leave Greek text blank.", "It was probably the fourth book ever printed in Italy.", "A copy of this edition was sold at auction in 2000 for more than $1 million." ], [ "See also", " Problem of evil" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "" ], [ "External links", " Lactantius: links to primary texts and secondary sources* Lactantius: text, concordances and frequency list* Opera Omnia* Bibliography of Lactantius: compiled by Jackson Bryce* Lactantius, ''The Divine Institutes''* Lactantius.", "Lord Hailes (transl.)", "(2021) ''On the Deaths of the Persecutors: A Translation of De Mortibus Persecutorum by Lucius Cæcilius Firmianus Lactantius'' Evolution Publishing, Merchantville, NJ , *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Laconia" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Laconia''' or '''Lakonia''' (, , ) is a historical and administrative region of Greece located on the southeastern part of the Peloponnese peninsula.", "Its administrative capital is Sparta.", "The word ''laconic''—to speak in a blunt, concise way—is derived from the name of this region, a reference to the ancient Spartans who were renowned for their verbal austerity and blunt, often pithy remarks." ], [ "Geography", "Eurotas river outside the city of Sparti.Laconia is bordered by Messenia to the west and Arcadia to the north and is surrounded by the Myrtoan Sea to the east and by the Laconian Gulf and the Mediterranean Sea to the south.", "It encompasses Cape Malea and Cape Tainaron and a large part of the Mani Peninsula.", "The Mani Peninsula is in the west region of Laconia.", "The islands of Kythira and Antikythera lie to the south, but they administratively belong to the Attica regional unit of islands.", "The island, Elafonisos, situated between the Laconian mainland and Kythira, is part of Laconia.The Evrotas is the longest river in the prefecture.", "The Evrotas Valley is predominantly an agricultural region that contains many citrus groves, olive groves, and pasture lands.", "It is the location of the largest orange production in the Peloponnese and probably in all of Greece.", "''Lakonia'', a brand of orange juice, is based in Amykles.The main mountain ranges are the Taygetus in the west and the Parnon in the northeast.", "Taygetus, known as Pentadaktylos (''five-fingers'') throughout the Middle Ages, is west of Sparta and the Evrotas Valley.", "It is the highest mountain in Laconia and the Peloponnese and is mostly covered with pine trees.", "Two roads join the Messenia and Laconia prefectures: one is a tortuous mountain pass through Taygetus and the other bypasses the mountain via the Mani district to the south.The stalactite cave, Dirou, a major tourist attraction, is located south of Areopolis in the southwest of Laconia.===Climate===The city of Sparta enjoys a sunny and warm Mediterranean climate (Köppen: ''Csa'').", "January highs are around while July and August highs are around in the city proper.", "Sparta records the highest summer average maximum temperatures in Greece.", "In July 2012 the city registered an average maximum temperature of , making it Greece's second highest monthly average maximum temperature to date after the recorded in Stylida in July 2023.The highest temperature ever recorded in Sparta is in August 2021.On average, Sparta records 5 days per year with temperatures of over ." ], [ "History", "===Ancient===The theater of ancient Sparta with modern Sparti and Taygetus in the backgroundEvidence of Neolithic settlement in southern Laconia has been found during excavations of the Alepotrypa cave site.", "Significant archaeological recovery exists at the Vaphio-tomb site in Laconia.", "Found there is advanced Bronze Age art as well as evidence of cultural associations with the contemporaneous Minoan culture on Crete.", "At the end of the Mycenean period, the population of Laconia sharply declined.", "In classical Greece, Laconia was Spartan territory but from the 4th century BC onward Sparta lost control of various ports, towns and areas.", "From the mid-2nd century BC until 395 AD, Laconia was a part of the Roman Empire.===Medieval===Palace of MystrasIn the medieval period, Laconia formed part of the Byzantine Empire.", "In the 7th century, Slavic tribes settled in the Peloponnese.", "Two of them, the Melingoi and the Ezeritai, who settled in parts of Laconia, survived the subsequent Byzantine reconquest and re-Hellenization of the Peloponnese, and are attested until the late Middle Ages.Following the Fourth Crusade, Laconia was gradually conquered by the Frankish Principality of Achaea.", "In the 1260s, the Byzantines recovered Mystras and other fortresses in the region and managed to evict the Franks from Laconia, which became the nucleus of a new Byzantine province.", "By the mid-14th century, this evolved into the Despotate of the Morea, held by the last Greek ruling dynasty, the Palaiologoi.", "The capital of the Despotate, Mystras, was a major site of the Palaiologan Renaissance, the last flowering of Byzantine culture.", "With the fall of the Despotate to the Ottomans in 1460, Laconia was conquered as well.===Modern===With the exception of a 30-year interval of Venetian rule, Laconia remained under Ottoman control until the outbreak of the Greek War of Independence of 1821.Following independence, Sparta was selected as the capital of the modern prefecture, and its economy and agriculture expanded.", "With the incorporation of the British-ruled Ionian Islands into Greece in 1864, Elafonissos became part of the prefecture.", "After World War II and the Greek Civil War, its population began to somewhat decline, as people moved from the villages toward the larger cities of Greece and abroad.In 1992, a devastating fire ruined the finest olive crops in the northern part of the prefecture, and affected the area of Sellasia along with Oinountas and its surrounding areas.", "Firefighters, helicopters and planes battled for days to put out the horrific fire.In early 2006, flooding ruined olive and citrus crops as well as properties and villages along the Eurotas river.", "In the summer 2006, a fire devastated a part of the Mani Peninsula, ruining forests, crops, and numerous villages." ], [ "Municipalities", "TaygetusParnonThe rock of MonemvasiaThe port of Gytheio, Mani peninsula.The regional unit, Laconia, is subdivided into five municipalities.", "These are (number as in the map in the infobox):East Mani (''Anatoliki Mani'', 2)Elafonisos (3)Eurotas (4)Monemvasia (5)Sparta (1)===Prefecture===As a part of the 2011 Kallikratis government reform, regional unit Laconia was created out of the former prefecture Laconia ().", "The prefecture had the same territory as the present regional unit.", "At the same time, the municipalities were reorganised, according to the table below.", "New municipality Old municipalities SeatEast Mani (''Anatoliki Mani'') East Mani Gytheio Gytheio Oitylo SminosElafonisosElafonisosElafonisosEurotas Skala Skala Geronthres Elos Krokees NiataMonemvasia Monemvasia Molaoi Asopos Voies Zarakas MolaoiSparti Sparti Sparti TherapnesKaryes Mystras Oinountas Pellana Faris===Provinces=== Epidavros Limira Province – Molaoi* Gytheio Province – Gytheio* Lacedaemonia Province – Sparti* Oitylo Province – Areopoli''Note:'' Provinces no longer hold any legal status in Greece." ], [ "Population", "1907: 87,1061991: 95,6962001: 94,9182011: 89,138The main cities and towns of Laconia are (ranked by 2011 census population):Sparta 17,408Gytheio 4,717Neapoli 3,130Skala 3,089" ], [ "Transport", "Greek National Road 39, Tripoli – Sparti – GytheioGreek National Road 82, Pylos – Kalamata – SpartiGreek National Road 86, Gytheio – MonemvasiaMolaoi to Leonidi Road, E, NE" ], [ "Communications", "===Radio===FLY FM 89,7 (Sparta).", "POLITIA 90,7 – ΠΟΛΙΤΕΙΑ 90.7 (Sparta)Radio Sparti – 92.7 FM (Sparta)Radiofonias Notias Lakonias (Southern Laconia Radio) – 93.5 (Gytheio)Star FM – 94.7===Television===Ellada TV – UHF 43, SpartaTV Notias Lakonias – Molaoi===Newspapers===Λακωνικός ΤύποςΕλεύθερη Άποψη Νέα ΣπάρτηΠαρατηρητής της Λακωνίας" ], [ "See also", "List of settlements in LaconiaList of traditional Greek place namesLaconic phrase" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lanista" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Lanista''''' is a genus of African bush-crickets (Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae) in the subfamily Conocephalinae." ], [ "Species", "* ''Lanista affinis'' Bolívar, 1906* ''Lanista annulicornis'' (Walker, 1869)* ''Lanista crassicollis'' Bolívar, 1906* ''Lanista varelai'' Bolívar, 1906" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Laocoön" ], [ "Introduction", "''Laocoön and His Sons'' in the Vatican'''Laocoön''' (; , , gen.: ) is a figure in Greek and Roman mythology and the Epic Cycle.", "Laocoön is a Trojan priest.", "He and his two young sons are attacked by giant serpents, sent by the gods.", "The story of Laocoön has been the subject of numerous artists, both in ancient and in more contemporary times." ], [ "Family", "Laocoön was variously called as the son of Acoetes, Antenor, or Poseidon; or the son of Priam and Hecuba.He had two sons." ], [ "Death", "Death of Laocoön from the Vatican VergilThe most detailed description of Laocoön's grisly fate was provided by Quintus Smyrnaeus in ''Posthomerica'', a later, literary version of events following the ''Iliad''.", "According to Quintus, Laocoön begged the Trojans to set fire to the Trojan horse to ensure it was not a trick.Athena, angry with him and the Trojans, shook the ground around Laocoön's feet and painfully blinded him.", "The Trojans, watching this unfold, assumed Laocoön was punished for the Trojans' mutilating and doubting Sinon, the undercover Greek soldier sent to convince the Trojans to let him and the horse inside their city walls.", "Thus, the Trojans wheeled the great wooden horse in.", "Laocoön did not give up trying to convince the Trojans to burn the horse.According to one source, it was Athena who punished Laocoön even further, by sending two giant sea serpents to strangle and kill him and his two sons.", "Another version of the story says that it was Poseidon who sent the sea serpents to kill them.", "And according to Apollodorus, it was Apollo who sent the two sea serpents, because Laocoön had insulted Apollo by having sex with his wife in front of his cult statue.Virgil used the story in the ''Aeneid''.", "According to Virgil, Laocoön advised the Trojans not to receive the horse from the Greeks.", "They were taken in by the deceitful testimony of Sinon and disregarded Laocoön's advice.", "The enraged Laocoön threw his spear at the Horse in response.Minerva then sent sea serpents to strangle Laocoön and his two sons, Antiphantes and Thymbraeus, for his actions.", ": \"Laocoön, ostensibly sacrificing a bull to Neptune on behalf of the city (lines 201 ff.", "), becomes himself the tragic victim, as the simile (lines 223–224) makes clear.", "In some sense, his death must be symbolic of the city as a whole ...\" — S.V.", "Tracy (1987)According to the Hellenistic poet Euphorion of Chalcis, Laocoön was ''actually'' punished for procreating upon holy ground sacred to Poseidon; it was only unlucky timing that caused the Trojans to misinterpret his death as punishment for striking the horse with a spear, which they bring into the city with disastrous consequences.The episode furnished the subject of Sophocles' lost tragedy, ''Laocoön''.In ''Aeneid'', Virgil describes the circumstances of Laocoön's death:: from the ''Aeneid'' English translation tr.", "Dryden" ], [ "Classical descriptions", "Laocoön and his sons attacked by serpents sent by Athena, fresco in PompeiiThe story of Laocoön is not mentioned by Homer, but it had been the subject of a tragedy, now lost, by Sophocles and was mentioned by other Greek writers, though the events around the attack by the serpents vary considerably.", "The most famous account of these is now in Virgil's ''Aeneid'' where Laocoön was a priest of Neptune (Poseidon), who was killed with both his sons after attempting to expose the ruse of the Trojan Horse by striking it with a spear.", "Virgil gives Laocoön the famous line: ''\"Equō nē crēdite, Teucrī / Quidquid id est, timeō Danaōs et dōna ferentēs\"'': This quote is the source of the saying: ''\"Beware of Greeks bearing gifts.", "\"''In Sophocles, however, he was a priest of Apollo who should have been celibate, but had married.", "The serpents killed only the two sons, leaving Laocoön himself alive to suffer.", "In other versions, he was killed for having committed an impiety by making love with his wife in the presence of a cult image in a sanctuary, or simply making a sacrifice in the temple with his wife present.", "In this second group of versions, the snakes were sent by Poseidon and in the first by Poseidon and Athena, or Apollo, and the deaths were interpreted by the Trojans as proof that the horse was a sacred object.", "The two versions have rather different morals: Laocoön was either punished for doing wrong, or for being right." ], [ "Later depictions", "The death of Laocoön was famously depicted in a much-admired marble ''Laocoön and His Sons'', attributed by Pliny the Elder to the Rhodian sculptors Agesander, Athenodoros, and Polydorus, which stands in the Vatican Museums, Rome.", "Copies have been executed by various artists, notably Baccio Bandinelli.", "These show the complete sculpture (with conjectural reconstructions of the missing pieces) and are located in Rhodes, at the Palace of the Grand Master of the Knights of Rhodes, Rome, the Uffizi Gallery in Florence and in front of the Archaeological Museum, Odesa, Ukraine, amongst others.", "Alexander Calder also designed a stabile which he called Laocoön in 1947; it's part of the Eli and Edyth Broad collection in Los Angeles.The marble Laocoön provided the central image for Lessing's ''Laocoön'', 1766, an aesthetic polemic directed against Winckelmann and the comte de Caylus.", "Daniel Albright reengages the role of the figure of Laocoön in aesthetic thought in his book ''Untwisting the Serpent: Modernism in Literature, Music, and Other Arts''.In Hector Berlioz's 1863 opera ''Les Troyens'', the death of Laocoön is a pivotal moment of the first act after Aeneas' entrance, sung by eight singers and a double choir (\"ottetto et double chœur\").", "It begins with the verse \"Châtiment effroyable\" (\"frightful punishment\").", "* In addition to other literary references, John Barth employs a bust of Laocoön in his novella, ''The End of the Road''.", "* The R.E.M.", "song \"Laughing\", on the band's debut album, ''Murmur'' (1983), references Laocoön, rendering him female (\"Laocoön and her two sons\"); they also reference Laocoön in the song \"Harborcoat\".", "* The comic book ''Asterix and the Laurel Wreath'' parodies statue's pose.", "* American author Joyce Carol Oates also references Laocoön in her 1989 novel ''American Appetites''.", "* In Stave V of ''A Christmas Carol'', by Charles Dickens (1843), Scrooge awakes on Christmas morning, \"making a perfect Laocoön of himself with his stockings\".", "* Barbara Tuchman's ''The March of Folly'' begins with an extensive analysis of the Laocoön story.", "* The American feminist poet and author Marge Piercy includes a poem titled \"Laocoön is the name of the figure\", in her collection ''Stone, Paper, Knife'' (1983), relating love lost and beginning.", "* John Steinbeck references Laocoön in his American literary classic ''East of Eden'', referring to a picture of “Laocoön completely wrapped in snakes” when describing artwork hanging in classrooms at the Salinas schoolhouse.", "* Sinclair Lewis references Laocoön in his novel ''Arrowsmith'', remarking of a family argument that \"general composition was remarkably like the Laocoön.", "\"Postminimalist artist Eva Hesse named her first major freestanding sculpture—a tall wrapped framework with a tangle of cords—Laocoon (1966).", "Russian-American author Vladimir Nabokov makes a passing mention of Laocoön is his novel on totalitarianism, '' Bend Sinister''." ], [ "Namesakes", "* 3240 Laocoon, an asteroid named after Laocoön" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Classical sources", "Compiled by Tracy, which includes a fragmentary line possibly by Nicander:* * * * * * * " ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", " * " ], [ "External links", " The Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (images of Laocoön)* * * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Limburg an der Lahn" ], [ "Introduction", "The river Lahn in LimburgMap of Limburg and its constituent communities'''Limburg an der Lahn''' (officially abbreviated ''Limburg a. d. Lahn'') is the district seat of Limburg-Weilburg in Hesse, Germany." ], [ "Geography", "===Location===Limburg lies in western Hesse between the Taunus and the Westerwald on the river Lahn.The town lies roughly centrally in a basin within the Rhenish Slate Mountains which is surrounded by the low ranges of the Taunus and Westerwald and called the Limburg Basin (''Limburger Becken'').", "Owing to the favourable soil and climate, the Limburg Basin stands as one of Hesse's richest agricultural regions and moreover, with its convenient Lahn crossing, it has been of great importance to transport since the Middle Ages.", "Within the basin, the Lahn's otherwise rather narrow lower valley broadens out noticeably, making Limburg's mean elevation only 117 m above sea level.===Neighbouring communities===Limburg forms, together with the town of Diez, a middle centre (in terms of Central place theory) but partially functions as an upper centre to western Middle Hesse.Limburg's residential neighbourhoods reach beyond the town limits; the neighbouring centres of Elz and Diez run seamlessly together.Surrounding towns and communities are the community of Elz and the town of Hadamar in the north, the community of Beselich in the northeast, the town of Runkel in the east, the communities of Villmar and Brechen in the southeast, the community of Hünfelden in the south (all in Limburg-Weilburg), the community of Holzheim in the southwest, and the town of Diez and the communities of Aull and Gückingen in the west (all in the Rhein-Lahn-Kreis in Rhineland-Palatinate).The nearest major cities are Wetzlar and Gießen to the north east, Wiesbaden and Frankfurt to the south and Koblenz to the west.===Constituent communities===The town consists of eight formerly autonomous ''Ortsbezirke'' or boroughs, listed here by population (as of 2020):# Limburg: 19,401# Lindenholzhausen: 3,315# Linter: 3,080# Eschhofen: 2,789# Staffel: 2,762# Offheim: 2,608# Dietkirchen: 1,630# Ahlbach: 1,252Each ''Ortsbezirk'' is represented by a council.", "Blumenrod is also often called a constituent community, although this is actually only a big residential neighbourhood in the main town's south end.", "Its landmark is the ''Domäne Blumenrod'', a former manor house that has been restored and remodelled by the Limburg Free Evangelical community.Limburg's biggest outlying centre is Lindenholzhausen (3,315 residents as of June 2020); the second biggest is Linter." ], [ "Etymology", "The derivation of the name \"Limburg\" is not quite clear and may well derive from a local castle (''Burg'' means \"castle\" in German).", "In 910 the town was first mentioned as ''Lintpurc''.", "Two of the popular theories are:* The name was chosen because of the close proximity to the Linterer Bach, a former stream in Linter that has now run dry and that emptied into the Lahn at the Domfelsen (crag).", "''Linda'' is the Gaulish word for water.", "* Rather unlikely but very popular is the connection to a dragon saga (see Lindworm) and the connection with the Stift of Saint George the \"Dragon Slayer\" founded in Limburg.", "However, the monastery was built after the castle and founded around the time of the first written mention of the name." ], [ "History", "The oldest preserved section of the Limburger Schloss, seen from the courtyardAbout 800 A.D., the first castle buildings arose on the Limburg crags.", "This was probably designed for the protection of a ford over the river Lahn.", "In the decades that followed, the town developed under the castle's protection.", "Limburg is first mentioned in documents in 910 under the name of ''Lintpurc'' when Louis the Child granted Konrad Kurzbold an estate in the community on which he was to build a church.", "Konrad Kurzbold laid the foundation stone for Saint George's Monastery Church, where he was also buried.", "The community soon increased in importance with the monastery's founding and profited from the lively goods trade on the ''Via Publica''.In 1150, a wooden bridge was built across the Lahn.", "The long-distance road from Cologne to Frankfurt am Main subsequently ran through Limburg.", "In the early 13th century, Limburg Castle was built in its current form.", "Shortly afterwards, the town passed into the ownership of the Lords of Ysenburg.", "In 1214, the community was granted town rights.", "Remains of the fortification wall from the years 1130, 1230 and 1340 with a maximum length of roughly one thousand metres indicate to this day the blossoming town's quick development in the Middle Ages.", "There is proof of a mint in Limburg in 1180.Mediaeval window at the back of the cathedral (peristyle)One line of the Lords of Ysenburg resided from 1258 to 1406 at Limburg Castle and took their name from their seat, Limburg.", "From this line came the House of Limburg-Stirum and also Imagina of Isenburg-Limburg, the wife of the German King Adolf.The ruling class among the mediaeval townsfolk were rich merchant families whose houses stood right near the castle tower and were surrounded by the first town wall once it was built.", "The area of today's Rossmarkt (\"Horse Market\"), in which many simple craftsmen lived, was only brought within the fortifications once the second town wall was built.", "The inhabitants there, however, unlike the merchant élite, were accorded no entitlement to a voice in town affairs and were not allowed to send representatives to the town council.", "Nevertheless, they had to bear the main financial burden of running the town.", "Only in 1458 were they allowed to send two representatives to town council.Remains of the town wall on Eschhöfer WegSaint George's Cathedral (''Sankt-Georgs-Dom'') built on the old monastery church's site, and also called ''Georgsdom'', was consecrated in 1235.On 14 May 1289, a devastating fire wiped out great parts of the inner town, although these were subsequently rebuilt.", "One of the houses built at that time was the Römer 2-4-6, which is today one of Germany's oldest half-timbered houses.", "In 1337, Limburg's Jews were expelled from the town.", "Only in 1341 were they once again able to settle in the town, by royal decree.", "In 1344 a half share of the town was pledged to the Electorate of Trier, and in 1420, the town passed wholly into the ownership of Trier.", "This event, along with another town fire in 1342, the Black Death in 1349, 1356 and 1365, but above all the rise of the Territorial Princes, led to a gradual decline.", "In 1315 and 1346, the old stone Lahn Bridge was built (presumably in two sections).Limburg – extract from the Topographia Hassiae by Matthäus Merian 1655Saint George's Cathedral in Limburg todayOld TownAgainst the background of the German Peasants' War, unrest also arose among the townsfolk in 1525.After the Elector of Trier had demanded that the townsmen turn a Lutheran preacher out of the town, a board made up of townsmen who were ineligible for council functions handed the council a 30-point comprehensive list of demands on 24 May.", "It dealt mainly with financial participation and equality in taxation, trade and building issues with the merchant class.", "In the days that followed, these demands were reduced in negotiations between the council and the board to 16 points, which were likely also taken up with the Elector afterwards.", "On 5 August, however, Archbishop Richard ordered the council to overturn all concessions to the townsmen.", "Furthermore, a ban on assembly was decreed, and the ineligible townsmen were stripped of their right to send two representatives to council.In 1806, Limburg came into the possession of the newly founded Duchy of Nassau.", "In 1818 the town wall was torn down.", "In 1827 the town was raised to a Catholic episcopal seat.", "In 1866 the Duchy and with it Limburg passed to Prussia in the wake of the Austro-Prussian War.", "As of 1862, Limburg became a railway hub and from 1886 a district seat.", "In 1892, the Pallottines settled in town, but only the men; the women came in 1895.During World War I there was a major prisoner of war camp at Limburg an der Lahn.", "Many Irish members of the British Army were interned there until the end of the war and at one stage they were visited by the Irish republican leader Roger Casement in an attempt to win recruits for the forthcoming Irish rebellion.From 1919 to 1923, Limburg was the \"capital\" of a short-lived state called Free State Bottleneck (or ''Freistaat Flaschenhals'' in German) because during the Allied occupation of the Rhineland it was effectively cut off from the Weimar Republic in an area the shape of a bottle's neck and subsequently separated from its administration." ], [ "Politics", "===Town council===The municipal election held on 6 March 2016 yielded the following results: '''Parties and voter communities''' '''%2016''' '''seats2016''' '''%2011''' '''seats2011'''CDUChristian Democratic Union of Germany42.81942.219SPDSocial Democratic Party of Germany33.01527.513 GRÜNE Bündnis 90/Die Grünen15.579.04FWGFreie Wähler Gemeinschaft Limburg5.22 FDP Free Democratic Party10.254.72BZLBürgervereinigung Zukunft Limburg4.12 LINKE 4.720.80'''Total''''''100.0''''''45''''''100.0''''''45''''''voter turnout in %''''''45.5''''''43.5'''===Mayor===The town's mayor is currently Marius Hahn (SPD).===Sponsorship===In 1956, a sponsorship was undertaken for Sudeten Germans driven out of the town of Uničov, Czech Republic." ], [ "Economy and infrastructure", "The old Lahn Bridge was where the Via Publica crossed the LahnLahn Valley Bridge on the InterCityExpress high-speed rail lineLahn Valley Bridge on the A3, in the background the ICE bridge, in the foreground at left part of the campground===Transport===Limburg is a traditional transportation hub.", "Already in the Middle Ages, the ''Via Publica'' crossed the navigable Lahn here.", "Today the A 3 (Emmerich–Oberhausen–Cologne–Frankfurt–Nuremberg–Passau) and ''Bundesstraße'' 8, which both follow the ''Via Publica's'' alignment as closely as possible, run through the town.", "''Bundesstraße'' 49 links Limburg to Koblenz towards the west and Wetzlar and Gießen towards the east.", "The section between Limburg and Wetzlar is currently being widened to four lanes.", "This section as far as Obertiefenbach is also known as ''Die lange Meil'' (\"The Long Mile\").", "''Bundesstraße'' 54 links Limburg on the one hand with Siegen to the north and on the other by way of Diez with Wiesbaden, which may likewise be reached over ''Bundesstraße'' 417 (''Hühnerstraße'').As early as 1248, a wooden bridge spanned the Lahn, but was replaced after the flooding in 1306 by a stone bridge, the ''Alte Lahnbrücke''.", "Other road bridges are the ''Lahntalbrücke Limburg'' (1964) on the A 3, the ''Lahnbrücke'' near Staffel and the ''Neue Lahnbrücke'' from 1968, over which run the ''Bundesstraßen'' before they cross under the inner town through the ''Schiedetunnel'', a bypass tunnel.Once the ''Lahntalbahn'' had been built, Limburg was joined to the railway network in 1862.Limburg railway station developed into a transport hub.", "Eschhofen station is also in Limburg.", "Other railway lines are the ''Unterwesterwaldbahn'', the ''Oberwesterwaldbahn'' and the Main-Lahn Railway.", "At Niedernhausen station on the ''Main-Lahn Railway'', transfer to the ''Ländchesbahn'' to Wiesbaden is possible.", "With the exception of the upper section of the ''Lahntalbahn'' and express lines to Koblenz and Frankfurt, which are still served by Deutsche Bahn, all railway lines are run by Vectus Verkehrsgesellschaft mbH, based in Limburg.Once the InterCityExpress Cologne-Frankfurt high-speed rail line had been built, Limburg acquired an ICE station.", "It is the only railway station in Germany at which exclusively ICE trains stop.", "The high-speed rail line crosses the Lahn over the ''Lahntalbrücke'' and then dives into the ''Limburger Tunnel''.The nearest airport is Frankfurt Airport, 63 km away on the A 3.Travel time there on the ICE is roughly 20 minutes.", "Cologne Bonn Airport is 110 km away and can be reached on the ICE in 44 minutes.The Lahn between Lahnstein and Wetzlar is a ''Bundeswasserstraße'' (\"Federal waterway\").", "Since the ''Lahntalbahn's'' expansion, however, the waterway's importance has been declining.", "It is used mainly by tourists with small motorboats, canoes and rowboats.", "Limburg is the landing site of the tourboat ''Wappen von Limburg''.===Established businesses===Mundipharma headquarters in the ''Dietkircher Höhe'' commercial park* Blechwarenfabrik Limburg GmbH (Metal and plastic packaging)* Bundesanzeiger Verlag (publishing house)* Harmonic Drive AG* MOBA Mobile Automation AG* Mundipharma* Tetra Pak* Vectus Verkehrsgesellschaft mbH (transport)* Nassauische Neue Presse (newspaper)" ], [ "Public institutions", "===Education===TilemannschuleMarienschule with the old building on the left and the former boarding school hall of residence on the rightLimburg has four schools which lead to, among other qualifications, the Abitur:* Tilemannschule, which has existed since the late 19th century and was named after the famous Limburg chancellory head Tilemann Elhen von Wolfhagen in the 1950s* Marienschule, a private Gymnasium (Grammar School), which has existed since 1895 and which belongs to the Bishopric of Limburg.", "* Peter-Paul-Cahensly-Schule with vocational Gymnasium (Grammar School) in the fields of economics and administration, data processing, electrical engineering and machine building* Adolf-Reichwein-Schule with vocational Gymnasium in the fields of dietetics and health sciencesProfessional training schools:* Peter-Paul-Cahensly-Schule* Friedrich-Dessauer-Schule* Adolf-Reichwein-Schule* MarienschuleHauptschulen and Realschulen:* Johann-Wolfgang-von-Goethe-Schule* Leo-Sternberg-Schule* Theodor-Heuss-SchuleLibraries:* Dombibliothek* Diözesanbibliothek===St.", "Vincenz Hospital===''Krankenhaus St. Vincenz''The hospital perched on the Schafsberg overlooking the town has at its disposal 433 beds and 15 specialist departments.===Sport and leisure===In Limburg there are various sport clubs; some are even represented in ''Bundesligen'', and even at the world level.", "* Limburger Club für Wassersport 1895/1907 e.V.", "(training base for the ''Deutscher Ruderverband'')* Limburger Hockey Club* Schwimmverein Poseidon Limburg e. V. (swimming)* various clubs in the outlying centres such as the Turnverein Eschhofen (gymnastics club), the fistball stronghold in Limburg-Weilburg===Youth meeting place in Limburg===The Evangelical Church offers with its ''Jugendfreizeitstätte Limburg'' (JFS for short, meaning \"Youth Leisure Place\") a meeting place for youth with many events.", "With table football, Internet café and many events, this institution is not only church-based, with two staff and a ''Zivildienstleistender'' supporting the visitors not only with their problems.===Limburg Mothers' Centre===The ''Mütterzentrum Limburg'' is a family meeting place for those with or without children on Hospitalstraße.", "The club is supported by the town of Limburg and the ''Bundesland'' of Hesse and offers among other things a parents' service that looks after children, a broad array of course offerings for children and adults, a miniature kindergarten and a café.===Volunteer fire brigades===* Limburg an der Lahn Volunteer Fire brigade, founded 1867 (includes Youth Fire Brigade)* Ahlbach Volunteer Fire Brigade, founded 1908 (includes Youth Fire Brigade)* Dietkirchen Volunteer Fire Brigade, founded 1934 (includes Youth Fire Brigade)* Eschhofen Volunteer Fire Brigade, founded 1901 (includes Youth Fire Brigade)* Lindenholzhausen Volunteer Fire Brigade, founded 1933 (includes Youth Fire Brigade)* Linter Volunteer Fire Brigade, founded 1935 (includes Youth Fire Brigade)* Offheim Volunteer Fire Brigade, founded 1898 (includes Youth Fire Brigade)* Staffel Volunteer Fire Brigade, founded 1880 (includes Youth Fire Brigade)" ], [ "Culture and sightseeing", "=== Performers ===The cabaret troupe \"Thing\", founded more than 25 years ago, moved after a short time from its initial home in the outlying centre of Staffel to the Josef-Kohlmaier-Halle, a civic event hall, where its stage can now be found in the hall's club rooms.", "The troupe is run by an independent acting club.", "On the programme are chanson, cabaret, literature and jazz as well as folk, Rock and performances by singer-songwriters.", "It makes a point of furthering young artists.", "Each month, three or four events are staged.The dedication of \"Thing\" was recognized on 6 December 2003 when the ''Kulturpreis Mittelhessen'' (\"Middle Hesse Culture Prize\") was awarded to it.Limburg Cathedral has a famous boys' choir, the Limburger Domsingknaben, which trains at Musical Boarding School in Hadamar, and an excellent girls' choir, the Mädchenkantorei Limburg, both singing at the Limburg Cathedral and internationally.===Museums===The ''Katzenturm'', formerly part of the town wall, today a navy museum''Fischmarkt''View through a gate near the Limburg cathedral treasuryIn Limburg there are several museums.", "The most important are:* Town of Limburg art collections that offer changing exhibits* ''Staurothek'', cathedral treasury and diocesan museum with the ''Limburger Staurothek'' (a cross reliquary)* Museum Limburg Navy Museum* Pallottine Mission museum===Buildings===Only a few towns, like Limburg, have been able to keep a full set of nearly unscathed mediaeval buildings.", "The formerly walled town core between St. George's Cathedral, Grabenstraße (a street marking the old town moat) and the 600-year-old Lahn Bridge thus stands today as a whole under monumental protection.The ''Altstadt'' (\"Old Town\") has a fine cathedral and is full of narrow streets with timber-frame houses, dating mainly from the 17th and 18th centuries; hence the name the German Timber-Frame Road.", "* ''Limburger Dom'', one of the most complete creations of Late Romanesque architecture.", "It was printed on the reverse of the 1,000 Deutsche Mark note from the second series, which was in circulation from 1960 to 1989.The cathedral was recently renovated and painted to reflect its original appearance.", "* ''Limburger Schloss'', built in early 13th century by Gerlach von Ysenburg* ''Burgmannenhaus'', built about 1544; serves as a museum today* ''St.", "Anna-Kirche'' (church), stained glass from third fourth of 14th century with eighteen scenes from the New Testament* Old Lahn Bridge, from 1315, place where the ''Via Publica'' (road) crossed the Lahn* In the Old Town stand many timber-frame houses from the 13th to 19th centuries.", "One peculiarity seen among the timber-framed houses of Limburg is the \"hall house\" from the High Middle Ages, which has a great hall on the ground floor.", "When restoration work began in the Old Town in 1972, the houses were carefully restored.", "Among the best known timber-frame houses are: ''Haus Kleine Rütsche 4'', narrowest spot on the historic trade road between Frankfurt and Cologne, whose breadth is written at the Haymarket (''Heumarkt'') in Cologne ''Haus der sieben Laster'' (\"House of the Seven Vices\") at Brückengasse 9, built in 1567, timber-frame house with carvings showing Christianity's seven deadly sins, namely pride, greed, envy, lust, gluttony, wrath and sloth ''Werner-Senger-Haus'', a beautiful stone hall house with timber-framed façade dating from the 13th century Houses at the fishmarket.", "The square's name in the 13th century was still ''Fismart'' (\"Yarn Market\" or \"Wool Market\") in the Limburg dialect, and it was the Limburg wool weavers' trading centre** ''Römer 2-4-6'', Germany's oldest freestanding timbered house; in the garden a mikvah was found* ''Rathaus'' (\"Town Hall\"), built in 1899* \"Huttig\" (town wall tower remnant)* Former noble estate of the Counts of Walderdorff at Fahrgasse 5" ], [ "Twin towns – sister cities", "Limburg an der Lahn is twinned with:* Lichfield, England, United Kingdom* Oudenburg, Belgium* Sainte-Foy-lès-Lyon, France" ], [ "Notable people", "Imagina of Isenburg-Limburg (c. 1255 – 1313?", "), the Queen consort of Adolf of Nassau, King of GermanyAlois Anton Führer (1853–1930), indologistAlexej Stachowitsch (1918–2013), Austrian-Russian author, pedagogue and songwriter, died thereFranz Kamphaus (born 1932), bishop emeritus of the Roman Catholic Diocese of LimburgTheo Geisel (born 1948), physicistEberhard Metternich (born 1959), catholic church musicianChristoph Prégardien (born 1956), lyric tenorAlison Browner (born 1957), Irish mezzo-soprano opera singer, based in Limburg an der LahnFranz-Peter Tebartz-van Elst (born 1959), prelate of the Catholic ChurchGermar Rudolf (born 1964), chemist and a convicted Holocaust denierVeronika Winter (born 1965), sopranoStefan Saliger (born 1967), field hockey playerPeter W. Marx (born 1973), theatre and performance studies scholarTamara Bach (born 1976), youth book authorDavid Heiss, convicted murder" ], [ "Gallery", "Limburg_Dom_voll_2.JPG\|Limburg Cathedral seen from the Lahn bridgeLimburger Dom vom Greifenberg.jpg\|Cathedral with castleLimburg Cathedral, Nave 20140917 1.jpg\|Cathedral, inside viewFachwerkhaus (Limburg Lahn).jpg\|''Zum goldenen Hirsch''Limburg Friedhofskapelle Traufseite.jpg\|Former graveyard chapel, eaves sideLimburg Friedhofskapelle Eingangsseite.jpg\|Former graveyard chapel, entrance side" ], [ "Further reading", " Stille, Eugen: Limburg an der Lahn und seine Geschichte, Limburger Vereinsdruckerei, Selbstverlag E. Stille, Limburg/Kassel 1971* Maibach, Heinz: Limburg an der Lahn in alten Ansichten, Siebte Auflage, Zaltbommel/Niederlande 1993* Fügen, Randolf: ''Highlights in Mittelhessen''.", "1.Auflage.", "Wartenberg Verlag Gudensberg-Gleichen 2003 * Maibach, Heinz: ''Limburg an der Lahn in alten Ansichten.''", "Siebte Auflage.", "Zaltbommel/Niederlande 1993; NA: Sutton, Erfurt 2010, .", "* Maibach, Heinz: ''Dokumente zur Limburger Stadt- und Kreisgeschichte 1870–1945.''", "Limburg 1992, .", "* Fuchs, Johann-Georg: ''Limburger Altstadtbauten.", "Bürger und Begebenheiten.''", "2.Auflage.", "Limburg 2006.", "* ''Limburg im Fluss der Zeit.", "Schlaglichter aus 1100 Jahren Stadtgeschichte.''", "(Beiträge zur Geschichte der Kreisstadt Limburg a. d. Lahn 1).", "Limburg 2010, .", "* Marten, Bettina: ''Limburg an der Lahn: Dom- und Stadtführer''.", "Petersberg 2010, .", "* Waldecker, Christoph: ''Limburg in historischen Ansichten''.", "Sutton, Erfurt 2010, .", "(Archivbilder)* Wagner, Harald: ''Limburg entdecken!''", "Ein Stadtführer für Touristen und Einheimische.", "Limburg 2011, .", "* Waldecker, Christoph: ''Limburg an der Lahn.''", "(Großer Kunstreiseführer 251).", "2., erweiterte Auflage.", "Schnell + Steiner, Regensburg 2011, .", "* ''Limburg im Fluss der Zeit.''", "(Beiträge zur Geschichte der Kreisstadt Limburg a. d. Lahn, 2).", "Vorträge zur Stadtgeschichte.", "Limburg 2013, .", "* Waldecker, Christoph: ''Zeitsprünge Limburg''.", "Sutton, Erfurt 2014, .=== Novels ===* Bracht, Horst: ''Galgenfrist.", "Historischer Limburg-Krimi''.", "Societäts-Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 2012, .", "* Bracht, Horst: ''Der Klosterbrauer.", "Limburg-Krimi''.", "Societäts-Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 2014, ." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Official website * Limburg Cathedral * Limburg Cathedral Boys' Choir * Pictures of Limburg and its cathedral * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lavrentiy Beria" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lavrentiy Pavlovich Beria''' ( ; ; , ; – 23 December 1953) was a Georgian Bolshevik and Soviet politician, Marshal of the Soviet Union and state security administrator, chief of the Soviet security, and chief of the People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs (NKVD) under Joseph Stalin during the Second World War, and promoted to deputy premier under Stalin in 1941.He officially joined the Politburo in 1946.Beria was the longest-serving and most influential and brutal of Stalin's secret police chiefs, wielding his most substantial influence during and after the war.", "Following the Soviet invasion of Poland in 1939, he was responsible for organising purges such as the Katyn massacre of 22,000 Polish officers and officials.", "He would later also orchestrate the forced upheaval of minorities from the Caucasus as head of the NKVD, an act that was declared genocidal by various scholars and, as concerning Chechens, in 2004 by the European Parliament.", "He simultaneously administered vast sections of the Soviet state, and acted as the ''de facto'' Marshal of the Soviet Union in command of NKVD field units responsible for barrier troops and Soviet partisan intelligence and sabotage operations on the Eastern Front.", "Beria administered the expansion of the Gulag labour camps, and was primarily responsible for overseeing the secret detention facilities for scientists and engineers known as .", "After the war, Beria oversaw the Soviet atomic bomb project, which Stalin gave absolute priority to, and the project was completed in under five years.After Stalin's death in March 1953, Beria became First Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers and head of the Ministry of Internal Affairs.", "In this dual capacity, he formed a troika with Georgy Malenkov and Vyacheslav Molotov that briefly led the country in Stalin's place.", "The Gulag system was transferred to the Ministry of Justice, and a mass release of over a million prisoners was announced.", "That amnesty led to a substantial increase in crime.", "A ''coup d'état'' by Nikita Khrushchev, with help from former Marshal of the Soviet Union Georgy Zhukov, removed Beria from power in June 1953.After being arrested, he was tried for treason and other offences, sentenced to death, and executed on 23 December 1953." ], [ "Early life and rise to power", "Lavrentiy Pavlovich Beria was born in Merkheuli, near Sukhumi, in the Sukhum Okrug of the Kutais Governorate (now Gulripshi District, ''de facto'' Republic of Abkhazia, or Georgia, then part of the Russian Empire).", "He grew up in a Georgian Orthodox family; his mother, Marta Jaqeli (1868–1955), was deeply religious and church-going.", "Marta was from the Guria region, descended from a noble Georgian family, and was a widow before marrying Beria's father, Pavle Beria (1872–1922), a landowner in Sukhumi Okrug, from the Mingrelian ethnic subgroup.Beria attended a technical school in Sukhumi, and later claimed to have joined the Bolsheviks in March 1917 while a student in the Baku Polytechnicum (subsequently known as the Azerbaijan State Oil Academy).", "As a student, Beria distinguished himself in mathematics and the sciences.", "Beria had earlier worked for the anti-Bolshevik Mussavatists in Baku.", "After the Red Army captured the city on 28 April 1920, he was saved from execution because there was not enough time to arrange his shooting and replacement; it may also have been that Sergei Kirov intervened.", "While in prison, Beria formed a connection with Nina Gegechkori (1905–1991), his cellmate's niece, and they eloped on a train.In 1919, at the age of 20, Beria started his career in state security when the security service of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic hired him while he was still a student at the Polytechnicum.", "In 1920, he was enlisted in Cheka, the original Bolshevik secret police by Mir Jafar Baghirov.", "At that time, a Bolshevik revolt took place in the Menshevik-controlled Democratic Republic of Georgia, and the Red Army subsequently invaded.", "The Cheka became heavily involved in the conflict, which resulted in the defeat of the Mensheviks and the formation of the Georgian SSR.", "Between 1922 and 1924, Beria was deputy chairman of the Georgian OGPU (as Cheka had been renamed).", "He then led the repression of a Georgian nationalist uprising in 1924, after which up to 10,000 people were executed.", "Between 1924 and 1927, he was head of the secret political department of the Transcaucasian SFSR OGPU.", "In December 1926, he was appointed Chairman of the Georgian OGPU, and deputy chairman for the Transcaucasian OGPU.", "During his years at the helm of the Georgian OGPU, Beria effectively destroyed the intelligence networks that Turkey and Iran had developed in the Soviet Caucasus, while successfully penetrating the governments of these countries with his agents.", "In March 1931, he was appointed head of the Transcaucasian OGPU.Young Svetlana Stalina sitting on Beria's lap, with Stalin (in the background) and Nestor Lakoba in 1931." ], [ "Relations with Stalin", "Beria and Joseph Stalin first met in summer 1931, when Stalin took a six week rest in Tsqaltubo, and Beria took personal charge of his security.", "Stalin was unimpressed by most of the local party leaders, chosen by the former Georgian party boss, Sergo Ordzhonikidze, but writing to Lazar Kaganovich in August 1932, Stalin commented that \"Beria makes a good impression.", "He is a good organiser, an efficient, capable functionary.\"", "But according to Stalin's daughter Svetlana: In October 1931, when Stalin proposed to appoint Beria Second Secretary of the Georgian Communist Party Central Committee and Second Secretary of the Transcaucasian party, the First Secretary Lavrenty Kartvelishvili exclaimed: \"I refuse to work with that charlatan!\"", "Ordzhonikidze also objected to the promotion.", "Kartvelishvili was replaced by Mamia Orakhelashvili, who wrote to Stalin and Ordzhonikidze in August 1932 asking to be allowed to resign because he could not work with Beria as his deputy.", "On 9 October 1932, Beria was appointed party leader for the whole Transcaucasian region.", "He also retained his post as First Secretary of the Georgian CP.", "In 1933, he promoted his old ally, Bagirov, to the head of the Azerbaijani communist party.", "He became a member of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in February 1934.During this time, he began to attack fellow members of the Georgian Communist Party, particularly Gaioz Devdariani, who served as Minister of Education of the Georgian SSR.", "Beria ordered the executions of Devdariani's brothers George and Shalva.", "In 1935, Beria cemented his place in Stalin's entourage with a lengthy oration titled, \"On the History of the Bolshevik Organisations in Transcaucasia\" (later published as a book), which emphasised Stalin's role.", "It quoted from what purported to be police reports from early in the century, which identified Stalin, under his real name Jugashvili, as the leader of the Social Democrats (Marxists) in Georgia and Azerbaijan, though as the historian Bertram Wolfe noted: \"These new finds tell a different story and even speak another language from all police documents and Bolshevik reminiscences published ... while Lenin was alive.", "The language sounds uncommonly like Beria's own.\"" ], [ "The Great Purge", "In the first couple of years of mass arrests of members of the Communist Party and Soviet government that began after the assassination of Leningrad party boss Sergei Kirov (1 December 1934), Beria was one of the few regional party leaders considered ruthless enough to purge the region under his control, without outside interference.", "On 9 July 1936, the First Secretary of the Central Committee of the Armenian Communist Party, Aghasi Khanjian was found dead from a bullet wound.", "It was officially announced that he had committed suicide, and he was retrospectively denounced as an enemy of the people, but in 1961, the then head of the KGB, Alexander Shelepin reported that he had been murdered by Beria.", "On 27 December 1936, the head of the communist party of Abkhazia, Nestor Lakoba died suddenly.", "It was later reported that he was poisoned by Beria.", "His widow was later arrested, tortured, and made to watch their teenage son being tortured.In December 1936, Nikolai Yezhov the newly appointed head of the People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs (NKVD), the ministry which oversaw the state security and police forces, reported that more than 300 people had been arrested in Georgia in the previous few weeks.", "In June 1937, Beria said in a speech, \"Let our enemies know that anyone who attempts to raise a hand against the will of our people, against the will of the party of Lenin and Stalin, will be mercilessly crushed and destroyed.\"", "On 20 July, he wrote to Stalin to report that he had had 200 people shot, and was about to submit a list of another 350 who were also to be shot, and Shalva Eliava, Lavrenty Kartvelishvili, Maria Orakhelashvili, wife of Mamia Orakhelashvili and numerous others had all confessed to counter-revolutionary (though the evidence against all of them was found, after Beria's execution, to have consisted of false confessions extracted under torture) but Orakhelashvili himself was holding out, though he repeatedly fainted under interrogation and had to be revived with camphor.", "Reputedly, Orakhelashvili's ear drums were perforated and his eyes gouged out." ], [ "Head of the NKVD", "Katyn Forest and other places in the Soviet Union.In August 1938, Stalin brought Beria to Moscow as deputy head of the NKVD.", "Under Yezhov, the NKVD carried out the Great Purge: the imprisonment or execution of a huge number, possibly over a million, of citizens throughout the Soviet Union as alleged \"enemies of the people\".", "By 1938, however, the oppression had become so extensive that it was damaging the infrastructure, economy and even the armed forces of the Soviet state, prompting Stalin to wind the purge down.", "In September, Beria was appointed head of the Main Administration of State Security (GUGB) of the NKVD, and in November he succeeded Yezhov as NKVD head.", "Yezhov was executed in 1940.Beria's appointment marked an easing of the repression begun under Yezhov.", "Over 100,000 people were released from the labour camps.", "The government officially admitted that there had been some injustice and \"excesses\" during the purges, which were blamed entirely on Yezhov.", "But the liberalisation was only relative: arrests, torture and executions continued.", "On 16 January 1940, Beria sent Stalin a list of 457 \"enemies of the people\" of whom 346 were marked to be shot.", "They included Yezhov and his brother and nephews; Mikhail Frinovsky and his wife and teenage son, Yefim Yevdokimov and his wife and teenage son, and dozens more former NKVD officers, and the renowned writer Isaac Babel and the journalist Mikhail Koltsov.Some of the NKVD officers Beria promoted, such as Boris Rodos, Lev Shvartzman, and Bogdan Kobulov were brutal torturers who were executed in the 1950s.", "The theatre director Vsevolod Meyerhold described being beaten on the spine and soles of his feet until \"the pain was so intense that it felt as if boiling water was being poured on these sensitive areas.\"", "His interrogation record was signed by Shvartzman.", "Robert Eikhe, a former high ranking party official, was sadistically beaten and had an eye gouged out by Rodos, in Beria's office, while Beria watched.", "He not only permitted and encouraged the beating of prisoners, but in some case carried it out in person.", "One prisoner who survived to give evidence in the 1950s, testified that he was brought to Beria's office and accused of plotting to blow up the Moscow metro, which he denied:In March 1939, Beria was appointed as a candidate member of the Communist Party's Politburo.", "Although he did not rise to full membership until 1946, he was by then one of the senior leaders of the Soviet state.", "In 1941, he was made a Commissar General of State Security, the highest quasi-military rank within the Soviet police system of that time.", "In 1940, the pace of the purges accelerated again.", "During this period, Beria supervised deportations of people identified as \"political enemies\" from Poland, Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia after Soviet occupation of those countries.On 5 March 1940, after the Gestapo–NKVD Third Conference was held in Zakopane, Beria sent a note (no.", "794/B) to Stalin in which he stated that the Polish prisoners of war kept at camps and prisons in western Belarus and Ukraine were enemies of the Soviet Union, and recommended their execution.", "Most of them were military officers, but there were also intelligentsia, doctors, priests, and others in a total of 22,000 people.", "With Stalin's approval, Beria's NKVD executed them in what became known as the Katyn massacre.From October 1940 to February 1942, the NKVD under Beria carried out a new purge of the Red Army and related industries.", "In February 1941, Beria became deputy chairman of the Council of People's Commissars, and in June, following Nazi Germany's invasion of the Soviet Union, he became a member of the State Defense Committee (GKO).", "During the Second World War, he took on major domestic responsibilities and mobilised the millions of people imprisoned in NKVD Gulag camps into wartime production.", "He took control of the manufacture of armaments, and (with Georgy Malenkov) aircraft and aircraft engines.", "This was the beginning of Beria's alliance with Malenkov, which later became of central importance.Nestor Lakoba, Nikita Khrushchev, Lavrentiy Beria and Aghasi Khanjian during the opening of the Moscow Metro in 1936, the same year that Lakoba and Khanjian were killed by Beria.In 1944, as the Soviet Union had repelled the German invasion, Beria was placed in charge of the various ethnic minorities accused of anti-sovietism and/or collaboration with the invaders, including the Balkars, Karachays, Chechens, Ingush, Crimean Tatars, Kalmyks, Pontic Greeks, and Volga Germans.", "All these groups were deported to Soviet Central Asia.In December 1944, the NKVD supervised the Soviet atomic bomb project (\"Task No.", "1\"), which built and tested a bomb by 29 August 1949.The project was extremely labour-intensive.", "At least 330,000 people, including 10,000 technicians, were involved.", "The Gulag system provided tens of thousands of people for work in uranium mines and for the construction and operation of uranium processing plants.", "They also constructed test facilities, such as those at Semipalatinsk and in the Novaya Zemlya archipelago.In July 1945, as Soviet police ranks were converted to a military uniform system, Beria's rank was officially converted to that of Marshal of the Soviet Union.", "Although he had never held a traditional military command, he made a significant contribution to the victory of the Soviet Union in the war through his organisation of wartime production and his use of partisans.", "Abroad, Beria had met with Kim Il Sung, the future leader of North Korea, several times when the Soviet troops had declared war on Japan and occupied the northern half of Korea from August 1945.Beria recommended that Stalin install a communist leader in the occupied territories." ], [ "Post-war politics", "With Stalin nearing 70, a concealed struggle for succession amongst his entourage dominated Soviet politics.", "At the end of the war, Andrei Zhdanov, who had served as the Communist Party leader in Leningrad (now Saint Petersburg) during the war, seemed the most likely candidate.", "After 1946, Beria formed an alliance with Malenkov to counter Zhdanov's rise.", "In January 1946, Beria resigned as chief of the NKVD while retaining general control over national security matters as Deputy Prime Minister and Curator of the Organs of State Security under Stalin.", "However, the new NKVD chief, Sergei Kruglov, was not a supporter of Beria.", "Also by the summer of 1946 Beria's man, Vsevolod Merkulov, was replaced as head of the Ministry for State Security (MGB) by Viktor Abakumov.Abakumov had headed SMERSH from 1943 to 1946; his relationship with Beria involved close collaboration (since Abakumov owed his rise to Beria's support and esteem) but also rivalry.", "Stalin had begun to encourage Abakumov to form his own network inside the MGB to counter Beria's dominance of the power ministries.", "Kruglov and Abakumov moved expeditiously to replace Beria's men in the security apparatus with new people.", "Very soon, Deputy Minister Stepan Mamulov of the Ministry of Internal Affairs (MVD) was the only close Beria ally left outside foreign intelligence, on which Beria kept a grip.In the following months, Abakumov started carrying out important operations without consulting Beria, often working with Zhdanov, and on Stalin's direct orders.", "One of the first such moves involved the Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee affair, which commenced in October 1946 and eventually led to the murder of Solomon Mikhoels and the arrest of many other members.", "After Zhdanov died in August 1948, Beria and Malenkov consolidated their power by means of a purge of Zhdanov's associates in the so-called \"Leningrad Affair\".", "Those executed included Zhdanov's deputy, Alexey Kuznetsov; the economic chief, Nikolai Voznesensky; the Party head in Leningrad, Pyotr Popkov; and the Prime Minister of the Russian SFSR, Mikhail Rodionov.However, Beria was unable to purge Mikhail Suslov, whom he hated.", "Beria felt increasingly uncomfortable with Suslov's growing relationship with Stalin.", "Russian historian Roy Medvedev speculates in his book, ''Neizvestnyi Stalin'', that Stalin had made Suslov his \"secret heir\".", "Evidently, Beria felt so threatened by Suslov that after his arrest in 1953, documents were found in his safe labelling Suslov the No.", "1 person he wanted to \"eliminate\".During the postwar years, Beria supervised the establishment of communist regimes in Eastern Europe and chose their Soviet-backed leaders.", "Starting in 1948, Abakumov initiated several investigations against these leaders, which culminated with the arrest in November 1952 of Rudolf Slánský, Bedřich Geminder and others in Czechoslovakia.", "These men were frequently accused of Zionism, \"rootless cosmopolitanism\", and providing weapons to Israel.", "Such charges deeply disturbed Beria, as he had directly ordered the sale of large amounts of Czech arms to Israel.", "Altogether, fourteen Czechoslovak communist leaders, eleven of them Jewish, were tried, convicted and executed as part of Soviet policy to woo Arab nationalists, which culminated in the major Czech–Egyptian arms deal of 1955.The Doctors' Plot began in 1951, when a number of the country's prominent Jewish physicians were accused of poisoning top Soviet leaders and arrested.", "Concurrently, the Soviet press began an anti-Semitic propaganda campaign, euphemistically termed the \"struggle against rootless cosmopolitanism\".", "Initially, 37 men were arrested, but the number quickly grew into hundreds.", "Scores of Soviet Jews were dismissed from their jobs, arrested, sent to the Gulag, or executed.", "The \"plot\" was presumably invented by Stalin.", "A few days after Stalin's death on 5 March 1953, Beria freed all the arrested doctors, announced that the entire matter was fabricated, and arrested the MGB functionaries directly involved." ], [ "Stalin's death", "Stalin's aide, Vasili Lozgachev, reported that Beria and Malenkov were the first members of the Politburo to see Stalin's condition when he was found unconscious.", "They arrived at Stalin's dacha at Kuntsevo at 03:00 on 2 March 1953, after being called by Nikita Khrushchev and Nikolai Bulganin.", "The latter two did not want to risk Stalin's wrath by checking themselves.", "Lozgachev tried to explain to Beria that the unconscious Stalin (still in his soiled clothing) was \"sick and needed medical attention\".", "Beria angrily dismissed his claims as panic-mongering and quickly left, ordering him, \"Don't bother us, don't cause a panic and don't disturb Comrade Stalin!\"", "Alexsei Rybin, Stalin's bodyguard, recalled, \"No one wanted to telephone Beria, since most of the personal bodyguards hated Beria\".Calling a doctor was deferred for a full twelve hours after Stalin was rendered paralysed, incontinent and unable to speak.", "This decision is noted as \"extraordinary\" by the historian Simon Sebag Montefiore, but also consistent with the standard Stalinist policy of deferring all decision-making (no matter how crucial or obvious) without official orders from higher authority.", "Beria's decision to avoid immediately calling a doctor was tacitly supported (or at least not opposed) by the rest of the Politburo, which was rudderless without Stalin's micromanagement and paralysed by a legitimate fear that he would suddenly recover and take reprisals on anyone who had dared to act without his orders.", "Stalin's suspicion of doctors in the wake of the Doctors' Plot was well known at the time of his sickness; his private physician was being tortured in the basement of the Lubyanka for suggesting the leader required more bed rest.", "Khrushchev wrote in his memoirs that Beria had, immediately after Stalin's stroke, gone about \"spewing hatred against Stalin and mocking him\".", "When Stalin showed signs of consciousness, Beria dropped to his knees and kissed his hand.", "When Stalin fell unconscious again, Beria immediately stood and spat.After Stalin's death on 5 March 1953, Beria's ambitions sprang into full force.", "In the uneasy silence following the cessation of Stalin's last agonies, he was the first to dart forward to kiss his lifeless form (a move likened by Montefiore to \"wrenching a dead King's ring off his finger\").", "While the rest of Stalin's inner circle (even Molotov, saved from certain liquidation) stood sobbing unashamedly over the body, Beria reportedly appeared \"radiant\", \"regenerated\" and \"glistening with ill-concealed relish\".", "When Beria left the room, he broke the sombre atmosphere by shouting loudly for his driver, his voice echoing with what Stalin's daughter Svetlana Alliluyeva called \"the ring of triumph unconcealed\".", "Alliluyeva noticed how the Politburo seemed openly frightened of Beria and unnerved by his bold display of ambition.", "\"He's off to take power,\" Mikoyan recalled muttering to Khrushchev.", "That prompted a \"frantic\" dash for their own limousines to intercept him at the Kremlin.Stalin's death prevented a final purge of Old Bolsheviks Mikoyan and Molotov, for which Stalin had been laying the groundwork in the year prior to his death.", "Shortly after Stalin's death, Beria announced triumphantly to the Politburo that he had \"done Stalin in\" and \"saved us all\", according to Molotov's memoirs.", "The assertion that Stalin was poisoned by Beria's associates has been supported by Edvard Radzinsky and other authors.", "From 1939 to 1953, the Soviet Poison Laboratory was under the direct supervision of Beria and his deputy Vsevolod Merkulov.", "According to Radzinsky, Stalin was poisoned by a senior bodyguard.", "Beria's son, Sergo Beria, later recounted that after Stalin's death, his mother Nina told her husband that, \"Your position now is even more precarious than when Stalin was alive.\"" ], [ "First Deputy Premier and Soviet triumvirate", "After Stalin's death, Beria was appointed First Deputy Premier and reappointed head of the MVD, which he merged with the MGB.", "His close ally Malenkov was the new Premier and initially the most powerful man in the post-Stalin leadership.", "Beria was second-most powerful, and given Malenkov's personal weakness, was poised to become the power behind the throne and ultimately leader himself.", "Khrushchev became Party Secretary.", "Kliment Voroshilov became Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet (the nominal head of state).Beria undertook some measures of liberalisation immediately after Stalin's death.", "He reorganised the MVD and drastically reduced its economic power and penal responsibilities.", "A number of costly construction projects, such as the Salekhard–Igarka Railway, were scrapped, and the remaining industrial enterprises became affiliated under other economic ministries.", "The Gulag system was transferred to the Ministry of Justice, and a mass release of over a million prisoners was announced, although only prisoners convicted for \"non-political\" crimes were released.", "That amnesty led to a substantial increase in crime and would later be used against Beria by his rivals.To consolidate power, Beria also took steps to recognise the rights of non-Russian nationalities.", "As a Georgian, he questioned the traditional policy of Russification and encouraged local officials to assert their own identities.", "He first turned to Georgia, where Stalin's fabricated Mingrelian affair was called off and the republic's key posts were filled by pro-Beria Georgians.", "Beria's policies of granting more autonomy to the Ukrainian SSR alarmed Khrushchev, for whom Ukraine was a power base.", "Khrushchev then tried to draw Malenkov to his side, warning that \"Beria is sharpening his knives\".Khrushchev opposed the alliance between Beria and Malenkov, but he was initially unable to challenge them.", "Khrushchev's opportunity came in June 1953 when a spontaneous uprising against the East German communist regime broke out in East Berlin.", "Based on Beria's statements, other leaders suspected that in the wake of the uprising, he would consider trading the reunification of Germany and the end of the Cold War for support from the United States, as had been received in the Second World War.The cost of the war still weighed heavily on the Soviet economy.", "Beria craved the vast financial resources that another (more sustained) relationship with the U.S. could provide.", "According to some later sources, he ostensibly even considered giving the Estonian, Latvian and Lithuanian SSRs \"serious prospects of national autonomy\", possibly similar to the Soviet satellite states in Europe.", "Beria said of East Germany, \"It is not even a real state but one kept in being only by Soviet troops.\"", "The East German uprising convinced Molotov, Malenkov and Bulganin that Beria's policies were dangerous and destabilising to Soviet power.", "Within days, Khrushchev persuaded the other leaders to support a ''coup d'etat'' against Beria." ], [ "Arrest, trial and execution", "''Time'' cover, 20 July 1953.Beria, as first deputy chairman of the Council of Ministers and an influential Politburo member, saw himself as Stalin's successor, while wider Politburo members had contrasting thoughts on future leadership.", "On 26 June 1953, Beria was arrested and held in an undisclosed location near Moscow.", "Accounts of his downfall vary considerably.", "The historical consensus is that Khrushchev prepared an elaborate ambush, convening a meeting of the Presidium on 26 June, where he suddenly launched a scathing attack on Beria, accusing him of being a traitor and spy in the pay of British intelligence agencies.", "Beria was taken completely by surprise.", "He asked, \"What's going on, Nikita Sergeyevich?", "Why are you picking fleas in my trousers?\"", "When Beria finally realised what was happening and plaintively appealed to Malenkov to speak for him, Malenkov silently hung his head and pressed a button on his desk.", "This was an arranged signal to Marshal Georgy Zhukov and a group of armed officers in a nearby room, who burst in and arrested Beria.As Beria's men were guarding the Kremlin at the time, he was held there in a special cell until nightfall and then smuggled out in the trunk of a car.", "He was taken first to the Moscow guardhouse and then to the bunker of the headquarters of Moscow Military District.", "Defence Minister Bulganin ordered the Kantemirovskaya Tank Division and Tamanskaya Motor Rifle Division to move into Moscow to prevent security forces loyal to Beria from rescuing him.", "Many of Beria's subordinates, proteges and associates were also arrested and executed, among them Merkulov, Bogdan Kobulov, Sergey Goglidze, Vladimir Dekanozov, Pavel Meshik, and Lev Vlodzimirsky.", "Beria and his men were tried by a \"special session\" () of the Supreme Court of the Soviet Union on 23 December 1953 with no defence counsel and no right of appeal.", "Marshal Ivan Konev was the chairman of the court.", "Beria was found guilty of:# Treason.", "It was alleged that he had maintained secret connections with foreign intelligence services.", "In particular, attempts to initiate peace talks with Adolf Hitler in 1941 through the ambassador of the Kingdom of Bulgaria were classified as treason, though Beria had been acting on the orders of Stalin and Molotov.", "It was also alleged that Beria, who in 1942 helped organise the defence of the North Caucasus, tried to let the Germans occupy the Caucasus.", "Beria's suggestion to his assistants that to improve foreign relations it was reasonable to transfer the Kaliningrad Oblast to Germany, part of Karelia to Finland, the Moldavian SSR to Romania and the Kuril Islands to Japan also formed part of the allegations against him.# Terrorism.", "Beria's participation in the purge of the Red Army in 1941 was classified as an act of terrorism.# Counter-revolutionary activity during the Russian Civil War.", "In 1919, Beria worked in the security service of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic.", "Beria maintained that he was assigned to that work by the Hummet party, which subsequently merged with the Adalat Party, the Ahrar Party, and the Baku Bolsheviks to establish the Azerbaijan Communist Party.Beria and all the other defendants were sentenced to death on the day of the trial.", "The other six defendants Dekanozov, Merkulov, Vlodzimirsky, Meshik, Goglidze and Kobulov were shot immediately after the trial ended.", "Beria was executed separately; he allegedly pleaded on his knees before collapsing to the floor wailing.", "He was shot through the forehead by General Pavel Batitsky.", "His final moments bore great similarity to those of his own predecessor, Nikolai Yezhov, who begged for his life before his execution in 1940.Beria's body was cremated and the remains buried in Communal Grave No.", "3 at Donskoi Monastery Cemetery in Moscow.", "Beria's personal archive (said to have included \"compromising\" material on his former colleagues) was destroyed on Khrushchev's orders." ], [ "Sexual predation", "At Beria's trial in 1953, it became known that he had committed numerous rapes during the years he was NKVD chief.", "Montefiore concludes that the information \"reveals a sexual predator who used his power to indulge himself in obsessive depravity\".", "After his death, charges of rape and sexual abuse were disputed by close friends and family of Beria, including his wife Nina and his son Sergo.According to the testimony of Colonel Rafael Semyonovich Sarkisov and Colonel Sardion Nikolaevich Nadaraiatwo of Beria's bodyguardson warm nights during the war, Beria was often driven around Moscow in his limousine.", "He would point out young women that he wanted to be taken to his dacha, where wine and a feast awaited them.", "After dining, Beria would take the women into his soundproofed office and rape them.", "Additionally, an American report from 1952 quoted a former Muscovite as having \"learned from one of Beria's mistresses that it was Beria's habit to order various women to become intimate with him and that he threatened them with prison if they refused.", "\"His bodyguards reported that their duties included handing each victim a flower bouquet as she left the house.", "Accepting it implied that the sex had been consensual; refusal would mean arrest.", "Sarkisov reported that after one woman rejected Beria's advances and ran out of his office, Sarkisov mistakenly handed her the flowers anyway.", "The enraged Beria declared, \"Now, it is not a bouquet, it is a wreath!", "May it rot on your grave!\"", "The NKVD arrested the woman the next day.The testimony of Sarkisov and Nadaraia has been partially corroborated by Edward Ellis Smith, an American who served in the US embassy in Moscow after the war.", "According to historian Amy Knight, \"Smith noted that Beria's escapades were common knowledge among embassy personnel because his house was on the same street as a residence for Americans, and those who lived there saw girls brought to Beria's house late at night in a limousine.", "\"Women also submitted to Beria's sexual advances in exchange for the promise of freedom for imprisoned relatives.", "In one case, Beria picked up Tatiana Okunevskaya, a well-known Soviet actress, under the pretence of bringing her to perform for the Politburo.", "Instead he took her to his dacha, where he offered to free her father and grandmother from prison if she submitted.", "He then raped her, telling her, \"Scream or not, it doesn't matter\".", "In fact, Beria knew that Okunevskaya's relatives had been executed months earlier.", "Okunevskaya was arrested shortly afterwards and sentenced to solitary confinement in the Gulag, which she survived.Stalin and other high-ranking officials came to distrust Beria.", "In one instance, when Stalin learned that his then-teenage daughter, Svetlana, was alone with Beria at his house, he telephoned her and told her to leave immediately.", "When Beria complimented Alexander Poskrebyshev's daughter on her beauty, Poskrebyshev quickly pulled her aside and instructed her, \"Don't ever accept a lift from Beria\".", "After taking an interest in Kliment Voroshilov's daughter-in-law during a party at their summer dacha, Beria shadowed their car closely all the way back to the Kremlin, terrifying his wife.Before and during the war, Beria directed Sarkisov to keep a list of the names and phone numbers of the women that he had sex with.", "Eventually, he ordered Sarkisov to destroy the list as a security risk, but Sarkisov retained a secret copy.", "When Beria's fall from power began, Sarkisov passed the list to Viktor Abakumov, the former wartime head of SMERSH and now chief of the MGBthe successor to the NKVD.", "Abakumov was already aggressively building a case against Beria.", "Stalin, who was also seeking to undermine Beria, was thrilled by the detailed records kept by Sarkisov, demanding: \"Send me everything this asshole writes down!\"", "In 2003, the Russian government acknowledged Sarkisov's handwritten list of Beria's victims, which reportedly contains hundreds of names.", "The victims' names were also released to the public in 2003.Evidence suggests that Beria also murdered some of these women.", "In 1993, construction workers installing streetlights unearthed human bones near Beria's Moscow villa (now the Tunisian embassy).", "Skulls, pelvises and leg bones were found.", "In 1998, the skeletal remains of five young women were discovered during work carried out on the water pipes in the garden of the same villa.", "In 2011, building workers digging a ditch in Moscow city centre unearthed a common grave near the same residence containing a pile of human bones, including two children's skulls covered with lime or chlorine.", "The lack of articles of clothing and the condition of the remains indicate that these bodies were buried naked.", "According to Martin Sixsmith, in a BBC documentary, \"Beria spent his nights having teenagers abducted from the streets and brought here for him to rape.", "Those who resisted were strangled and buried in his wife's rose garden.\"", "Vladimir Zharov, head of the Department of Forensic Medicine at Moscow State University and then the head of the criminal forensics bureau, said a torture chamber existed in the basement of Beria's villa and that there was probably an underground passage to burial sites." ], [ "Honours and awards", "Beria was deprived of all titles and awards on 23 December 1953.===Soviet Union===* Hero of Socialist Labour (1943)* Order of Lenin (1935, 1943, 1945, 1949, 1949)* Order of the Red Banner (1924, 1942, 1944)* Order of Suvorov, 1st class (1944)* Medal \"For the Victory over Germany in the Great Patriotic War 1941–1945\" (1945)* Medal \"For the Defence of Stalingrad\" (1942)* Medal \"For the Defence of Moscow\" (1944)* Medal \"For the Defence of the Caucasus\" (1944)* Jubilee Medal \"30 Years of the Soviet Army and Navy\" (1948)* Medal \"In Commemoration of the 800th Anniversary of Moscow\" (1947)* Honorary State Security Officer, twice* Stalin Prize (1949, 1951)====Soviet Republics====* Order of the Red Banner of Labour (Armenian SSR)* Order of the Red Banner of Labour (Azerbaijan SSR)* Order of the Red Banner of Labour (Georgian SSR)* Order of the Red Banner (Georgian SSR)* Order of the Republic (Tuva)===Mongolia===* Order of Sukhbaatar (Mongolia)* Order of the Red Banner (Mongolia)* Medal \"25 Years of the Mongolian People's Revolution\" (Mongolia)" ], [ "In popular culture", "=== Theatre ===Beria is the central character in ''Good Night, Uncle Joe'' by Canadian playwright David Elendune.", "The play is a fictionalised account of the events leading up to Stalin's death.===Film===Georgian film director Tengiz Abuladze based the character of dictator Varlam Aravidze on Beria in his 1984 film ''Repentance''.", "Although banned in the Soviet Union for its semi-allegorical critique of Stalinism, it premiered at the 1987 Cannes Film Festival, winning the FIPRESCI Prize, Grand Prize of the Jury, and the Prize of the Ecumenical Jury.Beria was played by British actor Bob Hoskins in the 1991 film ''Inner Circle'', and by David Suchet in ''Red Monarch''.Simon Russell Beale played Beria in the 2017 satirical film ''The Death of Stalin''.=== Television ===In the 1958 CBS production of \"The Plot to Kill Stalin\" for ''Playhouse 90'', Beria was portrayed by E. G. Marshall.", "In the 1992 HBO movie ''Stalin'', Roshan Seth was cast as Beria.In the 1999 film adaptation ''Animal Farm'' based on George Orwell's novel, Napoleon's bodyguard Pincher represents Beria.Beria appears in the third episode (\"Superbomb\") of the four-part 2007 BBC docudrama series ''Nuclear Secrets'', played by Boris Isarov.", "In the 2008 BBC documentary series ''World War II: Behind Closed Doors'', Beria was portrayed by Polish actor Krzysztof Dracz.In the 1969 ''Doctor Who'' story ''The War Games'', actor Philip Madoc based the coldly evil War Lord on Beria, even wearing his pince-nez glasses.=== Literature ===Alan Williams wrote a spy novel titled ''The Beria Papers'', the plot of which revolves around Beria's alleged secret diaries recording his political and sexual depravities.At the opening of Kingsley Amis's ''The Alteration'', Lavrentiy Beria figures as \"Monsignor Laurentius\", paired with the similarly black-clad cleric \"Monsignor Henricus\" of the Holy Office (i.e., the Inquisition); the one to whom Beria was compared by Stalin in our own timeline: Heinrich Himmler.", "In the novel, both men are on the same side, serving an alternate-world Catholic Empire.Beria is a significant character in the alternate history/alien invasion novel series ''Worldwar'' by Harry Turtledove, as well as the ''Axis of Time'' series by John Birmingham.In the 1981 novel ''Noble House'' by James Clavell, set in 1963 Hong Kong, the main character Ian Dunross received from Alan Medford Grant a set of secret documents regarding a Soviet spy-ring in Hong Kong code-named \"Sevrin\".", "The document was signed by an LB, believed by Grant (and the mysterious Tip Tok-Toh) to be Lavrentiy Beria (written as Lavrenti Beria in the novel).The arrest and execution of Beria is recreated in the Robert Moss novel ''Moscow Rules'' as part of the rise of main character Alexander Preobrazensky's father-in-law Marshall Zotov, a character who stands in for Zhukov.Beria is a significant character in the opening chapters of the 1998 novel ''Archangel'' by British novelist Robert Harris.Beria is a minor character in the 2009 novel ''The Hundred-Year-Old Man Who Climbed Out the Window and Disappeared'' by Jonas Jonasson.", "Beria is described as the boss of the Soviet state's security and is in attendance at a meal with the main character and Stalin.As \"der Kleine Große Mann\" (\"the Little Big Man\"), Beria appears as the lover of one of the leading characters, Christine, in the 2014 novel ''Das achte Leben (Für Brilka)'' (translated as \"The Eighth Life (For Brilka)\") by Nino Haratischwili.In the 2015–2017 serialised science fiction novel ''Unsong'' by writer Scott Alexander, Beria is mentioned as being in the nicest part of hell, reserved for the worst sinners, along with Hitler and LaLaurie." ], [ "See also", "History of the Soviet Union''Democracy and Totalitarianism''* Kang Sheng" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Works cited===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " * * * ** * * .", "* * * * " ], [ "External links", " .", "* .", "* Interview with Sergo Beria* Annotated bibliography for Lavrentiy Beria from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues* Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Current Intelligence.", "''The Reversal of the Doctors' Plot and Its Immediate Aftermath'', 17 July 1953.", "* Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Current Intelligence.", "''Purge of L.P. Beria'', 17 April 1954.", "* Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Current Intelligence.", "''Summarization of Reports Preceding Beria Purge'', 17 August 1954.", "* Lavrenty Beria performed by Bob Hoskins and other Russian historical celebrities played by foreign stars*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lyonel Feininger" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lyonel Charles Adrian Feininger''' (July 17, 1871January 13, 1956) was a German-American painter, and a leading exponent of Expressionism.", "He also worked as a caricaturist and comic strip artist.", "He was born and grew up in New York City.", "In 1887 he traveled to Europe and studied art in Hamburg, Berlin and Paris.", "He started his career as a cartoonist in 1894 and met with much success in this area.", "He also worked as a commercial caricaturist for 20 years.", "At the age of 36, he began to work as a fine artist.", "His work, characterized above all by prismatically broken, overlapping forms in translucent colors, with many references to architecture and the sea, made him of the most important artists of classical modernism.", "Furthermore he produced a large body of photographic works and created several piano compositions and fugues for organ." ], [ "Life and work", "Lyonel Feininger, 1914, ''Benz VI'', oil on canvas, 100 × 125 cm (39.3 × 49.2 in)Lyonel Feininger, 1924, ''Gaberndorf II'', oil on canvas mounted on board, (39 7/16 × 30 3/4 in)Included in Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, 46-10 Lyonel Feininger was born to German-American violinist and composer Karl Feininger and American singer Elizabeth Feininger.", "He was born and grew up in New York City.", "In 1887 he traveled to Germany at the age of 16 to study music, but switched to study drawing at the Hamburger Gewerbeschule.", "In 1888, he moved to Berlin and studied at the Königliche Akademie der Künste, Berlin under Ernst Hancke.", "He continued his studies at art schools in Berlin with Adolf Schlabitz, and in Paris with sculptor Filippo Colarossi.", "He began working as a caricaturist.", "He worked for several magazines, including ''Harper's Round Table'', ''Harper's Young People'', ''Humoristische Blätter'', ''Lustige Blätter'', ''Das Narrenschiff'', ''Berliner Tageblatt'' and ''Ulk''.In 1900, he met Clara Fürst, daughter of the painter Gustav Fürst.", "He married her in 1901, and they had two daughters.", "In 1905, he separated from his wife after meeting Julia Berg.", "He married Berg in 1908 and the couple had three sons.The artist was represented with drawings at the exhibitions of the annual Berlin Secession in the years 1901 through 1903.Feininger's career as cartoonist began in 1894.He was working for several German, French and American magazines.", "In February 1906, when a quarter of Chicago's population was of German descent, James Keeley, editor of The ''Chicago Tribune'' traveled to Germany to procure the services of the most popular humor artists.", "He recruited Feininger to illustrate two comic strips \"The Kin-der-Kids\" and \"Wee Willie Winkie's World\" for the ''Chicago Tribune''.", "The strips were noted for their fey humor and graphic experimentation.", "He also worked as a commercial caricaturist for 20 years for various newspapers and magazines in the United States, Germany, and France.", "Later, Art Spiegelman wrote in ''The New York Times Book Review,'' that Feininger's comics have \"achieved a breathtaking formal grace unsurpassed in the history of the medium.", "\"Feininger started working as a fine artist at the age of 36.He was a member of the ''Berliner Sezession'' in 1909, and he was associated with German expressionist groups: Die Brücke, the Novembergruppe, Gruppe 1919, the Blaue Reiter circle and Die Blaue Vier (The Blue Four).", "His first solo exhibit was at Sturm Gallery in Berlin, 1917.When Walter Gropius founded the Bauhaus in Germany in 1919, Feininger was his first faculty appointment, and became the master artist in charge of the printmaking workshop.Feininger Tour marker in Benz, Usedom Island, GermanyFrom 1909 until 1918, Feininger spent summer vacations on the island of Usedom to recover and to get new inspiration.", "Typical of works from this period were marine settings from the shores of the Baltic See (Ostsee).", "He continued to create paintings and drawings of Benz for the rest of his life, even after returning to live in the United States.", "A tour of the sites appearing in the works of Feininger follows a path with markers in the ground to guide visitors.He designed the cover for the Bauhaus 1919 manifesto: an expressionist woodcut 'cathedral'.", "He taught at the Bauhaus for several years.", "Among the students who attended his workshops were Ludwig Hirschfeld Mack (German/Australian (1893–1965), Hans Friedrich Grohs (German 1892 – 1981), and Margarete Koehler-Bittkow (German/American, 1898–1964).When the Nazi Party came to power in 1933, the situation became unbearable for Feininger and his wife.", "The Nazi Party declared his work to be \"degenerate\".", "They moved to America after his work was exhibited in the 'degenerate art' (''Entartete Kunst'') in 1936, but before the 1937 exhibition in Munich.", "He taught at Mills College before returning to New York.", "He was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Letters in 1955.In addition to drawing, painting, woodcutting, and printmaking, Feininger created art with painted toy figures being photographed in front of drawn backgrounds.Feininger produced a large body of photographic works between 1928 – he was then already 58 years old – and the mid-1950s.", "He then lived and taught in Dessau, where his neighbor was the famous experimental photographer László Moholy-Nagy, who encouraged him.", "He kept his photographic work within his circle of friends, and it was not shared with the public in his lifetime.", "He gave some prints away to his colleagues Walter Gropius and Alfred H. Barr Jr.Feininger also had intermittent activity as a pianist and composer, with several piano compositions and fugues for organ extant.", "In tandem with the Whitney retrospective, the American Symphony Orchestra under Leon Botstein, at Carnegie Hall on 21 October 2011, performed three orchestral fugues written by Feininger.", "Barbara Haskell, curator of the Whitney exhibit, wrote that for his entire life, Feininger credited Bach with having been his \"master in painting.", "\"His sons, Andreas Feininger and T. Lux Feininger, both became noted artists, the former as a photographer and the latter as a photographer and painter.", "T. Lux Feininger died July 7, 2011, at the age of 101." ], [ "Major retrospectives", "A major retrospective exhibition of Lyonel Feininger's work was put on in 2011–2012: it opened initially at the Whitney Museum of American Art, June 30 through October 16, 2011, subsequently at the Montreal Museum of Fine Arts, January 1 through May 13, 2012.The exhibition is described as \"the first in Feininger's native country in more than forty-five years, and the first ever to include the full breadth of his art\" and as \"accompanied by a richly illustrated monograph with a feature essay that provides a broad overview of Feininger's career...\" Many critics have argued that the artist's work was at its most mature around 1910 in works in which the power of Feininger as illustrator balance his abstract side; however, we have to consider the possibility that Feininger used cubism as a more artistically succinct tool to establish his version of the concept known as the objective correlative.An important retrospective exhibition of Lyonel Feininger's photographic work took place Germany and the USA in 2011–2012, from Berlin (Kupferstichkabinett, Staatliche Museen) to Cambridge, Massachusetts (Busch-Reisinger Museum), through Munich (Pinakothek der Moderne) and Los Angeles (J. Paul Getty Museum)." ], [ "In popular culture", "Feininger's \"The Market Church at Halle\" (1930) was prominently featured in the first three seasons of the iconic television show ''Bewitched'' hanging over the desk in Darren Stephens' office.In Robert M. Pirsig's ''Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance'' (1974) the narrator finds a print of Feininger's \"Church of the Minorities\" hanging in the office that used to be his in his earlier life as Phaedrus.He writes that his friend \"had frowned because it was a print and prints are of art and not art themselves ...", "But the print had an appeal to him that was irrelevant to the art in that the subject, a kind of Gothic cathedral, created from semiabstract lines and planes and colors and shades, seemed to reflect his mind's vision of the Church of Reason and that was why he'd put it here.\"", "Finding the print jolts loose \"an avalanche of memory\" of the very place his madness started." ], [ "Art market", "At a 2001 Christie's auction in London, Feininger's painting ''The Green Bridge'' (1909) was sold for £2.42 million.At a 2007 Sotheby's auction in New York, Feininger's oil painting \"Jesuits III\" (1915) sold for $23,280,000.At a 2017 Sotheby's auction in New York, Feininger's oil painting ''Fin de séance'' (1910) sold for $5,637,500." ], [ "Selected works", "* 1907, ''Der weiße Mann'', (Collection Museo Carmen Thyssen-Bornemisza, Madrid)* 1910, ''Straße im Dämmern'', (Sprengel Museum, Hannover)* 1913, ''Gelmeroda I'', (Private collection, New York)* 1913, ''Leuchtbake'', (Museum Folkwang, Essen, Germany)* 1916, ''Grüne Brücke II'' (Green Bridge II), (North Carolina Museum of Art, Raleigh)* 1918, ''Teltow II'', (Neue Nationalgalerie, Berlin)* 1918, \"Yellow Streets II\", (Musée des Beaux-Arts de Montréal, Montréal)* 1920, ''Ostsee-Segelboote II'', (Private collection, Wichita, KS)* 1922, ''Church of Heiligenhafen'', (Reynolda House Museum of American Art, Winston-Salem, NC)* 1925, ''Barfüßerkirche in Erfurt I'', (Staatsgalerie Stuttgart)* 1926, ''Barfüßerkirche II'' (''Church of the Minorites II'')* 1929, ''Halle, Am Trödel'', (Bauhaus-Archive, Berlin)* 1931, ''Die Türme über der Stadt (Halle)'', (Museum Ludwig, Köln)* 1936, ''Gelmeroda XIII'', (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York)* 1940, ''The River'', (Worcester Art Museum, MA)" ], [ "See also", "* Cubism" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * Haskell, Barbara.", "''Lyonel Feininger: At The Edge of the World''.", "Exhibition Catalogue.", "New York: Whitney Museum of American Art, 2011* * * Muir, Laura and Nathan Timpano.", "''Lyonel Feininger: Photographs, 1928–1939''.", "Cambridge: Harvard Art Museums and Hatje Cantz, 2011* Nisbet, Peter.", "''Lyonel Feininger: Drawings and Watercolors''.", "Cambridge: Harvard Art Museums and Hatje Cantz Verlag, 2011" ], [ "External links", "* * Feininger retrospective at the Whitney Museum of American Art, New York Lyonel Feininger: At the Edge of the World* Lyonel Feininger Project* Moeller Fine Art – Lyonel Feininger Moeller Fine Art, New York + Berlin, world expert on Lyonel Feininger* The Ohio State University Billy Ireland Cartoon Library & Museum: Lyonel Feininger digital exhibit* Lyonel Feininger at Don Markstein's Toonopedia.", "Archived from the original on April 15, 2015.", "* Available Works and Biography Galerie Ludorff, Düsseldorf, Germany* Biography*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Life" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Life''' is a quality that distinguishes matter that has biological processes, such as signaling and self-sustaining processes, from matter that does not, and is defined descriptively by the capacity for homeostasis, organisation, metabolism, growth, adaptation, response to stimuli, and reproduction.", "Many philosophical definitions of living systems have been proposed, such as self-organizing systems.", "Viruses in particular make definition difficult as they replicate only in host cells.", "Life exists all over the Earth in air, water, and soil, with many ecosystems forming the biosphere.", "Some of these are harsh environments occupied only by extremophiles.", "Life has been studied since ancient times, with theories such as Empedocles's materialism asserting that it was composed of four eternal elements, and Aristotle's hylomorphism asserting that living things have souls and embody both form and matter.", "Life originated at least 3.5 billion years ago, resulting in a universal common ancestor.", "This evolved into all the species that exist now, by way of many extinct species, some of which have left traces as fossils.", "Attempts to classify living things, too, began with Aristotle.", "Modern classification began with Carl Linnaeus's system of binomial nomenclature in the 1740s.Living things are composed of biochemical molecules, formed mainly from a few core chemical elements.", "All living things contain two types of large molecule, proteins and nucleic acids, the latter usually both DNA and RNA: these carry the information needed by each species, including the instructions to make each type of protein.", "The proteins, in turn, serve as the machinery which carries out the many chemical processes of life.", "The cell is the structural and functional unit of life.", "Smaller organisms, including prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea), consist of small single cells.", "Larger organisms, mainly eukaryotes, can consist of single cells or may be multicellular with more complex structure.", "Life is only known to exist on Earth but extraterrestrial life is thought probable.", "Artificial life is being simulated and explored by scientists and engineers." ], [ "Definitions", "=== Challenge ===The definition of life has long been a challenge for scientists and philosophers.", "This is partially because life is a process, not a substance.", "This is complicated by a lack of knowledge of the characteristics of living entities, if any, that may have developed outside Earth.", "Philosophical definitions of life have also been put forward, with similar difficulties on how to distinguish living things from the non-living.", "Legal definitions of life have been debated, though these generally focus on the decision to declare a human dead, and the legal ramifications of this decision.", "At least 123 definitions of life have been compiled.=== Descriptive ===Since there is no consensus for a definition of life, most current definitions in biology are descriptive.", "Life is considered a characteristic of something that preserves, furthers or reinforces its existence in the given environment.", "This implies all or most of the following traits:# Homeostasis: regulation of the internal environment to maintain a constant state; for example, sweating to reduce temperature.# Organisation: being structurally composed of one or more cells – the basic units of life.# Metabolism: transformation of energy, used to convert chemicals into cellular components (anabolism) and to decompose organic matter (catabolism).", "Living things require energy for homeostasis and other activities.# Growth: maintenance of a higher rate of anabolism than catabolism.", "A growing organism increases in size and structure.# Adaptation: the evolutionary process whereby an organism becomes better able to live in its habitat.# Response to stimuli: such as the contraction of a unicellular organism away from external chemicals, the complex reactions involving all the senses of multicellular organisms, or the motion of the leaves of a plant turning toward the sun (phototropism), and chemotaxis.# Reproduction: the ability to produce new individual organisms, either asexually from a single parent organism or sexually from two parent organisms.=== Physics ===From a physics perspective, an organism is a thermodynamic system with an organised molecular structure that can reproduce itself and evolve as survival dictates.", "Thermodynamically, life has been described as an open system which makes use of gradients in its surroundings to create imperfect copies of itself.", "Another way of putting this is to define life as \"a self-sustained chemical system capable of undergoing Darwinian evolution\", a definition adopted by a NASA committee attempting to define life for the purposes of exobiology, based on a suggestion by Carl Sagan.", "This definition, however, has been widely criticized because according to it, a single sexually reproducing individual is not alive as it is incapable of evolving on its own.", "The reason for this potential flaw is that \"NASA's definition\" refers to life as a phenomenon, not a living individual, which makes it incomplete.", "Alternative definitions based on the notion of life as a phenomenon and a living individual have been proposed as continuum of a self-maintainable information, and a distinct element of this continuum, respectively.", "A major strength of this approach is that it defines life in terms of mathematics and physics, avoiding biological vocabulary.=== Living systems ===Others take a living systems theory viewpoint that does not necessarily depend on molecular chemistry.", "One systemic definition of life is that living things are self-organizing and autopoietic (self-producing).", "Variations of this include Stuart Kauffman's definition as an autonomous agent or a multi-agent system capable of reproducing itself, and of completing at least one thermodynamic work cycle.", "This definition is extended by the evolution of novel functions over time.=== Death ===Animal corpses, like this African buffalo, are recycled by the ecosystem, providing energy and nutrients for living organisms.Death is the termination of all vital functions or life processes in an organism or cell.", "One of the challenges in defining death is in distinguishing it from life.", "Death would seem to refer to either the moment life ends, or when the state that follows life begins.", "However, determining when death has occurred is difficult, as cessation of life functions is often not simultaneous across organ systems.", "Such determination, therefore, requires drawing conceptual lines between life and death.", "This is problematic because there is little consensus over how to define life.", "The nature of death has for millennia been a central concern of the world's religious traditions and of philosophical inquiry.", "Many religions maintain faith in either a kind of afterlife or reincarnation for the soul, or resurrection of the body at a later date.=== Viruses ===Adenoviruses as seen under an electron microscopeWhether or not viruses should be considered as alive is controversial.", "They are most often considered as just gene coding replicators rather than forms of life.", "They have been described as \"organisms at the edge of life\" because they possess genes, evolve by natural selection, and replicate by making multiple copies of themselves through self-assembly.", "However, viruses do not metabolise and they require a host cell to make new products.", "Virus self-assembly within host cells has implications for the study of the origin of life, as it may support the hypothesis that life could have started as self-assembling organic molecules." ], [ "History of study", "=== Materialism ===Some of the earliest theories of life were materialist, holding that all that exists is matter, and that life is merely a complex form or arrangement of matter.", "Empedocles (430 BC) argued that everything in the universe is made up of a combination of four eternal \"elements\" or \"roots of all\": earth, water, air, and fire.", "All change is explained by the arrangement and rearrangement of these four elements.", "The various forms of life are caused by an appropriate mixture of elements.Democritus (460 BC) was an atomist; he thought that the essential characteristic of life was having a soul (''psyche''), and that the soul, like everything else, was composed of fiery atoms.", "He elaborated on fire because of the apparent connection between life and heat, and because fire moves.Plato, in contrast, held that the world was organized by permanent forms, reflected imperfectly in matter; forms provided direction or intelligence, explaining the regularities observed in the world.", "The mechanistic materialism that originated in ancient Greece was revived and revised by the French philosopher René Descartes (1596–1650), who held that animals and humans were assemblages of parts that together functioned as a machine.", "This idea was developed further by Julien Offray de La Mettrie (1709–1750) in his book ''L'Homme Machine''.", "In the 19th century the advances in cell theory in biological science encouraged this view.", "The evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin (1859) is a mechanistic explanation for the origin of species by means of natural selection.", "At the beginning of the 20th century Stéphane Leduc (1853–1939) promoted the idea that biological processes could be understood in terms of physics and chemistry, and that their growth resembled that of inorganic crystals immersed in solutions of sodium silicate.", "His ideas, set out in his book ''La biologie synthétique'' was widely dismissed during his lifetime, but has incurred a resurgence of interest in the work of Russell, Barge and colleagues.=== Hylomorphism ===structure of the souls of plants, animals, and humans, according to AristotleHylomorphism is a theory first expressed by the Greek philosopher Aristotle (322 BC).", "The application of hylomorphism to biology was important to Aristotle, and biology is extensively covered in his extant writings.", "In this view, everything in the material universe has both matter and form, and the form of a living thing is its soul (Greek ''psyche'', Latin ''anima'').", "There are three kinds of souls: the ''vegetative soul'' of plants, which causes them to grow and decay and nourish themselves, but does not cause motion and sensation; the ''animal soul'', which causes animals to move and feel; and the ''rational soul'', which is the source of consciousness and reasoning, which (Aristotle believed) is found only in man.", "Each higher soul has all of the attributes of the lower ones.", "Aristotle believed that while matter can exist without form, form cannot exist without matter, and that therefore the soul cannot exist without the body.This account is consistent with teleological explanations of life, which account for phenomena in terms of purpose or goal-directedness.", "Thus, the whiteness of the polar bear's coat is explained by its purpose of camouflage.", "The direction of causality (from the future to the past) is in contradiction with the scientific evidence for natural selection, which explains the consequence in terms of a prior cause.", "Biological features are explained not by looking at future optimal results, but by looking at the past evolutionary history of a species, which led to the natural selection of the features in question.=== Spontaneous generation ===Spontaneous generation was the belief that living organisms can form without descent from similar organisms.", "Typically, the idea was that certain forms such as fleas could arise from inanimate matter such as dust or the supposed seasonal generation of mice and insects from mud or garbage.The theory of spontaneous generation was proposed by Aristotle, who compiled and expanded the work of prior natural philosophers and the various ancient explanations of the appearance of organisms; it was considered the best explanation for two millennia.", "It was decisively dispelled by the experiments of Louis Pasteur in 1859, who expanded upon the investigations of predecessors such as Francesco Redi.", "Disproof of the traditional ideas of spontaneous generation is no longer controversial among biologists.=== Vitalism ===Vitalism is the belief that there is a non-material life-principle.", "This originated with Georg Ernst Stahl (17th century), and remained popular until the middle of the 19th century.", "It appealed to philosophers such as Henri Bergson, Friedrich Nietzsche, and Wilhelm Dilthey, anatomists like Xavier Bichat, and chemists like Justus von Liebig.", "Vitalism included the idea that there was a fundamental difference between organic and inorganic material, and the belief that organic material can only be derived from living things.", "This was disproved in 1828, when Friedrich Wöhler prepared urea from inorganic materials.", "This Wöhler synthesis is considered the starting point of modern organic chemistry.", "It is of historical significance because for the first time an organic compound was produced in inorganic reactions.During the 1850s Hermann von Helmholtz, anticipated by Julius Robert von Mayer, demonstrated that no energy is lost in muscle movement, suggesting that there were no \"vital forces\" necessary to move a muscle.", "These results led to the abandonment of scientific interest in vitalistic theories, especially after Eduard Buchner's demonstration that alcoholic fermentation could occur in cell-free extracts of yeast.", "Nonetheless, belief still exists in pseudoscientific theories such as homoeopathy, which interprets diseases and sickness as caused by disturbances in a hypothetical vital force or life force." ], [ "Development", "=== Origin of life ===The age of Earth is about 4.54 billion years.", "Life on Earth has existed for at least 3.5 billion years, with the oldest physical traces of life dating back 3.7 billion years.", "Estimates from molecular clocks, as summarized in the TimeTree public database, place the origin of life around 4.0 billion years ago.", "Hypotheses on the origin of life attempt to explain the formation of a universal common ancestor from simple organic molecules via pre-cellular life to protocells and metabolism.", "In 2016, a set of 355 genes from the last universal common ancestor was tentatively identified.The biosphere is postulated to have developed, from the origin of life onwards, at least some 3.5 billion years ago.", "The earliest evidence for life on Earth includes biogenic graphite found in 3.7 billion-year-old metasedimentary rocks from Western Greenland and microbial mat fossils found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone from Western Australia.", "More recently, in 2015, \"remains of biotic life\" were found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia.", "In 2017, putative fossilised microorganisms (or microfossils) were announced to have been discovered in hydrothermal vent precipitates in the Nuvvuagittuq Belt of Quebec, Canada that were as old as 4.28 billion years, the oldest record of life on Earth, suggesting \"an almost instantaneous emergence of life\" after ocean formation 4.4 billion years ago, and not long after the formation of the Earth 4.54 billion years ago.=== Evolution ===Evolution is the change in heritable characteristics of biological populations over successive generations.", "It results in the appearance of new species and often the disappearance of old ones.", "Evolution occurs when evolutionary processes such as natural selection (including sexual selection) and genetic drift act on genetic variation, resulting in certain characteristics increasing or decreasing in frequency within a population over successive generations.", "The process of evolution has given rise to biodiversity at every level of biological organisation.=== Fossils ===Fossils are the preserved remains or traces of organisms from the remote past.", "The totality of fossils, both discovered and undiscovered, and their placement in layers (strata) of sedimentary rock is known as the ''fossil record''.", "A preserved specimen is called a fossil if it is older than the arbitrary date of 10,000 years ago.", "Hence, fossils range in age from the youngest at the start of the Holocene Epoch to the oldest from the Archaean Eon, up to 3.4 billion years old.=== Extinction ===Extinction is the process by which a species dies out.", "The moment of extinction is the death of the last individual of that species.", "Because a species' potential range may be very large, determining this moment is difficult, and is usually done retrospectively after a period of apparent absence.", "Species become extinct when they are no longer able to survive in changing habitat or against superior competition.", "Over 99% of all the species that have ever lived are now extinct.", "Mass extinctions may have accelerated evolution by providing opportunities for new groups of organisms to diversify." ], [ "Environmental conditions", "Cyanobacteria dramatically changed the composition of life forms on Earth by leading to the near-extinction of oxygen-intolerant organisms.The diversity of life on Earth is a result of the dynamic interplay between genetic opportunity, metabolic capability, environmental challenges, and symbiosis.", "For most of its existence, Earth's habitable environment has been dominated by microorganisms and subjected to their metabolism and evolution.", "As a consequence of these microbial activities, the physical-chemical environment on Earth has been changing on a geologic time scale, thereby affecting the path of evolution of subsequent life.", "For example, the release of molecular oxygen by cyanobacteria as a by-product of photosynthesis induced global changes in the Earth's environment.", "Because oxygen was toxic to most life on Earth at the time, this posed novel evolutionary challenges, and ultimately resulted in the formation of Earth's major animal and plant species.", "This interplay between organisms and their environment is an inherent feature of living systems.=== Biosphere ===''Deinococcus geothermalis'', a bacterium that thrives in geothermal springs and deep ocean subsurfaces.\|leftThe biosphere is the global sum of all ecosystems.", "It can also be termed as the zone of life on Earth, a closed system (apart from solar and cosmic radiation and heat from the interior of the Earth), and largely self-regulating.", "Organisms exist in every part of the biosphere, including soil, hot springs, inside rocks at least deep underground, the deepest parts of the ocean, and at least high in the atmosphere.", "For example, spores of ''Aspergillus niger'' have been detected in the mesosphere at an altitude of 48 to 77 km.", "Under test conditions, life forms have been observed to thrive in the near-weightlessness of space and to survive in the vacuum of space.", "Life forms thrive in the deep Mariana Trench, and inside rocks up to below the sea floor under of ocean off the coast of the northwestern United States, and beneath the seabed off Japan.", "In 2014, life forms were found living below the ice of Antarctica.", "Expeditions of the International Ocean Discovery Program found unicellular life in 120 °C sediment 1.2 km below seafloor in the Nankai Trough subduction zone.", "According to one researcher, \"You can find microbes everywhere—they're extremely adaptable to conditions, and survive wherever they are.", "\"=== Range of tolerance ===The inert components of an ecosystem are the physical and chemical factors necessary for life—energy (sunlight or chemical energy), water, heat, atmosphere, gravity, nutrients, and ultraviolet solar radiation protection.", "In most ecosystems, the conditions vary during the day and from one season to the next.", "To live in most ecosystems, then, organisms must be able to survive a range of conditions, called the \"range of tolerance.\"", "Outside that are the \"zones of physiological stress,\" where the survival and reproduction are possible but not optimal.", "Beyond these zones are the \"zones of intolerance,\" where survival and reproduction of that organism is unlikely or impossible.", "Organisms that have a wide range of tolerance are more widely distributed than organisms with a narrow range of tolerance.=== Extremophiles ===''Deinococcus radiodurans'' is an extremophile that can resist extremes of cold, dehydration, vacuum, acid, and radiation exposure.To survive, some microorganisms have evolved to withstand freezing, complete desiccation, starvation, high levels of radiation exposure, and other physical or chemical challenges.", "These extremophile microorganisms may survive exposure to such conditions for long periods.", "They excel at exploiting uncommon sources of energy.", "Characterization of the structure and metabolic diversity of microbial communities in such extreme environments is ongoing." ], [ "Classification", "=== Antiquity ===The first classification of organisms was made by the Greek philosopher Aristotle (384–322 BC), who grouped living things as either plants or animals, based mainly on their ability to move.", "He distinguished animals with blood from animals without blood, which can be compared with the concepts of vertebrates and invertebrates respectively, and divided the blooded animals into five groups: viviparous quadrupeds (mammals), oviparous quadrupeds (reptiles and amphibians), birds, fishes and whales.", "The bloodless animals were divided into five groups: cephalopods, crustaceans, insects (which included the spiders, scorpions, and centipedes), shelled animals (such as most molluscs and echinoderms), and \"zoophytes\" (animals that resemble plants).", "This theory remained dominant for more than a thousand years.=== Linnaean ===In the late 1740s, Carl Linnaeus introduced his system of binomial nomenclature for the classification of species.", "Linnaeus attempted to improve the composition and reduce the length of the previously used many-worded names by abolishing unnecessary rhetoric, introducing new descriptive terms and precisely defining their meaning.", "The fungi were originally treated as plants.", "For a short period Linnaeus had classified them in the taxon Vermes in Animalia, but later placed them back in Plantae.", "Herbert Copeland classified the Fungi in his Protoctista, including them with single-celled organisms and thus partially avoiding the problem but acknowledging their special status.", "The problem was eventually solved by Whittaker, when he gave them their own kingdom in his five-kingdom system.", "Evolutionary history shows that the fungi are more closely related to animals than to plants.As advances in microscopy enabled detailed study of cells and microorganisms, new groups of life were revealed, and the fields of cell biology and microbiology were created.", "These new organisms were originally described separately in protozoa as animals and protophyta/thallophyta as plants, but were united by Ernst Haeckel in the kingdom Protista; later, the prokaryotes were split off in the kingdom Monera, which would eventually be divided into two separate groups, the Bacteria and the Archaea.", "This led to the six-kingdom system and eventually to the current three-domain system, which is based on evolutionary relationships.", "However, the classification of eukaryotes, especially of protists, is still controversial.As microbiology developed, viruses, which are non-cellular, were discovered.", "Whether these are considered alive has been a matter of debate; viruses lack characteristics of life such as cell membranes, metabolism and the ability to grow or respond to their environments.", "Viruses have been classed into \"species\" based on their genetics, but many aspects of such a classification remain controversial.The original Linnaean system has been modified many times, for example as follows:The attempt to organise the Eukaryotes into a small number of kingdoms has been challenged.", "The Protozoa do not form a clade or natural grouping, and nor do the Chromista (Chromalveolata).=== Metagenomic ===The ability to sequence large numbers of complete genomes has allowed biologists to take a metagenomic view of the phylogeny of the whole tree of life.", "This has led to the realisation that the majority of living things are bacteria, and that all have a common origin.File:Phylogenetic tree of life LUCA.svg\|Phylogenetic tree based on rRNA genes data (Woese ''et al.", "'', 1990) showing the 3 life domains, with the last universal common ancestor (LUCA) at its rootFile:A Novel Representation Of The Tree Of Life.png\|A 2016 metagenomic representation of the tree of life, unrooted, using ribosomal protein sequences.", "Bacteria are at top (left and right); Archaea at bottom; Eukaryotes in green at bottom right." ], [ "Composition", "=== Chemical elements ===All life forms require certain core chemical elements for their biochemical functioning.", "These include carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur—the elemental macronutrients for all organisms.", "Together these make up nucleic acids, proteins and lipids, the bulk of living matter.", "Five of these six elements comprise the chemical components of DNA, the exception being sulfur.", "The latter is a component of the amino acids cysteine and methionine.", "The most abundant of these elements in organisms is carbon, which has the desirable attribute of forming multiple, stable covalent bonds.", "This allows carbon-based (organic) molecules to form the immense variety of chemical arrangements described in organic chemistry.Alternative hypothetical types of biochemistry have been proposed that eliminate one or more of these elements, swap out an element for one not on the list, or change required chiralities or other chemical properties.=== DNA ===Deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA is a molecule that carries most of the genetic instructions used in the growth, development, functioning and reproduction of all known living organisms and many viruses.", "DNA and RNA are nucleic acids; alongside proteins and complex carbohydrates, they are one of the three major types of macromolecule that are essential for all known forms of life.", "Most DNA molecules consist of two biopolymer strands coiled around each other to form a double helix.", "The two DNA strands are known as polynucleotides since they are composed of simpler units called nucleotides.", "Each nucleotide is composed of a nitrogen-containing nucleobase—either cytosine (C), guanine (G), adenine (A), or thymine (T)—as well as a sugar called deoxyribose and a phosphate group.", "The nucleotides are joined to one another in a chain by covalent bonds between the sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate of the next, resulting in an alternating sugar-phosphate backbone.", "According to base pairing rules (A with T, and C with G), hydrogen bonds bind the nitrogenous bases of the two separate polynucleotide strands to make double-stranded DNA.", "This has the key property that each strand contains all the information needed to recreate the other strand, enabling the information to be preserved during reproduction and cell division.", "Within cells, DNA is organised into long structures called chromosomes.", "During cell division these chromosomes are duplicated in the process of DNA replication, providing each cell its own complete set of chromosomes.", "Eukaryotes store most of their DNA inside the cell nucleus.", "=== Cells ===Cells are the basic unit of structure in every living thing, and all cells arise from pre-existing cells by division.", "Cell theory was formulated by Henri Dutrochet, Theodor Schwann, Rudolf Virchow and others during the early nineteenth century, and subsequently became widely accepted.", "The activity of an organism depends on the total activity of its cells, with energy flow occurring within and between them.", "Cells contain hereditary information that is carried forward as a genetic code during cell division.There are two primary types of cells, reflecting their evolutionary origins.", "Prokaryote cells lack a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles, although they have circular DNA and ribosomes.", "Bacteria and Archaea are two domains of prokaryotes.", "The other primary type is the eukaryote cell, which has a distinct nucleus bound by a nuclear membrane and membrane-bound organelles, including mitochondria, chloroplasts, lysosomes, rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum, and vacuoles.", "In addition, their DNA is organised into chromosomes.", "All species of large complex organisms are eukaryotes, including animals, plants and fungi, though with a wide diversity of protist microorganisms.", "The conventional model is that eukaryotes evolved from prokaryotes, with the main organelles of the eukaryotes forming through endosymbiosis between bacteria and the progenitor eukaryotic cell.The molecular mechanisms of cell biology are based on proteins.", "Most of these are synthesised by the ribosomes through an enzyme-catalyzed process called protein biosynthesis.", "A sequence of amino acids is assembled and joined based upon gene expression of the cell's nucleic acid.", "In eukaryotic cells, these proteins may then be transported and processed through the Golgi apparatus in preparation for dispatch to their destination.Cells reproduce through a process of cell division in which the parent cell divides into two or more daughter cells.", "For prokaryotes, cell division occurs through a process of fission in which the DNA is replicated, then the two copies are attached to parts of the cell membrane.", "In eukaryotes, a more complex process of mitosis is followed.", "However, the result is the same; the resulting cell copies are identical to each other and to the original cell (except for mutations), and both are capable of further division following an interphase period.=== Multicellular structure ===Multicellular organisms may have first evolved through the formation of colonies of identical cells.", "These cells can form group organisms through cell adhesion.", "The individual members of a colony are capable of surviving on their own, whereas the members of a true multi-cellular organism have developed specialisations, making them dependent on the remainder of the organism for survival.", "Such organisms are formed clonally or from a single germ cell that is capable of forming the various specialised cells that form the adult organism.", "This specialisation allows multicellular organisms to exploit resources more efficiently than single cells.", "About 800 million years ago, a minor genetic change in a single molecule, the enzyme GK-PID, may have allowed organisms to go from a single cell organism to one of many cells.Cells have evolved methods to perceive and respond to their microenvironment, thereby enhancing their adaptability.", "Cell signalling coordinates cellular activities, and hence governs the basic functions of multicellular organisms.", "Signaling between cells can occur through direct cell contact using juxtacrine signalling, or indirectly through the exchange of agents as in the endocrine system.", "In more complex organisms, coordination of activities can occur through a dedicated nervous system." ], [ "Extraterrestrial", "Though life is confirmed only on Earth, many think that extraterrestrial life is not only plausible, but probable or inevitable.", "Other planets and moons in the Solar System and other planetary systems are being examined for evidence of having once supported simple life, and projects such as SETI are trying to detect radio transmissions from possible alien civilisations.", "Other locations within the Solar System that may host microbial life include the subsurface of Mars, the upper atmosphere of Venus, and subsurface oceans on some of the moons of the giant planets.Investigation of the tenacity and versatility of life on Earth, as well as an understanding of the molecular systems that some organisms utilise to survive such extremes, is important for the search for extraterrestrial life.", "For example, lichen could survive for a month in a simulated Martian environment.Beyond the Solar System, the region around another main-sequence star that could support Earth-like life on an Earth-like planet is known as the habitable zone.", "The inner and outer radii of this zone vary with the luminosity of the star, as does the time interval during which the zone survives.", "Stars more massive than the Sun have a larger habitable zone, but remain on the Sun-like \"main sequence\" of stellar evolution for a shorter time interval.", "Small red dwarfs have the opposite problem, with a smaller habitable zone that is subject to higher levels of magnetic activity and the effects of tidal locking from close orbits.", "Hence, stars in the intermediate mass range such as the Sun may have a greater likelihood for Earth-like life to develop.", "The location of the star within a galaxy may also affect the likelihood of life forming.", "Stars in regions with a greater abundance of heavier elements that can form planets, in combination with a low rate of potentially habitat-damaging supernova events, are predicted to have a higher probability of hosting planets with complex life.", "The variables of the Drake equation are used to discuss the conditions in planetary systems where civilisation is most likely to exist, within wide bounds of uncertainty.", "A \"Confidence of Life Detection\" scale (CoLD) for reporting evidence of life beyond Earth has been proposed." ], [ "Artificial", "Artificial life is the simulation of any aspect of life, as through computers, robotics, or biochemistry.", "Synthetic biology is a new area of biotechnology that combines science and biological engineering.", "The common goal is the design and construction of new biological functions and systems not found in nature.", "Synthetic biology includes the broad redefinition and expansion of biotechnology, with the ultimate goals of being able to design and build engineered biological systems that process information, manipulate chemicals, fabricate materials and structures, produce energy, provide food, and maintain and enhance human health and the environment." ], [ "See also", "* Biology, the study of life* Biosignature* Carbon-based life* Central dogma of molecular biology* History of life* Lists of organisms by population* Viable system theory" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Vitae (BioLib)* Wikispecies – a free directory of life* Biota (Taxonomicon) (archived 15 July 2014)* Entry on the ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy''* What Is Life?", "- by Jaime Green, ''The Atlantic'' (archived 5 December 2023)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "La Espero" ], [ "Introduction", "''La Espero''Félicien Menu de Ménil\"'''La Espero'''\" () is a poem written by Polish-Jewish doctor L. L. Zamenhof (1859–1917), the initiator of the Esperanto language.", "The song is often used as the (unofficial) anthem of Esperanto, and is now usually sung to a triumphal march composed by Félicien Menu de Ménil in 1909 (although there is an earlier, less martial tune created in 1891 by Claes Adelsköld, along with a number of other lesser-known tunes).", "It is sometimes referred to as the hymn of the Esperanto movement.Some Esperantists object to the use of terms like \"hymn\" or \"anthem\" for ''La Espero'', arguing that these terms have religious and nationalist overtones, respectively." ], [ "Lyrics", "La EsperoThe HopeEn la mondon venis nova sento,tra la mondo iras forta voko;per flugiloj de facila ventonun de loko flugu ĝi al loko.Ne al glavo sangon soifantaĝi la homan tiras familion:al la mond' eterne militantaĝi promesas sanktan harmonion.Sub la sankta signo de l' esperokolektiĝas pacaj batalantoj,kaj rapide kreskas la aferoper laboro de la esperantoj.Forte staras muroj de miljarojinter la popoloj dividitaj;sed dissaltos la obstinaj baroj,per la sankta amo disbatitaj.Sur neŭtrala lingva fundamento,komprenante unu la alian,la popoloj faros en konsentounu grandan rondon familian.Nia diligenta kolegaroen laboro paca ne laciĝos,ĝis la bela sonĝo de l' homaropor eterna ben' efektiviĝos.Into the world came a new feeling,through the world goes a powerful call;by means of wings of a gentle windnow let it fly from place to place.Not to a bloodthirsty sworddoes it draw the human family:to the eternally fighting worldit promises sacred harmony.Under the sacred sign of the hopethe peaceful fighters gather,and this affair quickly growsby the labours of those who hope.Walls of millennia stand firmlybetween the divided people;but the stubborn barriers will jump apart,knocked apart by the sacred love.On a neutral language basis,understanding one another,the people will make in agreementone great family circle.Our diligent set of colleaguesin peaceful labor will never tire,until the beautiful dream of humanityfor eternal blessing is realized." ], [ "See also", "* Esperanto music* The Internationale* Ode to Joy" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*****" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Loonie" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''loonie''' (), formally the '''Canadian one-dollar coin''', is a gold-coloured Canadian coin that was introduced in 1987 and is produced by the Royal Canadian Mint at its facility in Winnipeg.", "The most prevalent versions of the coin show a common loon, a bird found throughout Canada, on the reverse and Queen Elizabeth II, the nation's head of state at the time of the coin's issue, on the obverse.", "Various commemorative and specimen-set editions of the coin with special designs replacing the loon on the reverse have been minted over the years.", "Beginning in December 2023, a new version featuring King Charles III entered circulation, to replace the version featuring Elizabeth II.The coin's outline is an 11-sided Reuleaux polygon.", "Its diameter of 26.5 mm and its 11-sidedness matched that of the already-circulating Susan B. Anthony dollar in the United States, and its thickness of 1.95 mm was a close match to the latter's 2.0 mm.", "Its gold colour differed from the silver-coloured Anthony dollar; however, the succeeding Sacagawea and Presidential dollars matched the loonie's overall hue.", "Other coins using a non-circular curve of constant width include the 7-sided British twenty pence and fifty pence coins (the latter of which has similar size and value to the loonie, but is silver in colour).After its introduction, the coin became a metonym for the Canadian dollar: media often discuss the rate at which the ''loonie'' is trading against other currencies.", "The nickname ''loonie'' became so widely recognized that in 2006, the Royal Canadian Mint secured the rights to it.", "When the Canadian two-dollar coin was introduced in 1996, it was in turn nicknamed the \"toonie\" (a portmanteau of \"two\" and \"loonie\")." ], [ "Background", "Canada first minted a silver dollar coin in 1935 to celebrate the 25th anniversary of George V's reign as king.", "The voyageur dollar, so named because it featured an Indigenous person and a French voyageur paddling a canoe on the reverse, was minted in silver until 1967, after which it was composed primarily of nickel.", "The coins did not see wide circulation, mainly due to their size and weight; the nickel version weighed and was in diameter, and was itself smaller than the silver version.By 1982, the Royal Canadian Mint had begun work on a new composition for the dollar coin that it hoped would lead to increased circulation.", "At the same time, vending machine operators and transit systems were lobbying the Government of Canada to replace the dollar banknotes with more widely circulating coins.", "A Commons committee recommended in 1985 that the dollar bill be eliminated despite a lack of evidence that Canadians would support the move.", "The government argued that it would save between $175 million and $250 million over 20 years by switching from bills that had a lifespan of less than a year to coins that would last two decades." ], [ "History", "The government announced on March 25, 1986, that the new dollar coin would be launched the following year as a replacement for the dollar bill, which would be phased out.", "It was expected to cost $31.8 million to produce the first 300 million coins, but through seigniorage (the difference between the cost of production and the coin's value), expected to make up to $40 million a year on the coins.", "From the proceeds, a total of $60 million over five years was dedicated toward funding the 1988 Winter Olympics in Calgary.The failure of the Susan B. Anthony dollar coin in the United States had been considered and it was believed Americans refused to support the coin due to its similarity to their quarter coin and its lack of aesthetic appeal.", "In announcing the new Canadian dollar coin, the government stated it would be the same overall size as the Susan B. Anthony coin – slightly larger than a quarter – to allow for compatibility with American manufactured vending machines, but would be eleven-sided and gold-coloured.It was planned that the coin would continue using the ''voyageur'' theme of its predecessor, but the master dies that had been struck in Ottawa were lost in transit en route to the Mint's facility at Winnipeg.", "A Commons committee struck to investigate the loss discovered that the Mint had no documented procedures for transport of master dies and that it had shipped them via a local courier in a bid to save $43.50.It was also found to be the third time that the Mint had lost master dies within five years.", "An internal review by the Royal Canadian Mint argued that while a policy existed to ship the obverse and reverse dies separately, the new coin dies were packaged separately but were part of the same shipment.", "The Mint also disagreed with the Royal Canadian Mounted Police's contention that the dies were simply lost in transit, believing instead that they were stolen.", "The dies were never recovered.Fearing the possibility of counterfeiting, the government approved a new design for the reverse, replacing the ''voyageur'' with a Robert-Ralph Carmichael design of a common loon floating in water.", "The coin was immediately nicknamed the \"loonie\" across English Canada, and became known as a \"''huard''\", French for \"loon\", in Quebec.", "The loonie entered circulation on June 30, 1987, as 40 million coins were introduced into major cities across the country.", "Over 800 million loonies had been struck by the coin's 20th anniversary.After a 21-month period in which the loonie and $1 note were produced concurrently with each other, the Bank of Canada ceased production of the dollar banknote.", "The final dollar bills were printed on June 30, 1989.Initial support for the coin was mixed, but withdrawing the banknote forced acceptance of the coin.The loonie has subsequently gained iconic status within Canada, and is now regarded as a national symbol.", "The term \"loonie\" has since become synonymous with the Canadian dollar itself.", "The town of Echo Bay, Ontario, home of Robert-Ralph Carmichael, erected a large loonie monument in his honour in 1992 along the highway, similar to Sudbury's 'Big Nickel'.A year after the death of Elizabeth II, a new loonie featuring the image of Charles III designed by Steven Rosati was revealed on November 14, 2023.A small number of the coins entered circulation in December 2023." ], [ "Lucky loonie", "The 2010 Olympic \"lucky\" loonieOfficials for the 2002 Salt Lake Winter Olympics invited the National Hockey League's ice making consultant, Dan Craig, to oversee the city's E Center arena, where the ice hockey tournament was being held.", "Craig invited a couple of members from the ice crew in his hometown of Edmonton to assist.", "One of them, Trent Evans, secretly placed a loonie at centre ice.", "He had originally placed a dime, but added the loonie after the smaller coin quickly vanished as the ice surface was built up.", "He placed the coins after realizing there was no target at centre ice for referees to aim for when dropping the puck for a faceoff.", "A thin yellow dot was painted on the ice surface over the coins, though the loonie was faintly visible to those who knew to look for it.Keeping the coin a secret, Evans told only a few people of its placement and swore them to secrecy.", "Among those told were the players of the men's and women's teams.", "Both Canadian teams went on to win gold medals.", "Several members of the women's team kissed the spot where the coin was buried following their victory.", "After the men won their final, the coin was dug up and given to Wayne Gretzky, the team's executive-director, who revealed the existence of the \"lucky loonie\" at a post-game press conference.The lucky loonie quickly became a piece of Canadian lore.", "The original lucky loonie was donated to the Hockey Hall of Fame, and Canadians have subsequently hidden loonies at several international competitions, including the 2008 Olympic Games and the 2010 IIHF World Championships.", "Loonies were buried in the foundations of facilities built for the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver.Capitalizing on the tradition, the Royal Canadian Mint has released a commemorative edition \"lucky loonie\" for each Olympic Games since 2004." ], [ "Composition", "The weight of the coin was originally specified as 108 grains, equivalent to 6.998 grams.", "The coin's diameter is 26.5mm.When introduced, loonie coins were made of aureate, a bronze–electroplated nickel combination.", "Beginning in 2007, some loonie blanks also began to be produced with a cyanide-free brass plating process.", "In the second quarter of 2012, the composition switched to multi-ply brass-plated steel.", "As a result, the weight dropped from 7.00 to 6.27 grams.", "This resulted in the 2012 loonie not being accepted in some vending machines.", "The Toronto Parking Authority estimated that at about $345 per machine, it would cost about $1 million to upgrade almost 3,000 machines to accept the new coins.", "The Mint stated that multi-ply plated steel technology, already used in Canada's smaller coinage, produces an electromagnetic signature that is harder to counterfeit than that of regular alloy coins; also, using steel provides cost savings and avoids fluctuations in price or supply of nickel.On April 10, 2012, the Royal Canadian Mint announced design changes to the loonie and toonie, which include new security features." ], [ "Commemorative editions", "Alongside the regular minting of the loonie with the standard image of the common loon on the coin's reverse, the Royal Canadian Mint has also released commemorative editions of the one-dollar coin for a variety of occasions.", "These coins have a circulation-grade finish and have been made available to the public in five-coin packs and in 25-coin rolls in addition to being released directly into circulation.+ Commemorative editions of the Canadian $1 coinYearThemeArtistMintageNotes1992125th anniversary of ConfederationRita Swanson23,010,000Showing children and the Parliament Building.", "The regular loon design was also minted that year bearing the double date \"1867–1992\".1994Remembrance designRCM Staff15,000,000Image of the National War Memorial in Ottawa1995Peacekeeping MonumentJ.", "K. Harman, Richard Henriquez, Gregory Henriquez, C. H. Oberlander, Susan Taylor41,813,100 (see note)Included in 1995 loonie mintage2004Olympic lucky loonieR.R.", "Carmichael6,526,000First lucky loonie.", "Released for the 2004 Summer Olympics held in Athens, Greece.2005Terry FoxStan Witten12,909,000Fox is the first Canadian citizen to be featured on a circulated Canadian coin.", "There are versions that exist without grass on the reverse of the coin.2006Olympic lucky loonieJean-Luc Grondin10,495,000Second lucky loonie.", "Released for the 2006 Winter Olympics held in Turin, Italy.2008Olympic lucky loonieJean-Luc Grondin10,000,000Third lucky loonie.", "Released for the 2008 Summer Olympics held in Beijing, China.2009Montreal Canadiens centennialSusanna Blunt10,000,000To commemorate the 100th anniversary celebration of the Montreal Canadiens professional hockey team2010Olympic lucky loonieRCM Staff11,000,000Fourth lucky loonie.", "Released for the 2010 Winter Olympics held in Vancouver.", "Includes the 2010 Winter Olympics symbol ilanaaq, an inukshuk.2010Navy centennialBonnie Ross7,000,000To commemorate the centennial of the Canadian Navy.", "Features a below anchor, a 1910 naval serviceman and a modern-day female naval officer.2010Saskatchewan Roughriders centennialSusanna Blunt3,000,000To celebrate the 100th anniversary of the Saskatchewan Roughriders.", "Features the Roughriders logo along with a stylized 100.2011Parks Canada centennial Nolin BBDO Montreal5,000,000To celebrate Parks Canada's 100th anniversary.", "Features stylized land, air and aquatic fauna, varieties of flora, as well as a symbolic park building and the silhouette of a hiker framed by a snow-capped mountain range.2012Olympic lucky loonieEmily Damstra5,000,000Fifth lucky loonie.", "Released for the 2012 Summer Olympics held in London, United Kingdom.", "Features a common loon with its wings spread, the Olympic rings, and a laser-etched maple leaf.2012 100th Grey CupRCM Staff5,000,000To celebrate the 100th Grey Cup.", "Features the Grey Cup with \"100th Grey Cup\" in English and French.2014Olympic lucky loonieEmily Damstra5,000,000Sixth lucky loonie.", "Released for the 2014 Winter Olympics held in Sochi, Russia.", "Features a common loon with its wings spread sitting on a lake, the Canadian Olympic Team logo, and a laser-etched maple leaf.", "Same design as the 2012 version of the lucky loonie.2016Women's right to voteLaurie McGaw5,000,000Features a woman casting a ballot with a girl to commemorate the 100th anniversary of women's suffrage in Canada.2016Olympic lucky loonieDerek Wicks5,000,000Seventh lucky loonie.", "Released for the 2016 Summer Olympics held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.", "Shows the image of a common loon on the water, poised for take-off with an arched body and outstretched wings, with a stylized maple leaf in the background.2017Canada 150Wesley Klassen10,000,000Commemorating the 150th anniversary of the Confederation of Canada.", "The design features the railroad and landmarks such as the Lions Gate Bridge, a prairie grain elevator, the CN Tower, Quebec City's Château Frontenac Hotel and an East Coast lighthouse.", "The theme of the coin is \"Our Achievements\".2017Toronto Maple Leafs 100th anniversarySteven Rosati5,150,000Celebrating the 100th anniversary of the Toronto Maple Leafs hockey team.", "The design features the Leafs logo, two hockey sticks crossed under a Canadian maple leaf, and a hockey puck between the words \"Canada Dollar\" written around the top of the coin.2019LGBT equalityJoe Average3,000,00050th anniversary of the 1969 decriminalization of homosexuality in Canada.", "Design features two overlapping human faces within a large circle, and the word \"equality\" in both French and English.", "The design was issued both as a regular $1 coin and as a limited-edition $10 collector's coin in full colour.202075th anniversary of the signing of the Charter of the United NationsJoel Kimmel Commemorates the 75th anniversary of the United Nations (UN) and its charter.", "In a nod to the UN logo, a world map within an olive branch wreath is paired with a maple leaf to symbolize Canada's commitment to the UN and its values.2021125th anniversary of the Klondike Gold RushJori van der Linde Commemorates the 125th anniversary of the Klondike Gold Rush.", "The design features the artist's rendition of the gold discovery that set off the Klondike Gold Rush.", "Under the shining sun, Keish (\"Skookum\" Jim Mason), Shaaw Tlàa (Kate Carmack), Kàa Goox (Dawson Charlie), all of whom were of Lingít and Tagish descent, and George Carmack can be seen panning for gold at the edge of Gàh Dek (Rabbit Creek / Bonanza Creek).", "A powerful symbol of cultural revitalization, the pictorial symbol for Ëdhä Dädhëchą (Moosehide Slide) is highlighted in red and white on selectively coloured coins; it appears on the opposite side of the creek and represents the Tr'ondëk Hwëch'in and their deep, abiding connection to the land.2022Celebrating Oscar PetersonValentine De Landro Celebration of the life and legacy of Oscar Peterson.", "The design features a depiction of the musician seated at his piano, playing his powerful civil rights anthem \"Hymn to Freedom\", while musical notes and chord symbols from that piece also appear in the design.", "On the $1 coin with selective colour, Peterson's favourite colour (purple) conveys the joy and love of music that were evident every time he played.2022175th anniversary of the birth of Alexander Graham BellChristopher Gorey Commemorates the 175th anniversary of the birth of Alexander Graham Bell, honouring his legacy of innovation.", "The design features a reproduction of Bell's signature, paired with a portrait of the inventor in his later years, when much of his scientific work was done at his estate in Baddeck, Nova Scotia.", "Those experiments are represented by schematic illustrations of the ''Silver Dart''—the aircraft that achieved the first controlled, powered flight in Canada—and the record-setting HD-4 hydrofoil; both crafts made history on Bras d'Or Lake, represented by the waves that are highlighted in blue on the colourized coin.2023Honouring Elsie MacGillClaire Watson Honouring Elizabeth \"Elsie\" MacGill for her aeronautical engineering and for championing women's rights.", "Featured on the coin is a Hawker Hurricane, which appears in colour on select coins." ], [ "Terry Fox loonie", "The Terry Fox Loonie was unveiled in 2005 and designed by Senior Engraver Stanley Witten.", "The coin depicts the Canadian athlete, humanitarian, and cancer research activist Terry Fox.Following his design of the 2005 Terry Fox loonie, Witten told the Ottawa Citizen that \"while sculpting the design, I wanted to capture Terry fighting the elements, running against the wind, towering over wind-bent trees on a lonely stretch of Canadian wilderness.\"" ], [ "Specimen set editions", "In 1997, 2002, and each year since 2004, the Royal Canadian Mint has issued a one-dollar coin that depicts a different and unique image of a bird on the coin's reverse.", "These special loonies have limited mintages and are available only in the six-coin specimen sets.Echo Bay, Ontario.YearThemeArtistMintage199710th anniversary of the loonieJean-Luc Grondin97,595200215th anniversary of the loonieDora de Pédery-Hunt67,6722004Jack Miner Bird SanctuarySusan Taylor46,4932005Tufted puffinMark Hobson39,8182006Snowy owlGlen Loates39,9352007Trumpeter swanKerri Burnett40,0002008Common eiderMark Hobson40,0002009Great blue heronChris Jordison40,0002010Northern harrierArnold Nogy35,0002011Great grey owlArnold Nogy35,000201225th anniversary of the loonieArnold Nogy35,0002013Blue-winged tealGlen Loates50,0002014Ferruginous hawkTrevor Tennant50,0002015Blue jayBrent Townsend30,0002016Tundra swanGlen Scrimshaw30,0002017Snow goosePierre Girard30,0002018Burrowing owlPierre Girard30,0002019Pileated woodpeckerJean-Charles Daumas30,0002020Black-footed ferretCaitlin Lindstrom-Milne25,0002021Blanding's turtlePierre Girard30,0002022Swift foxClaude Thivierge30,0002023Greater sage-grouseDavid Caesar 30,000" ], [ "First strikes", "YearThemeMintage2005Common loon1,9442005Terry Fox19,9492006Lucky Loonie20,0102006With new Mint mark5,0002023King Charles III obverse 15,000" ], [ "References", "===Footnotes======Bibliography===" ], [ "External links", " Loonie value – 1935 to today* The chemistry of the loonie" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Laminar flow" ], [ "Introduction", "The velocity profile associated with laminar flow resembles a deck of playing cards.", "This flow profile of a fluid in a pipe shows that the fluid acts in layers that slide over one another.", "'''Laminar flow''' () is the property of fluid particles in fluid dynamics to follow smooth paths in layers, with each layer moving smoothly past the adjacent layers with little or no mixing.", "At low velocities, the fluid tends to flow without lateral mixing, and adjacent layers slide past one another smoothly.", "There are no cross-currents perpendicular to the direction of flow, nor eddies or swirls of fluids.", "In laminar flow, the motion of the particles of the fluid is very orderly with particles close to a solid surface moving in straight lines parallel to that surface.Laminar flow is a flow regime characterized by high momentum diffusion and low momentum convection.When a fluid is flowing through a closed channel such as a pipe or between two flat plates, either of two types of flow may occur depending on the velocity and viscosity of the fluid: laminar flow or turbulent flow.", "Laminar flow occurs at lower velocities, below a threshold at which the flow becomes turbulent.", "The threshold velocity is determined by a dimensionless parameter characterizing the flow called the Reynolds number, which also depends on the viscosity and density of the fluid and dimensions of the channel.", "Turbulent flow is a less orderly flow regime that is characterized by eddies or small packets of fluid particles, which result in lateral mixing.", "In non-scientific terms, laminar flow is ''smooth'', while turbulent flow is ''rough''." ], [ "Relationship with the Reynolds number", "A sphere in Stokes flow, at very low Reynolds number.", "An object moving through a fluid experiences a drag force in the direction opposite to its motion.The type of flow occurring in a fluid in a channel is important in fluid-dynamics problems and subsequently affects heat and mass transfer in fluid systems.", "The dimensionless Reynolds number is an important parameter in the equations that describe whether fully developed flow conditions lead to laminar or turbulent flow.", "The Reynolds number is the ratio of the inertial force to the shearing force of the fluid: how fast the fluid is moving relative to how viscous it is, irrespective of the scale of the fluid system.", "Laminar flow generally occurs when the fluid is moving slowly or the fluid is very viscous.", "As the Reynolds number increases, such as by increasing the flow rate of the fluid, the flow will transition from laminar to turbulent flow at a specific range of Reynolds numbers, the laminar–turbulent transition range depending on small disturbance levels in the fluid or imperfections in the flow system.", "If the Reynolds number is very small, much less than 1, then the fluid will exhibit Stokes, or creeping, flow, where the viscous forces of the fluid dominate the inertial forces.The specific calculation of the Reynolds number, and the values where laminar flow occurs, will depend on the geometry of the flow system and flow pattern.", "The common example is flow through a pipe, where the Reynolds number is defined as:where:: is the hydraulic diameter of the pipe (m);: is the volumetric flow rate (m3/s);: is the pipe's cross-sectional area (m2);: is the mean speed of the fluid (SI units: m/s);: is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid (Pa·s = N·s/m2 = kg/(m·s));: is the kinematic viscosity of the fluid, (m2/s);: is the density of the fluid (kg/m3).For such systems, laminar flow occurs when the Reynolds number is below a critical value of approximately 2,040, though the transition range is typically between 1,800 and 2,100.For fluid systems occurring on external surfaces, such as flow past objects suspended in the fluid, other definitions for Reynolds numbers can be used to predict the type of flow around the object.", "The particle Reynolds number Rep would be used for particle suspended in flowing fluids, for example.", "As with flow in pipes, laminar flow typically occurs with lower Reynolds numbers, while turbulent flow and related phenomena, such as vortex shedding, occur with higher Reynolds numbers." ], [ "Examples", "In the case of a moving plate in a liquid, it is found that there is a layer (lamina) that moves with the plate, and a layer of stationary liquid next to any stationary plate.A common application of laminar flow is in the smooth flow of a viscous liquid through a tube or pipe.", "In that case, the velocity of flow varies from zero at the walls to a maximum along the cross-sectional centre of the vessel.", "The flow profile of laminar flow in a tube can be calculated by dividing the flow into thin cylindrical elements and applying the viscous force to them.Another example is the flow of air over an aircraft wing.", "The boundary layer is a very thin sheet of air lying over the surface of the wing (and all other surfaces of the aircraft).", "Because air has viscosity, this layer of air tends to adhere to the wing.", "As the wing moves forward through the air, the boundary layer at first flows smoothly over the streamlined shape of the airfoil.", "Here, the flow is laminar and the boundary layer is a laminar layer.", "Prandtl applied the concept of the laminar boundary layer to airfoils in 1904.An everyday example is the slow, smooth and optically transparent flow of shallow water over a smooth barrier.When water leaves a tap without an aerator with little force, it first exhibits laminar flow, but as acceleration by the force of gravity immediately sets in, the Reynolds number of the flow increases with speed, and the laminar flow of the water downstream from the tap can transition to turbulent flow.", "Optical transparency is then reduced or lost entirely." ], [ "Laminar flow barriers", "Experimental chamber for studying chemotaxis in response to laminar flowLaminar airflow is used to separate volumes of air, or prevent airborne contaminants from entering an area.", "Laminar flow hoods are used to exclude contaminants from sensitive processes in science, electronics and medicine.", "Air curtains are frequently used in commercial settings to keep heated or refrigerated air from passing through doorways.", "A laminar flow reactor (LFR) is a reactor that uses laminar flow to study chemical reactions and process mechanisms.", "A laminar flow design for animal husbandry of rats for disease management was developed by Beall et al 1971 and became a standard around the world including in the then-Eastern Bloc." ], [ "See also", "* Hagen–Poiseuille equation* Shell balance* Water current" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * * * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Luanda" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Luanda''' (/luˈændə, -ˈɑːn-/, Portuguese: luˈɐ̃dɐ) is the capital and largest city of Angola.", "It is Angola's primary port, and its major industrial, cultural and urban centre.", "Located on Angola's northern Atlantic coast, Luanda is Angola's administrative centre, its chief seaport, and also the capital of the Luanda Province.", "Luanda and its metropolitan area is the most populous Portuguese-speaking capital city in the world and the most populous Lusophone city outside Brazil, with over 8.3 million inhabitants in 2020 (a third of Angola's population).Among the oldest colonial cities of Africa, it was founded in January 1576 as ''São Paulo da Assunção de Loanda'' by Portuguese explorer Paulo Dias de Novais.", "The city served as the centre of the slave trade to Brazil before its prohibition.", "At the start of the Angolan Civil War in 1975, most of the white Portuguese left as refugees, principally for Portugal.", "Luanda's population increased greatly from refugees fleeing the war, but its infrastructure was inadequate to handle the increase.", "This also caused the exacerbation of slums, or musseques, around Luanda.", "The city is undergoing a major reconstruction, with many large developments taking place that will alter its cityscape significantly.The industries present in the city include the processing of agricultural products, beverage production, textile, cement, new car assembly plants, construction materials, plastics, metallurgy, cigarettes and shoes.", "The city is also notable as an economic centre for oil, and a refinery is located in the city.", "Luanda has been considered one of the most expensive cities in the world for expatriates.", "The inhabitants of Luanda are mostly members of the ethnic group of the Ambundu, but in recent times there has been an increase of the number of the Bakongo and the Ovimbundu.", "There exists a European population, consisting mainly of Portuguese.", "Luanda was the main host city for the matches of the 2010 African Cup of Nations." ], [ "History", "===Portuguese colonization===São Miguel Fortress, founded in 1576 by Paulo Dias de Novais, today hosts the Armed Forces Museum.Depiction of ''São Paulo da Assumpção de Luanda'', 1755.Portuguese explorer Paulo Dias de Novais founded Luanda on 25 January 1576 as \"São Paulo da Assumpção de Loanda\", with one hundred families of settlers and four hundred soldiers.", "In 1618, the Portuguese built the fortress called ''Fortaleza São Pedro da Barra'', and they subsequently built two more: Fortaleza de São Miguel (1634) and Forte de São Francisco do Penedo (1765–66).", "Of these, the Fortaleza de São Miguel is the best preserved.Luanda was Portugal's bridgehead from 1627, except during the Dutch rule of Luanda, from 1640 to 1648, as Fort Aardenburgh.", "The city served as the centre of slave trade to Brazil from to 1836.The slave trade was conducted mostly with the Portuguese colony of Brazil; Brazilian ships were the most numerous in the port of Luanda.", "This slave trade also involved local merchants and warriors who profited from the trade.", "During this period, no large scale territorial conquest was intended by the Portuguese; only a few minor settlements were established in the immediate hinterland of Luanda, some on the last stretch of the Kwanza River.In the 17th century, the Imbangala became the main rivals of the Mbundu in supplying slaves to the Luanda market.", "In the 1750s, between 5,000 and 10,000 slaves were annually sold.", "By this time, Angola, a Portuguese colony, was in fact like a colony of Brazil, paradoxically another Portuguese colony.", "A strong degree of Brazilian influence was noted in Luanda until the Independence of Brazil in 1822.In the 19th century, still under Portuguese rule, Luanda experienced a major economic revolution.", "The slave trade was abolished in 1836, and in 1844, Angola's ports were opened to foreign shipping.", "By 1850, Luanda was one of the greatest and most developed Portuguese cities in the vast Portuguese Empire outside Continental Portugal, full of trading companies, exporting (together with Benguela) palm and peanut oil, wax, copal, timber, ivory, cotton, coffee, and cocoa, among many other products.", "Maize, tobacco, dried meat, and cassava flour are also produced locally.", "The Angolan bourgeoisie was born by this time.In 1889, Governor Brito Capelo opened the gates of an aqueduct which supplied the city with water, a formerly scarce resource, laying the foundation for major growth.===Estado Novo===Portuguese Armed Forces marching in Luanda during the Portuguese Colonial Wars (1961–74).Throughout Portugal's dictatorship, known as the Estado Novo, Luanda grew from a town of 61,208 with 14.6% of those inhabitants being white in 1940, to a wealthy cosmopolitan major city of 475,328 in 1970 with 124,814 Europeans (26.3%) and around 50,000 mixed race inhabitants (10.5%).Like most of Portuguese Angola, the cosmopolitan city of Luanda was not affected by the Portuguese Colonial War (1961–1974); economic growth and development in the entire region reached record highs during this period.", "In 1972, a report called Luanda the \"Paris of Africa\".===Independence===President José Eduardo dos Santos with President of Brazil Dilma Rousseff at the Presidential Palace in 2011.By the time of Angolan independence in 1975, Luanda was a modern city with the majority of its population was African, but also dominated by a strong minority of white Portuguese origin.After the Carnation Revolution in Lisbon on April 25, 1974, with the advent of independence and the start of the Angolan Civil War (1975–2002), most of the white Portuguese Luandans left as refugees, principally for Portugal, however many travelled over land to South Africa.Luanda is experiencing widespread urban renewal and redevelopment in the 21st century, backed largely by profits from oil & diamond industries.The large numbers of skilled technicians among the force of Cuban soldiers sent in to support the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) government in the Angolan Civil War were able to make a valuable contribution to restoring and maintaining basic services in the city.In the following years, however, slums called ''musseques'' — which had existed for decades — began to grow out of proportion and stretched several kilometres beyond Luanda's former city limits as a result of the decades-long civil war, and because of the rise of deep social inequalities due to large-scale migration of civil war refugees from other Angolan regions.", "For decades, Luanda's facilities were not adequately expanded to handle this huge increase in the city's population.===21st century===After 2002, with the end of the civil war and high economic growth rates fuelled by the wealth provided by the increasing oil and diamond production, major reconstruction started.Luanda has also become one of the world's most expensive cities.The National Assembly of AngolaThe central government supposedly allocates funds to all regions of the country, but the capital region receives the bulk of these funds.", "Since the end of the Angolan Civil War (1975–2002), stability has been widespread in the country, and major reconstruction has been going on since 2002 in those parts of the country that were damaged during the civil war.Luanda has been of major concern because its population had multiplied and had far outgrown the capacity of the city, especially because much of its infrastructure (water, electricity, roads etc.)", "had become obsolete and degraded.Luanda has been undergoing major road reconstruction in the 21st century, and new highways are planned to improve connections to Cacuaco, Viana, Samba, and the new airport.Major social housing is also being constructed to house those who reside in slums, which dominate the landscape of Luanda.", "A large Chinese firm has been given a contract to construct the majority of replacement housing in Luanda.", "The Angolan minister of health recently stated poverty in Angola will be overcome by an increase in jobs and the housing of every citizen." ], [ "Geography", "Aerial view of the City of Luanda and the Ilha de Luanda.The Bay of LuandaBeach cabanas on Ilha de Luanda===Human geography===Luanda is divided into two parts, the ''Baixa de Luanda'' (lower Luanda, the old city) and the ''Cidade Alta'' (upper city or the new part).", "The ''Baixa de Luanda'' is situated next to the port, and has narrow streets and old colonial buildings.", "However, new constructions have by now covered large areas beyond these traditional limits, and a number of previously independent nuclei — like Viana — were incorporated into the city.===Metropolitan Luanda===Until 2011, the former Luanda Province comprised what now forms five municipalities.", "In 2011 the Province was enlarged by the addition of two additional municipalities transferred from Bengo Province, namely Icolo e Bengo, and Quiçama.", "Excluding these additions, the five municipalities comprise Greater Luanda: Name Area in km2 PopulationCensus2014 PopulationEstimate2019 Belas 1,0461,071,0461,271,854 Cacuaco 3121,077,4381,279,488 Cazenga 37880,6391,045,722 Luanda (city) 1162,165,8672,571,861 Viana 6931,600,5941,900,688 '''''Totals''''' ''2,204''''6,795,584''''8,069,613''Two new municipalities have been created within Greater Luanda since 2017: Talatona and Kilamba-Kiaxi====Districts====Miradouro da Lua in Samba districtThe city of Luanda is divided in six urban districts: Ingombota, Angola Quiluanje, Maianga, Rangel, Samba and Sambizanga.In Samba and Sambizanga, more high-rise developments are to be built.", "The capital Luanda is growing constantly - and in addition, increasingly beyond the official city limits and even provincial boundaries.Luanda is the seat of a Roman Catholic archbishop.", "It is also the location of most of Angola's educational institutions, including the private Catholic University of Angola and the public University of Agostinho Neto.", "It is also the home of the colonial Governor's Palace and the Estádio da Cidadela (the \"Citadel Stadium\"), Angola's main stadium, with a total seating capacity of 60,000.===Climate===Luanda has a hot semi-desert climate (Köppen: ''BSh''), bordering upon a hot desert climate (''BWh'').", "The climate is warm to hot but surprisingly dry, owing to the cool Benguela Current, which prevents moisture from easily condensing into rain.", "Frequent fog prevents temperatures from falling at night even during the completely dry months from May to October.", "Luanda has an annual rainfall of , but the variability is among the highest in the world, with a co-efficient of variation above 40 percent.", "The climate is largely influenced by the offshore Benguela current.", "The current gives the city a surprisingly low humidity despite its tropical latitude, which makes the hotter months considerably more bearable than similar cities in Western/Central Africa.", "Observed records since 1858 range from in 1958 to in 1916.The short rainy season in March and April depends on a northerly counter current bringing moisture to the city: it has been shown clearly that weakness in the Benguela Current can increase rainfall about sixfold compared with years when that current is strong.==== Climate change ====A 2019 paper published in PLOS One estimated that under Representative Concentration Pathway 4.5, a \"moderate\" scenario of climate change where global warming reaches ~ by 2100, the climate of Luanda in the year 2050 would most closely resemble the current climate of Guatemala City.", "The annual temperature would increase by , the temperature of the coldest month by , and the temperature of the warmest month by .", "According to Climate Action Tracker, the current warming trajectory appears consistent with , which closely matches RCP 4.5.Moreover, according to the 2022 IPCC Sixth Assessment Report, Luanda is one of 12 major African cities (Abidjan, Alexandria, Algiers, Cape Town, Casablanca, Dakar, Dar es Salaam, Durban, Lagos, Lomé, Luanda and Maputo) which would be the most severely affected by the future sea level rise.", "It estimates that they would collectively sustain cumulative damages of USD 65 billion under RCP 4.5 and USD 86.5 billion for the high-emission scenario RCP 8.5 by the year 2050.Additionally, RCP 8.5 combined with the hypothetical impact from marine ice sheet instability at high levels of warming would involve up to 137.5 billion USD in damages, while the additional accounting for the \"low-probability, high-damage events\" may increase aggregate risks to USD 187 billion for the \"moderate\" RCP4.5, USD 206 billion for RCP8.5 and USD 397 billion under the high-end ice sheet instability scenario.", "Since sea level rise would continue for about 10,000 years under every scenario of climate change, future costs of sea level rise would only increase, especially without adaptation measures." ], [ "Demographics", " Year Population 1970 (Census) 475,328 2014 (Census) 6,760,439 2018 (Projection) 7,774,200Luanda Cathedral was built in 1628The inhabitants of Luanda are primarily members of African ethnic groups, mainly Ambundu, Ovimbundu, and Bakongo.", "The official and the most widely used language is Portuguese, although several Bantu languages are also used, chiefly Kimbundu, Umbundu, and Kikongo.The population of Luanda has grown dramatically in recent years, due in large part to war-time migration to the city, which is safe compared to the rest of the country.", "In 2006, however, Luanda saw an increase in violent crime, particularly in the shanty towns that surround the colonial urban core.There is a sizable minority population of European origin, especially Portuguese (about 260,000), as well as Brazilians.", "In recent years, mainly since the mid-2000s, immigration from Portugal has increased due to greater opportunities present in Angola's booming economy.", "There is a sprinkling of immigrants from other African countries as well, including a small expatriate South African community.", "A small number of people of Luanda are of mixed race — European/Portuguese and native African.", "Over the last decades, a significant Chinese community has formed, as has a much smaller Vietnamese community.N.", "Sra.", "da Nazaré Church, b.", "1664=== Places of worship ===Among the places of worship, several are predominantly Christian churches and congregations:Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Luanda (Catholic Church)Evangelical Congregational Church in Angola (World Communion of Reformed Churches)Evangelical Reformed Church in Angola (World Communion of Reformed Churches)Baptist Convention of Angola (Baptist World Alliance)Universal Church of the Kingdom of GodAssemblies of God." ], [ "Culture", "Queen NzingaNational Museum of AnthropologyNational Museum of SlaveryAs the economic and political center of Angola, Luanda is similarly the epicenter of Angolan culture.", "The city is home to numerous cultural institutions, including the Sindika Dokolo Foundation.The city hosts the annual Luanda International Jazz Festival, since 2009.The city is home to numerous museums, including:National Museum of AnthropologyNational Museum of Natural HistoryMuseum of the Armed ForcesNational Museum of SlaveryOther monuments in the city include:Palácio de FerroFortress of São MiguelFortress of São Francisco do PenedoLuanda CathedralIgreja de JesusIgreja da Nossa Senhora do CaboIgreja da Nossa Senhora da ConceiçãoIgreja da Nossa Senhora da NazaréIgreja da Nossa Senhora do CarmoArquivo Histórico Nacional" ], [ "Economy", "''Cidade Financeira de Luanda''High rises in downtown LuandaAround one-third of Angolans live in Luanda, 53% of whom live in poverty.", "Living conditions in Luanda are poor for most of the people, with essential services such as safe drinking water and electricity still in short supply, and severe shortcomings in traffic conditions.", "On the other hand, luxury constructions for the benefit of the wealthy minority are booming.Luanda is one of the world's most expensive cities for resident foreigners.", "In Mercer’s cost of living index, Luanda was ranked as top of the list due to the extremely high costs of goods and security.", "Luanda sits above Seoul, Geneva and Shanghai in the rankings.", "These costs have fueled rampant inequality in the city.", "Skyscrapers are left barren as the price of oil drops.", "''Marginal'' promenade along the bayTower on ''Rua Kwame Nkrumah''New import tariffs imposed in March 2014 made Luanda even more expensive.", "As an example, a half-litre tub of vanilla ice cream at the supermarket was reported to cost US$31.The higher import tariffs applied to hundreds of items, from garlic to cars.", "The stated aim was to try to diversify the heavily oil-dependent economy and nurture farming and industry, sectors that have remained weak.", "These tariffs have caused much hardship in a country where the average salary was US$260 per month in 2010, the latest year for which data was available.", "However, the average salary in the booming oil industry was over 20 times higher at US$5,400 per month.Manufacturing includes processed foods, beverages, textiles, cement and other building materials, plastic products, metalware, cigarettes, and shoes/clothes.", "Petroleum (found in nearby off-shore deposits) is refined in the city, although this facility was repeatedly damaged during the Angolan Civil War of 1975–2002.Luanda has an excellent natural harbour; the chief exports are coffee, cotton, sugar, diamonds, iron, and salt.The city also has a thriving building industry, an effect of the nationwide economic boom experienced since 2002, when political stability returned with the end of the civil war.", "Economic growth is largely supported by oil extraction activities, although great diversification is taking place.", "Large investment (domestic and international), along with strong economic growth, has dramatically increased construction of all economic sectors in the city of Luanda.", "In 2007, the first modern shopping mall in Angola was established in the city at Belas Shopping mall." ], [ "Transport", "Port of Luanda administration===Railway===Luanda is the starting point of the Luanda railway that goes due east to Malanje.", "The civil war left the railway non-functional, but the railway has been restored up to Dondo and Malanje.===Airport===Quatro de Fevereiro Airport, LuandaThe main airport of Luanda is Quatro de Fevereiro Airport, which is the largest in the country.", "A new international airport, Angola International Airport is under construction southeast of the city, a few kilometres from Viana, which was expected to be opened in 2011.However, as the Angolan government did not continue to make the payments due to the Chinese enterprise in charge of the construction, the firm suspended its work in 2010.Construction work has now been resumed, and is expected to be completed by the end of 2023.===Port===The Port of Luanda serves as the largest port of Angola and is one of the busiest ports in Africa.", "Major expansion of this port is also taking place.", "In 2014, a new port is being developed at Dande, about 30 km to the north.Port of Luanda is one of the busiest ports in Africa.===Road transport===Luanda's roads are in a poor state of repair, but are undergoing an extensive reconstruction process by the government in order to relieve traffic congestion in the city.", "Major road repairs can be found taking place in nearly every neighbourhood, including a major 6-lane highway connected Luanda to Viana.===Public transport===Public transit is provided by the suburban services of the Luanda Railway, by the public company TCUL, and by a large fleet of privately owned collective taxis as white-blue painted minibuses called ''Candongueiro''.", "Candongueiros are usually Toyota Hiace vans, that are built to carry 12 people, although the candongueiros usually carry at least 15 people.", "They charge from 100 to 200 kwanzas per trip.", "They are known to disobey traffic rules, for example not stopping at signs and driving over pavements and aisles.In 2019, the Luanda Light Rail network with an estimated cost of US $3 billion was announced to begin construction in 2020." ], [ "Education", "Mutu-ya Kevela Prep.", "SchoolAgostinho Neto UniversityInternational schools:* Escola Portuguesa de Luanda* Colégio Português de Luanda* Colégio São Francisco de Assis* Luanda International School* English School Community of Luanda===Higher education===Universities:* Agostinho Neto University* Lusíada University* Catholic University of Angola* Technical University of Angola* Methodist University of Angola* Private University of Angola* Jean Piaget University of Angola* University of Luanda* Universidade Indepedente de Angola* Higher Institute of Education Sciences of the Luanda" ], [ "Sports", "Estádio 11 de NovembroLuanda's Pavilhão Multiusos do Kilamba hosted games for Angola's national basketball team on many occasions.In 2013 Luanda together with Namibe, today's Moçâmedes, hosted the 2013 FIRS Men's Roller Hockey World Cup, the first time that a World Cup of roller hockey was held in Africa.", "The city is home to the Desportivo do Bengo football club." ], [ "International relations", "===Twin towns – Sister cities===Luanda is twinned with:* Houston, United States* São Paulo, Brazil* Lisbon, Portugal* Oaxaca, Mexico* Praia, Cape Verde* Beira, Mozambique* Windhoek, Namibia* Bissau, Guinea-Bissau* Beijing, China* Macau, Macau* Maputo, Mozambique* Tahoua, Niger* São Tomé, São Tomé and Príncipe* Johannesburg, South Africa* Cairo, Egypt* Porto, Portugal* Huambo, Angola* Toulon, France* Asunción, Paraguay* Cape Town, South Africa" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography" ], [ "External links", "* Portal da Cidade de Luanda* www.cidadeluanda.com - Luanda, city map, History, Photos" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Logical positivism" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Logical positivism''', later called '''logical empiricism''', and both of which together are also known as '''neopositivism''', is a movement whose central thesis is the verification principle (also known as the verifiability criterion of meaning).", "This theory of knowledge asserts that only statements verifiable through direct observation or logical proof are meaningful in terms of conveying truth value, information or factual content.", "Starting in the late 1920s, groups of philosophers, scientists, and mathematicians formed the Berlin Circle and the Vienna Circle, which, in these two cities, would propound the ideas of logical positivism.Flourishing in several European centres through the 1930s, the movement sought to prevent confusion rooted in unclear language and unverifiable claims by converting philosophy into \"scientific philosophy\", which, according to the logical positivists, ought to share the bases and structures of empirical sciences' best examples, such as Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity.", "Despite its ambition to overhaul philosophy by studying and mimicking the extant conduct of empirical science, logical positivism became erroneously stereotyped as a movement to regulate the scientific process and to place strict standards on it.After World War II, the movement shifted to a milder variant, logical empiricism, led mainly by Carl Hempel, who, during the rise of Nazism, had emigrated to the United States.", "In the ensuing years, the movement's central premises, still unresolved, were heavily criticised by leading philosophers, particularly Willard van Orman Quine and Karl Popper, and even, within the movement itself, by Hempel.", "The 1962 publication of Thomas Kuhn's landmark book ''The Structure of Scientific Revolutions'' dramatically shifted academic philosophy's focus.", "In 1967 philosopher John Passmore pronounced logical positivism \"dead, or as dead as a philosophical movement ever becomes\"." ], [ "Origins", "Logical positivists picked from Ludwig Wittgenstein's early philosophy of language the verifiability principle or criterion of meaningfulness.", "As in Ernst Mach's phenomenalism, whereby the mind knows only actual or potential sensory experience, verificationists took all sciences' basic content to be only sensory experience.", "And some influence came from Percy Bridgman's musings that others proclaimed as operationalism, whereby a physical theory is understood by what laboratory procedures scientists perform to test its predictions.", "In verificationism, only the ''verifiable'' was scientific, and thus meaningful (or ''cognitively meaningful''), whereas the unverifiable, being unscientific, were meaningless \"pseudostatements\" (just ''emotively meaningful'').", "Unscientific discourse, as in ethics and metaphysics, would be unfit for discourse by philosophers, newly tasked to organize knowledge, not develop new knowledge." ], [ "Definitions", "Logical positivism is sometimes stereotyped as forbidding talk of unobservables, such as microscopic entities or such notions as causality and general principles, but that is an exaggeration.", "Rather, most neopositivists viewed talk of unobservables as metaphorical or elliptical: direct observations phrased abstractly or indirectly.", "So ''theoretical terms'' would garner meaning from ''observational terms'' via ''correspondence rules'', and thereby ''theoretical laws'' would be reduced to ''empirical laws''.", "Via Bertrand Russell's logicism, reducing mathematics to logic, physics' mathematical formulas would be converted to symbolic logic.", "Via Russell's logical atomism, ordinary language would break into discrete units of meaning.", "Rational reconstruction, then, would convert ordinary statements into standardized equivalents, all networked and united by a logical syntax.", "A scientific theory would be stated with its method of verification, whereby a logical calculus or empirical operation could verify its falsity or truth." ], [ "Development", "In the late 1930s, logical positivists fled Germany and Austria for Britain and the United States.", "By then, many had replaced Mach's phenomenalism with Otto Neurath's physicalism, whereby science's content is not actual or potential sensations, but instead consists of entities that are publicly observable.", "Rudolf Carnap, who had sparked logical positivism in the Vienna Circle, had sought to replace ''verification'' with simply ''confirmation''.", "With World War II's close in 1945, logical positivism became milder, ''logical empiricism'', led largely by Carl Hempel, in America, who expounded the covering law model of scientific explanation.", "Logical positivism became a major underpinning of analytic philosophy, and dominated philosophy in the English-speaking world, including philosophy of science, while influencing sciences, but especially social sciences, into the 1960s.", "Yet the movement failed to resolve its central problems, and its doctrines were increasingly criticized, most trenchantly by Willard Van Orman Quine, Norwood Hanson, Karl Popper, Thomas Kuhn, and Carl Hempel." ], [ "Roots", "===Language===''Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus'', by the young Ludwig Wittgenstein, introduced the view of philosophy as \"critique of language\", offering the possibility of a theoretically principled distinction of intelligible versus nonsensical discourse.", "''Tractatus'' adhered to a correspondence theory of truth (versus a coherence theory of truth).", "Wittgenstein's influence also shows in some versions of the verifiability principle.", "In tractarian doctrine, truths of logic are tautologies, a view widely accepted by logical positivists who were also influenced by Wittgenstein's interpretation of probability although, according to Neurath, some logical positivists found ''Tractatus'' to contain too much metaphysics.===Logicism===Gottlob Frege began the program of reducing mathematics to logic, continued it with Bertrand Russell, but lost interest in this logicism, and Russell continued it with Alfred North Whitehead in their ''Principia Mathematica'', inspiring some of the more mathematical logical positivists, such as Hans Hahn and Rudolf Carnap.", "Carnap's early anti-metaphysical works employed Russell's theory of types.", "Carnap envisioned a universal language that could reconstruct mathematics and thereby encode physics.", "Yet Kurt Gödel's incompleteness theorem showed this impossible except in trivial cases, and Alfred Tarski's undefinability theorem shattered all hopes of reducing mathematics to logic.", "Thus, a universal language failed to stem from Carnap's 1934 work ''Logische Syntax der Sprache'' (''Logical Syntax of Language'').", "Still, some logical positivists, including Carl Hempel, continued support of logicism.===Empiricism===In Germany, Hegelian metaphysics was a dominant movement, and Hegelian successors such as F H Bradley explained reality by postulating metaphysical entities lacking empirical basis, drawing reaction in the form of positivism.", "Starting in the late 19th century, there was a \"back to Kant\" movement.", "Ernst Mach's positivism and phenomenalism were a major influence." ], [ "History", "===Vienna===The Vienna Circle, gathering around University of Vienna and Café Central, was led principally by Moritz Schlick.", "Schlick had held a neo-Kantian position, but later converted, via Carnap's 1928 book ''Der logische Aufbau der Welt'', that is, ''The Logical Structure of the World''.", "A 1929 pamphlet written by Otto Neurath, Hans Hahn, and Rudolf Carnap summarized the Vienna Circle's positions.", "Another member of Vienna Circle to later prove very influential was Carl Hempel.", "A friendly but tenacious critic of the Circle was Karl Popper, whom Neurath nicknamed the \"Official Opposition\".Carnap and other Vienna Circle members, including Hahn and Neurath, saw need for a weaker criterion of meaningfulness than verifiability.", "A radical \"left\" wing—led by Neurath and Carnap—began the program of \"liberalization of empiricism\", and they also emphasized fallibilism and pragmatics, which latter Carnap even suggested as empiricism's basis.", "A conservative \"right\" wing—led by Schlick and Waismann—rejected both the liberalization of empiricism and the epistemological nonfoundationalism of a move from phenomenalism to physicalism.", "As Neurath and somewhat Carnap posed science toward social reform, the split in Vienna Circle also reflected political views.===Berlin===The Berlin Circle was led principally by Hans Reichenbach.===Rivals===Both Moritz Schlick and Rudolf Carnap had been influenced by and sought to define logical positivism versus the neo-Kantianism of Ernst Cassirer—the then leading figure of Marburg school, so called—and against Edmund Husserl's phenomenology.", "Logical positivists especially opposed Martin Heidegger's obscure metaphysics, the epitome of what logical positivism rejected.", "In the early 1930s, Carnap debated Heidegger over \"metaphysical pseudosentences\".===Export===As the movement's first emissary to the New World, Moritz Schlick visited Stanford University in 1929, yet otherwise remained in Vienna and was murdered in 1936 at the University by a former student, Johann Nelböck, who was reportedly deranged.", "That year, a British attendee at some Vienna Circle meetings since 1933, A. J. Ayer saw his ''Language, Truth and Logic'', written in English, import logical positivism to the English-speaking world.", "By then, the Nazi Party's 1933 rise to power in Germany had triggered flight of intellectuals.", "In exile in England, Otto Neurath died in 1945.Rudolf Carnap, Hans Reichenbach, and Carl Hempel—Carnap's protégé who had studied in Berlin with Reichenbach—settled permanently in America.", "Upon Germany's annexation of Austria in 1938, remaining logical positivists, many of whom were also Jewish, were targeted and continued flight.", "Logical positivism thus became dominant in the English-speaking world." ], [ "Principles", "===Analytic/synthetic gap===Concerning reality, the necessary is a state true in all possible worlds—mere logical validity—whereas the contingent hinges on the way the particular world is.", "Concerning knowledge, the ''a priori'' is knowable before or without, whereas the ''a posteriori'' is knowable only after or through, relevant experience.", "Concerning statements, the ''analytic'' is true via terms' arrangement and meanings, thus a tautology—true by logical necessity but uninformative about the world—whereas the ''synthetic'' adds reference to a state of facts, a contingency.In 1739, David Hume cast a fork aggressively dividing \"relations of ideas\" from \"matters of fact and real existence\", such that all truths are of one type or the other.", "By Hume's fork, truths by relations among ideas (abstract) all align on one side (analytic, necessary, ''a priori''), whereas truths by states of actualities (concrete) always align on the other side (synthetic, contingent, ''a posteriori'').", "Of any treatises containing neither, Hume orders, \"Commit it then to the flames, for it can contain nothing but sophistry and illusion\".Thus awakened from \"dogmatic slumber\", Immanuel Kant quested to answer Hume's challenge—but by explaining how metaphysics is possible.", "Eventually, in his 1781 work, Kant crossed the tines of Hume's fork to identify another range of truths by necessity—synthetic ''a priori'', statements claiming states of facts but known true before experience—by arriving at transcendental idealism, attributing the mind a constructive role in phenomena by arranging sense data into the very experience ''space'', ''time'', and ''substance''.", "Thus, Kant saved Newton's law of universal gravitation from Hume's problem of induction by finding uniformity of nature to be ''a priori'' knowledge.", "Logical positivists rejected Kant's synthetic ''a priori'', and adopted Hume's fork, whereby a statement is either analytic and ''a priori'' (thus necessary and verifiable logically) or synthetic and ''a posteriori'' (thus contingent and verifiable empirically).===Observation/theory gap===Early, most logical positivists proposed that all knowledge is based on logical inference from simple \"protocol sentences\" grounded in observable facts.", "In the 1936 and 1937 papers \"Testability and meaning\", individual terms replace sentences as the units of meaning.", "Further, theoretical terms no longer need to acquire meaning by explicit definition from observational terms: the connection may be indirect, through a system of implicit definitions.", "Carnap also provided an important, pioneering discussion of disposition predicates.===Cognitive meaningfulness=======Verification====The logical positivists' initial stance was that a statement is \"cognitively meaningful\" in terms of conveying truth value, information or factual content only if some finite procedure conclusively determines its truth.", "By this verifiability principle, only statements verifiable either by their analyticity or by empiricism were ''cognitively meaningful''.", "Metaphysics, ontology, as well as much of ethics failed this criterion, and so were found ''cognitively meaningless''.", "Moritz Schlick, however, did not view ethical or aesthetic statements as cognitively meaningless.", "''Cognitive meaningfulness'' was variously defined: having a truth value; corresponding to a possible state of affairs; intelligible or understandable as are scientific statements.Ethics and aesthetics were subjective preferences, while theology and other metaphysics contained \"pseudostatements\", neither true nor false.", "This meaningfulness was cognitive, although other types of meaningfulness—for instance, emotive, expressive, or figurative—occurred in metaphysical discourse, dismissed from further review.", "Thus, logical positivism indirectly asserted Hume's law, the principle that ''is'' statements cannot justify ''ought'' statements, but are separated by an unbridgeable gap.", "A. J. Ayer's 1936 book asserted an extreme variant—the boo/hooray doctrine—whereby all evaluative judgments are but emotional reactions.====Confirmation====In an important pair of papers in 1936 and 1937, \"Testability and meaning\", Carnap replaced ''verification'' with ''confirmation'', on the view that although universal laws cannot be verified they can be confirmed.", "Later, Carnap employed abundant logical and mathematical methods in researching inductive logic while seeking to provide an account of probability as \"degree of confirmation\", but was never able to formulate a model.", "In Carnap's inductive logic, every universal law's degree of confirmation is always zero.", "In any event, the precise formulation of what came to be called the \"criterion of cognitive significance\" took three decades (Hempel 1950, Carnap 1956, Carnap 1961).Carl Hempel became a major critic within the logical positivism movement.", "Hempel criticized the positivist thesis that empirical knowledge is restricted to ''Basissätze''/''Beobachtungssätze''/''Protokollsätze'' ('''basic statements''' or '''observation statements''' or '''protocol statements''').", "Hempel elucidated the paradox of confirmation.====Weak verification====The second edition of A. J. Ayer's book arrived in 1946, and discerned ''strong'' versus ''weak'' forms of verification.", "Ayer concluded, \"A proposition is said to be verifiable, in the strong sense of the term, if, and only if, its truth could be conclusively established by experience\", but is verifiable in the weak sense \"if it is possible for experience to render it probable\".", "And yet, \"no proposition, other than a tautology, can possibly be anything more than a probable hypothesis\".", "Thus, all are open to weak verification." ], [ "Philosophy of science", "Upon the global defeat of Nazism, and the removal from philosophy of rivals for radical reform—Marburg neo-Kantianism, Husserlian phenomenology, Heidegger's \"existential hermeneutics\"—and while hosted in the climate of American pragmatism and commonsense empiricism, the neopositivists shed much of their earlier, revolutionary zeal.", "No longer crusading to revise traditional philosophy into a new ''scientific philosophy'', they became respectable members of a new philosophy subdiscipline, ''philosophy of science''.", "Receiving support from Ernest Nagel, logical empiricists were especially influential in the social sciences.===Explanation===Comtean positivism had viewed science as ''description'', whereas the logical positivists posed science as ''explanation'', perhaps to better realize the envisioned unity of science by covering not only fundamental science—that is, fundamental physics—but the special sciences, too, for instance biology, anthropology, psychology, sociology, and economics.", "The most widely accepted concept of scientific explanation, held even by neopositivist critic Karl Popper, was the deductive-nomological model (DN model).", "Yet DN model received its greatest explication by Carl Hempel, first in his 1942 article \"The function of general laws in history\", and more explicitly with Paul Oppenheim in their 1948 article \"Studies in the logic of explanation\".In the DN model, the stated phenomenon to be explained is the ''explanandum''—which can be an event, law, or theory—whereas premises stated to explain it are the ''explanans''.", "Explanans must be true or highly confirmed, contain at least one law, and entail the explanandum.", "Thus, given initial conditions ''C1, C2 .", ".", ".", "Cn'' plus general laws ''L1, L2 .", ".", ".", "Ln'', event ''E'' is a deductive consequence and scientifically explained.", "In the DN model, a law is an unrestricted generalization by conditional proposition—''If A, then B''—and has empirical content testable.", "(Differing from a merely true regularity—for instance, ''George always carries only $1 bills in his wallet''—a law suggests what ''must'' be true, and is consequent of a scientific theory's axiomatic structure.", ")By the Humean empiricist view that humans observe sequences of events, (not cause and effect, as causality and causal mechanisms are unobservable), the DN model neglects causality beyond mere constant conjunction, first event ''A'' and then always event ''B''.", "Hempel's explication of the DN model held natural laws—empirically confirmed regularities—as satisfactory and, if formulated realistically, approximating causal explanation.", "In later articles, Hempel defended the DN model and proposed a probabilistic explanation, inductive-statistical model (IS model).", "the DN and IS models together form the ''covering law model'', as named by a critic, William Dray.", "Derivation of statistical laws from other statistical laws goes to deductive-statistical model (DS model).", "Georg Henrik von Wright, another critic, named it ''subsumption theory'', fitting the ambition of theory reduction.===Unity of science===Logical positivists were generally committed to \"Unified Science\", and sought a common language or, in Neurath's phrase, a \"universal slang\" whereby all scientific propositions could be expressed.", "The adequacy of proposals or fragments of proposals for such a language was often asserted on the basis of various \"reductions\" or \"explications\" of the terms of one special science to the terms of another, putatively more fundamental.", "Sometimes these reductions consisted of set-theoretic manipulations of a few logically primitive concepts (as in Carnap's ''Logical Structure of the World'', 1928).", "Sometimes, these reductions consisted of allegedly analytic or ''a priori'' deductive relationships (as in Carnap's \"Testability and meaning\").", "A number of publications over a period of thirty years would attempt to elucidate this concept.===Theory reduction===As in Comtean positivism's envisioned unity of science, neopositivists aimed to network all special sciences through the covering law model of scientific explanation.", "And ultimately, by supplying boundary conditions and supplying bridge laws within the covering law model, all the special sciences' laws would reduce to fundamental physics, the fundamental science." ], [ "Critics", "After World War II, key tenets of logical positivism, including its atomistic philosophy of science, the verifiability principle, and the fact/value gap, drew escalated criticism.", "The verifiability criterion made universal statements 'cognitively' meaningless, and even made statements beyond empiricism for technological but not conceptual reasons meaningless, which was taken to pose significant problems for the philosophy of science.", "These problems were recognized within the movement, which hosted attempted solutions—Carnap's move to ''confirmation'', Ayer's acceptance of ''weak verification''—but the program drew sustained criticism from a number of directions by the 1950s.", "Even philosophers disagreeing among themselves on which direction general epistemology ought to take, as well as on philosophy of science, agreed that the logical empiricist program was untenable, and it became viewed as self-contradictory: the verifiability criterion of meaning was itself unverified.", "Notable critics included Popper, Quine, Hanson, Kuhn, Putnam, Austin, Strawson, Goodman, and Rorty.===Popper===An early, tenacious critic was Karl Popper whose 1934 book ''Logik der Forschung'', arriving in English in 1959 as ''The Logic of Scientific Discovery'', directly answered verificationism.", "Popper considered the problem of induction as rendering empirical verification logically impossible, and the deductive fallacy of affirming the consequent reveals any phenomenon's capacity to host more than one logically possible explanation.", "Accepting scientific method as hypotheticodeduction, whose inference form is denying the consequent, Popper finds scientific method unable to proceed without falsifiable predictions.", "Popper thus identifies falsifiability to demarcate not ''meaningful'' from ''meaningless'' but simply ''scientific'' from ''unscientific''—a label not in itself unfavorable.Popper finds virtue in metaphysics, required to develop new scientific theories.", "And an unfalsifiable—thus unscientific, perhaps metaphysical—concept in one era can later, through evolving knowledge or technology, become falsifiable, thus scientific.", "Popper also found science's quest for truth to rest on values.", "Popper disparages the ''pseudoscientific'', which occurs when an unscientific theory is proclaimed true and coupled with seemingly scientific method by \"testing\" the unfalsifiable theory—whose predictions are confirmed by necessity—or when a scientific theory's falsifiable predictions are strongly falsified but the theory is persistently protected by \"immunizing stratagems\", such as the appendage of ''ad hoc'' clauses saving the theory or the recourse to increasingly speculative hypotheses shielding the theory.Explicitly denying the positivist view of meaning and verification, Popper developed the epistemology of critical rationalism, which considers that human knowledge evolves by conjectures and refutations, and that no number, degree, and variety of empirical successes can either verify or confirm scientific theory.", "For Popper, science's aim is ''corroboration'' of scientific theory, which strives for scientific realism but accepts the maximal status of strongly corroborated verisimilitude (\"truthlikeness\").", "Popper thus acknowledged the value of the positivist movement's emphasis on science but claimed that he had \"killed positivism\".===Quine===Although an empiricist, American logician Willard Van Orman Quine published the 1951 paper \"Two Dogmas of Empiricism\", which challenged conventional empiricist presumptions.", "Quine attacked the analytic/synthetic division, which the verificationist program had been hinged upon in order to entail, by consequence of Hume's fork, both necessity and aprioricity.", "Quine's ontological relativity explained that every term in any statement has its meaning contingent on a vast network of knowledge and belief, the speaker's conception of the entire world.", "Quine later proposed naturalized epistemology.===Hanson===In 1958, Norwood Hanson's ''Patterns of Discovery'' undermined the division of observation versus theory, as one can predict, collect, prioritize, and assess data only via some horizon of expectation set by a theory.", "Thus, any dataset—the direct observations, the scientific facts—is laden with theory.===Kuhn===With his landmark ''The Structure of Scientific Revolutions'' (1962), Thomas Kuhn critically destabilized the verificationist program, which was presumed to call for foundationalism.", "(But already in the 1930s, Otto Neurath had argued for nonfoundationalism via coherentism by likening science to a boat (Neurath's boat) that scientists must rebuild at sea.)", "Although Kuhn's thesis itself was attacked even by opponents of neopositivism, in the 1970 postscript to ''Structure'', Kuhn asserted, at least, that there was no algorithm to science—and, on that, even most of Kuhn's critics agreed.Powerful and persuasive, Kuhn's book, unlike the vocabulary and symbols of logic's formal language, was written in natural language open to the layperson.", "Kuhn's book was first published in a volume of ''International Encyclopedia of Unified Science''—a project begun by logical positivists but co-edited by Neurath whose view of science was already nonfoundationalist as mentioned above—and some sense unified science, indeed, but by bringing it into the realm of historical and social assessment, rather than fitting it to the model of physics.", "Kuhn's ideas were rapidly adopted by scholars in disciplines well outside natural sciences, and, as logical empiricists were extremely influential in the social sciences, ushered academia into postpositivism or postempiricism.===Putnam===The \"received view\" operates on the ''correspondence rule'' that states, \"The observational terms are taken as referring to specified phenomena or phenomenal properties, and the only interpretation given to the theoretical terms is their explicit definition provided by the correspondence rules\".", "According to Hilary Putnam, a former student of Reichenbach and of Carnap, the dichotomy of observational terms versus theoretical terms introduced a problem within scientific discussion that was nonexistent until this dichotomy was stated by logical positivists.", "Putnam's four objections:* Something is referred to as \"observational\" if it is observable directly with our senses.", "Then an observational term cannot be applied to something unobservable.", "If this is the case, there are no observational terms.", "* With Carnap's classification, some unobservable terms are not even theoretical and belong to neither observational terms nor theoretical terms.", "Some theoretical terms refer primarily to observational terms.", "* Reports of observational terms frequently contain theoretical terms.", "* A scientific theory may not contain any theoretical terms (an example of this is Darwin's original theory of evolution).Putnam also alleged that positivism was actually a form of metaphysical idealism by its rejecting scientific theory's ability to garner knowledge about nature's unobservable aspects.", "With his \"no miracles\" argument, posed in 1974, Putnam asserted scientific realism, the stance that science achieves true—or approximately true—knowledge of the world as it exists independently of humans' sensory experience.", "In this, Putnam opposed not only the positivism but other instrumentalism—whereby scientific theory is but a human tool to predict human observations—filling the void left by positivism's decline." ], [ "Decline and legacy", "By the late 1960s, logical positivism had become exhausted.", "In 1976, A. J. Ayer quipped that \"the most important\" defect of logical positivism \"was that nearly all of it was false\", though he maintained \"it was true in spirit.\"", "Although logical positivism tends to be recalled as a pillar of scientism, Carl Hempel was key in establishing the philosophy subdiscipline philosophy of science where Thomas Kuhn and Karl Popper brought in the era of postpositivism.", "John Passmore found logical positivism to be \"dead, or as dead as a philosophical movement ever becomes\".Logical positivism's fall reopened debate over the metaphysical merit of scientific theory, whether it can offer knowledge of the world beyond human experience (scientific realism) versus whether it is but a human tool to predict human experience (instrumentalism).", "Meanwhile, it became popular among philosophers to rehash the faults and failures of logical positivism without investigation of them.", "Thereby, logical positivism has been generally misrepresented, sometimes severely.", "Arguing for their own views, often framed versus logical positivism, many philosophers have reduced logical positivism to simplisms and stereotypes, especially the notion of logical positivism as a type of foundationalism.", "In any event, the movement helped anchor analytic philosophy in the English-speaking world, and returned Britain to empiricism.", "Without the logical positivists, who have been tremendously influential outside philosophy, especially in psychology and other social sciences, intellectual life of the 20th century would be unrecognizable." ], [ "See also", "* * * * * * ''The Structure of Science'' ===People===* * * * " ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "Bechtel, William, '' Philosophy of Science: An Overview for Cognitive Science'' (Hillsdale NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Assoc, 1988).", "Friedman, Michael, '' Reconsidering Logical Positivism'' (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999).", "Novick, Peter, '' That Noble Dream: The 'Objectivity Question' and the American Historical Profession'' (Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press, 1988).", "Stahl, William A & Robert A Campbell, Yvonne Petry, Gary Diver, '' Webs of Reality: Social Perspectives on Science and Religion'' (Piscataway NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2002).", "Suppe, Frederick, ed, '' The Structure of Scientific Theories'', 2nd edn (Urbana IL: University of Illinois Press, 1977)." ], [ "Further reading", "Achinstein, Peter and Barker, Stephen F. ''The Legacy of Logical Positivism: Studies in the Philosophy of Science''.", "Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1969.", "Ayer, Alfred Jules.", "''Logical Positivism''.", "Glencoe, Ill: Free Press, 1959.", "Barone, Francesco.", "''Il neopositivismo logico''.", "Roma Bari: Laterza, 1986.", "Bergmann, Gustav.", "''The Metaphysics of Logical Positivism''.", "New York: Longmans Green, 1954.", "Cirera, Ramon. ''", "Carnap and the Vienna Circle: Empiricism and Logical Syntax''.", "Atlanta, GA: Rodopi, 1994.", "Edmonds, David & Eidinow, John; ''Wittgenstein's Poker'', Friedman, Michael.", "''Reconsidering Logical Positivism''.", "Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999Gadol, Eugene T. ''Rationality and Science: A Memorial Volume for Moritz Schlick in Celebration of the Centennial of his Birth''.", "Wien: Springer, 1982.", "Geymonat, Ludovico.", "''La nuova filosofia della natura in Germania''.", "Torino, 1934.", "Giere, Ronald N. and Richardson, Alan W. '' Origins of Logical Empiricism''.", "Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997.", "Hanfling, Oswald.", "''Logical Positivism''.", "Oxford: B. Blackwell, 1981.", "Holt, Jim, \"Positive Thinking\" (review of Karl Sigmund, ''Exact Thinking in Demented Times: The Vienna Circle and the Epic Quest for the Foundations of Science'', Basic Books, 449 pp.", "), ''The New York Review of Books'', vol.", "LXIV, no.", "20 (21 December 2017), pp. 74–76.", "Jangam, R. T. ''Logical Positivism and Politics''.", "Delhi: Sterling Publishers, 1970.", "Janik, Allan and Toulmin, Stephen.", "''Wittgenstein's Vienna''.", "London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1973.", "Kraft, Victor.", "The Vienna Circle: ''The Origin of Neo-positivism, a Chapter in the History of Recent Philosophy''.", "New York: Greenwood Press, 1953.", "McGuinness, Brian.", "''Wittgenstein and the Vienna Circle: Conversations Recorded by Friedrich Waismann''.", "Trans.", "by Joachim Schulte and Brian McGuinness.", "New York: Barnes & Noble Books, 1979.", "* Milkov, Nikolay (ed.).", "''Die Berliner Gruppe.", "Texte zum Logischen Empirismus von Walter Dubislav, Kurt Grelling, Carl G. Hempel, Alexander Herzberg, Kurt Lewin, Paul Oppenheim und Hans Reichenbach.''", "Hamburg: Meiner 2015.", "(German)Mises von, Richard.", "''Positivism: A Study in Human Understanding''.", "Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1951.", "Parrini, Paolo.", "''Empirismo logico e convenzionalismo: saggio di storia della filosofia della scienza''.", "Milano: F. Angeli, 1983.", "Parrini, Paolo; Salmon, Wesley C.; Salmon, Merrilee H.", "(ed.)", "''Logical Empiricism – Historical and Contemporary Perspectives'', Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2003.", "Reisch, George.", "''How the Cold War Transformed Philosophy of Science : To the Icy Slopes of Logic''.", "New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005.", "Rescher, Nicholas.", "''The Heritage of Logical Positivism''.", "Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1985.", "Richardson, Alan and Thomas Uebel (eds.)", "''The Cambridge Companion to Logical Positivism.''", "New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007.", "Salmon, Wesley and Wolters, Gereon (ed.)", "''Logic, Language, and the Structure of Scientific Theories: Proceedings of the Carnap-Reichenbach Centennial, University of Konstanz, 21–24 May 1991'', Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1994.", "Sarkar, Sahotra (ed.)", "'' The Emergence of Logical Empiricism: From 1900 to the Vienna Circle''.", "New York: Garland Publishing, 1996.", "Sarkar, Sahotra (ed.)", "'' Logical Empiricism at its Peak: Schlick, Carnap, and Neurath''.", "New York: Garland Pub., 1996.", "Sarkar, Sahotra (ed.)", "'' Logical Empiricism and the Special Sciences: Reichenbach, Feigl, and Nagel''.", "New York: Garland Pub., 1996.", "Sarkar, Sahotra (ed.)", "'' Decline and Obsolescence of Logical Empiricism: Carnap vs. Quine and the Critics''.", "New York: Garland Pub., 1996.", "Sarkar, Sahotra (ed.)", "'' The Legacy of the Vienna Circle: Modern Reappraisals''.", "New York: Garland Pub., 1996.", "Spohn, Wolfgang (ed.)", "'' Erkenntnis Orientated: A Centennial Volume for Rudolf Carnap and Hans Reichenbach'', Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1991.", "Stadler, Friedrich. ''", "The Vienna Circle.", "Studies in the Origins, Development, and Influence of Logical Empiricism.''", "New York: Springer, 2001.– 2nd Edition: Dordrecht: Springer, 2015.", "Stadler, Friedrich (ed.).", "''The Vienna Circle and Logical Empiricism.", "Re-evaluation and Future Perspectives.''", "Dordrecht – Boston – London, Kluwer 2003.", "" ], [ "External links", "'''Articles by logical positivists''' The Scientific Conception of the World: The Vienna Circle* Carnap, Rudolf.", "'The Elimination of Metaphysics Through Logical Analysis of Language'* Carnap, Rudolf.", "'Empiricism, Semantics, and Ontology.", "'* Excerpt from Carnap, Rudolf.", "''Philosophy and Logical Syntax''.", "* Feigl, Herbert.", "'Positivism in the Twentieth Century (Logical Empiricism)', ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'', 1974, Gale Group (Electronic Edition)* Hempel, Carl.", "'Problems and Changes in the Empiricist Criterion of Meaning.", "''''Articles on logical positivism'''* * Kemerling, Garth.", "'Logical Positivism', ''Philosophy Pages''* Murzi, Mauro.", "'Logical Positivism', ''The New Encyclopedia of Unbelief'', Tom Flynn (ed.).", "Prometheus Books, 2007 (PDF version)* Murzi, Mauro.", "'The Philosophy of Logical Positivism.", "'* Passmore, John.", "'Logical Positivism', ''The Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', Paul Edwards (ed.).", "New York: Macmillan, 1967, first edition'''Articles on related philosophical topics'''* Hájek, Alan.", "'Interpretations of Probability', ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.", ")''* Rey, Georges.", "'The Analytic/Synthetic Distinction', ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2003 Edition)'', Edward N. Zalta (ed.", ")* Ryckman, Thomas A., 'Early Philosophical Interpretations of General Relativity', ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2001 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.", ")''* Woleński, Jan. 'Lvov-Warsaw School', ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.", ")''* Woodward, James.", "'Scientific Explanation', ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)''" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lorentz transformation" ], [ "Introduction", "In physics, the '''Lorentz transformations''' are a six-parameter family of linear transformations from a coordinate frame in spacetime to another frame that moves at a constant velocity relative to the former.", "The respective inverse transformation is then parameterized by the negative of this velocity.", "The transformations are named after the Dutch physicist Hendrik Lorentz.The most common form of the transformation, parametrized by the real constant representing a velocity confined to the -direction, is expressed aswhere and are the coordinates of an event in two frames with the origins coinciding at ==0, where the primed frame is seen from the unprimed frame as moving with speed along the -axis, where is the speed of light, and is the Lorentz factor.", "When speed is much smaller than , the Lorentz factor is negligibly different from 1, but as approaches , grows without bound.", "The value of must be smaller than for the transformation to make sense.Expressing the speed as an equivalent form of the transformation isFrames of reference can be divided into two groups: inertial (relative motion with constant velocity) and non-inertial (accelerating, moving in curved paths, rotational motion with constant angular velocity, etc.).", "The term \"Lorentz transformations\" only refers to transformations between ''inertial'' frames, usually in the context of special relativity.In each reference frame, an observer can use a local coordinate system (usually Cartesian coordinates in this context) to measure lengths, and a clock to measure time intervals.", "An event is something that happens at a point in space at an instant of time, or more formally a point in spacetime.", "The transformations connect the space and time coordinates of an event as measured by an observer in each frame.They supersede the Galilean transformation of Newtonian physics, which assumes an absolute space and time (see Galilean relativity).", "The Galilean transformation is a good approximation only at relative speeds much less than the speed of light.", "Lorentz transformations have a number of unintuitive features that do not appear in Galilean transformations.", "For example, they reflect the fact that observers moving at different velocities may measure different distances, elapsed times, and even different orderings of events, but always such that the speed of light is the same in all inertial reference frames.", "The invariance of light speed is one of the postulates of special relativity.Historically, the transformations were the result of attempts by Lorentz and others to explain how the speed of light was observed to be independent of the reference frame, and to understand the symmetries of the laws of electromagnetism.", "The transformations later became a cornerstone for special relativity.The Lorentz transformation is a linear transformation.", "It may include a rotation of space; a rotation-free Lorentz transformation is called a '''Lorentz boost'''.", "In Minkowski space—the mathematical model of spacetime in special relativity—the Lorentz transformations preserve the spacetime interval between any two events.", "This property is the defining property of a Lorentz transformation.", "They describe only the transformations in which the spacetime event at the origin is left fixed.", "They can be considered as a hyperbolic rotation of Minkowski space.", "The more general set of transformations that also includes translations is known as the Poincaré group." ], [ "History", "Many physicists—including Woldemar Voigt, George FitzGerald, Joseph Larmor, and Hendrik Lorentz himself—had been discussing the physics implied by these equations since 1887.Early in 1889, Oliver Heaviside had shown from Maxwell's equations that the electric field surrounding a spherical distribution of charge should cease to have spherical symmetry once the charge is in motion relative to the luminiferous aether.", "FitzGerald then conjectured that Heaviside's distortion result might be applied to a theory of intermolecular forces.", "Some months later, FitzGerald published the conjecture that bodies in motion are being contracted, in order to explain the baffling outcome of the 1887 aether-wind experiment of Michelson and Morley.", "In 1892, Lorentz independently presented the same idea in a more detailed manner, which was subsequently called FitzGerald–Lorentz contraction hypothesis.", "Their explanation was widely known before 1905.Lorentz (1892–1904) and Larmor (1897–1900), who believed the luminiferous aether hypothesis, also looked for the transformation under which Maxwell's equations are invariant when transformed from the aether to a moving frame.", "They extended the FitzGerald–Lorentz contraction hypothesis and found out that the time coordinate has to be modified as well (\"local time\").", "Henri Poincaré gave a physical interpretation to local time (to first order in ''v''/''c'', the relative velocity of the two reference frames normalized to the speed of light) as the consequence of clock synchronization, under the assumption that the speed of light is constant in moving frames.", "Larmor is credited to have been the first to understand the crucial time dilation property inherent in his equations.In 1905, Poincaré was the first to recognize that the transformation has the properties of a mathematical group,and he named it after Lorentz.Later in the same year Albert Einstein published what is now called special relativity, by deriving the Lorentz transformation under the assumptions of the principle of relativity and the constancy of the speed of light in any inertial reference frame, and by abandoning the mechanistic aether as unnecessary." ], [ "Derivation of the group of Lorentz transformations", "An ''event'' is something that happens at a certain point in spacetime, or more generally, the point in spacetime itself.", "In any inertial frame an event is specified by a time coordinate ''ct'' and a set of Cartesian coordinates to specify position in space in that frame.", "Subscripts label individual events.From Einstein's second postulate of relativity (invariance of ''c'') it follows that:in all inertial frames for events connected by ''light signals''.", "The quantity on the left is called the ''spacetime interval'' between events and .", "The interval between ''any two'' events, not necessarily separated by light signals, is in fact invariant, i.e., independent of the state of relative motion of observers in different inertial frames, as is shown using homogeneity and isotropy of space.", "The transformation sought after thus must possess the property that:where are the spacetime coordinates used to define events in one frame, and are the coordinates in another frame.", "First one observes that () is satisfied if an arbitrary -tuple of numbers are added to events and .", "Such transformations are called ''spacetime translations'' and are not dealt with further here.", "Then one observes that a ''linear'' solution preserving the origin of the simpler problem solves the general problem too:(a solution satisfying the first formula automatically satisfies the second one as well; see polarization identity).", "Finding the solution to the simpler problem is just a matter of look-up in the theory of classical groups that preserve bilinear forms of various signature.", "First equation in () can be written more compactly as:where refers to the bilinear form of signature on exposed by the right hand side formula in ().", "The alternative notation defined on the right is referred to as the ''relativistic dot product''.", "Spacetime mathematically viewed as endowed with this bilinear form is known as Minkowski space .", "The Lorentz transformation is thus an element of the group , the Lorentz group or, for those that prefer the other metric signature, (also called the Lorentz group).", "One has:which is precisely preservation of the bilinear form () which implies (by linearity of and bilinearity of the form) that () is satisfied.", "The elements of the Lorentz group are rotations and ''boosts'' and mixes thereof.", "If the spacetime translations are included, then one obtains the ''inhomogeneous Lorentz group'' or the Poincaré group." ], [ "Generalities", "The relations between the primed and unprimed spacetime coordinates are the '''Lorentz transformations''', each coordinate in one frame is a linear function of all the coordinates in the other frame, and the inverse functions are the inverse transformation.", "Depending on how the frames move relative to each other, and how they are oriented in space relative to each other, other parameters that describe direction, speed, and orientation enter the transformation equations.Transformations describing relative motion with constant (uniform) velocity and without rotation of the space coordinate axes are called '''Lorentz boosts''' or simply ''boosts'', and the relative velocity between the frames is the parameter of the transformation.", "The other basic type of Lorentz transformation is rotation in the spatial coordinates only, these like boosts are inertial transformations since there is no relative motion, the frames are simply tilted (and not continuously rotating), and in this case quantities defining the rotation are the parameters of the transformation (e.g., axis–angle representation, or Euler angles, etc.).", "A combination of a rotation and boost is a ''homogeneous transformation'', which transforms the origin back to the origin.The full Lorentz group also contains special transformations that are neither rotations nor boosts, but rather reflections in a plane through the origin.", "Two of these can be singled out; spatial inversion in which the spatial coordinates of all events are reversed in sign and temporal inversion in which the time coordinate for each event gets its sign reversed.Boosts should not be conflated with mere displacements in spacetime; in this case, the coordinate systems are simply shifted and there is no relative motion.", "However, these also count as symmetries forced by special relativity since they leave the spacetime interval invariant.", "A combination of a rotation with a boost, followed by a shift in spacetime, is an ''inhomogeneous Lorentz transformation'', an element of the Poincaré group, which is also called the inhomogeneous Lorentz group." ], [ "Physical formulation of Lorentz boosts", "===Coordinate transformation=== The spacetime coordinates of an event, as measured by each observer in their inertial reference frame (in standard configuration) are shown in the speech bubbles.", "'''Top:''' frame moves at velocity ''v'' along the -axis of frame .", "'''Bottom:''' frame moves at velocity − along the -axis of frame .A \"stationary\" observer in frame defines events with coordinates .", "Another frame moves with velocity relative to , and an observer in this \"moving\" frame defines events using the coordinates .The coordinate axes in each frame are parallel (the and axes are parallel, the and axes are parallel, and the and axes are parallel), remain mutually perpendicular, and relative motion is along the coincident axes.", "At , the origins of both coordinate systems are the same, .", "In other words, the times and positions are coincident at this event.", "If all these hold, then the coordinate systems are said to be in '''standard configuration''', or '''synchronized'''.If an observer in records an event , then an observer in records the ''same'' event with coordinateswhere is the relative velocity between frames in the -direction, is the speed of light, and(lowercase gamma) is the Lorentz factor.Here, is the ''parameter'' of the transformation, for a given boost it is a constant number, but can take a continuous range of values.", "In the setup used here, positive relative velocity is motion along the positive directions of the axes, zero relative velocity is no relative motion, while negative relative velocity is relative motion along the negative directions of the axes.", "The magnitude of relative velocity cannot equal or exceed , so only subluminal speeds are allowed.", "The corresponding range of is .The transformations are not defined if is outside these limits.", "At the speed of light () is infinite, and faster than light () is a complex number, each of which make the transformations unphysical.", "The space and time coordinates are measurable quantities and numerically must be real numbers.As an active transformation, an observer in F′ notices the coordinates of the event to be \"boosted\" in the negative directions of the axes, because of the in the transformations.", "This has the equivalent effect of the ''coordinate system'' F′ boosted in the positive directions of the axes, while the event does not change and is simply represented in another coordinate system, a passive transformation.The inverse relations ( in terms of ) can be found by algebraically solving the original set of equations.", "A more efficient way is to use physical principles.", "Here is the \"stationary\" frame while is the \"moving\" frame.", "According to the principle of relativity, there is no privileged frame of reference, so the transformations from to must take exactly the same form as the transformations from to .", "The only difference is moves with velocity relative to (i.e., the relative velocity has the same magnitude but is oppositely directed).", "Thus if an observer in notes an event , then an observer in notes the ''same'' event with coordinatesand the value of remains unchanged.", "This \"trick\" of simply reversing the direction of relative velocity while preserving its magnitude, and exchanging primed and unprimed variables, always applies to finding the inverse transformation of every boost in any direction.Sometimes it is more convenient to use (lowercase beta) instead of , so thatwhich shows much more clearly the symmetry in the transformation.", "From the allowed ranges of and the definition of , it follows .", "The use of and is standard throughout the literature.The Lorentz transformations can also be derived in a way that resembles circular rotations in 3d space using the hyperbolic functions.", "For the boost in the direction, the results arewhere (lowercase zeta) is a parameter called ''rapidity'' (many other symbols are used, including ).", "Given the strong resemblance to rotations of spatial coordinates in 3d space in the Cartesian xy, yz, and zx planes, a Lorentz boost can be thought of as a hyperbolic rotation of spacetime coordinates in the xt, yt, and zt Cartesian-time planes of 4d Minkowski space.", "The parameter is the hyperbolic angle of rotation, analogous to the ordinary angle for circular rotations.", "This transformation can be illustrated with a Minkowski diagram.The hyperbolic functions arise from the ''difference'' between the squares of the time and spatial coordinates in the spacetime interval, rather than a sum.", "The geometric significance of the hyperbolic functions can be visualized by taking or in the transformations.", "Squaring and subtracting the results, one can derive hyperbolic curves of constant coordinate values but varying , which parametrizes the curves according to the identityConversely the and axes can be constructed for varying coordinates but constant .", "The definitionprovides the link between a constant value of rapidity, and the slope of the axis in spacetime.", "A consequence these two hyperbolic formulae is an identity that matches the Lorentz factorComparing the Lorentz transformations in terms of the relative velocity and rapidity, or using the above formulae, the connections between , , and areTaking the inverse hyperbolic tangent gives the rapidity Since , it follows .", "From the relation between and , positive rapidity is motion along the positive directions of the axes, zero rapidity is no relative motion, while negative rapidity is relative motion along the negative directions of the axes.The inverse transformations are obtained by exchanging primed and unprimed quantities to switch the coordinate frames, and negating rapidity since this is equivalent to negating the relative velocity.", "Therefore,The inverse transformations can be similarly visualized by considering the cases when and .So far the Lorentz transformations have been applied to ''one event''.", "If there are two events, there is a spatial separation and time interval between them.", "It follows from the linearity of the Lorentz transformations that two values of space and time coordinates can be chosen, the Lorentz transformations can be applied to each, then subtracted to get the Lorentz transformations of the differences;with inverse relationswhere (uppercase delta) indicates a difference of quantities; e.g., for two values of coordinates, and so on.These transformations on ''differences'' rather than spatial points or instants of time are useful for a number of reasons:* in calculations and experiments, it is lengths between two points or time intervals that are measured or of interest (e.g., the length of a moving vehicle, or time duration it takes to travel from one place to another),* the transformations of velocity can be readily derived by making the difference infinitesimally small and dividing the equations, and the process repeated for the transformation of acceleration,* if the coordinate systems are never coincident (i.e., not in standard configuration), and if both observers can agree on an event in and in , then they can use that event as the origin, and the spacetime coordinate differences are the differences between their coordinates and this origin, e.g., , , etc.===Physical implications===A critical requirement of the Lorentz transformations is the invariance of the speed of light, a fact used in their derivation, and contained in the transformations themselves.", "If in the equation for a pulse of light along the direction is , then in the Lorentz transformations give , and vice versa, for any .For relative speeds much less than the speed of light, the Lorentz transformations reduce to the Galilean transformationin accordance with the correspondence principle.", "It is sometimes said that nonrelativistic physics is a physics of \"instantaneous action at a distance\".Three counterintuitive, but correct, predictions of the transformations are:;Relativity of simultaneity: Suppose two events occur along the x axis simultaneously () in , but separated by a nonzero displacement .", "Then in , we find that , so the events are no longer simultaneous according to a moving observer.", ";Time dilation: Suppose there is a clock at rest in .", "If a time interval is measured at the same point in that frame, so that , then the transformations give this interval in by .", "Conversely, suppose there is a clock at rest in .", "If an interval is measured at the same point in that frame, so that , then the transformations give this interval in F by .", "Either way, each observer measures the time interval between ticks of a moving clock to be longer by a factor than the time interval between ticks of his own clock.", ";Length contraction: Suppose there is a rod at rest in aligned along the x axis, with length .", "In , the rod moves with velocity , so its length must be measured by taking two simultaneous () measurements at opposite ends.", "Under these conditions, the inverse Lorentz transform shows that .", "In the two measurements are no longer simultaneous, but this does not matter because the rod is at rest in .", "So each observer measures the distance between the end points of a moving rod to be shorter by a factor than the end points of an identical rod at rest in his own frame.", "Length contraction affects any geometric quantity related to lengths, so from the perspective of a moving observer, areas and volumes will also appear to shrink along the direction of motion.===Vector transformations===An observer in frame observes to move with velocity , while observes to move with velocity .", "and orthogonal.", "The position vector as measured in each frame is split into components parallel and perpendicular to the relative velocity vector .", "'''Left:''' Standard configuration.", "'''Right:''' Inverse configuration.The use of vectors allows positions and velocities to be expressed in arbitrary directions compactly.", "A single boost in any direction depends on the full relative velocity vector with a magnitude that cannot equal or exceed , so that .Only time and the coordinates parallel to the direction of relative motion change, while those coordinates perpendicular do not.", "With this in mind, split the spatial position vector as measured in , and as measured in , each into components perpendicular (⊥) and parallel ( ‖ ) to ,then the transformations arewhere is the dot product.", "The Lorentz factor retains its definition for a boost in any direction, since it depends only on the magnitude of the relative velocity.", "The definition with magnitude is also used by some authors.Introducing a unit vector in the direction of relative motion, the relative velocity is with magnitude and direction , and vector projection and rejection give respectivelyAccumulating the results gives the full transformations,The projection and rejection also applies to .", "For the inverse transformations, exchange and to switch observed coordinates, and negate the relative velocity (or simply the unit vector since the magnitude is always positive) to obtainThe unit vector has the advantage of simplifying equations for a single boost, allows either or to be reinstated when convenient, and the rapidity parametrization is immediately obtained by replacing and .", "It is not convenient for multiple boosts.The vectorial relation between relative velocity and rapidity isand the \"rapidity vector\" can be defined aseach of which serves as a useful abbreviation in some contexts.", "The magnitude of is the absolute value of the rapidity scalar confined to , which agrees with the range .===Transformation of velocities===relativistic velocity addition , the ordering of vectors is chosen to reflect the ordering of the addition of velocities; first (the velocity of F′ relative to F) then (the velocity of X relative to F′) to obtain (the velocity of X relative to F).Defining the coordinate velocities and Lorentz factor by:taking the differentials in the coordinates and time of the vector transformations, then dividing equations, leads to:The velocities and are the velocity of some massive object.", "They can also be for a third inertial frame (say ''F''′′), in which case they must be ''constant''.", "Denote either entity by X.", "Then X moves with velocity relative to F, or equivalently with velocity relative to F′, in turn F′ moves with velocity relative to F. The inverse transformations can be obtained in a similar way, or as with position coordinates exchange and , and change to .The transformation of velocity is useful in stellar aberration, the Fizeau experiment, and the relativistic Doppler effect.The Lorentz transformations of acceleration can be similarly obtained by taking differentials in the velocity vectors, and dividing these by the time differential.===Transformation of other quantities===In general, given four quantities and and their Lorentz-boosted counterparts and , a relation of the formimplies the quantities transform under Lorentz transformations similar to the transformation of spacetime coordinates;The decomposition of (and ) into components perpendicular and parallel to is exactly the same as for the position vector, as is the process of obtaining the inverse transformations (exchange and to switch observed quantities, and reverse the direction of relative motion by the substitution ).The quantities collectively make up a ''four-vector'', where is the \"timelike component\", and the \"spacelike component\".", "Examples of and are the following: Four-vector Position four-vector Time (multiplied by ), Position vector, Four-momentum Energy (divided by ), Momentum, Four-wave vector angular frequency (divided by ), wave vector, Four-spin (No name), Spin, Four-current Charge density (multiplied by ), Current density, Electromagnetic four-potential Electric potential (divided by ), Magnetic vector potential, For a given object (e.g., particle, fluid, field, material), if or correspond to properties specific to the object like its charge density, mass density, spin, etc., its properties can be fixed in the rest frame of that object.", "Then the Lorentz transformations give the corresponding properties in a frame moving relative to the object with constant velocity.", "This breaks some notions taken for granted in non-relativistic physics.", "For example, the energy of an object is a scalar in non-relativistic mechanics, but not in relativistic mechanics because energy changes under Lorentz transformations; its value is different for various inertial frames.", "In the rest frame of an object, it has a rest energy and zero momentum.", "In a boosted frame its energy is different and it appears to have a momentum.", "Similarly, in non-relativistic quantum mechanics the spin of a particle is a constant vector, but in relativistic quantum mechanics spin depends on relative motion.", "In the rest frame of the particle, the spin pseudovector can be fixed to be its ordinary non-relativistic spin with a zero timelike quantity , however a boosted observer will perceive a nonzero timelike component and an altered spin.Not all quantities are invariant in the form as shown above, for example orbital angular momentum does not have a timelike quantity, and neither does the electric field nor the magnetic field .", "The definition of angular momentum is , and in a boosted frame the altered angular momentum is .", "Applying this definition using the transformations of coordinates and momentum leads to the transformation of angular momentum.", "It turns out transforms with another vector quantity related to boosts, see relativistic angular momentum for details.", "For the case of the and fields, the transformations cannot be obtained as directly using vector algebra.", "The Lorentz force is the definition of these fields, and in it is while in it is .", "A method of deriving the EM field transformations in an efficient way which also illustrates the unit of the electromagnetic field uses tensor algebra, given below." ], [ "Mathematical formulation", "Throughout, italic non-bold capital letters are 4×4 matrices, while non-italic bold letters are 3×3 matrices.===Homogeneous Lorentz group===Writing the coordinates in column vectors and the Minkowski metric as a square matrixthe spacetime interval takes the form (superscript denotes transpose)and is invariant under a Lorentz transformationwhere is a square matrix which can depend on parameters.The set of all Lorentz transformations in this article is denoted .", "This set together with matrix multiplication forms a group, in this context known as the ''Lorentz group''.", "Also, the above expression is a quadratic form of signature (3,1) on spacetime, and the group of transformations which leaves this quadratic form invariant is the indefinite orthogonal group O(3,1), a Lie group.", "In other words, the Lorentz group is O(3,1).", "As presented in this article, any Lie groups mentioned are matrix Lie groups.", "In this context the operation of composition amounts to matrix multiplication.From the invariance of the spacetime interval it followsand this matrix equation contains the general conditions on the Lorentz transformation to ensure invariance of the spacetime interval.", "Taking the determinant of the equation using the product rule gives immediatelyWriting the Minkowski metric as a block matrix, and the Lorentz transformation in the most general form,carrying out the block matrix multiplications obtains general conditions on to ensure relativistic invariance.", "Not much information can be directly extracted from all the conditions, however one of the resultsis useful; always so it follows thatThe negative inequality may be unexpected, because multiplies the time coordinate and this has an effect on time symmetry.", "If the positive equality holds, then is the Lorentz factor.The determinant and inequality provide four ways to classify '''L'''orentz '''T'''ransformations (''herein '''LT'''s for brevity'').", "Any particular LT has only one determinant sign ''and'' only one inequality.", "There are four sets which include every possible pair given by the intersections (\"n\"-shaped symbol meaning \"and\") of these classifying sets.", "Intersection, ∩ '''Antichronous''' (or non-orthochronous) LTs: '''Orthochronous''' LTs: '''Proper''' LTs: '''Proper antichronous''' LTs:'''Proper orthochronous''' LTs: '''Improper''' LTs:'''Improper antichronous''' LTs:'''Improper orthochronous''' LTs:where \"+\" and \"−\" indicate the determinant sign, while \"↑\" for ≥ and \"↓\" for ≤ denote the inequalities.The full Lorentz group splits into the union (\"u\"-shaped symbol meaning \"or\") of four disjoint setsA subgroup of a group must be closed under the same operation of the group (here matrix multiplication).", "In other words, for two Lorentz transformations and from a particular set, the composite Lorentz transformations and must be in the same set as and .", "This is not always the case: the composition of two antichronous Lorentz transformations is orthochronous, and the composition of two improper Lorentz transformations is proper.", "In other words, while the sets , , , and all form subgroups, the sets containing improper and/or antichronous transformations without enough proper orthochronous transformations (e.g.", ", , ) do not form subgroups.===Proper transformations===If a Lorentz covariant 4-vector is measured in one inertial frame with result , and the same measurement made in another inertial frame (with the same orientation and origin) gives result , the two results will be related bywhere the boost matrix represents the rotation-free Lorentz transformation between the unprimed and primed frames and is the velocity of the primed frame as seen from the unprimed frame.", "The matrix is given bywhere is the magnitude of the velocity and is the Lorentz factor.", "This formula represents a passive transformation, as it describes how the coordinates of the measured quantity changes from the unprimed frame to the primed frame.", "The active transformation is given by .If a frame is boosted with velocity relative to frame , and another frame is boosted with velocity relative to , the separate boosts areand the composition of the two boosts connects the coordinates in and ,Successive transformations act on the left.", "If and are collinear (parallel or antiparallel along the same line of relative motion), the boost matrices commute: .", "This composite transformation happens to be another boost, , where is collinear with and .If and are not collinear but in different directions, the situation is considerably more complicated.", "Lorentz boosts along different directions do not commute: and are not equal.", "Although each of these compositions is ''not'' a single boost, each composition is still a Lorentz transformation as it preserves the spacetime interval.", "It turns out the composition of any two Lorentz boosts is equivalent to a boost followed or preceded by a rotation on the spatial coordinates, in the form of or .", "The and are composite velocities, while and are rotation parameters (e.g.", "axis-angle variables, Euler angles, etc.).", "The rotation in block matrix form is simplywhere is a 3d rotation matrix, which rotates any 3d vector in one sense (active transformation), or equivalently the coordinate frame in the opposite sense (passive transformation).", "It is ''not'' simple to connect and (or and ) to the original boost parameters and .", "In a composition of boosts, the matrix is named the Wigner rotation, and gives rise to the Thomas precession.", "These articles give the explicit formulae for the composite transformation matrices, including expressions for .In this article the axis-angle representation is used for .", "The rotation is about an axis in the direction of a unit vector , through angle (positive anticlockwise, negative clockwise, according to the right-hand rule).", "The \"axis-angle vector\"will serve as a useful abbreviation.Spatial rotations alone are also Lorentz transformations since they leave the spacetime interval invariant.", "Like boosts, successive rotations about different axes do not commute.", "Unlike boosts, the composition of any two rotations is equivalent to a single rotation.", "Some other similarities and differences between the boost and rotation matrices include:* inverses: (relative motion in the opposite direction), and (rotation in the opposite sense about the same axis)* identity transformation for no relative motion/rotation: * unit determinant: .", "This property makes them proper transformations.", "* matrix symmetry: is symmetric (equals transpose), while is nonsymmetric but orthogonal (transpose equals inverse, ).The most general proper Lorentz transformation includes a boost and rotation together, and is a nonsymmetric matrix.", "As special cases, and .", "An explicit form of the general Lorentz transformation is cumbersome to write down and will not be given here.", "Nevertheless, closed form expressions for the transformation matrices will be given below using group theoretical arguments.", "It will be easier to use the rapidity parametrization for boosts, in which case one writes and .====The Lie group SO+(3,1)====The set of transformationswith matrix multiplication as the operation of composition forms a group, called the \"restricted Lorentz group\", and is the special indefinite orthogonal group SO+(3,1).", "(The plus sign indicates that it preserves the orientation of the temporal dimension).For simplicity, look at the infinitesimal Lorentz boost in the x direction (examining a boost in any other direction, or rotation about any axis, follows an identical procedure).", "The infinitesimal boost is a small boost away from the identity, obtained by the Taylor expansion of the boost matrix to first order about ,where the higher order terms not shown are negligible because is small, and is simply the boost matrix in the ''x'' direction.", "The derivative of the matrix is the matrix of derivatives (of the entries, with respect to the same variable), and it is understood the derivatives are found first then evaluated at ,For now, is defined by this result (its significance will be explained shortly).", "In the limit of an infinite number of infinitely small steps, the finite boost transformation in the form of a matrix exponential is obtainedwhere the limit definition of the exponential has been used (see also characterizations of the exponential function).", "More generallyThe axis-angle vector and rapidity vector are altogether six continuous variables which make up the group parameters (in this particular representation), and the generators of the group are and , each vectors of matrices with the explicit formsThese are all defined in an analogous way to above, although the minus signs in the boost generators are conventional.", "Physically, the generators of the Lorentz group correspond to important symmetries in spacetime: are the ''rotation generators'' which correspond to angular momentum, and are the ''boost generators'' which correspond to the motion of the system in spacetime.", "The derivative of any smooth curve with in the group depending on some group parameter with respect to that group parameter, evaluated at , serves as a definition of a corresponding group generator , and this reflects an infinitesimal transformation away from the identity.", "The smooth curve can always be taken as an exponential as the exponential will always map smoothly back into the group via for all ; this curve will yield again when differentiated at .Expanding the exponentials in their Taylor series obtainswhich compactly reproduce the boost and rotation matrices as given in the previous section.It has been stated that the general proper Lorentz transformation is a product of a boost and rotation.", "At the ''infinitesimal'' level the productis commutative because only linear terms are required (products like and count as higher order terms and are negligible).", "Taking the limit as before leads to the finite transformation in the form of an exponentialThe converse is also true, but the decomposition of a finite general Lorentz transformation into such factors is nontrivial.", "In particular,because the generators do not commute.", "For a description of how to find the factors of a general Lorentz transformation in terms of a boost and a rotation ''in principle'' (this usually does not yield an intelligible expression in terms of generators and ), see Wigner rotation.", "If, on the other hand, ''the decomposition is given'' in terms of the generators, and one wants to find the product in terms of the generators, then the Baker–Campbell–Hausdorff formula applies.====The Lie algebra so(3,1)====Lorentz generators can be added together, or multiplied by real numbers, to obtain more Lorentz generators.", "In other words, the set of all Lorentz generatorstogether with the operations of ordinary matrix addition and multiplication of a matrix by a number, forms a vector space over the real numbers.", "The generators form a basis set of ''V'', and the components of the axis-angle and rapidity vectors, , are the coordinates of a Lorentz generator with respect to this basis.Three of the commutation relations of the Lorentz generators arewhere the bracket is known as the ''commutator'', and the other relations can be found by taking cyclic permutations of x, y, z components (i.e.", "change x to y, y to z, and z to x, repeat).These commutation relations, and the vector space of generators, fulfill the definition of the Lie algebra .", "In summary, a Lie algebra is defined as a vector space ''V'' over a field of numbers, and with a binary operation , (called a Lie bracket in this context) on the elements of the vector space, satisfying the axioms of bilinearity, alternatization, and the Jacobi identity.", "Here the operation , is the commutator which satisfies all of these axioms, the vector space is the set of Lorentz generators ''V'' as given previously, and the field is the set of real numbers.Linking terminology used in mathematics and physics: A group generator is any element of the Lie algebra.", "A group parameter is a component of a coordinate vector representing an arbitrary element of the Lie algebra with respect to some basis.", "A basis, then, is a set of generators being a basis of the Lie algebra in the usual vector space sense.The exponential map from the Lie algebra to the Lie group,provides a one-to-one correspondence between small enough neighborhoods of the origin of the Lie algebra and neighborhoods of the identity element of the Lie group.", "In the case of the Lorentz group, the exponential map is just the matrix exponential.", "Globally, the exponential map is not one-to-one, but in the case of the Lorentz group, it is surjective (onto).", "Hence any group element in the connected component of the identity can be expressed as an exponential of an element of the Lie algebra.===Improper transformations===Lorentz transformations also include parity inversionwhich negates all the spatial coordinates only, and time reversalwhich negates the time coordinate only, because these transformations leave the spacetime interval invariant.", "Here is the 3d identity matrix.", "These are both symmetric, they are their own inverses (see involution (mathematics)), and each have determinant −1.This latter property makes them improper transformations.If is a proper orthochronous Lorentz transformation, then is improper antichronous, is improper orthochronous, and is proper antichronous.=== Inhomogeneous Lorentz group ===Two other spacetime symmetries have not been accounted for.", "For the spacetime interval to be invariant, it can be shown that it is necessary and sufficient for the coordinate transformation to be of the formwhere ''C'' is a constant column containing translations in time and space.", "If ''C'' ≠ 0, this is an '''inhomogeneous Lorentz transformation''' or '''Poincaré transformation'''.", "If ''C'' = 0, this is a '''homogeneous Lorentz transformation'''.", "Poincaré transformations are not dealt further in this article." ], [ "Tensor formulation", "=== Contravariant vectors ===Writing the general matrix transformation of coordinates as the matrix equationallows the transformation of other physical quantities that cannot be expressed as four-vectors; e.g., tensors or spinors of any order in 4d spacetime, to be defined.", "In the corresponding tensor index notation, the above matrix expression iswhere lower and upper indices label covariant and contravariant components respectively, and the summation convention is applied.", "It is a standard convention to use Greek indices that take the value 0 for time components, and 1, 2, 3 for space components, while Latin indices simply take the values 1, 2, 3, for spatial components (the opposite for Landau and Lifshitz).", "Note that the first index (reading left to right) corresponds in the matrix notation to a ''row index''.", "The second index corresponds to the column index.The transformation matrix is universal for all four-vectors, not just 4-dimensional spacetime coordinates.", "If is any four-vector, then in tensor index notation Alternatively, one writes in which the primed indices denote the indices of A in the primed frame.", "For a general -component object one may write where is the appropriate representation of the Lorentz group, an matrix for every .", "In this case, the indices should ''not'' be thought of as spacetime indices (sometimes called Lorentz indices), and they run from to .", "E.g., if is a bispinor, then the indices are called ''Dirac indices''.=== Covariant vectors ===There are also vector quantities with covariant indices.", "They are generally obtained from their corresponding objects with contravariant indices by the operation of ''lowering an index''; e.g.,where is the metric tensor.", "(The linked article also provides more information about what the operation of raising and lowering indices really is mathematically.)", "The inverse of this transformation is given bywhere, when viewed as matrices, is the inverse of .", "As it happens, .", "This is referred to as ''raising an index''.", "To transform a covariant vector , first raise its index, then transform it according to the same rule as for contravariant -vectors, then finally lower the index;But That is, it is the -component of the ''inverse'' Lorentz transformation.", "One defines (as a matter of notation),and may in this notation writeNow for a subtlety.", "The implied summation on the right hand side ofis running over ''a row index'' of the matrix representing .", "Thus, in terms of matrices, this transformation should be thought of as the ''inverse transpose'' of acting on the column vector .", "That is, in pure matrix notation,This means exactly that covariant vectors (thought of as column matrices) transform according to the dual representation of the standard representation of the Lorentz group.", "This notion generalizes to general representations, simply replace with .=== Tensors ===If and are linear operators on vector spaces and , then a linear operator may be defined on the tensor product of and , denoted according toFrom this it is immediately clear that if and are a four-vectors in , then transforms asThe second step uses the bilinearity of the tensor product and the last step defines a 2-tensor on component form, or rather, it just renames the tensor .These observations generalize in an obvious way to more factors, and using the fact that a general tensor on a vector space can be written as a sum of a coefficient (component!)", "times tensor products of basis vectors and basis covectors, one arrives at the transformation law for any tensor quantity .", "It is given bywhere is defined above.", "This form can generally be reduced to the form for general -component objects given above with a single matrix () operating on column vectors.", "This latter form is sometimes preferred; e.g., for the electromagnetic field tensor.==== Transformation of the electromagnetic field ====Lorentz boost of an electric charge, the charge is at rest in one frame or the other.Lorentz transformations can also be used to illustrate that the magnetic field and electric field are simply different aspects of the same force — the electromagnetic force, as a consequence of relative motion between electric charges and observers.", "The fact that the electromagnetic field shows relativistic effects becomes clear by carrying out a simple thought experiment.", "* An observer measures a charge at rest in frame F. The observer will detect a static electric field.", "As the charge is stationary in this frame, there is no electric current, so the observer does not observe any magnetic field.", "* The other observer in frame F′ moves at velocity relative to F and the charge.", "''This'' observer sees a different electric field because the charge moves at velocity in their rest frame.", "The motion of the charge corresponds to an electric current, and thus the observer in frame F′ also sees a magnetic field.The electric and magnetic fields transform differently from space and time, but exactly the same way as relativistic angular momentum and the boost vector.The electromagnetic field strength tensor is given byin SI units.", "In relativity, the Gaussian system of units is often preferred over SI units, even in texts whose main choice of units is SI units, because in it the electric field and the magnetic induction have the same units making the appearance of the electromagnetic field tensor more natural.", "Consider a Lorentz boost in the -direction.", "It is given bywhere the field tensor is displayed side by side for easiest possible reference in the manipulations below.The general transformation law becomesFor the magnetic field one obtainsFor the electric field resultsHere, is used.", "These results can be summarized byand are independent of the metric signature.", "For SI units, substitute .", "refer to this last form as the view as opposed to the ''geometric view'' represented by the tensor expressionand make a strong point of the ease with which results that are difficult to achieve using the view can be obtained and understood.", "Only objects that have well defined Lorentz transformation properties (in fact under ''any'' smooth coordinate transformation) are geometric objects.", "In the geometric view, the electromagnetic field is a six-dimensional geometric object in ''spacetime'' as opposed to two interdependent, but separate, 3-vector fields in ''space'' and ''time''.", "The fields (alone) and (alone) do not have well defined Lorentz transformation properties.", "The mathematical underpinnings are equations and that immediately yield .", "One should note that the primed and unprimed tensors refer to the ''same event in spacetime''.", "Thus the complete equation with spacetime dependence isLength contraction has an effect on charge density and current density , and time dilation has an effect on the rate of flow of charge (current), so charge and current distributions must transform in a related way under a boost.", "It turns out they transform exactly like the space-time and energy-momentum four-vectors,or, in the simpler geometric view,Charge density transforms as the time component of a four-vector.", "It is a rotational scalar.", "The current density is a 3-vector.The Maxwell equations are invariant under Lorentz transformations.=== Spinors ===Equation hold unmodified for any representation of the Lorentz group, including the bispinor representation.", "In one simply replaces all occurrences of by the bispinor representation ,The above equation could, for instance, be the transformation of a state in Fock space describing two free electrons.==== Transformation of general fields ====A general ''noninteracting'' multi-particle state (Fock space state) in quantum field theory transforms according to the rulewhere is the Wigner rotation and is the representation of ." ], [ "See also" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Websites===* * ===Papers===* * * * * * * .", "See also: English translation.", "* * * eqn (55).", "* * * * * ===Books===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " * " ], [ "External links", " Derivation of the Lorentz transformations.", "This web page contains a more detailed derivation of the Lorentz transformation with special emphasis on group properties.", "* The Paradox of Special Relativity.", "This webpage poses a problem, the solution of which is the Lorentz transformation, which is presented graphically in its next page.", "* Relativity – a chapter from an online textbook* Warp Special Relativity Simulator.", "A computer program demonstrating the Lorentz transformations on everyday objects.", "* visualizing the Lorentz transformation.", "* MinutePhysics video on YouTube explaining and visualizing the Lorentz transformation with a mechanical Minkowski diagram* Interactive graph on Desmos (graphing) showing Lorentz transformations with a virtual Minkowski diagram* Interactive graph on Desmos showing Lorentz transformations with points and hyperbolas* Lorentz Frames Animated ''from John de Pillis.''", "Online Flash animations of Galilean and Lorentz frames, various paradoxes, EM wave phenomena, ''etc''." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Luminiferous aether" ], [ "Introduction", "The luminiferous aether: it was hypothesised that the Earth moves through a \"medium\" of aether that carries light'''Luminiferous aether''' or '''ether''' (''luminiferous'' meaning 'light-bearing') was the postulated medium for the propagation of light.", "It was invoked to explain the ability of the apparently wave-based light to propagate through empty space (a vacuum), something that waves should not be able to do.", "The assumption of a spatial plenum (space completely filled with matter) of luminiferous aether, rather than a spatial vacuum, provided the theoretical medium that was required by wave theories of light.The aether hypothesis was the topic of considerable debate throughout its history, as it required the existence of an invisible and infinite material with no interaction with physical objects.", "As the nature of light was explored, especially in the 19th century, the physical qualities required of an aether became increasingly contradictory.", "By the late 19th century, the existence of the aether was being questioned, although there was no physical theory to replace it.The negative outcome of the Michelson–Morley experiment (1887) suggested that the aether did not exist, a finding that was confirmed in subsequent experiments through the 1920s.", "This led to considerable theoretical work to explain the propagation of light without an aether.", "A major breakthrough was the special theory of relativity, which could explain why the experiment failed to see aether, but was more broadly interpreted to suggest that it was not needed.", "The Michelson–Morley experiment, along with the blackbody radiator and photoelectric effect, was a key experiment in the development of modern physics, which includes both relativity and quantum theory, the latter of which explains the particle-like nature of light." ], [ "The history of light and aether", "===Particles vs. waves===In the 17th century, Robert Boyle was a proponent of an aether hypothesis.", "According to Boyle, the aether consists of subtle particles, one sort of which explains the absence of vacuum and the mechanical interactions between bodies, and the other sort of which explains phenomena such as magnetism (and possibly gravity) that are, otherwise, inexplicable on the basis of purely mechanical interactions of macroscopic bodies, \"though in the ether of the ancients there was nothing taken notice of but a diffused and very subtle substance; yet we are at present content to allow that there is always in the air a swarm of streams moving in a determinate course between the north pole and the south\".Christiaan Huygens's ''Treatise on Light'' (1690) hypothesized that light is a wave propagating through an aether.", "He and Isaac Newton could only envision light waves as being longitudinal, propagating like sound and other mechanical waves in fluids.", "However, longitudinal waves necessarily have only one form for a given propagation direction, rather than two polarizations like a transverse wave.", "Thus, longitudinal waves can not explain birefringence, in which two polarizations of light are refracted differently by a crystal.", "In addition, Newton rejected light as waves in a medium because such a medium would have to extend everywhere in space, and would thereby \"disturb and retard the Motions of those great Bodies\" (the planets and comets) and thus \"as it is of no use, and hinders the Operation of Nature, and makes her languish, so there is no evidence for its Existence, and therefore it ought to be rejected\".Isaac Newton contended that light is made up of numerous small particles.", "This can explain such features as light's ability to travel in straight lines and reflect off surfaces.", "Newton imagined light particles as non-spherical \"corpuscles\", with different \"sides\" that give rise to birefringence.", "But the particle theory of light can not satisfactorily explain refraction and diffraction.", "To explain refraction, Newton's Third Book of ''Opticks'' (1st ed.", "1704, 4th ed.", "1730) postulated an \"aethereal medium\" transmitting vibrations faster than light, by which light, when overtaken, is put into \"Fits of easy Reflexion and easy Transmission\", which caused refraction and diffraction.", "Newton believed that these vibrations were related to heat radiation:Is not the Heat of the warm Room convey'd through the vacuum by the Vibrations of a much subtiler Medium than Air, which after the Air was drawn out remained in the Vacuum?", "And is not this Medium the same with that Medium by which Light is refracted and reflected, and by whose Vibrations Light communicates Heat to Bodies, and is put into Fits of easy Reflexion and easy Transmission?In contrast to the modern understanding that heat radiation and light are both electromagnetic radiation, Newton viewed heat and light as two different phenomena.", "He believed heat vibrations to be excited \"when a Ray of Light falls upon the Surface of any pellucid Body\".", "He wrote, \"I do not know what this Aether is\", but that if it consists of particles then they must be exceedingly smaller than those of Air, or even than those of Light: The exceeding smallness of its Particles may contribute to the greatness of the force by which those Particles may recede from one another, and thereby make that Medium exceedingly more rare and elastic than Air, and by consequence exceedingly less able to resist the motions of Projectiles, and exceedingly more able to press upon gross Bodies, by endeavoring to expand itself.===Bradley suggests particles===In 1720, James Bradley carried out a series of experiments attempting to measure stellar parallax by taking measurements of stars at different times of the year.", "As the Earth moves around the Sun, the apparent angle to a given distant spot changes.", "By measuring those angles the distance to the star can be calculated based on the known orbital circumference of the Earth around the Sun.", "He failed to detect any parallax, thereby placing a lower limit on the distance to stars.During these experiments, Bradley also discovered a related effect; the apparent positions of the stars did change over the year, but not as expected.", "Instead of the apparent angle being maximized when the Earth was at either end of its orbit with respect to the star, the angle was maximized when the Earth was at its fastest sideways velocity with respect to the star.", "This effect is now known as stellar aberration.Bradley explained this effect in the context of Newton's corpuscular theory of light, by showing that the aberration angle was given by simple vector addition of the Earth's orbital velocity and the velocity of the corpuscles of light, just as vertically falling raindrops strike a moving object at an angle.", "Knowing the Earth's velocity and the aberration angle enabled him to estimate the speed of light.Explaining stellar aberration in the context of an aether-based theory of light was regarded as more problematic.", "As the aberration relied on relative velocities, and the measured velocity was dependent on the motion of the Earth, the aether had to be remaining stationary with respect to the star as the Earth moved through it.", "This meant that the Earth could travel through the aether, a physical medium, with no apparent effect – precisely the problem that led Newton to reject a wave model in the first place.===Wave-theory triumphs===A century later, Thomas Young and Augustin-Jean Fresnel revived the wave theory of light when they pointed out that light could be a transverse wave rather than a longitudinal wave; the polarization of a transverse wave (like Newton's \"sides\" of light) could explain birefringence, and in the wake of a series of experiments on diffraction the particle model of Newton was finally abandoned.", "Physicists assumed, moreover, that, like mechanical waves, light waves required a medium for propagation, and thus required Huygens's idea of an aether \"gas\" permeating all space.However, a transverse wave apparently required the propagating medium to behave as a solid, as opposed to a fluid.", "The idea of a solid that did not interact with other matter seemed a bit odd, and Augustin-Louis Cauchy suggested that perhaps there was some sort of \"dragging\", or \"entrainment\", but this made the aberration measurements difficult to understand.", "He also suggested that the ''absence'' of longitudinal waves suggested that the aether had negative compressibility.", "George Green pointed out that such a fluid would be unstable.", "George Gabriel Stokes became a champion of the entrainment interpretation, developing a model in which the aether might, like pine pitch, be dilatant (fluid at slow speeds and rigid at fast speeds).", "Thus the Earth could move through it fairly freely, but it would be rigid enough to support light.===Electromagnetism===In 1856, Wilhelm Eduard Weber and Rudolf Kohlrausch measured the numerical value of the ratio of the electrostatic unit of charge to the electromagnetic unit of charge.", "They found that the ratio between the electrostatic unit of charge and the electromagnetic unit of charge is the speed of light ''c''.", "The following year, Gustav Kirchhoff wrote a paper in which he showed that the speed of a signal along an electric wire was equal to the speed of light.", "These are the first recorded historical links between the speed of light and electromagnetic phenomena.James Clerk Maxwell began working on Michael Faraday's lines of force.", "In his 1861 paper ''On Physical Lines of Force'' he modelled these magnetic lines of force using a sea of molecular vortices that he considered to be partly made of aether and partly made of ordinary matter.", "He derived expressions for the dielectric constant and the magnetic permeability in terms of the transverse elasticity and the density of this elastic medium.", "He then equated the ratio of the dielectric constant to the magnetic permeability with a suitably adapted version of Weber and Kohlrausch's result of 1856, and he substituted this result into Newton's equation for the speed of sound.", "On obtaining a value that was close to the speed of light as measured by Hippolyte Fizeau, Maxwell concluded that light consists in undulations of the same medium that is the cause of electric and magnetic phenomena.Maxwell had, however, expressed some uncertainties surrounding the precise nature of his molecular vortices and so he began to embark on a purely dynamical approach to the problem.", "He wrote another paper in 1864, entitled \"A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field\", in which the details of the luminiferous medium were less explicit.", "Although Maxwell did not explicitly mention the sea of molecular vortices, his derivation of Ampère's circuital law was carried over from the 1861 paper and he used a dynamical approach involving rotational motion within the electromagnetic field which he likened to the action of flywheels.", "Using this approach to justify the electromotive force equation (the precursor of the Lorentz force equation), he derived a wave equation from a set of eight equations which appeared in the paper and which included the electromotive force equation and Ampère's circuital law.", "Maxwell once again used the experimental results of Weber and Kohlrausch to show that this wave equation represented an electromagnetic wave that propagates at the speed of light, hence supporting the view that light is a form of electromagnetic radiation.In 1887-1889, Heinrich Hertz experimentally demonstrated the electric magnetic waves are identical to light waves.", "This unification of electromagnetic wave and optics indicated that there was a single luminiferous aehter instead of many different kinds of aether media.", "The apparent need for a propagation medium for such Hertzian waves (later called radio waves) can be seen by the fact that they consist of orthogonal electric (E) and magnetic (B or H) waves.", "The E waves consist of undulating dipolar electric fields, and all such dipoles appeared to require separated and opposite electric charges.", "Electric charge is an inextricable property of matter, so it appeared that some form of matter was required to provide the alternating current that would seem to have to exist at any point along the propagation path of the wave.", "Propagation of waves in a true vacuum would imply the existence of electric fields without associated electric charge, or of electric charge without associated matter.", "Albeit compatible with Maxwell's equations, electromagnetic induction of electric fields could not be demonstrated in vacuum, because all methods of detecting electric fields required electrically charged matter.In addition, Maxwell's equations required that all electromagnetic waves in vacuum propagate at a fixed speed, ''c''.", "As this can only occur in one reference frame in Newtonian physics (see Galilean relativity), the aether was hypothesized as the absolute and unique frame of reference in which Maxwell's equations hold.", "That is, the aether must be \"still\" universally, otherwise ''c'' would vary along with any variations that might occur in its supportive medium.", "Maxwell himself proposed several mechanical models of aether based on wheels and gears, and George Francis FitzGerald even constructed a working model of one of them.", "These models had to agree with the fact that the electromagnetic waves are transverse but never longitudinal.===Problems===By this point the mechanical qualities of the aether had become more and more magical: it had to be a fluid in order to fill space, but one that was millions of times more rigid than steel in order to support the high frequencies of light waves.", "It also had to be massless and without viscosity, otherwise it would visibly affect the orbits of planets.", "Additionally it appeared it had to be completely transparent, non-dispersive, incompressible, and continuous at a very small scale.", "Maxwell wrote in ''Encyclopædia Britannica'':Aethers were invented for the planets to swim in, to constitute electric atmospheres and magnetic effluvia, to convey sensations from one part of our bodies to another, and so on, until all space had been filled three or four times over with aethers.", "...", "The only aether which has survived is that which was invented by Huygens to explain the propagation of light.By the early 20th century, aether theory was in trouble.", "A series of increasingly complex experiments had been carried out in the late 19th century to try to detect the motion of the Earth through the aether, and had failed to do so.", "A range of proposed aether-dragging theories could explain the null result but these were more complex, and tended to use arbitrary-looking coefficients and physical assumptions.", "Lorentz and FitzGerald offered within the framework of Lorentz ether theory a more elegant solution to how the motion of an absolute aether could be undetectable (length contraction), but if their equations were correct, the new special theory of relativity (1905) could generate the same mathematics without referring to an aether at all.", "Aether fell to Occam's Razor." ], [ "Relative motion between the Earth and aether", "===Aether drag===The two most important models, which were aimed to describe the relative motion of the Earth and aether, were Augustin-Jean Fresnel's (1818) model of the (nearly) stationary aether including a partial aether drag determined by Fresnel's dragging coefficient, and George Gabriel Stokes' (1844)model of complete aether drag.", "The latter theory was not considered as correct, since it was not compatible with the aberration of light, and the auxiliary hypotheses developed to explain this problem were not convincing.", "Also, subsequent experiments as the Sagnac effect (1913) also showed that this model is untenable.", "However, the most important experiment supporting Fresnel's theory was Fizeau's 1851 experimental confirmation of Fresnel's 1818 prediction that a medium with refractive index ''n'' moving with a velocity ''v'' would increase the speed of light travelling through the medium in the same direction as ''v'' from ''c''/''n'' to:That is, movement adds only a fraction of the medium's velocity to the light (predicted by Fresnel in order to make Snell's law work in all frames of reference, consistent with stellar aberration).", "This was initially interpreted to mean that the medium drags the aether along, with a ''portion'' of the medium's velocity, but that understanding became very problematic after Wilhelm Veltmann demonstrated that the index ''n'' in Fresnel's formula depended upon the wavelength of light, so that the aether could not be moving at a wavelength-independent speed.", "This implied that there must be a separate aether for each of the infinitely many frequencies.===Negative aether-drift experiments===The key difficulty with Fresnel's aether hypothesis arose from the juxtaposition of the two well-established theories of Newtonian dynamics and Maxwell's electromagnetism.", "Under a Galilean transformation the equations of Newtonian dynamics are invariant, whereas those of electromagnetism are not.", "Basically this means that while physics should remain the same in non-accelerated experiments, light would not follow the same rules because it is travelling in the universal \"aether frame\".", "Some effect caused by this difference should be detectable.A simple example concerns the model on which aether was originally built: sound.", "The speed of propagation for mechanical waves, the speed of sound, is defined by the mechanical properties of the medium.", "Sound travels 4.3 times faster in water than in air.", "This explains why a person hearing an explosion underwater and quickly surfacing can hear it again as the slower travelling sound arrives through the air.", "Similarly, a traveller on an airliner can still carry on a conversation with another traveller because the sound of words is travelling along with the air inside the aircraft.", "This effect is basic to all Newtonian dynamics, which says that everything from sound to the trajectory of a thrown baseball should all remain the same in the aircraft flying (at least at a constant speed) as if still sitting on the ground.", "This is the basis of the Galilean transformation, and the concept of frame of reference.But the same was not supposed to be true for light, since Maxwell's mathematics demanded a single universal speed for the propagation of light, based, not on local conditions, but on two measured properties, the permittivity and permeability of free space, that were assumed to be the same throughout the universe.", "If these numbers did change, there should be noticeable effects in the sky; stars in different directions would have different colours, for instance.Thus at any point there should be one special coordinate system, \"at rest relative to the aether\".", "Maxwell noted in the late 1870s that detecting motion relative to this aether should be easy enough—light travelling along with the motion of the Earth would have a different speed than light travelling backward, as they would both be moving against the unmoving aether.", "Even if the aether had an overall universal flow, changes in position during the day/night cycle, or over the span of seasons, should allow the drift to be detected.====First order experiments====Although the aether is almost stationary according to Fresnel, his theory predicts a positive outcome of aether drift experiments only to ''second'' order in because Fresnel's dragging coefficient would cause a negative outcome of all optical experiments capable of measuring effects to ''first'' order in .", "This was confirmed by the following first-order experiments, which all gave negative results.", "The following list is based on the description of Wilhelm Wien (1898), with changes and additional experiments according to the descriptions of Edmund Taylor Whittaker (1910) and Jakob Laub (1910):* The experiment of François Arago (1810), to confirm whether refraction, and thus the aberration of light, is influenced by Earth's motion.", "Similar experiments were conducted by George Biddell Airy (1871) by means of a telescope filled with water, and Éleuthère Mascart (1872).", "* The experiment of Fizeau (1860), to find whether the rotation of the polarization plane through glass columns is changed by Earth's motion.", "He obtained a positive result, but Lorentz could show that the results have been contradictory.", "DeWitt Bristol Brace (1905) and Strasser (1907) repeated the experiment with improved accuracy, and obtained negative results.", "* The experiment of Martin Hoek (1868).", "This experiment is a more precise variation of the Fizeau experiment (1851).", "Two light rays were sent in opposite directions – one of them traverses a path filled with resting water, the other one follows a path through air.", "In agreement with Fresnel's dragging coefficient, he obtained a negative result.", "* The experiment of Wilhelm Klinkerfues (1870) investigated whether an influence of Earth's motion on the absorption line of sodium exists.", "He obtained a positive result, but this was shown to be an experimental error, because a repetition of the experiment by Haga (1901) gave a negative result.", "* The experiment of Ketteler (1872), in which two rays of an interferometer were sent in opposite directions through two mutually inclined tubes filled with water.", "No change of the interference fringes occurred.", "Later, Mascart (1872) showed that the interference fringes of polarized light in calcite remained uninfluenced as well.", "* The experiment of Éleuthère Mascart (1872) to find a change of rotation of the polarization plane in quartz.", "No change of rotation was found when the light rays had the direction of Earth's motion and then the opposite direction.", "Lord Rayleigh conducted similar experiments with improved accuracy, and obtained a negative result as well.Besides those optical experiments, also electrodynamic first-order experiments were conducted, which should have led to positive results according to Fresnel.", "However, Hendrik Antoon Lorentz (1895) modified Fresnel's theory and showed that those experiments can be explained by a stationary aether as well:* The experiment of Wilhelm Röntgen (1888), to find whether a charged capacitor produces magnetic forces due to Earth's motion.", "* The experiment of Theodor des Coudres (1889), to find whether the inductive effect of two wire rolls upon a third one is influenced by the direction of Earth's motion.", "Lorentz showed that this effect is cancelled to first order by the electrostatic charge (produced by Earth's motion) upon the conductors.", "* The experiment of Königsberger (1905).", "The plates of a capacitor are located in the field of a strong electromagnet.", "Due to Earth's motion, the plates should have become charged.", "No such effect was observed.", "* The experiment of Frederick Thomas Trouton (1902).", "A capacitor was brought parallel to Earth's motion, and it was assumed that momentum is produced when the capacitor is charged.", "The negative result can be explained by Lorentz's theory, according to which the electromagnetic momentum compensates the momentum due to Earth's motion.", "Lorentz could also show, that the sensitivity of the apparatus was much too low to observe such an effect.====Second order experiments====The Michelson–Morley experiment compared the time for light to reflect from mirrors in two orthogonal directions.While the ''first''-order experiments could be explained by a modified stationary aether, more precise ''second''-order experiments were expected to give positive results.", "However, no such results could be found.The famous Michelson–Morley experiment compared the source light with itself after being sent in different directions, looking for changes in phase in a manner that could be measured with extremely high accuracy.", "In this experiment, their goal was to determine the velocity of the Earth through the aether.", "The publication of their result in 1887, the null result, was the first clear demonstration that something was seriously wrong with the aether hypothesis (Michelson's first experiment in 1881 was not entirely conclusive).", "In this case the MM experiment yielded a shift of the fringing pattern of about 0.01 of a fringe, corresponding to a small velocity.", "However, it was incompatible with the expected aether wind effect due to the Earth's (seasonally varying) velocity which would have required a shift of 0.4 of a fringe, and the error was small enough that the value may have indeed been zero.", "Therefore, the null hypothesis, the hypothesis that there was no aether wind, could not be rejected.", "More modern experiments have since reduced the possible value to a number very close to zero, about 10−17.A series of experiments using similar but increasingly sophisticated apparatuses all returned the null result as well.", "Conceptually different experiments that also attempted to detect the motion of the aether were the Trouton–Noble experiment (1903), whose objective was to detect torsion effects caused by electrostatic fields, and the experiments of Rayleigh and Brace (1902, 1904), to detect double refraction in various media.", "However, all of them obtained a null result, like Michelson–Morley (MM) previously did.These \"aether-wind\" experiments led to a flurry of efforts to \"save\" aether by assigning to it ever more complex properties, while only few scientists, like Emil Cohn or Alfred Bucherer, considered the possibility of the abandonment of the aether hypothesis.", "Of particular interest was the possibility of \"aether entrainment\" or \"aether drag\", which would lower the magnitude of the measurement, perhaps enough to explain the results of the Michelson–Morley experiment.", "However, as noted earlier, aether dragging already had problems of its own, notably aberration.", "In addition, the interference experiments of Lodge (1893, 1897) and Ludwig Zehnder (1895), aimed to show whether the aether is dragged by various, rotating masses, showed no aether drag.", "A more precise measurement was made in the Hammar experiment (1935), which ran a complete MM experiment with one of the \"legs\" placed between two massive lead blocks.", "If the aether was dragged by mass then this experiment would have been able to detect the drag caused by the lead, but again the null result was achieved.", "The theory was again modified, this time to suggest that the entrainment only worked for very large masses or those masses with large magnetic fields.", "This too was shown to be incorrect by the Michelson–Gale–Pearson experiment, which detected the Sagnac effect due to Earth's rotation (see Aether drag hypothesis).Another, completely different attempt to save \"absolute\" aether was made in the Lorentz–FitzGerald contraction hypothesis, which posited that ''everything'' was affected by travel through the aether.", "In this theory the reason the Michelson–Morley experiment \"failed\" was that the apparatus contracted in length in the direction of travel.", "That is, the light was being affected in the \"natural\" manner by its travel through the aether as predicted, but so was the apparatus itself, cancelling out any difference when measured.", "FitzGerald had inferred this hypothesis from a paper by Oliver Heaviside.", "Without referral to an aether, this physical interpretation of relativistic effects was shared by Kennedy and Thorndike in 1932 as they concluded that the interferometer's arm contracts and also the frequency of its light source \"very nearly\" varies in the way required by relativity.Similarly the Sagnac effect, observed by G. Sagnac in 1913, was immediately seen to be fully consistent with special relativity.", "In fact, the Michelson–Gale–Pearson experiment in 1925 was proposed specifically as a test to confirm the relativity theory, although it was also recognized that such tests, which merely measure absolute rotation, are also consistent with non-relativistic theories.During the 1920s, the experiments pioneered by Michelson were repeated by Dayton Miller, who publicly proclaimed positive results on several occasions, although they were not large enough to be consistent with any known aether theory.", "However, other researchers were unable to duplicate Miller's claimed results.", "Over the years the experimental accuracy of such measurements has been raised by many orders of magnitude, and no trace of any violations of Lorentz invariance has been seen.", "(A later re-analysis of Miller's results concluded that he had underestimated the variations due to temperature.", ")Since the Miller experiment and its unclear results there have been many more experimental attempts to detect the aether.", "Many experimenters have claimed positive results.", "These results have not gained much attention from mainstream science, since they contradict a large quantity of high-precision measurements, all the results of which were consistent with special relativity." ], [ "Lorentz aether theory", "Between 1892 and 1904, Hendrik Lorentz developed an electron–aether theory, in which he avoided making assumptions about the aether.", "In his model the aether is completely motionless, and by that he meant that it could not be set in motion in the neighborhood of ponderable matter.", "Contrary to earlier electron models, the electromagnetic field of the aether appears as a mediator between the electrons, and changes in this field cannot propagate faster than the speed of light.", "A fundamental concept of Lorentz's theory in 1895 was the \"theorem of corresponding states\" for terms of order v/c.", "This theorem states that an observer moving relative to the aether makes the same observations as a resting observer, after a suitable change of variables.", "Lorentz noticed that it was necessary to change the space-time variables when changing frames and introduced concepts like physical length contraction (1892) to explain the Michelson–Morley experiment, and the mathematical concept of local time (1895) to explain the aberration of light and the Fizeau experiment.", "This resulted in the formulation of the so-called Lorentz transformation by Joseph Larmor (1897, 1900) and Lorentz (1899, 1904), whereby (it was noted by Larmor) the complete formulation of local time is accompanied by some sort of time dilation of electrons moving in the aether.", "As Lorentz later noted (1921, 1928), he considered the time indicated by clocks resting in the aether as \"true\" time, while local time was seen by him as a heuristic working hypothesis and a mathematical artifice.", "Therefore, Lorentz's theorem is seen by modern authors as being a mathematical transformation from a \"real\" system resting in the aether into a \"fictitious\" system in motion.The work of Lorentz was mathematically perfected by Henri Poincaré, who formulated on many occasions the Principle of Relativity and tried to harmonize it with electrodynamics.", "He declared simultaneity only a convenient convention which depends on the speed of light, whereby the constancy of the speed of light would be a useful postulate for making the laws of nature as simple as possible.", "In 1900 and 1904 he physically interpreted Lorentz's local time as the result of clock synchronization by light signals.", "In June and July 1905 he declared the relativity principle a general law of nature, including gravitation.", "He corrected some mistakes of Lorentz and proved the Lorentz covariance of the electromagnetic equations.", "However, he used the notion of an aether as a perfectly undetectable medium and distinguished between apparent and real time, so most historians of science argue that he failed to invent special relativity." ], [ "End of aether", "===Special relativity===Aether theory was dealt another blow when the Galilean transformation and Newtonian dynamics were both modified by Albert Einstein's special theory of relativity, giving the mathematics of Lorentzian electrodynamics a new, \"non-aether\" context.", "Unlike most major shifts in scientific thought, special relativity was adopted by the scientific community remarkably quickly, consistent with Einstein's later comment that the laws of physics described by the Special Theory were \"ripe for discovery\" in 1905.Max Planck's early advocacy of the special theory, along with the elegant formulation given to it by Hermann Minkowski, contributed much to the rapid acceptance of special relativity among working scientists.Einstein based his theory on Lorentz's earlier work.", "Instead of suggesting that the mechanical properties of objects changed with their constant-velocity motion through an undetectable aether, Einstein proposed to deduce the characteristics that any successful theory must possess in order to be consistent with the most basic and firmly established principles, independent of the existence of a hypothetical aether.", "He found that the Lorentz transformation must transcend its connection with Maxwell's equations, and must represent the fundamental relations between the space and time coordinates of inertial frames of reference.", "In this way he demonstrated that the laws of physics remained invariant as they had with the Galilean transformation, but that light was now invariant as well.With the development of the special theory of relativity, the need to account for a single universal frame of reference had disappeared – and acceptance of the 19th-century theory of a luminiferous aether disappeared with it.", "For Einstein, the Lorentz transformation implied a conceptual change: that the concept of position in space or time was not absolute, but could differ depending on the observer's location and velocity.Moreover, in another paper published the same month in 1905, Einstein made several observations on a then-thorny problem, the photoelectric effect.", "In this work he demonstrated that light can be considered as particles that have a \"wave-like nature\".", "Particles obviously do not need a medium to travel, and thus, neither did light.", "This was the first step that would lead to the full development of quantum mechanics, in which the wave-like nature ''and'' the particle-like nature of light are both considered as valid descriptions of light.", "A summary of Einstein's thinking about the aether hypothesis, relativity and light quanta may be found in his 1909 (originally German) lecture \"The Development of Our Views on the Composition and Essence of Radiation\".Lorentz on his side continued to use the aether hypothesis.", "In his lectures of around 1911, he pointed out that what \"the theory of relativity has to say ... can be carried out independently of what one thinks of the aether and the time\".", "He commented that \"whether there is an aether or not, electromagnetic fields certainly exist, and so also does the energy of the electrical oscillations\" so that, \"if we do not like the name of 'aether', we must use another word as a peg to hang all these things upon\".", "He concluded that \"one cannot deny the bearer of these concepts a certain substantiality\".Nevertheless, in 1920, Einstein gave an address at Leiden University in which he commented \"More careful reflection teaches us however, that the special theory of relativity does not compel us to deny ether.", "We may assume the existence of an ether; only we must give up ascribing a definite state of motion to it, i.e.", "we must by abstraction take from it the last mechanical characteristic which Lorentz had still left it.", "We shall see later that this point of view, the conceivability of which I shall at once endeavour to make more intelligible by a somewhat halting comparison, is justified by the results of the general theory of relativity\".", "He concluded his address by saying that \"according to the general theory of relativity space is endowed with physical qualities; in this sense, therefore, there exists an ether.", "According to the general theory of relativity space without ether is unthinkable.", "\"=== Other models ===In later years there have been a few individuals who advocated a neo-Lorentzian approach to physics, which is Lorentzian in the sense of positing an absolute true state of rest that is undetectable and which plays no role in the predictions of the theory.", "(No violations of Lorentz covariance have ever been detected, despite strenuous efforts.)", "Hence these theories resemble the 19th century aether theories in name only.", "For example, the founder of quantum field theory, Paul Dirac, stated in 1951 in an article in Nature, titled \"Is there an Aether?\"", "that \"we are rather forced to have an aether\".", "However, Dirac never formulated a complete theory, and so his speculations found no acceptance by the scientific community.", "By contrast, at the very beginning of the 21st century, Dr. Charles Kenneth Thornhill outlined a non-singular ethereal cosmology in which he identified dark matter as ether – a medium pervading the universe, through which all electromagnetic waves and gravitational forces are propagated.===Einstein's views on the aether===When Einstein was still a student in the Zurich Polytechnic in 1900, he was very interested in the idea of aether.", "His initial proposal of research thesis was to do an experiment to measure how fast the Earth was moving through the aether.", "\"The velocity of a wave is proportional to the square root of the elastic forces which cause its propagation, and inversely proportional to the mass of the aether moved by these forces.", "\"In 1916, after Einstein completed his foundational work on general relativity, Lorentz wrote a letter to him in which he speculated that within general relativity the aether was re-introduced.", "In his response Einstein wrote that one can actually speak about a \"new aether\", but one may not speak of motion in relation to that aether.", "This was further elaborated by Einstein in some semi-popular articles (1918, 1920, 1924, 1930).In 1918, Einstein publicly alluded to that new definition for the first time.", "Then, in the early 1920s, in a lecture which he was invited to give at Lorentz's university in Leiden, Einstein sought to reconcile the theory of relativity with Lorentzian aether.", "In this lecture Einstein stressed that special relativity took away the last mechanical property of the aether: immobility.", "However, he continued that special relativity does not necessarily rule out the aether, because the latter can be used to give physical reality to acceleration and rotation.", "This concept was fully elaborated within general relativity, in which physical properties (which are partially determined by matter) are attributed to space, but no substance or state of motion can be attributed to that \"aether\" (by which he meant curved space-time).In another paper of 1924, named \"Concerning the Aether\", Einstein argued that Newton's absolute space, in which acceleration is absolute, is the \"Aether of Mechanics\".", "And within the electromagnetic theory of Maxwell and Lorentz one can speak of the \"Aether of Electrodynamics\", in which the aether possesses an absolute state of motion.", "As regards special relativity, also in this theory acceleration is absolute as in Newton's mechanics.", "However, the difference from the electromagnetic aether of Maxwell and Lorentz lies in the fact that \"because it was no longer possible to speak, in any absolute sense, of simultaneous states at different locations in the aether, the aether became, as it were, four-dimensional since there was no objective way of ordering its states by time alone\".", "Now the \"aether of special relativity\" is still \"absolute\", because matter is affected by the properties of the aether, but the aether is not affected by the presence of matter.", "This asymmetry was solved within general relativity.", "Einstein explained that the \"aether of general relativity\" is not absolute, because matter is influenced by the aether, just as matter influences the structure of the aether.The only similarity of this relativistic aether concept with the classical aether models lies in the presence of physical properties in space, which can be identified through geodesics.", "As historians such as John Stachel argue, Einstein's views on the \"new aether\" are not in conflict with his abandonment of the aether in 1905.As Einstein himself pointed out, no \"substance\" and no state of motion can be attributed to that new aether.", "Einstein's use of the word \"aether\" found little support in the scientific community, and played no role in the continuing development of modern physics." ], [ "Aether concepts", "Aether theoriesAether (classical element)Aether drag hypothesisAstral light" ], [ "See also", "* Dirac sea* Etheric plane* Galactic year* History of special relativity* Le Sage's theory of gravitation* One-way speed of light* Preferred frame* Superseded scientific theories* Virtual particle* Welteislehre" ], [ "References", "'''Footnotes''''''Citations'''===Primary sources======Experiments======Secondary sources===" ], [ "External links", " * Harry Bateman (1915) The Structure of the Aether, ''Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society'' 21(6):299–309.", "* * The Aether of Space – Lord Rayleigh's address* ScienceWeek Theoretical Physics: On the Aether and Broken Symmetry*The New Student's Reference Work/Ether" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "LAME" ], [ "Introduction", "'''LAME''' is a software encoder that converts digital audio into the MP3 audio coding format.", "LAME is a free software project that was first released in 1998, and has incorporated many improvements since then, including an improved psychoacoustic model.", "The LAME encoder outperforms early encoders like L3enc and possibly the \"gold standard encoder\" MP3enc, both marketed by Fraunhofer.LAME was required by some programs released as free software in which LAME was linked for MP3 support.", "This avoided including LAME itself, which used patented techniques, and so required patent licenses in some countries.", "All relevant patents have since expired and LAME is now bundled with Audacity." ], [ "History", "The name '''LAME''' is a recursive acronym for \"'''L'''AME '''A'''in't an '''M'''P3 '''E'''ncoder\".Around mid-1998, Mike Cheng created LAME 1.0 as a set of modifications against the \"8Hz-MP3\" encoder source code.", "After some quality concerns raised by others, he decided to start again from scratch based on the \"dist10\" MPEG reference software sources.", "His goal was only to speed up the dist10 sources, and leave its quality untouched.", "That branch (a patch against the reference sources) became Lame 2.0.The project quickly became a team project.", "Mike Cheng eventually left leadership and started working on tooLAME (an MP2 encoder).Mark Taylor then started pursuing increased quality in addition to better speed, and released version 3.0 featuring gpsycho, a new psychoacoustic model he developed.", "A few key improvements since LAME 3.x, in chronological order:* May 1999 (LAME 3.0): a new psychoacoustic model (GPSYCHO) is released.", "* June 1999 (LAME 3.11): The first variable bitrate (VBR) implementation is released.", "Soon after this, LAME also became able to target lower sampling frequencies from MPEG-2.", "(LAME 3.99 also supports the technologically simpler average bitrate (ABR), but it is unclear whether it was added before or with VBR.", ")* November 1999 (LAME 3.52): LAME switches from a GPL license to an LGPL license, which allows using it with closed-source applications.", "* May 2000 (LAME 3.81): the last pieces of the original ISO demonstration code are removed.", "LAME is not a patch anymore, but a full encoder.", "* December 2003 (LAME 3.94): substantial improvement to default settings, along with improved speed.", "LAME no longer requires users to enter complicated parameters to produce good results.", "* May 2007 (LAME 3.98): default variable bitrate encoding speed is vastly improved." ], [ "Patents and legal issues", "Like all MP3 encoders, LAME implemented techniques covered by patents owned by the Fraunhofer Society and others.", "The developers of LAME did not license the technology described by these patents.", "Distributing compiled binaries of LAME, its libraries, or programs that derive from LAME in countries where those patents have been granted may have constituted infringement, but since 23 April 2017, all of these patents have expired.The LAME developers stated that, since their code was only released in source code form, it should only be considered as an educational description of an MP3 encoder, and thus did not infringe any patent in itself.", "They also advised users to obtain relevant patent licenses before including a compiled version of the encoder in a product.", "Some software was released using this strategy: companies used the LAME library, but obtained patent licenses.In the course of the 2005 Sony BMG copy protection rootkit scandal, there were reports that the Extended Copy Protection rootkit included on some Sony compact discs had portions of the LAME library without complying with the terms of the LGPL." ], [ "See also", "* List of codecs* Lossy compression" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * LAME binaries - RareWares* LAME binaries for Audacity - recommended for the Audacity free and GPL audio editor * LAME Wiki - HydrogenAudio (audiophile information)* LAME Mp3 Info Tag revision 1 Specifications" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Leszek Miller" ], [ "Introduction", "Leszek Miller interviewed in the Sejm (2014)Leszek Miller with former Polish presidents: Wojciech Jaruzelski and Aleksander Kwaśniewski (2010)'''Leszek Cezary Miller''' (Polish pronunciation: ; born 3 July 1946) is a Polish politician and former prime minister of Poland (2001–2004).", "He has served as a Member of the European Parliament (MEP) since July 2019.From 1989 to 1990, Miller was a member of the Politburo of the Polish United Workers' Party.", "He was the leader of the Democratic Left Alliance from 1999 to 2004 and again from 2011 to 2016." ], [ "Childhood and youth", "Leszek Miller is the great-grandson of Eliasz, son of Mośek and Sura Miller, born in 1840 in Kutno.", "Eliasz Miller converted from Judaism to Christianity in 1869 in Nieborów.Leszek Miller was born in Żyrardów, Miller comes from a poor, working-class family: His father was a tailor and his mother a needlewoman.", "His parents broke up when Miller was six months old.", "His father, Florian Miller left the family and Leszek has never maintained any contact with him.", "His mother brought him up in a religious spirit – following her wish, he was even, for some time, an altar server in their church.Due to hard living conditions, after graduation from a vocational school, 17-year-old Miller got a job in the Textile Linen Plant in Żyrardów, while continuing his education in the evenings at the Vocational Secondary School of Electric Power Engineering.", "He soon completed his military service on the ORP Bielik submarine.In 1969, Miller married Aleksandra, three years his junior, in church.", "They had a son, Leszek Junior ( August 2018), and a granddaughter, Monika." ], [ "Political career", "===Before 1990===Miller started his political career as an activist of the Socialist Youth Union, where he held the position of Chairman of the Plant Board, soon becoming a member of the Town Committee.", "After the military service, in 1969, he joined the Polish United Workers' Party (PZPR), People's Poland's communist party.", "Many people were pressured to join PZPR in order to advance in their careers or to pursue higher education.", "Miller used his affiliation with the Communist party to effectively advance in his studies and professional goals.In 1973 and 1974, Miller was the Secretary of the PZPR Plant Committee.", "With the party's recommendation, he started political sciences studies at the party's Higher School of Political Sciences (''Wyższa Szkoła Nauk Społecznych''), graduating in 1977.After graduation, Miller worked at the PZPR Central Committee, supervising the Group, and later on the Department of Youth, Physical Education and Tourism.In July 1986, Miller was elected as First Secretary of the PZPR Provincial Committee in Skierniewice.", "In December 1988, he returned to Warsaw, due to his promotion to the position of the Secretary of the PZPR Central Committee.", "As a representative of the government side, he took part in the session of the historic \"Round Table\", where, together with Andrzej Celiński, he co-chaired the sub-team for youth issues (the only one that closed the session without signing the agreement).", "In 1989, he became a member of the PZPR Political Bureau.===After 1990===After the PZPR was dissolved, Miller became a co-founder of the Social Democracy of the Polish Republic (till March 1993, he was Secretary General, then Deputy Chairman and, from December 1997, the Chairman of that party).", "In December 1999, at the Founding Congress of the Democratic Left Alliance (SLD), he was elected its Chairman, holding the function continuously until February 2004.In 1997-2001 he was the Chairman of the SLD’s caucus.In 1989, he ran unsuccessfully for the Senate as a representative of Skierniewice Province.", "In subsequent elections (1991), Miller was a leader on the election list of the Social Democracy of the Polish Republic in Łódź and, following a considerable success in elections, he won a seat in the Sejm, becoming Chairman of the Parliamentary Group of the Social Democracy of the Polish Republic.", "In three subsequent elections to the Sejm, he ran each time from Łódź, each time gaining more and more votes (from 50 thousand in 1991 up to 146 thousand in 2001); he held a seat in Parliament until 2005.Through all that time he remained one of the leading politicians on the left wing.", "In the early 1990s, together with Mieczysław Rakowski, he was suspected in the case of the so-called \"Moscow loan\".", "After revealing that affair in 1991, Włodzimierz Cimoszewicz called Miller to abstain from taking an MP's oath due to accusations laid against him.", "When Miller was cleared of the charges, Prime Minister Cimoszewicz appointed him later as the Minister in Charge of the Office of the Council of Ministers and in 1997 the Minister of Internal Affairs and Administration in his government.", "In turn, Cimoszewicz later became the Minister of Foreign Affairs in Miller’s cabinet.From 1993 to 1996, Miller was the Minister of Labour and Social Policy in the governments of Waldemar Pawlak and Józef Oleksy respectively.", "In 1996, he was nominated as Senior Minister in charge of the Office of the Council of Ministers.", "He then got the nickname “The Chancellor”.Miller played an important role in concluding the case of Colonel Ryszard Kukliński, for which he was severely criticised within his political circle.", "A similar disapproval was expressed after Miller’s support for the Concordat and the candidature of Leszek Balcerowicz to the position of President of the National Bank of Poland.During the period of the Solidarity Electoral Action’s government, Miller was in charge of the parliamentary opposition, leading the political fight with the governing party.", "He was also consolidating the majority of significant left-wing groups around his person.", "In 1999, he succeeded in establishing one uniform political party – the Democratic Left Alliance – which turned out to be very successful in following elections." ], [ "Prime Minister (2001-2004)", "Following the victory of the Left (41% vs. 12% of the subsequent party) in the Parliamentary Election in 2001, on 19 October 2001, President Aleksander Kwaśniewski appointed Miller Prime Minister and obliged to nominate the government.", "The new government won the parliamentary vote of confidence on 26 October 2001 (306:140 votes with one abstention).", "The 16-person cabinet of Prime Minister Miller has been the smallest government of the Polish Republic so far.Miller’s government faced a difficult economic situation in Poland, including an unemployment rate above 18%, a high level of public debt, and economic stagnation.", "At the end of Miller’s term, economic growth exceeded 6%; still, it was too slow to reduce the unemployment rate.", "During his term, the unpopular program of cuts in public expenses was implemented, together with a hardly successful reform of health care financing.", "The reforms of the tax system and of the Social Insurance Institution were continued, and the attempt to settle the mass-media market failed.", "Taxes were significantly lowered – to 19% for companies and for persons running business activity – and the act of freedom in business activity was voted through.", "A radical, structural reform of secret services was implemented (the State Security Office was dissolved and replaced by the Internal Security Agency and the Intelligence Agency).Simultaneously, institutional and legal adjustments were continued, resulting from the accession to the European Union.", "The Accession conditions were negotiated, being the main strategic goal of Miller’s cabinet.", "On 13 December 2002, at the summit in Copenhagen (Denmark), Prime Minister Leszek Miller completed the negotiations with the European Union.", "On 16 April 2003 in Athens, Miller, together with Cimoszewicz, signed the Accession Treaty, bringing Poland into the European Union.", "Miller’s government, in collaboration with various political and social forces, organized the accession referendum with a successful outcome.", "On 7 and 8 June 2003, 77.45% of the referendum participants voted in favor of Poland’s accession to the European Union.", "The referendum turn-out reached 58.85%.Miller’s government, together with President Kwaśniewski, made a decision (March 2003) to join the international coalition and deploy Polish troops to Iraq, targeting at overthrowing Saddam Hussein’s government.", "Miller was also a co-signatory of \"the letter of 8\", signed by eight European prime ministers, supporting the US position on Iraq.", "Already in 2002, Miller gave permission to the U.S. government to run a secret CIA prison at Stare Kiejkuty military training center, three hours north of Warsaw.", "Years later he is facing accusations of acting anti-constitutionally by having tolerated the imprisonment and torture of prisoners.On 4 December 2003, Leszek Miller suffered injuries in a helicopter crash near Warsaw.President of Russia Vladimir Putin with Polish Prime Minister Leszek Miller (2001)At the end of its term of office, Miller’s government had the lowest public support of any government since 1989.It was mainly caused by the continuing high unemployment rate, corruption scandals, with Rywingate on top, and by the attempt of fulfilling the plan of reducing social spending (the Hausner’s plan).", "In result of criticism in his own party, the Democratic Left Alliance, in February 2004, Miller resigned from chairing the party.", "Miller was criticized for an excessively liberal approach and for stressing the role of free-market mechanisms in economy.", "He was reproached for his acceptance of a flat tax, which ran counter to the left-wing doctrine.", "He was also identified with the “chieftain-like style” of leadership.", "On 26 March 2004, following the decision of the Speaker of the Parliament, Marek Borowski, to found a new dissenting party, the Social Democracy of Poland, Miller decided to resign from the position of Prime Minister on August 8, 2004, 3 months after Poland’s accession to the EU.", "On 1 May 2004, together with President Kwaśniewski, he was in Dublin, taking part in the Grand Ceremony of the accession of 10 states, including Poland, to the European Union." ], [ "Later career", "In 2005, despite the support of the Łódź Branch of the Democratic Left Alliance, Miller was not registered on the election list to the Parliament.", "At the same time, he was offered to run for Senate but refused.", "Retirement of the old activists was presented in media as “inflow of new blood into the Democratic Left Alliance”.", "After the election, Miller became active in journalism, writing mainly for the “Wprost” weekly on liberal economic concepts and current political issues.", "In the first half of 2005, he stayed at the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars in Washington, D.C., implementing a research project: “Status of the new Poland in the Eastern Europe’s space”.In September 2007, the former Polish Prime Minister Leszek Miller become affiliated with Samoobrona, when he decided to run for the Sejm from their lists.In January 2008, at the first congress of the newly founded Polish Left party, he became its chairman.", "In December 2009, he submitted a membership declaration to the SLD.", "In January 2010, he resigned from the Polish Left and was admitted to the SLD in the same month.In 2010 he became a columnist of the Wednesday edition of \"Super Express\".In the parliamentary elections in 2015, he was not re-elected as an MP (the United Left, co-created by the SLD, did not pass the electoral threshold).", "He did not run for re-election as chairman of the SLD - on January 23, 2016, he was replaced in this function by Włodzimierz Czarzasty.On March 8, 2021, after the legally binding judicial re-registration of the Democratic Left Alliance to Nowa Lewica (as part of the final project of merging SLD and Spring), he announced his departure from the party." ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "J. Machejek, A. Machejek, Leszek Miller: dogońmy Europę!", "(wywiad-rzeka z liderem SLD)(Catch up with Europe!", "An extended interview with the Leader of the Democratic Left Alliance), Hamal Books, 2001.L.", "Stomma, Leszek Miller WDK 2001" ], [ "External links", "* Official site" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Basis (linear algebra)" ], [ "Introduction", "The same vector can be represented in two different bases (purple and red arrows).In mathematics, a set of vectors in a vector space is called a '''basis''' (: '''bases''') if every element of may be written in a unique way as a finite linear combination of elements of .", "The coefficients of this linear combination are referred to as '''components''' or '''coordinates''' of the vector with respect to .", "The elements of a basis are called ''''''.Equivalently, a set is a basis if its elements are linearly independent and every element of is a linear combination of elements of .", "In other words, a basis is a linearly independent spanning set.A vector space can have several bases; however all the bases have the same number of elements, called the ''dimension'' of the vector space.This article deals mainly with finite-dimensional vector spaces.", "However, many of the principles are also valid for infinite-dimensional vector spaces." ], [ "Definition", "A '''basis''' of a vector space over a field (such as the real numbers or the complex numbers ) is a linearly independent subset of that spans .", "This means that a subset of is a basis if it satisfies the two following conditions:;''linear independence'': for every finite subset of , if for some in , then ;''spanning property'': for every vector in , one can choose in and in such that The scalars are called the coordinates of the vector with respect to the basis , and by the first property they are uniquely determined.A vector space that has a finite basis is called finite-dimensional.", "In this case, the finite subset can be taken as itself to check for linear independence in the above definition.It is often convenient or even necessary to have an ordering on the basis vectors, for example, when discussing orientation, or when one considers the scalar coefficients of a vector with respect to a basis without referring explicitly to the basis elements.", "In this case, the ordering is necessary for associating each coefficient to the corresponding basis element.", "This ordering can be done by numbering the basis elements.", "In order to emphasize that an order has been chosen, one speaks of an '''ordered basis''', which is therefore not simply an unstructured set, but a sequence, an indexed family, or similar; see below." ], [ "Examples", "This picture illustrates the standard basis in '''R'''2.The blue and orange vectors are the elements of the basis; the green vector can be given in terms of the basis vectors, and so is linearly dependent upon them.The set of the ordered pairs of real numbers is a vector space under the operations of component-wise addition and scalar multiplication where is any real number.", "A simple basis of this vector space consists of the two vectors and .", "These vectors form a basis (called the standard basis) because any vector of may be uniquely written as Any other pair of linearly independent vectors of , such as and , forms also a basis of .More generally, if is a field, the set of -tuples of elements of is a vector space for similarly defined addition and scalar multiplication.", "Let be the -tuple with all components equal to 0, except the th, which is 1.Then is a basis of which is called the ''standard basis'' of A different flavor of example is given by polynomial rings.", "If is a field, the collection of all polynomials in one indeterminate with coefficients in is an -vector space.", "One basis for this space is the monomial basis , consisting of all monomials: Any set of polynomials such that there is exactly one polynomial of each degree (such as the Bernstein basis polynomials or Chebyshev polynomials) is also a basis.", "(Such a set of polynomials is called a polynomial sequence.)", "But there are also many bases for that are not of this form." ], [ "Properties", "Many properties of finite bases result from the Steinitz exchange lemma, which states that, for any vector space , given a finite spanning set and a linearly independent set of elements of , one may replace well-chosen elements of by the elements of to get a spanning set containing , having its other elements in , and having the same number of elements as .Most properties resulting from the Steinitz exchange lemma remain true when there is no finite spanning set, but their proofs in the infinite case generally require the axiom of choice or a weaker form of it, such as the ultrafilter lemma.If is a vector space over a field , then:* If is a linearly independent subset of a spanning set , then there is a basis such that * has a basis (this is the preceding property with being the empty set, and ).", "* All bases of have the same cardinality, which is called the dimension of .", "This is the dimension theorem.", "* A generating set is a basis of if and only if it is minimal, that is, no proper subset of is also a generating set of .", "* A linearly independent set is a basis if and only if it is maximal, that is, it is not a proper subset of any linearly independent set.If is a vector space of dimension , then:* A subset of with elements is a basis if and only if it is linearly independent.", "* A subset of with elements is a basis if and only if it is a spanning set of ." ], [ "Coordinates {{anchor\|Ordered bases and coordinates}}", "Let be a vector space of finite dimension over a field , and be a basis of .", "By definition of a basis, every in may be written, in a unique way, aswhere the coefficients are scalars (that is, elements of ), which are called the ''coordinates'' of over .", "However, if one talks of the ''set'' of the coefficients, one loses the correspondence between coefficients and basis elements, and several vectors may have the same ''set'' of coefficients.", "For example, and have the same set of coefficients , and are different.", "It is therefore often convenient to work with an '''ordered basis'''; this is typically done by indexing the basis elements by the first natural numbers.", "Then, the coordinates of a vector form a sequence similarly indexed, and a vector is completely characterized by the sequence of coordinates.", "An ordered basis is also called a '''frame''', a word commonly used, in various contexts, for referring to a sequence of data allowing defining coordinates.Let, as usual, be the set of the -tuples of elements of .", "This set is an -vector space, with addition and scalar multiplication defined component-wise.", "The map is a linear isomorphism from the vector space onto .", "In other words, is the coordinate space of , and the -tuple is the coordinate vector of .The inverse image by of is the -tuple all of whose components are 0, except the th that is 1.The form an ordered basis of , which is called its standard basis or canonical basis.", "The ordered basis is the image by of the canonical basis of It follows from what precedes that every ordered basis is the image by a linear isomorphism of the canonical basis of and that every linear isomorphism from onto may be defined as the isomorphism that maps the canonical basis of onto a given ordered basis of .", "In other words, it is equivalent to define an ordered basis of , or a linear isomorphism from onto ." ], [ "Change of basis", "Let be a vector space of dimension over a field .", "Given two (ordered) bases and of , it is often useful to express the coordinates of a vector with respect to in terms of the coordinates with respect to This can be done by the ''change-of-basis formula'', that is described below.", "The subscripts \"old\" and \"new\" have been chosen because it is customary to refer to and as the ''old basis'' and the ''new basis'', respectively.", "It is useful to describe the old coordinates in terms of the new ones, because, in general, one has expressions involving the old coordinates, and if one wants to obtain equivalent expressions in terms of the new coordinates; this is obtained by replacing the old coordinates by their expressions in terms of the new coordinates.Typically, the new basis vectors are given by their coordinates over the old basis, that is, If and are the coordinates of a vector over the old and the new basis respectively, the change-of-basis formula is for .This formula may be concisely written in matrix notation.", "Let be the matrix of the andbe the column vectors of the coordinates of in the old and the new basis respectively, then the formula for changing coordinates isThe formula can be proven by considering the decomposition of the vector on the two bases: one has andThe change-of-basis formula results then from the uniqueness of the decomposition of a vector over a basis, here that isfor ." ], [ "Related notions", "===Free module=== If one replaces the field occurring in the definition of a vector space by a ring, one gets the definition of a module.", "For modules, linear independence and spanning sets are defined exactly as for vector spaces, although \"generating set\" is more commonly used than that of \"spanning set\".Like for vector spaces, a ''basis'' of a module is a linearly independent subset that is also a generating set.", "A major difference with the theory of vector spaces is that not every module has a basis.", "A module that has a basis is called a ''free module''.", "Free modules play a fundamental role in module theory, as they may be used for describing the structure of non-free modules through free resolutions.A module over the integers is exactly the same thing as an abelian group.", "Thus a free module over the integers is also a free abelian group.", "Free abelian groups have specific properties that are not shared by modules over other rings.", "Specifically, every subgroup of a free abelian group is a free abelian group, and, if is a subgroup of a finitely generated free abelian group (that is an abelian group that has a finite basis), then there is a basis of and an integer such that is a basis of , for some nonzero integers For details, see .=== Analysis ===In the context of infinite-dimensional vector spaces over the real or complex numbers, the term '''''' (named after Georg Hamel) or '''algebraic basis''' can be used to refer to a basis as defined in this article.", "This is to make a distinction with other notions of \"basis\" that exist when infinite-dimensional vector spaces are endowed with extra structure.", "The most important alternatives are orthogonal bases on Hilbert spaces, Schauder bases, and Markushevich bases on normed linear spaces.", "In the case of the real numbers '''R''' viewed as a vector space over the field '''Q''' of rational numbers, Hamel bases are uncountable, and have specifically the cardinality of the continuum, which is the cardinal number where (aleph-nought) is the smallest infinite cardinal, the cardinal of the integers.The common feature of the other notions is that they permit the taking of infinite linear combinations of the basis vectors in order to generate the space.", "This, of course, requires that infinite sums are meaningfully defined on these spaces, as is the case for topological vector spaces – a large class of vector spaces including e.g.", "Hilbert spaces, Banach spaces, or Fréchet spaces.The preference of other types of bases for infinite-dimensional spaces is justified by the fact that the Hamel basis becomes \"too big\" in Banach spaces: If ''X'' is an infinite-dimensional normed vector space that is complete (i.e.", "''X'' is a Banach space), then any Hamel basis of ''X'' is necessarily uncountable.", "This is a consequence of the Baire category theorem.", "The completeness as well as infinite dimension are crucial assumptions in the previous claim.", "Indeed, finite-dimensional spaces have by definition finite bases and there are infinite-dimensional (''non-complete'') normed spaces that have countable Hamel bases.", "Consider the space of the sequences of real numbers that have only finitely many non-zero elements, with the norm Its standard basis, consisting of the sequences having only one non-zero element, which is equal to 1, is a countable Hamel basis.==== Example ====In the study of Fourier series, one learns that the functions are an \"orthogonal basis\" of the (real or complex) vector space of all (real or complex valued) functions on the interval 0, 2π that are square-integrable on this interval, i.e., functions ''f'' satisfyingThe functions are linearly independent, and every function ''f'' that is square-integrable on 0, 2π is an \"infinite linear combination\" of them, in the sense thatfor suitable (real or complex) coefficients ''a''''k'', ''b''''k''.", "But many square-integrable functions cannot be represented as ''finite'' linear combinations of these basis functions, which therefore ''do not'' comprise a Hamel basis.", "Every Hamel basis of this space is much bigger than this merely countably infinite set of functions.", "Hamel bases of spaces of this kind are typically not useful, whereas orthonormal bases of these spaces are essential in Fourier analysis.===Geometry===The geometric notions of an affine space, projective space, convex set, and cone have related notions of ''basis''.", "An '''affine basis''' for an ''n''-dimensional affine space is points in general linear position.", "A '''''' is points in general position, in a projective space of dimension ''n''.", "A '''''' of a polytope is the set of the vertices of its convex hull.", "A '''''' consists of one point by edge of a polygonal cone.", "See also a Hilbert basis (linear programming).===Random basis===For a probability distribution in with a probability density function, such as the equidistribution in an ''n''-dimensional ball with respect to Lebesgue measure, it can be shown that randomly and independently chosen vectors will form a basis with probability one, which is due to the fact that linearly dependent vectors , ..., in should satisfy the equation (zero determinant of the matrix with columns ), and the set of zeros of a non-trivial polynomial has zero measure.", "This observation has led to techniques for approximating random bases.Empirical distribution of lengths N of pairwise almost orthogonal chains of vectors that are independently randomly sampled from the ''n''-dimensional cube as a function of dimension, ''n''.", "Boxplots show the second and third quartiles of this data for each ''n'', red bars correspond to the medians, and blue stars indicate means.", "Red curve shows theoretical bound given by Eq.", "(1) and green curve shows a refined estimate.It is difficult to check numerically the linear dependence or exact orthogonality.", "Therefore, the notion of ε-orthogonality is used.", "For spaces with inner product, ''x'' is ε-orthogonal to ''y'' if (that is, cosine of the angle between and is less than ).In high dimensions, two independent random vectors are with high probability almost orthogonal, and the number of independent random vectors, which all are with given high probability pairwise almost orthogonal, grows exponentially with dimension.", "More precisely, consider equidistribution in ''n''-dimensional ball.", "Choose ''N'' independent random vectors from a ball (they are independent and identically distributed).", "Let ''θ'' be a small positive number.", "Then for random vectors are all pairwise ε-orthogonal with probability .", "This growth exponentially with dimension and for sufficiently big .", "This property of random bases is a manifestation of the so-called .The figure (right) illustrates distribution of lengths N of pairwise almost orthogonal chains of vectors that are independently randomly sampled from the ''n''-dimensional cube as a function of dimension, ''n''.", "A point is first randomly selected in the cube.", "The second point is randomly chosen in the same cube.", "If the angle between the vectors was within then the vector was retained.", "At the next step a new vector is generated in the same hypercube, and its angles with the previously generated vectors are evaluated.", "If these angles are within then the vector is retained.", "The process is repeated until the chain of almost orthogonality breaks, and the number of such pairwise almost orthogonal vectors (length of the chain) is recorded.", "For each ''n'', 20 pairwise almost orthogonal chains were constructed numerically for each dimension.", "Distribution of the length of these chains is presented." ], [ "Proof that every vector space has a basis", "Let be any vector space over some field .", "Let be the set of all linearly independent subsets of .The set is nonempty since the empty set is an independent subset of , and it is partially ordered by inclusion, which is denoted, as usual, by .Let be a subset of that is totally ordered by , and let be the union of all the elements of (which are themselves certain subsets of ).Since is totally ordered, every finite subset of is a subset of an element of , which is a linearly independent subset of , and hence is linearly independent.", "Thus is an element of .", "Therefore, is an upper bound for in : it is an element of , that contains every element of .As is nonempty, and every totally ordered subset of has an upper bound in , Zorn's lemma asserts that has a maximal element.", "In other words, there exists some element of satisfying the condition that whenever for some element of , then .It remains to prove that is a basis of .", "Since belongs to , we already know that is a linearly independent subset of .If there were some vector of that is not in the span of , then would not be an element of either.", "Let .", "This set is an element of , that is, it is a linearly independent subset of (because '''w''' is not in the span of , and is independent).", "As , and (because contains the vector that is not contained in ), this contradicts the maximality of .", "Thus this shows that spans .Hence is linearly independent and spans .", "It is thus a basis of , and this proves that every vector space has a basis.This proof relies on Zorn's lemma, which is equivalent to the axiom of choice.", "Conversely, it has been proved that if every vector space has a basis, then the axiom of choice is true.", "Thus the two assertions are equivalent." ], [ "See also", "Basis of a matroidBasis of a linear program**" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===General references=== * * ===Historical references===* * * * * * , reprint: * * * * " ], [ "External links", " Instructional videos from Khan Academy Introduction to bases of subspaces Proof that any subspace basis has same number of elements* *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Linear algebra" ], [ "Introduction", "In three-dimensional Euclidean space, these three planes represent solutions to linear equations, and their intersection represents the set of common solutions: in this case, a unique point.", "The blue line is the common solution to two of these equations.", "'''Linear algebra''' is the branch of mathematics concerning linear equations such as: :linear maps such as::and their representations in vector spaces and through matrices.Linear algebra is central to almost all areas of mathematics.", "For instance, linear algebra is fundamental in modern presentations of geometry, including for defining basic objects such as lines, planes and rotations.", "Also, functional analysis, a branch of mathematical analysis, may be viewed as the application of linear algebra to function spaces.Linear algebra is also used in most sciences and fields of engineering, because it allows modeling many natural phenomena, and computing efficiently with such models.", "For nonlinear systems, which cannot be modeled with linear algebra, it is often used for dealing with first-order approximations, using the fact that the differential of a multivariate function at a point is the linear map that best approximates the function near that point." ], [ "History", "The procedure (using counting rods) for solving simultaneous linear equations now called Gaussian elimination appears in the ancient Chinese mathematical text Chapter Eight: ''Rectangular Arrays'' of ''The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art''.", "Its use is illustrated in eighteen problems, with two to five equations.Systems of linear equations arose in Europe with the introduction in 1637 by René Descartes of coordinates in geometry.", "In fact, in this new geometry, now called Cartesian geometry, lines and planes are represented by linear equations, and computing their intersections amounts to solving systems of linear equations.The first systematic methods for solving linear systems used determinants and were first considered by Leibniz in 1693.In 1750, Gabriel Cramer used them for giving explicit solutions of linear systems, now called Cramer's rule.", "Later, Gauss further described the method of elimination, which was initially listed as an advancement in geodesy.In 1844 Hermann Grassmann published his \"Theory of Extension\" which included foundational new topics of what is today called linear algebra.", "In 1848, James Joseph Sylvester introduced the term ''matrix'', which is Latin for ''womb''.Linear algebra grew with ideas noted in the complex plane.", "For instance, two numbers and in have a difference , and the line segments and are of the same length and direction.", "The segments are equipollent.", "The four-dimensional system of quaternions was discovered by W.R. Hamilton in 1843.The term ''vector'' was introduced as representing a point in space.", "The quaternion difference also produces a segment equipollent to .", "Other hypercomplex number systems also used the idea of a linear space with a basis.Arthur Cayley introduced matrix multiplication and the inverse matrix in 1856, making possible the general linear group.", "The mechanism of group representation became available for describing complex and hypercomplex numbers.", "Crucially, Cayley used a single letter to denote a matrix, thus treating a matrix as an aggregate object.", "He also realized the connection between matrices and determinants, and wrote \"There would be many things to say about this theory of matrices which should, it seems to me, precede the theory of determinants\".Benjamin Peirce published his ''Linear Associative Algebra'' (1872), and his son Charles Sanders Peirce extended the work later.The telegraph required an explanatory system, and the 1873 publication of ''A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism'' instituted a field theory of forces and required differential geometry for expression.", "Linear algebra is flat differential geometry and serves in tangent spaces to manifolds.", "Electromagnetic symmetries of spacetime are expressed by the Lorentz transformations, and much of the history of linear algebra is the history of Lorentz transformations.The first modern and more precise definition of a vector space was introduced by Peano in 1888; by 1900, a theory of linear transformations of finite-dimensional vector spaces had emerged.", "Linear algebra took its modern form in the first half of the twentieth century, when many ideas and methods of previous centuries were generalized as abstract algebra.", "The development of computers led to increased research in efficient algorithms for Gaussian elimination and matrix decompositions, and linear algebra became an essential tool for modelling and simulations." ], [ "Vector spaces", "Until the 19th century, linear algebra was introduced through systems of linear equations and matrices.", "In modern mathematics, the presentation through ''vector spaces'' is generally preferred, since it is more synthetic, more general (not limited to the finite-dimensional case), and conceptually simpler, although more abstract.A vector space over a field (often the field of the real numbers) is a set equipped with two binary operations satisfying the following axioms.", "Elements of are called ''vectors'', and elements of ''F'' are called ''scalars''.", "The first operation, ''vector addition'', takes any two vectors and and outputs a third vector .", "The second operation, ''scalar multiplication'', takes any scalar and any vector and outputs a new .", "The axioms that addition and scalar multiplication must satisfy are the following.", "(In the list below, and are arbitrary elements of , and and are arbitrary scalars in the field .", "): '''Axiom''' '''Signification''' Associativity of addition Commutativity of addition Identity element of addition There exists an element in , called the ''zero vector'' (or simply ''zero''), such that for all in .", "Inverse elements of addition For every in , there exists an element in , called the ''additive inverse'' of , such that Distributivity of scalar multiplication with respect to vector addition Distributivity of scalar multiplication with respect to field addition Compatibility of scalar multiplication with field multiplication Identity element of scalar multiplication , where denotes the multiplicative identity of .The first four axioms mean that is an abelian group under addition.An element of a specific vector space may have various nature; for example, it could be a sequence, a function, a polynomial or a matrix.", "Linear algebra is concerned with those properties of such objects that are common to all vector spaces.===Linear maps==='''Linear maps''' are mappings between vector spaces that preserve the vector-space structure.", "Given two vector spaces and over a field , a linear map (also called, in some contexts, linear transformation or linear mapping) is a map: that is compatible with addition and scalar multiplication, that is: for any vectors in and scalar in .This implies that for any vectors in and scalars in , one has: When are the same vector space, a linear map is also known as a ''linear operator'' on .A bijective linear map between two vector spaces (that is, every vector from the second space is associated with exactly one in the first) is an isomorphism.", "Because an isomorphism preserves linear structure, two isomorphic vector spaces are \"essentially the same\" from the linear algebra point of view, in the sense that they cannot be distinguished by using vector space properties.", "An essential question in linear algebra is testing whether a linear map is an isomorphism or not, and, if it is not an isomorphism, finding its range (or image) and the set of elements that are mapped to the zero vector, called the kernel of the map.", "All these questions can be solved by using Gaussian elimination or some variant of this algorithm.===Subspaces, span, and basis===The study of those subsets of vector spaces that are in themselves vector spaces under the induced operations is fundamental, similarly as for many mathematical structures.", "These subsets are called linear subspaces.", "More precisely, a linear subspace of a vector space over a field is a subset of such that and are in , for every , in , and every in .", "(These conditions suffice for implying that is a vector space.", ")For example, given a linear map , the image of , and the inverse image of (called kernel or null space), are linear subspaces of and , respectively.Another important way of forming a subspace is to consider linear combinations of a set of vectors: the set of all sums : where are in , and are in form a linear subspace called the span of .", "The span of is also the intersection of all linear subspaces containing .", "In other words, it is the smallest (for the inclusion relation) linear subspace containing .A set of vectors is linearly independent if none is in the span of the others.", "Equivalently, a set of vectors is linearly independent if the only way to express the zero vector as a linear combination of elements of is to take zero for every coefficient .A set of vectors that spans a vector space is called a spanning set or generating set.", "If a spanning set is ''linearly dependent'' (that is not linearly independent), then some element of is in the span of the other elements of , and the span would remain the same if one remove from .", "One may continue to remove elements of until getting a ''linearly independent spanning set''.", "Such a linearly independent set that spans a vector space is called a basis of .", "The importance of bases lies in the fact that they are simultaneously minimal generating sets and maximal independent sets.", "More precisely, if is a linearly independent set, and is a spanning set such that , then there is a basis such that .Any two bases of a vector space have the same cardinality, which is called the dimension of ; this is the dimension theorem for vector spaces.", "Moreover, two vector spaces over the same field are isomorphic if and only if they have the same dimension.If any basis of (and therefore every basis) has a finite number of elements, is a ''finite-dimensional vector space''.", "If is a subspace of , then .", "In the case where is finite-dimensional, the equality of the dimensions implies .If and are subspaces of , then:where denotes the span of ." ], [ "Matrices", "Matrices allow explicit manipulation of finite-dimensional vector spaces and linear maps.", "Their theory is thus an essential part of linear algebra.Let be a finite-dimensional vector space over a field , and be a basis of (thus is the dimension of ).", "By definition of a basis, the map:is a bijection from , the set of the sequences of elements of , onto .", "This is an isomorphism of vector spaces, if is equipped of its standard structure of vector space, where vector addition and scalar multiplication are done component by component.This isomorphism allows representing a vector by its inverse image under this isomorphism, that is by the coordinate vector or by the column matrix:If is another finite dimensional vector space (possibly the same), with a basis , a linear map from to is well defined by its values on the basis elements, that is .", "Thus, is well represented by the list of the corresponding column matrices.", "That is, if : for , then is represented by the matrix:with rows and columns.Matrix multiplication is defined in such a way that the product of two matrices is the matrix of the composition of the corresponding linear maps, and the product of a matrix and a column matrix is the column matrix representing the result of applying the represented linear map to the represented vector.", "It follows that the theory of finite-dimensional vector spaces and the theory of matrices are two different languages for expressing exactly the same concepts.Two matrices that encode the same linear transformation in different bases are called similar.", "It can be proved that two matrices are similar if and only if one can transform one into the other by elementary row and column operations.", "For a matrix representing a linear map from to , the row operations correspond to change of bases in and the column operations correspond to change of bases in .", "Every matrix is similar to an identity matrix possibly bordered by zero rows and zero columns.", "In terms of vector spaces, this means that, for any linear map from to , there are bases such that a part of the basis of is mapped bijectively on a part of the basis of , and that the remaining basis elements of , if any, are mapped to zero.", "Gaussian elimination is the basic algorithm for finding these elementary operations, and proving these results." ], [ "Linear systems", "A finite set of linear equations in a finite set of variables, for example, , or is called a '''system of linear equations''' or a '''linear system'''.Systems of linear equations form a fundamental part of linear algebra.", "Historically, linear algebra and matrix theory has been developed for solving such systems.", "In the modern presentation of linear algebra through vector spaces and matrices, many problems may be interpreted in terms of linear systems.For example, letbe a linear system.To such a system, one may associate its matrix :and its right member vector:Let be the linear transformation associated to the matrix .", "A solution of the system () is a vector : such that :that is an element of the preimage of by .Let () be the associated homogeneous system, where the right-hand sides of the equations are put to zero:The solutions of () are exactly the elements of the kernel of or, equivalently, .The Gaussian-elimination consists of performing elementary row operations on the augmented matrix:for putting it in reduced row echelon form.", "These row operations do not change the set of solutions of the system of equations.", "In the example, the reduced echelon form is :showing that the system () has the unique solution:It follows from this matrix interpretation of linear systems that the same methods can be applied for solving linear systems and for many operations on matrices and linear transformations, which include the computation of the ranks, kernels, matrix inverses." ], [ "Endomorphisms and square matrices", "A linear endomorphism is a linear map that maps a vector space to itself.", "If has a basis of elements, such an endomorphism is represented by a square matrix of size .With respect to general linear maps, linear endomorphisms and square matrices have some specific properties that make their study an important part of linear algebra, which is used in many parts of mathematics, including geometric transformations, coordinate changes, quadratic forms, and many other part of mathematics.===Determinant===The ''determinant'' of a square matrix is defined to be:where is the group of all permutations of elements, is a permutation, and the parity of the permutation.", "A matrix is invertible if and only if the determinant is invertible (i.e., nonzero if the scalars belong to a field).Cramer's rule is a closed-form expression, in terms of determinants, of the solution of a system of linear equations in unknowns.", "Cramer's rule is useful for reasoning about the solution, but, except for or , it is rarely used for computing a solution, since Gaussian elimination is a faster algorithm.The ''determinant of an endomorphism'' is the determinant of the matrix representing the endomorphism in terms of some ordered basis.", "This definition makes sense, since this determinant is independent of the choice of the basis.===Eigenvalues and eigenvectors===If is a linear endomorphism of a vector space over a field , an ''eigenvector'' of is a nonzero vector of such that for some scalar in .", "This scalar is an ''eigenvalue'' of .If the dimension of is finite, and a basis has been chosen, and may be represented, respectively, by a square matrix and a column matrix ; the equation defining eigenvectors and eigenvalues becomes:Using the identity matrix , whose entries are all zero, except those of the main diagonal, which are equal to one, this may be rewritten:As is supposed to be nonzero, this means that is a singular matrix, and thus that its determinant equals zero.", "The eigenvalues are thus the roots of the polynomial:If is of dimension , this is a monic polynomial of degree , called the characteristic polynomial of the matrix (or of the endomorphism), and there are, at most, eigenvalues.If a basis exists that consists only of eigenvectors, the matrix of on this basis has a very simple structure: it is a diagonal matrix such that the entries on the main diagonal are eigenvalues, and the other entries are zero.", "In this case, the endomorphism and the matrix are said to be diagonalizable.", "More generally, an endomorphism and a matrix are also said diagonalizable, if they become diagonalizable after extending the field of scalars.", "In this extended sense, if the characteristic polynomial is square-free, then the matrix is diagonalizable.A symmetric matrix is always diagonalizable.", "There are non-diagonalizable matrices, the simplest being:(it cannot be diagonalizable since its square is the zero matrix, and the square of a nonzero diagonal matrix is never zero).When an endomorphism is not diagonalizable, there are bases on which it has a simple form, although not as simple as the diagonal form.", "The Frobenius normal form does not need of extending the field of scalars and makes the characteristic polynomial immediately readable on the matrix.", "The Jordan normal form requires to extend the field of scalar for containing all eigenvalues, and differs from the diagonal form only by some entries that are just above the main diagonal and are equal to 1." ], [ "Duality", "A linear form is a linear map from a vector space over a field to the field of scalars , viewed as a vector space over itself.", "Equipped by pointwise addition and multiplication by a scalar, the linear forms form a vector space, called the '''dual space''' of , and usually denoted or .If is a basis of (this implies that is finite-dimensional), then one can define, for , a linear map such that and if .", "These linear maps form a basis of , called the dual basis of .", "(If is not finite-dimensional, the may be defined similarly; they are linearly independent, but do not form a basis.", ")For in , the map:is a linear form on .", "This defines the canonical linear map from into , the dual of , called the '''bidual''' of .", "This canonical map is an isomorphism if is finite-dimensional, and this allows identifying with its bidual.", "(In the infinite dimensional case, the canonical map is injective, but not surjective.", ")There is thus a complete symmetry between a finite-dimensional vector space and its dual.", "This motivates the frequent use, in this context, of the bra–ket notation:for denoting .===Dual map===Let :be a linear map.", "For every linear form on , the composite function is a linear form on .", "This defines a linear map:between the dual spaces, which is called the '''dual''' or the '''transpose''' of .If and are finite dimensional, and is the matrix of in terms of some ordered bases, then the matrix of over the dual bases is the transpose of , obtained by exchanging rows and columns.If elements of vector spaces and their duals are represented by column vectors, this duality may be expressed in bra–ket notation by :For highlighting this symmetry, the two members of this equality are sometimes written :===Inner-product spaces===Besides these basic concepts, linear algebra also studies vector spaces with additional structure, such as an inner product.", "The inner product is an example of a bilinear form, and it gives the vector space a geometric structure by allowing for the definition of length and angles.", "Formally, an ''inner product'' is a map:that satisfies the following three axioms for all vectors in and all scalars in :* Conjugate symmetry:::In , it is symmetric.", " Linearity in the first argument:: Positive-definiteness:::with equality only for .We can define the length of a vector '''v''' in ''V'' by:and we can prove the Cauchy–Schwarz inequality::In particular, the quantity:and so we can call this quantity the cosine of the angle between the two vectors.Two vectors are orthogonal if .", "An orthonormal basis is a basis where all basis vectors have length 1 and are orthogonal to each other.", "Given any finite-dimensional vector space, an orthonormal basis could be found by the Gram–Schmidt procedure.", "Orthonormal bases are particularly easy to deal with, since if , then:The inner product facilitates the construction of many useful concepts.", "For instance, given a transform , we can define its Hermitian conjugate as the linear transform satisfying:If satisfies , we call normal.", "It turns out that normal matrices are precisely the matrices that have an orthonormal system of eigenvectors that span ." ], [ "Relationship with geometry", "There is a strong relationship between linear algebra and geometry, which started with the introduction by René Descartes, in 1637, of Cartesian coordinates.", "In this new (at that time) geometry, now called Cartesian geometry, points are represented by Cartesian coordinates, which are sequences of three real numbers (in the case of the usual three-dimensional space).", "The basic objects of geometry, which are lines and planes are represented by linear equations.", "Thus, computing intersections of lines and planes amounts to solving systems of linear equations.", "This was one of the main motivations for developing linear algebra.Most geometric transformation, such as translations, rotations, reflections, rigid motions, isometries, and projections transform lines into lines.", "It follows that they can be defined, specified and studied in terms of linear maps.", "This is also the case of homographies and Möbius transformations, when considered as transformations of a projective space.Until the end of the 19th century, geometric spaces were defined by axioms relating points, lines and planes (synthetic geometry).", "Around this date, it appeared that one may also define geometric spaces by constructions involving vector spaces (see, for example, Projective space and Affine space).", "It has been shown that the two approaches are essentially equivalent.", "In classical geometry, the involved vector spaces are vector spaces over the reals, but the constructions may be extended to vector spaces over any field, allowing considering geometry over arbitrary fields, including finite fields.Presently, most textbooks, introduce geometric spaces from linear algebra, and geometry is often presented, at elementary level, as a subfield of linear algebra." ], [ "Usage and applications{{anchor\|Applications}}", "Linear algebra is used in almost all areas of mathematics, thus making it relevant in almost all scientific domains that use mathematics.", "These applications may be divided into several wide categories.=== Functional analysis ===Functional analysis studies function spaces.", "These are vector spaces with additional structure, such as Hilbert spaces.", "Linear algebra is thus a fundamental part of functional analysis and its applications, which include, in particular, quantum mechanics (wave functions) and Fourier analysis (orthogonal basis).=== Scientific computation ===Nearly all scientific computations involve linear algebra.", "Consequently, linear algebra algorithms have been highly optimized.", "BLAS and LAPACK are the best known implementations.", "For improving efficiency, some of them configure the algorithms automatically, at run time, for adapting them to the specificities of the computer (cache size, number of available cores, ...).Some processors, typically graphics processing units (GPU), are designed with a matrix structure, for optimizing the operations of linear algebra.=== Geometry of ambient space ===The modeling of ambient space is based on geometry.", "Sciences concerned with this space use geometry widely.", "This is the case with mechanics and robotics, for describing rigid body dynamics; geodesy for describing Earth shape; perspectivity, computer vision, and computer graphics, for describing the relationship between a scene and its plane representation; and many other scientific domains.In all these applications, synthetic geometry is often used for general descriptions and a qualitative approach, but for the study of explicit situations, one must compute with coordinates.", "This requires the heavy use of linear algebra.=== Study of complex systems ===Most physical phenomena are modeled by partial differential equations.", "To solve them, one usually decomposes the space in which the solutions are searched into small, mutually interacting cells.", "For linear systems this interaction involves linear functions.", "For nonlinear systems, this interaction is often approximated by linear functions.This is called a linear model or first-order approximation.", "Linear models are frequently used for complex nonlinear real-world systems because it makes parametrization more manageable.", "In both cases, very large matrices are generally involved.", "Weather forecasting (or more specifically, parametrization for atmospheric modeling) is a typical example of a real-world application, where the whole Earth atmosphere is divided into cells of, say, 100 km of width and 100 km of height.=== Fluid Mechanics, Fluid Dynamics, and Thermal Energy Systems === Linear algebra, a branch of mathematics dealing with vector spaces and linear mappings between these spaces, plays a critical role in various engineering disciplines, including fluid mechanics, fluid dynamics, and thermal energy systems.", "Its application in these fields is multifaceted and indispensable for solving complex problems.In fluid mechanics, linear algebra is integral to understanding and solving problems related to the behavior of fluids.", "It assists in the modeling and simulation of fluid flow, providing essential tools for the analysis of fluid dynamics problems.", "For instance, linear algebraic techniques are used to solve systems of differential equations that describe fluid motion.", "These equations, often complex and non-linear, can be linearized using linear algebra methods, allowing for simpler solutions and analyses.In the field of fluid dynamics, linear algebra finds its application in computational fluid dynamics (CFD), a branch that uses numerical analysis and data structures to solve and analyze problems involving fluid flows.", "CFD relies heavily on linear algebra for the computation of fluid flow and heat transfer in various applications.", "For example, the Navier-Stokes equations, fundamental in fluid dynamics, are often solved using techniques derived from linear algebra.", "This includes the use of matrices and vectors to represent and manipulate fluid flow fields.Furthermore, linear algebra plays a crucial role in thermal energy systems, particularly in power systems analysis.", "It is used to model and optimize the generation, transmission, and distribution of electric power.", "Linear algebraic concepts such as matrix operations and eigenvalue problems are employed to enhance the efficiency, reliability, and economic performance of power systems.", "The application of linear algebra in this context is vital for the design and operation of modern power systems, including renewable energy sources and smart grids.Overall, the application of linear algebra in fluid mechanics, fluid dynamics, and thermal energy systems is an example of the profound interconnection between mathematics and engineering.", "It provides engineers with the necessary tools to model, analyze, and solve complex problems in these domains, leading to advancements in technology and industry." ], [ "Extensions and generalizations", "This section presents several related topics that do not appear generally in elementary textbooks on linear algebra, but are commonly considered, in advanced mathematics, as parts of linear algebra.===Module theory===The existence of multiplicative inverses in fields is not involved in the axioms defining a vector space.", "One may thus replace the field of scalars by a ring , and this gives the structure called a '''module''' over , or -module.The concepts of linear independence, span, basis, and linear maps (also called module homomorphisms) are defined for modules exactly as for vector spaces, with the essential difference that, if is not a field, there are modules that do not have any basis.", "The modules that have a basis are the free modules, and those that are spanned by a finite set are the finitely generated modules.", "Module homomorphisms between finitely generated free modules may be represented by matrices.", "The theory of matrices over a ring is similar to that of matrices over a field, except that determinants exist only if the ring is commutative, and that a square matrix over a commutative ring is invertible only if its determinant has a multiplicative inverse in the ring.Vector spaces are completely characterized by their dimension (up to an isomorphism).", "In general, there is not such a complete classification for modules, even if one restricts oneself to finitely generated modules.", "However, every module is a cokernel of a homomorphism of free modules.Modules over the integers can be identified with abelian groups, since the multiplication by an integer may be identified to a repeated addition.", "Most of the theory of abelian groups may be extended to modules over a principal ideal domain.", "In particular, over a principal ideal domain, every submodule of a free module is free, and the fundamental theorem of finitely generated abelian groups may be extended straightforwardly to finitely generated modules over a principal ring.There are many rings for which there are algorithms for solving linear equations and systems of linear equations.", "However, these algorithms have generally a computational complexity that is much higher than the similar algorithms over a field.", "For more details, see Linear equation over a ring.===Multilinear algebra and tensors===In multilinear algebra, one considers multivariable linear transformations, that is, mappings that are linear in each of a number of different variables.", "This line of inquiry naturally leads to the idea of the dual space, the vector space consisting of linear maps where ''F'' is the field of scalars.", "Multilinear maps can be described via tensor products of elements of .If, in addition to vector addition and scalar multiplication, there is a bilinear vector product , the vector space is called an algebra; for instance, associative algebras are algebras with an associate vector product (like the algebra of square matrices, or the algebra of polynomials).===Topological vector spaces===Vector spaces that are not finite dimensional often require additional structure to be tractable.", "A normed vector space is a vector space along with a function called a norm, which measures the \"size\" of elements.", "The norm induces a metric, which measures the distance between elements, and induces a topology, which allows for a definition of continuous maps.", "The metric also allows for a definition of limits and completeness – a metric space that is complete is known as a Banach space.", "A complete metric space along with the additional structure of an inner product (a conjugate symmetric sesquilinear form) is known as a Hilbert space, which is in some sense a particularly well-behaved Banach space.", "Functional analysis applies the methods of linear algebra alongside those of mathematical analysis to study various function spaces; the central objects of study in functional analysis are spaces, which are Banach spaces, and especially the space of square integrable functions, which is the only Hilbert space among them.", "Functional analysis is of particular importance to quantum mechanics, the theory of partial differential equations, digital signal processing, and electrical engineering.", "It also provides the foundation and theoretical framework that underlies the Fourier transform and related methods." ], [ "See also", " Fundamental matrix (computer vision)* Geometric algebra* Linear programming* Linear regression, a statistical estimation method* Numerical linear algebra* Outline of linear algebra* Transformation matrix" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "General and cited sources", "* * * * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", "===History=== Fearnley-Sander, Desmond, \" Hermann Grassmann and the Creation of Linear Algebra\", American Mathematical Monthly '''86''' (1979), pp. 809–817.", "* ===Introductory textbooks===* * * * * * * * * Murty, Katta G. (2014) '' Computational and Algorithmic Linear Algebra and n-Dimensional Geometry'', World Scientific Publishing, . ''", "Chapter 1: Systems of Simultaneous Linear Equations''* Noble, B.", "& Daniel, J.W.", "(2nd Ed.", "1977) '''', Pearson Higher Education, .", "* * * * * The Manga Guide to Linear Algebra (2012), by Shin Takahashi, Iroha Inoue and Trend-Pro Co., Ltd., ===Advanced textbooks===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ===Study guides and outlines===* * * * " ], [ "External links", "===Online Resources=== MIT Linear Algebra Video Lectures, a series of 34 recorded lectures by Professor Gilbert Strang (Spring 2010)* International Linear Algebra Society* * Linear Algebra on MathWorld* Matrix and Linear Algebra Terms on Earliest Known Uses of Some of the Words of Mathematics* Earliest Uses of Symbols for Matrices and Vectors on Earliest Uses of Various Mathematical Symbols* Essence of linear algebra, a video presentation from 3Blue1Brown of the basics of linear algebra, with emphasis on the relationship between the geometric, the matrix and the abstract points of view===Online books===* * * * * * * Sharipov, Ruslan, '' Course of linear algebra and multidimensional geometry''* Treil, Sergei, '' Linear Algebra Done Wrong''" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Labia majora" ], [ "Introduction", "In primates, and specifically in humans, the '''labia majora''' (: '''labium majus'''), also known as the '''outer lips''' or '''outer labia''', are two prominent longitudinal skin folds that extend downward and backward from the mons pubis to the perineum.", "Together with the labia minora, they form the labia of the vulva.The labia majora are homologous to the male scrotum." ], [ "Etymology", "''Labia majora'' is the Latin plural for big (\"major\") lips.", "The Latin term ''labium/labia'' is used in anatomy for a number of usually paired parallel structures, but in English, it is mostly applied to two pairs of parts of the vulva—labia majora and labia minora.", "Traditionally, to avoid confusion with other lip-like structures of the body, the vulvar labia were termed by anatomists in Latin as ''labia majora (''or ''minora) pudendi.''" ], [ "Embryology", "Embryologically, they develop from labioscrotal folds.", "It means that they develop in the female foetus from the same previously sexually undifferentiated anatomical structure as the scrotum, the sac of skin below the penis in males.The same process of sex differentiation concerns other male and female reproductive organs (see List of related male and female reproductive organs), with some organs of both sexes developing similar, yet not identical, structure and functions (like the gonads - male testicles and female ovaries, like male and female urethras, erectile corpus cavernosum penis and prepuce in the penis (foreskin) and the corpus cavernosum clitoridis in the clitoris and (clitoral hood) and their frenula).", "But other male and female sex organs become absolutely different and unique, like the internal female genitalia.The scrotum and labia majora develop to have both similarities and crucial differences.", "Like the scrotum, the labia majora after puberty may become of a darker color than the skin outside them, and, similarly, also grow pubic hair on their external surface (the female genitals on accompanying photos are shaved to show their structure more clearly).", "However, during sexual differentiation of the foetus, labioscrotal folds in the males normally fuse longitudinally in the middle, forming a sack for male gonads (testicles) to descend into it from the pelvis, while in the females, these folds normally do not fuse, forming the two labia majora and the pudendal cleft between them.", "Female gonads (ovaries) do not descend from the pelvis, thus the structure of labia majora may seem simpler (just fatty tissue covered with skin) and of lesser significance for functioning of the female body as a whole than the scrotum with testicles for males.", "The ridge or groove remaining of the fusion can be traced on the scrotum.In some intersex cases with disorders of sex development, male/female genitalia may look ambiguous for either gender with the phallus too small for a typical penis yet too big for a clitoris, with external urethral opening in an atypical location, and with labia/scrotum fully or partially fused but without descended gonads in them.", "Undescended testicles, though, may also occur in otherwise generally healthy male infants." ], [ "Function and anatomy", "Vulva structures with labelsThe main function of the labia majora is to cover and protect the other parts of the vulva.", "The labia majora constitute the lateral boundaries of the pudendal cleft, which contains the labia minora, interlabial sulci, clitoral hood, clitoral glans, frenulum clitoridis, the Hart's Line, and the vulval vestibule, which contains the external openings of the urethra and the vagina.", "Each labium majus has two surfaces, an outer, pigmented and covered with strong, pubic hair; and an inner, smooth and beset with large sebaceous follicles.", "The labia majora are covered with squamous epithelium.", "Between the two, there is a considerable quantity of areolar tissue and fat, besides vessels, nerves, and glands.", "Below the skin of the labia majora, there is a tissue called the ''dartos muliebris'', which gives them a wrinkled appearance.", "The labia majora are thicker in front, and form the '''anterior labial commissure''' where they meet below the mons pubis.", "Posteriorly, they are not really joined, but appear to become lost in the neighboring integument, ending close to, and nearly parallel to, each other.", "Together with the connecting skin between them, they form another commissure the '''posterior labial commissure''' which is also the posterior boundary of the pudendum.", "The interval between the posterior commissure and the anus, from 2.5 to 3 cm in length, constitutes the perineum.", "The anterior region of the perineum is known as the urogenital triangle which separates it from the anal region.", "Between the labia majora and the inner thighs are the '''labiocrural folds'''.", "Between the labia majora and labia minora are the interlabial sulci.", "Labia majora atrophy after menopause." ], [ "In non-human primates", "While the labia majora is present in all primates, many have them until adulthood or become inconspicuous around that period.", "Primates besides humans that always have visible labia majora are bonobos, strepsirrhines, tarsiers, cebid monkeys, and gibbons." ], [ "Use in grafting", "The fat pad of the labia majora can be used as a graft, often as a so-called \"Martius labial fat pad graft\", and can be used, for example, in urethrolysis." ], [ "See also", "* ''Femalia''* Labia pride" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Labia Majora Medical Definition" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Labia minora" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''labia minora''' (Latin for 'smaller lips', : '''labium minus'''), also known as the '''inner labia''', '''inner lips''', or '''nymphae''', are two flaps of skin that are part of the primate vulva, extending outwards from the vaginal and urethral openings to encompass the vestibule.", "The labia minora are situated between the labia majora and together form the labia.", "They vary widely in size, color and shape from individual to individual.The labia minora are homologous to the penile raphe in males." ], [ "Structure and functioning", "The labia minora extend from the clitoris obliquely downward, laterally, and backward on either side of the vulval vestibule, ending between the bottom of the vulval vestibule and the labia majora.", "The posterior ends (bottom) of the labia minora are usually joined across the middle line by a flap of skin, named the frenulum of labia minora.On the front, each lip forks dividing into two portions surrounding the clitoris.", "The upper part of each lip passes above the clitoris to meet the upper part of the other lip—which will often be a little larger or smaller—forming a fold which overhangs the glans clitoridis (clitoral tip or head); this fold is named the clitoral hood.", "The lower part passes beneath the glans clitoridis and becomes united to its under surface, forming, with the inner lip of the opposite side, the ''frenulum clitoridis''.The clitoral hood, which is homologous to the foreskin of the penis in men and also termed, like the latter, by the Latin word ''prepuce'', serves to cover most of the time the shaft and sometimes the glans (which is very sensitive to the touch) to protect the clitoris from mechanical irritation and from dryness.", "Yet the hood is movable and can slide during clitoral erection or be pulled upwards a little for greater exposure of the clitoris to sexual stimulation.===Histology===On the opposed surfaces of the labia minora are numerous sebaceous glands not associated with hair follicles.", "They are lined by stratified squamous epithelium on those surfaces.Like the whole area of the vulval vestibule, the mucus secreted by those glands protects the labia from dryness and mechanical irritation.===Variation===The individual size, coloration and shapes of the labia minora are subject to significant variability between women.", "The labia minora are completely covered by the labia majora in some women in a standing posture, while in others they protrude visibly from the pubic cleft.Being thinner than the outer labia, the inner labia can be also more narrow than the former, or wider than the labia majora, thus protruding in the pudendal cleft and making the term ''minora'' (Latin for smaller) essentially inapplicable in these cases.", "They can also be smooth or frilled, the latter being more typical of longer or wider inner labia.From 2003 to 2004, researchers from the Department of Gynaecology, Elizabeth Garrett Anderson Hospital in London, measured the labia and other genital structures of 50 women from the age of 18 to 50, with a mean age of 35.6.The study has since been criticized for its \"small and homogenous sample group\" consisting primarily of white women.", "The results were: Measurement Range Mean SD Clitoral length (mm) 5–35 19.1 8.7 Clitoral glans width (mm) 3–10 5.5 1.7 Clitoris to urethra (mm) 16–45 28.5 7.1 Labia majora length (cm) 7.0–12.0 9.3 1.3 Labia minora length (mm) 20–100 60.6 17.2 Labia minora width (mm) 5–60 21.8 9.4 Perineum length (mm) 15–55 31.3 8.5 Vaginal length (cm) 6.5–12.5 9.6 1.5FeatureValueFrequencyTanner stage (n) IV 4 V 46Colour of genital areacompared with surrounding skin (n) Same 9 Darker 41Rugosity of labia (n) Smooth 14 Moderate 34 Marked 2Due to the frequent portrayal of the pudendal cleft without protrusion in art and pornography, there has been a rise in the popularity of labiaplasty, surgery to alter the labia—usually, to make them smaller.", "On the other hand, there is an opposite movement of labia stretching.", "Its proponents stress the beauty of long labia and their positive role in sexual stimulation of both partners.Labiaplasty is also sometimes sought by women who have asymmetrical labia minora to adjust the shape of the structures towards identical size.Labia stretching has traditionally been practised in some African nations in the East and South and the South Pacific.=== Functioning ===The inner lips serve to protect from mechanical irritation, dryness and infections of the highly sensitive area of the vulval vestibule with vaginal and urethral openings in it between them.", "During vaginal intercourse, they may contribute to stimulation of the whole vestibule area, the clitoris and the vagina of the woman and the penis of her partner.", "Stimulation of the clitoris may occur through tension of the clitoral hood and its frenulum by the inner labia pulling at them.", "During sexual arousal, they are lubricated by the mucus secreted in the vagina and around it to make penetration painless and protect them from irritation.As the female external urethral opening (meatus) is also situated between labia minora, they may play a role in guiding the stream of the urine during female urination.=== Medical conditions ===Being very sensitive by their structure to any irritation, and situated in the excretion area where traces of urine, vaginal discharge, smegma and even feces may be present, the inner lips may be susceptible to inflammatory infections of the vulva such as vulvitis.The likelihood of inflammation may be reduced through appropriate regular hygienic cleansing of the whole vulval vestibule, using water and medically tested cleansing agents designed for vulvas.", "To avoid contamination of the vulva with fecal bacteria, it is recommended that the vulva is washed only from front to back, from mons pubis to the perineum and anus.", "Apart from water and special liquid cleansing agents (lotions), there are commercially available wet wipes for female intimate hygiene.", "Some women wipe the vulval vestibule dry with toilet tissue after urination to avoid irritation and infections from residual drops of the urine in the area.However, incorrect choice of cleansing agents, or their incorrect application, may itself cause labial irritation and require medical attention.", "Over-vigorous rubbing of the labia of little girls while washing, combined with the lack of estrogen in their bodies, may lead to the mostly pediatric condition known as labial fusion.", "If fused labia prevent urination, urine may accumulate and cause pain and inflammation.In adult females, irritation of the area may be caused by wearing too-tight underwear (especially where wider inner labia protrude in the pudendal cleft); while G-strings, which rub against the labia during body movements, may cause irritation or lead to infection from bacteria transferred from either the external environment or the anus." ], [ "Other animals", "Non-primate mammals usually have just one pair of small labia known as the ''labia vulvae'', which are homologous to that of the labia minora in primates." ], [ "Additional images", "File:Illu repdt female.jpg\|Organs of the female reproductive system.File:Vulva and shaved pubic area.jpg\|Vulva without pubic hair.File:Clitoris outer anatomy.png\|Outer anatomy of clitoris.File:Clitoris and labia minora.jpg\|Clear view of labia minora" ], [ "See also", "* ''Femalia''* Labia pride* Labia stretching* Labiaplasty" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Leopold von Sacher-Masoch" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Leopold Ritter von Sacher-Masoch''' (; 27 January 1836 – 9 March 1895) was an Austrian nobleman, writer and journalist, who gained renown for his romantic stories of Galician life.", "The term ''masochism'' is derived from his name, invented by his contemporary, the Austrian psychiatrist Richard von Krafft-Ebing.", "Masoch did not approve of this use of his name.During his lifetime, Sacher-Masoch was well known as a man of letters, in particular a utopian thinker who espoused socialist and humanist ideals in his fiction and non-fiction.", "Most of his works remain untranslated into English." ], [ "Biography", "===Early life and education===Von Sacher-Masoch was born in the city of Lemberg, the capital of the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, at the time a province of the Austrian Empire, into the Roman Catholic family of an Austrian civil servant, Leopold Johann Nepomuk Ritter von Sacher (1797–1874), and Charlotte Josepha von Masoch (1802–1870), a Ukrainian noblewoman.", "The father later combined his surname with his wife's ''von Masoch'', at the request of her family (she was the last of the line).", "Von Sacher served as a Commissioner of the Imperial Police Forces in Lemberg, and he was recognised with a new title of nobility as Sacher-Masoch awarded by the Austrian Emperor.Leopold studied law, history and mathematics at Graz University (where he obtained a doctorate in history in 1856), and after graduating he became a lecturer there.===Galician storyteller===Masoch in the 1860sHis early, non-fictional publications dealt mostly with Austrian history.", "At the same time, Masoch turned to the folklore and culture of his homeland, Galicia.", "Soon he abandoned lecturing and became a free man of letters.", "Within a decade his short stories and novels prevailed over his historical non-fiction works, though historical themes continued to imbue his fiction.Panslavist ideas were prevalent in Masoch's literary work, and he found a particular interest in depicting picturesque types among the various ethnicities that inhabited Galicia.", "From the 1860s to the 1880s he published a number of volumes of ''Jewish Short Stories'', ''Polish Short Stories'', ''Galician Short Stories'', ''German Court Stories'' and ''Russian Court Stories''.===''The Legacy of Cain''===In 1869, Sacher-Masoch conceived a grandiose series of short stories under the collective title ''Legacy of Cain'' that would represent the author's aesthetic ''Weltanschauung''.", "The cycle opened with the manifesto ''The Wanderer'' that brought out misogynist themes that became peculiar to Masoch's writings.", "Of the six planned volumes, only the first two were ever completed.", "By the middle of the 1880s, Masoch abandoned the ''Legacy of Cain''.", "Nevertheless, the published volumes of the series included Masoch's best-known stories, and of them, ''Venus in Furs'' (published 1870) is the most famous today.", "The novella expressed Sacher-Masoch's fantasies and fetishes (especially for dominant women wearing fur).", "He did his best to live out his fantasies with his mistresses and wives.", "In 1873 he married Angelika Aurora von Rümelin.===Private life and inspiration for ''Venus in Furs''===Fanny Pistor and Sacher-MasochFanny Pistor was an emerging literary writer.", "She met Sacher-Masoch after she contacted him, under the assumed name and fictitious title of Baroness Bogdanoff, for suggestions on improving her writing to make it suitable for publication.", "She was the inspiration for ''Venus im Pelz'' (Venus in Furs).", "The erotic novel spawned the word masochism.===Later years===In 1874, Masoch wrote the novel ''Die Ideale unserer Zeit'' (''The Ideals of Our Time''), an attempt to give a portrait of German society during its Gründerzeit period.In his late fifties, his mental health began to deteriorate, and he spent the last years of his life under psychiatric care.", "According to official reports, he died in Lindheim in 1895.", "(Lindheim, at that time near Altenstadt, was incorporated into the municipality of Altenstadt in 1971.)", "It is also claimed that Masoch died in an asylum in Mannheim in 1905.Sacher-Masoch is the great-uncle of Eva von Sacher-Masoch, Baroness Erisso, mother of British singer and actress Marianne Faithfull." ], [ "Masochism", "A Sacher-Masoch compilation published in 1901The term ''masochism'' was coined in 1886 by the Austrian psychiatrist Richard Freiherr von Krafft-Ebing (1840–1902) in his book ''Psychopathia Sexualis'':Sacher-Masoch was not pleased with Krafft-Ebing's assertions.", "Nevertheless, details of Masoch's private life were obscure until Aurora von Rümelin's memoirs, ''Meine Lebensbeichte'' (My Life Confession; 1906), were published in Berlin under the pseudonym Wanda v. Dunajew (the name of a leading character in his ''Venus in Furs'').", "The following year, a French translation, ''Confession de ma vie'' (1907) by \"Wanda von Sacher-Masoch\", was printed in Paris by Mercure de France.", "An English translation of the French edition was published as ''The Confessions of Wanda von Sacher-Masoch'' (1991) by RE/Search Publications." ], [ "Selected bibliography", "* 1858 ''A Galician Story 1846''* 1865 ''Kaunitz''* 1866 ''Don Juan of Kolomiya''* 1867 ''The Last King of Hungary''* 1870 ''The Divorcee''* 1870 ''Legacy of Cain Vol.", "1: Love'' (includes his most famous work, ''Venus in Furs'')* 1872 ''Faux Ermine''* 1873 ''Female Sultan''* 1873 ''The Messalinas of Vienna''* 1873–74 ''Russian Court Stories'': 4 Vols.", "* 1873–77 ''Viennese Court Stories'': 2 Vols.", "* 1874/76 '''' ''Love Stories from Several Centuries'', 3 volumes, includes \"\" (\"Bloody Wedding in Kyiv\"), \"Ariella\"* 1874 ''Die Ideale unserer Zeit'' ''The Ideals of Our Time''* 1875 ''Galician Stories''* 1877 ''The Man Without Prejudice''* 1877 ''Legacy of Cain.", "Vol.", "2: Property''* 1878 ''The New Hiob''* 1878 ''Jewish Stories''* 1878 ''The Republic of Women's Enemies''* 1879 ''Silhouettes''* 1881 ''New Jewish Stories''* 1883 '''' (''The Mother of God'')* 1886 ''Eternal Youth''* 1886 ''Stories from Polish Ghetto''* 1886 ''Little Mysteries of World History''* 1886 ''Bloody Wedding in Kyiv'* 1887 ''Polish Stories''* 1890 ''The Serpent in Paradise''* 1891 ''The Lonesome''* 1894 ''Love Stories''* 1898 ''Entre nous''* 1900 ''Catherina II''* 1901 ''Afrikas Semiramis''* 1907 ''Fierce Women''" ], [ "See also", "* BDSM* Marquis de Sade* Sadism and masochism in fiction* ''Story of O''" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Further reading", "* Bach, Ulrich E, \"Sacher-Masoch's Utopian Peripheries.\"", "In: ''The German Quarterly'' 80.2 (2007): 201–219.", "* Biale, David, \"Masochism and Philosemitism: The Strange Case of Leopold Von Sacher-Masoch\", ''Journal of Contemporary History'' 17 (1982), 305–323.", "Deleuze, Gilles, \"Coldness and Cruelty,\" in ''Masochism,'' New York: Zone Books (1991).", " John K. Noyes, ''The Mastery of Submission.", "Inventions of Masochism''.", "Ithaca: Cornell University Press 1997.", "* Carlo Di Mascio, ''Masoch sovversivo.", "Cinque studi su Venus im Pelz'', Firenze, Phasar Edizioni, 2018.", "* Alison Moore, Recovering Difference in the Deleuzian Dichotomy of Masochism-without-Sadism.", "Angelaki 14 (3), November 2009, 27–43.", "* Alison M. Moore, ''Sexual Myths of Modernity: Sadism, Masochism and Historical Teleology''.", "Lanham: Lexington Books, 2016." ], [ "External links", "* * ''Venus in Furs'' from Project Gutenberg The Bookbinder of Hort, part of an anthology, ''Stories by Foreign Authors''* * * The Letawitza* ''The Independent Saturday'', 23 July 1994 * Stanislav Tsalyk: Don Juan of Lviv" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lithography" ], [ "Introduction", "A lithograph of Charles Marion Russell's ''The Custer Fight'' (1903), with the range of tones fading toward the edges'''Lithography''' () is a planographic method of printing originally based on the immiscibility of oil and water.", "The printing is from a stone (lithographic limestone) or a metal plate with a smooth surface.", "It was invented in 1796 by the German author and actor Alois Senefelder and was initially used mostly for musical scores and maps.", "Lithography can be used to print text or images onto paper or other suitable material.", "A '''lithograph''' is something printed by lithography, but this term is only used for fine art prints and some other, mostly older, types of printed matter, not for those made by modern commercial lithography.Sea anemones from Ernst Haeckel's ''Kunstformen der Natur'' (''Artforms of Nature''), 1904Originally, the image to be printed was drawn with a greasy substance, such as oil, fat, or wax onto the surface of a smooth and flat limestone plate.", "The stone was then treated with a mixture of weak acid and gum arabic (\"etch\") that made the parts of the stone's surface that were not protected by the grease more hydrophilic (water attracting).", "For printing, the stone was first moistened.", "The water only adhered to the gum-treated parts, making them even more oil-repellant.", "An oil-based ink was then applied, and would stick only to the original drawing.", "The ink would finally be transferred to a blank paper sheet, producing a printed page.", "This traditional technique is still used for fine art printmaking.", "In modern commercial lithography, the image is transferred or created as a patterned polymer coating applied to a flexible plastic or metal plate.", "The printing plates, whether stone or metal, can be created by a photographic process, a method that may be referred to as \"photolithography\" (although the term usually refers to a vaguely similar microelectronics manufacturing process).", "Offset printing or \"offset lithography\" is an elaboration of lithography in which the ink is transferred from the plate to the paper by means of a rubber plate or cylinder, rather than by direct contact of the two.", "This technique keeps the paper dry and allows high speed fully automated operation.", "It has mostly replaced traditional lithography for medium- and high-volume printing: since the 1960s, most books and magazines, especially when illustrated in colour, are printed with offset lithography from photographically created metal plates.", "As a printing technology, lithography is different from intaglio printing (gravure), wherein a plate is engraved, etched, or stippled to score cavities to contain the printing ink; and woodblock printing or letterpress printing, wherein ink is applied to the raised surfaces of letters or images." ], [ "The principle of lithography", "Lithography uses simple chemical processes to create an image.", "For instance, the positive part of an image is a water-repelling (\"hydrophobic\") substance, while the negative image would be water-retaining (\"hydrophilic\").", "Thus, when the plate is introduced to a compatible printing ink and water mixture, the ink will adhere to the positive image and the water will clean the negative image.", "This allows a flat print plate to be used, enabling much longer and more detailed print runs than the older physical methods of printing (e.g., intaglio printing, letterpress printing).Lithography was invented by Alois Senefelder in the Kingdom of Bavaria in 1796.In the early days of lithography, a smooth piece of limestone was used (hence the name \"lithography\": \"lithos\" () is the Ancient Greek word for \"stone\").", "After the oil-based image was put on the surface, a solution of gum arabic in water was applied, the gum sticking only to the non-oily surface.", "During printing, water adhered to the gum arabic surfaces and was repelled by the oily parts, while the oily ink used for printing did the opposite.===Lithography on limestone===Lithography stone and mirror image print of a map of MunichLithography works because of the mutual repulsion of oil and water.", "The image is drawn on the surface of the print plate with a fat or oil-based medium (hydrophobic) such as a wax crayon, which may be pigmented to make the drawing visible.", "A wide range of oil-based media is available, but the durability of the image on the stone depends on the lipid content of the material being used, and its ability to withstand water and acid.", "After the drawing of the image, an aqueous solution of gum arabic, weakly acidified with nitric acid () is applied to the stone.", "The function of this solution is to create a hydrophilic layer of calcium nitrate salt, , and gum arabic on all non-image surfaces.", "The gum solution penetrates into the pores of the stone, completely surrounding the original image with a hydrophilic layer that will not accept the printing ink.", "Using lithographic turpentine, the printer then removes any excess of the greasy drawing material, but a hydrophobic molecular film of it remains tightly bonded to the surface of the stone, rejecting the gum arabic and water, but ready to accept the oily ink.When printing, the stone is kept wet with water.", "The water is naturally attracted to the layer of gum and salt created by the acid wash. Printing ink based on drying oils such as linseed oil and varnish loaded with pigment is then rolled over the surface.", "The water repels the greasy ink but the hydrophobic areas left by the original drawing material accept it.", "When the hydrophobic image is loaded with ink, the stone and paper are run through a press that applies even pressure over the surface, transferring the ink to the paper and off the stone.leftSenefelder had experimented during the early 19th century with multicolor lithography; in his 1819 book, he predicted that the process would eventually be perfected and used to reproduce paintings.", "Multi-color printing was introduced by a new process developed by Godefroy Engelmann (France) in 1837 known as chromolithography.", "A separate stone was used for each color, and a print went through the press separately for each stone.", "The main challenge was to keep the images aligned (''in register'').", "This method lent itself to images consisting of large areas of flat color, and resulted in the characteristic poster designs of this period.A lithographer at work, 1880\"Lithography, or printing from soft stone, largely took the place of engraving in the production of English commercial maps after about 1852.It was a quick, cheap process and had been used to print British army maps during the Peninsular War.", "Most of the commercial maps of the second half of the 19th century were lithographed and unattractive, though accurate enough.", "\"===Modern lithographic process===1902 Polish lithograph map of the western parts of the Russian Empire.", "Original size .High-volume lithography is currently used to produce posters, maps, books, newspapers, and packaging—just about any smooth, mass-produced item with print and graphics on it.", "Most books, indeed all types of high-volume text, are now printed using offset lithography.For offset lithography, which depends on photographic processes, flexible aluminum, polyester, mylar or paper printing plates are used instead of stone tablets.", "Modern printing plates have a brushed or roughened texture and are covered with a photosensitive emulsion.", "A photographic negative of the desired image is placed in contact with the emulsion and the plate is exposed to ultraviolet light.", "After development, the emulsion shows a reverse of the negative image, which is thus a duplicate of the original (positive) image.", "The image on the plate emulsion can also be created by direct laser imaging in a CTP (computer-to-plate) device known as a platesetter.", "The positive image is the emulsion that remains after imaging.", "Non-image portions of the emulsion have traditionally been removed by a chemical process, though in recent times, plates have become available that do not require such processing.Lithography press for printing maps in MunichLithography machine in Bibliotheca AlexandrinaThe plate is affixed to a cylinder on a printing press.", "Dampening rollers apply water, which covers the blank portions of the plate but is repelled by the emulsion of the image area.", "Hydrophobic ink, which is repelled by the water and only adheres to the emulsion of the image area, is then applied by the inking rollers.If this image were transferred directly to paper, it would create a mirror-type image and the paper would become too wet.", "Instead, the plate rolls against a cylinder covered with a rubber ''blanket'', which squeezes away the water, picks up the ink and transfers it to the paper with uniform pressure.", "The paper passes between the blanket cylinder and a counter-pressure or impression cylinder and the image is transferred to the paper.", "Because the image is first transferred, or ''offset'' to the rubber blanket cylinder, this reproduction method is known as ''offset lithography'' or ''offset printing''.Many innovations and technical refinements have been made in printing processes and presses over the years, including the development of presses with multiple units (each containing one printing plate) that can print multi-color images in one pass on both sides of the sheet, and presses that accommodate continuous rolls (''webs'') of paper, known as web presses.", "Another innovation was the continuous dampening system first introduced by Dahlgren, instead of the old method (conventional dampening) which is still used on older presses, using rollers covered with molleton (cloth) that absorbs the water.", "This increased control of the water flow to the plate and allowed for better ink and water balance.", "Current dampening systems include a \"delta effect or vario\", which slows the roller in contact with the plate, thus creating a sweeping movement over the ink image to clean impurities known as \"hickies\".Archive of lithographic stones in MunichThis press is also called an ink pyramid because the ink is transferred through several layers of rollers with different purposes.", "Fast lithographic 'web' printing presses are commonly used in newspaper production.The advent of desktop publishing made it possible for type and images to be modified easily on personal computers for eventual printing by desktop or commercial presses.", "The development of digital imagesetters enabled print shops to produce negatives for platemaking directly from digital input, skipping the intermediate step of photographing an actual page layout.", "The development of the digital platesetter during the late 20th century eliminated film negatives altogether by exposing printing plates directly from digital input, a process known as computer-to-plate printing." ], [ "Lithography as an artistic medium", "''Smiling Spider'' by Odilon Redon, 1891During the early years of the 19th century, lithography had only a limited effect on printmaking, mainly because technical difficulties remained to be overcome.", "Germany was the main center of production in this period.", "Godefroy Engelmann, who moved his press from Mulhouse to Paris in 1816, largely succeeded in resolving the technical problems, and during the 1820s lithography was adopted by artists such as Delacroix and Géricault.", "After early experiments such as ''Specimens of Polyautography'' (1803), which had experimental works by a number of British artists including Benjamin West, Henry Fuseli, James Barry, Thomas Barker of Bath, Thomas Stothard, Henry Richard Greville, Richard Cooper, Henry Singleton, and William Henry Pyne, London also became a center, and some of Géricault's prints were in fact produced there.", "Goya in Bordeaux produced his last series of prints by lithography—''The Bulls of Bordeaux'' of 1828.By the mid-century the initial enthusiasm had somewhat diminished in both countries, although the use of lithography was increasingly favored for commercial applications, which included the prints of Daumier, published in newspapers.", "Rodolphe Bresdin and Jean-François Millet also continued to practice the medium in France, and Adolph Menzel in Germany.", "In 1862 the publisher Cadart tried to initiate a portfolio of lithographs by various artists, which was not successful but included several prints by Manet.", "The revival began during the 1870s, especially in France with artists such as Odilon Redon, Henri Fantin-Latour and Degas producing much of their work in this manner.", "The need for strictly limited editions to maintain the price had now been realized, and the medium became more accepted.", "''Self-Portrait with Skeleton Arm'' by Edvard MunchIn the 1890s, color lithography gained success in part by the emergence of Jules Chéret, known as the ''father of the modern poster'', whose work went on to inspire a new generation of poster designers and painters, most notably Toulouse-Lautrec, and former student of Chéret, Georges de Feure.", "By 1900 the medium in both color and monotone was an accepted part of printmaking.During the 20th century, a group of artists, including Braque, Calder, Chagall, Dufy, Léger, Matisse, Miró, and Picasso, rediscovered the largely undeveloped artform of lithography thanks to the Mourlot Studios, also known as ''Atelier Mourlot'', a Parisian printshop founded in 1852 by the Mourlot family.", "The Atelier Mourlot originally specialized in the printing of wallpaper; but it was transformed when the founder's grandson, Fernand Mourlot, invited a number of 20th-century artists to explore the complexities of fine art printing.", "Mourlot encouraged the painters to work directly on lithographic stones in order to create original artworks that could then be executed under the direction of master printers in small editions.", "The combination of modern artist and master printer resulted in lithographs that were used as posters to promote the artists' work.Grant Wood, George Bellows, Alphonse Mucha, Max Kahn, Pablo Picasso, Eleanor Coen, Jasper Johns, David Hockney, Susan Dorothea White, and Robert Rauschenberg are a few of the artists who have produced most of their prints in the medium.", "M. C. Escher is considered a master of lithography, and many of his prints were created using this process.", "More than other printmaking techniques, printmakers in lithography still largely depend on access to good printers, and the development of the medium has been greatly influenced by when and where these have been established.An American scene for lithography was founded by Robert Blackburn in New York City.As a special form of lithography, the serilith or '''seriolithograph''' process is sometimes used.", "Seriliths are mixed-media original prints created in a process in which an artist uses the lithograph and serigraph (screen printing) Fine art prints of this type are published by numerous artists and publishers worldwide, and are widely accepted and collected.", "The separations for both processes are hand-drawn by the artist.", "The serilith technique is used primarily to create fine art limited print editions." ], [ "Gallery", "File:PhiladelphiaPresidentsHouse.jpg\|''Washington's Residence, High Street, Philadelphia'', 1830 lithograph by William L. BretonFile:Honoré Daumier, Hé!", "La chian..... li....li....li.....jpg\|Hé!", "La chian..... li....li....li.....", "It's a blood...dy...dy...dy... mess, lithograph of Louis-Philippe of France by Honoré Daumier, 1834File:Macrolepidoptera15seit 0215.jpg\|Butterflies from Adalbert Seitz's ''Macrolepidoptera of the World'' (1923)File:Tortilleras Nebel.jpg\|An 1836 lithograph of Mexican women making tortillas by Carl NebelFile:Afghan royal soldiers of the Durrani Empire.jpg\|Dourraunee chieftains in full armour, 1847File:William Simpson - George Zobel - England and America.", "The visit of her majesty Queen Victoria to the Arctic ship Resolute - December 16th, 1856.jpg\|Queen Victoria visits HMS ''Resolute'' - George Zobel after William Simpson (1859).File:GeorgeLeybourne2.jpg\|Alfred Concanen's 1867 design for ''Champagne Charlie''File:Old Man with his Head in his Hands (At Eternity's Gate).jpg\|''At Eternity's Gate'', 1882 lithograph by Vincent van GoghFile:Alexandre de Riquer - 3ra.", "Exposición de Bellas Artes é Industrias Artísticas - Google Art Project.jpg\|3ra.", "Exposición de Bellas Artes e Industrias Artísticas, 1896 lithograph by Alexandre de RiquerFile:Brooklyn Museum - In the Park, Light - George Wesley Bellows - overall.jpg\|''In the Park, Light'' – George Bellows 1916File:Jean-Baptiste Debret - Vista do Paço de São Cristovão.jpg\|Palace of São Cristóvão, the former residence of the Emperors of Brazil, 19th-century lithograph by Jean-Baptiste Debret" ], [ "See also" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* About Lithography* Twyman, Michael.", "''Early Lithographed Books''.", "Pinner, Middlesex: Private Libraries Association, 1990* Museum of Modern Art information on printing techniques and examples of prints* The Invention of Lithography, Aloys Senefelder, (Eng.", "trans.", "1911) (a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; DjVu and layered PDF format)* Theo De Smedt's website, author of ''\"What's lithography\"''* Extensive information on Honoré Daumier and his life and work, including his entire output of lithographs* Digital work catalog to 4000 lithographs and 1000 wood engravings* Detailed examination of the processes involved in the creation of a typical scholarly lithographic illustration in the 19th century* Nederlands Steendrukmuseum* Delacroix's ''Faust'' lithographs at the Davison Art Center, Wesleyan University* A brief historic overview of Lithography.", "University of Delaware Library.", "Includes citations for 19th century books using early lithographic illustrations.", "* Philadelphia on Stone: The First Fifty Years of Commercial Lithography in Philadelphia.", "Library Company of Philadelphia.", "Provides an historic overview of the commercial trade in Philadelphia and links to a biographical dictionary of over 500 Philadelphia lithographers and catalog of more than 1300 lithographs documenting Philadelphia.", "* Prints & People: A Social History of Printed Pictures, an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on lithography* Czech author of lithography" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Library management" ], [ "Introduction", "300x300px'''Library management''' is a sub-discipline of institutional management that focuses on specific issues faced by libraries and library management professionals.", "Library management encompasses normal managerial tasks, as well as intellectual freedom and fundraising responsibilities.", "Issues faced in library management frequently overlap with those faced in managing non-profit organizations.The basic functions of library management include overseeing all library operations, managing the library budget, planning and negotiating the acquisition of materials, interlibrary loan requests, stacks maintenance, overseeing fee collection, event planning, fundraising, and human resources." ], [ "Common library construct", "Most of the libraries that store physical media like books, periodicals, film, and other objects adhere to some derivative of the Dewey Decimal System as their method for tagging, storing, and retrieving materials based on unique identifiers.", "The use of such systems have caused librarians to develop and leverage common constructs that act as tools for both library professionals and library users alike.", "These constructs include master catalogs, domain catalogs, indexes, unique identifiers, unique identifier tokens, and artifacts.", "A ''master catalog'' acts as a catalog of all domain or topic-specific catalogs and often directs the user to a more specific area of a library, where the user can find a more specific domain catalog.", "For example, upon entering a very large library, one may find a master catalog that will direct a patron to a specific wing of the library that focuses on a specific subject, such as law, history, fiction, etc.", "''Domain catalogs'' are usually made up of a system of very large libraries, where a master catalog cannot hold all of the system's information.", "As a result, the master catalog leads the user to domain catalogs that contain homogeneous references to specific artifacts that fall within the category or domain assigned to that catalog.", "For example, a very large library may have many domain catalogs—one for law, one for history, one for fiction, etc.", "In the case of smaller libraries where the use of domain catalogs are unnecessary, the master catalog can contain all of the information.", "''Indexes'' represent a grouping of artifacts by some relevant grouping constraint.", "The most common index groupings are \"by title,\" \"by subject,\", publisher\" and \"by author.", "\"''Unique identifiers'', also known as IDs, represent a means of assigning and tagging an artifact with a readable string of characters that is unique to that single artifact.", "Such identifiers usually include the address or location of the artifact within the library, and a unique character set that helps to distinguish artifacts that have common traits like common titles.", "Such unique identifiers are also broken into tokens and are usually placed somewhere on the surface of the artifact being stored, such as on the binding of a book, to facilitate in easily locating that item.", "Unique identification strings are broken into predefined and fixed position segments or sub-strings.", "Each segment is called a token and represents a mapping to something meaningful, hence the name ''unique identifier tokens''.", "For example, one token may lead a user to a specific wing of a library, another might lead the user to a specific aisle within that wing, another to a specific bookcase within that aisle, etc., all ultimately leading to the artifact itself.", "Such tokens are often separated by a character that is often referred to as a tokenizer (e.g.", "\".\"", "or \":\").", "''Artifacts'' represent those original things or authorized copies of things that are being categorized, stored within, and retrieved from libraries.", "Examples of artifacts include books, periodicals, research documentation, film, and computer disks." ], [ "Planning and maintaining library facilities", "An important aspect of library management is planning and maintaining library facilities.", "Successful planning is defined as \"active planning that ensures an organization will have the right people in the right place at the right time for the right job\".", "Planning the construction of new libraries or remodeling those that exist is integral since user needs are often changing.", "To supplement their operating budget, managers often secure funding through donor gifts and fundraising.", "Many facilities have begun including cafes, Friends of the Library spaces, and even exhibits to help generate additional revenue.", "These areas should be taken into account when planning for building expansions.The site for new construction must be found, and then the building must be designed, constructed, and eventually evaluated.", "Once established, it is important that the building is regularly maintained.", "This may be completed by delegating tasks to maintenance personnel or by hiring an outside company through bids.Disaster planning must be taken into account in the library context as well: not only the impact of a disaster on the library, but the library's potential role as a support service just after a disaster." ], [ "Associations and publications", "The Library Leadership and Management Association (LLAMA) is a division of the American Library Association that provides leaders with webinars, conferences, and a variety of industry publications, in addition to funding through awards and grants.", "LLAMA membership includes a free subscription to the online quarterly magazine ''Library Leadership & Management'', as well as discounts on other publications and related conferences.", "In 2020 LLAMA merged with two other divisions of the ALA to form Core: Leadership, Infrastructure, Futures.The ''Journal of Library Administration'' began in 1980 and is currently published by Routledge eight times per year.", "It is a peer-reviewed academic journal that discusses issues pertaining to library management." ], [ "References", "===Suggested reading===Ainslie, Karen.", "2016.Internal Control for Public Libraries.", "Indiana State Library.", " Gregory, Ruth W. and Lester L. Stoffel.", "''Public Libraries in Cooperative Systems: Administrative Patters for Service''.", "Chicago: American Library Association, 1971.", "* Lock, Reginald Northwood.", "''Library Administration''.", "London: C. Lockwood & Son, 1961.vi, 132, 1 p.* Lyle, Guy R. ''The Administration of the College Library'', with the collaboration of Paul H. Bixler, Marjorie Hood, and Arnold H. Trotier.", "Third ed.", "New York: H. W. Wilson Co., 1961.xiii, 419 p.Vishwakarma M L.and Parashar V _Ed.", "Halkar Giriraj, Natrajan M, Singh,Hirdyesh Kumar et al_ ''Changing Role of Library Professionals & Libraries in the Digital Age''.", "New Delhi_India: American Library Association,International Research Publication House,New Delhi, 2014.", " Wofford, Azile.", "''The School Library at Work: Acquisition, Organization, Use, and Maintenance of Materials in the School Library''.", "New York: H. W. Wilson Co., 1959.", "Songphan Choemprayong,Fabio Crestani and Sally Jo Cunningham (Eds.", ")''Digital Libraries: Data, Information, and Knowledge for Digital Lives''Cham, Switzerland:Springer,2017.https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70232-2" ], [ "External links", " American Library Association, What Library Managers Need to Know* Library Instruction for Teachers, Blog by Michael Lorenzen* Library Leadership & Management Association* Library Management* RFID based Library Management Software, LIBSYS Press Release* UNESCO Adult Learning Documentation and Information Network, Managing A Library PDF" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "English longbow" ], [ "Introduction", "in (1.98 m) long, 470 N (105 lbf) draw force.A late 15th century illustration of the Battle of Crécy.", "English longbowmen figure prominently in the foreground on the right, where they are driving away Italian mercenary crossbowmen.The '''English longbow''' was a powerful medieval type of bow, about long.", "While it is debated whether it originated in England or in Wales from the Welsh bow, by the 14th century the longbow was being used by both the English and the Welsh as a weapon of war and for hunting.", "English longbows were effective against the French during the Hundred Years' War, particularly in the battles of Sluys (1340), Crécy (1346), Poitiers (1356), and Agincourt (1415).", "They were less successful later on, as longbowmen had their lines broken at the Battle of Verneuil (1424), although the English won a decisive victory there; they were completely routed at the Battle of Patay (1429) when they were charged by the French mounted men-at-arms before they had prepared the terrain and finished defensive arrangements.", "The Battle of Pontvallain (1370) had also previously shown longbowmen were not particularly effective when not given the time to set up defensive positions.No English longbows survive from the period when the longbow was dominant (c. 1250–1450), probably because bows became weaker, broke, and were replaced rather than being handed down through generations.", "More than 130 bows survive from the Renaissance period, however.", "More than 3,500 arrows and 137 whole longbows were recovered from the ''Mary Rose'', a ship of Henry VIII's navy that sank at Portsmouth in 1545." ], [ "Description", "=== Length ===A longbow must be long enough to allow its user to draw the string to a point on the face or body, and the length therefore varies with the user.", "In continental Europe it was generally seen as any bow longer than .", "The Society of Antiquaries of London says it is of in length.", "Richard Bartelot, of the Royal Artillery Institution, said that the bow was of yew, long, with a arrow.", "Gaston III, Count of Foix, wrote in 1388 that a longbow should be \"of yew or boxwood, seventy inches () between the points of attachment for the cord\".", "Historian Jim Bradbury said they were an average of about 5 feet and 8 inches.", "All but the last estimate were made before the excavation of the ''Mary Rose'', where bows were found ranging in length from with an average length of .=== Draw weights ===Estimates for the draw of these bows varies considerably.", "Before the recovery of the ''Mary Rose'', Count M. Mildmay Stayner, Recorder of the British Long Bow Society, estimated the bows of the Medieval period drew , maximum, and W. F. Paterson, Chairman of the Society of Archer-Antiquaries, believed the weapon had a supreme draw weight of only .", "Other sources suggest significantly higher draw weights.", "The original draw forces of examples from the ''Mary Rose'' are estimated by Robert Hardy at at a draw length; the full range of draw weights was between .", "The draw length was used because that is the length allowed by the arrows commonly found on the ''Mary Rose''.A modern longbow's draw is typically or less, and by modern convention measured at .", "Historically, hunting bows usually had draw weights of , which is enough for all but the very largest game and which most reasonably fit adults can manage with practice.", "Today, there are few modern longbow archers capable of using bows accurately.A record of how boys and men trained to use the bows with high draw weights survives from the reign of Henry VII.What Latimer meant when he describes laying his body into the bow was described thus:=== Construction and materials ======= Bowstave ====Self (bottom) and laminated (top) bows for comparisonThe preferred material to make the longbow was yew, although ash, elm, and other hardwoods were also used.", "Gerald of Wales speaking of the bows used by the Welsh men of Gwent, says: \"They are made neither of horn, ash nor yew, but of elm; ugly unfinished-looking weapons, but astonishingly stiff, large and strong, and equally capable of use for long or short shooting\".", "The traditional way of making a longbow requires drying the yew wood for 1 to 2 years, then slowly working it into shape, with the entire process taking up to four years.", "The bow stave is shaped to have a ''D'' cross-section.", "The outer \"back\" of sapwood, approximately flat, follows the natural growth rings; modern bowyers often thin the sapwood, while in the ''Mary Rose'' bows the back of the bow was the natural surface of the wood, only the bark is removed.", "The inner side (\"belly\") of the bow stave consists of rounded heartwood.", "The heartwood resists compression and the outer sapwood performs better in tension.", "This combination in a single piece of wood (a self bow) forms a natural \"laminate\", somewhat similar in effect to the construction of a composite bow.", "Longbows last a long time if protected with a water-resistant coating, traditionally of \"wax, resin and fine tallow\".The trade of yew wood to England for longbows was such that it depleted the stocks of yew over a huge area.", "The first documented import of yew bowstaves to England was in 1294.In 1470 compulsory practice was renewed, and hazel, ash, and laburnum were specifically allowed for practice bows.", "Supplies still proved insufficient, until by the Statute of Westminster 1472, every ship coming to an English port had to bring four bowstaves for every tun.", "Richard III of England increased this to ten for every tun.", "This stimulated a vast network of extraction and supply, which formed part of royal monopolies in southern Germany and Austria.", "In 1483, the price of bowstaves rose from two to eight pounds per hundred, and in 1510 the Venetians obtained sixteen pounds per hundred.In 1507 the Holy Roman Emperor asked the Duke of Bavaria to stop cutting yew, but the trade was profitable, and in 1532 the royal monopoly was granted for the usual quantity \"if there are that many\".", "In 1562, the Bavarian government sent a long plea to the Holy Roman Emperor asking him to stop the cutting of yew and outlining the damage done to the forests by its selective extraction, which broke the canopy and allowed wind to destroy neighbouring trees.", "In 1568, despite a request from Saxony, no royal monopoly was granted because there was no yew to cut, and the next year Bavaria and Austria similarly failed to produce enough yew to justify a royal monopoly.Forestry records in this area in the 17th century do not mention yew, and it seems that no mature trees were to be had.", "The English tried to obtain supplies from the Baltic, but in this period bows were being replaced by guns in any case.==== String ====Bowstrings are made of hemp, flax or silk, and attached to the wood via horn \"nocks\" that fit onto the end of the bow.", "Modern synthetic materials (often Dacron) are now commonly also used for strings.==== Arrows ====A wide variety of arrows were shot from the English longbow.", "Variations in length, fletching and heads are all recorded.", "Perhaps the greatest diversity lies in hunting arrows, with varieties like broad-arrow, wolf-arrow, dog-arrow, Welsh arrow and Scottish arrow being recorded.", "War arrows were ordered in the thousands for medieval armies and navies, supplied in sheaves normally of 24 arrows.", "For example, between 1341 and 1359 the English crown is known to have obtained 51,350 sheaves (1,232,400 arrows).Only one significant group of arrows, found at the wreck of the ''Mary Rose'', has survived.", "Over 3,500 arrows were found, mainly made of poplar but also of ash, beech and hazel.", "Analysis of the intact specimens shows their length to range from , with an average of .", "Because of the preservation conditions of the ''Mary Rose'', no arrowheads survived.", "However, many heads have survived in other places, which has allowed typologies of arrowheads to be produced, the most modern being the Jessop typology.", "The most common arrowheads in military use were the short bodkin point (Jessop M10) and a small barbed arrow (Jessop M4)." ], [ "Use and performance", "=== Training ===Longbows were very difficult to master because the force required to deliver an arrow through the improving armour of medieval Europe was very high by modern standards.", "Although the draw weight of a typical English longbow is disputed, it was at least and possibly more than .", "Considerable practice was required to produce the swift and effective combat shooting required.", "Skeletons of longbow archers are recognisably affected, with enlarged left arms and often osteophytes on left wrists, left shoulders and right fingers.It was the difficulty in using the longbow that led various monarchs of England to issue instructions encouraging their ownership and practice, including the Assize of Arms of 1252 and Edward III of England's declaration of 1363:If the people practised archery, it would be that much easier for the king to recruit the proficient longbowmen he needed for his wars.", "Along with the improving ability of gunfire to penetrate plate armour, it was the long training needed by longbowmen that eventually led to their being replaced by musketeers.=== Range ===The range of the medieval weapon is not accurately known, with much depending on both the bow and the type of arrow.", "It has been suggested that a flight arrow of a professional archer of Edward III's time would reach .", "The longest mark shot at on the London practice ground of Finsbury Fields in the 16th century was .", "In 1542, Henry VIII set a minimum practice range for adults using flight arrows of ; ranges below this had to be shot with heavy arrows.", "Modern experiments broadly concur with these historical ranges.", "A ''Mary Rose'' replica longbow was able to shoot a arrow and a a distance of .", "In 2012, Joe Gibbs shot a livery arrow with a yew bow.", "The effective combat range of longbowmen was generally lower than what could be achieved on the practice range as sustained shooting was tiring and the rigors of campaigning would sap soldiers' strength.", "Writing thirty years after the ''Mary Rose'' sank, Barnabe Rich estimated that if a thousand English archers were mustered, after one week only one hundred of them would be able to shoot farther than two hundred paces (), and two hundred of the others would not be able to shoot farther than 180 paces.", "In 2017, Hungarian master archer József Mónus set a new flight world record with a traditional English Longbow of .=== Armour penetration ======= Modern testing ====In an early modern test by Saxton Pope, a direct hit from a steel bodkin point penetrated Damascus mail armour.A 2006 test was made by Matheus Bane using a draw (at ) bow, shooting at ; according to Bane's calculations, this would be approximately equivalent to a bow at .", "Measured against a replica of the thinnest contemporary gambeson (padded jacket) armour, a 905 grain needle bodkin and a 935 grain curved broadhead penetrated over .", "(gambeson armour could be up to twice as thick as the coat tested; in Bane's opinion such a thick coat would have stopped bodkin arrows but not the cutting force of broadhead arrows.)", "Against \"high quality riveted maille\", the needle bodkin and curved broadhead penetrated .", "Against a coat of plates, the needle bodkin achieved penetration.", "The curved broadhead did not penetrate but caused 0.3 in of deformation of the metal.", "Results against plate armour of \"minimum thickness\" () were similar to the coat of plates, in that the needle bodkin penetrated to a shallow depth, the other arrows not at all.", "In Bane's view, the plate armour would have kept out all the arrows if thicker or worn with more padding.Other modern tests described by Bane include those by Williams (which concluded that longbows could ''not'' penetrate mail, but in Bane's view did not use a realistic arrow tip), Robert Hardy's tests (which achieved broadly similar results to Bane), and a ''Primitive Archer'' test which demonstrated that a longbow '''could''' penetrate a plate armour breastplate.", "However, the ''Primitive Archer'' test used a longbow at very short range, generating 160 joules (vs. 73 for Bane and 80 for Williams), so probably not representative of battles of the time.Tests conducted by Mark Stretton examined the effects of heavier war shafts (as opposed to lighter hunting or distance-shooting 'flight arrows').", "The quarrel-like arrow from a yew 'self bow' (with a draw weight of at ) while travelling at yielded 113.76 joules, more kinetic energy than the lighter broad-heads while achieving 90% of the range.", "The short, heavy quarrel-form bodkin could penetrate a replica brigandine at up to 40° from perpendicular.In 2011, Mike Loades conducted an experiment in which short bodkin arrows were shot at a range of by bows of – powerful bows at less than normal battlefield range.", "The target was covered in a riveted mail over a fabric armour of deerskin over 24 linen layers.", "While most arrows went through the mail layer, none fully penetrated the textile armour.Other research has also concluded that later medieval armour, such as that of the Italian city-state mercenary companies, was effective at stopping contemporary arrows.Computer analysis by Warsaw University of Technology in 2017 has estimated that heavy bodkin point arrows could penetrate typical plate armour of the time at up to .", "However, the depth of penetration would be slight at that range, a mere on average; penetration increased as the range closed or against armour lesser than the best quality available at the time, but stopped at , the highest penetration depth estimated at range, it was unlikely to be deadly.In August 2019, the Blacksmith YouTube channel 'Tod's Workshop', together with historian Dr Tobias Capwell (curator at the Wallace collection), Joe Gibbs (archer), Will Sherman (fletcher) and Kevin Legg (armourer) ran a practical test using as close a recreation of 15th century plate armour (made with materials and techniques fitting to the time period) over a chainmail and gambeson against a longbow.", "They shot a variety of arrows at the target and the results showed that the arrows shot by a 160 lb longbow were unable to penetrate the front of the armour at any range, but the arrow that struck below the harness went right through the underlying protection.==== Contemporary accounts ====Against massed men in armour, massed longbows were murderously effective on many battlefields.Strickland and Hardy suggest that \"even at a range of , heavy war arrows shot from bows of poundages in the mid- to upper range possessed by the Mary Rose bows would have been capable of killing or severely wounding men equipped with armour of wrought iron.", "Higher-quality armour of steel would have given considerably greater protection, which accords well with the experience of Oxford's men against the elite French vanguard at Poitiers in 1356, and des Ursin's statement that the French knights of the first ranks at Agincourt, which included some of the most important (and thus best-equipped) nobles, remained comparatively unhurt by the English arrows\".Archery was described by contemporaries as ineffective against steel plate armour in the Battle of Neville's Cross (1346), the siege of Bergerac (1345), and the Battle of Poitiers (1356); such armour became available to European knights and men at arms of fairly modest means by the middle of the 14th century, although never to all soldiers in any army.", "Longbowmen were, however, effective at Poitiers, and this success stimulated changes in armour manufacture partly intended to make armoured men less vulnerable to archery.", "Nevertheless, at the battle of Agincourt in 1415 and for some decades thereafter, English longbowmen continued to be an effective battlefield force.==== Shields ====Following the Battle of Crécy, the longbow did not always prove as effective.", "For example, at the Battle of Poitiers (1356), the French men-at-arms formed a shield wall with which Geoffrey le Baker recounts \"protecting their bodies with joined shields, and turned their faces away from the missiles.", "So the archers emptied their quivers in vain\".==== Summary ====Modern tests and contemporary accounts agree therefore that well-made plate armour could protect against longbows.", "However, this did not necessarily make the longbow ineffective; thousands of longbowmen were deployed in the English victory at Agincourt against plate armoured French knights in 1415.Clifford Rogers has argued that while longbows might not have been able to penetrate steel breastplates at Agincourt they could still penetrate the thinner armour on the limbs.", "Most of the French knights advanced on foot but, exhausted by walking across wet muddy terrain in heavy armour enduring a \"terrifying hail of arrow shot\", they were overwhelmed in the melee.Less heavily armoured soldiers were more vulnerable than knights.", "For example, enemy crossbowmen were forced to retreat at Crécy when deployed without their protecting pavises.", "Horses were generally less well protected than the knights themselves; shooting the French knights' horses from the side (where they were less well armoured) is described by contemporary accounts of the Battle of Poitiers (1356), and at Agincourt John Keegan has argued that the main effect of the longbow would have been in injuring the horses of the mounted French knights.=== Shooting rate ===A typical military longbow archer would be provided with between 60 and 72 arrows at the time of battle.", "Most archers would not shoot arrows at the maximum rate, as it would exhaust even the most experienced man.", "\"With the heaviest bows a modern war bow archer does not like to try for more than six a minute.\"", "Not only do the arms and shoulder muscles tire from the exertion, but the fingers holding the bowstring become strained; therefore, actual rates of shooting in combat would vary considerably.", "Ranged volleys at the beginning of the battle would differ markedly from the closer, aimed shots as the battle progressed and the enemy neared.", "On the battlefield English archers stored their arrows stabbed upright into the ground at their feet, reducing the time it took to nock, draw and loose.", "Massed longbowmen could produce a \"storm\" of arrows.Arrows were not unlimited, so archers and their commanders took every effort to ration their use to the situation at hand.", "Nonetheless, resupply during battle was available.", "Young boys were often employed to run additional arrows to longbow archers while in their positions on the battlefield.", "In tests against a moving target simulating a galloping knight it took some approximately seven seconds to draw, aim and loose an armour-piercing heavy arrow using a replica war bow.", "It was found that in the seven seconds between the first and second shots the target advanced and that the second shot occurred at such close range that, if it was a realistic contest, running away was the only option.A Tudor English author expects eight shots from a longbow in the same time as five from a musket.", "He points out that the musket also shoots at a flatter trajectory, so is more likely to hit its target and its shot is likely to be more damaging in the event of a hit.", "The advantage of early firearms lay in the lower training requirements, the opportunity to take cover while shooting, flatter trajectory, and greater penetration.=== Treating arrow wounds ===Specialised medical tools designed for arrow wounds have existed since ancient times: Diocles (successor of Hippocrates) devised the graphiscos, a form of cannula with hooks, and the duck-billed forceps (allegedly invented by Heras of Cappadocia) was employed during the medieval period to extract arrows.", "While armour-piercing \"bodkin\" points were relatively easy (if painful) to remove, barbed points required the flesh to be cut or pulled aside.", "An arrow would be pushed through and taken out the other side of the body only in the worst cases, as this would cause even more tissue damage and risk cutting through major blood vessels.Henry, Prince of Wales, later Henry V, was wounded in the face by an arrow at the Battle of Shrewsbury (1403).", "The royal physician John Bradmore had a tool made that consisted of a pair of smooth tongs.", "Once carefully inserted into the socket of the arrowhead, the tongs screwed apart until they gripped its walls and allowed the head to be extracted from the wound.", "Prior to the extraction, the hole made by the arrow shaft was widened by inserting larger and larger dowels of elder pith wrapped in linen down into the entry wound.", "The dowels were soaked in honey, now known to have antiseptic properties.", "The wound was then dressed with a poultice of barley and honey mixed in turpentine (pre-dating Ambroise Paré but whose therapeutic use of turpentine was inspired by Roman medical texts that may have been familiar to Bradmore).", "After 20 days, the wound was free of infection." ], [ "History", "=== Etymology ===The word may have been coined to distinguish the longbow from the crossbow.", "The first recorded use of the term ''longbow'', as distinct from simply 'bow', is possibly in a 1386 administrative document which refers in Latin to ''arcus vocati longbowes'', \"bows called 'longbows'\", though the reading of the last word in the original document is not certain.", "A 1444 will proved in York bequeaths \"a sadil, alle my longe bowis, a bedde\".=== Origins ===The origins of the English longbow are disputed.", "While it is hard to assess the significance of military archery in pre-Norman Conquest Anglo-Saxon warfare, it is clear that archery played a prominent role under the Normans, as the story of the Battle of Hastings shows.", "Their Anglo-Norman descendants also made use of military archery, as exemplified by their victory at the Battle of the Standard in 1138.During the Anglo-Norman invasions of Wales, Welsh bowmen took a heavy toll of the invaders and Welsh archers would feature in English armies from this point on.", "Giraldus Cambrensis toured Wales in 1188, recording that the bows of Gwent were \"stiff and strong, not only for missiles to be shot from a distance, but also for sustaining heavy blows in close quarters.\"", "He gave examples of the performance of the Welsh bow :However, historians dispute whether this archery used a different kind of bow from the later English Longbow.Traditionally it has been argued that prior to the beginning of the 14th century, the weapon was a self bow between four and five feet in length, known since the 19th century as the shortbow.", "This weapon, drawn to the chest rather than the ear, was much weaker.", "However, in 1985, Jim Bradbury reclassified this weapon as the ''ordinary wooden bow'', reserving the term shortbow for short composite bows and arguing that longbows were a developed form of this ordinary bow.", "Strickland and Hardy in 2005 took this argument further, suggesting that the shortbow was a myth and all early English bows were a form of longbow.", "In 2011, Clifford Rogers forcefully restated the traditional case based upon a variety of evidence, including a large scale iconographic survey.", "In 2012, Richard Wadge added to the debate with an extensive survey of record, iconographic and archaeological evidence, concluding that longbows co-existed with shorter self-wood bows in England in the period between the Norman conquest and the reign of Edward III, but that powerful longbows shooting heavy arrows were a rarity until the later 13th century.", "Whether or not there was a technological revolution at the end of the 13th century therefore remains in dispute.", "What is agreed, however, is that an effective tactical system that included powerful longbows used in mass was developed in the late 13th and early 14th centuries.In 1295, Edward I began to better organize his armed forces, creating uniformly-sized units and a clear chain of command.", "He introduced the combined use of an initial assault by archers followed by a cavalry attack and infantry.", "The technique was later used effectively at the Battle of Falkirk in 1298.=== Fourteenth and fifteenth centuries ===The longbow decided many medieval battles fought by the English and Welsh, the most significant of which were the Battle of Crécy (1346) and the Battle of Agincourt (1415), during the Hundred Years' War; these followed earlier successes, notably at the Battle of Falkirk (1298) and the Battle of Halidon Hill (1333) during the Wars of Scottish Independence.", "They were less successful after this, with longbowmen having their lines broken at the Battle of Verneuil (1424), and being routed at the Battle of Patay (1429) when they were charged before they had set up their defences, and with the war-ending Battle of Castillon (1453) being decided by the French artillery.Although longbows were much faster and more accurate than the black-powder weapons which replaced them, longbowmen always took a long time to train because of the years of practice necessary before a war longbow could be used effectively (examples of longbows from the ''Mary Rose'' typically had draws greater than ).", "In an era in which warfare was usually seasonal, and non-noble soldiers spent part of the year working at farms, the year-round training required for the effective use of the longbow was a challenge.", "A standing army was an expensive proposition to a medieval ruler.", "Mainland European armies seldom trained a significant longbow corps.", "Due to their specialized training, English longbowmen were sought as mercenaries in other European countries, most notably in the Italian city-states and in Spain.The White Company, comprising men-at-arms and longbowmen and commanded by Sir John Hawkwood, is the best known English Free Company of the 14th century.", "The powerful Hungarian king, Louis the Great, is an example of someone who used longbowmen in his Italian campaigns.=== Sixteenth century and later ===Longbows remained in use until around the 16th century, when advances in firearms made gunpowder weapons a significant factor in warfare and such units as arquebusiers and grenadiers began appearing.", "Despite this, the English Crown made numerous efforts to continue to promote archery practice by banning other sports and fining people for not possessing bows.", "Indeed, just before the English Civil War, a pamphlet by William Neade entitled ''The Double-Armed Man'' advocated that soldiers be trained in both the longbow and pike; although this advice was disregarded by other writers of the day, who accepted that firearms had supplanted the role of archery.At the Battle of Flodden in 1513, wind and rain may have contributed to the ineffectiveness of the English archers against the Scottish nobles in full armour who formed the front rank of their advance, but when the opportunity arose to shoot at less well protected foot soldiers, the result was devastating.", "Despite his armour, King James IV of Scotland received several arrow wounds in the fighting, one of which may have caused his death.", "Flodden was the last major British battle in which the longbow played a significant part, even if not a decisive one.", "Longbows remained the main weapon of the trained bands, the home-defence militia of the Tudor period, until they were disbanded by Queen Elizabeth I in 1598.The last recorded use of bows in an English battle may have been a skirmish at Bridgnorth, in October 1642, during the Civil War, when an impromptu town militia, armed with bows, proved effective against un-armoured musketeers.", "Longbowmen remained a feature of the Royalist Army, but were not used by the Roundheads.Longbows have been in continuous production and use for sport and for hunting to the present day, but since 1642 they have been a minority interest, and very few have had the high draw weights of the medieval weapons.", "Other differences include the use of a stiffened non-bending centre section, rather than a continuous bend.Serious military interest in the longbow faded after the seventeenth century but occasionally schemes to resurrect its military use were proposed.", "Benjamin Franklin was a proponent in the 1770s; the Honourable Artillery Company had an archer company between 1784 and 1794, and a man named Richard Mason wrote a book proposing the arming of militia with pike and longbow in 1798.Donald Featherstone also records a Lt. Col. Richard Lee of 44th Foot advocated the military use of the longbow in 1792.Winston Churchill, in ''A History of the English-Speaking Peoples'', wrote:The War Office has among its records a treatise written during the peace after Waterloo by a general officer of long experience in the Napoleonic wars recommending that muskets should be discarded in favour of the long-bow on account of its superior accuracy, rapid discharge, and effective range.There is a record of the use of the longbow in action as late as WWII, when Jack Churchill is credited with a longbow kill in France in 1940.The weapon was certainly considered for use by Commandos during the war but it is not known whether it was used in action." ], [ "Tactics", "=== Battle formations ===The idea that there was a standard formation for English longbow armies was argued by Alfred Byrne in his influential work on the battles of the Hundred Years' War, ''The Crecy War''.", "This view was challenged by Jim Bradbury in his book ''The Medieval Archer'' and more modern works are more ready to accept a variety of formations.In summary, however, the usual English deployment in the 14th and 15th centuries was as follows:* Infantry (usually dismounted knights and armoured soldiers employed by the nobles and often armed with pole weapons such as pollaxes and bills) in the centre.", "* Longbowmen were usually deployed primarily on the flanks, sometimes to the front.", "* Cavalry was rarely used but, where deployed, either on the flanks (to make or protect against flank attacks), or in the centre in reserve, to be deployed as needed (for example, to counter any breakthroughs).In the 16th century, these formations evolved in line with new technologies and techniques from the continent.", "Formations with a central core of pikes and bills were flanked by companies of \"shot\" made up of a mixture of archers and arquebusiers, sometimes with a skirmish screen of archers and arquebusiers in front." ], [ "Surviving bows and arrows", "More than 3,500 arrows and 137 whole longbows were recovered from the ''Mary Rose'', a ship of Henry VIII's navy that capsized and sank at Portsmouth in 1545.It is an important source for the history of the longbow, as the bows, archery implements and the skeletons of archers have been preserved.", "The bows range in length from with an average length of .", "The majority of the arrows were made of poplar, others were made of beech, ash and hazel.", "Draw lengths of the arrows varied between with the majority having a draw length of .", "The head would add depending on type, though some must be allowed for the insertion of the shaft into the socket.The longbows on the ''Mary Rose'' were in excellent finished condition.", "There were enough bows to test some to destruction which resulted in draw forces of on average.", "However, analysis of the wood indicated that they had degraded significantly in the seawater and mud, which had weakened their draw forces.", "Replicas were made and when tested had draw forces of from .In 1980, before the finds from the ''Mary Rose'', Robert E. Kaiser published a paper stating that there were five known surviving longbows:* The first bow comes from the Battle of Hedgeley Moor in 1464, during the Wars of the Roses.", "A family who lived at the castle since the battle had preserved it to modern times.", "It is and a draw force.", "* The second dates to the Battle of Flodden in 1513 (\"a landmark in the history of archery, as the last battle on English soil to be fought with the longbow as the principal weapon...\").", "It hung in the rafters at the headquarters of the Royal Scottish Archers in Edinburgh.", "It has a draw force of .", "* The third and fourth were recovered in 1836 by John Deane from the ''Mary Rose''.", "Both weapons are in the Tower of London Armoury and Horace Ford writing in 1887 estimated them to have a draw force of .", "A modern replica made in the early 1970s of these bows has a draw force of .", "* The fifth surviving longbow comes from the armoury of the church in the village of Mendlesham in Suffolk, and is believed to date either from the period of Henry VIII or Queen Elizabeth I.", "The Mendlesham Bow is broken but has an estimated length of and draw force of ." ], [ "Social importance", "The importance of the longbow in English culture can be seen in the legends of Robin Hood, which increasingly depicted him as a master archer, and also in the \"Song of the Bow\", a poem from ''The White Company'' by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle.During the reign of Henry III, the Assize of Arms of 1252 required that all \"citizens, burgesses, free tenants, villeins and others from 15 to 60 years of age\" should be armed.", "The poorest of them were expected to have a halberd and a knife, and a bow if they owned land worth more than £2.This made it easier for the King to raise an army, but also meant that the bow was a weapon commonly used by rebels during the Peasants' Revolt.", "From the time that the yeoman class of England became proficient with the longbow, the nobility in England had to be careful not to push them into open rebellion.It has been conjectured that yew trees were commonly planted in English churchyards to have readily available longbow wood." ], [ "See also", "* Archery* Infantry in the Middle Ages" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ; Journals* * * * ; Other* * * " ], [ "Further reading", "; Books * * * * * * ** A review by Bernard Cornwell in The Times* ; Journals* Thomas Esper ''The Replacement of the Longbow by Firearms in the English Army'', Technology and Culture, Vol.", "VI, No.", "3, 1965.", "* B.W.", "Kooi C.A.", "Bergman. ''", "PDF:An Approach to the Study of Ancient Archery using Mathematical Modelling'', Antiquity 71:(271) 124–134 (1979); Other* Rulon l. Hancock. ''", "PDF: United States National Archery Association Flight committee modern longbow flight rules '', U.S. National Archery Association.", "September 2002.", "* Paul Lalonde. ''", "A Bundle of Tudor War Arrows '', An article about the arrows found on the Mary Rose.", "* Liesl Wilhelmstochter. ''", "Ealdormere Archery Handbook: Section 11: Towards a more medieval archer''* Staff. ''", "Mary Rose historical ship'', The Mary Rose Trust – {note: BACK of bow faces enemy.", "}* The Great Northwood Bowmen Medieval Longbow Archery and re-enactment Society, re-enacting the 15th century, based in London." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lee Marvin" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lee Marvin''' (February 19, 1924August 29, 1987) was an American film and television actor.", "Known for his bass voice and premature white hair, he is best remembered for playing hardboiled \"tough guy\" characters.", "Although initially typecast as the \"heavy\" (i.e.", "villainous character), he later gained prominence for portraying anti-heroes, such as Detective Lieutenant Frank Ballinger on the television series ''M Squad'' (1957–1960).", "Marvin's notable roles in film included Charlie Strom in ''The Killers'' (1964), Rico Fardan in ''The Professionals'' (1966), Major John Reisman in ''The Dirty Dozen'' (1967), Ben Rumson in ''Paint Your Wagon'' (1969), Walker in ''Point Blank'' (1967), and the Sergeant in ''The Big Red One'' (1980).Marvin achieved numerous accolades when he portrayed both gunfighter Kid Shelleen and criminal Tim Strawn in a dual role for the comedy Western film ''Cat Ballou'' (1965), alongside Jane Fonda, a surprise hit which won him the Academy Award for Best Actor, along with a BAFTA Award, a Golden Globe Award, an NBR Award, and the Silver Bear for Best Actor." ], [ "Early life", "Lee Marvin was born in New York City to Lamont Waltman Marvin – World War I veteran of the Army Corps of Engineers and an advertising executive – and Courtenay Washington (née Davidge), a fashion writer.", "As with his elder brother, Robert, he was named in honor of Civil War Confederate General Robert E. Lee, who was his first cousin, four times removed.", "His father was a direct descendant of Matthew Marvin Sr., who emigrated from Great Bentley, Essex, England in 1635, and helped found Hartford, Connecticut.", "Marvin studied violin when he was young.", "He suffered from dyslexia and ADHD.", "Marvin did not enjoy school and studied poorly.", "As a teenager, Marvin \"spent weekends and spare time hunting deer, puma, wild turkey, and bobwhite in the wilds of the then-uncharted Everglades\".He attended Manumit School, a Christian socialist boarding school in Pawling, New York, during the late 1930s, and Peekskill Military Academy in Peekskill, New York.", "He later attended St. Leo College Preparatory School, a Catholic school in St. Leo, Florida, after being expelled from several other schools for bad behavior (smoking cigarettes, truancy of lessons and fights)." ], [ "Military service", "===World War II===Picture of Private Lee Marvin, USMC, as listed in the \"Red Book\", 24th Regiment, 4th Marine Division, published in 1943Marvin enlisted in the United States Marine Corps on August 12, 1942.Before finishing School of Infantry, he was a quartermaster.", "Marvin served in the 4th Marine Division as a scout sniper in the Pacific Theater during World War II, including assaults on Eniwetok and Saipan-Tinian.", "While serving as a member of \"I\" Company, 3rd Battalion, 24th Marines, 4th Marine Division, Marvin participated in 21 amphibious assaults on Japanese-held islands.", "He was wounded in action on June 18, 1944, while taking part in the assault on Mount Tapochau during the Battle of Saipan, in the course of which most of his company became casualties.", "He was hit by machine gun fire, which severed his sciatic nerve, and then was hit again in the foot by a sniper.", "After over a year of medical treatment in naval hospitals, Marvin was given a medical discharge with the rank of private first class.", "He previously held the rank of corporal, but had been demoted for troublemaking.Marvin's decorations include the Purple Heart Medal, the Presidential Unit Citation, the American Campaign Medal, the Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal, the World War II Victory Medal, and the Combat Action Ribbon.====Medals and ribbons==== Purple Heart Navy Commendation Medal with V Device Combat Action Ribbon Presidential Unit Citation American Campaign Medal Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal World War II Victory Medal" ], [ "Acting career", "The Grave\", a 1961 episode of ''The Twilight Zone'' ===Early acting career===After the war, while working as a plumber's assistant at a local community theatre in upstate New York, Marvin was asked to replace an actor who had fallen ill during rehearsals.", "He caught the acting bug and got a job with the company for $7 a week.", "He moved to Greenwich Village and used the G.I.", "Bill to study at the American Theatre Wing.He appeared on stage in a production of ''Uniform of Flesh'', the original version of ''Billy Budd'' (1949).", "It was performed at the Experimental Theatre, where a few months later, Marvin also appeared in ''The Nineteenth Hole of Europe'' (1949).Marvin began appearing on television shows like ''Escape'', ''The Big Story'', and ''Treasury Men in Action''.He made it to Broadway with a small role in a production of ''Uniform of Flesh'', now titled ''Billy Budd'', in February 1951.===Hollywood===Marvin's film debut was in ''You're in the Navy Now'' (1951), directed by Henry Hathaway, a movie that also marked the debuts of Charles Bronson and Jack Warden.", "This required some filming in Hollywood.", "Marvin decided to stay in California.Marvin in ''M Squad'' (1957-1960)He had a similar small part in ''Teresa'' (1951), directed by Fred Zinnemann.", "As a decorated combat veteran, Marvin was a natural in war dramas, where he frequently assisted the director and other actors in realistically portraying infantry movement, arranging costumes, and the use of firearms.He guest starred on episodes of ''Fireside Theatre'', ''Suspense'' and ''Rebound''.", "Hathaway used him again on ''Diplomatic Courier'' (1952) and he could be seen in ''Down Among the Sheltering Palms'' (1952), directed by Edmund Goulding; ''We're Not Married!''", "(1952), also for Goulding; ''The Duel at Silver Creek'' (1952), directed by Don Siegel; and ''Hangman's Knot'' (1952), directed by Roy Huggins.He guest starred on ''Biff Baker, U.S.A.'' and ''Dragnet'', and had a showcase role as the squad leader in a feature titled ''Eight Iron Men'' (1952), a war film directed by Edward Dmytryk and produced by Stanley Kramer (Marvin's role had been played on Broadway by Burt Lancaster).He was a sergeant in ''Seminole'' (1953), a Western directed by Budd Boetticher, and was a corporal in ''The Glory Brigade'' (1953), a Korean War film.Marvin guest starred in ''The Doctor'', ''The Revlon Mirror Theater'', ''Suspense,'' and ''The Motorola Television Hour''.He was now in much demand for Westerns: ''The Stranger Wore a Gun'' (1953) with Randolph Scott, and ''Gun Fury'' (1953) ,with Rock Hudson.===''The Big Heat'' and ''The Wild One''===Marvin received much acclaim for his portrayal of villains in two films: ''The Big Heat'' (1953) where he played Gloria Grahame's vicious boyfriend, directed by Fritz Lang; and ''The Wild One'' (1953), opposite Marlon Brando (Marvin's gang in the film was named \"The Beetles\"), produced by Kramer.He continued in TV shows such as ''The Plymouth Playhouse'' and ''The Pepsi-Cola Playhouse''.", "He had support roles in ''Gorilla at Large'' (1954) and had a notable small role as smart-aleck sailor Meatball in ''The Caine Mutiny'' (1954), produced by Kramer.Marvin was in ''The Raid'' (1954), ''Center Stage'', ''Medic'' and ''TV Reader's Digest''.He had a part as Hector, the small-town hood in ''Bad Day at Black Rock'' (1955) ,with Spencer Tracy.", "Also in 1955, he played a conflicted, brutal bank-robber in ''Violent Saturday''.", "A critic wrote of the character, \"Marvin brings a multi-faceted complexity to the role and gives a great example of the early promise that launched his long and successful career.", "\"Attack'' (1956)Marvin played Robert Mitchum's and Frank Sinatra's friend in ''Not as a Stranger'' (1955), a medical drama produced and directed by Stanley Kramer.", "He had good supporting roles in ''A Life in the Balance'' (1955) (he was third billed), and ''Pete Kelly's Blues'' (1955) and appeared on TV in ''Jane Wyman Presents The Fireside Theatre'' and ''Studio One in Hollywood.", "''Marvin was in ''I Died a Thousand Times'' (1955) with Jack Palance, ''Shack Out on 101'' (1955), ''Kraft Theatre'', and ''Front Row Center.", "''Marvin was the villain in ''Seven Men from Now'' (1956) starring Randolph Scott and directed by Boetticher.", "He was second-billed to Palance in ''Attack'' (1956) directed by Robert Aldrich.Marvin had roles in ''Pillars of the Sky'' (1956) with Jeff Chandler, ''The Rack'' (1956) with Paul Newman, ''Raintree County'' (1957) with Elizabeth Taylor and Montgomery Clift and a leading role in ''The Missouri Traveler'' (1958).", "He also guest starred on ''Climax!''", "(several times), ''Studio 57'', ''The United States Steel Hour'' and ''Schlitz Playhouse''.===''M Squad''===Marvin in 1959 from the set of ''M Squad''Marvin debuted as a leading man in ''M Squad'' as Chicago cop Frank Ballinger in 100 episodes of the successful 1957–1960 television series.", "One critic described the show as \"a hyped-up, violent ''Dragnet'' ...with a hard-as-nails Marvin\" playing a tough police lieutenant.", "Marvin received the role after guest-starring in a ''Dragnet'' episode as a serial killer.When the series ended Marvin appeared on ''Westinghouse Desilu Playhouse'', ''NBC Sunday Showcase'', ''The Barbara Stanwyck Show'', ''The Americans'', ''Wagon Train'', ''Checkmate'', ''General Electric Theater, Alcoa Premiere'', ''The Investigators'', ''Route 66'' (he was injured during a fight scene), ''Ben Casey'', ''Bonanza'', ''The Untouchables'' (several times), ''The Virginian'', ''The Twilight Zone'' (\"The Grave\" and \"Steel\"), and ''The Dick Powell Theatre''.===Early 1960s=======''The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance''====Marvin returned to feature films with a prominent role in ''The Comancheros'' (1961) starring John Wayne and Stuart Whitman.", "He played in two more films with Wayne, both directed by John Ford: ''The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance'' (1962),and ''Donovan's Reef'' (1963).", "As the vicious Liberty Valance, Marvin played his first title role and held his own with two of the screen's biggest stars, Wayne and James Stewart.====Television====In 1962 Marvin appeared as Martin Kalig on the TV western ''The Virginian'' in the episode titled \"It Tolls for Thee.\"", "He continued to guest star on shows like ''Combat!", "'', ''Dr.", "Kildare'' and ''The Great Adventure''.", "He did ''The Case Against Paul Ryker'' for ''Kraft Suspense Theatre.", "''====''The Killers''====For director Don Siegel, Marvin appeared in ''The Killers'' (1964) playing an efficient professional assassin alongside Clu Gulager, grappling with villains Ronald Reagan and Angie Dickinson.", "''The Killers'' was the first film in which Marvin received top billing.", "Originally made as a TV-movie, the film was deemed so entertaining that it was exhibited in theaters instead.He guest starred on ''Bob Hope Presents the Chrysler Theatre''.===''Cat Ballou'' and stardom===Marvin finally became a star for his dual role in the offbeat comedic Western ''Cat Ballou'' (1965) starring Jane Fonda.", "This was a surprise hit, and Marvin won the Academy Award for Best Actor.", "He also won the Silver Bear for Best Actor at the 15th Berlin International Film Festival in 1965.Playing alongside Vivien Leigh and Simone Signoret, Marvin won the 1966 National Board of Review Award for male actors for his role in ''Ship of Fools'' (1965) directed by Kramer.====''The Professionals''====Marvin next performed in the highly regarded Western ''The Professionals'' (1966), in which he played the leader of a small band of skilled mercenaries (Burt Lancaster, Robert Ryan, and Woody Strode) rescuing a kidnap victim (Claudia Cardinale) shortly after the Mexican Revolution.", "He had second billing to Lancaster but his part was almost as large.====''The Dirty Dozen''====He followed that film with the hugely successful World War II epic ''The Dirty Dozen'' (1967) in which top-billed Marvin again portrayed an intrepid commander of a colorful group (played by John Cassavetes, Charles Bronson, Telly Savalas, Jim Brown, and Donald Sutherland) performing an almost impossible mission.", "Robert Aldrich directed.", "In an interview, Marvin stated his time in the Marine Corps helped shape that role \"by playing an officer how I felt it should have been seen, from the bias of an enlisted man's viewpoint\".====''Point Blank''====In the wake of these films and after having received his Oscar, Marvin was a huge star, given enormous control over his next film ''Point Blank''.", "In ''Point Blank'', an influential film from director John Boorman, he portrayed a hard-nosed criminal bent on revenge.", "Marvin, who had selected Boorman for the director's slot, had a central role in the film's development, plot, and staging.====''Hell in the Pacific'' and ''Sergeant Ryker''====In 1968, Marvin also appeared in another Boorman film, the critically acclaimed but commercially unsuccessful World War II character study ''Hell in the Pacific'', also starring famed Japanese actor Toshiro Mifune.", "Boorman recounted his work with Lee Marvin on these two films and Marvin's influence on his career in the 1998 documentary ''Lee Marvin: A Personal Portrait by John Boorman''.", "''The Case Against Paul Ryker'' with Bradford Dillman, which Marvin shot for TV's ''Kraft Suspense Theatre'' and had been telecast in 1963, was released theatrically as ''Sergeant Ryker'' in 1968 after the runaway success of ''The Dirty Dozen''.====''Paint Your Wagon''====Marvin was originally cast as Pike Bishop (later played by William Holden) in ''The Wild Bunch'' (1969), but fell out with director Sam Peckinpah and pulled out to star in the Western musical ''Paint Your Wagon'' (1969), in which he was top-billed over a singing Clint Eastwood.", "Despite his limited singing ability, he had a hit with the song \"Wand'rin' Star\".", "By this time, he was getting paid $1 million per film, $200,000 less than top star Paul Newman was making at the time, yet he was ambivalent about the movie business, even with its financial rewards:You spend the first forty years of your life trying to get in this business, and the next forty years trying to get out.", "And then when you're making the bread, who needs it?===1970s===Marvin had a much greater variety of roles in the 1970s, with fewer 'bad-guy' roles than in earlier years.", "His 1970s movies included ''Monte Walsh'' (1970), a Western with Palance and Jeanne Moreau; the violent ''Prime Cut'' (1972) with Gene Hackman; ''Pocket Money'' (1972) with Paul Newman, for Stuart Rosenberg; ''Emperor of the North'' (1973) opposite Ernest Borgnine for Aldrich; as Hickey in ''The Iceman Cometh'' (1973) with Fredric March and Robert Ryan, for John Frankenheimer; ''The Spikes Gang'' (1974) with Noah Beery Jr. for Richard Fleischer; ''The Klansman'' (1974) with Richard Burton; ''Shout at the Devil'' (1976), a World War I adventure with Roger Moore, directed by Peter Hunt; ''The Great Scout & Cathouse Thursday'' (1976), a comic Western with Oliver Reed; and ''Avalanche Express'' (1979), a Cold War thriller with Robert Shaw who died during production, as did the film's director, both from heart attacks.", "None of these films was a big box-office hit.Marvin was offered the role of Quint in ''Jaws'' (1975) but declined, stating \"What would I tell my fishing friends who'd see me come off as a hero against a dummy shark?", "\"===1980s===Marvin's last big role was in Samuel Fuller's ''The Big Red One'' (1980), a war film based on Fuller's own war experiences.His remaining films were ''Death Hunt'' (1981), a Canadian action movie with Charles Bronson, directed by Peter Hunt; ''Gorky Park'' (1983) with William Hurt; and ''Dog Day'' (1984), shot in France.For TV he did ''The Dirty Dozen: Next Mission'' (1985; a sequel with Marvin, Ernest Borgnine, and Richard Jaeckel picking up where they had left off despite being 18 years older).His final appearance was in ''The Delta Force'' (1986) with Chuck Norris, playing a role turned down by Charles Bronson." ], [ "Personal life", "Marvin was a Democrat.", "He publicly endorsed John F. Kennedy in the 1960 presidential election.", "In a 1969 Playboy interview, Marvin said he supported gay rights.===Marriages, children and partners===Marvin married Betty Ebeling in April 1952 and together they had four children: a son Christopher Lamont, and three daughters: Courtenay Lee, Cynthia Louise, and Claudia Leslie.", "After a separation of two years, they divorced in January 1967.In her 2010 book, ''Tales of a Hollywood Housewife: A Memoir by the First Mrs. Lee Marvin'', Betty claimed that Lee had an affair with actress Anne Bancroft.He married Pamela Feeley in 1970 following his famous relationship with Michelle Triola.", "She wrote Lee: A Romance.", "Pamela had four children; although none of them were with Marvin.", "They remained married until his death in 1987.Pamela passed away suddenly on April 3, 2018, leaving family and friends saddened, but grateful for her love and friendship over a lifetime.", "Pamela, born in Kingston, NY on February 22, 1930 is survived by children, Rod McLeod, Wendy McLeod King, Maura Moncure Moore and Kerry Griffin; 11 grandchildren and nine great-grandchildren.===Community property case===:''See also Marvin v. Marvin''In 1971, Marvin was sued by Michelle Triola, his live-in girlfriend from 1965 to 1970, who legally changed her surname to \"Marvin\".", "Although the couple never married, she sought financial compensation similar to that available to spouses under California's alimony and community property laws.", "Triola claimed Marvin made her pregnant three times and paid for two abortions, while one pregnancy ended in miscarriage.", "She claimed the second abortion left her unable to bear children.", "The result was the landmark \"palimony\" case, ''Marvin v. Marvin'', 18 Cal.", "3d 660 (1976).In 1979, Marvin was ordered to pay $104,000 to Triola for \"rehabilitation purposes\", but the court denied her community property claim for one-half of the $3.6 million which Marvin had earned during their six years of cohabitation – distinguishing nonmarital relationship contracts from marriage, with community property rights only attaching to the latter by operation of law.", "Rights equivalent to community property only apply in nonmarital relationship contracts when the parties expressly, whether orally or in writing, contract for such rights to operate between them.", "In August 1981, the California Court of Appeal found that no such contract existed between them and nullified the award she had received.", "Michelle Triola died of lung cancer on October 30, 2009, having been with actor Dick Van Dyke since 1976.Later there was controversy after Marvin characterized the trial as a \"circus\", saying \"everyone was lying, even I lied\".", "There were official comments about possibly charging Marvin with perjury, but no charges were filed.This case was used as fodder for a mock debate skit on ''Saturday Night Live'' called \"Point Counterpoint\" and a skit on ''The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson'' with Carson as Adam, and Betty White as Eve." ], [ "Death", "Grave of Lee Marvin at Arlington National CemeteryA heavy smoker and drinker, Marvin had health problems by the end of his life.", "In December 1986, Marvin was hospitalized for more than two weeks because of a condition related to coccidioidomycosis.", "He went into respiratory distress and was administered steroids to help his breathing.", "He had major intestinal ruptures as a result, and underwent a colectomy.", "Marvin died of a heart attack on August 29, 1987, aged 63.He was buried with full military honors at Arlington National Cemetery." ], [ "Filmography", "===Film=== Year Title Role Notes1951 ''You're in the Navy Now'' Radio Man Uncredited ''Teresa'' G.I.", "Uncredited1952 ''Diplomatic Courier'' MP at Trieste Uncredited ''We're Not Married!''", "\"Pinky\" Uncredited ''The Duel at Silver Creek'' Tinhorn Burgess''Hangman's Knot'' Rolph Bainter ''Eight Iron Men'' Sgt.", "Joe Mooney1953 ''Down Among the Sheltering Palms'' Pvt.", "Snively Uncredited ''Seminole'' Sgt.", "Magruder ''The Glory Brigade'' Cpl.", "Bowman ''The Stranger Wore a Gun'' Dan Kurth ''The Big Heat'' Vince Stone''Gun Fury'' Blinky ''The Wild One'' Chino1954 ''Gorilla at Large'' Shaughnessy, Policeman ''The Caine Mutiny'' \"Meatball\" ''The Raid'' Lt. Keating1955 ''Bad Day at Black Rock'' Hector David ''Violent Saturday'' Dill, Bank Robber ''Not as a Stranger'' Brundage ''A Life in the Balance'' The Killer ''Pete Kelly's Blues'' Al Gannaway ''I Died a Thousand Times'' Babe Kossuck ''Shack Out on 101'' Slob / Mr. Gregory1956 ''Seven Men from Now'' Bill Masters Made by Batjac Productions, John Wayne's company.", "''Attack'' Lt. Col. Clyde Bartlett ''Pillars of the Sky'' Sergeant Lloyd Carracart ''The Rack'' Capt.", "John R. Miller 1957 ''Raintree County'' Orville \"Flash\" Perkins Nominated—Laurel Award for Best Male Supporting Performance 1958 ''The Missouri Traveler'' Tobias Brown 1961 ''The Comancheros'' Tully Crow Nominated—Laurel Award for Best Male Supporting Performance 1962 ''The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance'' Liberty Valance Bronze Wrangler for Best Theatrical Motion PictureNominated—Laurel Award for Best Action Performance 1963 ''Donovan's Reef'' Thomas Aloysius \"Boats\" Gilhooley 1964 ''The Killers'' Charlie Strom BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role (also for ''Cat Ballou'')Nominated—Laurel Award for Best Action Performance1965 ''Cat Ballou'' Kid Shelleen and Tim Strawn Academy Award for Best ActorBAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role (also for ''The Killers'')Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or ComedyLaurel Award for Best Male Comedy PerformanceNational Board of Review Award for Best Actor (also for ''Ship of Fools'')Silver Bear for Best ActorNominated—New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actor ''Ship of Fools'' Bill Tenny National Board of Review Award for Best Actor (also for ''Cat Ballou'') 1966 ''The Professionals'' Henry \"Rico\" Fardan Laurel Award for Best Action Performance1967 ''The Dirty Dozen'' Major John Reisman Laurel Award for Best Action Performance ''Point Blank'' Walker1968 ''Hell in the Pacific'' American Pilot 1969 ''Paint Your Wagon'' Ben Rumson Nominated—Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy 1970 ''Monte Walsh'' Monte Walsh Fotogramas de Plata Award for Best Foreign PerformerNominated—Laurel Award for Best Action Performance1972 ''Pocket Money'' Leonard ''Prime Cut'' Nick Devlin1973 ''Emperor of the North Pole'' A No.", "1 ''The Iceman Cometh'' Hickey1974 ''The Spikes Gang'' Harry Spikes''The Klansman'' Sheriff Track Bascomb1976 '' Shout at the Devil'' Col. Flynn O'Flynn ''The Great Scout & Cathouse Thursday'' Sam Longwood 1979 ''Avalanche Express'' Col. Harry Wargrave 1980 ''The Big Red One'' The Sergeant 1981 ''Death Hunt'' Sergeant Edgar Millen 1983 ''Gorky Park'' Jack Osborne 1984 ''Dog Day'' Jimmy Cobb French title: ''Canicule'' 1986 ''The Delta Force'' Col. Nick Alexander (final film role)===Television=== Year Title Role Notes1950 ''Escape'' Episode: \"Whappernocker Song\" ''The Big Story'' Episode: \"Eugene Travis, Memphis Tennessee Reporter\" ''Treasury Men in Action'' Episode: \"The Case of the Deadly Fish\" 1950–1953 ''Suspense'' Barrow 2 episodes1952 ''Rebound'' Sgt.", "Krone / Bull 2 episodes ''Fireside Theatre'' Episode: \"Sound in the Night\" ''Biff Baker, U.S.A.'' Michler / Captain Hollis Episode: \"Alpine Assignment\" 1952–1953 ''Dragnet'' James Mitchell / Henry Ross 2 episodes1953 ''The Doctor'' Episode: \"The Runaways\" ''The Revlon Mirror Theater'' Red Johnson Episode: \"Lullaby\" ''The Motorola Television Hour'' Episode: \"Outlaw's Reckoning\" ''Plymouth Playhouse'' Episode: \"Outlaw's Reckoning\"1954 ''The Pepsi-Cola Playhouse'' John Temple 2 episodes ''Center Stage'' Zach Toombs Episode: \"The Day Before Atlanta\" ''Medic'' Larry Collins Episode: \"White Is the Color\" 1954–1959 ''Schlitz Playhouse of Stars'' Jim Patterson / Russ Anderson 3 episodes 1954–1961 ''General Electric Theater'' Sid Benton / Clerk / Joe Kittridge / Dick Giles / Art Temple / Captain Morrissey 7 episodes1955 ''TV Reader's Digest'' Charlie Faust Episode: \"How Charlie Faust Won a Pennant for the Giants\" ''Fireside Theatre'' Jigger Episode: \"Little Guy\" ''Studio One'' Teale Episode: \"Shakedown Cruise\" 1955–1958 ''Climax!''", "Mannon Tate / 'Little Man' Brush / Charter Plane Pilot / Capt.", "Cavallero 4 episodes1956 ''Kraft Television Theatre'' Milo Bogardus Episode: \"The Fool Killer\" ''Front Row Center'' David Hawken Episode: \"Dinner Date\"1957 ''Studio 57'' Episode: \"You Take Ballistics\" ''The United States Steel Hour'' Episode: \"Shadow of Evil\" 1957–1960 ''M Squad'' Detective Lt. Frank Ballinger / Lt. Frank Ballinger / Barney 117 episodes 1959 ''Westinghouse Desilu Playhouse'' Captain David Roberts Episode: \"Man in Orbit\" 1960 ''NBC Sunday Showcase'' Ira Hayes Episode: \"The American\" 1960–1961 ''Wagon Train'' Jud Benedict / Jose Morales 2 episodes1961 ''Route 66'' John Ryan / Woody Biggs 2 episodes ''The Barbara Stanwyck Show'' Jud Hollister Episode: \"Confession\" ''The Americans'' Capt.", "Judd Episode: \"Reconnaissance\" ''Checkmate'' Lee Tabor Episode: \"Jungle Castle\" ''Alcoa Premiere'' Hughes Episode: \"People Need People\"Nominated—Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Single Performance by an Actor in a Leading Role ''The Investigators'' \"Nostradamus\" (Walter Mimms) Episode: \"The Oracle\" 1961–1962 ''The Untouchables'' Mike Brannon / Victor Rait / Howard Carson / Nick Acropolis 3 episodes 1961–1963 ''The Twilight Zone'' Sam \"Steel\" Kelly / Conny Miller Episodes: \"The Grave\" and \"Steel\"1962 ''Ben Casey'' Gerry Bramson Episode: \"A Story to Be Softly Told\" ''Bonanza'' Peter Kane Episode: \"The Crucible\" ''The DuPont Show of the Week'' Juan de Nuñez Episode: \"The Richest Man in Bogotá\" ''The Virginian'' Martin Kalig Episode: \"It Tolls for Thee\" 1962–1964 ''Dr.", "Kildare'' Buddy Bishop / Dr. Paul Probeck 2 episodes1963 ''The Dick Powell Show'' Finn / Dave Blassingame 2 episodes ''Combat!''", "Sgt.", "Turk Episode: \"The Bridge at Châlons\" ''Kraft Suspense Theatre'' Sgt.", "Paul Ryker 2 episodes ''The Great Adventure'' Misok Bedrozian Episode: \"Six Wagons to the Sea\" 1963–1964 ''Lawbreakers'' Himself – Host / Narrator 35 episodes 1965 ''Bob Hope Presents the Chrysler Theatre'' Nick Karajanian Episode: \"The Loving Cup\" 1968 ''Sergeant Ryker'' Sgt.", "Paul Ryker ''Kraft Suspense Theatre'' 1985 ''The Dirty Dozen: Next Mission'' Maj. John Reisman Television film" ], [ "See also", "* The Sons of Lee Marvin, a tongue-in-cheek secret society dedicated to Marvin* ''Welcome to Night Vale'', which features Lee Marvin as an integral piece of its mythology and supporting cast." ], [ "References", "===Notes======Citations======Bibliography===* * Bean, Kendra.", "''Vivien Leigh: An Intimate Portrait''.", "Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Running Press, 2013..* David, Catherine.", "''Simone Signoret''.", "New York: Overlook Press, 1995..* * * Marvin, Betty.", "''Tales of a Hollywood Housewife: A Memoir by the First Mrs. Lee Marvin''.", "Bloomington, Indiana: iUniverse, 2010..* Marvin, Pamela.", "''Lee: A Romance''.", "London: Faber & Faber Limited, 1997..* Walker, Alexander.", "''Vivien: The Life of Vivien Leigh''.", "New York: Grove Press, 1987..* Wise, James E. and Anne Collier Rehill.", "''Stars in the Corps: Movie Actors in the United States Marines''.", "Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1999..* Zec, Donald.", "''Marvin: The Story of Lee Marvin''.", "New York: St. Martin's Press, 1980.." ], [ "External links", "* * * Profile of Marvin in ''Film Comment''" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lead Belly" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Huddie William Ledbetter''' (; January 20, 1888 – December 6, 1949), better known by the stage name '''Lead Belly''', was an American folk and blues singer notable for his strong vocals, virtuosity on the twelve-string guitar, and the folk standards he introduced, including his renditions of \"In the Pines\", \"Goodnight, Irene\", \"Midnight Special\", \"Cotton Fields\", and \"Boll Weevil\".Lead Belly usually played a twelve-string guitar, but he also played the piano, mandolin, harmonica, violin, and windjammer.", "In some of his recordings, he sang while clapping his hands or stomping his foot.Lead Belly's songs covered a wide range of genres, including gospel music, blues, and folk music, as well as a number of topics, including women, liquor, prison life, racism, cowboys, work, sailors, cattle herding, and dancing.", "He also wrote songs about people in the news, such as Franklin D. Roosevelt, Adolf Hitler, Jean Harlow, Jack Johnson, the Scottsboro Boys and Howard Hughes.", "Lead Belly was posthumously inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1988 and the Louisiana Music Hall of Fame in 2008.Though many releases credit him as \"Leadbelly\", he wrote his name as \"Lead Belly\".", "This is the spelling on his tombstone and is used by the Lead Belly Foundation." ], [ "Biography", "=== Personal life ===Lead Belly's draft registration card in 1942 (SERIAL NUMBER U2214 and address listed as 604 E 9TH ST., N.Y. N.", "Y.", ")The younger of two children, Lead Belly was born Huddie William Ledbetter to Sallie Brown and Wesley Ledbetter on a plantation near Mooringsport, Louisiana.", "On his World War II draft registration card in 1942, he gave his birthplace as Freeport, Louisiana (\"Shreveport\").", "There is uncertainty over his precise date and year of birth.", "The Lead Belly Foundation gives his birth date as January 20, 1889, his grave marker gives the year 1889, and his 1942 draft registration card states January 23, 1889.These records were made by census takers, and ages and dates were defined in terms of the census date.", "The 1900 United States Census lists \"Hudy Ledbetter\" as 12 years old, born January 1888, and the 1910 and 1930 censuses also give his age as corresponding to a birth in 1888.The 1940 census lists his age as 51, with information supplied by wife Martha.", "The books ''Blues: A Regional Experience'' by Eagle and LeBlanc and ''Encyclopedia of Louisiana Musicians'' by Tomko give January 23, 1888, while the ''Encyclopedia of the Blues'' gives January 20, 1888.His parents had cohabited for several years.", "They officially married on February 26, 1888, perhaps after his birth that year.", "When Huddie was five years old, the family settled in Bowie County, Texas.By the 1910 census of Harrison County, Texas, \"Hudy Ledbetter\" was living next door to his parents in a separate household with his first wife, Aletha \"Lethe\" Henderson.", "Aletha is recorded as age 19 and married one year.", "Others say she was 15 when they married in 1908.Ledbetter received his first instrument in Texas, an accordion, from his uncle Terrell.", "By his early twenties, having fathered at least two children, Ledbetter left home to make his living as a guitarist and occasional laborer.=== Music career ===By 1903, Huddie was already a \"musicianer\", a singer and guitarist of some note.", "He performed to Shreveport audiences in St. Paul's Bottoms, a notorious red-light district.", "He began to develop his own style of music after exposure to the various musical influences on Shreveport's Fannin Street, a row of saloons, brothels, and dance halls in the Bottoms.", "This area is now referred to as Ledbetter Heights.Between 1915 and 1939, Ledbetter served several prison and jail terms in Louisiana for a variety of criminal charges.", "Notably, in 1918 under the name of Walter Boyd, he was convicted of murder in Texas and sentenced to 30 years in prison.", "After writing a song pleading for clemency Ledbetter was pardoned by Governor Pat Morris Neff in 1925.Thirty years after starting his music career, he was \"discovered\" in Angola Penitentiary during a 1933 visit by folklorists John Lomax and his son Alan Lomax.", "They were recording varieties of local music in the South as a project to preserve traditional music for the Library of Congress.", "This was one of numerous cultural projects during the Great Depression.Deeply impressed by Ledbetter's vibrant tenor and extensive repertoire, the Lomaxes recorded him in 1933 on portable aluminum disc recording equipment in a project for the Library of Congress.", "They returned with new and better equipment in July 1934, recording hundreds of his songs.", "While in prison, Lead Belly may have first heard the traditional prison song \"Midnight Special\"; his versions became famous.", "On August 1, Ledbetter was released after having served nearly all of his minimum sentence.", "The Lomaxes had taken a record and a petition seeking his release to Louisiana Governor Oscar K. Allen at his urgent request.", "It included his signature song, \"Goodnight Irene\".A prison official later wrote to John Lomax denying that Ledbetter's singing had anything to do with his release from prison.", "(State prison records confirm he was eligible for this due to good behavior.)", "But, both Ledbetter and the Lomaxes believed that the record they had taken to the governor had helped gain his release from prison.Ledbetter returned to a state in the midst of the Great Depression, and jobs were scarce.", "In September, needing regular work to satisfy parole, he asked John Lomax to take him on as a paid driver.", "For three months, he assisted the 67-year-old in his folk song collecting around the South.", "Son Alan Lomax was ill and did not accompany his father on this trip.In December 1934, Lead Belly participated in a \"smoker\" (group sing) at a Modern Language Association meeting at Bryn Mawr College in Pennsylvania, where the senior Lomax had a prior lecture engagement.", "He was written up in the press as a convict who had sung his way out of prison.", "On New Year's Day, 1935, the pair arrived in New York City, where Lomax was scheduled to meet with his publisher, Macmillan, about a new collection of folk songs.", "The newspapers were eager to write about the \"singing convict\".", "''Time'' magazine made one of its first ''March of Time'' newsreels about him.", "Lead Belly attained fame''—''although not fortune.On January 23–25, 1935, Lead Belly had the first of several recording sessions with American Record Corporation (ARC).", "These sessions, combined with two others on February 5 and March 25, yielded 53 takes.", "Of those recordings, only six were ever released during Lead Belly's lifetime.", "ARC decided to simultaneously release these songs on six different labels they owned: Banner, Melotone, Oriole, Perfect, Romeo, and Paramount.", "These recordings achieved little commercial success.", "Part of the reason for the poor sales may have been that ARC released only his blues songs rather than the folk songs for which he would later become better known.", "Lead Belly continued to struggle financially.", "Like many performers, what income he made during his career came from touring, not from record sales.", "In February 1935, he married his girlfriend, Martha Promise, who came North from Louisiana to join him.During February Ledbetter recorded his repertoire with Alan Lomax, who also recorded other African Americans.", "Lomax interviewed Ledbetter about his life for their forthcoming book, ''Negro Folk Songs As Sung by Lead Belly'' (1936).", "But his father, who had a management contract with Lead Belly, was not able to arrange concert dates.", "In March 1935, Lead Belly accompanied John Lomax on a previously scheduled two-week lecture tour of colleges and universities in the Northeast, culminating at Harvard.At the end of the month, John Lomax decided he could no longer work with Lead Belly.", "He gave him and Martha enough money to return by bus to Louisiana.", "He also gave Martha the money her husband had earned during three months of performing, but in installments, on the pretext that Lead Belly would spend it all on drinking if he was given a lump sum.", "From Louisiana, Lead Belly successfully sued Lomax for both the full amount of his earnings and release from his management contract.", "The quarrel was bitter, with hard feelings on both sides.", "In the midst of the legal wrangling, Lead Belly wrote to Lomax proposing they team up again, but this did not happen.", "The book that the Lomaxes published about Lead Belly in the fall of 1936 proved a commercial failure.In January 1936, Lead Belly returned to New York on his own, without John Lomax, in an attempted comeback.", "He performed twice a day at Harlem's Apollo Theater during the Easter season.", "He developed a live dramatic recreation of the ''March of Time'' newsreel (itself a recreation), which was about his prison encounter with John Lomax, when he was still wearing uniform stripes.", "By this time he was no longer associated with Lomax.National Press Club in Washington, D.C. between 1938 and 1948''Life'' magazine ran a three-page article titled \"Lead Belly: Bad Nigger Makes Good Minstrel\" in its issue of April 19, 1937.It included a full-page, color (rare in those days) picture of him sitting on grain sacks playing his guitar and singing.", "Also included was a striking photograph of his wife Martha Promise (identified in the article as his manager).", "Other photos showed Lead Belly's hands playing the guitar (with the caption \"these hands once killed a man\"), Texas Governor Pat M. Neff, and the \"ramshackle\" Texas State Penitentiary.", "The article attributes both of his pardons to his singing his petitions to the governors, who were so moved that they pardoned him.", "The article closed by saying that Lead Belly \"may well be on the brink of a new and prosperous period.", "\"Lead Belly failed to stir the enthusiasm of Harlem audiences.", "Instead, he attained success playing at concerts and benefits for an audience of folk music aficionados.", "He developed his own style of singing and explaining his repertoire in the context of Southern black culture, having learned from his participation in Lomax's college lectures.", "He was especially successful with his repertoire of children's game songs (as a younger man in Louisiana he had sung regularly at children's birthday parties in the black community).", "Black novelist Richard Wright wrote about him as a heroic figure in the ''Daily Worker,'' of which Wright was the Harlem editor.", "The two men became personal friends.", "In contrast to Wright, who was then a communist, commentators described Lead Belly as apolitical.", "He was known to support Wendell Willkie, the centrist Republican candidate for president, for whom he wrote a campaign song.", "Lead Belly also wrote the song \"The Bourgeois Blues\", which has class-conscious and anti-racist lyrics.In 1939, Lead Belly was convicted and sentenced again to prison.", "Alan Lomax, then 24, took him under his wing and helped raise money for his legal expenses, dropping out of graduate school to do so.", "After gaining release, Lead Belly appeared as a regular on Lomax and Nicholas Ray's groundbreaking CBS radio show ''Back Where I Come From'', broadcast nationwide.He also performed in nightclubs with Josh White, becoming a fixture in New York City's surging folk music scene and befriending the likes of Sonny Terry, Brownie McGhee, Woody Guthrie, and Pete Seeger, all fellow performers on ''Back Where I Come From''.In 1940, Lead Belly recorded for RCA Victor, one of the biggest record companies at the time.", "These sessions in California were held on June 15 and 17, with the Golden Gate Quartet accompanying some songs.", "The recordings resulted in the album, ''The Midnight Special and Other Southern Prison Songs'', being issued by Victor Records.", "The album included sheets with extensive notes and song texts prepared by Alan Lomax.", "According to Charles Wolfe and Kip Lornell, \"it was one of the finest public presentations of Leadbelly's music: well recorded, well advertised, well documented.", "And the album justified its reputation as a landmark in African American folk music.\"", "Several of the recordings from these sessions were also issued as singles by Bluebird Records.In 1941, Lead Belly was introduced to Moses \"Moe\" Asch by mutual friends.", "Asch owned a recording studio and small record label, which mainly released folk records for the local New York City market.", "He later founded Folkways Records.", "Between 1941 and 1944, Lead Belly released three albums under the Asch Recordings label.", "During the first half of the 1940s, Lead Belly also recorded for the Library of Congress.In 1944 he went to California, where he recorded strong sessions for Capitol Records.", "He lodged with a studio guitar player on Merrywood Drive in Laurel Canyon.", "Later he returned to New York City.", "In 1949, Lead Belly had a regular radio show, ''Folk Songs of America'', broadcast on station WNYC in New York, on Henrietta Yurchenco's show on Sunday nights.", "Later in the year he began his first European tour with a trip to France, but fell ill before its completion and was diagnosed with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), or Lou Gehrig's disease (a motor neuron disease).", "Lead Belly was the first American country blues musician to achieve success in Europe.", "His final concert was at the University of Texas at Austin in a tribute to his former mentor, John Lomax, who had died the previous year.", "Martha also performed at that concert, singing spirituals with Lead Belly.Lead Belly died later that year in New York City.", "He was buried in the Shiloh Baptist Church cemetery, in Mooringsport, Louisiana, west of Blanchard, in Caddo Parish.", "He is honored with a statue across from the Caddo Parish Courthouse, in Shreveport.", "Lead Belly's niece, Global Activist Greshun De Bouse, founded National Huddie Ledbetter Day (August 1 annually), and received proclamations from the mayors of Mooringsport, LA and Shreveport, LA in 2023 .=== Legal issues ===Lead Belly inside the Angola Prison, July 1934Lead Belly was imprisoned multiple times beginning in 1915, when he was convicted of carrying a pistol, and sentenced to time on the Harrison County chain gang.", "He later escaped and found work in nearby Bowie County under the assumed name of Walter Boyd.In January 1918, he was imprisoned at the Imperial Farm (now Central Unit) in Sugar Land, Texas, after being convicted of killing a relative, Will Stafford, in a fight over a woman.", "During his second prison term, Lead Belly was stabbed in the neck by another inmate.", "(The wound resulted in a fearsome scar the musician covered with a bandana).", "Lead Belly nearly killed his attacker at the time with his own knife.In 1925, he was pardoned and released after writing a song to Texas Governor Pat Morris Neff seeking his freedom, having served the minimum seven years of a 7-to-35-year sentence.", "He was credited with good behavior, which included entertaining the guards and fellow prisoners.", "He also appealed for mercy to Neff's known religious beliefs.", "It was a testament to his persuasive powers, as Neff had run for governor on a pledge not to issue pardons (most Southern judicial systems had no provision for approving parole from prison).", "After meeting Lead Belly in 1924, Neff returned to the prison several times after he was incarcerated again.", "He brought guests to the prison on Sunday picnics to hear Ledbetter perform.In 1930, Ledbetter was sentenced to Louisiana State Penitentiary (nicknamed \"Angola\") after a summary trial for attempted homicide for stabbing a man in a fight.", "In 1939, Lead Belly served his final jail term for assault after stabbing a man in a fight in Manhattan.=== Nicknamed \"Lead Belly\" ===Lead Belly and Martha Promise Ledbetter, Wilton, Connecticut, February 1935There are several conflicting stories about how Ledbetter acquired the nickname \"Lead Belly\", it probably happened while he was in prison.", "Some claim his fellow inmates called him \"Lead Belly\" as a play on his family name and his physical toughness.", "Others say he earned the name after being wounded in the stomach with buckshot.", "Another theory is that the name refers to his ability to drink moonshine, the homemade liquor that Southern farmers, black and white, made to supplement their incomes.Blues singer Big Bill Broonzy thought it came from a supposed tendency to lie about as if \"with a stomach weighted down by lead\" in the shade when the chain gang was supposed to be working.However, his strong local accent is most likely to have led to the nickname.", "Huddie William Leadbetter from Shreveport, became Huddie Weem Leadbelly from Freeport." ], [ "Technique", "Lead Belly styled himself \"King of the Twelve-String Guitar\", and despite his use of other instruments, such as the accordion, the most enduring image of Lead Belly as a performer is wielding his unusually large Stella twelve-string.", "This guitar had a slightly longer scale length than a standard guitar, increasing the tension on the instrument, which, given the added tension of the six extra strings, meant that a trapeze-style tailpiece was needed to help resist bridge lifting.", "It had slotted tuners and ladder bracing.Lead Belly played with finger picks much of the time, using a thumb pick to provide walking bass lines described as \"tricky\" and \"inventive\", and occasionally to strum.", "This technique, combined with low tunings and heavy strings, gives many of his recordings a piano-like sound.", "Scholars have suggested much of his guitar playing was inspired equally by barrelhouse piano and the Mexican Bajo Sexto, a type of guitar that he encountered in Texas and Louisiana.Lead Belly's tunings are debated by both modern and contemporary musicians and blues enthusiasts alike, but it seems to be a down-tuned variant of standard tuning.", "Footage of his chording is scarce, so trying to decode his chords is difficult.", "It is likely that he tuned his guitar strings relative to one another, so that the actual notes shifted as the strings wore.", "Such down-tuning was a common technique before the development of truss rods, and was intended to prevent the instrument's neck from warping.", "Lead Belly's playing style was popularized by Pete Seeger, who adopted the twelve-string guitar in the 1950s and released an instructional LP and book using Lead Belly as an exemplar of technique.In some of the recordings in which Lead Belly accompanied himself, he made an unusual type of grunt between his verses, sometimes described as \"haah!\"", "Songs such as \"Looky Looky Yonder\", \"Take This Hammer\", \"Linin' Track\", and \"Julie Ann Johnson\" feature this unusual vocalization.", "In \"Take This Hammer\", Lead Belly explained: \"Every time the men say, 'Haah,' the hammer falls.", "The hammer rings, and we swing, and we sing.\"", "The \"haah\" sound can also be heard in work chants sung by Southern railroad section workers, \"gandy dancers\", in which it was used to coordinate work crews as they laid and maintained tracks." ], [ "Legacy", "In 1976, a biopic titled ''Leadbelly'' was released, directed by Gordon Parks and featuring Roger E. Mosley as Lead Belly.In 1951, the Weavers' recording of their arrangement of Lead Belly's \"Irene\", released as \"Good Night, Irene\", was the first folk song to reach #1 on the U.S. charts, selling some two million copies.Kurt Cobain promoted the legacy of Lead Belly, and some modern rock audiences owe their familiarity with Lead Belly to Nirvana's performance of \"Where Did You Sleep Last Night\" (which Lead Belly called \"In the Pines\") on a televised concert later released as ''MTV Unplugged in New York''.", "Cobain refers to his attempt to convince David Geffen to purchase Lead Belly's guitar for him in an interval before the song is played.", "In his notebooks, Cobain listed Lead Belly's ''Last Session Vol.", "1'' as one of the 50 albums most influential in the formation of Nirvana's sound.", "It was included in ''NME's'' \"The 100 Greatest Albums You've Never Heard list\".Ram Jam, an American rock band, had a hit with the song \"Black Betty\" which they remade as a rock song in 1977.", "\"Black Betty\" was recorded by Lead Belly in 1939.Bob Dylan credits Lead Belly for getting him into folk music.", "In his Nobel Prize Lecture, Dylan said \"somebody – somebody I'd never seen before – handed me a Lead Belly record with the song 'Cotton Fields' on it.", "And that record changed my life right then and there.", "Transported me into a world I'd never known.", "It was like an explosion went off.", "Like I'd been walking in darkness and all of the sudden the darkness was illuminated.", "It was like somebody laid hands on me.", "I must have played that record a hundred times.\"", "Dylan also pays homage to him in \"Song to Woody\" on his self-titled debut album.Lead Belly recordings were instrumental in starting the British skiffle revival, which in turn produced several musicians prominent during the British Invasion.", "Lonnie Donegan's recording of \"Rock Island Line\", released as a single in late 1955, signaled the start of the skiffle craze.", "George Harrison of The Beatles was quoted as saying, \"if there was no Lead Belly, there would have been no Lonnie Donegan; no Lonnie Donegan, no Beatles.", "Therefore no Lead Belly, no Beatles.\"", "In a BBC tribute in 1999, which marked the 50th anniversary of Lead Belly's death, Van Morrison – while sitting alongside Ronnie Wood of The Rolling Stones – claimed that the British popular music scene of the 1960s wouldn't have happened if it weren't for Lead Belly's influence.", "\"I'd put my money on that,\" he said.", "Wood concurred.Indian singer Bhupen Hazarika—who was, in general, influenced by spirituals during his days as a student in the US—transcreated Lead Belly's singing of \"We're in the Same Boat Brother\" into the Assamese language as \"''Ami ekekhon nawore zatri''\" (আমি একেখন নাৱৰে যাত্ৰী).", "Later, he also released a Bengali language version as \"''Mora jatri eki toronir''\" (মোরা যাত্রী একই তরণীর).In 2001 English-Canadian blues singer Long John Baldry released his final studio album, ''Remembering Leadbelly''.", "It contains cover versions of Lead Belly songs, and features a six-minute Alan Lomax interview.George Ezra developed his singing style from trying to sing like Lead Belly.", "\"On the back of the record, it said his voice was so big, you had to turn your record player down,\" Ezra says.", "\"I liked the idea of singing with a big voice, so I tried it, and I could.", "\"In 2015, in celebration of Lead Belly's 125th birthday, several events were held.", "The Kennedy Center, in collaboration with the Grammy Museum held ''Lead Belly at 125: A Tribute to an American Songster,'' a musical event featuring Robert Plant, Alison Krauss, and Buddy Miller with Viktor Krauss as headliners and Dom Flemons as host, with special appearances by Lucinda Williams, Alvin Youngblood Hart, Billy Hector, Valerie June, Shannon McNally, Josh White Jr., and Dan Zanes, among others.", "Also in Washington, D.C., ''Bourgeois Town: Lead Belly in Washington DC'' by the Library of Congress was held where Todd Harvey interviewed Lead Belly family members about their relative, his contributions to American culture and world music and an overview of the significant Lead Belly materials in the center's archive.", "In London, England, the Royal Albert Hall held ''Lead Belly Fest'', a musical event featuring Van Morrison, Eric Burdon, Jools Holland, Billy Bragg, Paul Jones, and more.=== The Titanic ===Influenced by the sinking of the ''Titanic'' in April 1912, Ledbetter wrote the song \"The Titanic\", his first composition on the twelve-string guitar, which later became his signature instrument.", "Initially played when performing with Blind Lemon Jefferson (1893–1929) in and around Dallas, Texas, the song is about champion African-American boxer Jack Johnson's being denied passage on the ''Titanic''.", "Johnson had in fact been denied passage on a ship for being black, but it was not the ''Titanic''.", "Still, the song includes the lyric \"Jack Johnson tried to get on board.", "The Captain, he says, 'I ain't haulin' no coal!'", "Fare thee, ''Titanic''!", "Fare thee well!\"", "Ledbetter later noted he had to leave out this passage when playing in front of white audiences.===\"Stay woke\"===In possibly the earliest audio recording of the phrase, Lead Belly urged Black listeners to \"stay woke\" in the spoken afterword to a 1938 recording of his song \"Scottsboro Boys\", which tells the story of nine Black teenagers and young men falsely accused of raping two white women in Alabama in 1931.Lead Belly warns his listeners, \"So I advise everybody, be a little careful when they go along through there—best stay woke, keep their eyes open.\"" ], [ "Discography", "=== Singles ===+Release YearTitle(A-side/B-side)LabelCatalog NumberRecording DateMatrix NumberNotes1935\"All Out and Down\"\"Packin' Trunk\"Banner33359January 23, 193516688-216685-1American Record Corporation decided to simultaneously release these songs on six different labels they ownedMelotoneM13326Oriole8438Perfect0314Romeo5438Paramount140061935\"Four Day Worry Blues\"\"New Black Snake Moan\"Banner33360January 23, 193516689-216691-2American Record Corporation decided to simultaneously release these songs on six different labels they ownedMelotoneM13327Oriole8439Perfect0315Romeo5439Paramount140171936\"Becky Deem, She Was a Gamblin' Girl\"\"Pig Meat Papa\"Banner6-04-55January 23, 1935,March 25, 193516678-117181-1American Record Corporation decided to simultaneously release these songs on six different labels they ownedMelotone6-04-55Oriole6-04-55Perfect6-04-55Romeo6-04-55Paramount6-04-551940\"Sail On, Little Girl, Sail On\"\"Don't You Love Your Daddy No More?", "\"BluebirdB-8550June 15, 1940,June 17, 19400515050513251940\"Alberta\"\"T.B.", "Blues\"BluebirdB-8559June 15, 19400515070515031940\"Easy Rider\"\"Worried Blues\"BluebirdB-8570June 17, 19400513220513241941\"Roberta\"\"The Red Cross Store Blues\"BluebirdB-8709June 15, 19400515060515041941\"New York City\"\"You Can't Lose-a Me Cholly\"BluebirdB-8750June 17, 1940051323-1051326-11941\"Good Morning Blues\"\"Leaving Blues\"BluebirdB-8791June 15, 19400515010515021942\"I'm on My Last Go-Round\"BluebirdB-8981June 15, 1940051508-1This was the b-side to \"Thirsty Mama Blues\" by the Hot Lips Page Trio1945\"Rock Island Line\"\"Eagle Rock Rag\"Capitol10021October 4, 1944,October 27, 1944398-3A1457-2AIncluded in the five-disc Capitol Album CE-16, ''The History of Jazz Vol.", "1: The 'Solid' South''1946\"Yellow Gal\"\"When the Boys Were on the Western Plain\"Musicraft310February 17, 194451295130-11946\"Roberta\"\"John Hardy\"Musicraft311February 17, 19445126-351331946\"Where Did You Sleep Last Night?", "\"\"In New Orleans\"Musicraft312February 17, 1944512851321946\"Bill Brady\"\"Pretty Flowers in Your Back Yard\"Musicraft313February 17, 1944512751311946\"Easy Rider\"\"Pigmeat\"Disc5501June 19461947\"Sweet Mary Blues\"\"Grasshopers in My Pillow\"CapitolA40038October 27, 1944459-2A460-3A1948\"Irene\"\"Backwater Blues\"Capitol40130October 11, 1944413-3A416-3A1948\"Digging My Potatoes\"\"Defense Blues\"Disc5085June 1946D-385D-386=== Albums ===+Release YearTitleLabelCatalog NumberNotes1939''Negro Sinful Songs''MusicraftAlbum 311940''The Midnight Special and Other Southern Prison Songs''VictorP-501941''Play Parties in Song and Dance''Asch1942''Work Songs of the U.S.A.''Asch1944''Songs by Lead Belly''AschA-3431946''Negro Folk Songs''Disc6601947''Midnight Special''Disc726Featuring Woody Guthrie and Cisco Huston" ], [ "Posthumous discography", "=== The Library of Congress recordings ===The Library of Congress recordings, made by John and Alan Lomax from 1934 to 1943, were released in a six-volume series by Rounder Records:* ''Midnight Special'' (1991)* ''Gwine Dig a Hole to Put the Devil In'' (1991)* ''Let It Shine on Me'' (1991)* ''The Titanic'' (1994)* ''Nobody Knows the Trouble I've Seen'' (1994)* ''Go Down Old Hannah'' (1995)=== Folkways recordings ===The Folkways recordings, done for Moses Asch from 1941 to 1947, were released in a three-volume series by Smithsonian Folkways:* ''Where Did You Sleep Last Night'', Lead Belly Legacy, Vol.", "1 (1996)* ''Bourgeois Blues'', Lead Belly Legacy, Vol.", "2 (1997)* ''Shout On'', Lead Belly Legacy, Vol.", "3 (1998)Smithsonian Folkways has released several other collections of his recordings:* ''Leadbelly Sings Folk Songs'' (1989)* ''Lead Belly's Last Sessions'' (4-CD box set, 1994), recorded late 1948 in New York City; his only commercial recordings on magnetic tape* ''Lead Belly Sings for Children'' (1999)* ''Folkways: The Original Vision'', Woody Guthrie and Lead Belly (2004), expanded version of the 1989 compilation* ''Lead Belly: The Smithsonian Folkways Collection'' (2015)=== Live recordings ===* ''Leadbelly Recorded in Concert, University of Texas, Austin, June 15, 1949'' (1973, Playboy Records PB 119)=== Other compilations ===* ''A Leadbelly Memorial, Vol II'' (1963, Stinson Records, SLP 19), red vinyl pressing* ''Alabama Bound'' (1989, RCA Heritage Series), a 16 track CD manufactured for BMG Direct Marketing* ''Huddie Ledbetter's Best'' (1989, BGO Records), containing recordings made for Capitol Records in 1944 in California* ''King of the 12-String Guitar'' (1991, Sony/Legacy Records), a collection of blues songs and prison ballads recorded in 1935 in New York City for the American Record Company, including previously unreleased alternate takes* ''Private Party November 21, 1948'' (2000, Document Records), containing Lead Belly's intimate performance at a private party in late 1948 in Minneapolis* ''Take This Hammer'', When the Sun Goes Down series, vol.", "5 (2003, RCA Victor/Bluebird Jazz), CD collection of all 26 songs Lead Belly recorded for Victor Records in 1940, half of which feature the Golden Gate Jubilee Quartet (a 1968 LP released by RCA Victor included about half of these recordings)* ''The Definitive Lead Belly'' (2008, Not Now Music), a 50-song retrospective on two CDs* ''Leadbelly – American Folk & Blues Anthology'' (2013, Not Now Music), 75 songs on three CDs''American Epic: The Best of Lead Belly'' (2017, Lo-Max, Sony Legacy, Third Man)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", " White, Gary; Stuart, David; Aviva, Elyn (2001).", "''Music in Our World''.", "p. 196..* Wolfe, Charles; Lornell, Kip (1992).", "''The Life and Legend of Leadbelly'' .", "New York City: HarperCollins Publishers." ], [ "External links", "* The Official Lead Belly Website* \"Ledbetter, Huddie (Leadbelly)\" in the Handbook of Texas Online* AllMusic* * Discography for Lead Belly on Folkways* Leadbelly and Lomax Together at the American Music Festival on WNYC* The 'King of the Twelve-String Guitar' is a WNYC Regular Through the 1940s* Lead Belly And The Lomaxes: Myths and Realities A FAQ and Timeline Lead Belly's relationship with John and Alan Lomax* Louisiana Music Hall of Fame Induction Page * Lead Belly: Entries\|KnowLA, Encyclopedia of Louisiana *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lower Saxony" ], [ "Introduction", "Map of Lower Saxony'''Lower Saxony''' ( ; ; ) is a German state ('''') in northwestern Germany.", "It is the second-largest state by land area, with , and fourth-largest in population (8 million in 2021) among the 16 '''' federated as the Federal Republic of Germany.", "In rural areas, Northern Low Saxon and Saterland Frisian are still spoken, albeit in declining numbers.Lower Saxony borders on (from north and clockwise) the North Sea, the states of Schleswig-Holstein, Hamburg, , Brandenburg, Saxony-Anhalt, Thuringia, Hesse and North Rhine-Westphalia, and the Netherlands.", "Furthermore, the state of Bremen forms two enclaves within Lower Saxony, one being the city of Bremen, the other its seaport, Bremerhaven (which is a semi-enclave, as it has a coastline).", "Lower Saxony thus borders more neighbours than any other single ''''.", "The state's largest cities are state capital Hanover, Braunschweig (Brunswick), Lüneburg, Osnabrück, Oldenburg, Hildesheim, Salzgitter, , and Göttingen.Lower Saxony is the only '''' that encompasses both maritime and mountainous areas.", "The northwestern area of the state, on the coast of the North Sea, is called East Frisia and the seven East Frisian Islands offshore are popular with tourists.", "In the extreme west of Lower Saxony is the Emsland, an economically emerging but rather sparsely populated area, once dominated by inaccessible swamps.", "The northern half of Lower Saxony, also known as the North German Plain, is almost invariably flat except for the gentle hills around the Bremen geestland.", "Towards the south and southwest lie the northern parts of the Central Uplands: the Weser Uplands and the Harz Mountains.", "Between these two lie the Lower Saxon Hills, a range of low ridges.Lower Saxony's major cities and economic centres are mainly situated in its central and southern parts, namely Hanover, Braunschweig, Osnabrück, , Salzgitter, Hildesheim, and Göttingen.", "Oldenburg, near the northwestern coastline, is another economic centre.", "The region in the northeast, the Lüneburg Heath (''''), is the largest heathland area of Germany.", "In the Middle Ages, it was wealthy due to salt-mining and the salt trade, as well as, to a lesser degree, the exploitation of its peat bogs, which went on until the 1960s.", "To the north the Elbe River separates Lower Saxony from Hamburg, Schleswig-Holstein, , and Brandenburg.", "The banks just south of the Elbe are known as the '''' (Old Country).", "Due to its gentle local climate and fertile soil, it is the state's largest area of fruit farming, its chief produce being apples.Most of the state's territory was part of the historic Kingdom of Hanover, and the state of Lower Saxony has adopted the coat of arms and other symbols of the former kingdom.", "It was created by the merger of the State of Hanover with three smaller states on 1 November 1946." ], [ "Geography", "=== Location ===Lower Saxony has a natural boundary in the north in the North Sea and the lower and middle reaches of the River Elbe, although parts of the city of Hamburg lie south of the Elbe.", "The state and city of Bremen is an enclave entirely surrounded by Lower Saxony.", "The Bremen/Oldenburg Metropolitan Region is a cooperative body for the enclave area.", "To the southeast, the state border runs through the Harz, low mountains that are part of the German Central Uplands.", "The northeast and west of the state, which form roughly three-quarters of its land area, belong to the North German Plain, while the south is in the Lower Saxon Hills, including the Weser Uplands, Leine Uplands, Schaumburg Land, Brunswick Land, Untereichsfeld, Elm, and Lappwald.", "In the northeast of Lower Saxony is the Lüneburg Heath.", "The heath is dominated by the poor, sandy soils of the geest, whilst in the central-east and southeast in the loess ''börde'' zone, productive soils with high natural fertility occur.", "Under these conditions—with loam and sand-containing soils—the land is well-developed agriculturally.", "In the west lie the County of Bentheim, Osnabrück Land, Emsland, Oldenburg Land, Ammerland, Oldenburg Münsterland, and on the coast East Frisia.WangeroogeThe state is dominated by several large northwards-flowing rivers, including the Ems, Weser, Aller, and the Elbe.The highest point in Lower Saxony is the Wurmberg () in the Harz.", "Most of the significant hills and mountains are found in the southeastern part of the state.", "The lowest point in the state, at about below sea level, is a depression near Freepsum in East Frisia.The state's economy, population, and infrastructure are centred on the cities and towns of Hanover, Stadthagen, Celle, Braunschweig, , Hildesheim, and Salzgitter.", "Together with Göttingen in southern Lower Saxony, they form the core of the Hannover–Braunschweig–Göttingen–Wolfsburg Metropolitan Region.=== Regions ======= General ====Lower Saxony has clear regional divisions that manifest themselves geographically, as well as historically and culturally.", "In the regions that used to be independent, especially the heartlands of the former states of Brunswick, Hanover, Oldenburg and Schaumburg-Lippe, a marked local regional awareness exists.", "By contrast, the areas surrounding the Hanseatic cities of Bremen and Hamburg are much more oriented towards those centres.==== List of regions ====Sometimes, overlaps and transition areas happen between the various regions of Lower Saxony.", "Several of the regions listed here are part of other, larger regions, that are also included in the list.", "* Altes Land* Ammerland* Artland* County of Bentheim* Bramgau* Brunswick Land* Calenberg Land* Eastphalia* East Frisia* Eichsfeld* Elbe-Weser Triangle* Emsland* Grönegau* Land Hadeln* Land Wursten* Hannover* Harz Mountains* Hildesheim Börde* Hümmling* Kehdingen* Leine Uplands* Lüneburg Heath* Middle Weser Region* Oldenburg Land* Oldenburg Münsterland* Osnabrück Land* Schaumburg Land* Solling* South Lower Saxony* Stade Geest* Wendland* Weser Uplands* Wesermarsch* Wümme DepressionJust under 20% of the land area of Lower Saxony is designated as nature parks, i.e.", ": Dümmer, Elbhöhen-Wendland, Elm-Lappwald, Harz, Lüneburger Heide, Münden, Terra.vita, Solling-Vogler, Lake Steinhude, Südheide, Weser Uplands, Wildeshausen Geest, Bourtanger Moor-Bargerveen.=== Climate ===Lower Saxony falls climatically into the north temperate zone of central Europe that is affected by prevailing Westerlies and is located in a transition zone between the maritime climate of Western Europe and the continental climate of Eastern Europe.", "This transition is clearly noticeable within the state: whilst the northwest experiences an Atlantic (North Sea coastal) to Sub-Atlantic climate, with comparatively low variations in temperature during the course of the year and a surplus water budget, the climate towards the southeast is increasingly affected by the Continent.", "This is clearly shown by greater temperature variations between the summer and winter halves of the year and in lower and more variable amounts of precipitation across the year.", "This sub-continental effect is most sharply seen in the Wendland, in the Weser Uplands (Hamelin to Göttingen) and in the area of Helmstedt.", "The highest levels of precipitation are experienced in the Harz because the Lower Saxon part forms the windward side of this mountain range against which orographic rain falls.", "The average annual temperature is ; in the and in the district of Cloppenburg." ], [ "Administration", "Lower Saxony is divided into 37 districts (''Landkreise'' or simply ''Kreise''):Map of Lower Saxony with the district boundariesFurthermore, there are eight urban districts and two cities with special status:;Notes=== Historical subdivisions ===Between 1946 and 2004, the state's districts and independent towns were grouped into eight regions, with a different status for two regions (''Verwaltungsbezirke''), comprising the formerly free states of Brunswick and Oldenburg.", "In 1978 these regions were merged into four governorates (''Regierungsbezirke'').", "In 2005 the Bezirksregierungen (regional governments) were again split into separate bodies.1946–1978:* Governorate of Aurich* Administrative Region of Brunswick (''Braunschweig'')* Governorate of Hanover (''Hannover'')* Governorate of Hildesheim* Governorate of Lunenburg (''Lüneburg'')* Administrative Region of Oldenburg* Administrative Region of Osnabrück* Governorate of Stade1978–2004:* Governorate of Brunswick (''Braunschweig'')* Governorate of Hanover (''Hannover'')* Governorate of Lunenburg (''Lüneburg'')* Governorate of Weser-EmsOn 1 January 2005 the four administrative regions or governorates (''Regierungsbezirke''), into which Lower Saxony had been hitherto divided, were dissolved.", "These were the governorates of Braunschweig, Hanover, Lüneburg and Weser-Ems.===Largest towns===The largest towns in Lower Saxony as of 31 December 2017:RankCityPopulation1Hanover535,0612Braunschweig248,0233Oldenburg167,0814Osnabrück164,3745Wolfsburg123,9146Göttingen119,5297Salzgitter104,5488Hildesheim101,7449Delmenhorst77,52110Wilhelmshaven76,31611Lüneburg75,19212Celle69,70613Garbsen60,87514Hamelin57,22815Lingen (Ems)54,11716Langenhagen53,79017Nordhorn53,27818Wolfenbüttel52,35719Goslar51,12820Emden50,607File:Hannover City.jpg\|Hanover - capital and largest city of Lower SaxonyFile:Braunschweig Luftaufnahme Innenstadt (2011).JPG\|City center of BraunschweigFile:Hildesheim - Blick vom Berghözchen.jpg\|City center of Hildesheim with St. Andrew's, the tallest church in Lower Saxony, and Hildesheim Cathedral, a UNESCO World Heritage SiteFile:Lüneburg Innenstadt Luftaufnahme 02.jpg\|Old town of the Hanseatic City of LüneburgFile:Cuxhaven_07-2016_photo19_port_area.jpg\|Cuxhaven portFile:Goettingen Marktplatz Oct06 Antilived.jpg\|Göttingen market square and the old town hallFile:Luftaufnahmen Nordseekueste 2013 05 by-RaBoe tele 46.jpg\|City center of OldenburgFile:Celle4.jpg\|Old town of CelleFile:Volkswagenwerk WOB von Osten.jpg\|Volkswagen headquarters and factory in WolfsburgFile:Luftaufnahmen Nordseekueste 2012 05 D50 by-RaBoe 054.jpg\|Wilhelmshaven with the North SeaFile:Am Marktplatz Osnabrück.jpg\|Old town of OsnabrückFile:Lichtenberg Salzgitter sicht aus Burgturm - panoramio.jpg\|Salzgitter with the Salzgitter AG steel plantFile:Marktkirche Goslar.jpg\|View of the old town of Goslar and the Imperial Palace, both UNESCO World Heritage SitesFile:Emden Rathaus 001.jpg\|Town hall of Emden" ], [ "History", "=== Regional history prior to foundation of Lower Saxony ===The name of Saxony derives from that of the Germanic confederation of tribes called the Saxons.", "Before the late medieval period, there was a single Duchy of Saxony.", "The term \"Lower Saxony\" was used after the dissolution of the stem duchy in the late 13th century to distinguish the parts of the former duchy ruled by the House of Welf from the Electorate of Saxony on one hand, and from the Duchy of Westphalia on the other.==== Medieval and early modern period ====The Duchy of Saxony around 1000The name and coat of arms of the present state go back to the Germanic tribe of Saxons.", "During the Migration Period some of the Saxon peoples left their homeland in Holstein about the 3rd century and pushed southwards over the Elbe, where they expanded into the sparsely populated regions in the rest of the lowlands, in present-day Northwest Germany and the northeastern part of what is now the Netherlands.", "From about the 7th century the Saxons had occupied a settlement area that roughly corresponds to the present state of Lower Saxony, of Westphalia and a number of areas to the east, for example, in what is now west and north Saxony-Anhalt.", "The land of the Saxons was divided into about 60 ''Gaue''.", "The Frisians had not moved into this region; for centuries they preserved their independence in the most northwesterly region of the present-day Lower Saxon territory.", "The original language of the folk in the area of Old Saxony was West Low German, one of the varieties of language in the Low German dialect group.Imperial circles at the start of the 16th century.", "Red: the Lower Saxon Circle, light brown: the Lower Rhenish-Westphalian CircleThe establishment of permanent boundaries between what later became Lower Saxony and Westphalia began in the 12th century.", "In 1260, in a treaty between the Archbishopric of Cologne and the Duchy of Brunswick-Lüneburg the lands claimed by the two territories were separated from each other.", "The border ran along the Weser to a point north of Nienburg.", "The northern part of the Weser-Ems region was placed under the rule of Brunswick-Lüneburg.The word ''Niedersachsen'' was first used before 1300 in a Dutch rhyming chronicle (''Reimchronik'').", "From the 14th century it referred to the Duchy of Saxe-Lauenburg (as opposed to Saxe-Wittenberg).", "On the creation of the imperial circles in 1500, a Lower Saxon Circle was distinguished from a Lower Rhenish–Westphalian Circle.", "The latter included the following territories that, in whole or in part, belong today to the state of Lower Saxony: the Bishopric of Osnabrück, the Bishopric of Münster, the County of Bentheim, the County of Hoya, the Principality of East Frisia, the Principality of Verden, the County of Diepholz, the County of Oldenburg, the County of Schaumburg and the County of Spiegelberg.", "At the same time a distinction was made with the eastern part of the old Saxon lands from the central German principalities later called Upper Saxony for dynastic reasons.The close historical links between the domains of the Lower Saxon Circle now in modern Lower Saxony survived for centuries especially from a dynastic point of view.", "The majority of historic territories whose land now lies within Lower Saxony were sub-principalities of the medieval, Welf estates of the Duchy of Brunswick-Lüneburg.", "All the Welf princes called themselves dukes \"of Brunswick and Lüneburg\" despite often ruling parts of a duchy that was forever being divided and reunited as various Welf lines multiplied or died out.==== Congress of Vienna to Second World War (1815–1945)====The Kingdom of Hanover, the Duchy of Brunswick, the Grand Duchy of Oldenburg and the Principality of Schaumburg-Lippe in the 19th centuryTwo major principalities survived east of the Weser after the Napoleonic Wars: the Kingdom of Hanover and the Duchy of Brunswick (after 1866 Hanover became a Prussian province; after 1919 Brunswick became a free state).", "Historically a close tie existed between the royal house of Hanover (Electorate of Hanover) and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland as a result of their personal union in the 18th century (the personal union was dissolved when Victoria became the Queen of the United Kingdom in 1837 because Hanover did not allow female rulers).West of the River Hunte a \"de-Westphalianising process\" began in 1815.After the Congress of Vienna the territories of the later administrative regions (''Regierungsbezirke'') of Osnabrück and Aurich transferred to the Kingdom of Hanover.", "The Grand Duchy of Oldenburg and the Principality of Schaumburg-Lippe retained state autonomy.", "Nevertheless, the entire Weser-Ems region (including the city of Bremen) were grouped in 1920 into a Lower Saxon Constituency Association (''Wahlkreisverband IX (Niedersachsen)'').", "This indicates that at that time the western administrations of the Prussian Province of Hanover and the state of Oldenburg were perceived as being \"Lower Saxon\".The forerunners of today's state of Lower Saxony were lands that were geographically and, to some extent, institutionally interrelated from very early on.", "The County of Schaumburg (not to be confused with the Principality of Schaumburg-Lippe) around the towns of Rinteln and Hessisch Oldendorf did indeed belong to the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau until 1932, a province that also included large parts of the present state of Hesse, including the cities of Kassel, Wiesbaden and Frankfurt am Main; but in 1932 the County of Schaumburg became part of the Prussian Province of Hanover.When the Nazi Party seized power in 1933, they quickly transformed Germany into a highly centralized state and divided the entire Third Reich into ''Gaue'' which largely superseded (but did not outright replace) Germany's traditional federal system.", "Nevertheless, some changes to the old state and provincial borders were made in 1937, notably including the city of Cuxhaven being fully integrated into the Prussian Province of Hanover under the Greater Hamburg Act.", "The effect of this Nazi-era change was that in 1946, after the Third Reich had collapsed and when state of Lower Saxony was founded, only four states needed to be merged.", "With the exception of Bremen and the areas that were ceded to the Soviet Occupation Zone in 1945, all those areas allocated to the new state of Lower Saxony in 1946, had already been merged into the \"Constituency Association of Lower Saxony\" in 1920.In a lecture on 14 September 2007, Dietmar von Reeken described the emergence of a \"Lower Saxony consciousness\" in the 19th century, the geographical basis of which was used to invent a territorial construct: the resulting local heritage societies (''Heimatvereine'') and their associated magazines routinely used the terms \"Lower Saxony\" or \"Lower Saxon\" in their names.", "At the end of the 1920s in the context of discussions about a reform of the Reich, and promoted by the expanding local heritage movement (''Heimatbewegung''), a 25-year conflict started between \"Lower Saxony\" and \"Westphalia\".", "The supporters of this dispute were administrative officials and politicians, but regionally focussed scientists of various disciplines were supposed to have fuelled the arguments.", "In the 1930s, a real Lower Saxony did not yet exist, but there were a plethora of institutions that would have called themselves \"Lower Saxon\".", "The motives and arguments in the disputes between \"Lower Saxony\" and \"Westphalia\" were very similar on both sides: economic interests, political aims, cultural interests and historical aspects.==== Formation of the state (1945–1946)====After the Second World War most of Northwest Germany lay within the British Zone of Occupation.", "On 23 August 1946, the British Military Government issued Ordinance No.", "46 ''\"Concerning the dissolution of the provinces of the former state of Prussia in the British Zone and their reconstitution as independent states\"'', which initially established the State of Hanover on the territory of the former Prussian Province of Hanover.", "Its minister president, Hinrich Wilhelm Kopf, had already suggested in June 1945 the formation of a state of Lower Saxony, that was to include the largest possible region in the middle of the British Zone.", "In addition to the regions that actually became Lower Saxony subsequently, Kopf asked, in a memorandum dated April 1946, for the inclusion of the former Prussian district of Minden-Ravensberg (i.e.", "the Westphalian city of Bielefeld as well as the Westphalian districts of Minden, Lübbecke, Bielefeld, Herford and Halle), the district of Tecklenburg and the state of Lippe.", "Kopf's plan was ultimately based on a draft for the reform of the German Empire from the late 1920s by Georg Schnath and Kurt Brüning.", "The strong Welf connotations of this draft, according to Thomas Vogtherr, did not simplify the development of a Lower Saxon identity after 1946.An alternative model, proposed by politicians in Oldenburg and Brunswick, envisaged the foundation of the independent state of \"Weser-Ems\", that would be formed from the state of Oldenburg, the Hanseatic City of Bremen and the administrative regions of Aurich and Osnabrück.", "Several representatives of the state of Oldenburg even demanded the inclusion of the Hanoverian districts of Diepholz, Syke, Osterholz-Scharmbeck and Wesermünde in the proposed state of \"Weser-Ems\".", "Likewise an enlarged State of Brunswick was proposed in the southeast to include the ''Regierungsbezirk'' of Hildesheim and the district of Gifhorn.", "Had this plan come to fruition, the territory of the present Lower Saxony would have consisted of three states of roughly equal size.The district council of Vechta protested on 12 June 1946 against being incorporated into the metropolitan area of Hanover (''Großraum Hannover'').", "If the State of Oldenburg was to be dissolved, Vechta District would much rather be included in the Westphalian region.", "Particularly in the districts where there was a political Catholicism the notion was widespread, that Oldenburg Münsterland and the ''Regierungsbezirk'' of Osnabrück should be part of a newly formed State of Westphalia.Since the foundation of the states of North Rhine-Westphalia and Hanover on 23 August 1946 the northern and eastern border of North Rhine-Westphalia has largely been identical with that of the Prussian Province of Westphalia.", "Only the Free State of Lippe was not incorporated into North Rhine-Westphalia until January 1947.With that the majority of the regions left of the Upper Weser became North Rhine-Westphalian.In the end, at the meeting of the Zone Advisory Board on 20 September 1946, Kopf's proposal with regard to the division of the British occupation zone into three large states proved to be capable of gaining a majority.", "Because this division of their occupation zone into relatively large states also met the interests of the British, on 8 November 1946 Regulation No.", "55 of the British military government was issued, by which the State of Lower Saxony with its capital Hanover were founded, backdated to 1 November 1946.The state was formed by a merger of the Free States of Brunswick, of Oldenburg and of Schaumburg-Lippe with the previously formed State of Hanover.", "But there were exceptions:* In the Free State of Brunswick, the eastern part of the district of Blankenburg and the exclave of Calvörde, which belonged to the district of Helmstedt fell into the Soviet Zone of Occupation and were later integrated into the state of Saxony-Anhalt.", "* In the State of Hanover, Amt Neuhaus and the villages of Neu Bleckede and Neu Wendischthun were allotted to the Soviet Zone and thus the subsequent East Germany.", "They were not returned to Lower Saxony until 1993.", "* The city of Wesermünde that then lay in the Regierungsbezirk Stade was renamed in 1947 to Bremerhaven and incorporated into the new city-state of Bremen, which became one of the federated German states.The demands of Dutch politicians that the Netherlands should be given the German regions east of the Dutch-German border as war reparations, were roundly rejected at the London Conference of 26 March 1949.In fact only about of west Lower Saxony was transferred to the Netherlands, in 1949.", "''→ see main article Dutch annexation of German territory after World War II''=== History of Lower Saxony as a state ==='''Ordinance No.", "55''', with which on 22 November 1946 the British military government founded the state Lower Saxony retroactively to 1 November 1946The first Lower Saxon parliament or ''Landtag'' met on 9 December 1946.It was not elected; rather it was established by the British Occupation Administration (a so-called \"appointed parliament\").", "That same day the parliament elected the Social Democrat, Hinrich Wilhelm Kopf, the former Hanoverian president (''Regierungspräsident'') as their first minister-president.", "Kopf led a five-party coalition, whose basic task was to rebuild a state afflicted by the war's rigours.", "Kopf's cabinet had to organise an improvement of food supplies and the reconstruction of the cities and towns destroyed by Allied air raids during the war years.", "Hinrich Wilhelm Kopf remained – interrupted by the time in office of Heinrich Hellwege (1955–1959) – as the head of government in Lower Saxony until 1961.The greatest problem facing the first state government in the immediate post-war years was the challenge of integrating hundreds of thousands of refugees from Germany's former territories in the east (such as Silesia and East Prussia), which had been annexed by Poland and the Soviet Union.", "Lower Saxony was at the western end of the direct escape route from East Prussia and had the longest border with the Soviet Zone.", "On 3 October 1950 Lower Saxony took over the sponsorship of the very large number of refugees from Silesia.", "In 1950 there was still a shortage of 730,000 homes according to official figures.During the period when Germany was divided, the Lower Saxon border crossing at Helmstedt found itself on the main transport artery to West Berlin and, from 1945 to 1990 was the busiest European border crossing point.Of economic significance for the state was the ''Volkswagen'' concern, that restarted the production of civilian vehicles in 1945, initially under British management, and in 1949 transferred into the ownership of the newly founded country of West Germany and state of Lower Saxony.", "Overall, Lower Saxony, with its large tracts of rural countryside and few urban centres, was one of the industrially weaker regions of the federal republic for a long time.", "In 1960, 20% of the working population worked on the land.", "In the rest of the federal territory the figure was just 14%.", "Even in economically prosperous times the jobless totals in Lower Saxony are constantly higher than the federal average.In 1961 Georg Diederichs took office as the minister president of Lower Saxony as the successor to Hinrich Wilhelm Kopf.", "He was replaced in 1970 by Alfred Kubel.", "The arguments about the Gorleben Nuclear Waste Repository, that began during the time in office of minister president Ernst Albrecht (1976–1990), have played an important role in state and federal politics since the end of the 1970s.In 1990 Gerhard Schröder entered the office of minister-president.", "On 1 June 1993, the new Lower Saxon constitution entered force, replacing the \"Provisional Lower Saxon Constitution\" of 1951.It enables referendums and plebiscites and establishes environmental protection as a fundamental state principle.The former Hanoverian Amt Neuhaus with its parishes of Dellien, Haar, Kaarßen, Neuhaus (Elbe), Stapel, Sückau, Sumte and Tripkau as well as the villages of Neu Bleckede, Neu Wendischthun and Stiepelse in the parish of Teldau and the historic Hanoverian region in the forest district of Bohldamm in the parish of Garlitz transferred with effect from 30 June 1993 from to Lower Saxony (Lüneburg district).", "From these parishes the new municipality of Amt Neuhaus was created on 1 October 1993.In 1998 Gerhard Glogowski succeeded Gerhard Schröder who became Federal Chancellor.", "Because he had been linked with various scandals in his home city of Brunswick, he resigned in 1999 and was replaced by Sigmar Gabriel.From 2003 to his election as Federal President in 2010 Christian Wulff was minister president in Lower Saxony.", "The Osnabrücker headed a CDU-led coalition with the FDP as does his successor, David McAllister.", "After the elections on 20 January 2013 McAllister was deselected." ], [ "Demographics", "At the end of 2014, there were almost 571,000 non-German citizens in Lower Saxony.", "The following table illustrates the largest minority groups in Lower Saxony:RankNationalityPopulation estimate (31.12 2022) 122,130 101,355 96,330 90,715 64,675 45,360 31,155 29,725 28,950 26,755===Vital statistics===* Births from January–October 2016 = 62,761* Births from January–October 2017 = 61,314* Deaths from January–October 2016 = 75,733* Deaths from January–October 2017 = 75,804* Natural growth from January–October 2016 = -12,972* Natural growth from January–October 2017 = -14,490===Religion===St.", "Andreas, HildesheimThe 2011 census stated that a majority of the population were Christians (71.93%); 51.48% of the total population were members of the Protestant Church in Germany, 18.34% were Catholics, 2.11% were members of other Christian denominations, 2.27% were members of other religions.", "25.8% have no denomination.", "Even though there is a high level of official belonging to a Christian denomination, the peopleespecially in the citiesare highly secular in behavior.As of 2020, the Protestant Church in Germany was the faith of 41.1% of the population.", "It is organised in the five Landeskirchen named Evangelical Lutheran State Church in Brunswick (comprising the former Free State of Brunswick), Evangelical Lutheran Church of Hanover (comprising the former Province of Hanover), Evangelical Lutheran Church in Oldenburg (comprising the former Free State of Oldenburg), Evangelical Lutheran Church of Schaumburg-Lippe (comprising the former Free State of Schaumburg-Lippe), and Evangelical Reformed Church (covering all the state).Together, these member churches of the Protestant Church in Germany gather a substantial part of the Protestant population in Germany.The Catholic Church was the faith of 16.3% of the population in 2020.It is organised in the three dioceses of Osnabrück (western part of the state), Münster (comprising the former Free State of Oldenburg) and Hildesheim (northern and eastern part of the state).", "The Catholic faith is mainly concentrated to the regions of Oldenburger Münsterland, the region of Osnabrück, the region of Hildesheim and in the Western Eichsfeld.42.6% of the Low Saxons were irreligious or adhere to other religions.", "Judaism, Islam and Buddhism are minority faiths." ], [ "Economy", "The gross domestic product (GDP) of the state was 229.5 billion euros in 2018, accounting for 8.7% of German economic output.", "GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power was 33,700 euros or 112% of the EU27 average in the same year.", "The GDP per employee was 100% of the EU average.Agriculture, strongly weighted towards the livestock sector, has always been a very important economic factor in the state.", "The north and northwest of Lower Saxony are mainly made up of coarse sandy soil that makes crop farming difficult and therefore grassland and cattle farming are more prevalent in those areas.", "Lower Saxony is home, in 2017, to one in five of Germany's cattle, one in three of the country's pigs, and 50% of its hens.", "Wheat, potatoes, rye, and oats are among the state's present-day arable crops.", "Towards the south and southeast, extensive loess layers in the soil left behind by the last ice age allow high-yield crop farming.", "One of the principal crops there is sugar beet.", "Consequently, the Land has a big food industry, mainly organized in small and medium-sized enterprises (SME).", "Big players are Deutsches Milchkontor and PHW Group (biggest German poultry farmer and producer).Mining has also been an important source of income in Lower Saxony for centuries.", "Silver ore became a foundation of notable economic prosperity in the Harz Mountains as early as the 12th century, while iron mining in the Salzgitter area and salt mining in various areas of the state became another important economic backbone.", "Although overall yields are comparatively low, Lower Saxony is also an important supplier of crude oil in the European Union.", "Mineral products still mined today include iron.Radioactive waste is frequently transported in the area to the city of Salzgitter, for the deep geological repository Schacht Konrad and between Schacht Asse II in the Wolfenbüttel district and Lindwedel and Höfer.Manufacturing is another large part of the regional economy.", "Despite decades of gradual downsizing and restructuring, the carmaker Volkswagen with its five production plants within the state's borders still remains the single biggest private-sector employer, its world headquarters in .", "Due to the Volkswagen Law, which has recently been ruled illegal by the European Union's high court, the state of Lower Saxony is still the second-largest shareholder, owning 20.3% of the company.", "Thanks to the importance of car manufacturing in Lower Saxony, a thriving supply industry is centred around its regional focal points.", "Other mainstays of the Lower Saxon industrial sector include aviation (the region of Stade is called CFK-Valley), shipbuilding (such as Meyer Werft), biotechnology, and steel.", "Medicine plays a major role; Hanover and Göttingen have two large University Medical Schools and hospitals, and Otto Bock in Duderstadt is the largest producer of prosthetics and associated componentry in the world.The service sector has gained importance following the demise of manufacturing in the 1970s and 1980s.", "Important branches today are the tourism industry with TUI AG in Hanover, one of Europe's largest travel companies, as well as trade and telecommunication.", "Hanover is one of Germany's main hubs for insurance and financial-services companies, for example Talanx and Hannover Re.", "In October 2018, the Lower Saxony unemployment rate stood at 5.0% and was marginally higher than the national average.Year2000200120022003200420052006200720082009201020112012201320142015201620172018Unemployment rate in %9.39.19.29.69.611.610.58.87.67.77.56.96.66.66.56.16.05.85.3===World Heritage Sites===Lower Saxony has four World Heritage Sites.Hildesheimer Dom 2015.JPG\|Hildesheim CathedralSt Michaels Church Hildesheim.jpg\|St.", "Michael's Church in HildesheimRammelsberg Bergwerksanlagen.jpg\|Mines of RammelsbergGoslarMaltermeister.jpg\|Historic Town of GoslarTeiche Buntenbock.jpg\|Upper Harz Water Regale13-09-29-nordfriesisches-wattenmeer-RalfR-19.jpg\|Lower Saxony Wadden SeaFagus Gropius Hauptgebaeude 200705 wiki front.jpg\|Fagus Factory in Alfeld" ], [ "Politics", " Cabinets of Lower SaxonySince 1948, politics in the state has been dominated by the centre-right Christian Democratic Union (CDU) and the centre-left Social Democratic Party.", "Lower Saxony was one of the origins of the German environmentalist movement in reaction to the state government's support for underground nuclear waste disposal.", "This led to the formation of the German Green Party in 1980.The former Minister-President, Christian Wulff, led a coalition of his CDU with the Free Democratic Party between 2003 and 2010.In the 2008 election, the ruling CDU held on to its position as the leading party in the state, despite losing votes and seats.", "The CDU's coalition with the Free Democratic Party retained its majority although it was cut from 29 to 10.The election also saw the entry into the state parliament for the first time of the leftist The Left party.", "On 1 July 2010 David McAllister was elected Minister-President.After the state election on 20 January 2013, Stephan Weil of the Social Democrats was elected as the new Minister-President.", "He governed in coalition with the Greens.After the state election in September 2017, Stephan Weil of the Social Democrats was again elected as the new Minister-President.", "He governs in coalition with the CDU.===Constitution===The state of Lower Saxony was formed after World War II by merging the former states of Hanover, Oldenburg, Brunswick and Schaumburg-Lippe.", "Hanover, a former kingdom, is by far the largest of these contributors by area and population and has been a province of Prussia since 1866.The city of Hanover is the largest and capital city of Lower Saxony.The constitution states that Lower Saxony be a free, republican, democratic, social and environmentally sustainable state inside the Federal Republic of Germany; universal human rights, peace and justice are preassigned guidelines of society, and the human rights and civil liberties proclaimed by the constitution of the Federal Republic are genuine constituents of the constitution of Lower Saxony.", "Each citizen is entitled to education and there is universal compulsory school attendance.All government authority is to be sanctioned by the will of the people, which expresses itself via elections and plebiscites.", "The legislative assembly is a unicameral parliament elected for terms of five years.", "The composition of the parliament obeys the principle of proportional representation of the participating political parties, but it is also ensured that each constituency delegates one directly elected representative.", "If a party wins more constituency delegates than their statewide share among the parties would determine, it can keep all these constituency delegates.The governor of the state (prime minister) and his ministers are elected by the parliament.", "As there is a system of five political parties in Germany and so also in Lower Saxony, it is usually the case that two or more parties negotiate for a common political agenda and a commonly determined composition of government where the party with the biggest share of the electorate fills the seat of the governor.The states of the Federal Republic of Germany, and so Lower Saxony, have legislative responsibility and power mainly reduced to the policy fields of the school system, higher education, culture and media and police, whereas the more important policy fields like economic and social policies, foreign policy are a prerogative of the federal government.", "Hence the probably most important function of the federal states is their representation in the Federal Council (Bundesrat), where their approval on many crucial federal policy fields, including the tax system, is required for laws to become enacted.===Minister-President of Lower Saxony===The Minister-President heads the state government, acting as a head of state (even if the federated states have the status of a state do not establish the office of a head of state but merge the functions with the head of the executive branch) as well as the government leader.", "They are elected by the Landtag of Lower Saxony." ], [ "Coat of arms", "The coat of arms shows a white horse (Saxon Steed) against a red background, which is an old symbol of the Saxon people.", "Legend has it that the horse was a symbol of the Saxon leader Widukind, albeit a black horse against a yellow background.", "The colours changed after the Christian baptism of Widukind.", "White and red are colours (besides black and gold) of the Holy Roman Empire symbolizing Christ as the saviour, who is still shown with a red cross against a white background." ], [ "See also", " List of places in Lower Saxony* Straße der Megalithkultur – tourist route from Osnabrück to Oldenburg via some 33 Megalithic sites.", "* Niedersächsische Spargelstraße – tourist route around the Asparagus growing areas.", "* Straße der Weserrenaissance – tourist route that passes through Lower Saxony* Outline of Germany" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Official governmental portal* Official website for tourism, holiday and leisure in Lower Saxony* Map with tourist highlights, notepad and personal guide *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "LTJ Bukem" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Daniel Andrew Williamson''' (born 20 September 1967), better known as '''LTJ Bukem''' (), is a British drum and bass musician, producer and DJ.", "He and his record label Good Looking are most associated with the jazzy, atmospheric side of drum and bass music." ], [ "Life and career", "Bukem was trained as a classical pianist and discovered jazz fusion in his teenage years, having a jazz funk band at one stage.", "By the late 1980s, he decided to become a DJ and gained fame in the rave scene of the early 1990s.", "His stage name came from his nickname \"Book 'em\" which derived from the TV show Hawaii Five-O where the character Steve McGarrett would say \"Book 'em Danno\" when someone was arrested.", "As a producer, he released a series of drum and bass tracks such as \"Logical Progression\" (1991), \"Demon's Theme\" (1992), \"Atlantis\" and \"Music\" (1993).", "His most notable release was the track \"Horizons\" (1995) which attained considerable popularity, using the main melody from Lemon Sol's song \"Sunflash\".He then dipped in visibility as a producer, with his work running the London club night Speed and his record label Good Looking Records, coming to the fore.", "A series of compilations entitled ''Logical Progression'' highlighted a jazz and ambient influenced side of drum and bass; the style became widely known as intelligent drum and bass.", "Bukem also explored the downtempo end of electronic lounge music, with sister label Cookin' and the ''Earth'' series of compilations.", "Some of the artists who rose to fame under Good Looking in this period include Blame, Seba, Big Bud, Blu Mar Ten, DJ Dream (Aslan Davis), Future Engineers, Tayla, Aquarius (an alias of Photek), Peshay, Source Direct and Artemis.On 16 July 1995, he did an Essential Mix alongside MC Conrad.", "In 1997, he remixed the James Bond theme for David Arnold's concept album of James Bond music ''Shaken and Stirred: The David Arnold James Bond Project''.", "In 2000, he finally released a debut solo album, the double-CD ''Journey Inwards''.", "The album heavily emphasised his jazz fusion influences.", "2001 saw a remix of Herbie Hancock.He ran the Speed clubnight in London with fellow drum and bass DJ Fabio.He DJs extensively around the world, often under the 'Progression Sessions' or 'Bukem in Session' banners.", "However, his former companion and vocalist, MC Conrad left the label and ultimately their musical partnership in 2012.Daniel Williamson was adopted from birth.", "In 2007, he revealed that he had found his biological birth mother, a Ugandan woman living in Paris.", "She told him that his father was Egyptian." ], [ "Style and influences", "Viewed as an innovator in the drum and bass style, Bukem is known for developing an accessible alternative to that hardcore genre's speedy, assaultive energies.", "His style pays homage to the Detroit-based sound of early techno, but Bukem also incorporates still earlier influences, particularly the mellow, melodic sonorities of 1970s era jazz fusion as exemplified by Lonnie Liston Smith and Roy Ayers.", "Early in his career, Bukem was identified for his response to the \"almost paranoid hyperkinesis\" of breakbeat-based house music, and specifically for his reservations regarding the overbearing force of the hardcore mentality.Bukem's music from the early 1990s onward represents his efforts to map out an alternative future for drum and bass by incorporating softer-edged influences culled from London's 1980s rare groove and acid jazz scenes.", "Music on ''Logical Progression'' reveals these influences, as does his approach on 1993's ''Music / Enchanted'', which features string arrangements and sounds from nature.", "His use of keyboards, live vocals and slow-motion breaks on these and future releases earned Bukem's music the tag intelligent drum and bass.", "While this designation caused controversy within the drum and bass community, it also influenced the popularisation of hardcore music in the UK during the mid-1990s." ], [ "Discography", "===Albums===* ''Journey Inwards'' (2000)===Compilations/mixes===* ''Mixmag Live!", "Volume 21'' (MixMag, 1996)* ''Logical Progression Vols 1–4'' (1996–2001)* ''Progression Sessions Vols 1–10'' (1998–2003)* ''Earth Vols 1–7'' (1996–2004)* ''Producer 01'' (2001)* ''Producer 05: Rarities'' (2002)* ''Some Blue Notes of Drum 'N Bass'' (2004)* ''FabricLive.46'' (2009)* ''Bukem in Session'' (2013)===Singles/EPs===* \"Delitefol\" (1991)* \"Logical Progression\" (1991)* \"Teach Me to Fly\" (with DJ Trace) (1992)* \"Demon's Theme / A Couple of Beats\" (1992)* ''Who Knows Vol 1'' (as the Bookworm) (1993)* \"Bang the Drums / Remnants\" (with Tayla) (1993)* \"Return to Atlantis\" (with Apollo Two) (1993)* \"Music / Enchanted\" (1993)* \"Atmospherical Jubilancy\" (1993)* \"19.5\" (with Peshay) (1994)* \"Horizons\" (1995)* \"The Journey\" (with Mystic Moods) (1996)* ''Mystical Realms EP'' (1998)* ''Suspended Space EP'' (2000)* “Flip the narrative” (2021)===Remixes===* \"Sweetness (Mellow Drum n Bass Mix)\" – Michelle Gayle (1994)* \"Feenin' (LTJ Bukem Remix)\" – Jodeci (1995)* \"Transamazonia (LTJ Bukem Remix)\" – The Shamen (1995)* \"If I Could Fly (LTJ Bukem Remix)\" – Grace (1996)* \"The James Bond Theme (LTJ Bukem Remix)\" – David Arnold (1997)* \"The Essence (LTJ Bukem Remix)\" – Herbie Hancock (with Chaka Khan) (2001)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lindsay Anderson" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lindsay Gordon Anderson''' (17 April 1923 – 30 August 1994) was a British feature-film, theatre and documentary director, film critic, and leading-light of the Free Cinema movement and of the British New Wave.", "He is most widely remembered for his 1968 film ''if....'', which won the ''Palme d'Or'' at Cannes Film Festival in 1969 and marked Malcolm McDowell's cinematic debut.He is also notable, though not a professional actor, for playing a minor role in the Academy Award-winning 1981 film ''Chariots of Fire''.", "McDowell produced a 2007 documentary about his experiences with Anderson, ''Never Apologize''." ], [ "Early life", "Lindsay Gordon Anderson was born in Bangalore, South India, where his father had been stationed with the Royal Engineers, on 17 April 1923.His father Captain (later Major General) Alexander Vass Anderson was a British Army officer who had been born in North India, and his mother Estelle Bell Gasson was born in Queenstown, South Africa, the daughter of a wool merchant.", "Lindsay's parents separated in 1926 and Estelle returned to England with her sons; however, they tried to reconcile in 1932 in Bangalore, and when Estelle returned to England she was pregnant with her third son, Alexander Vass Anderson.", "The Andersons divorced and Estelle remarried Major Cuthbert Sleigh in 1936.Lindsay's father remarried in India; although Gavin Lambert writes, in ''Mainly About Lindsay Anderson: A Memoir'' (Faber and Faber, 2000, p. 18), that Alexander Vass Anderson 'cut (his first family) out of his life', making no reference to them in his ''Who's Who'' entry, Lindsay often saw his father and looked after his house and dogs when he was away.Both Lindsay and his older brother Murray Anderson (1919–2016) were educated at Saint Ronan's School in Worthing, West Sussex, and at Cheltenham College.", "It was at Cheltenham that Lindsay had met his lifelong friend and biographer, the screenwriter and novelist Gavin Lambert.", "Lindsay won a scholarship for classical studies at Wadham College at the University of Oxford, in 1942.Anderson served in the Army from 1943 until 1946, first with the 60th King's Royal Rifle Corps, and then in the final year of World War II as a cryptographer for the Intelligence Corps, at the Wireless Experimental Centre in Delhi.", "Anderson assisted in nailing the Red flag to the roof of the Junior Officers' mess in Annan Parbat, in August 1945, after the victory of the Labour Party in the general election was confirmed.", "The colonel did not approve, he recalled a decade later, but no disciplinary action was taken against them.Lindsay returned to Oxford in 1946 but changed from classical studies to English; he graduated in 1948." ], [ "Career", "=== Film criticism ===Before going into film-making, Anderson was a prominent film critic writing for the influential ''Sequence'' magazine (1947–52), which he co-founded with Gavin Lambert, Peter Ericsson and Karel Reisz; later writing for the British Film Institute's journal ''Sight and Sound'' and the left-wing political weekly the ''New Statesman''.", "In a 1956 polemical article, \"Stand Up, Stand Up\" for ''Sight and Sound'', he attacked contemporary critical practices, in particular the pursuit of objectivity.", "Taking as an example some comments made by Alistair Cooke in 1935, where Cooke claimed to be without politics as a critic, Anderson responded:Following a series of screenings which he and the National Film Theatre programmer Karel Reisz organized for the venue of independently produced short films by himself and others, he developed a philosophy of cinema which found expression in what became known, by the late-1950s, as the Free Cinema movement.", "This was the belief that the British cinema must break away from its class-bound attitudes and that non-metropolitan Britain ought to be shown on the nation's screens.", "He had already begun to make films himself, starting in 1948 with ''Meet the Pioneers'', a documentary about a conveyor-belt factory.=== Filmmaking ===Along with Karel Reisz, Tony Richardson, and others, he secured funding from a variety of sources (including Ford of Britain) and they each made a series of short documentaries on a variety of subjects.", "One of Anderson's early short films, ''Thursday's Children'' (1954), concerning the education of deaf children, made in collaboration with Guy Brenton, a friend from his Oxford days, won an Oscar for Best Documentary Short in 1954.", "''Thursday's Children'' was preserved by the Academy Film Archive in 2005.These films, influenced by one of Anderson' heroes, the French filmmaker Jean Vigo, and made in the tradition of the British documentaries of Humphrey Jennings, foreshadowed much of the social realism of British cinema that emerged in the next decade, with Reisz's ''Saturday Night and Sunday Morning'' (1960), Richardson's ''The Loneliness of the Long Distance Runner'' (1962) and Anderson's own ''This Sporting Life'' (1963), produced by Reisz.", "Anderson's film met with mixed reviews at the time, and was not a commercial success.Anderson is perhaps best remembered as a filmmaker for his \"Mick Travis trilogy\", all of which star Malcolm McDowell as the title character: ''if....'' (1968), a satire on public schools; ''O Lucky Man!''", "(1973) a ''Pilgrim's Progress'' inspired road movie; and ''Britannia Hospital'' (1982), a fantasia taking stylistic influence from the populist wing of British cinema represented by Hammer horror films and Carry On comedies.In 1981, Anderson played the role of the Master of Caius College at Cambridge University in the film ''Chariots of Fire''.Anderson developed an acquaintance from 1950 with John Ford, which led to what has come to be regarded as one of the standard books on that director, Anderson's ''About John Ford'' (1983).", "Based on half a dozen meetings over more than two decades, and a lifetime's study of the man's work, the book has been described as \"One of the best books published by a film-maker on a film-maker\".In 1985, producer Martin Lewis invited Anderson to chronicle Wham!", "'s visit to China, among the first-ever visits by Western pop artists, which resulted in the film ''Wham!", "in China: Foreign Skies''.", "He admitted in his diary on 31 March 1985, to having \"no interest in Wham!", "\", or China, and he was simply \"'doing this for the money'\".", "Anderson's own cut of the tour, titled ''If You Were There'', was never released after George Michael objected to Anderson's version which featured only four songs of the tour, and Anderson was fired from the project while Michael turned the film into ''Wham!", "in China: Foreign Skies''.", "In 1986, Anderson was a member of the jury at the 36th Berlin International Film Festival.Anderson was also a significant British theatre director.", "He was long associated with London's Royal Court Theatre, where he was Co-Artistic Director 1969–70, and Associate Artistic Director 1971–75, directing premiere productions of plays by David Storey, among others.In 1992, as a close friend of actresses Jill Bennett and Rachel Roberts, Anderson included a touching episode in his autobiographical BBC film ''Is That All There Is?", "'', with a boat trip down the River Thames (several of their professional colleagues and friends aboard) to scatter their ashes on the waters while musician Alan Price sang the song \"Is That All There Is?", "\".Every year, the International Documentary Festival in Amsterdam (IDFA) gives an acclaimed filmmaker the chance to screen his or her personal Top 10 favorite films.", "In 2007, Iranian filmmaker Maziar Bahari selected ''O Dreamland'' and ''Every Day Except Christmas'' (1957), a record of a day in the old Covent Garden market, for his top 10 classics from the history of documentary.3" ], [ "Personal life", "Gavin Lambert's memoir, ''Mainly About Lindsay Anderson'', wrote that Anderson was homosexual and repressed his orientation, which was seen as a betrayal by his other friends.", "In November 2006 Malcolm McDowell told ''The Independent'' that he believed Anderson was gay, and said:" ], [ "Death", "Anderson died from a heart attack on 30 August 1994 at the age of 71." ], [ "Theatre productions", "All Royal Court, London, unless otherwise indicated:* ''The Waiting of Lester Abbs'' (Kathleen Sully, 1957)* ''The Long and the Short and the Tall'' (Willis Hall, 1959)* ''Progress to the Park'' (Alun Owen, 1959)* ''The Trial of Cob and Leach/Jazzetry'' (Christopher Logue, 1959)* ''Serjeant Musgrave's Dance'' (John Arden, 1959)* ''The Lily White Boys'' (Harry Cookson and Christopher Logue, 1960)* ''Trials by Logue: Antigone/Cob and Leach'' (Christopher Logue, 1960)* ''Diary of a Madman'' (Gogol adaptation, 1963)* ''Box and Cox'' (John Maddison Morton, 1961)* ''The Fire Raisers'' (Max Frisch, 1961)* ''Julius Caesar'' (William Shakespeare, 1964)* ''Andorra'' (Max Frisch, National Theatre at the Old Vic, 1964)* ''The Cherry Orchard'' (Anton Chekhov, Chichester Festival Theatre, 1966)* ''Inadmissible Evidence'' (John Osborne, Teatr Współczesny, Warsaw, 1966)* ''The Contractor'' (David Storey, 1969)* ''Home'' (David Storey, also Morosco Theatre NY, 1970)* ''The Changing Room'' (David Storey, 1971)* ''The Farm'' (David Storey, 1973)* ''Life Class'' (David Storey, 1974)* ''In Celebration'' (David Storey 1974)* ''What the Butler Saw'' (Joe Orton, 1975)* ''The Seagull'' (Anton Chekhov, Lyric Theatre, 1975); in repertory with* ''The Bed Before Yesterday'' (Ben Travers, Lyric Theatre, 1975)* ''The Kingfisher'' (William Douglas Home, Lyric Theatre 1977, Biltmore NY, 1978)* ''Alice's Boys'' (Felicity Brown and Jonathan Hayes, Savoy Theatre, 1978)* ''Early Days'' (David Storey, National Cottesloe Theatre, 1980)* ''Hamlet'' (Theatre Royal, Stratford East, 1981)* ''The Holly and the Ivy'' (Wynyard Browne, Roundabout New York, 1982)* ''The Cherry Orchard'' (Anton Chekhov, Theatre Royal Haymarket, 1983)* ''The Playboy of the Western World'' (John Millington Synge, 1984)* ''In Celebration'' revival (David Storey, Manhattan Theatre Club, NY, 1984)* ''Holiday'' (Philip Barry, Old Vic, 1987)* ''The March on Russia'' (David Storey, National Lyttelton Theatre, 1989)* ''The Fishing Trip'' (Frank Grimes, Warehouse Theatre, 1991)* ''Stages'' (David Storey, National Cottesloe Theatre, 1992)" ], [ "Filmography", "=== Films ===YearTitleNotes 1963 ''This Sporting Life'' Nominated—Palme d'Or 1967 ''The White Bus'' Short film, also producer 1968 ''if....'' Also producerPalme d'OrNominated—BAFTA Award for Best Direction 1973 ''O Lucky Man!''", "Also producerNominated—Palme d'Or 1975 ''In Celebration'' 1982 ''Britannia Hospital'' Fantasporto Audience Jury AwardNominated—Palme d'OrNominated—Gold Hugo 1986 ''If You Were There'' Documentary 1987 ''The Whales of August'' 1992 ''Is That All There Is?''", "Mockumentary; also writer=== Television ===YearTitleNotes 1956–1957 ''The Adventures of Robin Hood'' 5 episodes 1972 ''Play for Today'' Episode: \"Home\" 1979 ''The Old Crowd'' Television film 1980 ''Look Back in Anger'' Television film 1986 ''Free Cinema'' Television documentary1987''Buster Keaton: A Hard Act to Follow''Documentary (Narrator) 1989 ''Glory!", "Glory!''", "Television film=== Documentary short films ===YearTitle 1948 ''Meet the Pioneers'' 1949 ''Idlers that Work'' 1952 ''Trunk Conveyor'' 1952 ''Three Installations'' 1954 ''Thursday's Children'' 1955 ''The Children Upstairs'' 1955 ''Henry'' 1955 ''Green and Pleasant Land'' 1955 ''Foot and Mouth'' 1955 ''Energy First'' 1955 ''A Hundred Thousand Children'' 1955 ''£20 a Ton'' 1956 ''O Dreamland'' 1957 ''Wakefield Express'' 1957 ''Every Day Except Christmas'' 1959 ''March to Aldermaston'' 1967 ''The Singing Lesson''=== Acting ===YearTitleRoleNotes 1973 ''O Lucky Man!''", "Film Director Uncredited 1986 ''Inadmissible Evidence'' Barrister 1981 ''Chariots of Fire'' Master of Caius 1991 ''Prisoner of Honor'' War Minister Television film 1992 ''Blame It on the Bellboy'' Mr. Marshall Voice" ], [ "See also", "* Kitchen sink realism* Jill Bennett" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* ''About John Ford'' (1983) * ''The Diaries of Lindsay Anderson'' ed.", "Paul Sutton (2004) * ''Never Apologise: The Collected Writings of Lindsay Anderson'' (2004) * ''Six English Filmmakers'' (2014) - Anderson and his colleagues in conversation with Sutton." ], [ "External links", "* Lindsay Anderson – A Celebration The Lindsay Anderson Memorial Foundation Watch O Dreamland on FourDocs* The BFI's \"screenonline\" on Free Cinema* The BFI's \"screenonline\" for Lindsay Anderson* The Lindsay Anderson Archive at Stirling University, Scotland* Lindsay Anderson Bibliography (via UC Berkeley)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Loch" ], [ "Introduction", "View of Ben Lomond across Loch Lomond'''''Loch''''' () is a word meaning \"lake\" or \"sea inlet\" in Scottish and Irish, subsequently borrowed into English.", "In Irish contexts, it often appears in the anglicized form \"lough\".Lochs which connect to the sea may be called \"sea lochs\" or \"sea loughs\".", "Some such bodies of water could also be called firths, fjords, estuaries, straits or bays." ], [ "Background", "Looking down Loch Long, a long sea lochLoch Lubnaig, a reservoirThe Lake of Menteith (Loch Innis MoCholmaig)Loch Derculich in PerthshireThis name for a body of water is Insular Celtic in origin and is applied to most lakes inScotland and to many sea inlets in the west and north of Scotland.", "The word comes from Proto-Indo-European ''lókus'' (\"lake, pool\") and is related to Latin ''lacus'' (\"lake, pond\") and English ''lay'' (\"lake\").Lowland Scots orthography, like Scottish Gaelic, Welsh and Irish, represents with ''ch'', so the word was borrowed with identical spelling.English borrowed the word separately from a number of loughs in the previous Cumbric language areas of Northumbria and Cumbria.", "Earlier forms of English included the sound as ''gh'' (compare Scots ''bricht'' with English ''bright'').", "However, by the time Scotland and England joined under a single parliament, English had lost the sound.", "This form was therefore used when the English settled Ireland.", "The Scots convention of using ''ch'' remained, hence the modern Scottish English ''loch''.In Welsh, what corresponds to ''lo'' is ''lu'' in Old Welsh and ''llw'' in Middle Welsh such as in today's Welsh placenames Llanllwchaiarn, Llwchwr, Llyn Cwm Llwch, Amlwch, Maesllwch, the Goidelic ''lo'' being taken into Scottish Gaelic by the gradual replacement of much Brittonic orthography with Goidelic orthography in Scotland.Many of the loughs in Northern England have also previously been called \"meres\" (a Northern English dialect word for \"lake\" and an archaic Standard English word meaning \"a lake that is broad in relation to its depth\") such as the ''Black Lough'' in Northumberland.", "However, reference to the latter as ''loughs'' (lower case initial), rather than as ''lakes'', ''inlets'' and so on, is unusual.Some lochs in Southern Scotland have a Brythonic rather than Goidelic etymology, such as Loch Ryan where the Gaelic ''loch'' has replaced a Cumbric equivalent of Welsh ''llwch''.", "The same is perhaps the case for water bodies in Northern England named with 'Low' or 'Lough' or otherwise it represents a borrowing of the Brythonic word into the Northumbrian dialect of Old English.Although there is no strict size definition, a small loch is often known as a lochan (so spelled also in Scottish Gaelic; in Irish it is spelled lochán).Perhaps the most famous Scottish loch is Loch Ness, although there are other large examples such as Loch Awe, Loch Lomond and Loch Tay.Examples of sea lochs in Scotland include Loch Long, Loch Fyne, Loch Linnhe, and Loch Eriboll.", "Elsewhere in Britain, places like the Afon Dyfi can be considered sea lochs." ], [ "Uses of lochs", "Some new reservoirs for hydroelectric schemes have been given names faithful to the names for natural bodies of water.", "For example, the Loch Sloy scheme and Lochs Laggan and Treig (which form part of the Lochaber hydroelectric scheme near Fort William).", "Other expanses are simply called reservoirs, e.g.", "Blackwater Reservoir above Kinlochleven." ], [ "Scottish lakes", "Scotland has very few bodies of water called lakes.", "The Lake of Menteith, an Anglicisation of the Scots ''Laich o Menteith'' meaning a \"low-lying bit of land in Menteith\", is applied to the loch there because of the similarity of the sounds of the words ''laich'' and ''lake''.", "Until the 19th century the body of water was known as the ''Loch of Menteith''.", "The Lake of the Hirsel, Pressmennan Lake, Lake Louise and Raith Lake are man-made bodies of water in Scotland, referred to as lakes.The word \"loch\" is sometimes used as a shibboleth to identify natives of England, because the fricative sound is used in Scotland whereas most English people mispronounce the word as \"lock\"." ], [ "Lochs outside Scotland and Ireland", "As \"loch\" is a common Gaelic word, it is found as the root of several Manx place names.The United States naval port of Pearl Harbor, on the south coast of the main Hawaiian island of Oʻahu, is one of a complex of sea inlets.", "Several are named as lochs, including South East Loch, Merry Loch, East Loch, Middle Loch and West Loch.Loch Raven Reservoir is a reservoir in Baltimore County, Maryland.Brenton Loch in the Falkland Islands is a sea loch, near Lafonia, East Falkland.In the Scottish settlement of Glengarry County in present-day Eastern Ontario, there is a lake called Loch Garry.", "Loch Garry was named by those who settled in the area, Clan MacDonell of Glengarry, after the well-known loch their clan is from, Loch Garry in Scotland.", "Similarly, lakes named Loch Broom, Big Loch, Greendale Loch, and Loch Lomond can be found in Nova Scotia, along with Loch Leven in Newfoundland, and Loch Leven in Saskatchewan.Loch Fyne is a fjord in Greenland named by Douglas Clavering in 1823." ], [ "See also", " List of lochs of Scotland* List of loughs of Ireland* List of loughs of England* Ria* Lake-burst" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Leo Marks" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Leopold Samuel Marks''', (24 September 1920 – 15 January 2001) was an English writer, screenwriter, and cryptographer.", "During the Second World War he headed the codes office supporting resistance agents in occupied Europe for the secret Special Operations Executive organisation.", "After the war, Marks became a playwright and screenwriter, writing scripts that frequently utilised his war-time cryptographic experiences.", "He wrote the script for ''Peeping Tom'', the controversial film directed by Michael Powell that had a disastrous effect on Powell's career, but was later described by Martin Scorsese as a masterpiece.", "In 1998, towards the end of his life, Marks published a personal history of his experiences during the war, ''Between Silk and Cyanide'', which was critical of the leadership of SOE." ], [ "Early life", "Marks was born into a devout Jewish family.", "He was the son of Benjamin Marks, the joint owner of Marks & Co, an antiquarian bookseller in Charing Cross Road, London.", "He was introduced at an early age to cryptography when his father showed him Edgar Allan Poe's story, \"The Gold-Bug\".From this early interest, he demonstrated his skill at codebreaking by deciphering the secret price codes that his father wrote inside the covers of books.", "The bookshop subsequently became famous as a result of the book ''84, Charing Cross Road'', which was based on correspondence between American writer Helene Hanff and the shop's chief buyer, Frank Doel." ], [ "Work in cryptography", "Marks was conscripted in January 1942 and trained as a cryptographer; apparently he demonstrated the ability to complete one week's work in decipherment exercise in a few hours.", "Unlike the rest of his intake, who were sent to the main British codebreaking centre at Bletchley Park, Marks was regarded as a misfit and he was assigned to the newly formed Special Operations Executive (SOE) in Baker Street, which was set up to train agents to operate behind enemy lines and to assist local resistance groups in occupied Europe.", "SOE has been described as \"a mixture of brilliant brains and bungling amateurs\".", "Marks wrote that he had an inauspicious arrival at SOE when it took him all day to decipher a code he had been expected to finish in 20 minutes, because, not atypically, SOE had forgotten to supply the cipher key, and he had to break the code which SOE had regarded as secure.Marks briefed many Allied agents sent into occupied Europe, including Noor Inayat Khan, the Grouse/Swallow team of four Norwegian Telemark saboteurs and his own close friend 'Tommy' Yeo-Thomas, nicknamed \"the White Rabbit.\"", "In an interview which accompanied the DVD of the film ''Peeping Tom'', Marks quoted General Eisenhower as saying that his group's work shortened the war by three months, saving countless lives.Marks was portrayed by Anton Lesser in David Morley's BBC Radio drama ''A Cold Supper Behind Harrods''.", "The fictional play was inspired by conversations between Marks and David Morley and real events in SOE.", "It featured David Jason, and Stephanie Cole as Vera Atkins.===Developments of cryptographic practice===One of Marks's first challenges was to phase out double transposition ciphers using keys based on poems.", "These poem ciphers had the limited advantage of being easy to memorise, but significant disadvantages, including limited cryptographic security, substantial minimum message sizes (short ones were easy to crack), and the fact that the method's complexity caused encoding errors.", "Cryptographic security was enhanced by Marks's innovations, especially \"worked-out keys.\"", "He was credited with inventing the letter one-time pad, but while he did independently discover the method, he later found it already in use at Bletchley.===Preference for original code poems===While attempting to relegate poem codes to emergency use, he enhanced their security by promoting the use of original poems in preference to widely known ones, forcing a cryptanalyst to work it out the hard way for each message instead of guessing an agent's entire set of keys after breaking the key to a single message (or possibly just part of the key.)", "Marks wrote many poems later used by agents, the most famous being one he gave to the agent Violette Szabo, ''The Life That I Have'', which gained popularity when it was used in the 1958 film about her, ''Carve Her Name With Pride''.", "According to his book, Marks wrote the poem in Christmas 1943 about a girlfriend, Ruth, who had recently died in an air crash in Canada; supposedly the god-daughter of the head of SOE, Sir Charles Jocelyn Hambro.The life that I have Is all that I have And the life that I have Is yours.", "The love that I have Of the life that I have Is yours and yours and yours.", "A sleep I shall haveA rest I shall have Yet death will be but a pause.", "For the peace of my years In the long green grass Will be yours and yours and yours.===Gestapo activities and \"Indecipherables\"===Gestapo signal tracers endangered clandestine radio operators, and their life expectancy in occupied France averaged about six weeks.", "Therefore, short and less frequent transmissions from the codemaster were of value.", "The pressure could cause agents to make mistakes encoding messages, and the practice was for the home station to tell them to recode it (usually a safe activity) and retransmit it (dangerous, and increasingly so the longer it took).", "In response to this problem, Marks established, staffed and trained a group based at Grendon Underwood, Buckinghamshire to cryptanalyse garbled messages (\"indecipherables\") so they could be dealt with in England without forcing the agent to risk retransmitting from the field.", "Other innovations of his simplified encoding in the field, which reduced errors and made shorter messages possible, both of which reduced transmission time.===\"Das Englandspiel\" in the Netherlands===The Germans generally did not execute captured radio operators out of hand.", "The goal was to turn and use them, or to extract enough information to imitate them.", "For the safety of entire underground \"circuits\", it was important to determine if an operator was genuine and still free, but means of independently checking were primitive.", "Marks claims that he became convinced (but was unable to prove) that their agents in the Netherlands had been compromised by the German counter-intelligence Abwehr.", "The Germans referred to their operation as \"a game\"—Das Englandspiel.", "Marks's warnings fell on deaf ears and perhaps as many as 50 further agents were sent to meet their deaths in Holland.", "The other side of this story was published in 1953 by Marks's German opposite number in the Netherlands, Hermann Giskes, in his book ''London Calling North Pole''.===Reporting to Brigadier Gubbins===In his book (pp.", "222–3), Marks describes the memorandum he wrote detailing his conviction that messages from the Netherlands were being sent either by Germans or by agents who had been turned.", "He argued that, despite harrowing circumstances, \"not a single Dutch agent has been so overwrought that he's made a mistake in his coding....\" Marks had to face Brigadier (later Sir) Colin Gubbins:Gubbins grills Marks.", "In particular he wants to know who has seen this report, who typed it (Marks did):Leopold (Leo) Samuel Marks Historical Marker" ], [ "Later life", "After the war, Marks went on to write plays and films, including ''The Girl Who Couldn't Quite!''", "(1947), ''Cloudburst'' (1951), ''The Best Damn Lie'' (1957), ''Guns at Batasi'' (co-writer) (1964), ''Sebastian'' (1968), and ''Twisted Nerve'' (1968).Marks wrote the script for Michael Powell's film ''Peeping Tom'' (1960), the story of a serial killer who films his victims while stabbing them.", "The film provoked critical revulsion at the time, and was described as \"evil and pornographic.\"", "The film was critically rehabilitated when younger directors, including Martin Scorsese, expressed admiration for Marks's script.", "Scorsese subsequently asked Marks to supply the voice of Satan in his 1988 film ''The Last Temptation of Christ.", "''Marks and his wife Elena feature prominently in Hanff's 1973 book ''The Duchess of Bloomsbury Street'', her memoir of her trip to England in 1971 in the wake of the success of ''84, Charing Cross Road''.In 1998, Marks published his account of his work in SOE – ''Between Silk and Cyanide: A Codemaker's Story 1941–1945.''", "The book was written in the early 1980s, but didn't receive UK Government approval for publication until 1998.Three of the poems published in the book were scrambled into the song \"Dead Agents\" by John Cale performed at the Institute of Contemporary Arts, London, in April 1999.Marks described himself as an agnostic in ''Between Silk and Cyanide,'' but frequently referred to his Jewish heritage." ], [ "Marriage and death", "He married the portrait painter Elena Gaussen in 1966.The marriage lasted until shortly before his death at home from cancer in January 2001." ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "** Originally published in French as ''Le Réseau Étranglé''.", "One of the central stories in Marks's book, the betrayal of the SOE Dutch network, is told from the Dutch and German points of view." ], [ "External links", "* ** Lecture given as part of Special Operations Executive Conference held at Imperial War Museum, London, 1998.", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Livonia" ], [ "Introduction", "Livonia in 1534Courland (1600s)Livonia in 1820'''Livonia''' or in earlier records '''Livland''', is a historical region on the eastern shores of the Baltic Sea.", "It is named after the Livonians, who lived on the shores of present-day Latvia.By the end of the 13th century, the name was extended to most of present-day Estonia and Latvia, which the Livonian Brothers of the Sword had conquered during the Livonian Crusade (1193–1290).", "Medieval Livonia, or ''Terra Mariana'', reached its greatest extent after the Saint George's Night Uprising of 1343-1345, which forced Denmark to sell the Duchy of Estonia (northern Estonia conquered by Denmark in the 13th century) to the State of the Teutonic Order in 1346.Livonia, as understood after the retreat of Denmark in 1346, bordered on the Gulf of Finland in the north, Lake Peipus and Russia to the east, and Lithuania to the south.As a consequence of the 1558–1583 Livonian War, the territory of Livonia was reduced to the southern half of Estonia and the northern half of Latvia.The indigenous inhabitants of Livonia were various Finnic tribes in the north and Baltic tribes in the south.", "The descendants of the crusaders formed the nucleus of the new ruling class of Livonia after the Livonian Crusade, and they eventually became known as Baltic Germans." ], [ "History", "Livonia in Europe, 1190 ADBeginning in the 12th century CE, Livonia became a target for economic and political expansion by Danes and Germans, particularly for the Hanseatic League and the Cistercian Order.", "Around 1160, Hanseatic traders from Lübeck established a trading post on the site of the future city of Riga, which Bishop Albrecht von Buxthoeven founded in 1201.He ordered (1215) the construction of a cathedral and became the first Prince-Bishop of Livonia.=== Livonian Brothers of the Sword 1204–1237 ===Bishop Albert of Riga (Albert of Buxhoeveden) founded the military order of the Livonian Brothers of the Sword (, ) in 1202; Pope Innocent III sanctioned the establishment in 1204.The membership of the order comprised German \"warrior monks\".", "Alternative names of the order include the Christ Knights, Sword Brethren, and the Militia of Christ of Livonia.", "Following their defeat by Lithuanian forces in the Battle of Saule in 1236, the surviving Brothers merged into the Teutonic Order as an autonomous branch (1237) and became known as the Livonian Order.Albert, bishop of Riga (or Prince-Bishop of Livonia), founded the Brotherhood to aid the Bishopric of Riga in the conversion of the pagan Curonians, Livonians, Semigallians, and Latgalians living on the shores of the Gulf of Riga.", "From its foundation, the undisciplined Order tended to ignore its supposed vassalage to the bishops.", "In 1218, Albert asked King Valdemar II of Denmark for assistance, but Valdemar instead arranged a deal with the Brotherhood and conquered the north of Estonia for Denmark.", "The Brotherhood had its headquarters at Fellin (Viljandi) in present-day Estonia, where the walls of the Master's castle stand.", "Other strongholds included Wenden (Cēsis), Segewold (Sigulda) and Ascheraden (Aizkraukle).", "The commanders of Fellin, Goldingen (Kuldīga), Marienburg (Alūksne), Reval (Tallinn), and the bailiff of Weißenstein (Paide) belonged to the five-member entourage of the Order's Master.Pope Gregory IX asked the Brothers to defend Finland from Novgorodian attacks in his letter of 24 November 1232;however, no known information regarding the knights' possible activities in Finland has survived.", "(Sweden eventually took over Finland after the Second Swedish Crusade in 1249.)", "In the Battle of Saule in 1236 the Lithuanians and Semigallians decimated the Order.", "This disaster led the surviving Brothers to become incorporated into the Order of Teutonic Knights in the following year, and from that point on they became known as the Livonian Order.", "They continued, however, to function in all respects (rule, clothing and policy) as an autonomous branch of the Teutonic Order, headed by their own Master (himself ''de jure'' subject to the Teutonic Order's Grand Master).Baltic Tribes c 1200.svg\|Baltic Tribes, ca 1200.LivoniaKnight.jpg\|Teutonic Knight and Livonian BrotherKalavijuociai.jpg\|Seal of the Livonian Brothers=== Livonian Crusade 1198–1227 ===The ''Livonian Chronicle of Henry'' from the 1220s gives a firsthand account of the Christianization of Livonia, granted as a fief by the Hohenstaufen (''de facto'' but not known as) the King of Germany, Philip of Swabia (), to Bishop Albert of Buxthoeven, nephew of Hartwig II, the Archbishop of Bremen, who sailed (1200) with a convoy of ships filled with armed crusaders to carve out a Catholic territory in the east as part of the Livonian Crusade.=== Monastic state of the Teutonic Knights 1237–1561 === Monastic State of the Teutonic Knights.Livonia consisted of the following subdivisions: * a state ruled by the Livonian Order (founded by Albert in 1202, assimilated into the Teutonic Knights in 1237);* the Bishopric of Riga (an archbishopric from 1255);* the Bishoprics of Courland, Ösel-Wiek, and Dorpat, where Albert's brother Hermann established himself as the prince-bishop (Terra Mariana).The ''Livonian Rhymed Chronicle'' describes the conquest of Livonia by the Germans.=== Livonian Order 1237–1561 ===Medieval Livonia ca.", "1260.The Livonian Order was a largely autonomous branch of the Teutonic Knights (or Teutonic Order) and a member of the Livonian Confederation from 1418 to 1561.After being defeated by Lithuanian forces in the 1236 Battle of Saule, the remnants of the Livonian Brothers of the Sword were incorporated into the Teutonic Knights as the Livonian Order in 1237.Between 1237 and 1290, the Livonian Order conquered all of Courland, Livonia, and Semigallia, but their attack on northern Russia was repelled in the Battle of Rakvere (1268).", "In 1346, after the St. George's Night Uprising the Order purchased the rest of Estonia from King Valdemar IV of Denmark.", "The Chronicle of Henry of Livonia and the Livonian Rhymed Chronicle describe conditions within the Order's territory.", "The Teutonic Order fell into decline following its defeat in the Battle of Grunwald in 1410 and the secularization of its Prussian territories by Albert of Brandenburg in 1525, but the Livonian Order managed to maintain an independent existence.", "During the many years of the Livonian War (1558–1582), however, they suffered a decisive defeat at the hands of troops of Muscovite Russia in the Battle of Ergeme in 1560 and continued living under great threat.", "Letters to the Holy Roman Emperor arrived from many European countries, warning ''that Moscow has its eyes on much more than only a few harbors or the province of Liefland'' ... the East Sea (Ostsee-Baltic Sea) and the West Sea (Atlantic) are equally in danger.", "Duke Barnim the Elder, 50 years duke of Pomerania, warned, ''that never before did he experience the fear than now, where even in his land, where people send by Moscow are everywhere''.", "At stake was the Narva-trade-route and practically all trade in the North, and with that all of Europe.", "Due to the religious upheavals of the Reformation the distant Holy Roman Empire could not send troops, which it could not afford anyway.", "The Duchy of Prussia was not able to help for much of the same reason, and Duke Albrecht () was under continuous ban by the Empire.", "The Hanseatic League was greatly weakened by this and the city state of Luebeck fought its last great war.", "The emperor Maximilian II () diffused the greatest threat by remaining on friendly terms with Tsar Ivan IV of Russia (), but not sending Ivan IV troops as requested in his struggles with the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.In 1570, Tsar Ivan IV of Russia installed Duke Magnus as King of Livonia.", "The other forces opposed this appointment.", "The Livonian Order saw no other way than to seek protection from Sigismund II Augustus (King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania), who had intervened in a war between Bishop William of Riga and the Brothers in 1557.After coming to an agreement with Sigismund II Augustus and his representatives (especially Mikołaj \"the Black\" Radziwiłł), the last Livonian Master, Gotthard Kettler, secularized the Order and converted to Lutheranism.", "In the southern part of the Brothers' lands, he set up the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia for his family.", "Most of the remaining lands were seized by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.", "Denmark and Sweden re-occupied the north of Estonia.From the 14th to the 16th centuries, Middle Low German - as spoken in the towns of the Hanseatic League — functioned as the established language of the Livonian lands, but High German subsequently succeeded it as the official language in the course of the 16th and 17th centuries.Livlandritter16jh.jpg\|Livonian knight in 16th centuryLivonianLady.jpg\|Livonian lady by Albrecht Dürer=== Livonian Confederation 1418–1561 ===In 1418, the Archbishop of Riga, Johannes Ambundii, organised the five ecclesiastical states of the Holy Roman Empire in Medieval Livonia (Livonian Order, Courland, Ösel–Wiek, Dorpat and Riga) into the Livonian Confederation.A diet or ''Landtag'' was formed in 1419.The city of Walk was chosen as the site of the diet.=== Livonian War 1558–1583 ===Europe, 1550.Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor once again asked for help of Gustav I of Sweden, and the Kingdom of Poland also began direct negotiations with Gustav, but nothing resulted because on 29 September 1560, Gustav I Vasa died.", "The chances for success of Magnus, (who had become Bishop of Courland and of Ösel-Wiek) in 1560 and his supporters looked particularly good in 1560 (and in 1570).", "In 1560 he had been recognised as their sovereign by the Bishopric of Ösel-Wiek and by the Bishopric of Courland, and as their prospective ruler by the authorities of the Bishopric of Dorpat; the Bishopric of Reval with the Harrien-Wierland gentry were on his side; the Livonian Order conditionally recognised his right of ownership of Estonia (Principality of Estonia).", "Then along with Archbishop Wilhelm von Brandenburg of the Archbishopric of Riga and his Coadjutor Christoph von Mecklenburg, Kettler, the last Master of the Teutonic Order, gave to Magnus the portions of the Kingdom of Livonia which he had taken possession of, but they refused to give him any more land.Once Eric XIV of Sweden became king in September 1560 he took quick actions to get involved in the war.", "He negotiated a continued peace with Muscovy and spoke to the burghers of Reval city.", "He offered them goods to submit to him as well as threatening them.", "By 6 June 1561,they submitted to him contrary to the persuasions of Kettler to the burghers.", "King Eric's brother and future King Johan married the Polish princess Catherine Jagiellon in 1562.Wanting to obtain his own land in Livonia, he loaned Poland money and then claimed the castles that they had pawned as his own instead of using them to pressure Poland.", "After Johan returned to Finland, Erik XIV forbade him to deal with any foreign countries without his consent.Shortly after that, Erik XIV quickly lost any allies that he was about to obtain, either in the form of Magnus or of the Archbishop of Riga.", "Magnus was upset that he had been tricked out of his inheritance of Holstein.", "After Sweden occupied Reval, Frederick II of Denmark made a treaty with Erik XIV of Sweden in August 1561.Magnus and his brother Frederick II were in great disagreement, and Frederick II negotiated a treaty with Ivan IV on 7 August 1562 to help his brother obtain more land and to stall further Swedish advances.", "Erik XIV did not like this, and the Northern Seven Years' War (1563-1570) broke out, with Sweden pitted against the Free City of Lübeck, Denmark, and Poland.", "While only losing land and trade, Frederick II and Magnus were not faring well.", "But in 1568 Erik XIV became insane and his brother Johan took his place as King John III of Sweden.Johan III, due to his friendship with Poland, began a policy against Muscovy.", "He would try to obtain more land in Livonia and to dominate Denmark.", "After all parties had been financially drained, Frederick II let his ally, King Sigismund II Augustus of Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, know that he was ready for peace.", "On 15 December 1570, the Treaty of Stettin concluded the Northern Seven Years' War.It is, however, more difficult to estimate the scope and magnitude of the support Magnus received in Livonian cities.", "Compared to the Harrien-Wierland gentry, the Reval city council, and hence probably the majority of citizens, demonstrated a much more reserved attitude towards Denmark and towards King Magnus of Livonia.", "Nevertheless, there is no reason to speak about any strong pro-Swedish sentiments among the residents of Reval.", "The citizens who had fled to the Bishopric of Dorpat or had been deported to Muscovy hailed Magnus as their saviour until 1571.Analysis indicates that during the Livonian War a pro-independence wing emerged among the Livonian gentry and townspeople, forming the so-called \"Peace Party\".", "Dismissing hostilities, these forces perceived an agreement with Muscovy as a chance to escape the atrocities of war and to avoid the division of Livonia.", "Thus Magnus, who represented Denmark and later struck a deal with Ivan IV, proved a suitable figurehead for this faction.The Peace Party, however, had its own armed forces – scattered bands of household troops (''Hofleute'') under diverse command, which only united in action in 1565 (Battle of Pärnu and Siege of Reval), in 1570–1571 (Siege of Reval; 30 weeks), and in 1574–1576 (first on Sweden's side, then came the sale of Ösel–Wiek to the Danish Crown, and the loss of territory to Tsardom of Russia).", "In 1575, after Muscovy attacked Danish claims in Livonia, Frederick II dropped out of the competition, as did the Holy Roman Emperor.", "After this Johan III held off on his pursuit for more land due to Muscovy obtaining lands that Sweden controlled.", "He used the next two years of truce to get in a better position.", "In 1578, he resumed the fight, not only for Livonia, but also for everywhere due to an understanding that he made with the Rzeczpospolita.", "In 1578, Magnus retired to the Rzeczpospolita and his brother all but gave up the land in Livonia.=== Duchy of Livonia 1561–1621 ===Livonia on the 1570 map.In 1561, during the Livonian War, Livonia fell to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and became a dependent vassal of Lithuania.", "Eight years later, in 1569, when the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland formed the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Livonia became a joint domain administered directly by the king and grand duke.", "Having rejected peace proposals from its enemies, Ivan the Terrible found himself in a difficult position by 1579, when Crimean Khanate devastated Muscovian territories and burnt down Moscow (see Russo-Crimean Wars), the drought and epidemics have fatally affected the economy, Oprichnina had thoroughly disrupted the government, while The Grand Principality of Lithuania had united with The Kingdom of Poland (1385–1569) and acquired an energetic leader, Stefan Batory, supported by Ottoman Empire (1576).", "Stefan Batory replied with a series of three offensives against Muscovy, trying to cut The Kingdom of Livonia from Muscovian territories.", "During his first offensive in 1579, with 22,000 men, he retook Polotsk; during the second, in 1580, with 29,000-strong army, he took Velikie Luki, and in 1581 with a 100,000-strong army he started the Siege of Pskov.", "Frederick II of Denmark and Norway had trouble continuing the fight against Muscovy unlike Sweden and Poland.", "He came to an agreement with John III in 1580, giving him the titles in Livonia.", "That war would last from 1577 to 1582.Muscovy recognized Polish–Lithuanian control of Ducatus Ultradunensis only in 1582.After Magnus von Lyffland died in 1583, Poland invaded his territories in The Duchy of Courland, and Frederick II decided to sell his rights of inheritance.", "Except for the island of Œsel, Denmark was out of the Baltic by 1585.As of 1598 Inflanty Voivodeship was divided onto: * Wenden Voivodeship (''województwo wendeńskie'', Kieś)* Dorpat Voivodeship (''województwo dorpackie'', Dorpat)* Parnawa Voivodeship (''województwo parnawskie'', Parnawa)Based on a guarantee by Sigismund II Augustus from the 1560s, the German language retained its official status.=== Kingdom of Livonia 1570–1578 ===Livonia, as shown in the map of 1573 of Theatrum orbis terrarum.The armies of Ivan the Terrible were initially successful, taking Polotsk (1563) and Parnawa (1575) and overrunning much of Grand Duchy of Lithuania up to some proximity of Vilnius.", "Eventually, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Kingdom of Poland formed the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1569 under the Union of Lublin.", "Eric XIV of Sweden did not like this, and the Northern Seven Years' War between the Free City of Lübeck, Denmark, Poland, and Sweden broke out.", "While only losing land and trade, Frederick II of Denmark and Magnus von Lyffland of the Œsel-Wiek did not fare well.", "But, in 1569, Erik XIV became insane and his brother John III of Sweden took his place.", "After all parties had been financially drained, Frederick II let his ally, King Zygmunt II August, know that he was ready for peace.", "On 15 December 1570, the Treaty of Stettin was concluded.In the next phase of the conflict, in 1577, Ivan IV took advantage of the Commonwealth's internal strife (called the war against Gdańsk in Polish historiography), and during the reign of Stefan Batory in Poland, invaded Livonia, quickly taking almost the entire territory, with the exception of Riga and Reval.", "In 1578, Magnus of Livonia recognized the sovereignty of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (not ratified by the Sejm of Poland-Lithuania, nor recognized by Denmark).", "The Kingdom of Livonia was beaten back by Muscovy on all fronts.", "In 1578, Magnus of Livonia retired to The Bishopric of Courland, and his brother all but gave up the land in Livonia.===Swedish Livonia 1629–1721===The Baltics in the 17th centurySweden was given roughly the same area as the former Duchy of Livonia after the 1626–1629 Polish–Swedish War.", "The area, usually known as Swedish Livonia, became a very important Swedish dominion, with Riga being the second largest Swedish city and Livonia paying for one third of the Swedish war costs.", "Sweden lost Swedish Livonia, Swedish Estonia and Ingria to the Russian Empire almost 100 years later, by the Capitulation of Estonia and Livonia in 1710 and the Treaty of Nystad in 1721.=== Livonian Voivodeship 1620s–1772 ===Inflanty Voivodeship, 1620s–1772.The Livonian Voivodeship (; ) was a unit of administrative division and local government in the Duchy of Livonia, part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, since it was formed in the 1620s out of the Wenden Voivodeship till the First Partition of Poland in 1772.=== Riga Governorate 1721–1796 ===Europe, 1740.The Russian Empire conquered Swedish Livonia during the course of the Great Northern War and acquired the province in the Capitulation of Estonia and Livonia in 1710, confirmed by the Treaty of Nystad in 1721.Peter the Great confirmed German as the exclusive official language.", "Russia then added Polish Livonia in 1772 during the Partitions of Poland.=== Governorate of Livonia 1796–1918 ===Europe, 1815.In 1796, the Riga Governorate was renamed as the Governorate of Livonia ( / , , ).", "Livonia remained within the Russian Empire until the end of World War I, when it was split between the newly independent states of Latvia and Estonia.", "In 1918–1920, both Soviet troops and German Freikorps fought against Latvian and Estonian troops for control over Livonia, but their attempts were defeated.=== Governors-General of Estonia, Livonia, and Courland 1845–1876 ===Livonia, 1898.From 1845 to 1876, the Baltic governorates of Estonia, Livonia, and Courland — an area roughly corresponding to the historical medieval Livonia — were administratively subordinated to a common Governor-General.", "Amongst the holders of this post were Count Alexander Arkadyevich Suvorov and Count Pyotr Andreyevich Shuvalov.=== Vidzeme in Independent Latvia 1918–1940 ===Latvia around Riga, Estonia around Tallinn in 1923.In independent Latvia between the World Wars, southern Livonia became an administrative region under the traditional Latvian name Vidzeme, encompassing the then much larger counties of Riga, Cēsis, Valmiera, and Valka.=== Ostland 1941–1944 ===German advances from 22 June to 25 August 1941.Ostland was one of the Reichskommissariats established, by a Decree of the Führer dated 17 July 1941, as administrative units of the \"Großdeutsches Reich\" (Greater Germanic Reich).", "The structure of the Reichskommissariats was defined by the same decree.", "Local administration in the Reichskommissariats was to be organized under a \"National Director\" (''Reichskomissar'') in Estonia, a \"General Director\" in Latvia and a \"General Adviser\" in Lithuania.", "The local administration of the Reichskommissariat Ostland was under ''Reichskomissar'' Hinrich Lohse.", "Below him, there was an administrative hierarchy: a ''Generalkomissar'' led each ''Generalbezirke'', ''Gebietskomissars'' and ''Hauptkommissars'' administered ''Kreigsbietes'' and ''Hauptgenbietes'', respectively.", "Alfred Rosenberg's (Minister für die besetzten Ostgebiete (Reich Ministry for the Occupied Eastern Territories)) ministerial authority was, in practice, severely limited.", "The first reason was that many of the practicalities were commanded elsewhere: the Wehrmacht and the SS managed the military and security aspects, Fritz Sauckel (Reich Director of Labour) had control over manpower and working areas, Hermann Göring and Albert Speer had total management of economic aspects in the territories and the Reich postal service administered the East territories' postal services.", "These German central government interventions in the affairs of Ostland, overriding the appropriate ministries was known as \"Sonderverwaltungen\" (special administration).", "Later, from September, the civil administration that had been decreed in the previous July was actually set up.", "Lohse and, for that matter, Koch would not bow to his authority seeking to administer their territories with the independence and authority of gauleiters.", "On 1 April 1942, an ''arbeitsbereich'' (lit.", "\"working sphere\", a name for the party cadre organisation outside the reich proper) was established in the civil-administration part of the occupied Soviet territories, whereupon Koch and Lohse gradually ceased communication with him, preferring to deal directly with Hitler through Martin Bormann and the party chancellery.", "In the process, they also displaced all other actors including notably the SS, except in Central Belarus, where HSSPF Erich von dem Bach-Zelewski had a special command encompassing both military and civil administration territories and engaged in \"anti-partisan\" atrocities.=== Baltic countries since 1990 ===The historical land of Livonia has been split between Latvia and Estonia ever since.", "The Livonian language is spoken by fewer than 100 individuals as a second language, and is understood to be fast approaching extinction.", "The last native Livonian speaker died in June 2013.The unofficial anthem of Livonians is ''Min izāmō, min sindimō'', sharing the melody of Finnish and Estonian anthems." ], [ "See also", "Bishopric of RevalCourlandLivonian CoastDuchy of CourlandHistory of EstoniaHistory of LatviaHistory of LithuaniaHistory of Poland" ], [ "Further reading", "* '' Les pays baltiques, le pluriculturalisme en héritage'', Yves Plasseraud; Armeline, 2020.", "* '' Les Germano-baltes'', Yves Plasseraud; S. Pourchier-Plasseraud; Armeline, 2022." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Virtual Livonia* Deutsch-Baltische Ritterschaften in Livland, Kurland, Estland, Oesel * Joann Portantiuse Liivimaa kaart 1573.aastast* Estonian Manors Portal the English version includes the description of 438 well-preserved historical manors of nowadays Estonia (historically – northern part of Old-Livonia/Alt-Livland)* ''Atlas of Livonia, or of the Two Governments and Duchies Livonia and Estonia, and of the Province of Oesel'' from the World Digital Library" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lung cancer" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lung cancer''', also known as '''lung carcinoma''', is a malignant tumor that begins in the lung.", "Lung cancer is caused by genetic damage to the DNA of cells in the airways, often caused by cigarette smoking or inhaling damaging chemicals.", "Damaged airway cells gain the ability to multiply unchecked, causing the growth of a tumor.", "Without treatment, tumors spread throughout the lung, damaging lung function.", "Eventually lung tumors metastasize, spreading to other parts of the body.Early lung cancer often has no symptoms and can only be detected by medical imaging.", "As the cancer progresses, most people experience nonspecific respiratory problems: coughing, shortness of breath, or chest pain.", "Other symptoms depend on the location and size of the tumor.", "Those suspected of having lung cancer typically undergo a series of imaging tests to determine the location and extent of any tumors.", "Definitive diagnosis of lung cancer requires a biopsy of the suspected tumor be examined by a pathologist under a microscope.", "In addition to recognizing cancerous cells, a pathologist can classify the tumor according to the type of cells it originates from.", "Around 15% of cases are small-cell lung cancer (SCLC), and the remaining 85% (the non-small-cell lung cancers or NSCLC) are adenocarcinomas, squamous-cell carcinomas, and large-cell carcinomas.", "After diagnosis, further imaging and biopsies are done to determine the cancer's stage based on how far it has spread.Treatment for early stage lung cancer includes surgery to remove the tumor, sometimes followed by radiation therapy and chemotherapy to kill any remaining cancer cells.", "Later stage cancer is treated with radiation therapy and chemotherapy alongside drug treatments that target specific cancer subtypes.", "Even with treatment, only around 20% of people survive five years on from their diagnosis.", "Survival rates are higher in those diagnosed at an earlier stage, diagnosed at a younger age, and in women compared to men.Most lung cancer cases are caused by tobacco smoking.", "The remainder are caused by exposure to hazardous substances like asbestos and radon gas, or by genetic mutations that arise by chance.", "Consequently, lung cancer prevention efforts encourage people to avoid hazardous chemicals and quit smoking.", "Quitting smoking both reduces one's chance of developing lung cancer and improves treatment outcomes in those already diagnosed with lung cancer.Lung cancer is the most diagnosed and deadliest cancer worldwide, with 2.2 million cases in 2020 resulting in 1.8 million deaths.", "Lung cancer is rare in those younger than 40; the average age at diagnosis is 70 years, and the average age at death 72.Incidence and outcomes vary widely across the world, depending on patterns of tobacco use.", "Prior to the advent of cigarette smoking in the 20th century, lung cancer was a rare disease.", "In the 1950s and 1960s, increasing evidence linked lung cancer and tobacco use, culminating in declarations by most large national health bodies discouraging tobacco use." ], [ "Signs and symptoms", "Early lung cancer often has no symptoms.", "When symptoms do arise they are often nonspecific respiratory problems – coughing, shortness of breath, or chest pain – that can differ from person to person.", "Those who experience coughing tend to report either a new cough, or an increase in the frequency or strength of a pre-existing cough.", "Around one in four cough up blood, ranging from small streaks in the sputum to large amounts.", "Around half of those diagnosed with lung cancer experience shortness of breath, while 25–50% experience a dull, persistent chest pain that remains in the same location over time.", "In addition to respiratory symptoms, some experience systemic symptoms including loss of appetite, weight loss, general weakness, fever, and night sweats.Some less common symptoms suggest tumors in particular locations.", "Tumors in the thorax can cause breathing problems by obstructing the trachea or disrupting the nerve to the diaphragm; difficulty swallowing by compressing the esophagus; hoarseness by disrupting the nerves of the larynx; and Horner's syndrome by disrupting the sympathetic nervous system.", "Horner's syndrome is also common in tumors at the top of the lung, known as Pancoast tumors, which also cause shoulder pain that radiates down the little-finger side of the arm as well as destruction of the topmost ribs.", "Swollen lymph nodes above the collarbone can indicate a tumor that has spread within the chest.", "Tumors obstructing bloodflow to the heart can cause superior vena cava syndrome (swelling of the upper body and shortness of breath), while tumors infiltrating the area around the heart can cause fluid buildup around the heart, arrythmia (irregular heartbeat), and heart failure.About one in three people diagnosed with lung cancer have symptoms caused by metastases in sites other than the lungs.", "Lung cancer can metastasize anywhere in the body, with different symptoms depending on the location.", "Brain metastases can cause headache, nausea, vomiting, seizures, and neurological deficits.", "Bone metastases can cause pain, bone fractures, and compression of the spinal cord.", "Metastasis into the bone marrow can deplete blood cells and cause leukoerythroblastosis (immature cells in the blood).", "Liver metastases can cause liver enlargement, pain in the right upper quadrant of the abdomen, fever, and weight loss.Lung tumors often cause the release of body-altering hormones, which cause unusual symptoms, called paraneoplastic syndromes.", "Inappropriate hormone release can cause dramatic shifts in concentrations of blood minerals.", "Most common is hypercalcemia (high blood calcium) caused by over-production of parathyroid hormone-related protein or parathyroid hormone.", "Hypercalcemia can manifest as nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, constipation, increased thirst, frequent urination, and altered mental status.", "Those with lung cancer also commonly experience hypokalemia (low potassium) due to inappropriate secretion of adrenocorticotropic hormone, as well as hyponatremia (low sodium) due to overproduction of antidiuretic hormone or atrial natriuretic peptide.", "About one of three people with lung cancer develop nail clubbing, while up to one in ten experience hypertrophic pulmonary osteoarthropathy (nail clubbing, joint soreness, and skin thickening).", "A variety of autoimmune disorders can arise as paraneoplastic syndromes in those with lung cancer, including Lambert–Eaton myasthenic syndrome (which causes muscle weakness), sensory neuropathies, muscle inflammation, brain swelling, and autoimmune deterioration of cerebellum, limbic system, or brainstem.", "Up to one in twelve people with lung cancer have paraneoplastic blood clotting, including migratory venous thrombophlebitis, clots in the heart, and disseminated intravascular coagulation (clots throughout the body).", "Paraneoplastic syndromes involving the skin and kidneys are rare, each occurring in up to 1% of those with lung cancer." ], [ "Diagnosis", "CT scan showing a cancerous tumor in the left lungA person suspected of having lung cancer will have imaging tests done to evaluate the presence, extent, and location of tumors.", "First, many primary care providers perform a chest X-ray to look for a mass inside the lung.", "The X-ray may reveal an obvious mass, the widening of the mediastinum (suggestive of spread to lymph nodes there), atelectasis (lung collapse), consolidation (pneumonia), or pleural effusion; however, some lung tumors are not visible by X-ray.", "Next, many undergo computed tomography (CT) scanning, which can reveal the sizes and locations of tumors.A definitive diagnosis of lung cancer requires a biopsy of the suspected tissue be histologically examined for cancer cells.", "Given the location of lung cancer tumors, biopsies can often be obtained by minimally invasive techniques: a fiberoptic bronchoscope that can retrieve tissue (sometimes guided by endobronchial ultrasound), fine needle aspiration, or other imaging-guided biopsy through the skin.", "Those who cannot undergo a typical biopsy procedure may instead have a liquid biopsy taken (that is, a sample of some body fluid) which may contain circulating tumor DNA that can be detected.Diagram showing a bronchoscopyImaging is also used to assess the extent of cancer spread.", "Positron emission tomography (PET) scanning or combined PET-CT scanning is often used to locate metastases in the body.", "Since PET scanning is less sensitive in the brain, the National Comprehensive Cancer Network recommends magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) – or CT where MRI is unavailable – to scan the brain for metastases in those with NSCLC and large tumors, or tumors that have spread to the nearby lymph nodes.", "When imaging suggests the tumor has spread, the suspected metastasis is often biopsied to confirm that it is cancerous.", "Lung cancer most commonly metastasizes to the brain, bones, liver, and adrenal glands.Lung cancer can often appear as a solitary pulmonary nodule on a chest radiograph or CT scan.", "In lung cancer screening studies as many as 30% of those screened have a lung nodule, the majority of which turn out to be benign.", "Besides lung cancer many other diseases can also give this appearance, including hamartomas, and infectious granulomas caused by tuberculosis, histoplasmosis, or coccidioidomycosis.===Classification===H&E stained samples from lung biopsies: (Top-left) Normal bronchiole surrounded by alveoli, (top-right) adenocarcinoma with papillary (finger-like) growth, (bottom-left) alveoli filled with mucin suggesting adenocarcinoma nearby, (bottom-right) squamous-cell carcinoma, with alveoli full of keratin.Histopathology of small-cell carcinoma, with typical findingsAt diagnosis, lung cancer is classified based on the type of cells the tumor is derived from; tumors derived from different cells progress and respond to treatment differently.", "There are two main types of lung cancer, categorized by the size and appearance of the malignant cells seen by a histopathologist under a microscope: small cell lung cancer (SCLC; 15% of cases) and non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC; 85% of cases).", "SCLC tumors are often found near the center of the lungs, in the major airways.", "Their cells appear small with ill-defined boundaries, not much cytoplasm, many mitochondria, and have distinctive nuclei with granular-looking chromatin and no visible nucleoli.", "NSCLCs comprise a group of three cancer types: adenocarcinoma, squamous-cell carcinoma, and large-cell carcinoma.", "Nearly 40% of lung cancers are adenocarcinomas.", "Their cells grow in three-dimensional clumps, resemble glandular cells, and may produce mucin.", "About 30% of lung cancers are squamous-cell carcinomas.", "They typically occur close to large airways.", "The tumors consist of sheets of cells, with layers of keratin.", "A hollow cavity and associated cell death are commonly found at the center of the tumor.", "Less than 10% of lung cancers are large-cell carcinomas, so named because the cells are large, with excess cytoplasm, large nuclei, and conspicuous nucleoli.", "Around 10% of lung cancers are rarer types.", "These include mixes of the above subtypes like adenosquamous carcinoma, and rare subtypes such as carcinoid tumors, and sarcomatoid carcinomas.Several lung cancer types are subclassified based on the growth characteristics of the cancer cells.", "Adenocarcinomas are classified as lepidic (growing along the surface of intact alveolar walls), acinar and papillary, or micropapillary and solid pattern.", "Lepidic adenocarcinomas tend to be least aggressive, while micropapillary and solid pattern adenocarcinomas are most aggressive.In addition to examining cell morphology, biopsies are often stained by immunohistochemistry to confirm lung cancer classification.", "SCLCs bear the markers of neuroendocrine cells, such as chromogranin, synaptophysin, and CD56.Adenocarcinomas tend to express and ; squamous cell carcinomas lack and , but express p63 and its cancer-specific isoform p40.CK7 and CK20 are also commonly used to differentiate lung cancers.", "CK20 is found in several cancers, but typically absent from lung cancer.", "CK7 is present in many lung cancers, but absent from squamous cell carcinomas.===Staging===+ Stage group according to TNM classification in lung cancer TNM Stage group T1a N0 M0 IA1 T1b N0 M0 IA2 T1c N0 M0 IA3 T2a N0 M0 IB T2b N0 M0 IIA T1–T2 N1 M0 IIB T3 N0 M0 T1–T2 N2 M0 IIIA T3 N1 M0 T4 N0–N1 M0 T1–T2 N3 M0 IIIB T3–T4 N2 M0 T3–T4 N3 M0 IIIC Any T, any N, M1a–M1b IVA Any T, any N, M1c IVBLung cancer staging is an assessment of the degree of spread of the cancer from its original source.", "It is one of the factors affecting both the prognosis and the treatment of lung cancer.SCLC is typically staged with a relatively simple system: limited stage or extensive stage.", "Around a third of people are diagnosed at the limited stage, meaning cancer is confined to one side of the chest, within the scope of a single radiotherapy field.", "The other two thirds are diagnosed at the \"extensive stage\", with cancer spread to both sides of the chest, or to other parts of the body.NSCLC – and sometimes SCLC – is typically staged with the American Joint Committee on Cancer's Tumor, Node, Metastasis (TNM) staging system.", "The size and extent of the tumor (T), spread to regional lymph nodes (N), and distant metastases (M) are scored individually, and combined to form stage groups.Relatively small tumors are designated T1, which are subdivided by size: tumors ≤ 1 centimeter (cm) across are T1a; 1–2 cm T1b; 2–3 cm T1c.", "Tumors up to 5 cm across, or those that have spread to the visceral pleura (tissue covering the lung) or main bronchi, are designated T2.T2a designates 3–4 cm tumors; T2b 4–5 cm tumors.", "T3 tumors are up to 7 cm across, have multiple nodules in the same lobe of the lung, or invade the chest wall, diaphragm (or the nerve that controls it), or area around the heart.", "Tumors that are larger than 7 cm, have nodules spread in different lobes of a lung, or invade the mediastinum (center of the chest cavity), heart, largest blood vessels that supply the heart, trachea, esophagus, or spine are designated T4.Lymph node staging depends on the extent of local spread: with the cancer metastasized to no lymph nodes (N0), pulmonary or hilar nodes (along the bronchi) on the same side as the tumor (N1), mediastinal or subcarinal lymph nodes (in the middle of the lungs, N2), or lymph nodes on the opposite side of the lung from the tumor (N3).", "Metastases are staged as no metastases (M0), nearby metastases (M1a; the space around the lung or the heart, or the opposite lung), a single distant metastasis (M1b), or multiple metastases (M1c).These T, N, and M scores are combined to designate a stage grouping for the cancer.", "Cancer limited to smaller tumors is designated stage I.", "Disease with larger tumors or spread to the nearest lymph nodes is stage II.", "Cancer with the largest tumors or extensive lymph node spread is stage III.", "Cancer that has metastasized is stage IV.", "Each stage is further subdivided based on the combination of T, N, and M scores.+ TNM classification in lung cancer T: Primary tumor T0 No primary tumor Tis Carcinoma in situ T1 Tumor ≤ 3 cm across, surrounded by lung or visceral pleura T1mi Minimally invasive adenocarcinoma T1a Tumor ≤ 1 cm across T1b Tumor > 1 cm but ≤ 2 cm across T1c Tumor > 2 cm but ≤ 3 cm across T2 Any of: Tumor size > 3 cm but ≤ 5 cm across Involvement of the main bronchus but not the carina Invasion of visceral pleura Atelectasis/obstructive pneumonitis extending to the hilum T2a Tumor > 3 cm but ≤ 4 cm across T2b Tumor > 4 cm but ≤ 5 cm across T3 Any of: Tumor size > 5 cm but ≤ 7 cm across Invasion into the chest wall, phrenic nerve, or parietal pericardium Separate tumor nodule in the same lobe T4 Any of: Tumor size > 7 cm Invasion of the diaphragm, mediastinum, heart, great vessels, trachea, carina, recurrent laryngeal nerve, esophagus, or vertebral body Separate tumor nodule in a different lobe of the same lung N: Lymph nodes N0 No lymph node metastasis N1 Metastasis to ipsilateral peribronchial or hilar lymph nodes N2 Metastasis to ipsilateral mediastinal or subcarinal lymph nodes N3 Any of: Metastasis to scalene or supraclavicular lymph nodes Metastasis to contralateral hilar or mediastinal lymph nodes M: Metastasis M0 No distant metastasis M1a Any of: Separate tumor nodule in the other lung Tumor with pleural or pericardial nodules Malignant pleural or pericardial effusion M1b A single metastasis outside the chest M1c Two or more metastases outside the chest===Screening===Some countries recommend that people who are at a high risk of developing lung cancer be screened at different intervals using low-dose CT lung scans.", "Screening programs may result in early detection of lung tumors in people who are not yet experiencing symptoms of lung cancer, ideally, early enough that the tumors can be successfully treated and result in decreased mortality.", "There is evidence that regular low-dose CT scans in people at high risk of developing lung cancer reduces total lung cancer deaths by as much as 20%.", "Despite evidence of benefit in these populations, potential harms of screening include the potential for a person to have a 'false positive' screening result that may lead to unnecessary testing, invasive procedures, and distress.", "Although rare, there is also a risk of radiation-induced cancer.", "The United States Preventive Services Task Force recommends yearly screening using low-dose CT in people between 55 and 80 who have a smoking history of at least 30 pack-years.", "The European Commission recommends that cancer screening programs across the European Union be extended to include low-dose CT lung scans for current or previous smokers.", "Similarly, The Canadian Task Force for Preventative Health recommends that people who are current or former smokers (smoking history of more than 30 pack years) and who are between the ages of 55–74 years be screened for lung cancer." ], [ "Treatment", "Treatment for lung cancer depends on the cancer's specific cell type, how far it has spread, and the person's health.", "Common treatments for early stage cancer includes surgical removal of the tumor, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy.", "For later-stage cancer, chemotherapy and radiation therapy are combined with newer targeted molecular therapies and immune checkpoint inhibitors.", "All lung cancer treatment regimens are combined with lifestyle changes and palliative care to improve quality of life.===Small-cell lung cancer===Setup for radiation therapy.", "The person lies flat while a radiation beam is focused on the tumor site.Limited-stage SCLC is typically treated with a combination of chemotherapy and radiotherapy.", "For chemotherapy, the National Comprehensive Cancer Network and American College of Chest Physicians guidelines recommend four to six cycles of a platinum-based chemotherapeutic – cisplatin or carboplatin – combined with either etoposide or irinotecan.", "This is typically combined with thoracic radiation therapy – 45 Gray (Gy) twice-daily – alongside the first two chemotherapy cycles.", "First-line therapy causes remission in up to 80% of those who receive it; however most people relapse with chemotherapy-resistant disease.", "Those who relapse are given second-line chemotherapies.", "Topotecan and lurbinectedin are approved by the US FDA for this purpose.", "Irinotecan, paclitaxel, docetaxel, vinorelbine, etoposide, and gemcitabine are also sometimes used, and are similarly efficacious.", "Prophylactic cranial irradiation can reduce the risk of brain metastases and improve survival in those with limited-stage disease.Extensive-stage SCLC is treated first with etoposide along with either cisplatin or carboplatin.", "Radiotherapy is used only to shrink tumors that are causing particularly severe symptoms.", "Combining standard chemotherapy with an immune checkpoint inhibitor can improve survival for a minority of those affected, extending the average person's lifespan by around 2 months.===Non-small-cell lung cancer===The extent of common surgeries to remove a lung tumor (shown in black).", "Areas that are surgically removed along with the tumor are shown in blue.For stage I and stage II NSCLC the first line of treatment is often surgical removal of the affected lobe of the lung.", "For those not well enough to tolerate full lobe removal, a smaller chunk of lung tissue can be removed by wedge resection or segmentectomy surgery.", "Those with centrally located tumors and otherwise-healthy respiratory systems may have more extreme surgery to remove an entire lung (pneumonectomy).", "Experienced thoracic surgeons, and a high-volume surgery clinic improve chances of survival.", "Those who are unable or unwilling to undergo surgery can instead receive radiation therapy.", "Stereotactic body radiation therapy is best practice, typically administered several times over 1–2 weeks.", "Chemotherapy has little effect in those with stage I NSCLC, and may worsen disease outcomes in those with the earliest disease.", "In those with stage II disease, chemotherapy is usually initiated six to twelve weeks after surgery, with up to four cycles of cisplatin – or carboplatin in those with kidney problems, neuropathy, or hearing impairment – combined with vinorelbine, pemetrexed, gemcitabine, or docetaxel.Treatment for those with stage III NSCLC depends on the nature of their disease.", "Those with more limited spread may undergo surgery to have the tumor and affected lymph nodes removed, followed by chemotherapy and potentially radiotherapy.", "Those with particularly large tumors (T4) and those for whom surgery is impractical are treated with combination chemotherapy and radiotherapy along with the immunotherapy durvalumab.", "Combined chemotherapy and radiation enhances survival compared to chemotherapy followed by radiation, though the combination therapy comes with harsher side effects.Those with stage IV disease are treated with combinations of pain medication, radiotherapy, immunotherapy, and chemotherapy.", "Many cases of advanced disease can be treated with targeted therapies depending on the genetic makeup of the cancerous cells.", "Up to 30% of tumors have mutations in the ''EGFR'' gene that result in an overactive EGFR protein; these can be treated with EGFR inhibitors osimertinib, erlotinib, gefitinib, afatinib, or dacomitinib – with osimertinib known to be superior to erlotinib and gefitinib, and all superior to chemotherapy alone.", "Up to 7% of those with NSCLC harbor mutations that result in hyperactive ALK protein, which can be treated with ALK inhibitors crizotinib, or its successors alectinib, brigatinib, and ceritinib.", "Those treated with ALK inhibitors who relapse can then be treated with the third-generation ALK inhibitor lorlatinib.", "Up to 5% with NSCLC have overactive MET, which can be inhibited with MET inhibitors capmatinib or tepotinib.", "Targeted therapies are also available for some cancers with rare mutations.", "Cancers with hyperactive BRAF (around 2% of NSCLC) can be treated by dabrafenib combined with the MEK inhibitor trametinib; those with activated ROS1 (around 1% of NSCLC) can be inhibited by crizotinib, lorlatinib, or entrectinib; overactive NTRK (<1% of NSCLC) by entrectinib or larotrectinib; active RET (around 1% of NSCLC) by selpercatinib.People whose NSCLC is not targetable by current molecular therapies instead can be treated with combination chemotherapy plus immune checkpoint inhibitors, which prevent cancer cells from inactivating immune T cells.", "The chemotherapeutic agent of choice depends on the NSCLC subtype: cisplatin plus gemcitabine for squamous cell carcinoma, cisplatin plus pemetrexed for non-squamous cell carcinoma.", "Immune checkpoint inhibitors are most effective against tumors that express the protein PD-L1, but are sometimes effective in those that do not.", "Treatment with pembrolizumab, atezolizumab, or combination nivolumab plus ipilimumab are all superior to chemotherapy alone against tumors expressing PD-L1.Those who relapse on the above are treated with second-line chemotherapeutics docetaxel and ramucirumab.===Palliative care===Brachytherapy (internal radiotherapy) for lung cancer given via the airwayIntegrating palliative care (medical care focused on improving symptoms and lessening discomfort) into lung cancer treatment from the time of diagnosis improves the survival time and quality of life of those with lung cancer.", "Particularly common symptoms of lung cancer are shortness of breath and pain.", "Supplemental oxygen, improved airflow, re-orienting an affected person in bed, and low-dose morphine can all improve shortness of breath.", "In around 20 to 30% of those with lung cancer – particularly those with late-stage disease – growth of the tumor can narrow or block the airway, causing coughing and difficulty breathing.", "Obstructing tumors can be surgically removed where possible, though typically those with airway obstruction are not well enough for surgery.", "In such cases the American College of Chest Physicians recommends opening the airway by inserting a stent, attempting to shrink the tumor with localized radiation (brachytherapy), or physically removing the blocking tissue by bronchoscopy, sometimes aided by thermal or laser ablation.", "Other causes of lung cancer-associated shortness of breath can be treated directly, such as antibiotics for a lung infection, diuretics for pulmonary edema, benzodiazepines for anxiety, and steroids for airway obstruction.Up to 92% of those with lung cancer report pain, either from tissue damage at the tumor site(s) or nerve damage.", "The World Health Organization (WHO) has developed a three-tiered system for managing cancer pain.", "For those with mild pain (tier one), the WHO recommends acetominophen or a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug.", "Around a third of people experience moderate (tier two) or severe (tier three) pain, for which the WHO recommends opioid painkillers.", "Opioids are typically effective at easing nociceptive pain (pain caused by damage to various body tissues).", "Opioids are occasionally effective at easing neuropathic pain (pain cauesd by nerve damage).", "Neuropathic agents such as anticonvulsants, tricyclic antidepressants, and serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors, are often used to ease neuropathic pain, either alone or in combination with opioids.", "In many cases, targeted radiotherapy can be used to shrink tumors, reducing pain and other symptoms caused by tumor growth.Individuals who have advanced disease and are approaching end-of-life can benefit from dedicated end-of-life care to manage symptoms and ease suffering.", "As in earlier disease, pain and difficulty breathing are common, and can be managed with opioid pain medications, transitioning from oral medication to injected medication if the affected individual loses the ability to swallow.", "Coughing is also common, and can be managed with opioids or cough suppressants.", "Some experience terminal delirium – confused behavior, unexplained movements, or a reversal of the sleep-wake cycle – which can be managed by antipsychotic drugs, low-dose sedatives, and investigating other causes of discomfort such as low blood sugar, constipation, and sepsis.", "In the last few days of life, many develop terminal secretions – pooled fluid in the airways that can cause a rattling sound while breathing.", "This is thought not to cause respiratory problems, but can distress family members and caregivers.", "Terminal secretions can be reduced by anticholinergic medications.", "Even those who are non-communicative or have reduced consciousness may be able to experience cancer-related pain, so pain medications are typically continued until the time of death." ], [ "Prognosis", "NIH SEER programFive-year survival in those diagnosed with lung cancer, by stage Clinical stageFive-year survival (%) IA1 92IA283IA377 IB 68 IIA 60 IIB 53 IIIA 36 IIIB 26IIIC13 IVA 10IVB0Around 19% of people diagnosed with lung cancer survive five years from diagnosis, though prognosis varies based on the stage of the disease at diagnosis and the type of lung cancer.", "Prognosis is better for people with lung cancer diagnosed at an earlier stage; those diagnosed at the earliest TNM stage, IA1 (small tumor, no spread), have a two-year survival of 97% and five-year survival of 92%.", "Those diagnosed at the most-advanced stage, IVB, have a two-year survival of 10% and a five-year survival of 0%.", "Five-year survival is higher in women (22%) than men (16%).", "Women tend to be diagnosed with less-advanced disease, and have better outcomes than men diagnosed at the same stage.", "Average five-year survival also varies across the world, with particularly high five-year survival in Japan (33%), and five-year survival above 20% in 12 other countries: Mauritius, Canada, the US, China, South Korea, Taiwan, Israel, Latvia, Iceland, Sweden, Austria, and Switzerland.SCLC is particularly aggressive.", "10–15% of people survive five years after a SCLC diagnosis.", "As with other types of lung cancer, the extent of disease at diagnosis also influences prognosis.", "The average person diagnosed with limited-stage SCLC survives 12–20 months from diagnosis; with extensive-stage SCLC around 12 months.", "While SCLC often responds initially to treatment, most people eventually relapse with chemotherapy-resistant cancer, surviving an average 3–4 months from the time of relapse.", "Those with limited stage SCLC that go into complete remission after chemotherapy and radiotherapy have a 50% chance of brain metastases developing within the next two years – a chance reduced by prophylactic cranial irradiation.Several other personal and disease factors are associated with improved outcomes.", "Those diagnosed at a younger age tend to have better outcomes.", "Those who smoke or experience weight loss as a symptom tend to have worse outcomes.", "Tumor mutations in KRAS are associated with reduced survival.===Experience===The uncertainty of lung cancer prognosis often causes stress, and makes future planning difficult, for those with lung cancer and their families.", "Those whose cancer goes into remission often experience fear of their cancer returning or progressing, associated with poor quality of life, negative mood, and functional impairment.", "This fear is exacerbated by frequent or prolonged surveillance imaging, and other reminders of cancer risks." ], [ "Causes", "Lung cancer is caused by genetic damage to the DNA of lung cells.", "These changes are sometimes random, but are typically induced by breathing in toxic substances such as cigarette smoke.", "Cancer-causing genetic changes affect the cell's normal functions, including cell proliferation, programmed cell death (apoptosis), and DNA repair.", "Eventually, cells gain enough genetic changes to grow uncontrollably, forming a tumor, and eventually spreading within and then beyond the lung.", "Rampant tumor growth and spread causes the symptoms of lung cancer.", "If unstopped, the spreading tumor will eventually cause the death of affected individuals.===Smoking===Relationship between cigarette consumption per person (blue) and male lung cancer rates (dark yellow) in the USTobacco smoking is by far the major contributor to lung cancer, causing 80% to 90% of cases.", "Lung cancer risk increases with quantity of cigarettes consumed.", "Tobacco smoking's carcinogenic effect is due to various chemicals in tobacco smoke that cause DNA mutations, increasing the chance of cells becoming cancerous.", "The International Agency for Research on Cancer identifies at least 50 chemicals in tobacco smoke as carcinogenic, and the most potent is tobacco-specific nitrosamines.", "Exposure to these chemicals causes several kinds of DNA damage: DNA adducts, oxidative stress, and breaks in the DNA strands.", "Being around tobacco smoke – called passive smoking – can also cause lung cancer.", "Living with a tobacco smoker increases one's risk of developing lung cancer by 24%.", "An estimated 17% of lung cancer cases in those who do not smoke are caused by high levels of environmental tobacco smoke.Vaping may be a risk factor for lung cancer, but less than that of cigarettes, and further research as of 2021 is necessary due to the length of time it can take for lung cancer to develop following an exposure to carcinogens.The smoking of non-tobacco products is not known to be associated with lung cancer development.", "Marijuana smoking does not seem to independently cause lung cancer – despite the relatively high levels of tar and known carcinogens in marijuana smoke.", "The relationship between smoking cocaine and developing lung cancer has not been studied as of 2020.===Environmental exposures===Sign warning of potential for asbestos exposure, typically used during demolition/renovation of asbestos-containing buildingsExposure to a variety of other toxic chemicals – typically encountered in certain occupations – is associated with an increased risk of lung cancer.", "Occupational exposures to carcinogens cause 9–15% of lung cancer.", "A prominent example is asbestos, which causes lung cancer either directly or indirectly by inflaming the lung.", "Exposure to all commercially available forms of asbestos increases cancer risk, and cancer risk increases with time of exposure.", "Asbestos and cigarette smoking increase risk synergistically – that is, the risk of someone who smokes and has asbestos exposure dying from lung cancer is much higher than would be expected from adding the two risks together.", "Similarly, exposure to radon, a naturally occurring breakdown product of the Earth's radioactive elements, is associated with increased lung cancer risk.", "Radon levels vary with geography.", "Underground miners have the greatest exposure; however even the lower levels of radon that seep into residential spaces can increase occupants' risk of lung cancer.", "Like asbestos, cigarette smoking and radon exposure increase risk synergistically.", "Radon exposure is responsible for between 3% and 14% of lung cancer cases.Several other chemicals encountered in various occupations are also associated with increased lung cancer risk including arsenic used in wood preservation, pesticide application, and some ore smelting; ionizing radiation encountered during uranium mining; vinyl chloride in papermaking; beryllium in jewelers, ceramics workers, missile technicians, and nuclear reactor workers; chromium in stainless steel production, welding, and hide tanning; nickel in electroplaters, glass workers, metal workers, welders, and those who make batteries, ceramics, and jewelry; and diesel exhaust encountered by miners.Exposure to air pollution, especially particulate matter released by motor vehicle exhaust and fossil fuel-burning power plants, increases the risk of lung cancer.", "Indoor air pollution from burning wood, charcoal, or crop residue for cooking and heating has also been linked to an increased risk of developing lung cancer.", "The International Agency for Research on Cancer has classified emission from household burning of coal and biomass as \"carcinogenic\" and \"probably carcinogenic\" respectively.===Other diseases===Several other diseases that cause inflammation of the lung increase one's risk of lung cancer.", "This association is strongest for chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder – the risk is highest in those with the most inflammation, and reduced in those whose inflammation is treated with inhaled corticosteroids.", "Other inflammatory lung and immune system diseases such as alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency, interstitial fibrosis, scleroderma, ''Chlamydia pneumoniae'' infection, tuberculosis, and HIV infection are associated with increased risk of developing lung cancer.", "Epstein–Barr virus is associated with the development of the rare lung cancer lymphoepithelioma-like carcinoma in people from Asia, but not in people from Western nations.", "A role for several other infectious agents – namely human papillomaviruses, BK virus, JC virus, human cytomegalovirus, SV40, measles virus, and Torque teno virus – in lung cancer development has been studied but remains inconclusive as of 2020.===Genetics===Particular gene combinations may make some people more susceptible to lung cancer.", "Close family members of those with lung cancer have around twice the risk of developing lung cancer as an average person, even after controlling for occupational exposure and smoking habits.", "Genome-wide association studies have identified many gene variants associated with lung cancer risk, each of which contributes a small risk increase.", "Many of these genes participate in pathways known to be involved in carcinogenesis, namely DNA repair, inflammation, the cell division cycle, cellular stress responses, and chromatin remodeling.", "Some rare genetic disorders that increase the risk of various cancers also increase the risk of lung cancer, namely retinoblastoma and Li–Fraumeni syndrome." ], [ "Pathogenesis", "As with all cancers, lung cancer is triggered by mutations that allow tumor cells to endlessly multiply, stimulate blood vessel growth, avoid apoptosis (programmed cell death), generate pro-growth signalling molecules, ignore anti-growth signalling molecules, and eventually spread into surrounding tissue or metastasize throughout the body.", "Different tumors can acquire these abilities through different mutations, though generally cancer-contributing mutations activate oncogenes and inactivate tumor suppressors.", "Some mutations – called \"driver mutations\" – are particularly common in adenocarcinomas, and contribute disproportionately to tumor development.", "These typically occur in the receptor tyrosine kinases EGFR, BRAF, MET, KRAS, and PIK3CA.", "Similarly, some adenocarcinomas are driven by chromosomal rearrangements that result in overexpression of tyrosine kinases ALK, ROS1, NTRK, and RET.", "A given tumor will typically have just one driver mutation.", "In contrast, SCLCs rarely have these driver mutations, and instead often have mutations that have inactivated the tumor suppressors p53 and RB.", "A cluster of tumor suppressor genes on the short arm of chromosome 3 are often lost early in the development of all lung cancers." ], [ "Prevention", "===Smoking cessation===Those who smoke can reduce their lung cancer risk by quitting smoking – the risk reduction is greater the longer a person goes without smoking.", "Self-help programs tend to have little influence on success of smoking cessation, whereas combined counseling and pharmacotherapy improve cessation rates.", "The US FDA has approved antidepressant therapies and the nicotine replacement varenicline as first-line therapies to aid in smoking cessation.", "Clonidine and nortriptyline are recommended second-line therapies.", "The majority of those diagnosed with lung cancer attempt to quit smoking; around half succeed.", "Even after lung cancer diagnosis, smoking cessation improves treatment outcomes, reducing cancer treatment toxicity and failure rates, and lengthening survival time.At a societal level, smoking cessation can be promoted by tobacco control policies that make tobacco products more difficult to obtain or use.", "Many such policies are mandated or recommended by the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control, ratified by 182 countries, representing over 90% of the world's population.", "The WHO groups these policies into six intervention categories, each of which has been shown to be effective in reducing the cost of tobacco-induced disease burden on a population: #increasing the price of tobacco by raising taxes;#banning tobacco use in public places to reduce exposure;# banning tobacco advertisements;#publicizing the dangers of tobacco products;# instituting help programs for those attempting to quit smoking; and# monitoring population-level tobacco use and the effectiveness of tobacco control policies.", "Policies implementing each intervention are associated with decreases in tobacco smoking prevalence.", "The more policies implemented, the greater the reduction.", "Reducing access to tobacco for adolescents is particularly effective at decreasing uptake of habitual smoking, and adolescent demand for tobacco products is particularly sensitive to increases in cost.===Diet and lifestyle===Several foods and dietary supplements have been associated with lung cancer risk.", "High consumption of some animal products – red meat (but not other meats or fish), saturated fats, as well as nitrosamines and nitrites (found in salted and smoked meats) – is associated with an increased risk of developing lung cancer.", "In contrast, high consumption of fruits and vegetables is associated with a reduced risk of lung cancer, particularly consumption of cruciferous vegetables and raw fruits and vegetables.", "Based on the beneficial effects of fruits and vegetables, supplementation of several individual vitamins have been studied.", "Supplementation with vitamin A or beta-carotene had no effect on lung cancer, and instead slightly increased mortality.", "Dietary supplementation with vitamin E or retinoids similarly had no effect.", "Consumption of polyunsaturated fats, tea, alcoholic beverages, and coffee are all associated with reduced risk of developing lung cancer.Along with diet, body weight and exercise habits are also associated with lung cancer risk.", "Being overweight is associated with a lower risk of developing lung cancer, possibly due to the tendency of those who smoke cigarettes to have a lower body weight.", "However, being underweight is also associated with a reduced lung cancer risk.", "Some studies have shown those who exercise regularly or have better cardiovascular fitness to have a lower risk of developing lung cancer." ], [ "Epidemiology", "Age-standardized lung cancer incidence in 2020 per 100,000 people: Worldwide, lung cancer is the most diagnosed type of cancer, and the leading cause of cancer death.", "In 2020, 2.2 million new cases were diagnosed, and 1.8 million people died from lung cancer, representing 18% of all cancer deaths.", "Lung cancer deaths are expected to rise globally to nearly 3 million annual deaths by 2035, due to high rates of tobacco use and aging populations.", "Lung cancer is rare among those younger than 40; after that, cancer rates increase with age, stabilizing around age 80.The median age of a person diagnosed with lung cancer is 70; the median age of death is 72.Lung cancer incidence varies by geography and sex, with the highest rates in Micronesia, Polynesia, Europe, Asia, and North America; and lowest rates in Africa and Central America.", "Globally, around 8% of men and 6% of women develop lung cancer in their lifetimes.", "The ratio of lung cancer cases in men to women varies considerably by geography, from as high as nearly 12:1 in Belarus, to 1:1 in Brazil, likely due to differences in smoking patterns.Lung cancer risk is influenced by environmental exposure, namely cigarette smoking, as well as occupational risks in mining, shipbuilding, petroleum refining, and occupations that involve asbestos exposure.", "People who have smoked cigarettes account for 85–90% of lung cancer cases, and 15% of smokers develop lung cancer.", "Non-smokers' risk of developing lung cancer is also influenced by tobacco smoking; secondhand smoke (that is, being around tobacco smoke) increases risk of developing lung cancer around 30%, with risk correlated to duration of exposure." ], [ "History", "Lung cancer was uncommon before the advent of cigarette smoking.", "Surgeon Alton Ochsner recalled that as a Washington University medical student in 1919, his entire medical school class was summoned to witness an autopsy of a man who had died from lung cancer, and told they may never see such a case again.", "In Isaac Adler's 1912 ''Primary Malignant Growths of the Lungs and Bronchi'', he called lung cancer \"among the rarest forms of disease\"; Adler tabulated the 374 cases of lung cancer that had been published to that time, concluding the disease was increasing in incidence.", "By the 1920s, several theories had been put forward linking the increase in lung cancer to various chemical exposures that had increased including tobacco smoke, asphalt dust, industrial air pollution, and poisonous gasses from World War I.Over the following decades, growing scientific evidence linked lung cancer to cigarette consumption.", "Through the 1940s and early 1950s, several case-control studies showed that those with lung cancer were more likely to have smoked cigarettes compared to those without lung cancer.", "These were followed by several prospective cohort studies in the 1950s – including the first report of the British Doctors Study in 1954 – all of which showed that those who smoked tobacco were at dramatically increased risk of developing lung cancer.A Frank Statement to Cigarette Smokers\", an advertisement run in newspapers nationwide in January 1954 as part of Hill & Knowlton's campaign to cast doubt on the link between cigarettes and cancerA 1953 study showing that tar from cigarette smoke could cause tumors in mice attracted attention in the popular press, with features in ''Life'' and ''Time'' magazines.", "Facing public concern and falling stock prices, the CEOs of six of the largest American tobacco companies gathered in December 1953.They enlisted the help of public relations firm Hill & Knowlton to craft a multi-pronged strategy aiming to distract from accumulating evidence by funding tobacco-friendly research, declaring the link to lung cancer \"controversial\", and demanding ever-more research to settle this purported controversy.", "At the same time, internal research at the major tobacco companies supported the link between tobacco and lung cancer; though these results were kept secret from the public.As evidence linking tobacco use with lung cancer mounted, various health bodies announced official positions linking the two.", "In 1962, the United Kingdom's Royal College of Physicians officially concluded that cigarette smoking causes lung cancer, prompting the United States Surgeon General to empanel (enroll or enlist) an advisory committee, which deliberated in secret over nine sessions between November 1962 and December 1963.The committee's report, published in January 1964, firmly concluded that cigarette smoking \"far outweighs all other factors\" in causing lung cancer.", "The report received substantial coverage in the popular press, and is widely seen as a turning point for public recognition that tobacco smoking causes lung cancer.The connection with radon gas was first recognized among miners in Germany's Ore Mountains.", "As early as 1500, miners were noted to develop a deadly disease called \"mountain sickness\" (\"Bergkrankheit\"), identified as lung cancer by the late 19th century.", "By 1938, up to 80% of miners in affected regions died from the disease.", "In the 1950s radon and its breakdown products became established as causes of lung cancer in miners.", "Based largely on studies of miners, the International Agency for Research on Cancer classified radon as \"carcinogenic to humans\" in 1988.In 1956, a study revealed radon in Swedish residences.", "Over the following decades, high radon concentrations were found in residences across the world; by the 1980s many countries had established national radon programs to catalog and mitigate residential radon.The first successful pneumonectomy for lung cancer was performed in 1933 by Evarts Graham at Barnes Hospital in St. Louis, Missouri.", "Over the following decades, surgical development focused on sparing as much healthy lung tissue as possible, with the lobectomy surpassing the pneumectomy in frequency by the 1960s, and the wedge resection appearing in the early 1970s.", "This trend continued with the development of video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery in the 1980s, now widely performed for many lung cancer surgeries." ], [ "Research", "While lung cancer is the deadliest type of cancer, it receives the third-most funding from the US National Cancer Institute (NCI, the world's largest cancer research funder) behind brain cancers and breast cancer.", "Despite high levels of gross research funding, lung cancer funding per death lags behind many other cancers, with around $3,200 spent on lung cancer research in 2022 per US death, considerably lower than that for brain cancer ($22,000 per death), breast cancer ($14,000 per death), and cancer as a whole ($11,000 per death).", "A similar trend holds for private nonprofit organizations.", "Annual revenues of lung cancer-focused nonprofits rank fifth among cancer types, but lung cancer nonprofits have lower revenue than would be expected for the number of lung cancer cases, deaths, and potential years of life lost.Despite this, many investigational lung cancer treatments are undergoing clinical trials – with nearly 2,250 active clinical trials registered as of 2021.Of these, a large plurality are testing radiotherapy regimens (26% of trials) and surgical techniques (22%).", "Many others are testing targeted anticancer drugs, with targets including EGFR (17% of trials), microtubules (12%), VEGF (12%), immune pathways (10%), mTOR (1%), and histone deacetylases (<1%)." ], [ "References", "===Cited==='''Books'''* * ** ** * * * * '''Journal articles'''* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lists of office-holders" ], [ "Introduction", "These are '''lists of incumbents''' (individuals holding offices or positions), including heads of states or of subnational entities.A historical discipline, archontology, focuses on the study of past and current office holders.Incumbents may also be found in the countries' articles (main article and \"Politics of\") and the list of national leaders, recent changes in 2020 in politics and government, and past leaders on State leaders by year and Colonial governors by year.Various articles group lists by title, function or topic: e.g.", "abdication, assassinated persons, cabinet (government), chancellor, ex-monarchs (20th century), head of government, head of state, lieutenant governor, mayor, military commanders, minister (and ministers by portfolio below), order of precedence, peerage, president, prime minister, Reichstag participants (1792), secretary of state." ], [ "Heads of international organizations", "President of the European CouncilPresident of the European CommissionUnited Nations Secretary-GeneralUnited Nations High Commissioner for RefugeesInternational Monetary Fund Managing DirectorsDirector-General of the World Trade OrganizationNATO Secretaries GeneralFIFA presidentsInternational Olympic Committee Presidents" ], [ "Heads of state or government", "===Africa=======Eastern Africa====Burundi: Rulers of BurundiComoros:Rulers of ComorosSultans on the ComorosKenya: Rulers of KenyaMadagascar: Rulers of MadagascarMonarchs of Madagascar (until 1897)Colonial Heads of MadagascarList of presidents of MadagascarMalawi (former Nyasaland, former British Central Africa Protectorate)Heads of state of MalawiHeads of government of MalawiColonial heads of Malawi (Nyasaland)Rulers of MalawiRulers of NkamangaRulers of the Ngoni Dynasty of Jere (Qeko)*Rulers of the Ngoni Dynasty of Maseko (Gomani)MauritiusQueen of MauritiusPresidents of MauritiusGovernors-General of MauritiusPrime Ministers of MauritiusMozambiqueHeads of state of MozambiqueHeads of government of MozambiqueHeads of National Resistance Government of MozambiqueColonial heads of Mozambique*Colonial heads of Delagoa BayRwandaKings of RwandaPresidents of Rwanda*Prime Ministers of RwandaSeychelles*Presidents of SeychellesTanzaniaPresidents of TanzaniaPrime Ministers of TanzaniaPresidents of ZanzibarPrime Ministers of Zanzibar*Governors-General of TanganyikaPresidents of Tanganyika*Sultans of ZanzibarUgandaGovernors-General of UgandaPresidents of UgandaPrime Ministers of UgandaKings of Nkole*Kings of BugandaZambia*Presidents of ZambiaZimbabweMunhumutapa emperorsPrime Ministers of the Federation of Rhodesia and NyasalandPrime Ministers of RhodesiaPresidents of Rhodesia*Presidents of Zimbabwe====Horn of Africa====Djibouti: Rulers of DjiboutiEritrea: Rulers of EritreaEthiopia: Rulers of EthiopiaSomalia: Presidents of SomaliaSomaliland: Presidents of SomalilandPuntland: Presidents of Puntland====Middle Africa====AngolaHeads of state of Angola (''see also: ''Presidents of Angola Heads of government of Angola (''see also: ''Prime Minister of Angola List of current Angolan ministersColonial heads of Angola*Heads of state of the Democratic People's Republic of AngolaHeads of government of the Democratic People's Republic of AngolaHeads of state of CabindaHeads of government of Cabinda*Colonial and provincial heads of CabindaCameroonHeads of state of CameroonHeads of government of CameroonColonial heads of British Cameroon (Cameroons)Heads of government of British Cameroon (Cameroons)Colonial heads of French Cameroon (Cameroun)Heads of government of French Cameroon (Cameroun)Colonial heads of German Cameroon (Kamerun)Colonial heads of Ambas Bay (Victoria Colony)Rulers of Bamoun (Mum)Rulers of MandaraCentral African RepublicHeads of state of the Central African Republic (and Central African Empire)Heads of government of the Central African Republic (and Central African Empire)*Colonial heads of Central Africa (Oubangui-Chari)ChadHeads of state of ChadHeads of government of ChadColonial heads of ChadRulers of BaguirmiRulers of Wada’iKanem-Bornu emperorsCongo, Democratic Republic of the (Zaire/'Congo-Kinshasa')Heads of state of the Democratic Republic of the CongoHeads of government of the Democratic Republic of the CongoHeads of state of the Congo Free StateColonial heads of CongoRulers of KatangaRulers of KubaRulers of LubaRulers of Ruund (Luunda)Rulers of Kasongo Luunda (Yaka)Rulers of KongoKongoRulers of KongoCongo, Republic of the (Congo-Brazzaville)Heads of state of the Republic of the CongoHeads of government of the Republic of the Congo*Colonial heads of French Equatorial AfricaEquatorial GuineaHeads of state of Equatorial GuineaHeads of government of Equatorial Guinea*Colonial heads of Equatorial Guinea (Fernando Poo/Spanish Guinea)GabonHeads of state of GabonHeads of government of GabonColonial heads of GabonRulers of OrunguSão Tomé and PríncipeHeads of state of São Tomé and PríncipeHeads of government of São Tomé and PríncipePresidents of the Regional Government of PríncipeColonial Heads of São Tomé and Príncipe====Northern Africa====AlgeriaPeople's Democratic Republic of AlgeriaHeads of state of AlgeriaHeads of government of Algeria (''see also: ''Prime Ministers of Algeria French Algeria (French departements)French Governors of AlgeriaOttoman regency of Algiers*Ottoman Pashas and Deys of the Regency of AlgiersTlemcen (Western Algeria) before the Ottomans*Ziyanid dynastyWestern Ifriqiya (Eastern Algeria) before the Ottomans**Hammadid dynastyEgyptRulers of EgyptHeads of government of EgyptColonial heads of EgyptPharaohsEgyptian dynastiesBahri dynasty of EgyptBurji dynasty of EgyptAyyubid dynastyFatimid CaliphsMonarchs of the Muhammad Ali DynastyLibyaHeads of state of LibyaHeads of government of LibyaColonial heads of LibyaColonial Heads of TripolitaniaColonial heads of CyrenaicaColonial heads of FezzanGovernors of Spanish and Hospitaller TripoliRulers of Ottoman LibyaChiefs of the Senussi order*Cyrene: Kings of CyreneMoroccoList of rulers of MoroccoHeads of government of Morocco*French Resident Ministers in MoroccoSpanish High Commissioners in MoroccoAdministrators of the Tangier International ZoneAlaouite dynastySaadi dynastyWattasid dynastyMarinid dynastyAlmohad dynastyAlmoravid dynastyIdrisid dynasty*Presidents of Western SaharaSudan (formerly Anglo-Egyptian -)Presidents of SudanPrime Ministers of SudanPresidents of Southern SudanVice-Presidents of Southern SudanKings of MakuriaKings of SennarKushKushite Kings*List of Egyptian viceroys of KushTunisiaPresidents of TunisiaPrime Ministers of TunisiaBeys of TunisHafsid dynastyZirid dynastyAghlabid dynasty*Carthage: Kings of Carthage====Southern Africa====Botswana Heads of state of BotswanaHeads of government of BotswanaList of commissioners of BechuanalandRulers of baKgatlaRulers of baKwênaRulers of Balete (baMalete)Rulers of baNgwaketseRulers of Bangwato (bamaNgwato)Rulers of baRôlôngRulers of baTawana*Rulers of baTlôkwaLesothoKings of LesothoHeads of government of LesothoNamibiaPresidents of NamibiaPrime Ministers of NamibiaSouth AfricaList of Bhaca kingsList of Hlubi KingsList of Mpondo KingsList of Mpondomise KingsList of Ndebele KingsList of Thembu KingsList of Xhosa Kings & ChiefsList of Zulu kingsGovernors-General of South AfricaState President of South AfricaPrime Ministers of South AfricaHomelands Leaders:*Heads of state of BophuthatswanaHeads of state of CiskeiChief Ministers of GazankuluChief Ministers of KaNgwaneChief Ministers of KwaNdebeleChief Ministers of KwaZuluChief Ministers of LebowaChief Ministers of QwaQwaHeads of government of TranskeiHeads of state of TranskeiHeads of state of VendaPresident of South Africa*South African PremiersSwazilandKings of SwazilandHeads of government of Swaziland====Western Africa====Benin (former Dahomey)Heads of state of BeninHeads of government of BeninColonial heads of Benin (Dahomey and Porto-Novo)Colonial heads of São João Baptista de AjudáRulers of Hogbonu (Ajashe/Porto-Novo)Bariba (Borgu) statesRulers of the Bariba state of KandiRulers of the Bariba state of KwandeRulers of the Bariba state of NikkiRulers of the Bariba state of ParakuBerba statesRulers of the Berba state of GwandeEwe states*Rulers of the Ewe state of AgweFon states*Rulers of the Fon state of Alada (Allada)Rulers of the Fon state of Danhome (Agbome) (Dahomey)Rulers of the Fon state of Savi HwedaGurmanche states*Rulers of the Gurmanche state of Jugu (Sugu)Mahi states*Rulers of the Mahi state of FittaRulers of the Mahi state of SavaluYoruba statesRulers of the Yoruba state of DassaRulers of the Yoruba state of IchaRulers of the Yoruba state of KetuRulers of the Yoruba state of SabeBurkina Faso (former Upper Volta)Heads of state of Burkina FasoHeads of government of Burkina Faso (''see also:'' Prime Minister of Burkina Faso '''')Colonial heads of Burkina Faso (Upper Volta)List of rulers of LiptakoMossi States:-Rulers of the Mossi state of GurunsiRulers of the Mossi state of GwirikoRulers of the Mossi state of TenkodogoRulers of the Mossi state of WogodogoRulers of the Mossi state of YatengaRulers of the Gurma Mossi state of BilangaRulers of the Gurma Mossi state of BilayangaRulers of the Gurma Mossi state of BongandiniRulers of the Gurma Mossi state of ConRulers of the Gurma Mossi state of MacakoaliRulers of the Gurma Mossi state of Nungu*Rulers of the Gurma Mossi state of PielaCape VerdeHeads of state of Cape VerdeHeads of government of Cape Verde (''see also:'' Prime Minister of Cape Verde '''')*Colonial heads of Cape VerdeIvory CoastHeads of state of Ivory CoastHeads of government of Ivory Coast*Colonial heads of Ivory CoastThe GambiaHeads of state of the Gambia (''see also'' Governors-General of the Gambia)Heads of government of the Gambia*Colonial Heads of the GambiaGhana: Rulers of GhanaHeads of state of GhanaEmperors of GhanaGuineaHeads of state of GuineaHeads of government of GuineaColonial heads of GuineaGuinea-BissauHeads of state of Guinea-BissauHeads of government of Guinea-BissauColonial heads of Portuguese GuineaColonial heads of Bissau*Colonial heads of CacheuLiberiaPresidents of LiberiaAgents and Governors of Liberia*Colonial heads of MarylandColonial heads of Mississippi*Colonial Heads of Port Cresson and Bassa CoveMali (former French Sudan)Heads of state of MaliHeads of government of MaliColonial heads of MaliEmperors of Mali, see ''Mali Empire''Kings of Mali, see ''Mansa''Songhai emperors, see ''Songhai Empire''MauritaniaHeads of state of MauritaniaHeads of government of MauritaniaColonial heads of MauritaniaNigerHeads of state of NigerHeads of government of NigerNigeriaGovernors-General of NigeriaPresidents of NigeriaHeads of State of BiafraList of Sultans of SokotoSenegal*Presidents of SenegalSierra LeoneGovernors-General of Sierra LeonePresidents of Sierra Leone*Heads of government of Sierra LeoneTogoHeads of State of TogoHeads of government of Togo===Americas=======Caribbean====Antigua and BarbudaGovernors-General of Antigua and BarbudaPrime Ministers of Antigua and BarbudaBahamasGovernors-General of the BahamasHeads of government of the Bahamas*Colonial heads of the BahamasBarbadosPresidents of BarbadosPrime Ministers of BarbadosCubaFirst Secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba (''de facto'' leader)Presidents of CubaPremiers of CubaColonial heads of CubaDominicaPresidents of DominicaPrime Ministers of DominicaDominican RepublicPresidents of the Dominican RepublicGrenadaGovernors-General of GrenadaPrime Ministers of GrenadaColonial heads of GrenadaColonial heads of the Windward IslandsHaitiList of colonial governors of Saint-DominguePresidents of HaitiJamaicaGovernors-General of JamaicaPrime Ministers of JamaicaSaint Kitts and NevisGovernors-General of Saint Kitts and NevisPrime Ministers of Saint Kitts and NevisSaint LuciaGovernors-General of Saint LuciaPrime Ministers of Saint LuciaSaint Vincent and the GrenadinesGovernors-General of Saint Vincent and the GrenadinesPrime Ministers of Saint Vincent and the GrenadinesTrinidad and TobagoPresidents of Trinidad and TobagoPrime Ministers of Trinidad and Tobago====Central America====BelizeGovernors-General of BelizePrime Ministers of BelizeMaya rulers of Caracol, see ''Caracol''Costa Rica*Presidents of Costa RicaEl Salvador*Presidents of El SalvadorGuatemalaPresidents of GuatemalaMaya rulers of Tikal, see ''Tikal''HondurasPresidents of HondurasMaya kings of Xukpi, see ''Copán''Nicaragua*Presidents of NicaraguaPanama*Presidents of Panama====North America====Canada*Office-holders of CanadaMexicoPresidents of MexicoMexican monarchsAztec emperors, see ''Hueyi Tlatoani''Maya rulers of Calakmul, see ''Calakmul''Maya rulers of Palenque, see ''Palenque''Maya rulers of Tonina, see ''Tonina''Toltec rulersViceroys of New SpainUnited StatesOffice-holders of the United States====South America====Argentina*Presidents of ArgentinaBolivia*Presidents of BoliviaBrazilBrazilian monarchsPresidents of Brazil*Governors of Distrito FederalGovernors of Minas Gerais*Mayors of Belo HorizonteGovernors of Rio de Janeiro*Mayors of Rio de JaneiroGovernors of São PauloChilePresidents of ChileGovernors of Cardenal Caro*Mayors of PichilemuKings of Easter Island*Royal Governors of ChileColombiaPresidents of ColombiaList of governors of Quindío DepartmentEcuadorPresidents of EcuadorHeads of State of EcuadorGuyanaGovernors-General of GuyanaPresidents of GuyanaPrime Ministers of GuyanaParaguay*Presidents of ParaguayPeruPresidents of PeruIncan emperors, see ''Inca Empire''*Viceroys of PeruSuriname*Presidents of SurinameUruguay*Presidents of UruguayVenezuela*Presidents of Venezuela===Asia=======Central Asia====KazakhstanGöktürk kagansPresidents of KazakhstanKyrgyzstanKhans of Kara-Khitai, see ''Kara-Khitan Khanate''Presidents of KyrgyzstanTajikistan*Presidents of TajikistanTurkmenistan*Presidents of TurkmenistanUzbekistan*Presidents of Uzbekistan====Eastern Asia====China & dependenciesChinese sovereignsTable of Chinese monarchsPeople's Republic of ChinaGeneral Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party (paramount leader)President of the People's Republic of ChinaPremier of the State Council of the People's Republic of ChinaChairman of the Standing Committee of the National People's CongressChairman of the National Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative ConferencePolitburo Standing Committee of the Chinese Communist PartyHong Kong*Governor of Hong Kong (under British rule, now replaced by Chief Executive)Chief Executive of Hong KongMacau*Governor of Macau (under Portuguese rule, now replaced by Chief Executive)Chief Executive of MacauRepublic of China (Taiwan)*President of the Republic of ChinaPremier of the Republic of ChinaGovernors and Chairpersons of Taiwan, see ''Taiwan Province''Tibet*List of imperial ambans in TibetThe Table of Chinese monarchs China*List of kings of Tibet ChinaJapanRulers of Japan (Emperors, Regents, Shōguns and Prime Ministers)Emperors of JapanPrime Ministers of JapanAshikaga shogunateKamakura shogunateTokugawa shogunateMongoliaGrand Khan of MongoliaPresidents of MongoliaPrime Minister of MongoliaKoreaRulers of KoreaNorth Korea*First Secretary of the Workers' Party of Korea (supreme leader)Heads of state of North KoreaPremiers of North KoreaSouth Korea*Presidents of South KoreaPrime Ministers of South KoreaRulers of Korea====Southeastern Asia====Brunei*Sultans of BruneiCambodiaKing of CambodiaKhmer emperors, see ''Khmer Empire''Presidents of CambodiaPrime Ministers of CambodiaEast TimorPresidents of East TimorPrime Ministers of East TimorIndonesiaMajapahitSailendraSrivijayaKings of Mataram, see ''Kingdom of Mataram''Presidents of IndonesiaPrime Ministers of IndonesiaLaosKings of LaosGeneral Secretary of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party (''de facto'' leader)Presidents of LaosPrime Ministers of LaosMalaysiaYang di-Pertuan AgongPrime Ministers of Malaysia*Sultans of Malay states, example see ''Sultanate of Malacca''MyanmarKings of MyanmarPresidents of MyanmarPrime Ministers of MyanmarState Counsellor of MyanmarPhilippinesSpanish Royal Governor of the PhilippinesAmerican Governor-General of the PhilippinesPresidents of the PhilippinesDatus, Rajas, and Sultans of various historical polities within the Philippine Islands, see ''History of the Philippines''Sultans of the Sulu SultanateList of sovereign state leaders in the Philippines SingaporePresident of SingaporePrime Minister of SingaporeThailandKings of ThailandChakri dynastyKings of Ayutthaya, see ''Ayutthaya kingdom''Kings of Haripunchai, see ''Haripunchai''Kings of Lanna, see ''Lanna''Kings of Sukhothai, see ''Sukhothai kingdom''Prime Ministers of ThailandPresidents of the National Assembly of ThailandLeaders of the Opposition of ThailandGovernors of BangkokVietnamVietnamese dynastiesKings of VietnamGeneral Secretary of the Communist Party of Vietnam (''de facto'' leader)President of VietnamPrime Minister of VietnamChairman of National Assembly of VietnamChief Justice of Vietnam====South Asia====AfghanistanAfghan Transitional Administration personnelLeaders of AfghanistanPrime ministers of AfghanistanRulers of KabulRulers of HeratRulers of KandaharRulers of PeshawarRulers of GhazniGhaznavid emperors, see ''Ghaznavid Empire''Kabul Shahi dynasty Turk Shahi dynasty* Hindu Shahi dynastyBangladeshPresidents of BangladeshPrime Ministers of BangladeshBhutanKings of BhutanPrime Ministers of BhutanIndia:''''''List of Indian monarchsList of head of states of IndiaList of prime ministers of IndiaGovernors, Lieutenant Governors and Administrators of Indian States and Union Territories*Chief Ministers of Indian StatesMaldivesSultans of the MaldivesPresidents of the MaldivesNepalList of monarchs of NepalPrime Ministers of NepalPakistanPresidents of PakistanPrime Ministers of PakistanSri LankaPresidents of Sri LankaPrime Ministers of Sri Lanka====Western Asia====ArmeniaKings of UrartuList of Armenian KingsKings of KommageneShaddadid dynastyPresident of ArmeniaPrime Minister of ArmeniaAzerbaijanArsacid dynasty of Caucasian AlbaniaMihranidsPresidents of AzerbaijanPrime Ministers of AzerbaijanPresidents of the Nagorno-Karabakh RepublicBahrain*Monarchs of BahrainCyprusKings of CyprusOfficers of the Kingdom of CyprusPresidents of CyprusPresidents of Northern CyprusPrime Ministers of Northern CyprusGeorgiaLists of Georgian monarchsColchisKingdom of AbkhaziaDivan of the Abkhazian KingsList of sovereigns of KakhetiKingdom of Imereti GurieliEmirs of TbilisiList of leaders of GeorgiaPrime Minister of GeorgiaChairman of the Government of AdjaraPresidents of AbkhaziaPrime Ministers of AbkhaziaPresidents of South Ossetia*Prime Ministers of South OssetiaIranList of heads of state of IranList of monarchs of PersiaSupreme Leader of IranList of presidents of IranList of premiers of IranList of prime ministers of IranIraqSumerList of Mesopotamian dynastiesAkkad*Kings of AkkadGutian kingsKings of AssyriaKings of BabylonRulers of AdiabeneAbbasid CaliphsAnnazid dynastyKings of IraqPresidents of IraqPrime Ministers of Iraq*Civilian Administrator of IraqIsraelPrime Minister of IsraelPresident of IsraelRulers of Israel and JudahKings of IsraelKings of JudahHigh Priests of IsraelCrusader StatesKings of Jerusalem*Vassals of the Kingdom of JerusalemPrinces of Galilee*Lords of ToronCounts of Jaffa and Ascalon*Lords of Ramla*Lords of IbelinLords of OultrejordainLords of SidonOfficers of the Kingdom of JerusalemPresidents of the Palestinian National AuthorityPrime Ministers of the Palestinian National AuthorityJordan (formerly Transjordan)Kings of JordanRulers of NabateaKuwaitEmirs of KuwaitAl-SabahLebanonPresidents of LebanonPrime Ministers of Lebanon*Speakers of the Parliament of LebanonOman (formerly Muscat (and Oman))*Sultans of OmanQatar*Emirs of QatarSaudi ArabiaSharif of MeccaKings of Saudi ArabiaSyriaPresidents of SyriaPrime Ministers of SyriaKings of SyriaOsroeneRulers of DamascusZengid dynastyCounts of EdessaPrinces of AntiochOfficers of the Principality of AntiochEmirs of ShaizarGhassanid kingsRulers of AleppoHanilgalbat: Kings of Hanilgabat, see ''Hanilgalbat'' and ''Mitanni''Kings of UgaritTurkeyList of Hittite kingsKings of ArzawaKings of LydiaKings of BithyniaKings of CappadociaAttalid Kings of PergamonKings of PontusPharnacid DynastyKings of GalatiaByzantine EmperorsTetrarchyList of Latin EmperorsEmpire of TrebizondSeljuk sultans of RümAnatolian beyliksList of Sultans of the Ottoman EmpirePrime Ministers of TurkeyPresidents of TurkeyUnited Arab EmiratesPrime Ministers of the United Arab EmiratesPresidents of the United Arab EmiratesYemenPresidents of YemenPrime Ministers of YemenPresidents of North YemenPrime Ministers of North YemenPresidents of South YemenPrime Ministers of South Yemen===Europe=======Eastern Europe====BelarusMoldovaPresidents of MoldovaPrime Ministers of MoldovaGovernors of GagauziaPresidents of TransnistriaPrime Ministers of TransnistriaRomaniaDacian kingsRulers of WallachiaRulers of MoldaviaRulers of TransylvaniaList of heads of state of RomaniaPrime Ministers of RomaniaRussia and the Soviet UnionList of Russian monarchs Leaders of the Soviet UnionPresident of the Soviet UnionPremier of the Soviet UnionPresidents of RussiaPrime Ministers of RussiaKhans of the Golden HordeList of Kazan khansList of Khazar rulersRulers of Kievan Rus'Grand Prince of TverUkraineRulers of Kievan Rus'List of rulers of Halych and VolhyniaHetmans of Ukrainian CossacksList of Crimean khansPresidents of UkrainePrime Ministers of Ukraine====Northern Europe====DenmarkDanish monarchsPrime Ministers of DenmarkList of legendary kings of DenmarkFaroe IslandsFaroese monarchsPrime Ministers of the Faroe IslandsGovernor of the Faroe IslandsGreenlandPrime Ministers of GreenlandGovernors of GreenlandInspectors of GreenlandEstoniaEstonian rulersHeads of government of EstoniaPresidents of EstoniaState Elders of EstoniaFinlandPrime Ministers of FinlandPresidents of FinlandFinnish rulersProvincial Governors of FinlandPremiers of ÅlandIcelandPresidents of IcelandPrime Ministers of IcelandIcelandic rulersList of lawspeakers, see LawspeakerIreland: Rulers of IrelandLatviaPresidents of LatviaPrime Ministers of LatviaLithuaniaList of Lithuanian rulersPresidents of LithuaniaPrime Ministers of LithuaniaNorwayNorwegian monarchsLine of succession to the Norwegian ThroneLegendary kings of NorwayNorwegian Prime MinistersSwedenSwedish monarchsPrime Ministers of SwedenSwedish Field MarshalsCounty Governors of SwedenSwedish semi-legendary kingsMythological kings of Sweden*Kings of GeatlandBlekinge GovernorsDalarna GovernorsGävleborg GovernorsGotland GovernorsHalland GovernorsJämtland GovernorsJönköping GovernorsKalmar GovernorsKronoberg GovernorsNorrbotten GovernorsSkåne GovernorsStockholm GovernorsSödermanland GovernorsUppsala GovernorsVärmland GovernorsVästerbotten GovernorsVästernorrland GovernorsVästmanland GovernorsVästra Götaland GovernorsÖrebro GovernorsÖstergötland GovernorsUnited Kingdom: List of rulers of the United Kingdom and predecessor states====Central Europe====AustriaRulers of AustriaEmperors of AustriaForeign Ministers of Austria-HungaryMinisters-President of AustriaFederal Presidents of AustriaChancellors of Austria (Vice Chancellors of Austria)HabsburgBabenbergMargraves, dukes, and archdukes of AustriaDukes of Styria, see ''Styria (duchy)''*Dukes of Carinthia, see ''Carinthia (duchy)''Czech RepublicRulers of Bohemia (Czech lands)List of presidents of CzechoslovakiaList of prime ministers of Czechoslovakia List of rulers of the Protectorate Bohemia and MoraviaPresidents of the Czech RepublicPrime Ministers of the Czech RepublicGermany: Rulers of GermanyHungaryList of Hungarian rulersList of heads of state of Hungary*Prime Ministers of HungaryLiechtensteinPrinces of LiechtensteinLiechtenstein Heads of GovernmentPolandPolish rulersDukes of SilesiaDukes of MazoviaDukes of Greater PolandDukes of ŁęczycaDukes of SieradzDuchy of CieszynDukes of PomeraniaList of prime ministers of PolandList of Polish presidentsSlovakiaPresidents of SlovakiaPrime Ministers of Slovakia*Parliament leaders of SlovakiaSwitzerlandMembers of the Swiss Federal CouncilPresidents of the ConfederationHeads of the Department of Defence, Civil Protection and Sports, see ''Military of Switzerland''Heads of the Department of Foreign Affairs: see ''International relations of Switzerland''Heads of the Department of Home AffairsHeads of the Federal Department of FinanceHeads of the Federal Department of Environment, Transport, Energy and CommunicationsHeads of the Federal Department of Economic AffairsHeads of the Federal Department of Justice and PoliceFederal Chancellors of SwitzerlandPresidents of the Swiss National CouncilPresidents of the Swiss Council of StatesMembers of the Swiss National CouncilMembers of the Swiss Council of StatesChief Justices of the Swiss Supreme CourtPresidents of the Swiss Diet (before 1848)====Southern Europe====AlbaniaList of rulers of IllyriaMonarchs of AlbaniaPrime Ministers of AlbaniaPresidents of AlbaniaAndorraCo-Princes of AndorraBishop of UrgellPrime Ministers of AndorraBosnia and HerzegovinaList of rulers of BosniaMembers of the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina*Prime Ministers of Bosnia and HerzegovinaBulgariaThracian kingsKings of OdrysiaMoesia: Roman governors of Lower MoesiaBulgarian monarchsPrime Ministers of BulgariaPresidents of BulgariaCroatiaList of rulers of CroatiaPresidents of CroatiaPrime Ministers of CroatiaGovernors and Heads of State of FiumeHeads of state of Krajina*Heads of government of KrajinaGreece: Rulers of GreeceItaly: Rulers of ItalyKosovoPresidents of KosovoPrime Minister of KosovoNorth MacedoniaPresidents of North MacedoniaPrime Ministers of North MacedoniaMaltaPresidents of Malta, 1974–presentPrime Ministers of Malta, 1921–1933, 1947–1958, 1962–presentMonarchs of Malta, 1091–1798, 1800–1974Grand Masters of Malta, 1530–1798Civil Commissioners of Malta, 1799–1813Governors of Malta, 1813–1964*Governors-General of Malta, 1964–1974MontenegroRulers of MontenegroList of presidents of Montenegro*Prime Minister of MontenegroPortugalPortuguese monarchsDukes of BraganzaPrinces of BeiraPrime Ministers of PortugalPresidents of PortugalList of Portuguese monarchsSan MarinoCaptains Regent of San Marino, 1900–presentCaptains Regent of San Marino, 1700–1900Captains Regent of San Marino, 1500–1700Captains Regent of San Marino, 1243–1500SerbiaPresidents of SerbiaPrime Ministers of SerbiaPresident of the Government of VojvodinaList of heads of state of YugoslaviaPrime Minister of YugoslaviaPresident of Serbia and MontenegroPrime Minister of Serbia and MontenegroMonarchs of Serbia*Princes of ZetaSloveniaPresidents of SloveniaPrime Minister of SloveniaSpainRulers of SpainPresidents of SpainPrime Ministers of SpainVatican City/Holy SeePopesPresident of the Governorate*Cardinal Secretary of State====Western Europe====BelgiumBelgian monarchsPrime Ministers of BelgiumGovernors of the Habsburg NetherlandsMinister-President of the Brussels-Capital RegionMinister-President of FlandersMinister-President of WalloniaMinister-President of the French CommunityMinister-President of the German-speaking CommunityFrance: Rulers of FranceLuxembourgPrime ministers of LuxembourgMonarchs of LuxembourgMonacoPrinces of MonacoSuccession to the Monegasque ThroneMinisters of State*Prime Ministers of MonacoNetherlandsDutch monarchyPrime Ministers of the NetherlandsList of rulers of the NetherlandsGovernors of the Habsburg NetherlandsLow Countries (Netherlands, Belgium):Rulers of East FrisiaRulers of FrisiaPrince of OrangeDuke of BrabantLords and margraves of Bergen op ZoomDukes and counts of GueldersDuke of Lower LorraineCount of BouillonCount of FlandersCount of HainautCount of HollandCounts of LeuvenBishop of Utrecht*Marquis of Namur===Oceania=======Australasia====AustraliaMonarchs of AustraliaGovernors-General of AustraliaCabinet of AustraliaPrime Ministers of AustraliaDeputy Prime Ministers of AustraliaAttorneys General for AustraliaMinisters for DefenceMinisters for Foreign Affairs*Treasurers of AustraliaPremiers of New South WalesPremiers of QueenslandPremiers of South AustraliaPremiers of TasmaniaPremiers of VictoriaPremier of Western AustraliaHeads of government of Norfolk IslandChief Minister of the Northern TerritoryChief Minister of the Australian Capital TerritoryGovernors of New South WalesGovernors of QueenslandGovernors of South AustraliaGovernors of TasmaniaGovernors of VictoriaGovernor of Western AustraliaAdministrative Heads of Norfolk IslandAdministrator of the Northern TerritoryAdministrative Heads of Jervis BayAdministrative Heads of Australian Antarctic TerritoryAdministrative Heads of Macquarie IslandCocos Islands*King of the Cocos IslandsNew ZealandGovernors-General of New ZealandNew Zealand Cabinet*Prime Ministers of New ZealandDeputy Prime Ministers of New ZealandMinisters of FinanceMinisters of Foreign AffairsSpeakers of the House of RepresentativesMāori Kings and QueensMayors of AucklandMayors of ChristchurchMayors of DunedinMayors of Wellington====Melanesia====FijiChairmen of Fiji's Great Council of ChiefsChief Justice of FijiColonial Governors of FijiFijian Heads of StateForeign Ministers of FijiGovernors-General of FijiHouse of Representatives of Fiji (abolished in 2013)Ministers for Fijian AffairsPresidents of FijiPrime Ministers of FijiSenate of Fiji (abolished in 2013)Speakers of the Fijian House of Representatives*Vice-Presidents of FijiPapua New GuineaGovernor-General of Papua New GuineaPrime Ministers of Papua New GuineaSolomon IslandsGovernor-General of Solomon IslandsPrime Minister of the Solomon IslandsVanuatuPresident of VanuatuPrime Minister of Vanuatu====Micronesia====KiribatiPresident of KiribatiMarshall Islands*Presidents of the Marshall IslandsFederated States of Micronesia*President of the Federated States of MicronesiaNauru*President of NauruPalau*President of Palau====Polynesia====Cook Islands*Prime Ministers of the Cook IslandsNiue*Premiers of NiueSamoaSamoan Heads of StateMalietoaMembers of the Council of Deputies of SamoaPrime Ministers of SamoaChief Justice of SamoaFinance Ministers of SamoaForeign Affairs Ministers of SamoaHealth Ministers of SamoaEducation Ministers of SamoaPublic Works Ministers of SamoaFono Aoao Faitulafono o Samoa - current membership (2006)TongaKings of TongaPrime Ministers of TongaTuvaluGovernor-Generals of TuvaluPrime Ministers of Tuvalu" ], [ "Religious leaders", "===Christian===List of current Christian leaders:List of Patriarchs, Archbishops and Bishops====Catholic Church====List of popesGrand Masters of the Knights HospitallerPriors of St John of Jerusalem in England====Anglican Communion====List of Archbishops of CanterburyAnglican Primates====Other denominations====General of The Salvation ArmyModerator of the United Church of CanadaPresident of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints Patriarchs of Constantinople===Judaism===Chief Rabbis of the United KingdomChief Rabbis of Israel===Islam===CaliphateShi'a ImamGrand Mufti===Hinduism===Rashtriya Swayamsevak SanghArya Samaja===Buddhist===Dalai LamaPanchen LamaKarmapaShamarpaSakya TrizinSupreme Patriarch of ThailandSupreme Patriarch of Cambodia" ], [ "Other lists", " List of oldest living state leaders* List of current governments* List of current vice presidents and designated acting presidents* List of current legislatures* List of current presidents of legislatures===Ministers by portfolio===Defence ministerFinance ministerForeign ministerInterior ministerJustice minister=== Municipal leaders ===" ], [ "External links", " Current Heads of State* Archontology, by Oleg Schultz* Rulers, by B. Schemmel - detailed lists (including regional and religious leaders) from 1700.", "* World Statesmen, by Ben Cahoon* World Political Leaders, by Roberto Ortiz de Zárate" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Liberal Party of Australia" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Liberal Party of Australia''' is a centre-right political party in Australia.", "The party is one of the two major parties in Australian politics, the other being the Australian Labor Party.", "The Liberal Party was founded in 1944 as the successor to the United Australia Party.", "Historically the most successful political party in Australia's history, the party is now in opposition at a federal level and does not hold government in any Australian state or territory with the exception of the island state of Tasmania.The Liberal Party is the dominant partner in the Coalition with the National Party of Australia.", "At the federal level, the Liberal Party has been in coalition with the National Party (under various names) since 1949.The Coalition was most recently in power from the 2013 federal election to the 2022 federal election, forming the Abbott (2013–2015), Turnbull (2015–2018) and Morrison (2018–2022) governments.", "The current party leader is Peter Dutton, who replaced former prime minister Scott Morrison as leader after the Coalition's defeat at the 2022 federal election.The Liberal Party has a federal structure, with autonomous divisions in all six states and the Australian Capital Territory (ACT).", "The Country Liberal Party (CLP) of the Northern Territory is an affiliate.", "Both the CLP and the Liberal National Party (LNP), the Queensland state division, were formed through mergers of the local Liberal and National parties.", "At state and territory level, the Liberal Party is in office in only one state: Tasmania, as of 2014.The party is in opposition in the states of New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, South Australia, and Western Australia, and in both the ACT and Northern Territory.The party's ideology has been referred to as conservative, liberal-conservative, conservative-liberal, and classical liberal.", "The Liberal Party tends to promote economic liberalism, and social conservatism.", "Two past leaders of the party, Sir Robert Menzies and John Howard, are Australia's two longest-serving Prime Ministers." ], [ "History", "===Party Foundation===The Liberals' immediate predecessor was the United Australia Party (UAP).", "More broadly, the Liberal Party's ideological ancestry stretched back to the anti-Labor groupings in the first Commonwealth parliaments.", "The Commonwealth Liberal Party was a fusion of the Free Trade (Anti-socialist) Party and the Protectionist Party in 1909 by the second prime minister, Alfred Deakin, in response to Labor's growing electoral prominence.", "The Commonwealth Liberal Party merged with several Labor dissidents (including Billy Hughes) to form the Nationalist Party of Australia in 1917.That party, in turn, merged with Labor dissidents to form the UAP in 1931.The UAP had been formed as a new conservative alliance in 1931, with Labor defector Joseph Lyons as its leader.", "The stance of Lyons and other Labor rebels against the more radical proposals of the Labor movement to deal the Great Depression had attracted the support of prominent Australian conservatives.", "With Australia still suffering the effects of the Great Depression, the newly formed party won a landslide victory at the 1931 Election, and the Lyons government went on to win three consecutive elections.", "It largely avoided Keynesian pump-priming and pursued a more conservative fiscal policy of debt reduction and balanced budgets as a means of stewarding Australia out of the Depression.", "Lyons' death in 1939 saw Robert Menzies assume the Prime Ministership on the eve of war.", "Menzies served as Prime Minister from 1939 to 1941 but resigned as leader of the minority World War II government amidst an unworkable parliamentary majority.", "The UAP, led by Billy Hughes, disintegrated after suffering a heavy defeat in the 1943 election.", "In New South Wales, the party merged with the Commonwealth Party to form the Democratic Party, In Queensland the state party was absorbed into the Queensland People's Party.From 1942 onward Menzies had maintained his public profile with his series of \"The Forgotten People\" radio talks—similar to Franklin D. Roosevelt's \"fireside chats\" of the 1930s—in which he spoke of the middle class as the \"backbone of Australia\" but as nevertheless having been \"taken for granted\" by political parties.Menzies called a conference of conservative parties and other groups opposed to the ruling Australian Labor Party, which met in Canberra on 13 October 1944 and again in Albury, New South Wales in December 1944.Outlining his vision for a new political movement, Menzies said:The formation of the party was formally announced at Sydney Town Hall on 31 August 1945.It took the name \"Liberal\" in honour of the old Commonwealth Liberal Party.", "The new party was dominated by the remains of the old UAP; with few exceptions, the UAP party room became the Liberal Party room.", "The Australian Women's National League, a powerful conservative women's organisation, also merged with the new party.", "A conservative youth group Menzies had set up, the Young Nationalists, was also merged into the new party.", "It became the nucleus of the Liberal Party's youth division, the Young Liberals.", "By September 1945 there were more than 90,000 members, many of whom had not previously been members of any political party.In New South Wales, the New South Wales division of the Liberal Party replaced the Liberal Democratic Party and Democratic Party between January and April 1945.In Queensland, the Queensland People's Party did not become part of the Liberal Party until July 1949, when it became the Queensland division of the Liberal Party.===Menzies Era===Sir Robert Menzies, founder of the Liberal Party and Prime Minister 1939–41 (UAP) and 1949–66Sir Robert Menzies, Dame Enid Lyons (the first woman member of an Australian Cabinet), Sir Eric Harrison, Harold Holt (Menzies' successor) and Tom White, in 1946.After an initial loss to Labor at the 1946 election, Menzies led the Liberals to victory at the 1949 election, and the party stayed in office for a record 23 years— the longest unbroken run ever in government at the federal level.", "Australia experienced prolonged economic growth during the post-war boom period of the Menzies government (1949–1966) and Menzies fulfilled his promises at the 1949 election to end rationing of butter, tea and petrol and provided a five-shilling endowment for first-born children, as well as for others.", "While himself an unashamed anglophile, Menzies' government concluded a number of major defence and trade treaties that set Australia on its post-war trajectory out of Britain's orbit; opened up Australia to multi-ethnic immigration; and instigated important legal reforms regarding Aboriginal Australians.Menzies was strongly opposed to Labor's plans to nationalise the Australian banking system and, following victory at the 1949 election, secured a double dissolution election for April 1951, after the Labor-controlled Senate rejected his banking legislation.", "The Liberal-Country Coalition was returned with control of the Senate.", "The Government was re-elected again at the 1954 election; the formation of the anti-Communist Democratic Labor Party (DLP) and the consequent split in the Australian Labor Party early in 1955 helped the Liberals to secure another victory in December 1955.John McEwen replaced Arthur Fadden as leader of the Country Party in March 1958 and the Menzies-McEwen Coalition was returned again at elections in November 1958—their third victory against Labor's H. V. Evatt.", "The Coalition was narrowly returned against Labor's Arthur Calwell in the December 1961 election, in the midst of a credit squeeze.", "Menzies stood for office for the last time at the November 1963 election, again defeating Calwell, with the Coalition winning back its losses in the House of Representatives.", "Menzies went on to resign from parliament on 26 January 1966.Menzies came to power the year the Communist Party of Australia had led a coal strike to improve pit miners' working conditions.", "That same year Joseph Stalin's Soviet Union exploded its first atomic bomb, and Mao Zedong led the Chinese Communist Party to power in China; a year later came the invasion of South Korea by Communist North Korea.", "Anti-communism was a key political issue of the 1950s and 1960s.", "Menzies was firmly anti-Communist; he committed troops to the Korean War and attempted to ban the Communist Party of Australia in an unsuccessful referendum during the course of that war.", "The Labor Party split over concerns about the influence of the Communist Party over the Trade Union movement, leading to the foundation of the breakaway Democratic Labor Party whose preferences supported the Liberal and Country parties.In 1951, during the early stages of the Cold War, Menzies spoke of the possibility of a looming third world war.", "The Menzies government entered Australia's first formal military alliance outside of the British Commonwealth with the signing of the ANZUS Treaty between Australia, New Zealand and the United States in San Francisco in 1951.External Affairs Minister Percy Spender had put forward the proposal to work along similar lines to the NATO Alliance.", "The Treaty declared that any attack on one of the three parties in the Pacific area would be viewed as a threat to each, and that the common danger would be met in accordance with each nation's constitutional processes.", "In 1954, the Menzies government signed the South East Asia Collective Defence Treaty (SEATO) as a South East Asian counterpart to NATO.", "That same year, Soviet diplomat Vladimir Petrov and his wife defected from the Soviet embassy in Canberra, revealing evidence of Russian spying activities; Menzies called a Royal Commission to investigate.In 1956, a committee headed by Sir Keith Murray was established to inquire into the financial plight of Australia's universities, and Menzies injected funds into the sector under conditions which preserved the autonomy of universities.Menzies continued the expanded immigration program established under Chifley, and took important steps towards dismantling the White Australia Policy.", "In the early-1950s, external affairs minister Percy Spender helped to establish the Colombo Plan for providing economic aid to underdeveloped nations in Australia's region.", "Under that scheme many future Asian leaders studied in Australia.", "In 1958, the government replaced the Immigration Act's arbitrarily applied European language dictation test with an entry permit system, that reflected economic and skills criteria.", "In 1962, Menzies' ''Commonwealth Electoral Act'' provided that all Indigenous Australians should have the right to enrol and vote at federal elections (prior to this, indigenous people in Queensland, Western Australia and some in the Northern Territory had been excluded from voting unless they were ex-servicemen).", "In 1949, the Liberals appointed Dame Enid Lyons as the first woman to serve in an Australian Cabinet.", "Menzies remained a staunch supporter of links to the monarchy and British Commonwealth but formalised an alliance with the United States and concluded the Agreement on Commerce between Australia and Japan which was signed in July 1957 and launched post-war trade with Japan, beginning a growth of Australian exports of coal, iron ore and mineral resources that would steadily climb until Japan became Australia's largest trading partner.Menzies retired in 1966 as Australia's longest-serving Prime Minister.===Holt government===Harold Holt, Prime Minister 1966–67Prime Minister Harold Holt (second from left), with SEATO leaders in Manila, in 1966.The Liberal Party was in power through much of the early Post-War period in which Australia's allegiances, immigration and trade policies shifted away from reliance on the United Kingdom.Harold Holt replaced the retiring Robert Menzies in 1966 and the Holt government went on to win 82 seats to Labor's 41 at the 1966 election.", "Holt remained prime minister until 19 December 1967, when he was declared presumed dead two days after disappearing in rough surf in which he had gone for a swim.", "His body has never been found.Holt increased Australian commitment to the growing War in Vietnam, which met with some public opposition.", "His government oversaw conversion to decimal currency.", "Holt faced Britain's withdrawal from Asia by visiting and hosting many Asian leaders and by expanding ties to the United States, hosting the first visit to Australia by an American president, his friend Lyndon B. Johnson.", "Holt's government introduced the ''Migration Act 1966'', which effectively dismantled the White Australia Policy and increased access to non-European migrants, including refugees fleeing the Vietnam War.", "Holt also called the 1967 Referendum which removed the discriminatory clause in the Australian Constitution which excluded Aboriginal Australians from being counted in the census – the referendum was one of the few to be overwhelmingly endorsed by the Australian electorate (over 90% voted \"Yes\").", "By the end of 1967, the Liberals' initially popular support for the war in Vietnam was causing increasing public protest.===Gorton government===John Gorton, Prime Minister 1968–71John Gorton being sworn in as Prime Minister by Lord Casey on 10 January 1968.Gorton led Australia into the tumultuous decade of the 1970s.", "Gorton declared himself \"Australian to the bootheels\" and increased funding for Australian cinema and arts to project a newly assertive Australian nationalism.The Liberals chose John Gorton to replace Holt.", "Gorton, a former World War II Royal Australian Air Force pilot, with a battle scarred face, said he was \"Australian to the bootheels\" and had a personal style which often affronted some conservatives.The Gorton government increased funding for the arts, setting up the Australian Council for the Arts, the Australian Film Development Corporation and the National Film and Television Training School.", "The Gorton government passed legislation establishing equal pay for men and women and increased pensions, allowances and education scholarships, as well as providing free health care to 250,000 of the nation's poor (but not universal health care).", "Gorton's government kept Australia in the Vietnam War but stopped replacing troops at the end of 1970.Gorton maintained good relations with the United States and Britain, but pursued closer ties with Asia.", "The Gorton government experienced a decline in voter support at the 1969 election.", "State Liberal leaders saw his policies as too centralist, while other Liberals didn't like his personal behaviour.", "In 1971, Defence Minister Malcolm Fraser, resigned and said Gorton was \"not fit to hold the great office of Prime Minister\".", "In a vote on the leadership the Liberal Party split 50/50, and although this was insufficient to remove him as the leader, Gorton decided this was also insufficient support for him, and he resigned.===McMahon government and Snedden leadership===William McMahon, Prime Minister 1971–72Billy Snedden, Opposition Leader 1972–75Former treasurer William McMahon replaced Gorton as prime minister.", "Gorton remained a front bencher but relations with Fraser remained strained.The economy was weakening.", "McMahon maintained Australia's diminishing commitment to Vietnam and criticised Opposition leader, Gough Whitlam, for visiting Communist China in 1972—only to have the US President Richard Nixon announce a planned visit soon after.During McMahon's period in office, Neville Bonner joined the Senate and became the first Indigenous Australian in the Australian Parliament.", "Bonner was chosen by the Liberal Party to fill a Senate vacancy in 1971 and celebrated his maiden parliamentary speech with a boomerang throwing display on the lawns of Parliament.", "Bonner went on to win election at the 1972 election and served as a Liberal Senator for 12 years.", "He worked on Indigenous and social welfare issues and proved an independent minded Senator, often crossing the floor on Parliamentary votes.The McMahon government ended when Gough Whitlam led the Australian Labor Party out of its 23-year period in Opposition at the 1972 election.", "Following Whitlam's victory, John Gorton played a further role in reform by introducing a Parliamentary motion from Opposition supporting the legalisation of same-gender sexual relations.Billy Snedden led the party against Whitlam in the 1974 federal election, which saw a return of the Labor government.", "When Malcolm Fraser won the Liberal Party leadership from Snedden in 1975, Gorton walked out of the Party Room.===Fraser years===Malcolm Fraser, Prime Minister 1975–83Prime Minister Malcolm Fraser (second right) and Tamie Fraser (left) with US President Ronald Reagan and Nancy at the White House in 1982.Fraser came to power amidst the divisive 1975 Australian constitutional crisis, but went on to lead Australia into the 1980s.Following the 1974–75 Loans Affair, the Malcolm Fraser-led Liberal-Country Party Coalition argued that the Whitlam government was incompetent and so delayed passage of the Government's money bills in the Senate, until the government would promise a new election.", "Whitlam refused, yet Fraser insisted, leading to the divisive 1975 Australian constitutional crisis.", "The deadlock came to an end when the Whitlam government was controversially dismissed by the Governor-General, Sir John Kerr on 11 November 1975 and Fraser was installed as caretaker prime minister, pending an election.", "Fraser won in a landslide at the resulting 1975 election.Fraser maintained some of the social reforms of the Whitlam era, while seeking increased fiscal restraint.", "His majority included the first Aboriginal federal parliamentarian, Neville Bonner, and in 1976, Parliament passed the Aboriginal Land Rights Act 1976, which, while limited to the Northern Territory, affirmed \"inalienable\" freehold title to some traditional lands.", "The Fraser government also established the multicultural broadcaster SBS, accepted Vietnamese refugees, opposed minority white rule in apartheid South Africa and Rhodesia and opposed Soviet expansionism, but Liberal minister Don Chipp split off from the party to form a new centrist-social liberal party, the Australian Democrats in 1977.The Liberals under Fraser won substantial majorities at the 1977 and 1980 elections, but a significant program of economic reform was never pursued.", "By 1983, the Australian economy was suffering with the early 1980s recession and amidst the effects of a severe drought.", "Fraser had promoted \"states' rights\" and his government refused to use Commonwealth powers to stop the construction of the Franklin Dam in Tasmania in 1982.The Liberal Party lost to the Bob Hawke-led Australian Labor Party in the 1983 election.===Opposition (1983–1996)===Andrew Peacock, Opposition Leader 1983–85, 1989–90John Hewson, Opposition Leader 1990–94Alexander Downer, Opposition Leader 1994–95A period of division for the Liberals followed, with former Treasurer John Howard competing with former foreign minister Andrew Peacock for supremacy.", "The Australian economy was facing the early 1990s recession.", "Unemployment reached 11.4% in 1992.Under Dr John Hewson, in November 1991, the opposition launched the 650-page Fightback!", "policy document—a radical collection of \"dry\", economic liberal measures including the introduction of a Goods and Services Tax (GST), various changes to Medicare including the abolition of bulk billing for non-concession holders, the introduction of a nine-month limit on unemployment benefits, various changes to industrial relations including the abolition of awards, a $13 billion personal income tax cut directed at middle and upper income earners, $10 billion in government spending cuts, the abolition of state payroll taxes and the privatisation of a large number of government owned enterprises − representing the start of a very different future direction to the keynesian economic policies practised by previous Liberal/National Coalition governments.", "The 15 percent GST was the centrepiece of the policy document.", "Through 1992, Labor Prime Minister Paul Keating mounted a campaign against the Fightback package, and particularly against the GST, which he described as an attack on the working class in that it shifted the tax burden from direct taxation of the wealthy to indirect taxation as a broad-based consumption tax.", "Pressure group activity and public opinion was relentless, which led Hewson to exempt food from the proposed GST—leading to questions surrounding the complexity of what food was and wasn't to be exempt from the GST.", "Hewson's difficulty in explaining this to the electorate was exemplified in the infamous birthday cake interview, considered by some as a turning point in the election campaign.", "Keating won a record fifth consecutive Labor term at the 1993 election.", "A number of the proposals were later adopted into law in some form, to a small extent during the Keating Labor government, and to a larger extent during the Howard Liberal government (most famously the GST), while unemployment benefits and bulk billing were re-targeted for a time by the Abbott Liberal government.===Howard government===John Howard, Prime Minister 1996–2007Prime Minister John Howard with APEC leaders in Sydney in 2007.Howard supported the traditional icons of Australian identity and its international allegiances, but oversaw booming trade with Asia and increased multiethnic immigration.Labor's Paul Keating lost the 1996 Election to the Liberals' John Howard.", "The Liberals had been in Opposition for 13 years.", "With John Howard as prime minister, Peter Costello as treasurer and Alexander Downer as foreign minister, the Howard government remained in power until their electoral defeat to Kevin Rudd in 2007.Howard generally framed the Liberals as being conservative on social policy, debt reduction and matters like maintaining Commonwealth links and the American Alliance but his premiership saw booming trade with Asia and expanding multiethnic immigration.", "His government concluded the Australia-United States Free Trade Agreement with the Bush administration in 2004.Howard differed from his Labor predecessor Paul Keating in that he supported traditional Australian institutions like the monarchy in Australia, the commemoration of ANZAC Day and the design of the Australian flag, but like Keating he pursued privatisation of public utilities and the introduction of a broad based consumption tax (although Keating had dropped support for a GST by the time of his 1993 election victory).", "Howard's premiership coincided with Al Qaeda's 11 September attacks on the United States.", "The Howard government invoked the ANZUS treaty in response to the attacks and supported America's campaigns in Afghanistan and Iraq.In the 2004 Federal elections the party strengthened its majority in the Lower House and, with its coalition partners, became the first federal government in twenty years to gain an absolute majority in the Senate.", "This control of both houses permitted their passing of legislation without the need to negotiate with independents or minor parties, exemplified by industrial relations legislation known as WorkChoices, a wide-ranging effort to increase deregulation of industrial laws in Australia.In 2005, Howard reflected on his government's cultural and foreign policy outlook in oft repeated terms:The 2007 federal election saw the defeat of the Howard federal government, and the Liberal Party was in opposition throughout Australia at the state and federal level; the highest Liberal office-holder at the time was Lord Mayor of Brisbane Campbell Newman.", "This ended after the 2008 Western Australian state election, when Colin Barnett became Premier of that state.===State and territory level up to 2007===At the state level, the Liberals have been dominant for long periods in all states except Queensland, where they have always held fewer seats than the National party.", "The Liberals were in power in Victoria from 1955 to 1982.Jeff Kennett led the party back to office in that state in 1992, and remained premier until 1999.In South Australia, initially a Liberal and Country Party affiliated party, the Liberal and Country League (LCL), mostly led by Premier of South Australia Tom Playford, was in power from the 1933 election to the 1965 election, though with assistance from an electoral malapportionment, or gerrymander, known as the Playmander.", "The LCL's Steele Hall governed for one term from the 1968 election to the 1970 election and during this time began the process of dismantling the Playmander.", "David Tonkin, as leader of the South Australian Division of the Liberal Party of Australia, became premier at the 1979 election for one term, losing office at the 1982 election.", "The Liberals returned to power at the 1993 election, led by Premiers Dean Brown, John Olsen and Rob Kerin through two terms, until their defeat at the 2002 election.", "They remained in opposition for 16 years, under a record five Opposition Leaders, until Steven Marshall led the party to victory in 2018.The dual aligned Country Liberal Party governed the Northern Territory from 1978 to 2001.The party has held office in Western Australia intermittently since 1947.Liberal Richard Court was Premier of the state for most of the 1990s.In New South Wales, the Liberal Party has not been in office as much as its Labor rival, and just three leaders have led the party from opposition to government in that state: Sir Robert Askin, who was premier from 1965 to 1975, Nick Greiner, who came to office in 1988 and resigned in 1992, and Barry O'Farrell who led the party out of 16 years in opposition in 2011.The Liberal Party does not officially contest most local government elections, although many members do run for office in local government as independents.", "An exception is the Brisbane City Council, where both Sallyanne Atkinson and Campbell Newman have been elected Lord Mayor of Brisbane.===Opposition (2007–2013)===Brendan Nelson, Opposition Leader 2007–08Following the 2007 federal election, Dr Brendan Nelson was elected leader by the Parliamentary Liberal Party.", "On 16 September 2008, in a second contest following a spill motion, Nelson lost the leadership to Malcolm Turnbull.", "On 1 December 2009, a subsequent leadership election saw Turnbull lose the leadership to Tony Abbott by 42 votes to 41 on the second ballot.", "Abbott led the party to the 2010 federal election, which saw an increase in the Liberal Party vote and resulted in the first hung parliament since the 1940 election.Through 2010, the party remained in opposition at the Tasmanian and South Australian state elections and achieved state government in Victoria.", "In March 2011, the New South Wales Liberal-National Coalition led by Barry O'Farrell won government with the largest election victory in post-war Australian history at the State Election.", "In Queensland, the Liberal and National parties merged in 2008 to form the new Liberal National Party of Queensland (registered as the Queensland Division of the Liberal Party of Australia).", "In March 2012, the new party achieved Government in an historic landslide, led by former Brisbane Lord Mayor, Campbell Newman.In March 2013, the Western Australian Liberal-National government won re-election, and Tony Abbott led the party to government at the 2013 Australian Federal Election.===Abbott, Turnbull and Morrison governments===Tony Abbott, Prime Minister 2013–15The party won government in Tasmania in 2014 and lost their fourth election in a row at the South Australian election.", "However, the Victorian Liberal-National government, now led by Denis Napthine, became the first one term government in Victoria in 60 years.", "Similarly, just two months later, the Liberal National government in Queensland was defeated just three years after its historic landslide victory.", "The New South Wales Liberal-National Coalition, however, managed to win re-election in March 2015.In 2016 the Federal Liberals narrowly won re-election in July 2016 while the Liberal-affiliated Country Liberals suffered a historic defeat in the Northern Territory and Canberra Liberals lost their fifth election in a row in October 2016.The Liberals fared little better in 2017 with the Barnett-led Liberal-National government in Western Australia also suffered a landslide defeat in March.====Abbott government========Turnbull government====Malcolm Turnbull, Prime Minister 2015–18Turnbull's time in office saw tensions between Moderate and Conservative factions within the Liberal Party.On 21 August 2018 after a week of mounting pressure on Turnbull's leadership over his handling of energy policy and election strategy, the prime minister used the regular party-room meeting to spill the party leadership in an attempt to head off a growing conservative-led move against him by Home Affairs Minister Peter Dutton.", "Turnbull survived the challenge, winning 48 votes to Dutton's 35.A further spill was called by Turnbull, in which he declined to stand and the leadership of the party was decided in favour of Treasurer Scott Morrison, over Dutton.====Morrison government====Scott Morrison, Prime Minister 2018–2022In August 2018, Home Affairs Minister Peter Dutton unsuccessfully challenged Turnbull for the leadership of the Liberal Party.", "Leadership tension continued, and the party voted to hold a second leadership ballot on 24 August, with Turnbull choosing not to stand.", "In that ballot, Morrison was seen as a compromise candidate and defeated both Dutton and Foreign Minister Julie Bishop to become leader of the Liberal Party.", "He was sworn in as prime minister by the governor-general later that day.", "Morrison went on to lead the Coalition to an unexpected victory in the 2019 election.====2022 outcome====Peter Dutton, Opposition Leader 2022–In the 2022 election, the Liberal Party lost control of the Australian Parliament.", "During the election, which also saw Morrison resign as Liberal Leader and Liberal Deputy Leader Josh Frydenberg lose his seat in Parliament, the Liberal Party lost what was determined to be the most significant number of seats since the Party's creation in 1944.The departure of Morrison and Frydenberg's defeat made recent Leader of the House and Minister for Defence Peter Dutton the only viable candidate to become the next Liberal Party leader.Dutton is the first Liberal leader to come from Queensland, and the first leader since Alexander Downer in 1995 to represent a seat outside of New South Wales." ], [ "Ideology and factions", " Faction Ideology Political position Leader Members Moderate Centre to centre-right Simon Birmingham Centrist Centre to centre-right Centre Right Centre-right Alex Hawke National Right Right-wing Peter Dutton Independent During the Morrison government years, the Liberal Party consisted of three broad factional groupings: a moderate wing, a centre-right wing and a right wing, led by Simon Birmingham, Scott Morrison and Peter Dutton respectively, with the Centre-Right being the largest faction, with 32 of 91 Liberal MPs belonging to the group.", "The 2022 Australian federal election saw a significant realignment of factional affiliations within the Liberal Party: the National Right became the largest faction with 27 of 65 Liberal MPs aligned with the faction, the Centre-Right went from being the largest faction to the smallest faction, plummeting from 32 members to just 6, the Moderates' membership dropped from 22 members to 14, while a Centrist faction emerged, comprising 11 members.The Liberal Party generally advocates conservative policies including economic liberalism.", "Historically, the party has supported a higher degree of economic protectionism and interventionism than it has in recent decades.", "However, from its foundation the party has identified itself as an anti-socialist grouping of liberals and conservatives.", "Strong opposition to socialism and communism in Australia and abroad was one of its founding principles.", "The party's founder and longest-serving leader Robert Menzies envisaged that Australia's middle class would form its main constituency.Towards the end of his term as Prime Minister of Australia and in a final address to the Liberal Party Federal Council in 1964, Menzies spoke of the \"Liberal Creed\" as follows:Soon after the election of the Howard government the new Prime Minister John Howard, who was to become the second-longest serving Liberal Prime Minister, spoke of his interpretation of the \"Liberal Tradition\" in a Robert Menzies Lecture in 1996:Until the 2022 election, the Liberals were in electoral terms largely the party of the middle class (whom Menzies, in the era of the party's formation called \"The forgotten people\"), though such class-based voting patterns are no longer as clear as they once were.", "In the 1970s a left-wing middle class emerged that no longer voted Liberal.", "One effect of this was the success of a breakaway party, the Australian Democrats, founded in 1977 by former Liberal minister Don Chipp and members of minor liberal parties.", "During the prime ministership of John Howard, the Liberals did increasingly well among socially conservative working-class voters.", "Until 2022 the Liberal Party's key support base remained the upper-middle classes— in 2010, 16 of the 20 richest federal electorates were held by the Liberals, most of which were safe seats.", "Following the 2022 election, 16 of the 20 poorest seats in Australia were held by the Liberal Party, while it held only five of the 20 wealthiest electorates.", "In country areas they either compete with or have a truce with the Nationals, depending on various factors.Menzies was an ardent constitutional monarchist, who supported the monarchy in Australia and links to the Commonwealth of Nations.", "Today the party is divided on the question of republicanism, with some (such as former leader Scott Morrison) being monarchists, while others (such as his predecessor Malcolm Turnbull) are republicans.", "The Menzies government formalised Australia's alliance with the United States in 1951 and the party has remained a strong supporter of the mutual defence treaty.Domestically, Menzies presided over a fairly regulated economy in which utilities were publicly owned, and commercial activity was highly regulated through centralised wage-fixing and high tariff protection.", "Liberal leaders from Menzies to Malcolm Fraser generally maintained Australia's high tariff levels.", "At that time the Liberals' coalition partner, the Country Party, the older of the two in the coalition (now known as the \"National Party\"), had considerable influence over the government's economic policies.", "It was not until the late 1970s and through their period out of power federally in the 1980s that the party came to be influenced by what was known as the \"New Right\"—a conservative liberal group who advocated market deregulation, privatisation of public utilities, reductions in the size of government programs and tax cuts.Socially, while liberty and freedom of enterprise form the basis of its beliefs, elements of the party include both what is termed \"small-l liberalism\" and social conservatism.", "Historically, Liberal governments have been responsible for the carriage of a number of notable \"socially liberal\" reforms, including the opening of Australia to multiethnic immigration under Menzies and Harold Holt; Holt's 1967 Referendum on Aboriginal Rights; John Gorton's support for cinema and the arts; selection of the first Aboriginal Senator, Neville Bonner, in 1971; and Malcolm Fraser's Aboriginal Land Rights Act 1976.A West Australian Liberal, Ken Wyatt, became the first Indigenous Australian elected to the House of Representatives in 2010.He become the first Aboriginal frontbencher in federal parliament in 2015, and the first Aboriginal appointed as an Australian Government Minister in 2017.On 6 April 2023 he resigned his membership of the Liberal Party over its stance on the Voice.The Prime Minister of Australia, Scott Morrison, stated the following in his 2019 victory speech;This is, this is the best country in the world in which to live.", "It is those Australians that we have been working for, for the last five and a half years since we came to Government, under Tony Abbott's leadership back in 2013.It has been those Australians who have worked hard every day, they have their dreams, they have their aspirations; to get a job, to get an apprenticeship, to start a business, to meet someone amazing.", "To start a family, to buy a home, to work hard and provide the best you can for your kids.", "To save for your retirement and to ensure that when you're in your retirement, that you can enjoy it because you've worked hard for it.", "These are the quiet Australians who have won a great victory tonight.The Liberal Party is a member of the International Democracy Union and the Asia Pacific Democrat Union." ], [ "Organisation", "The Liberal Party's organisation is dominated by the six state divisions, reflecting the party's original commitment to a federalised system of government (a commitment which was strongly maintained by all Liberal governments bar the Gorton government until 1983, but was to a large extent abandoned by the Howard government, which showed strong centralising tendencies).", "Menzies deliberately created a weak national party machine and strong state divisions.", "Party policy is made almost entirely by the parliamentary parties, not by the party's rank-and-file members, although Liberal party members do have a degree of influence over party policy.The Liberal Party's basic organisational unit is the ''branch'', which consists of party members in a particular locality.", "For each electorate there is a ''conference''—notionally above the branches—which coordinates campaigning in the electorate and regularly communicates with the member (or candidate) for the electorate.", "As there are three levels of government in Australia, each branch elects delegates to a local, state, and federal conference.All the branches in an Australian state are grouped into a ''Division''.", "The ruling body for the Division is a ''State Council''.", "There is also one ''Federal Council'' which represents the entire organisational Liberal Party in Australia.", "Branch executives are delegates to the Councils ''ex-officio'' and additional delegates are elected by branches, depending on their size.Preselection of electoral candidates is performed by a special electoral college convened for the purpose.", "Membership of the electoral college consists of head office delegates, branch officers, and elected delegates from branches.===Federal parliamentary leaders====== State and territory divisions ===BranchLeader Last election Status Federal MPs Lower House Upper HouseYearVotes (%)SeatsTPP (%)Votes (%)SeatsNew South Wales LiberalsMark Speakman 202326.7845.7329.78Opposition (Liberal–National Coalition)Liberal VictoriaJohn Pesutto 202229.7645.0029.44Opposition (Liberal–National Coalition)Liberal NationalDavid Crisafulli 202035.8946.8OppositionWestern Australian LiberalsLibby Mettam 202121.3030.3217.68Opposition (National–Liberal Alliance)South Australian LiberalsDavid Speirs 202235.6745.4134.38OppositionTasmanian LiberalsJeremy Rockliff 2021'''48.72'''Minority governmentCanberra LiberalsElizabeth Lee 202033.8OppositionCountry LiberalLia Finocchiaro202031.3446.70Opposition ===Federal presidents===Barton===Networks and party wings===The Liberal Party has several party wings and networks.", "Major party wings include:* The Australian Liberal Student's Federation (the students' wing)* The Federal Women's Committee (the women's wing)* The Young Liberals (the youth wing)Other networks include an overseas wing (Australian Liberals Abroad) and a Norfolk Island wing (operated by the Canberra Liberals)." ], [ "Federal election results", "=== House of Representatives === Election Seats won ± Total votes Share of votes Position Party Leader 1946 15 1,241,650 28.58% Opposition Robert Menzies1949 40 '''1,813,794''' '''39.39%''' '''Majority gov't '''1951 3'''1,854,799''''''40.62%''''''Majority gov't ''' 1954 5'''1,745,808''''''38.31%''''''Majority gov't ''' 1955 10'''1,746,485''''''39.73%''''''Majority gov't '''1958 1'''1,859,180''''''37.23%''''''Majority gov't '''1961 13'''1,761,738''''''33.58%''''''Majority gov't '''1963 7'''2,030,823''''''37.09%''''''Majority gov't '''1966 9'''2,291,964''''''40.14%''''''Majority gov't ''' Harold Holt1969 15'''2,125,987''''''34.77%''''''Majority gov't ''' John Gorton1972 8 2,115,085 32.04%Opposition William McMahon1974 2 2,582,968 34.95%Opposition Billy Snedden1975 28'''3,232,159''''''41.80%''''''Majority gov't ''' Malcolm Fraser1977 1'''3,017,896''''''38.09%''''''Majority gov't '''1980 13'''3,108,512''''''37.43%''''''Majority gov't '''1983 21 2,983,986 34.36%Opposition1984 12 2,951,556 34.06%Opposition Andrew Peacock 1987 2 3,175,262 34.41%Opposition John Howard 1990 12 3,468,570 35.04%Opposition Andrew Peacock 1993 6 3,923,786 37.10%Opposition John Hewson 1996 26'''4,210,689''''''38.69%''''''Majority gov't ''' John Howard 1998 11'''3,764,707''''''33.89%''''''Majority gov't '''2001 4'''4,244,072''''''37.40%''''''Majority gov't '''2004 5'''4,741,458''''''40.47%''''''Majority gov't '''2007 20 4,546,600 36.60%Opposition2010 5 3,777,383 30.46%OppositionTony Abbott2013 14'''4,134,865''''''32.02%''''''Majority gov't ''' 2016 14'''3,882,905''''''28.67%''''''Majority gov't ''' Malcolm Turnbull 2019 1'''3,989,435''''''27.97%''''''Majority gov't ''' Scott Morrison 2022 193,502,71323.89%Opposition" ], [ "Donors", "For the 2015–2016 financial year, the top ten disclosed donors to the Liberal Party were: Paul Marks (Nimrod resources) ($1,300,000), Pratt Holdings ($790,000), Hong Kong Kingson Investment Company ($710,000), Aus Gold Mining Group ($410,000), Village Roadshow ($325,000), Waratah Group ($300,000), Walker Corporation ($225,000), Australian Gypsum Industries ($196,000), National Automotive Leasing and Salary Packaging Association ($177,000) and Westfield Corporation ($150,000).The Liberal Party also receives undisclosed funding through several methods, such as \"associated entities\".", "Cormack Foundation, Eight by Five, Free Enterprise Foundation, Federal Forum and Northern Sydney Conservative forum are entities which have been used to funnel donations to the Liberal Party without disclosing the source." ], [ "See also", "* Country Liberal Party (Northern Territory)* Liberal National Party (Queensland)* Liberal Party of Australia (New South Wales Division)* Liberal Party of Australia (South Australian Division)* Liberal Party of Australia (Tasmanian Division)* Liberal Party of Australia (Victorian Division)* List of political parties in Australia* Turnbull Government* Abbott Government* Liberalism in AustraliaModerates Young Liberal Movement of Australia" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Henderson, Gerard (1994).", "''Menzies' Child: The Liberal Party of Australia 1944–1994'', Allen and Unwin, Sydney, New South Wales.", "* Jaensch, Dean (1994) ''The Liberals'', Allen and Unwin, Sydney, New South Wales.", "* Nethercote, John (ed.", ")(2001), ''Liberalism and the Australian Federation'', Federation Press, Annandale, New South Wales.", "* Simms, Marian (1982) ''A Liberal Nation: The Liberal Party and Australian Politics'', Hale and Iremonger, Sydney, New South Wales.", "* Starr, Graeme (1980) ''The Liberal Party of Australia: A Documentary History'', Drummond/Heinemann, Richmond, Victoria.", "* Tiver, P.G.", "(1978), ''The Liberal Party.", "Principles and Performance'', Jacaranda, Milton, Queensland." ], [ "External links", "* * Liberal Party of Australia ephemera digitised and held by the National Library of Australia* Records of the Victorian division of the Liberal Party held at the University of Melbourne Archives" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lindisfarne" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lindisfarne''', also called '''Holy Island''', is a tidal island off the northeast coast of England, which constitutes the civil parish of Holy Island in Northumberland.", "Holy Island has a recorded history from the 6th century AD; it was an important centre of Celtic Christianity under Saints Aidan, Cuthbert, Eadfrith, and Eadberht of Lindisfarne.", "The island was originally home to a monastery, which was destroyed during the Viking invasions but re-established as a priory following the Norman Conquest of England.", "Other notable sites built on the island are St. Mary the Virgin parish church (originally built 635 AD and restored in 1860), Lindisfarne Castle, several lighthouses and other navigational markers, and a complex network of lime kilns.", "In the present day, the island is an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty and a hotspot for historical tourism and bird watching.", "As of February 2020, the island had three pubs, a hotel and a post office." ], [ "Name and etymology", "===Name===Both the Parker and Peterborough versions of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle for 793 record the Old English name .In the 9th-century the island appears under its Old Welsh name .", "The philologist Andrew Breeze, following up on a suggestion by Richard Coates, proposes that the name ultimately derives from Latin (English: Healing Island), owing perhaps to the island's reputation for medicinal herbs.The name Holy Island was in use by the 11th century when it appears in Latin as .", "The reference was to Saints Aidan and Cuthbert.In the present day, Holy Island is the name of the civil parish and native inhabitants are known as Islanders.", "The Ordnance Survey uses Holy Island for both the island and the village, with Lindisfarne listed either as an alternative name for the island or as a name of 'non-Roman antiquity'.", "\"Locally the island is rarely referred to by its Anglo-Saxon name of Lindisfarne\" (according to the local community website).", "More widely, the two names are used somewhat interchangeably.", "Lindisfarne is invariably used when referring to the pre-conquest monastic settlement, the priory ruins and the castle.", "The combined phrase \"the Holy Island of Lindisfarne\" has begun to be used more frequently in recent times, particularly when promoting the island as a travel destination for both tourists and pilgrims alike.===Etymology===The name Lindisfarne has an uncertain origin.", "The ''-farne'' part of the name may be Old English ''fearena'', genitive plural of , meaning traveller.", "The first part, ''Lindis-'', may refer to people from the Kingdom of Lindsey in modern Lincolnshire, referring to either regular visitors or settlers.", "Another possibility is that Lindisfarne is Brittonic in origin, containing the element ''Lind-'' meaning stream or pool (Welsh ), with the nominal morpheme ''-as(t)'' and an unknown element identical to that in the Farne Islands.", "Further suggested is that the name may be a wholly Old Irish formation, from corresponding , plus meaning land, domain, territory.", "Such an Irish formation, however, could have been based on a pre-existing Brittonic name.There is also a supposition that the nearby Farne Islands are fern-like in shape and the name may have come from there." ], [ "Geography and population", "Holy Island (1866)The island of Lindisfarne is located along the northeast coast of England, close to the border with Scotland.", "It measures from east to west and from north to south, and comprises approximately at high tide.", "The nearest point to the mainland is about .", "It is accessible at low tide by a modern causeway and an ancient pilgrims' path that both run over sand and mudflats and which are covered with water at high tide.", "Lindisfarne is surrounded by the Lindisfarne National Nature Reserve, which protects the island's sand dunes and the adjacent intertidal habitats.", ", the island had a population of 180.===Community===A February 2020 report provided an update on the island.", "At the time, three pubs and a hotel were operating; the shop had closed but the post office remained in operation.", "No professional or medical services were available and residents were driving to Berwick-upon-Tweed for groceries and other supplies.", "Points of interest for visitors included Lindisfarne Castle operated by the National Trust, the priory, the historic church, the nature reserve and the beaches.", "At certain times of year, numerous migratory birds can be seen.===Causeway safety===The causeway flooding with a refuge box in the distanceWarning signs urge visitors walking to the island to keep to the marked path, to check tide times and weather carefully, and to seek local advice if in doubt.", "For drivers, tide tables are prominently displayed at both ends of the causeway and also where the Holy Island road leaves the A1 Great North Road at Beal.", "The causeway is generally open from about three hours after high tide until two hours before the next high tide, but the period of closure may be extended during stormy weather.", "Tide tables giving the safe crossing periods are published by Northumberland County Council.Despite these warnings, about one vehicle each month is stranded on the causeway, requiring rescue by HM Coastguard and / or Seahouses RNLI lifeboat.", "A sea rescue costs approximately £1,900 (quoted in 2009, ), while an air rescue costs more than £4,000 (also quoted in 2009, ).", "Local people have opposed a causeway barrier, primarily on convenience grounds." ], [ "History", "===Early===The north-east of England was largely not settled by Roman civilians apart from the Tyne valley and Hadrian's Wall.", "The area had been little affected during the centuries of nominal Roman occupation.", "The countryside had been subject to raids from both Scots and Picts and was \"not one to attract early Germanic settlement\".", "The Anglian King Ida (reigned from 547) started the sea-borne settlement of the coast, establishing an (meaning \"royal settlement\") at Bamburgh across the bay from Lindisfarne.", "The conquest was not straightforward, however.", "The recounts how, in the 6th century, Urien, prince of Rheged, with a coalition of North Brittonic kingdoms, besieged Angles led by Theodric of Bernicia on the island for three days and nights, until internal power struggles led to the Britons' defeat.===Lindisfarne Abbey===The Lindisfarne Abbey was first established in 634 AD.", "The island served as the site of the Lindisfarne Monastery for roughly 900 years.", "The site, most of which has fallen into a state of ruin, has since become a popular tourist destination and focus of pilgrimage journeys.", "The church of St. Mary the Virgin is the only original building that has been more or less continually maintained and which remains standing within the original monastic compound.", "Remains from the pre-Norman/Saxon era can be found in the chancel wall of this church.", "The monastery was originally described as an abbey by the Venerable Bede in pre-Norman/Saxon times, and later when it was rebuilt under the post-Norman-invasion-government it was officially described as a (relatively smaller) priory.====Anglo Saxon era====The Anglo-Saxon period in Britain spans approximately the six centuries from 410 AD – 1066 AD.", "This is roughly the time period framed between the departure of the Romans from Britain, and the arrival of the Normans, via the conquest of William the Conqueror.=====Founding and early years=====Modern statue of St Aidan beside the ruins of the mediaeval priory The monastery of Lindisfarne was founded around 634 by the Irish monk Saint Aidan, who had been sent from Iona off the west coast of Scotland to Northumbria at the request of King Oswald.", "The abbey was founded before the end of 634 and Aidan remained there until his death in 651.The abbey and its church remained the only seat of a bishopric in Northumbria for nearly thirty years.", "Finan (bishop 651–661) built a timber church \"suitable for a bishop's seat\".", "St Bede, however, was critical of the fact that the church was not built of stone but only of hewn oak thatched with reeds.", "A later bishop, Eadbert, removed the thatch and covered both walls and roof in lead.", "An abbot, who could be the bishop, was elected by the brethren and led the community.", "Bede comments on this:Following the death of bishop Finan in 661, Colman became Bishop of Lindisfarne.", "Up to this point the Northumbrian (and afterwards the Mercian) churches had looked to Lindisfarne as the mother church.", "There were significant liturgical and theological differences with the fledgling Roman party based at Canterbury.", "According to Stenton: \"There is no trace of any intercourse between these bishops the Mercians and the see of Canterbury\".", "The Synod of Whitby in 663 changed this, as allegiance switched southwards to Canterbury and then to Rome.", "Colman departed his see for Iona, and for the next few years Lindisfarne had no bishop.", "Later under a new line of bishops aligned with Canterbury Lindisfarne became the base for Christian evangelism in the North of England, and also sent a successful mission to Mercia.", "Monks from the Irish community of Iona settled on the island.=====St.", "Cuthbert as bishop=====Statue of St Cuthbert at prayer Northumbria's patron saint, Saint Cuthbert, was a monk and later abbot of the monastery.", "St. Cuthbert has been described as “possibly the most venerated saint in England.” Cuthbert's miracles and life are recorded by the Venerable Bede.", "Cuthbert later became Bishop of Lindisfarne from 684 through 686, shortly before his death.", "An anonymous \"Life of Cuthbert\" written at Lindisfarne is the oldest extant piece of English historical writing.From the \"Life of Cuthbert\"'s reference to \"Aldfrith, who now reigns peacefully\", the work is considered to date from between 685 and 704.While bishop and abbot, Cuthbert took it upon himself to align his bishopric with the see of Canterbury, and therefore with Rome, while leaving its Celtic leanings and traditions behind.", "After his death in 687 Cuthbert was initially buried in Lindisfarne.", "Due to the claim that Cuthbert's body was untouched by \"corruption,\" and also due to there being several miracles associated with those who had come to visit Cuthbert's shrine, the island became a major destination for religious pilgrimages for the next few hundred years.During one of the many evacuations of Lindisfarne by the monks due to the increasing frequency of Viking raids upon the island at the time, in 793 Cuthbert's body was carried away by the monks, first to where they temporarily re-settled in the nearby village of Chester-le-Street, then to the Durham Cathedral ca.", "995.Eadberht of Lindisfarne, the next bishop (and later saint), was buried in the place from which Cuthbert's body had been exhumed earlier in the same year (793).=====Eighth and ninth centuries=====In 735, the northern ecclesiastical province of England was established, with the archbishopric at York.", "There were only three bishops under York: Hexham, Lindisfarne and Whithorn, whereas Canterbury had the 12 envisioned by St Augustine.At that time the Diocese of York roughly encompassed the counties of Yorkshire and Lancashire.", "Hexham covered County Durham and the southern part of Northumberland up to the River Coquet, and eastwards into the Pennines.", "Whithorn covered most of Dumfries and Galloway region west of Dumfries itself.", "The remainder, Cumbria, northern Northumbria, Lothian and much of the Kingdom of Strathclyde formed the diocese of Lindisfarne.In 737, Saint Ceolwulf of Northumbria abdicated as King of Northumbria and entered the abbey at Lindisfarne.", "He died in 764 and was buried alongside Cuthbert.", "In 830, his body was moved to Norham-upon-Tweed, and later his head was transferred to Durham Cathedral.=====Lindisfarne Gospels=====At some point in the early 8th century the illuminated manuscript known as the Lindisfarne Gospels, an illustrated Latin copy of the Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke and John, was made, probably at Lindisfarne.", "The artist was possibly Eadfrith, who later became Bishop of Lindisfarne.", "It is also speculated that a team of illuminators and calligraphers (monks of Lindisfarne Abbey) worked on the text, but if so, their identities are unknown.", "Some time in the second half of the 10th century, a monk named Aldred added an Anglo-Saxon (Old English) gloss to the Latin text, producing the earliest surviving Old English copies of the Gospels.", "Aldred attributed the original to Eadfrith (bishop 698–721).", "The Gospels were written with a good hand, but it is the illustrations, done in an insular style containing a fusion of Celtic, Germanic and Roman elements, that are considered to be of the most value.", "According to Aldred, Eadfrith's successor Æthelwald was responsible for pressing and binding the book, before it was covered with a fine metal case made by a hermit known as Billfrith.", "The Lindisfarne Gospels now reside in the British Library in London, a location which has caused some controversy amongst some Northumbrians.", "In 1971, professor Suzanne Kaufman of Rockford, Illinois presented a facsimile copy of the Gospels to the clergy of the island.=====Viking raid on the monastery (793)=====''Lindisfarne Stone'', also known as ''Viking Raider Doomsday Stone'', Anglo-Saxon carved gravestone, 9th century, found in Lindisfarne.", "The armed warriors are shown perhaps as Viking raiders.", "''The Ruins of Lindisfarne Priory'', by Thomas Girtin, 1798.The priory's rainbow arch, which survives, is shown truncated for artistic effect.In 793, a Viking raid on Lindisfarne caused much consternation throughout the Christian west, and is now often taken as the beginning of the Viking Age.", "There had been some other Viking raids, but according to English Heritage this one was particularly significant, because \"it attacked the sacred heart of the Northumbrian kingdom, desecrating 'the very place where the Christian religion began in our nation'\".", "The D and E versions of the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' record: (\"In this year fierce, foreboding omens came over the land of the Northumbrians, and the wretched people shook; there were excessive whirlwinds, lightning, and fiery dragons were seen flying in the sky.", "These signs were followed by great famine, and a little after those, that same year on 6th ides of January, the ravaging of wretched heathen men destroyed God's church at Lindisfarne.", "\")The generally accepted date for the Viking raid on Lindisfarne is 8 June; Michael Swanton writes: \", presumably is an error for (8 June) which is the date given by the ''Annals of Lindisfarne'' (p. 505), when better sailing weather would favour coastal raids.", "\"Alcuin, a Northumbrian scholar in Charlemagne's court at the time, wrote: \"Never before has such terror appeared in Britain as we have now suffered from a pagan race ...", "The heathens poured out the blood of saints around the altar, and trampled on the bodies of saints in the temple of God, like dung in the streets.\"", "During the attack many of the monks were killed, or captured and enslaved.", "Biographer Peter Ackroyd writes: ‘The monasteries of Lindisfarne and Jarrow were not attacked at random; they were chosen as examples of revenge.", "The onslaught of the Christian Charlemagne on the ‘pagans’ of the north had led to the extirpation of their shrines and sanctuaries.", "The great king had cut down Jôrmunr, the holy tree of the Norse people.", "What better form of retaliation than to lay waste the foundations devoted to the Christian God?", "The Christian missionaries to Norway had in fact set out from Lindisfarne.’As the English population became more settled, they seemed to have abandoned seafaring.", "Many monasteries were established on islands, peninsulas, river mouths and cliffs, as isolated communities were less susceptible to interference and the politics of the heartland.", "These preliminary raids, despite their brutal nature, were not followed up.", "The main body of the raiders passed north around Scotland.", "The 9th century invasions came not from Norway, but from the Danes from around the entrance to the Baltic.", "The first Danish raids into England were in the Isle of Sheppey, Kent during 835 and from there their influence spread north.", "During this period religious art continued to flourish on Lindisfarne, and the of Durham began in the abbey.", "By 866, the Danes were in York, and in 873 the Danish army was moving into Northumberland.", "With the collapse of the Northumbrian kingdom, the monks of Lindisfarne fled the island in 875 taking with them St Cuthbert's bones (which are now buried at the cathedral in Durham), who during his life had been prior and bishop of Lindisfarne; his body was buried on the island in the year 698.Prior to the 9th century, Lindisfarne Abbey had, in common with other such establishments, held large tracts of land which were managed directly or leased to farmers with a life interest only.", "Following the Danish occupation, land was increasingly owned by individuals, and could be bought, sold and inherited.", "Following the Battle of Corbridge in 914 Ragnald seized the land giving some to his followers Scula and Onlafbal.====Post-Norman-conquest era priory====The post-Norman-conquest era spans from the year 1066 when William the Conqueror first conquered England, through to modern times.=====Prior to dissolution of the monasteries=====Once the region had been restored to political and military stability under the new government of William the Conqueror, the prospects for the rebuilding of the island's monastery soon began to improve.", "The first Norman Bishop of Durham, William of St Calais soon endowed his new Benedictine monastery at Durham with land and property in Northumberland, including Holy Island and much of the surrounding mainland.", "Durham Priory then re-established a monastery on the island in 1093.The monastery was re-established as a smaller \"priory\" which was to be administered as a sub-monastery of the Durham priory.", "Smaller monasteries are often referred to as priories while larger monasteries are more commonly referred to as abbeys.Under the new Norman rule, by 1150 the island's parish church had also been fully rebuilt over part of the site of the old pre-Norman abbey.", "The newly constructed chapel included a cenotaph (an empty tomb) marking the spot where Cuthbert's body was believed to have been buried.", "Although his body by then had been relocated in the Durham Cathedral, the place of his former primary shrine on Lindisfarne was still considered by many to be sacred ground and continued to draw pilgrims.", "The old pre-Norman island bishopric of Lindisfarne was never again restored under Norman rule, perhaps because the newer and more centrally located bishopric of Durham was then better able to meet the church's administrative needs in the area.As such, the island's newly restored but slightly smaller Benedictine monastery (sized as a priory under Norman rule) was then able to continue in relative peace under the new Norman monarchy and its successor dynasties for the next four centuries until its final dissolution in 1536 as a result of Henry VIII's dissolution of the English church's ties to Rome, and his subsequent closing of the monasteries.=====After dissolution of the priory=====Even with the closure of the island's priory in 1536, the tradition of making religious pilgrimages to the island never ceased.", "Five centuries later in the 20th century ( 1980~1990), religious author and cleric David Adam reported that he had ministered to thousands of pilgrims and other visitors as rector of Holy Island.", "In the 21st century the tradition of making pilgrimage to Lindisfarne continues to be observed annually, as can be attested to by the Northern Cross Pilgrimage amongst others.", "The priory ruins which make for a popular tourist and pilgrimage destination, were built just after the Norman conquest, and now date back to nearly 1,000 years ago.", "The chancel wall of the church dates back even further into pre-Norman/ Saxon times.====Architecture and archaeology====In 1838 Henry George Charles Clarke (presumed son of Admiral Sir Erasmus Gower) wrote a scholarly description of the priory.", "Clarke surmised that this Norman priory was unique in that the centre aisle had a vault of stone.", "Of the six arches, Clarke stated \"as if the architect had not previously calculated the space to be occupied by his arcade.", "The effect here has been to produce a horseshoe instead of a semicircular arch, from its being of the same height, but lesser span, than the others.", "This arch is very rare, even in Norman buildings\".", "The Lindisfarne Priory (ruin) is a grade I listed building, List Entry Number 1042304.Other parts of the priory are a Scheduled ancient monument, List Entry Number 1011650.The latter are described as \"the site of the pre-Conquest monastery of Lindisfarne and the Benedictine cell of Durham Cathedral that succeeded it in the 11th century\".Recent work by archeologists was continuing in 2019, for the fourth year.", "Artifacts recovered included a rare board game piece, copper-alloy rings and Anglo-Saxon coins from both Northumbria and Wessex.", "The discovery of a cemetery led to finding commemorative markers \"unique to the 8th and 9th centuries\".", "The group also found evidence of an early medieval building, \"which seems to have been constructed on top of an even earlier industrial oven\" which was used to make copper or glass.===Historical island economy=======Middle Ages economy====Monastic records from the 14th to the 16th century provide evidence of an already well-established fishing economy on the island.", "Both line fishing and net fishing were practised, inshore in shallow waters and in the deep water offshore, using a variety of vessels: contemporary accounts differentiate between small 'cobles' and larger 'boats', as well as singling out certain specialised vessels (such as a 'herynger', sold for £2 in 1404).", "As well as supplying food for the monastic community, the island's fisheries (together with those of nearby Farne) provided the mother house at Durham with fish, on a regular (sometimes weekly) basis.", "Fish caught included cod, haddock, herring, salmon, porpoise and mullet, among others.", "Shellfish of various types were also fished for, with lobster nets and oyster dredges being mentioned in the accounts.", "Fish surplus to the needs of the monastery was traded, but subject to a tithe.", "There is also evidence that the monks operated a lime kiln on the island.In 1462, during the Wars of the Roses, Margaret of Anjou made an abortive attempt to seize the Northumbrian castles.", "Following a storm at sea 400 troops had to seek shelter on Holy Island, where they surrendered to the Yorkists.====Post priory dissolution economy====After King Henry VIII's dissolution of the monasteries in 1536, the Lindisfarne Priory was finally made to close its doors for the last time.", "The buildings of the old priory were then repurposed for use as a naval storehouse.", "As such, one of the economic focal points of the island became the military post which would be staffed by military personnel from time to time, instead of the former activities of the now defunct monastery.", "Over the coming centuries, most of the old priory complex buildings gradually fell into ruin.", "In 1613 ownership of the island (and other land in the area formerly pertaining to Durham Priory) was transferred to the Crown.The lime kilns by the castle In the 1860s a Dundee firm built lime kilns on Lindisfarne, and lime was burnt on the island until at least the end of the 19th century.", "The kilns are among the most complex in Northumberland.", "Horses carried limestone, along the Holy Island Waggonway, from a quarry on the north side of the island to the lime kilns, where it was burned with coal transported from Dundee on the east coast of Scotland.", "There are still some traces of the jetties by which the coal was imported and the lime exported close by at the foot of the crags.", "The remains of the waggonway between the quarries and the kilns makes for a pleasant and easy walk.At the peak of the limestone quarrying and processing operations on the island, over 100 men were employed by these operations.", "Crinoid columnals, a certain type of intricate plant fossil with a hole in the middle which is sometimes found in limestone, were separated from the quarried stone and then milled smooth into beads.", "The remaining quarried limestone material would then be processed into lime.", "These more valuable beads would then be threaded onto necklaces and rosaries and exported from the island.", "The beads became known as St Cuthbert's beads.The large-scale quarrying in the 19th century had a devastating effect on the interesting limestone caves, but eight sea caves remain at Coves Haven.", "Workings on the lime kilns stopped by the start of the 20th century.", "The lime kilns on Lindisfarne are among the few being actively preserved in Northumberland.Holy Island Golf Club was founded in 1907 but later closed in the 1960s." ], [ "Present day economy and culture", "The island is within an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty on the Northumberland Coast.", "The ruined monastery is in the care of English Heritage, which also runs a museum/visitor centre nearby.", "The neighbouring parish church is still in use.Turner, Thomas Girtin and Charles Rennie Mackintosh all painted on Holy Island.Holy Island was considered part of the Islandshire unit along with several mainland parishes.", "This came under the jurisdiction of the County Palatine of Durham until the Counties (Detached Parts) Act 1844.Lindisfarne was mainly a fishing community for many years, with farming and the production of lime also of some importance.The Holy Island of Lindisfarne is well known for mead.", "In the medieval days when monks inhabited the island, it was thought that if the soul was in God's keeping, the body must be fortified with Lindisfarne mead.", "The monks have long vanished, and the mead's recipe remains a secret of the family which still produces it; Lindisfarne Mead is produced at St Aidan's Winery, and sold throughout the UK and elsewhere.Even today it is possible to see old wooden boats turned upside down on the land, looking like sheds.", "It is possible that this type of settlement was used by seafaring Vikings that exploited their ships as protection while away from home.The isle of Lindisfarne was featured on the television programme ''Seven Natural Wonders'' as one of the wonders of the north.", "The Lindisfarne Gospels have also featured on television among the top few Treasures of Britain.", "It also features in an ITV Tyne Tees programme ''Diary of an Island'' which started on 19 April 2007 and on a DVD of the same name.", "The English folk-rock band Lindisfarne takes its name from the island.", "The English dubstep/electro-soul musician James Blake wrote two songs named for Lindisfarne, both appearing on his 2011 album.File:Lindisfarne Abbey and St Marys.JPG\|Lindisfarne Abbey and St MarysFile:Lindisfarne Lobster Pots.JPG\|Lindisfarne lobster potsFile:Lindisfarne Castle from Harbour.JPG\|Lindisfarne Castle from the harbourHoly Island Plays Its Part- Everyday Life on Lindisfarne, 1942 D6771 (cropped).jpg\|A Lindisfarne fisherman in 1942File:Lindisfarne Upturned Boats in Harbour.JPG\|Upturned boats in the harbour of Lindisfarne used as sheds" ], [ "Additional points of interest", "===Church of St. Mary the Virgin===The parish church stands on the site of the wooden church built by St. Aidan in 635 AD.", "When the site was rebuilt by the Normans, the site of the original abbey church was redeveloped in stone as the parish church.", "As such it is now the oldest building on the island that has been maintained in some fashion, and which now has a roof on it.", "Remains of the Saxon church exist as the chancel wall and arch.", "A Norman apse (subsequently replaced in the 13th century) led eastwards from the chancel.", "The nave was extended in the 12th century with a northern arcade, and in the following century with a southern arcade.After the Reformation the church slipped into disrepair until the restoration of 1860.The church is built of coloured sandstone which has had the Victorian plaster removed from it.", "The north aisle is known as the \"fishermen's aisle\" and houses the altar of St. Peter.", "The south aisle used to hold the altar of St. Margaret of Scotland, but now houses the organ.The church is a Grade I listed building number 1042304, listed as part of the whole priory.", "The church forms most of the earliest part of the site and is a scheduled ancient monument number 1011650.===St Cuthbert's Isle (Hobthrush)===St Cuthbert's Isle, also known as ''Hobthrush'', is a small islet of black dolerite rock, described by Bede as being\"...in the outer precincts of the monastery...\"The islet is reputed to be the place where Cuthbert spent\"...the first beginning of his solitary life...\"The islet is a short distance from Holy Island.It is possible to walk across sand and rocks to the islet when tidal conditions allow.There are the remains of a medieval chapel, designated as a scheduled monument: * Stone built chapel — post-Norman Conquest* Earthwork bank* Semicircular mound, possibly the remains of a circular monastic cell * Modern wooden crossThe name \"''Hobthrush''\" relates to Hob (folklore) — the similarly named \"''Hob-trush''\" is also found in North Yorkshire.", "It is possible that the name was introduced by migrant workers while working on Holy Island.===Lindisfarne Castle===Lindisfarne Castle was built in 1550, around the time that Lindisfarne Priory went out of use, and stones from the priory were used as building material.", "It is very small by the usual standards, and was more of a fort.", "The castle sits on the highest point of the island, a whinstone hill called Beblowe.After Henry VIII suppressed the priory, his troops used the remains as a naval store.", "In 1542 Henry VIII ordered the Earl of Rutland to fortify the site against possible Scottish invasion.", "Sir John Harington and the Master Mason of Berwick started to plan to build two earth bulwarks, although the Rutland advised the use of stone from the priory.", "In September 1544 a Scottish fleet led by John Barton in the ''Mary Willoughby'' threatened the English coast.", "It was thought the Scottish ships might try to burn Lindisfarne, so orders were given to repair the old decayed bulwark or blockhouse at Holy Island.By December 1547, Ralph Cleisbye, Captain of the fort, had guns including a wheel-mounted demi-culverin, two brass sakers, a falcon, and another fixed demi-culverin.", "However, Beblowe Crag itself was not fortified until 1549 and Sir Richard Lee saw only a decayed platform and turf rampart there in 1565.Elizabeth I then had work carried out on the fort, strengthening it and providing gun platforms for the new developments in artillery technology.", "When James VI and I came to power in England, he combined the Scottish and English thrones, and the need for the castle declined.", "At that time the castle was still garrisoned from Berwick and protected the small Lindisfarne Harbour.During the Jacobite rising of 1715 the Earl of Mar (later commander of the Jacobite army) planned for a Franco-Spanish invasion of North-East England to link up with indigenous Jacobites and the Scottish army marching south.", "The Holy Island was regarded by Mar as the ideal place for a landing.", "The following day, however, he decided on a more southerly landing.Lindisfarne was close to Bamburgh which at that time was owned by Thomas Forster who was a committed Jacobite.", "The Jacobites wanted to secure the castle on the Holy Island so as \"to give signals to the ships from which they expected succours from abroad\".", "The castle was sealed but only held by around 6 men.", "The brigantine ''Mary'' of the Tyne, ex France was anchored in the bay.", "The master, Lancelot Errington, went ashore on 10 October 1715 to ask Samuel Phillipson, the castle's Master Gunner who also served as the unit's barber, for a shave.", "The men knew each other and so this seemed entirely innocent.", "Errington established that only two soldiers (Phillipson and Farggison) and Phillipson's wife were actually in the castle, the rest of the garrison being off duty.", "Errington returned with his nephew later in the day claiming to have lost the key to his watch then pulled a pistol on Phillipson and ejected the three people.", "Forster was expected to send reinforcements to the castle but, for some unknown reason, never did.The following day Colonel Laton with a hundred troops arrived from Berwick and was joined by fifty of the islanders in retaking the castle.", "The Erringtons fled, were caught and imprisoned in the tollbooth at Berwick but tunneled their way out and escaped back to Bamburgh.", "On the 14 October two French ships signaled to the castle, but on receiving no reply withdrew.The castle was later refurbished in the Arts and Crafts style by Sir Edwin Lutyens for the editor of Country Life, Edward Hudson.", "Lutyens also designed the island's Celtic-cross war-memorial on the Heugh.", "Lutyens' upturned herring busses near the foreshore provided the inspiration for Spanish architect Enric Miralles' Scottish Parliament Building in Edinburgh.One of the most celebrated gardeners of modern times, Gertrude Jekyll (1843–1932), laid out a tiny garden just north of the castle in 1911.The castle, garden and nearby lime kilns are in the care of the National Trust and open to visitors.===Navigational markers===Trinity House operates two alignment beacons (which it lists as lighthouses) to guide vessels entering Holy Island Harbour.", "The alignment beacons are leading marks which, when aligned, indicate the safe channel over the bar.", "When Heugh Hill bears 310° (in line with the church belfry) the bar is cleared and there is a clear run into the harbour.", "Until 1 November 1995 both alignment beacons were operated by Newcastle-upon-Tyne Trinity House (a separate corporation, which formerly had responsibility for navigation marks along the coast from Berwick-upon-Tweed to Whitby).", "On that day, responsibility for marking the approach to the harbour was assumed by the London-based Corporation.The Heugh Hill Light is a metal framework tower with a black triangular day mark, situated on Heugh Hill (a ridge on the south edge of Lindisfarne).", "Prior to its installation, a wooden beacon with a triangle topmark had stood on the centre of Heugh Hill for many decades.", "Nearby is a former coastguard station, recently refurbished and opened to the public as a viewing platform.", "An adjacent ruin is known as the Lantern Chapel; its origin is unknown, but the name may indicate an earlier navigation light on this site.Guile Point East and Guile Point West are a pair of alignment beacons built atop two stone obelisks standing on a small tidal island on the other side of the channel.", "The beacons were established in 1826 by Newcastle-upon-Tyne Trinity House (in whose ownership they remain).", "Since the early 1990s, a sector light has been fixed about one-third of the way up Guile Point East.The Emmanuel Head Daymark is for daytime maritime navigation only.", "It is a white brick pyramid 35 feet high and built in 1810.It stands at Emmanuel Head at the north-eastern point of Lindisfarne.", "It is said to be Britain's earliest purpose-built daymark.File:Emmanuel Head Beacon - Holy Island - geograph.org.uk - 63388.jpg\|Emmanuel Head DaymarkFile:Former coastguard station and remains of Lantern Chapel, The Heugh, Holy Island - geograph.org.uk - 409679.jpg\|Public viewing platform and former coastguard station with remains of 'Lantern Chapel'" ], [ "Community Trust Fund/Holy Island Partnership", "In response to the perceived lack of affordable housing on the isle of Lindisfarne, in 1996 a group of islanders established a charitable foundation known as the Holy Island of Lindisfarne Community Development Trust.", "They built a visitor centre on the island using the profits from sales.", "In addition, eleven community houses were built and are rented out to community members who want to continue to live on the island.", "The trust is also responsible for management of the inner harbour.", "The Holy Island Partnership was formed in 2009 by members of the community as well as organisations and groups operating on the island." ], [ "Tourism", "Tourists crossing Pilgrim's WayTourism grew steadily throughout the 20th century, and the isle of Lindisfarne is now a popular destination for visitors.", "Those tourists staying on the island while it is cut off by the tide experience the island in a much quieter state, as most day trippers leave before the tide rises.", "At low tide it is possible to walk across the sands following an ancient route known as the Pilgrims' Way (see the note about safety, above).", "This route is marked with posts and has refuge boxes for stranded walkers, just as the road has a refuge box for those who have left their crossing too late.", "The isle of Lindisfarne is surrounded by the Lindisfarne National Nature Reserve which attracts bird-watchers to the tidal island.", "The island's prominent position and varied habitat make it particularly attractive to tired avian migrants, and 330 bird species had been recorded on the island." ], [ "In popular fiction", "Most of LJ Ross's crime novel ''Holy Island'' (2015) is set on Lindisfarne.", "Much of Ann Cleeves' mystery novel ''The Rising Tide'' is also located here and was filmed on the island for the TV show Vera based on the lead character in Ann Cleeves' novels, DCI Vera Stanhope as played by Brenda Blethyn.The Viking raid appears in season one of the television series Vikings.", "A dramatized version of the first viking raid on the island appears in the final episode of season 3 of the comedy series Norsemen.It is also mentioned as background in Anne Perry's novel A Question of Betrayal (2020)." ], [ "Arms" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "References", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " Holy Island Village Hall* Holy Island Safe Crossing Times* Lindisfarne Priory – English Heritage* Video: Holy Island Causeway information* Lindisfarne Castle – National Trust* * Lindisfarne Visitor Information Official visitor information site* Visit Lindisfarne Locally-run information site" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Literacy" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Literacy''' in its broadest sense describes \"particular ways of thinking about and doing reading and writing\" with the purpose of understanding or expressing thoughts or ideas in written form in some specific context of use.", "In other words, humans in literate societies have sets of practices for producing and consuming writing, and they also have beliefs about these practices.", "Reading, in this view, is always reading something for some purpose; writing is always writing something for someone for some purpose.", "Beliefs about reading, writing and their value for society and for the individual always influence the ways literacy is taught, learned, and practiced.H.S.", "Bhola described Sarah Gudschinsky's definition of literacy as \"essential\": \"A person is literate who can 'read and understand everything he would have understood if had been spoken to him; and can write, so that it can be read, anything he can say'.\"", "This definition focuses on comprehension and was created thinking of mother \"tongue literacy\", and does not include reciting passages in another language that the person does not understand.Some researchers suggest that the study of \"literacy\" as a concept can be divided into two periods: the period before 1950, when literacy was understood solely as alphabetical literacy (word and letter recognition); and the period after 1950, when literacy slowly began to be considered as a wider concept and process, including the social and cultural aspects of reading and writing and functional literacy.Adult literacy rates, 2015 or most recent observation" ], [ "Other definitions and uses of the term \"literacy\"", "World illiteracy halved between 1970 and 2015.Literate and illiterate world population between 1800 and 2016Illiteracy rate in France in the 18th and 19th centuriesThe diversity among the definitions of literacy used by NGOs, think tanks, and advocacy groups since the 1990s suggests that this shift in understanding from \"discrete skill\" to \"social practice\" is both ongoing and uneven.", "Some definitions remain fairly closely aligned with the traditional \"ability to read and write\" connotation, whereas others take a broader view:* The 2003 National Assessment of Adult Literacy (USA) included \"quantitative literacy\" (numeracy) in its treatment of literacy.", "It defined literacy as \"the ability to use printed and written information to function in society, to achieve one's goals, and to develop one's knowledge and potential\".", "It included three types of adult literacy: prose (e.g.", "a newspaper article), documents (e.g.", "a bus schedule), and quantitative literacy (e.g.", "use of arithmetic operations in a product advertisement).", "* In 2015, the United Nations Statistics Division defined the youth literacy rate as \"the percentage of the population aged 15–24 years who can both read and write with understanding a short simple statement on everyday life\".", "* In 2016, the ''European Literacy Policy Network'' defined literacy as \"the ability to read and write ... in all media (print or electronic), including digital literacy\".", "* In 2018, UNESCO includes \"printed and written materials\" and \"varying contexts\" in its definition of literacy; i.e.", "\"the ability to identify, understand, interpret, create, communicate and compute, using printed and written materials associated with varying contexts\".", "* In 2019, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), in its PIAAC adult skills surveys, includes \"written texts\" in its definition of literacy; i.e.", "\"the ability to understand, evaluate, use and engage with written texts in order to participate in society, achieve one's goals, and develop one's knowledge and potential\".", "Also, it treats numeracy and problem solving using technology as separate considerations.", "* In 2021, Education Scotland and the National Literacy Trust in the UK included oral communication skills (listening and speaking) under the umbrella of literacy.", "* As of 2021, the International Literacy Association (Newark, Delaware, US) uses \"the ability to identify, understand, interpret, create, compute, and communicate using visual, audible, and digital materials across disciplines and in any context\".", "* The expression \"reading literacy\" is used by the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) which has monitored international trends in reading achievement at the fourth grade level since 2001.", "* Other organizations might include numeracy skills and technology skills separately but alongside of literacy skills; still others emphasize the increasing involvement of computers and other digital technologies in communication that necessitates additional skills (e.g.", "interfacing with web browsers and word processing programs, organizing and altering the configuration of files, etc.", ").The concept of multiliteracies has gained currency, particularly in English Language Arts curricula, on the grounds that reading \"is interactive and informative, and occurs in ever-increasingly technological settings where information is part of spatial, audio, and visual patterns (Rhodes & Robnolt, 2009)\".", "Objections have been raised that this concept downplays the importance of reading instruction that focuses on \"alphabetic representations\".", "However, these are not mutually exclusive as children can become proficient in word-reading while engaging with multiliteracies.Word reading is fundamental for multiple forms of communication.", "Beginning in the 1940s, the term literacy has often been used to mean having knowledge or skill in a particular field, such as:* * * * * * Disaster literacy – Proposed model for the ability to understand and use life-saving information, including the ability to respond and recover from disasters effectively* * Linguistic literacy – Ability to read, write, understand and speak any type of language* * Quantitative literacy aka * , e.g.", "body language, pictures, maps, and video* Musical literacy – Refers to culturally determined systems of knowledge in music and to musical abilities." ], [ "Social and cultural elements", "The traditional concept of literacy widened as a consensus emerged among researchers in composition studies, education research, and anthropological linguistics that it makes little sense to speak of reading or writing outside of some specific context, with linguist James Paul Gee describing it as \"simply incoherent.\"", "For example, even the extremely early stages of acquiring mastery over symbol-shapes takes place in a particular social context (even if that context is \"school\"), and, after print acquisition, every instance of reading or writing will be for a specific purpose and occasion with particular readers and writers in mind.", "Reading and writing, therefore, are never separable from social and cultural elements.", "A corollary point, made by David Barton and Rosalind Ivanić, among others, is that the cognitive and societal effects of acquiring literacy are not easily predictable, since as Brian Street has argued, \"the ways in which people address reading and writing are themselves rooted in conceptions of knowledge, identity, and being.\"", "Consequently, as Jack Goody has documented, historically literacy has included the transformation of social systems that rely on literacy, and the changing uses of literacy within those evolving systems." ], [ "Functional illiteracy", "Functional illiteracy relates to adults and has been defined in different ways:* Inability to use reading, writing, and calculation skills for their own and their community's development.", "* Inability to read well enough to manage daily living and employment tasks that require reading skills beyond a basic level.", "* Inability to understand complex texts despite adequate schooling, language skills, elementary reading skills, age and IQ.It is distinguished from ''primary illiteracy'' (i.e.", "the inability to read and write a short, simple statement concerning one's own everyday life) and ''learning difficulties'' (e.g.", "dyslexia).", "These categories have been contested—as has the concept of \"illiteracy\" itself—for being predicated on narrow assumptions, primarily derived from school-based contexts, about what counts as reading and writing (e.g.", "comprehending and following instructions)." ], [ "History", "===Prehistoric and ancient literacy=======Origins of literacy====Script is thought to have developed independently at least five times in human history: Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Indus civilization, lowland Mesoamerica, and China.Bill of sale of a male slave and a building in Shuruppak, Sumerian tablet, Between 3500 BCE and 3000 BCE, in southern Mesopotamia, the ancient Sumerians invented writing.", "During this era, literacy was \"a largely functional matter, propelled by the need to manage the new quantities of information and the new type of governance created by trade and large scale production\".", "Early writing systems first emerged as a recording system in which people used tokens with impressed markings to manage trade and agricultural production.", "The token system served as a precursor to early cuneiform writing once people began recording information on clay tablets.", "Proto-Cuneiform texts exhibit not only numerical signs, but also ideograms depicting objects being counted.", "Though the traditional view had been that cuneiform literacy was restricted to a class of scribes, assyriologists including Claus Wilcke and Dominique Charpin have argued that functional literacy was somewhat widespread by the Old Babylonian period.", "Nonetheless, professional scribes became central to law, finances, accounting, government, administration, medicine, magic, divination, literature, and prayers.Egyptian hieroglyphs emerged between 3300 BCE and 3100 BCE; the iconography emphasized power among royals and other elites.", "The Egyptian hieroglyphic writing system was the first notation system to have phonetic values; these symbols are called phonograms.Writing in lowland Mesoamerica was first used by the Olmec and Zapotec civilizations in 900–400 BCE.", "These civilizations used glyphic writing and bar-and-dot numerical notation systems for purposes related to royal iconography and calendar systems.The earliest written notations in China date back to the Shang Dynasty in 1200 BCE.", "These systematic notations, inscribed on bones, recorded sacrifices made, tributes received, and animals hunted, which were activities of the elite.", "These oracle-bone inscriptions were the early ancestors of modern Chinese script and contained logosyllabic script and numerals.", "By the time of the consolidation of the Chinese Empire during the Qin and Han dynasties (), written documents were central to the formation and policing of a hierarchical bureaucratic governance structure reinforced through law.", "Within this legal order written records kept track of and controlled citizen movements, created records of misdeeds, and documented the actions and judgments of government officials.Indus script is largely pictorial and has not yet been deciphered, as such, it is unknown whether it includes abstract signs.", "It is thought that they wrote from right to left and that the script is logographic.", "Because it has not been deciphered, linguists disagree on whether it is a complete and independent writing system; however, it is generally thought to be an independent writing system that emerged in the Harappa culture.Existing evidence suggests that most early acts of literacy were, in some areas (such as Egypt), closely tied to power and chiefly used for management practices, and probably less than 1% of the population was literate, as it was confined to a very small group.", "Scholarship by others, such as Dominique Charpin and a project from the European Union, however, suggest that this was not the case in all ancient societies: both Charpin and the EU's emerging scholarship suggest that writing and literacy was far more widespread in Mesopotamia than scholars previously thought.====Origins of the alphabet====According to social anthropologist Jack Goody, there are two interpretations regarding the origin of the alphabet.", "Many classical scholars, such as historian Ignace Gelb, credit the Ancient Greeks for creating the first alphabetic system () that used distinctive signs for consonants and vowels.", "Goody contests:Thus, many scholars argue that the ancient Semitic-speaking peoples of northern Canaan (modern-day Syria) invented the consonantal alphabet as early as 1500 BCE.", "Much of this theory's development is credited to English archeologist Flinders Petrie, who, in 1905, came across a series of Canaanite inscriptions in the turquoise mines of Serabit el-Khadem.", "Ten years later, English Egyptologist Alan Gardiner reasoned that these letters contain an alphabet, as well as references to the Canaanite goddess Asherah.", "In 1948, William F. Albright deciphered the text using new evidence, including a series of inscriptions from Ugarit.", "Discovered in 1929 by French archaeologist Claude F. A. Schaeffer, some of these inscriptions were mythological texts (written in an early Canaanite dialect) that consisted of a 30-letter cuneiform consonantal alphabet.Another significant discovery was made in 1953 when three arrowheads were uncovered, each containing identical Canaanite inscriptions from 12th century BCE.", "According to Frank Moore Cross, these inscriptions consisted of alphabetic signs that originated during the transitional development from pictographic script to a linear alphabet.", "Moreover, he asserts, \"These inscriptions also provided clues to extend the decipherment of earlier and later alphabetic texts\".The Canaanite script's consonantal system inspired alphabetical developments in later systems.", "During the Late Bronze Age, successor alphabets appeared throughout the Mediterranean region and were used in Phoenician, Hebrew and Aramaic.According to Goody, these cuneiform scripts may have influenced the development of the Greek alphabet several centuries later.", "Historically, the Greeks contended that their writing system was modeled after the Phoenicians.", "However, many Semitic scholars now believe that Ancient Greek is more consistent with an early form of Canaanite that was used .", "While the earliest Greek inscriptions are dated circa 8th century BCE, epigraphical comparisons to Proto-Canaanite suggest that the Greeks may have adopted the consonantal alphabet as early as 1100 BCE, and later \"added in five characters to represent vowels\".Phoenician, which is considered to contain the first linear alphabet, rapidly spread to Mediterranean port cities in northern Canaan.", "Some archeologists believe that Phoenician influenced the Hebrew and Aramaic alphabets as these languages evolved during the same time period, share similar features, and are commonly categorized into the same language group.When the Israelites migrated to Canaan between 1200 and 1000 BCE they adopted a variation of the Canaanite alphabet.", "Baruch ben Neriah, Jeremiah's scribe, used this alphabet to create the later scripts of the Old Testament.", "The early Hebrew alphabet was prominent in the Mediterranean region until Neo-Babylonian rulers exiled the Jews to Babylon in the 6th century BCE.", "It was then that the new script (Square Hebrew) emerged and the older one rapidly died out.The Aramaic alphabet also emerged sometime between 1200 and 1000 BCE.", "Although early examples are scarce, archeologists have uncovered a wide range of later Aramaic texts, written as early as the seventh century BCE.", "In the Near East, it was common to record events on clay using the cuneiform script, however, writing Aramaic on leather parchments became common during the Neo-Assyrian empire.", "With the rise of the Persians in the 5th century BCE, Achaemenid rulers adopted Aramaic as the \"diplomatic language\".", "Darius the Great standardized Aramaic which became the Imperial Aramaic script.", "This Imperial Aramaic alphabet rapidly spread: west, to the Kingdom of Nabataea, then to Sinai and Arabian peninsulas, eventually making its way to Africa; and east, where it later influenced the development of the Brahmi script in India.", "Over the next few centuries, Imperial Aramaic script in Persia evolved into Pahlavi, \"as well as for a range of alphabets used by early Turkish and Mongol tribes in Siberia, Mongolia and Turkestan\".", "Literacy during this period spread with the merchant classes and 15-20% of the total population may have been literate.The Aramaic language declined with the spread of Islam, which was accompanied by the spread of Arabic.===Classical and post-classical literacy===Until recently it was thought that the majority of people were illiterate in the classical world, though recent work challenges this perception.", "Anthony DiRenzo asserts that Roman society was \"a civilization based on the book and the register\", and \"no one, either free or slave, could afford to be illiterate\".", "Similarly Dupont points out, \"The written word was all around them, in both public and private life: laws, calendars, regulations at shrines, and funeral epitaphs were engraved in stone or bronze.", "The Republic amassed huge archives of reports on every aspect of public life.\"", "The imperial civilian administration produced masses of documentation used in judicial, fiscal and administrative matters as did the municipalities.", "The army kept extensive records relating to supply and duty rosters and submitted reports.", "Merchants, shippers, and landowners (and their personal staffs), especially of the larger enterprises, must have been literate.In the late fourth century the Desert Father Pachomius would expect literacy of a candidate for admission to his monasteries:They shall give him twenty Psalms or two of the Apostles' epistles or some other part of Scripture.", "And if he is illiterate he shall go at the first, third and sixth hours to someone who can teach and has been appointed for him.", "He shall stand before him and learn very studiously and with all gratitude.", "The fundamentals of a syllable, the verbs and nouns shall all be written for him and even if he does not want to he shall be compelled to read.During the 4th and 5th centuries the Church made efforts to ensure a better clergy, especially the bishops, who were expected to have a classical education—the hallmark of a socially acceptable person in higher society.", "Even after the remnants of the Western Roman Empire fell in the 470s, literacy continued to be a distinguishing mark of the elite, as communication skills were still important in political and church life (bishops were largely drawn from the senatorial class) in a new cultural synthesis that made \"Christianity the Roman religion\".", "However, these skills were less needed in the absence of a large imperial administrative apparatus whose middle and top echelons were dominated by the elite.", "Even so, in pre-modern times it is unlikely that literacy was found in more than about 30-40% of the population.", "During the Dark Ages, the highest percentage of literacy was found among the clergy and monks, as they made up much of the staff needed to administer the states of western Europe.An abundance of graffiti written in the Nabataean script dating back to the beginning of the first millennium CE has been taken to imply a relatively high degree of literacy among the general population in the ancient Arabic-speaking world.Post-Antiquity illiteracy was made worse by the lack of a suitable writing medium, as when the Western Roman Empire collapsed, the import of papyrus to Europe ceased.", "Since papyrus perishes easily and does not last well in the wetter European climate, parchment was used, which was expensive and accessible only by the Church and the wealthy.", "Paper was introduced into Europe via Spain in the 11th century, and spread north slowly over the next four centuries.", "Literacy saw a resurgence as a result, and by the 15th century paper was widespread.The Reformation stressed the importance of literacy and being able to read the Bible.", "The Protestant countries were the first to attain full literacy.", "In a more secular context, inspired by the Enlightenment, Sweden implemented programs in 1723 aimed at making the population fully literate.", "Other countries implemented similar measures at this time.", "These included Denmark in 1739, Poland in 1783, and France in 1794/5.Literacy was well established in early 18th century England, when books geared towards children became far more common.", "Near the end of the century, as many as 50 were printed every year in major cities around England.===Literacy and industrialization===In the 19th century, reading would become even more common in the United Kingdom.", "Public notes, broadsides, handbills, catchpennies and printed songs would have been usual street literature before newspapers became common.", "Other forms of popular reading material included advertising for events, theaters, and goods for sale.In his 1836/1837 ''Pickwick Papers'' Charles Dickens's said that:From the mid-19th century onwards, the Second Industrial Revolution saw technological improvements in paper production.", "The new distribution networks, enabled by improved roads and rail, resulted in an increased capacity to supply printed material.", "Social and educational changes increased the demand for reading matter, as rising literacy rates, particularly among the middle and working classes, created a new mass market for printed material.", "Wider schooling helped increase literacy rates, which in turn helped lower the cost of publication.Unskilled labor forces were common in Western Europe, and, as British industry improved, more engineers and skilled workers who could handle technical instructions and complex situations were needed.", "Literacy was essential to be hired.", "A senior government official told Parliament in 1870:In the late 19th century, gas and electric lighting were becoming more common in private homes, replacing candlelight and oil lamps, enabling reading after dark and increasing the appeal of literacy." ], [ "Modern literacy", "=== Spread of literacy since the mid-twentieth century ===Adult literacy rates have increased at a constant pace since 1950.Data published by UNESCO shows that the worldwide literacy rate among adults has increased, on average, by 5 percentage points every decade since 1950, from 55.7% in 1950 to 86.2% in 2015.Due to rapid population growth, while the percentage of adults who were illiterate decreased, the actual number of illiterate adults increased from 700 million in 1950 to 878 million in 1990, before starting to decrease and falling to 745 million by 2015.The number of illiterate adults remains higher than in 1950, \"despite decades of universal education policies, literacy interventions and the spread of print material and information and communications technology (ICT)\".=== Regional disparities ===Available global data indicates significant variations in literacy rates between world regions.", "North America, Europe, West Asia, and Central Asia have achieved almost full adult (age 15 or older) literacy for both men and women.", "Most countries in East Asia and the Pacific, as well as Latin America and the Caribbean, have adult literacy rates over 90%.", "In other regions illiteracy persists at higher rates, as of 2013 the adult literacy rate in South Asia and North Africa was 67.55%, and 59.76% in Sub-Saharan Africa.Literacy has rapidly spread in several regions over the last twenty-five years.In much of the world, high youth literacy rates suggest that illiteracy will become less common as more educated younger generations replace less educated older ones.", "However, in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, where the vast majority of the world's illiterate youth live, lower school enrollment implies that illiteracy will persist to a greater degree.", "According to 2013 data, the youth literacy rate (ages 15 to 24) is 84% in South Asia and North Africa, and 70% in sub-Saharan Africa.However the literate/illiterate distinction is not clear-cut.", "Given that having a literate person in the household confers many of the benefits of literacy, some recent literature in economics, starting with the work of Kaushik Basu and James Foster, distinguishes between a \"proximate illiterate\" and an \"isolated illiterate\".", "A \"proximate illiterate\" lives in a household with literate members, while an \"isolated illiterate\" lives in a household where everyone is illiterate.", "Isolated illiteracy is more common among older populations in wealthier nations, where people are less likely to live in multigenerational households with potentially literate relatives.", "A 2018/2019 UNESCO report noted that \"conversely, in low and lower middle income countries, isolated illiteracy is concentrated among younger people,\" along with increased rates among rural populations and women.", "This evidence indicates that illiteracy is a complex phenomenon with multiple factors impacting rates of illiteracy and the type of illiteracy one may experience.Literacy has rapidly spread in several regions in the last twenty-five years, and the United Nations's global initiative with Sustainable Development Goal 4 is also gaining momentum.=== Gender disparities ===Adult literacy rate, male (%), 2015Adult literacy rate, female (%), 2015Gender parity indices in youth literacy rates by region, 1990–2015.Progress towards gender parity in literacy started after 1990.According to 2015 data collected by the UNESCO Institute for Statistics, about two-thirds (63%) of the world's illiterate adults are women.", "This disparity was even starker in previous decades, and from 1970 to 2000, the global gender gap in literacy decreased significantly.", "In recent years, however, this progress has stagnated, with the gender gap holding almost constant over the last two decades.", "In general, the gender gap in literacy is not as pronounced as the regional gap; that is, differences between countries are often larger than gender differences within countries.Sub-Saharan Africa has the lowest overall literacy rate and the widest gender gap: 52% of adult women are literate, and 68% of adult men.", "Similar gender disparity exists in North Africa, where 70% of adult women are literate, versus 86% of adult men.", "In South Asia 58% of adult women are literate, and 77% of adult men.The 1990 World Conference on Education for All, held in Jomtien, Thailand, brought attention to the literacy gender gap and prompted many developing countries to prioritize women's literacy.In many contexts, female illiteracy coexists with other aspects of gender inequality.", "Martha Nussbaum says illiterate women are more vulnerable to becoming trapped in an abusive marriage, given that illiteracy limits their employment opportunities and worsens their position when negotiating within the household.", "Moreover, Nussbaum links literacy to the ability for women to effectively communicate and collaborate with one another \"to participate in a larger movement for political change.", "\"==== Challenges of increasing female literacy ====Social barriers can limit opportunities to increase literacy skills among women and girls; making literacy classes available can be ineffective when it conflicts with the use of the valuable limited time of women and girls.", "School age girls may face more expectations than their male counterparts to perform household work and care for younger siblings.", "Generational dynamics can also perpetuate these disparities; illiterate parents may not readily appreciate the value of literacy for their daughters, particularly in traditional, rural societies with expectations that girls will remain at home.A World Bank and International Center for Research on Women review of academic literature concluded that child marriage, which predominantly impacts girls, tends to reduce literacy levels.", "A 2008 analysis of the issue in Bangladesh found that for every additional year a girl's marriage is delayed, her likelihood of literacy increases by 5.6%.", "Similarly, a 2014 study found that in sub-Saharan Africa, marrying early significantly decreases a girl's probability of literacy, even after accounting for other variables.", "Therefore a 2015 literature review recommended marriage postponement as part of a strategy to increase educational attainment levels, including female literacy.==== Gender gap for boys in developed countries ====While women and girls comprise the majority of the global illiterate population, in many developed countries a literacy gender gap exists in the opposite direction.", "Data from the Programme for International Student Assessment has consistently shown literacy underachievement of boys within member countries of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD).", "In view of such findings, many education specialists have recommended changing classroom practices to better accommodate boys' learning styles, and removing any gender stereotypes that may create a perception that reading and writing are feminine activities.=== Socioeconomic impact ===Many policy analysts consider literacy rates as a crucial measure of the value of a region's human capital.", "For example, literate people can be more easily trained than illiterate people, and generally have a higher socioeconomic status; thus they enjoy better health and employment prospects.", "The international community has come to consider literacy as a key facilitator and goal of development.", "In regard to the Sustainable Development Goals adopted by the UN in 2015, the UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning has declared the \"central role of literacy in responding to sustainable development challenges such as health, social equality, economic empowerment and environmental sustainability.\"", "A majority of prisoners have been found to be illiterate, and in Edinburgh prison, winner of the 2010 Libraries Change Lives Award, \"the library has become the cornerstone of the prison's literacy strategy\", reducing recidivism and reoffending, and allowing incarcerated people to work toward attaining higher socioeconomic status once released.==== Effects on literacy learning ====As socioeconomics affects brain development, and brain functions are heavily involved in processing both input and output, a learner's environment can affect the cognitive process of learning how to read and write; before a child enters a school setting, their executive function is influenced by their home environment.", "Research demonstrates that for children who grow up in poverty, their socioeconomic circumstances severely strain their \"neuro-endocrine and brain function\".", "This affects a child's ability to regulate environmental stimuli, process and structure information, and plan and effectively execute tasks that involve their working memory—all of these are necessary cognitive facilities to successfully learn how to read and write.", "Living in poverty is stressful for all involved but is cognitively damaging for young children.A study done by NICHD indicates that socioeconomics plays a role for children who are young when the family experiences poverty, but shows no indication of adverse effects on reading achievement or behavior for adolescents entering poverty.", "The data extensively shows that children from low socioeconomic backgrounds have poorer literacy performance, especially in reading.", "A study done by OECD, which included over 25 countries in Europe, found that in all studied countries students who lived in low-income households scored lower than students who lived in high-income households in reading.Parenting also affects a child's literacy.", "Field research was done collecting data from families that were upper, middle, or lower class, or on welfare.", "The results found that, in a 100-hour week, children in the upper class households experienced an average of over 200,000 words, those in middle and lower class households heard about 125,000 words, and children from households on welfare were exposed to the least words—62,000 words.", "This indicates that a child from an upper-class family would be exposed to 8 million more words than a child from a family on welfare.", "Outside of word exposure, which is essential for word acquisition, the National Center for Educational Statistics found that 41.9% of children from low-income families scored substantially lower on most reading achievements for grades 4, 8 and 12 in 2013.According to a study performed by ANOVA, multiple socioeconomic variables influence children, such as parental education level, parental occupation, health history, and even usage of technology within the home.", "With these factors in mind, their study showed that young children are especially susceptible to environmental factors, meaning socioeconomics affects them cognitively and can have adverse effects as their brains continue to develop.", "However, another study done by the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY) suggests a slightly different conclusion, while the study agrees that poverty negatively affects childhood literacy some nuances are added.", "In both studies, children who experienced poverty scored lower in reading assessments but the NLSY's study noted that the duration of poverty altered the literacy outcome.", "It found that children ages 5–11 who experienced \"persistent poverty\" were more adversely affected than their peers who never experienced poverty.", "The study acknowledged that other factors affected these children's reading scores, particularly maternal influence.", "The mothers of these households were scaled based on a \"home environment\" score, which measured their emotional and verbal responsiveness, acceptance and involvement with the child and organization.", "Households experiencing poverty tended to have lower scores, and lower scores correlated with lower reading levels.", "The study also showed that the effects of poverty on child literacy differed by ethnicity, culture and gender.=== Health impacts ===Print illiteracy generally corresponds with less knowledge about modern health, hygiene, and nutritional practices, and a lack of knowledge can exacerbate a range of health issues.", "Within developing countries in particular, literacy rates also have implications for child mortality; in these contexts, children of literate mothers are 50% more likely to live past age 5 than children of illiterate mothers.", "Therefore, public health research has increasingly focused on the potential for literacy skills to allow women to more successfully access healthcare, and thereby facilitate gains in child health.A 2014 descriptive research survey project correlates literacy levels with the socioeconomic status of women in Oyo State, Nigeria.", "The study shows that developing literacy in the region will bring \"economic empowerment and will encourage rural women to practice hygiene, which will in turn lead to the reduction of birth and death rates.", "\"=== Economic impacts ===Literacy can increase job opportunities and access to higher education.", "In 2009, the National Adult Literacy Agency in Ireland commissioned a cost–benefit analysis of adult literacy training which concluded that there were economic gains for the individuals, the companies they worked for, and the Exchequer, as well as the economy and the country as a whole (e.g.", "increased GDP).Korotayev and coauthors found a rather significant correlation between the level of literacy in the early 19th century and successful modernization and economic breakthroughs in the late 20th century, as \"literate people could be characterized by a greater innovative-activity level, which provides opportunities for modernization, development, and economic growth\".=== Lifespan development and promotion efforts ===While informal learning within the home can play an important role in literacy development, gains in childhood literacy often occur in primary school settings.", "Continuing the global expansion of public education is thus a frequent focus of literacy advocates.", "These kinds of broad improvements in education often require centralized efforts by national governments, though, local literacy projects implemented by NGOs can play an important role, particularly in rural contexts.Funding for both youth and adult literacy programs often comes from large international development organizations.", "USAID, for example, steered donors like the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation and the Global Partnership for Education toward the issue of childhood literacy by developing the Early Grade Reading Assessment.", "Advocacy groups like the National Institute of Adult Continuing Education have frequently called upon international organizations such as UNESCO, the International Labour Organization, the World Health Organization, and the World Bank to prioritize support for adult women's literacy.", "Efforts to increase adult literacy often encompass other development priorities as well; for example, initiatives in Ethiopia, Morocco, and India have combined adult literacy programs with vocational skills trainings in order to encourage program enrollment and address the complex needs of women (and other marginalized groups) who lack economic opportunities.In 2013, the UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning published a set of case studies on programs that successfully improved female literacy rates.", "The report features countries from a variety of regions and differing income levels, reflecting the general global consensus on \"the need to empower women through the acquisition of literacy skills.\"", "Part of the impetus for UNESCO's focus on literacy is a broader effort to respond to globalization and \"the shift towards knowledge-based societies\" that it has produced.", "While globalization presents emerging challenges, it also provides new opportunities: many education and development specialists are hopeful that new ICTs will expand literacy learning opportunities for children and adults, even in countries that have historically struggled to improve literacy rates through more conventional means.", "In 2007, the nonprofit organization LitWorld was founded to promote literacy around the world.", "Based in the United States, the organization has developed programs to be applied internationally with the goal to teach children to speak, read, and write, regardless of ethnicity, gender, or economic status.Although most people acquire literacy during childhood, literacy continues to develop throughout life; literacy is not a skill that is fixed once a person leaves school but remains malleable across the entire lifespan.", "Among adults, both gains and losses in literacy occur in roughly equal measure, sometimes over relatively short periods of a few years.", "Even adults with very low literacy levels can acquire literacy over time.", "Whether a person experiences gains or losses depends on a range of factors, and one of the key factors are the demands and opportunities to engage in literary practices in the workplace, home, or other contexts.=== Literacy as a development indicator ===Youth and adult literacy rate, 2000–2016 and projections to 2030The Human Development Index, produced by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), uses education as one of its three indicators.", "Originally, adult literacy represented two-thirds of this education index weight.", "In 2010, however, the UNDP replaced the adult literacy measure with mean years of schooling.", "A 2011 UNDP research paper frames this change as a way to \"ensure current relevance\", arguing that gains in global literacy already achieved between 1970 and 2010 mean that literacy will be \"unlikely to be as informative of the future.\"", "Other scholars, however, have since warned against overlooking the importance of literacy as an indicator and goal for development, particularly for marginalized groups such as women and rural populations.The World Bank, along with the UNESCO Institute for Statistics, has developed the Learning Poverty concept, and an associated measure which measures the proportion of students who are unable to read and understand a simple story by age 10.In low- and middle-income countries 53% of children are \"learning-poor\", as are up to 80% of children in poor countries.", "In fact, these new measures indicate that these high rates of illiteracy are an \"early warning sign that SDG 4 for education and all related global goals are in jeopardy.\"", "Current progress in improving literacy rates is seen as much too slow to meet the SDG goals, as at the current rate, approximately 43% of children will still be learning poor by 2030.The Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) assesses children on reading and math skills at age 15.PISA-D encourages and facilitates PISA testing in low- and middle-income countries.", "In 2019, \"PISA-D results reveal exceptionally low scores for participating countries.", "Only 23 percent of students tested achieved the minimum level of proficiency in reading, compared with 80 percent of OECD\".", "Minimum proficiency requires students to \"read 'simple and familiar texts and understand them literally', as well as demonstrating some ability to connect pieces of information and draw inferences.", "\"=== Measuring literacy ===In 2020, UNESCO Institute for Statistics estimated the global literacy rate at 86.68%.", "It is important to understand how literacy rates have been measured in the past, as well as how they are currently being measured.", "Starting in 1975 the head of a household answered a simple yes/no question asking whether household members could read and write; in 1988 some countries started using self-reporting as well.", "Self-reported data is subjective and has several limitations.", "First, a simple yes/no question does not capture the continuum of literacy.", "Second, self-reports are dependent on what each individual interprets \"reading\" and \"writing\" to mean.", "In some cultures, drawing a picture may be understood as writing one's name.", "Lastly, many of the surveys asked one individual to report literacy on behalf of others, \"introducing further noise, in particular when it comes to estimating literacy among women and children, since these groups are less often considered heads of household\".In 2007, several countries began introducing literacy tests as a more accurate measurement of literacy rates, including Liberia, South Korea, Guyana, Kenya, and Bangladesh.", "However, in 2016, the majority of counties still reported literacy through either self-reported measures or other indirect estimates.Students in grade 2 who can't read a single wordThese indirect measurements are potentially problematic, as many countries measure literacy based on years of schooling.", "In Greece, an individual is considered literate if they have finished six years of primary education, while in Paraguay individuals are considered literate if they have completed just two years of primary school.However, emerging research reveals that educational attainment (e.g.", "years of schooling) does not perfectly correlate with literacy.", "Literacy tests show that in many low-income countries, a large proportion of students who have attended two years of primary school cannot read a single word.", "These rates are as high as 90% of second-grade students in Malawi, 85.4% in India, 83% in Ghana, and 64% in Uganda.", "In India, over 50% of Grade 5 students have not mastered Grade 2 literacy.", "In Nigeria, only about 1 in 10 women who completed Grade 6 can read a single sentence in their native language.", "This data reveals that literacy rates measured by using years of schooling as a proxy are potentially unreliable and do not reflect the true literacy rates of populations.=== Literacy as a human right ===Unlike medieval times, when reading and writing skills were restricted to a few elites and the clergy, literacy skills are now expected from every member of society.", "Literacy is therefore considered a human right, essential for lifelong learning and social change, as supported by the 1996 Report of the International Commission on Education for the Twenty-First Century, and the 1997 Hamburg Declaration: In 2016, the European Literacy Policy Network (an association of European literacy professionals) published a document entitled ''European Declaration of the right to literacy''.", "It states that:" ], [ "Teaching literacy", "Brain areas involved in literacy acquisitionThe teaching of literacy involves both the teaching of reading and the teaching of writing, in schooling, reading and writing are often taught as separate skills.", "However, children show curiosity about the written word and begin to experiment with both in a process of emergent literacy and making sense of (and using) the writing system they see used around them.", "Every new piece of writing draws on previous reading, through a process of intertextuality; sometimes explicitly through citation, as in academic writing, and writing about reading is one of the major approaches for teaching writing in higher education.", "Intertextuality, however, also can be implicit through well-known recognizable phrases from specific works or genres, or through development of a distinct writing style.", "Evidence has supported the integration of reading and writing at all levels of schooling, as improvement in one area supports the other.", "A series of metastudies have examined the effectiveness of various methods of teaching of writing, revealing that attention to context, cognitive/motivational factors, and the instruction strategy, among other things, are important.Critiques of autonomous models of literacy notwithstanding, the belief that reading development is key to literacy remains dominant, at least in the United States, where it is understood as the progression of skills that begins with the ability to understand spoken words and decode written words, and culminates in the deep understanding of the text.", "Reading development involves a range of complex language-underpinnings including awareness of speech sounds (phonology), spelling patterns (orthography), word meaning (semantics), syntax and patterns of word formation (morphology); all of which provide a necessary platform for reading fluency and comprehension.", "Once these skills are acquired, it is believed a reader can attain full language literacy, which includes the abilities to apply to printed material critical analysis, inference and synthesis; to write with accuracy and coherence; and to use information and insights from text as the basis for informed decisions and creative thought.For this reason, teaching English reading literacy in the United States is dominated by a focus on a set of discrete decoding skills.", "From this perspective, literacy—or rather reading—comprises a number of sub-skills that can be taught to students.", "These sub-skills include phonological awareness, phonics (decoding), fluency, comprehension, and vocabulary.", "Mastering each of these sub-skills is necessary for students to become proficient readers.From this same perspective, readers of alphabetic languages must understand the alphabetic principle to master basic reading skills.", "For this purpose a writing system is \"alphabetic\" if it uses symbols to represent phonemes (individual language sounds), though the degree of correspondence between letters and sounds varies between alphabetic languages.", "Syllabic writing systems (such as Japanese kana) use a symbol to represent a single syllable, and logographic writing systems (such as Chinese) use a symbol to represent a morpheme.There are a number of approaches to teaching reading.", "Each is shaped by its assumptions about what literacy is and how it is best learned by students.", "Phonics instruction, for example, focuses on reading at the level of letters or symbols and their sounds (i.e.", "sublexical).", "It teaches readers to decode the letters, or groups of letters, that make up a word.", "A common method of teaching phonics is synthetic phonics, in which a novice reader pronounces each individual sound and blends them to pronounce the whole word.", "Another approach is embedded phonics instruction, used more often in whole language reading instruction, in which novice readers learn about the individual letters in words on a just-in-time, just-in-place basis that is tailored to meet each student's reading and writing learning needs.", "That is, teachers provide phonics instruction opportunistically, within the context of stories or student writing that feature repeat instances of a particular letter or group of letters.", "Embedded instruction combines letter–sound knowledge with the use of meaningful context to read new and difficult words.", "Techniques such as directed listening and thinking activities can be used to aid children in learning how to read and in reading comprehension.", "For students at both primary and secondary levels, writing about what they read, as they are learning to write, has been found to also be effective in improving their reading skills.The two that are the most commonly used approaches to reading instruction are structured literacy instruction and balanced literacy instruction.", "The structured literacy approach explicitly and systematically focuses on phonological awareness, word recognition, phonics, decoding, spelling, and syntax at both the sentence and paragraph levels.", "The balanced literacy approach, as the name suggests, balances emphasis on phonics and decoding; shared, guided, and independent reading; and grapheme representations with context and imagery.", "Both approaches have their critics—those who oppose structured literacy claim that by restricting students to phonemes, their fluency development is limited; critics of balanced literacy claim that if phonics and decoding instruction is neglected, students will have to rely on compensatory strategies when confronted with unfamiliar text.These strategies are taught to students as part of the balanced literacy approach based on a theory about reading development called the three cueing system.", "As the name suggests, the three-cueing system is uses three cues to determine the meaning of words: grapho-phonetic cues (letter-sound relationships); syntactic cues (grammatical structure); and semantic cues (a word making sense in context).", "However, cognitive neuroscientist Mark Seidenberg and professor Timothy Shanahan do not support the theory.", "They say the three-cueing system's value in reading instruction \"is a magnificent work of the imagination\", and it developed not because teachers lack integrity, commitment, motivation, sincerity, or intelligence, but because they \"were poorly trained and advised\" about the science of reading.", "In England, the simple view of reading and synthetic phonics are intended to replace \"the searchlights multi-cueing model\".In his 2009 book ''Reading in the brain'', cognitive neuroscientist Stanislas Dehaene said \"cognitive psychology directly refutes any notion of teaching via a 'global' or 'whole language' method.\"", "He goes on to talk about \"the myth of whole-word reading\", saying it has been refuted by recent experiments.", "\"We do not recognize a printed word through a holistic grasping of its contours, because our brain breaks it down into letters and graphemes.", "\"However, a 2012 hypothesis proposed that reading might be acquired naturally, in the same manner as spoken language, if print is constantly available at an early age.", "According to this theory, if an appropriate form of written text is made available before formal schooling begins, reading should be learned inductively, emerge naturally, with no significant negative consequences.", "This proposal challenges the commonly held belief that written language requires formal instruction and schooling, thus its success would change current views of literacy and schooling.", "Using developments in behavioral science and technology, Technology Assisted Reading Acquisition (TARA), an interactive system, would enable young pre–literate children to accurately perceive and learn properties of written language by simple exposure to the written form.In Australia, a number of state governments have introduced Reading Challenges to improve literacy.", "The Premier's Reading Challenge in South Australia, launched by Premier Mike Rann, has one of the highest participation rates in the world for reading challenges.", "It has been embraced by more than 95% of public, private and religious schools.===Post-conflict settings===Programs have been implemented in regions that have an ongoing conflict or are in a post-conflict stage.", "The Norwegian Refugee Council Pack program has been used in 13 post-conflict countries since 2003.The program organizers believe that daily routines and otherwise predictable activities help ease the transition from war to peace.", "Learners can select one area of vocational training for a year long period; they also complete required courses in agriculture, life skills, literacy and numeracy.", "Results have shown that active participation and management of the members of the program are important to the success of the program.", "These programs share the use of integrated basic education, e.g.", "literacy, numeracy, scientific knowledge, local history and culture, native and mainstream language skills, and apprenticeships.===Teaching migrant/immigrant and non-native users===Although there is considerable awareness that language deficiencies, including a lack of proficiency, are disadvantageous to immigrants settling into a new country, there is a lack of pedagogical approaches to teaching literacy to migrant English language learners (ELLs).", "Harvard scholar Catherine Snow called for the gap to be addressed: \"The TESOL field needs a concerted research effort to inform literacy instruction for such children ... to determine when to start literacy instruction and how to adapt it to the LS reader's needs\".", "Recent developments to address the gap in teaching literacy to foreign language learners have been ongoing, with promising results seen with a curricular framework from the Harvard Graduate School of Education, which integrates Teaching for Understanding.", "A series of pilot projects has been carried out in the Middle East and Africa, and significant interest from the learners has been seen through the use of visual arts as springboards for literacy oriented instruction.", "In one project migrant women were provided with cameras and took the instructor on a walking tour of their village.", "There, they photographed places and activities that would later be used for writings about their daily life—in essence a narrative of life.", "Other primers for writing activities include: painting, sketching, and other craft projects.Sample milestone sketchIn another series of pilot studies alternatives to instructing literacy to migrant English-language learners were investigated, starting from simple trials aiming to test the effects of teaching photography to participants with no prior photography background, and then painting and sketching activities that could later be integrated into a larger pedagogical initiative.", "In efforts to develop alternative approaches for literacy instruction utilizing visual arts, work was carried out with Afghan laborers, Bangladeshi tailors, Emirati media students, internal Ethiopian migrants (both laborers and university students), and a street child.Reviewing photos after photowalkIt should be pointed out that in these challenging contexts sometimes the teaching of literacy may have unforeseen barriers.", "The ''EL Gazette'' reported that in the trials carried out in Ethiopia, for example, it was found that all ten of the participants had problems with vision.", "In order to overcome this, or to avoid such challenges, preliminary health checks can help inform pre-teaching in order to better assist in the teaching/learning of literacy.Using a visual arts approach to literacy instruction can provide benefit by incorporating a traditional literacy approach (reading and writing), while also addressing 21st century digital literacy through the use of digital cameras and posting images onto the web.", "Many scholars, such as Hutchison and Woodward, feel that it is necessary to include digital literacy under the traditional umbrella of literacy instruction, specifically when engaging second language learners.A visual arts approach to literary instruction for migrant populations can also be blended with core curricular goals.Integrating Common Core content into language training with MELLA pressing challenge in education is the instruction of literacy to Migrant English Language Learners (MELLs), a term coined by Pellerine, and not limited to English.", "\"Due to the growing share of immigrants in many Western societies, there has been increasing concern for the degree to which immigrants acquire language that is spoken in the destination country\".", "While learning literacy in one's first language can be challenging, and the challenge becomes even more cognitively demanding when learning a second language.", "The task can become considerably more difficult when confronted by a migrant who has made a sudden change by immigrating and requires the second language immediately upon arrival.", "In most instances a migrant will not have the opportunity to start school again at grade one and acquire the language naturally, instead alternative interventions need to take place.", "In these cases a visual arts approach can be helpful—taking a photo, sketching an event, or painting an image have been seen as effective ways to understand the intention of the learner as it can incorporate orality.Including oralityIn the above image from left to right:* An image taken during a phototour of the participant's village.", "This image is of the individual at her shop with one of the products she sells: dung for cooking fuel.", "The image helps the instructor understand the realities of the participant's daily life and most importantly it allows the participant the opportunity to determine what is important to them.", "* An image of a student explaining to a group, and elaborating on, a drawn series of milestones in her life.", "This student had a very basic ability and, with some help, was able to write brief captions under the images.", "While she speaks her story is recorded to understand and develop it in the new language.", "* A painting created by composite in a graphics editing program (e.g.", "Photoshop).", "With further training participants can learn how to blend images, thereby introducing elements of digital literacies, beneficial in many spheres of life in the 21st century.From the work based in Ethiopia, participants were asked to rate preference of activity, on a scale of 1–10.The survey prompt was: On a scale of 1 - 10 how would you rate photography as an activity that helped you get inspiration for your writing activities (think of enjoyment and usefulness).", "The activities used as primers for writing were rated, in order of preference:* Photography 97%* Oral presentations/sharing your art 92%* Process painting 84%* Painting 82%* Sketching 78%* Gluing activities 72%* Stencil/tracing activities 60%More research would need to be conducted to confirm such trends.Authorship programs have been successful in bringing student work together in book format as part of the program's culmination.", "These books can be used to document learning, and, more importantly, to reinforce language and content goals.Sample covers of completed authorship created booksThe collecting of such writings into books can trigger both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.", "Feedback by students involved in such initiatives indicates that the healthy pressures of collective and collaborative work was beneficial.====Importance====Teaching people to read and write, the traditional meaning of literacy, is a very complex task in one's native language, to do this in a second language becomes increasingly more complex.", "In some countries, there are legal and policy driven boundaries that prohibit a migrant's naturalization and acquisition of citizenship based on language proficiency.", "For example, despite debate, language tests can be required years after settling into Canada.", "Similar policies exists globally, including in New Zealand, Australia, and the US.The ''EL Gazette'' reviewed Pellerine's work with migrant English language learners and commented: Visual arts have been viewed as an effective way to approach literacy instruction—the art being a primer for subsequent literacy tasks within a scaffolded curricular design, such at Teaching for Understanding (TfU) or Understanding by Design (UbD)." ], [ "By continent", "Most illiterate people now live in Southern Asia or sub-Saharan Africa.===Europe=======United Kingdom====On average, girls do better than boys at English; yet nearly one in ten young adult women have poor reading and writing skills in the UK in the 21st century, which seriously damages their employment prospects.", "Many are trapped in poverty, but hide their lack of reading skill due to social stigma.=====England=====Literacy is first documented to have occurred in the area of modern England on 24 September 54 BCE, when Julius Caesar and Quintus Cicero wrote to Marcus Cicero \"from the nearest shores of Britain\".", "Literacy was widespread under Roman rule, but became very rare, limited almost entirely to churchmen, after the fall of the Western Roman Empire.", "In 12th and 13th century England, the ability to recite a particular passage from the Bible (Psalm 51) in Latin entitled a common law defendant to the benefit of clergy, and trial before an ecclesiastical court, where sentences were more lenient, instead of a secular one, where hanging was a likely sentence.", "Thus literate defendants often claimed benefit of clergy, while an illiterate person who had memorized the psalm used in the literacy test could also claim benefit of clergy.", "Despite lacking a system of free and compulsory primary schooling, England reached near universal literacy in the 19th century as a result of shared, informal learning provided by family members, fellow workers, or benevolent employers.", "Even with near universal literacy, the gap between male and female rates persisted until the early 20th century.", "Many women in the West during the 19th century were able to read, but unable to write.=====Wales=====Formal higher education in the arts and sciences in Wales, from the Middle Ages to the 18th century, was limited to the wealthy and the clergy.", "Following the Roman occupation and the conquest by the English, education in Wales was at a low point during the early modern period; in particular, formal education was only available in English while the majority of the population spoke only Welsh.", "The first modern grammar schools were established in Welsh towns such as Ruthin, Brecon, and Cowbridge.", "One of the first modern national education methods to use the native Welsh language was started by Griffith Jones in 1731.Jones became rector of Llanddowror in 1716, and remained there for the rest of his life.", "He organized and introduced a school system, which was attractive and effective for Welsh speakers, while also teaching them English, which gave them access to broader educational sources.", "The circulating schools may have taught half the country's population to read.", "Literacy rates in Wales by the mid-18th century were one of the highest.====Continental Europe====Dutch schoolmaster and children, 1662The ability to read did not necessarily mean the ability to write.", "The 1686 church law (''kyrkolagen'') of the Kingdom of Sweden (modern Sweden, Finland, Latvia and Estonia) made literacy compulsory, and by 1800 the percent of people able to read was close to 100%.", "This was directly dependent on the need to read religious texts in the Lutheran faith in Sweden and Finland, as a result, literacy in these countries was specifically focused towards reading.", "However, as late as the 19th century, many Swedes, especially women, could not write.", "Iceland was an exception, that achieved widespread literacy without formal schooling, libraries, or printed books via informal tuition by religious leaders and peasant teachers.", "Historian Ernest Gellner argues that Continental European countries were far more successful in implementing educational reform because their governments were more willing to invest in the population as a whole.", "Government oversight allowed countries to standardize curriculum and secure funding through legislation thus enabling educational programs to have a broader reach.Although the present-day concepts of literacy have much to do with the 15th-century invention of the movable type printing press, it was not until the Industrial Revolution of the mid-19th century that paper and books became affordable to all classes of industrialized society.", "Until then, only a small percent of the population was literate as only wealthy individuals and institutions could afford the materials.", "Even , the cost of paper and books is a barrier to universal literacy in some developing nations.On the other hand, historian Harvey Graff argues that the introduction of compulsory education was, in part, an effort to control the type of literacy the working class had access to.", "According to Graff, learning was increasing outside of formal settings (e.g.", "schools) and this uncontrolled, potentially critical, reading could lead to increased radicalization of the populace.", "In his view, mass schooling was meant to temper and control literacy, not spread it.", "Graff also says, using the example of Sweden, that mass literacy can be achieved without formal schooling or instruction in writing.===North America=======Canada=========Colonialism (1600s–1762)=====Research on the literacy rates of Canadians in the colonial days rests largely on examination of the ratio of signatures to marks on parish acts (birth, baptismal, and marriage registrations).", "Although some researchers have concluded that signature counts drawn from marriage registers in nineteenth century France corresponded closely with literacy tests given to military conscripts, others regard this methodology as a \"relatively unimaginative treatment of the complex practices and events that might be described as literacy\".", "However, censuses, dating back to 1666, and official records from New France, offer few clues of their own on the population's levels of literacy, therefore leaving few options in terms of materials from which to draw literary rate estimates.In his research of literacy rates among adult males and females in New France, Trudel found that in 1663, of the 1,224 married people in New France, 59% of grooms and 46% of brides signed their name.", "However, less than 40% of the over 3,000 colony inhabitants were native born, and thus the signature rates likely reflected literacy rates in France, rather than in New France.", "Magnuson's research revealed a trend: signature rates for the period of 1680–1699 were 42% for males and 30% for females; in 1657–1715, they were 45% for males, 43% for females; in 1745–1754, they were higher for females than for males.", "He believed that this upward trend in women's ability to sign documents was largely attributed to the greater number of female religious orders, and to the proportionately more active role of women in health and education; male religious orders largely served as parish priests, missionaries, military chaplains and explorers.", "Canada's first newspaper—the ''Halifax Gazette''—began publication in 1752.=====From the British Conquest (1763) to Confederation (1867)=====The end of the Seven Years' War in 1763 allowed Québec City to acquire two Philadelphia printers and begin printing a bilingual ''Quebec Chronicle-Telegraph'' in 1764, and in 1785 Fleury Mesplet started publication of the ''Montreal Gazette'', which is now the oldest continuing newspaper in the country.In the 19th century, printing became more affordable, and literature, in its many forms, became much more available.", "Nevertheless, educating the Canadian population in reading and writing was still a challenge.", "Concerned about the strong French Canadian presence in the colony, the British authorities repeatedly tried to help establish schools that were outside the control of religious authorities, but these efforts were largely undermined by the Catholic Church and later the Anglican clergy.Starting in the early 1820s in Lower Canada, the classical college curriculum, which was controlled by the Church, was subject to growing criticism, with people saying it was primarily fit to produce priests at a time when Lower Canadians where competing with \"foreign industry and commerce, and with the immigrants who were monopolizing trade.\"", "Catholic, and later Anglican, responses to attempts to promote parish schools centered around \"the dangers of popular literacy\", both opposed a curriculum that encouraged lay reading of the Bible, and \"warned of the evil and demoralizing tendencies of unregulated reading in general.", "\"Despite this, the invention of the printing press had laid the foundations for the modern era and universal social literacy, and thus, with time, \"technologically, literacy had passed from the hands of an elite to the populace at large.", "Historical factors and sociopolitical conditions, however, have determined the extent to which universal social literacy has come to pass\".=====1868–1986=====In 1871 only about half of French Canadian men self-reported that they were literate, whereas 90 percent of other Canadian men said they could read and write.", "Information from the Canadian Families Project sample of the 1901 Census in Canada indicated that literacy rates for French Canadians and other Canadians had increased, as measured by the ability of men between the ages of 16 and 65 to answer literacy questions.", "Compulsory attendance in schools was legislated in the late 19th century in all provinces but Quebec, but by then a change in parental attitudes towards education meant that many children were already attending regularly.", "Unlike school promoters' emphasis on character formation, the shaping of values, the development of political and social attitudes, and proper behaviour, many parents supported schooling because they wanted their children to learn to read, write, and do arithmetic.", "Efforts were made to exert power and religious, moral, economic/professional, and social/cultural influence over children who were learning to read by dictating the contents of their school readers, but educators broke from these influences and also taught literature from a more child-centred perspective: reading for the pleasure of it.Educational change in Québec began as a result of a major inquiry at the start of the \"Quiet Revolution\" in the early 1960s.", "In response to the resulting recommendations, the Québec government revamped the school system in an attempt to enhance the francophone population's general educational level and to produce a better-qualified labor force.", "Catholic Church leadership was rejected in favour of government administration and vastly increased budgets were given to school boards across the province.With time, and with continuing inquiry into the literacy achievement levels of Canadians, the definition of literacy moved from a dichotomous one (either a person could, or could not, write their name, or was literate or illiterate), to ones that considered literacy's multidimensionality, along with the qualitative and quantitative aspects of literacy.", "In the 1970s, organizations like the Canadian Association for Adult Education believed that one had to complete the 8th grade to achieve functional literacy.", "Examination of 1976 census data found that among Canadians age 15 or over 4,376,655, or 28.4%, reported a level of schooling of less than grade 9 and were thus deemed not functionally literate.", "However in 1991, UNESCO formally stated that Canada's use of educational attainment as a proxy measure of literacy was not as reliable as direct assessment, which led to the development of proficiency tests that measure reading literacy more directly.=====Direct systematic measures of literacy in Canada, 1987 to present=====Canada conducted its first literacy survey in 1987 which discovered that there were more than five million functionally illiterate adults in Canada, or 24 percent of the adult population.", "Statistics Canada then conducted three national and international literacy surveys of the adult population—the first one in 1989 was commissioned by the Human Resources and Skills Development Canada department.", "This first survey was called \"Literacy Skills Used in Daily Activities\", and was modeled after the 1985 US survey of young adults.", "It represented the first attempt in Canada to produce skill measures deemed comparable across languages.", "Literacy, for the first time, was measured on a continuum of skills.", "The survey found that 16% of Canadians had literacy skills too limited to deal with most of the printed material encountered in daily life, and 22% were considered \"narrow readers\".In 1994–1995, Canada participated in the first multi-country, multi-language assessment of adult literacy, the International Adult Literacy Survey.", "A stratified multistage probability sample design was used to select the sample from the Census Frame.", "The sample was designed to yield separate samples for the two Canadian official languages, English and French, and participants were measured on the dimensions of prose literacy, document literacy and quantitative literacy.", "The survey found that, of Canadians between the ages of 16 and 65, 42.2% scored at the lowest two levels for prose and quantitative literacy, and 43% for document literacy.", "The survey presented many important correlations, among which was a strong plausible link between literacy and a country's economic potential.In 2003, Canada participated in the Adult Literacy and Life Skills Survey; this survey contained identical measures for assessing the prose and document literacy proficiencies, allowing for comparisons between survey results on these two measures.", "This survey found that 41.9% of Canadians between ages 16 and 65 scored at the lowest two levels of prose literacy, and 42.6% did so for document literacy; showing a minor improvement on both scales.The OECD's Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies is expected to produce new comparative skill profiles in late 2013.====Mexico====In the last 40 years, the rate of illiteracy in Mexico has been steadily decreasing.", "In the 1960s, because the majority of the residents of the federal capital were illiterate, the planners of the Mexico City Metro designed a series of unique icons to identify each station in the system in addition to its formal name.", "The INEGI's census data in 1970 showed a national average illiteracy rate of 25.8%, which had decreased to under 7% by the 2010 census.", "Mexico still has a gender educational bias—the illiteracy rate for women was 8.1% compared with 5.6% for men.Rates differ across regions and states.", "The states with the highest poverty rate had greater than 15% illiteracy in 2010: 17.8% in Chiapas, 16.7% in Guerrero and 16.3% in Oaxaca.", "In contrast, the illiteracy rates in the Federal District (now part of Mexico City) and in some northern states like Nuevo León, Baja California, and Coahuila were below 3% in the 2010 census (2.1%, 2.2%, 2.6% and 2.6% respectively).====United States====One-room school in Alabama 1935Access to literacy in the United States is affected by historical developments in media, race, immigration, and chattel slavery.", "For example, before compulsory education in the 19th century, illiteracy among white people was not uncommon.", "Additionally, many of the confederate states made it illegal to teach the enslaved to read.", "By 1900, the situation had improved somewhat, but 44% of black people remained illiterate.", "There were significant improvements for African Americans and other races in the early 20th century; the descendants of former slaves, who had had no educational opportunities, grew up in the post Civil War period and often had some chance to obtain a basic education.", "The gap in illiteracy between white and black adults continued to narrow through the 20th century, and in 1979 the rates were approximately equal.Full prose proficiency, as measured by the ability to process complex and challenging material similar to would be encountered in everyday life, is achieved by about 13% of the general population, 17% of white people, and 2% of African American people.", "However 86% of the general population had basic or higher prose proficiency as of 2003, with a decrease seen among all in the full proficiency group.", "According to the website of the museum Planet Word in Washington, DC, some 32 million adults in the US cannot read.===== Cultural and westernized literacy for Native Americans in the United States =====Native youth in front of Carlisle Indian Industrial School in Pennsylvania c. 1900Before colonization, oral storytelling and communication composed most, if not all, Native American literacy.", "From the colonial era onward multiple religious missionaries worked to provide literacy in English.===== US public library efforts =====The public library has long been a force promoting literacy in many countries.", "In the US, the American Library Association promotes literacy through the Office for Literacy and Outreach Services.", "This committee is tasked with ensuring equitable access to information and advocating for adult new and non-readers.", "The Public Library Association recognizes the importance of the early childhood period in the development of literacy and created, in collaboration with the Association for Library Service to Children, a program called \"Every Child Ready to Read @ your library\" in order to inform and support parents and caregivers in their efforts to raise children to become literate adults.", "The release of the National Assessment of Adult Literacy report in 2005 revealed that approximately 14% of US adults function at the lowest level of literacy, and 29% at the basic functional literacy level and cannot help their children with homework beyond the first few grades.", "A lack of reading skills hinders adults from reaching their full potential—they might have difficulty getting and maintaining a job, providing for their families, or even reading a story to their children.", "For adults, the library might be the only source of a literacy program.======30 April: Dia!", "Diversity in Action======Dia!, which stands for Diversity in Action and is also known as \"El Día de los Niños/El día de los libros\" (Children's Day/Book Day), is a program which celebrates the importance of reading to children from all cultural and linguistic backgrounds.", "Dia!", "is celebrated every year on 30 April in schools, libraries, and homes, and their website provides tools and programs to encourage reading in children.", "Parents, caregivers, and educators can even start a book club.======READ/Orange County======This community literacy program was initiated in 1992 by the Orange County public library in California.", "The mission of READ/Orange County is to \"create a more literate community by providing diversified services of the highest quality to all who seek them.\"", "Potential tutors train during an extensive 23-hour workshop in which they learn the philosophy, techniques and tools they will need to work with adult learners.", "After the training, the tutors invest at least 50 hours a year in tutoring their student.", "The organization builds on people's experiences, as well as prior education, rather than trying to make up for what has not been learned.", "The program seeks to equip students with skills to continue learning in the future.", "The guiding philosophy is that an adult who learns to read creates a ripple effect in the community.", "The person becomes an example to children and grandchildren and can better serve the community.======BoulderReads!======Located in Boulder, Colorado, the program recognized the difficulty that adult learners had in obtaining childcare while attending tutoring sessions, and joined with the University of Colorado to provide reading buddies to the children of students.", "Reading Buddies matches children of adult literacy students with college students who meet with them once a week throughout the semester for an hour and a half.", "The college students receive course credit to try to enhance the quality and reliability of their time.", "Each Reading Buddies session focuses primarily on the college student reading aloud with the child.", "The goal is to help the child gain interest in books and feel comfortable reading aloud.", "Time is also spent on word games, writing letters, or searching for books in the library.", "Throughout the semester the pair work on writing and illustrating a book together.", "The college student's grade is partly dependent on the completion of the book.", "Although Reading Buddies began primarily as an answer to the lack of child care for literacy students, it has evolved into another aspect of the BoulderReads!", "program.", "Participating children show marked improvement in their reading and writing skills throughout the semester.======Hillsborough Literacy Council (HLC)======Approximately 120,000 adults in Hillsborough County, Florida are illiterate or read below the fourth-grade level; according to 2003 census statistics, 15% of Hillsborough County residents age 16 and older lacked basic prose literacy skills.", "Since 1986, the Hillsborough Literacy Council (HLC) is \"committed to improving literacy by empowering adults through education\".", "Sponsored by the statewide Florida Literacy Coalition and affiliated with Tampa-Hillsborough Public Library System, HLC strives to improve the literacy ability of adults in the county.", "Using library space, the HLC provides tutoring in English for speakers of other languages in small groups or one-on-one tutoring.", "Through one-on-one tutoring, the organization works to help adult students reach at least the fifth–grade level in reading.", "The organization also provides volunteer-run conversation groups for English practice.===South America=======Brazil====In 1964, Paulo Freire was arrested and exiled for teaching peasants to read.", "However, since democracy returned to Brazil there has been a steady increase in the percentage of literate people.", "Educators with the Axé project in the city of Salvador, Bahía attempt to improve literacy rates among urban youth, especially youth living on the streets, through the use of cultural music and dances.", "Then, \"they are encouraged to go on learning and become professional artists.", "\"===Africa===The literacy rates in Africa vary significantly between countries.", "The registered literacy rate in Libya was 86.1% in 2004 and UNESCO says that literacy rate in the region of Equatorial Guinea is approximately 95%, while the literacy rate in South Sudan is approximately 27%.", "In sub-Saharan Africa, youth from wealthier families often have more educational opportunities to become literate than poorer youth, who may need to leave school because they are needed at home to farm or care for siblings.", "Additionally, the rate of literacy has not improved enough to compensate for the effects of demographic growth.", "As a result, the number of illiterate adults has risen by 27% over the last 20 years, reaching 169 million in 2010.Thus, out of the 775 million illiterate adults in the world in 2010, more than one fifth (20%) were in sub-Saharan Africa.", "The countries with the lowest levels of literacy in the world are also concentrated in this region, where adult literacy rates can be well below 50%.", "Country Literacy Rate Algeria 70% Botswana 85% Burkina Faso 28.7% Chad 35.4% Djibouti 70% (est.)", "Egypt 72% Equatorial Guinea 94% Eritrea 80% (est.)", "Ethiopia 37% (unofficial); 63% (official) (1984) Guinea 41% Kenya 70-81.5% Mali 33.4% Mauritius 89.8% (2011) Niger 28.7% Senegal 49.7% Somalia Unknown Sierra Leone 43.3% Uganda 72.2% Zimbabwe 86.5% (2016 est.", ")====Algeria====The literacy rate of Algeria is around 70%, which is attributed to the fact that education is compulsory and free up to age 17.====Burkina Faso====Burkina Faso has a very low literacy rate of 28.7%, defined as anyone at least 15 years of age who can read and write.", "To improve the literacy rate, the government has received at least 80 volunteer teachers.", "A severe lack of primary school teachers causes problems for any attempt to improve the literacy rate and school enrollment.====Egypt====Egypt has a relatively high literacy rate.", "The adult literacy rate in 2010 was estimated at 72%.Education is compulsory from ages 6 to 15 and free for all children; 93% of children enter primary school today, compared with 87% in 1994.====Ethiopia====The Ethiopians are among the first literate people in the world, having written, read, and created manuscripts in the ancient Ge'ez language (an Amharic language) since the 2nd century CE.", "All boys learned to read the Psalms around the age of 7.National literacy campaign introduced in 1978 increased literacy rates to between 37% (unofficial) and 63% (official) by 1984.====Guinea====Guinea has a literacy rate of 41%, defined as anyone at least 15 years old who can read or write.", "Guinea was the first to use the Literacy, Conflict Resolution, and Peacebuilding (LCRP) project.", "This project was developed to increase agriculture production, develop key skills, resolve conflict, and improve literacy and numeracy skills.", "The LCRP worked within refugee camps near the border of Sierra Leone, however this project only lasted from 1999 to 2001.There are several other international projects working within the country that have similar goals.====Kenya====The literacy rate in Kenya among people below 20 years of age is over 70%, as the first 8 years of primary school are provided tuition–free by the government.", "In January 2008, the government began offering a limited program of free secondary education.", "Literacy is much higher among the young than among the older population, with the total being about 81.54% for the country.", "Most of this literacy, however, is at an elementary level—not secondary or advanced.====Mali====In Mali in 2015, the adult literacy rate was 33%, one of the lowest in the world, with males having a 43.1% literacy rate and females a 24.6% rate.", "The government defines literacy as anyone at least age 15 who can read or write.", "In recent years the government of Mali and international organizations have taken steps to improve the literacy rate.", "The government recognized the slow progress and began creating ministries for basic education and literacy in their national languages in 2007; they also increased the education budget by 3%, when it was at 35% in 2007.The lack of literate adults causes the programs to be slowed—they need qualified female instructors, which is problematic as many men refuse to send female family members to be trained by male teachers.====Mauritius====Free education in Mauritius did not proceed beyond the primary level until 1976, so many women now in their 50s or older left school at age 12.The younger generations (below age 50) are however extremely well educated with very high educational expectations placed upon pupils.", "Education is now free from pre-primary to tertiary (admission fees remain only at the university level).", "Most professionals have at least a bachelor's degree.", "Mauritian students consistently rank top in the world each year for the Cambridge International O Level, International A and AS level examinations.", "Most Mauritian children, even at the primary school level, are tutored after school and on weekends to cope in a highly competitive public school system; admission to prestigious public colleges (secondary education) and the most sought after university courses depend on merit based academic performance.The adult literacy rate was estimated at 89.8% in 2011.Male literacy was 92.3% and female literacy was 87.3%.====Niger====Niger has an extremely low literacy rate at 28.7%, in part due to the gender gap—men have a literacy rate of 42.9% while for women it is only 15.1%.", "The Nigerien government defines literacy as anyone who can read or write over the age of 15.The Niass Tijāniyyah, a Sufi order, has started anti-poverty, empowerment, and literacy campaigns.", "The women in Kiota had not attempted to improve their education, or economic standing, until Saida Oumul Khadiri Niass, known as Maman and married to a leader of the Niass Tijaniyya, talked to men and women throughout the community, changing the community's beliefs on appropriate behavior for women.", "Maman's efforts have allowed women in Kiota to own small businesses, sell in the market place, attend literacy classes, and organize small associations that can give micro loans.", "Maman personally teaches children in and around Kiota, with special attention to girls.", "Maman has her students require instructor permission to allow the girls' parents to marry their daughters early, increasing the amount of education these girls receive, as well as delaying marriage, pregnancy, and having children.====Senegal====Senegal has a literacy rate of 49.7%, defined as anyone who is at least 15 and can read and write.", "However, many students do not attend school long enough to be considered literate.", "The government did not begin actively attempting to improve the literacy rate until 1971 when it gave the responsibility to the Department for Vocational Training at the Secretariat for Youth and Sports.", "This department, and those that followed, had no clear policy on literacy until the Department of Literacy and Basic Education was formed in 1986.The government of Senegal relies heavily on funding from the World Bank to fund its school system.====Somalia====There is no reliable data on the nationwide literacy rate in Somalia.", "A 2013 FSNAU survey indicates considerable differences per region, with the autonomous northeastern Puntland region having the highest registered literacy rate at 72%.====Sierra Leone====The Sierra Leone government defines literacy as anyone over the age of 15 who can read and write in English, Mende, Temne, or Arabic.", "Official statistics put the literacy rate at 43.3%.", "Sierra Leone was the second country to use the Literacy, Conflict Resolution and Peacebuilding project.", "However, fighting near the city where the project was centered caused delay until an arms amnesty was in place.===Asia=== Country Adult Literacy Rate Youth Literacy Rate15-24 age Afghanistan 43% (2020) 65% (2020) Bangladesh 72.76 (2016) 92.24% (2016) China 96.7% (2015) India 74.04% (2011) 89.6% (2015) Iran Unclear Laos Unclear Nepal 67.5% (2007) 89.9% (2015) Pakistan 58% (2017) 75.6% (2015) Philippines 91.6% (2019) Sri Lanka 92.63% (2015) 98% (2015)====Afghanistan====Young school girls in Paktia Province of Afghanistan According to UNESCO, Afghanistan has one of the lowest literacy rates in South Asia, and in the world.", "As of 2020, over 10 million youth and adults are illiterate.", "However, since 2016, the country has made significant progress.", "While in 2016/2017 the literacy rate was 34.8%, the UNESCO Institute for Statistics recently confirmed that it has increased to 43%.", "\"That is a remarkable 8 per cent increase.\"", "In addition, the literacy rate for youths aged 15–24 has substantially increased and now stands at 65%.However, there are still a large number of people who lack literacy and opportunities to access continuing education.", "There is also a substantial gender gap: the literacy rate for men stands at 55%, while for women it is only 29.8%.", "The UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning has provided technical support to the government of Afghanistan since 2012, with the aim of improving the literacy skills of an estimated 1.2 million people.To improve the literacy rate, the US military taught Afghan Army recruits how to read before teaching them how to fire a weapon.", "In 2009, US commanders estimated that as many as 65% of recruits may be illiterate.====China====The People's Republic of China conducts standardized testing to assess proficiency in Standard Chinese, known as \"putonghua\", but this is primarily for foreigners or those needing to demonstrate professional proficiency in the Beijing dialect.", "While literacy in Chinese can be assessed by reading comprehension tests, just as in other languages, historically literacy has often been judged by the number of Chinese characters introduced during the speaker's schooling, with a few thousand considered the minimum for practical literacy.The CIA World Factbook says 96.7% of Chinese people are literate, however social science surveys in China have repeatedly found that just over half the population of China is conversant in spoken putonghua.", "In classical Chinese civilization the access to literacy in all classes originated with Confucianism, where previously literacy was generally limited to the aristocracy, merchants, and priests.====India====Literacy is defined by the Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India, as the ability of \"a person aged 7 years and above to both write and read with understanding in any language.\"", "According to the 2011 census, the literacy rate stood at 74%.====Iran====In 2023 the Iranian government stopped a literacy campaign that had begun in 1930, despite 9 million people still being reported as illiterate.", "The government reported that elementary school education cost 5-40 million toman (approximately US$12–95 or €11–89) per child per year, 27% of children did not sign up for first grade because of cost.====Laos====Laotian girls sit outside their school, each absorbed in reading a book they received at a rural school book party.Laos has the lowest level of adult literacy in all of Southeast Asia, other than East Timor.Obstacles to literacy vary by country and culture as writing systems, quality of education, availability of written material, competition from other sources (television, video games, cell phones, and family obligations), and culture all influence literacy levels.", "In Laos, which has a phonetic alphabet, reading is relatively easy to learn—especially compared to English, where spelling and pronunciation rules are filled with exceptions, and Chinese, with thousands of symbols to be memorized.", "However, a lack of books and other written materials has hindered functional literacy in Laos, where many children and adults read so haltingly that the skill is hardly beneficial.A literacy project in Laos addresses this by using what it calls \"books that make literacy fun!\"", "The project, Big Brother Mouse, publishes colorful, easy-to-read books, then delivers them during book parties at rural schools.", "Some of the books are modeled on successful western books by authors such as Dr. Seuss; the most popular, however, are traditional Laotian fairy tales.", "Two popular collections of folktales were written by Siphone Vouthisakdee, who comes from a village where only five children finished primary school.Big Brother Mouse has also created village reading rooms, and published books for adult readers about subjects such as Buddhism, health, and baby care.====Pakistan====In Pakistan, the National Commission for Human Development aims to bring literacy to adults, especially women.", "While speaking at a function held in connection with International Literacy Day, ISLAMABAD - UNESCO Islamabad Director Kozue Kay Nagata said:She also emphasised on the need to do more to improve literacy in the country saying:Referring to the recent national survey carried out by the Ministry of Education, Trainings and Standards in Higher Education with support of UNESCO, UNICEF, and provincial and areas departments of education, Nagata pointed out that in Pakistan, although 70% of children finish primary school, a gender gap still exists as 68% of girls finish compared to 71% of boys.Referring specifically to Punjab, she said that while the primary school completion rate is higher at 76%, there is a gender gap of 8 percentage points: 72% of girls compared to 80% for boys.", "She also noted that the average cost per primary school student (ages 5-9) was higher in Punjab at Rs 6,998 (approximately US$24 or €22.5).In Balochistan, although almost the same amount (Rs 6,985) is spent per child as in Punjab, the primary school completion rate is only 53%: 54% for girls and 52% for boys.Literate Pakistan Foundation, a non-profit organization established in 2003, is a case study bringing to light solutions for improving literacy rates in Pakistan.", "Their data shows that in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, primary school completion rate is 67%, lower than the national average of 70%.", "Furthermore, a gender gap exists with only 65% of girls completing primary school compared to 68% of boys.", "In Khyber Pakhtunkhwa the education expenditure per student at the primary school level (age 5–9) is Rs 8,638 ($30, €28).", "In Sindh, primary school completion rate is 63%, with a gender gap of 67% of girls completing primary school compared to 60% of boys.", "In Khyber Pakhtunkhwa the education expenditure per student at the primary school level (age 5–9) is Rs 5,019 ($17.50, €16.50).Nagata, referencing the report, said that the most common reason for children ages 10-18 (both boys and girls) leaving school is \"the child is not willing to go to school\", which may be related to quality and learning outcome.", "She added that the second highest reason for girls living in rural communities dropping out is that their \"parents did not allow\" them to continue school, which might be related to prejudice and cultural norms surrounding girls.====Philippines====About 91.6% of Filipinos ages 10-64 were functionally literate in 2019, according to the results of the 2019 Functional Literacy, Education and Mass Media Survey; this translates to around 73.0 million out of the population of 79.7 million.Starting in 300 BCE, early Filipinos devised and used their own writing system derived from the Brahmic family of scripts of Ancient India.", "Baybayin became the most widespread of these derived scripts by the 11th century.", "Early chroniclers, who came during the first Spanish expeditions to the islands, noted the proficiency of some of the natives, especially the chieftain and local kings, in Sanskrit, Old Javanese, Old Malay, and several other languages.", "During the Spanish colonization of the islands, reading materials were destroyed far less than during the Spanish colonization of the Americas.", "Education and literacy was introduced solely to the Peninsulares and remained a privilege until the arrival of Americans, who introduced a public school system to the country, and English became the ''lingua franca'' in the Philippines.", "During the brief Japanese occupation of the Philippines, the Japanese were able to teach their language and teach the children their written language.====Sri Lanka====The University of Peradeniya's Sarachchandra open-air theatre, named in memory of Ediriweera Sarachchandra, Sri Lanka's premier playwrightWith a literacy rate of 92.5%, Sri Lanka has one of the most literate populations amongst developing nations.", "Its youth literacy rate stands at 98%, computer literacy rate at 35%, and primary school enrollment rate at over 99%.", "An education system which dictates 9 years of compulsory schooling for every child is in place.", "The free education system, established in 1945, is a result of the initiative of C. W. W. Kannangara and A. Ratnayake.", "Sri Lanka is one of the few countries in the world that provides universal free education from primary to tertiary stage.===Oceania=======Australia====A 2016-2017 survey of adult skills conducted by the Australian Bureau of Statistics on behalf of the OECD found that one in five adults of working age has low literacy skills, numeracy skills, or both.", "The Australian Early Development Census National Report for 2021 reported that 82.6% of five year olds are on track to develop good language and cognitive skills.", "In 2012–2013, Australia had 1515 public library service points, lending almost 174 million items to 10 million members, at an average per capita cost of just under AU$45.By 2020-2021 this had increased to a total of 1690 library outlets with just over 9 million registered or active members." ], [ "See also" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "References", "* * " ], [ "Further reading", " Graff, Harvey J.", "''The legacies of literacy : continuities and contradictions in western culture and society'' (Indiana University Press, 1986)* Graff, Harvey J.", "''The Literacy Myth: Literacy and Social Structure in the Nineteenth Century City'' (Academic Press, 1979).", "* Guzzetti, Barbara, ed.", "''Literacy in America: An Encyclopedia of History, Theory, and Practice'' (ABC-CLIO, 2002)* Hunter, Carman St. John, and David Harman.", "''Adult Illiteracy in the United States: A Report to the Ford Foundation'' (McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1979).", "* " ], [ "External links", " UNESCO Literacy Portal* UNESCO Effective Literacy and Numeracy Practices Database – LitBase * * Center for the study of adult literacy at Georgia State University* The Digital Archive of Literacy Narratives* Literacy Assessment Online at Edukey Education* National Literacy Trust* The National Strategies for Primary Literacy (archived 23 December 2012)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Local-loop unbundling" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Local loop unbundling''' ('''LLU''' or '''LLUB''') is the regulatory process of allowing multiple telecommunications operators to use connections from the telephone exchange to the customer's premises.", "The physical wire connection between the local exchange and the customer is known as a \"local loop\", and is owned by the incumbent local exchange carrier (also referred to as the \"ILEC\", \"local exchange\", or in the United States either a \"Baby Bell\" or an independent telephone company).", "To increase competition, other providers are granted unbundled access." ], [ "Policy background", "LLU is generally opposed by the ILECs, which in most cases are either former investor-owned (North America) or state-owned monopoly enterprises forced to open themselves to competition.", "ILECs argue that LLU amounts to a regulatory taking, that they are forced to provide competitors with essential business inputs, that LLU stifles infrastructure-based competition and technical innovation because new entrants prefer to 'parasitise' the incumbent's network instead of building their own and that the regulatory interference required to make LLU work (e.g., to set the LLU access price) is detrimental to the market.New entrants, on the other hand, argue that since they cannot economically duplicate the incumbent's local loop, they cannot actually provide certain services, such as ADSL without LLU, thus allowing the incumbent to monopolise the respective potentially competitive market(s) and stifle innovation.", "They point out that alternative access technologies, such as wireless local loop, have proven uncompetitive and/or impractical, and that under current pricing models, the incumbent is in many cases, depending on the regulatory model, guaranteed a fair price for the use of its facilities, including an appropriate return on investment.", "Finally, they argue that the ILECs generally did not construct their local loop in a competitive, risky, market environment, but under legal monopoly protection and using taxpayer's money, which means, according to the new entrants, that ILECs ought not to be entitled to continue to extract regulated rates of return, which often include monopoly rents from the local loop.Most industrially developed nations, including the US, Australia, the European Union member states, and India have introduced regulatory frameworks providing for LLU.", "Given the above-mentioned problems, regulators face the challenging task of regulating a market that is changing very rapidly, without stifling any type of innovation, and without improperly disadvantaging any competitor.The process has been long - the first action in the EU resulted from a report written for the European Commission in 1993.It took several years for the EU legislation to require unbundling and then in individual EU countries the process took further time to mature to become practical and economic rather than simply being a legal possibility.In 1996 the United States Telecommunication Act (in section 251) defined the unbundled access as: The 1993 report referred to the logical requirement to unbundle optical fibre access but recommended deferral to a later date when fibre access had become more common.", "In 2006 there were the first signs that (as a result of the municipal fibre networks movement and example such as Sweden where unbundled local loop fibre is commercially available from both the incumbent and competitors) policy may yet evolve in this direction." ], [ "Unbundling developments around the world", "===World Trade Organisation===Some provisions of WTO telecommunications law can be read to require unbundling:* Sect.", "5(a) of the GATS Annex on Telecommunications requires WTO Members to guarantee service suppliers \"access to and use of public telecommunications transport networks ... for the supply of a service\".", "New entrants argue that without LLU they cannot supply services such as ADSL.", "* Sect.", "2.2(b) of the 1998 Reference Paper, to which some Members have subscribed, requires \"sufficiently unbundled interconnection\" with major providers.", "However, the Paper's definition of interconnection appears to exclude LLU.", "* Sect.", "1 of the Reference Paper requires Members to maintain \"appropriate measures ... for the purpose of preventing major suppliers ... from engaging in or continuing anti-competitive practices.\"", "New entrants argue that such practices include not giving competitors access to facilities essential to market entry, such as the local loop.The question has not been settled before a WTO judicial body, and, at any rate, these obligations only apply where the respective WTO Member has committed itself to open its basic telecommunications market to competition.", "About 80 (mostly developed) Members have done so since 1998.===India===LLU has not been implemented in Indian cities yet.", "However, BSNL recently stated that it will open up its copper loops for private participation.", "In addition to this, the proliferation of WiMax and cable broadband has increased broadband penetration and market competition.", "By 2008 the price war had reduced basic broadband prices to INR 250 (US$6), including line rental without any long-term contracts.", "In rural areas, the state player, BSNL, is still the leading, and often the only supplier.Although BSNL is a monopoly, it is used as a tool to ensure competition by the government.===European Union===The implementation of local loop unbundling is a requirement of European Union policy on competition in the telecommunications sector and has been introduced, at various stages of development, in all member states (Operators with Significant Market Power shall publish (from 31 December 2000, and keep updated) a postreference offer for unbundled access to their local loops and related facilities.", "The offer shall be sufficiently unbundled so that the beneficiary does not have to pay for network elements or facilities which are not necessary for the supply of its services, and shall contain a description of the components of the offer, associated terms and conditions, including charges).European States that have been approved for membership to the EU have an obligation to introduce LLU as part of the liberalisation of their communications sector.===United Kingdom===On 23 January 2001 Easynet became the first operator in mainland U.K. to unbundle a local loop of copper wire from British Telecom's network and provide its own broadband service over it.By 14 January 2006, 210,000 local loop connections had been unbundled from BT operation under local loop unbundling.", "Ofcom had hoped that 1 million local loop connections would be unbundled by June 2006.However, as reported by ''The Register'' on 15 June 2006, the figure had reached only 500,000, but was growing by 20,000 a week.", "Ofcom announced in November 2006 that 1,000,000 connections had been unbundled.", "By April 2007, the figure was 2,000,000.By June 2006, AOL UK had unbundled 100,000 lines through its £120 million investment.On 10 October 2006, Carphone Warehouse announced the purchase of AOL UK, the leading LLU operator, for £370m.", "This made Carphone Warehouse the third largest broadband provider and the largest LLU operator with more than 150,000 LLU customers.On 8 May 2009, TalkTalk, who were owned by Carphone Warehouse, announced that they would purchase ailing Tiscali UK's assets for £235 million.", "On 30 June 2009, Tiscali sold its UK subsidiary to Carphone Warehouse following regulatory approval from the European Union.", "This purchase made TalkTalk the biggest home broadband supplier in the UK, with 4.25 million home broadband subscribers, compared with BT's 3.9 million.", "The service was rebranded as TalkTalk in January 2010.Most LLU operators only unbundle the broadband service leaving the traditional telephone service using BT's core equipment (with or without the provision of carrier preselect).", "Where the traditional telephone service is also unbundled (full LLU), operators usually prohibit the facility where selected calls can be made using the networks of other telephone providers (i.e.", "accessed using a three- to five-digit prefix beginning with '1').", "These calls can usually still be made by using an 0800 or other non-geographic (NGN) access code.Although regulators in the UK admitted that the market could provide competitive offerings in due time, the purpose of mandatory local loop unbundling in the United Kingdom was to speed the delivery of advanced services to consumers.===United States===Pursuant to the Telecommunications Act of 1996, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) requires that ILECs lease local loops to competitors (CLECs).", "Prices are set through a market mechanism.===New Zealand===The Commerce Commission recommended against local loop unbundling in late 2003 as Telecom New Zealand (now Spark New Zealand) offered a market-led solution.", "In May 2004 this was confirmed by the Government, despite the intense \"call4change\" campaign by some of Telecom's competitors.", "Part of Telecom's commitment to the Commerce Commission to avoid unbundling was a promise to deliver 250,000 new residential broadband connections by the end of 2005, one-third of which were to be wholesaled through other providers.", "Telecom failed to achieve the number of wholesale connections required, despite an attempt by management to claim that the agreement had been for only one-third of the growth rather than one-third of the total.", "That claim was rejected by the Commerce Commission, and the publicised figure of 83,333 wholesale connections out of 250,000 was held to be the true target.", "The achieved number was less than 50,000 wholesale connections, despite total connections exceeding 300,000.On 3 May 2006 the Government announced it would require the unbundling of the local loop.", "This was in response to concerns about the low levels of broadband uptake.", "Regulatory action such as information disclosure, the separate accounting of Telecom New Zealand business operations, and enhanced Commerce Commission monitoring was announced.On 9 August 2007 Telecom released the keys to exchanges in Glenfield and Ponsonby in Auckland.", "In March 2008 Telecom activated ADSL 2+ services from five Auckland exchanges – Glenfield, Browns Bay, Ellerslie, Mt Albert and Ponsonby – with further plans for the rest of Auckland and other major centres, allowing other ISPs to take advantage.With the number of copper (DSL) connections falling rapidly in New Zealand as of 2023, a large majority of internet connections are now through fibre as opposed to copper, which is wholesaled by Telecom-spun off company Chorus, rendering local loop unbundling a minor percentage in DSL connections.===Switzerland===Switzerland is one of the last OECD nations to provide for unbundling, because the Swiss Federal Supreme Court held in 2001 that the 1996 Swiss Telecommunications Act did not require it.", "The government then enacted an ordinance providing for unbundling in 2003, and Parliament amended the act in 2006.While infrastructure-based access is now generally available, unbundled fast bitstream access is limited to a period of four years after the entry into force of the act.Unbundling requests tend to be tied up before the courts, however, because unlike in the EU, Swiss law does not provide for an ''ex ante'' regulation of access conditions by the regulator.", "Instead, under the Swiss ''ex post'' regulation system, each new entrant must first try to reach an individual agreement with Swisscom, the state-owned ILEC.===Hong Kong===Mandatory local loop unbundling policy (termed '''Type II Interconnection''' (Traditional Chinese:第二類互連) in Hong Kong) started on July 1, 1995 (the same day of telephone market liberalisation), to ensure choice to customers.", "After 10 years, new operators have built their networks covering a large region of Hong Kong; the government considered it a good time to withdraw mandatory local loop unbundling policy, to persuade operators to build their own networks and let businesses run themselves with a minimum of government intervention.", "At the meeting of the Executive Council on 6 July 2004, the government decided that the regulatory intervention under the current Type II interconnection policy applicable to telephone exchanges for individual buildings covered by such exchanges should be withdrawn, subject to conditions documented in a statement by the Telecommunications Authority.", "After that, the terms of interconnection will be negotiated between telephone operators.", "Hong Kong is the only advanced economy that has withdrawn the mandatory local loop unbundling policy.===South Africa===On 25 May 2006 the Minister of Communications of South Africa Dr Ivy Matsepe-Casaburri established the Local Loop Unbundling Committee chaired by Professor Tshilidzi Marwala to recommend the appropriate local loop unbundling models.", "The Local Loop Unbundling Committee submitted a report to Minister Matsepe-Casaburri on 25 May 2007.This report recommends that models that permit customers to access both voice and data be offered by many different companies.", "The models recommended are Full Unbundling, Line Sharing and Bitstream Access.", "It is recommended that customers should exercise carrier pre-selection and thus be able to switch between service providers.", "It is also recommended that an organisation be created to manage the local loop and that this organisation should be under the guidance of the regulator Icasa and that Icasa be capacitated in terms of resources.", "The committee recommended that service providers approved by Icasa should have access to the telephone exchange infrastructure whenever necessary.", "The committee recommended that a regulatory guideline be established and be managed by Icasa to guarantee that strategic issues like quality of the local loop be optimised for regulation and delivery of services.", "Based on this report the Minister has issued policy directives to Icasa to move swiftly with the unbundling process.", "At the end of March 2010 nothing has happened yet, however a deadline of November 1, 2011 was set by the Minister of Communications for monopoly holder, Telkom SA to finalise the unbundling process." ], [ "See also", "Forced-access regulationLocal number portabilityLoop management systemMobile number portabilityProduct bundlingSub-loop unbundlingUnbundling in France (in French)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", " OECD, ''Universal Service and Rate Restructuring in Telecommunications'', Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Publishing, 1991." ], [ "External links", "* OECD, Developments in Local Loop Unbundling* LLU Exchange List* EU telecommunications liberalization framework* Local Loop Unbundling - What is it?", "* LLU Availability* MAC Codes - UK Guide for obtaining your MAC code" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Leda" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Leda''' may refer to:" ], [ "Mythology", "* Leda (mythology), queen of Sparta and mother of Helen of Troy in Greek mythology" ], [ "Places", "* Leda, Western Australia, a suburb of Perth, Western Australia* Leda makeshift settlement, Bangladesh, a refugee camp for Rohingya refugees fleeing persecution in Myanmar* Leda, Burkina Faso, a town* Leda, Adamawa State, Nigeria, a village - see List of villages in Adamawa State* Leda (river), a tributary of the Ems in Germany* Leda Ridge, Antarctica" ], [ "Astronomy", "* Leda (moon), a moon of Jupiter* 38 Leda, an asteroid* Leda, the original proposed name for exoplanet Thestias* Lyon-Meudon Extragalactic Database, an astronomical catalog of galaxies* Large Aperture Experiment to Detect the Dark Ages, a radio interferometer" ], [ "Entertainment", "* ''Leda: The Fantastic Adventure of Yohko'', a 1985 Japanese OVA* ''Web of Passion'', a French film released in the US as ''Leda''* Project Leda, a set of female clones in the TV series ''Orphan Black''" ], [ "Ships", "* ''Leda-class frigate'', a type of frigate in the British Royal Navy* HMS ''Leda'', six ships of the British Royal Navy* TS ''Leda'', a North Sea ferry* ''Leda'' (1807 ship), an English merchant ship and West Indiaman" ], [ "Persons", "* Leda Cosmides (born 1957), American psychologist* Leda Gloria (1912–1997), Italian film actress* Leda Luss Luyken (born 1952), Greek/American conceptual artist, who lives and works in German* Leda Mileva (1920–2013), Bulgarian writer, translator and diplomat* Leda Nagle (born 1951), Brazilian journalist and TV presenter* Leda Sanford (born 1933), author, speaker, former publisher and former advertising director* Ferdinando Leda (born 1980), Brazilian football player" ], [ "Other uses", "* Leda clay, also called quick clay, a unique form of marine clay* LEDA, ICAO code for Lleida–Alguaire Airport* Library of Efficient Data types and Algorithms (LEDA)* Leda, genus of Algae" ], [ "See also", "* Leda and the Swan (disambiguation)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lysithea (moon)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lysithea''' is a prograde irregular satellite of Jupiter.", "It was discovered by Seth Barnes Nicholson in 1938 at Mount Wilson Observatory and is named after the mythological Lysithea, daughter of Oceanus and one of Zeus' lovers.Lysithea did not receive its present name until 1975; before then, it was simply known as ''''''.", "It was sometimes called \"Demeter\" from 1955 to 1975.It belongs to the Himalia group, moons orbiting between 11 and 13 Gm from Jupiter at an inclination of about 28.3°.", "Its orbital elements are as of January 2000.They are continuously changing due to solar and planetary perturbations.", "It is gray in color (B−V=0.72, V−R=0.36, V−I=0.74) and intermediate between C-type and P-type asteroids.Lysithea observed by the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE) spacecraft in 2014" ], [ "See also", "Irregular satellitesJupiter's moons in fiction" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Lysithea: Overview by NASA's Solar System Exploration* David Jewitt pages* Jupiter's Known Satellites (by Scott S. Sheppard)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Leda and the Swan" ], [ "Introduction", "copy after a lost painting by Michelangelo (National Gallery, London)Roman oil lamp, 1st century AD '''Leda and the Swan''' is a story and subject in art from Greek mythology in which the god Zeus, in the form of a swan, seduces or rapes Leda, a Spartan queen.", "According to later Greek mythology, Leda bore Helen and Polydeuces, children of Zeus, while at the same time bearing Castor and Clytemnestra, children of her husband Tyndareus, the King of Sparta.", "According to many versions of the story, Zeus took the form of a swan and raped Leda on the same night she slept with her husband King Tyndareus.", "In some versions, she laid two eggs from which the children hatched.", "In other versions, Helen is a daughter of Nemesis, the goddess who personified the disaster that awaited those suffering from the pride of Hubris.Especially in art, the degree of consent by Leda to the relationship seems to vary considerably; there are numerous depictions, for example by Leonardo da Vinci, that show Leda affectionately embracing the swan, as their children play.The subject was rarely seen in the large-scale sculpture of antiquity, although a representation of Leda in sculpture has been attributed in modern times to Timotheus (''compare illustration, below left''); small-scale sculptures survive showing both reclining and standing poses, in cameos and engraved gems, rings, and terracotta oil lamps.", "Thanks to the literary renditions of Ovid and Fulgentius it was a well-known myth through the Middle Ages, but emerged more prominently as a classicizing theme, with erotic overtones, in the Italian Renaissance." ], [ "Eroticism", "Timotheos; restored (Prado)The historian Procopius claims, in his Secret History, that the Roman Empress Theodora acted in a reproduction of this particular myth at some point in her youth in the early sixth century CE prior to her becoming the empress.", "This account is heavily disputed for the biases Roman aristocrats including Procopius had towards the role of women and the reputation of actresses and sex workers at the time.The subject undoubtedly owed its sixteenth-century popularity to the paradox that it was considered more acceptable to depict a woman in the act of copulation with a swan than with a man.", "The earliest depictions show the pair love-making with some explicitness—more so than in any depictions of a human pair made by artists of high quality in the same period.The fate of the erotic album ''I Modi'' some years later shows why this was so.", "The theme remained a dangerous one in the Renaissance, as the fates of the three best known paintings on the subject demonstrate.", "The earliest depictions were all in the more private medium of the old master print, and mostly from Venice.", "They were often based on the extremely brief account in the ''Metamorphoses'' of Ovid (who does not imply a rape), though Lorenzo de' Medici had both a Roman sarcophagus and an antique carved gem of the subject, both with reclining Ledas.The earliest known explicit Renaissance depiction is one of the many woodcut illustrations to ''Hypnerotomachia Poliphili'', a book published in Venice in 1499.This shows Leda and the Swan making love with gusto, despite being on top of a triumphal car, being pulled along and surrounded by a considerable crowd.", "An engraving dating to 1503 at the latest, by Giovanni Battista Palumba, also shows the couple in coitus, but in deserted countryside.", "Another engraving, certainly from Venice and attributed by many to Giulio Campagnola, shows a love-making scene, but there Leda's attitude is highly ambiguous.", "Palumba made another engraving, perhaps in about 1512, presumably influenced by Leonardo's sketches for his earlier composition, showing Leda seated on the ground and playing with her children.There were also significant depictions in the smaller decorative arts, also private media.", "Benvenuto Cellini made a medallion, now in Vienna, early in his career, and Antonio Abondio one on the obverse of a medal celebrating a Roman courtesan." ], [ "In painting", "''Leda and the Swan'', copy by Cesare da Sesto after a lost original by Leonardo, 1515–1520, Oil on canvas, Wilton House, England.A fresco depicting the Greek myth of Leda and the Swan was unearthed at the Pompeii archeological site.Leonardo da Vinci began making studies in 1504 for a painting, apparently never executed, of Leda seated on the ground with her children.", "In 1508 he painted a different composition of the subject, with a nude standing Leda cuddling the Swan, with the two sets of infant twins (also nude), and their huge broken egg-shells.", "The original of this is lost, probably deliberately destroyed, and was last recorded in the French royal Château de Fontainebleau in 1625 by Cassiano dal Pozzo.", "However it is known from many copies, of which the earliest are probably the ''Spiridon Leda'', perhaps by a studio assistant and now in the Uffizi, and the one at Wilton House in the United Kingdom (illustrated).Also lost, and probably deliberately destroyed, is Michelangelo's tempera painting of the pair making love, commissioned in 1529 by Alfonso d'Este for his palazzo in Ferrara, and taken to France for the royal collection in 1532; it was at Fontainebleau in 1536.Michelangelo's cartoon for the work—given to his assistant Antonio Mini, who used it for several copies for French patrons before his death in 1533—survived for over a century.", "This composition is known from many copies, including an ambitious engraving by Cornelis Bos, c. 1563; the marble sculpture by Bartolomeo Ammanati in the Bargello, Florence; two copies by the young Rubens on his Italian voyage, and the painting after Michelangelo, ca.", "1530, in the National Gallery, London.", "The Michelangelo composition, of about 1530, shows Mannerist tendencies of elongation and twisted pose (the ''figura serpentinata'') that were popular at the time.", "In addition, a sculptural group, similar to the Prado Roman group illustrated, was believed until at least the 19th century to be by Michelangelo.Leda and the Swan'' by CorreggioThe last very famous Renaissance painting of the subject is Correggio's elaborate composition of c. 1530 (Berlin); this too was damaged whilst in the collection of Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, the Regent of France in the minority of Louis XV.", "His son Louis, though a great lover of painting, had periodic crises of conscience about his way of life, in one of which he attacked the figure of Leda with a knife.", "The damage has been repaired, though full restoration to the original condition was not possible.", "Both the Leonardo and Michelangelo paintings also disappeared when in the collection of the French Royal Family, and are believed to have been destroyed by more moralistic widows or successors of their owners.There were many other depictions in the Renaissance, including cycles of book illustrations to Ovid, but most were derivative of the compositions mentioned above.", "The subject remained largely confined to Italy, and sometimes France – Northern versions are rare.", "After something of a hiatus in the 18th and early 19th centuries (apart from a very sensuous Boucher,), Leda and the Swan became again a popular motif in the later 19th and 20th centuries, with many Symbolist and Expressionist treatments.Oleksa Novakivskyi's ''Leda and the Swan'', UkraineAlso from that era were sculptures of the theme by Antonin Mercié and Max Klinger.Paul Cézanne's ''Leda and the Swan''" ], [ "In modern and contemporary art", "Cy Twombly executed an abstract version of ''Leda and the Swan'' in 1962.It was purchased by Larry Gagosian for $52.9 million at Christie's May 2017 Post-War and Contemporary Art Evening Sale.Avant-garde filmmaker Kurt Kren along with other members of the Viennese Actionist movement, including Otto Muehl and Hermann Nitsch, made a film-performance called ''7/64 Leda und der Schwan'' in 1964.The film retains the classical motif, portraying, for most of its duration, a young woman embracing a swan.There is a life-sized marble statue of ''Leda and the Swan'' at the Jai Vilas Palace Museum in Gwalior, Northern Madhya Pradesh, India.American artist and photographer Carole Harmel created the \"Bird\" series (1983), a Jean Cocteau-influenced collection of photographs that explored the \"Leda and the Swan\" myth in tightly cropped, voyeuristic images of a nude female and an undefinable birdlike creature hinting at intimacy.Bristol Museum and Art Gallery currently exhibits Karl Weschke's ''Leda and the Swan'', painted in 1986.The Winnipeg Art Gallery in Canada has, in its permanent collection, a ceramic \"Leda and the Swan\" by Japanese-born American artist Akio Takamori.", "Genieve Figgis painted her version of Leda and the Swan in 2018 after an earlier work by François Boucher.", "Figgis’ contemporary version reinvents the idyllic romantic scene of lavish playfulness with a dark humor creating a scene of profanity and horror.", "There is a sculpture in neon lights depicting Leda and the Swan in Berlin, near Sonnenallee metro station and the Estrel hotel, designed by AES+F.", "Photographer Charlie White included a portrait of Leda in his \"And Jeopardize the Integrity of the Hull\" series.", "Zeus, as the swan, only appears metaphorically.Relief from Argos, Greece, 50 - 100 CE" ], [ "In poetry", "A mosaic from the Sanctuary of Aphrodite, Palea Paphos Cyprus.", "Cyprus Museum, Nicosia.", "Around 3rd century ADRonsard wrote a poem on ''La Défloration de Lède'', perhaps inspired by the Michelangelo, which he may well have known.", "He imagines the beak going into Leda's mouth.", "\"Leda and the Swan\" is a sonnet by William Butler Yeats composed in 1923 and first published in the ''Dial'' in June, 1924, and later published in the collection 'The Cat the Moon and Certain Poems' in 1924.Combining psychological realism with a mystic vision, it describes the swan's rape of Leda.", "It also alludes to the Trojan war, which will be provoked by the abduction of Helen, who will be begotten by Zeus on Leda (along with Castor and Pollux, in some versions of the myth).", "Clytaemnestra, who killed her husband, Agamemnon, leader of the Greeks at Troy, was also supposed to have hatched from one of Leda's eggs.", "The poem is regularly praised as one of Yeats's masterpieces.", "Camille Paglia, who called the poem \"the greatest poem of the twentieth century,\" and said \"all human beings, like Leda, are caught up moment by moment in the 'white rush' of experience.", "For Yeats, the only salvation is the shapeliness and stillness of art.\"", "See external links for a bas relief arranged in the position as described by Yeats.Nicaraguan poet Rubén Darío's 1892 poem \"Leda\" contains an oblique description of the rape, watched over by the god Pan.H.D.", "(Hilda Doolittle) also wrote a poem called \"Leda\" in 1919, suggested to be from the perspective of Leda.", "The description of the sexual action going on makes it seem almost beautiful, as if Leda had given her consent.In the song \"Power and Glory\" from Lou Reed's 1992 album ''Magic and Loss'', Reed recalls the experience of seeing his friend dying of cancer and makes reference to the myth, \"I saw isotopes introduced into his lungs / trying to stop the cancerous spread / And it made me think of Leda and The Swan / and gold being made from lead\"Sylvia Plath alludes to the myth in her radio play ''Three Women'' written for the BBC in 1962.The play features the voices of three women.", "The first is a married woman who keeps her baby.", "The second is a secretary who suffers a miscarriage.", "The third voice, a girl who is pregnant and leaves her baby, mentions \"the great swan, with its terrible look,/ Coming at me,\" insinuating that the girl was raped.", "The play is about the disconnection of women in society and challenges societal expectations of childbirth." ], [ "In literature", "''Leda and the Swan'' by Jean-Léon Gérôme, 1895Several references to the myth are presented in novels by Angela Carter, including ''Nights at the Circus'' and ''The Magic Toyshop''.", "In the latter novel, the myth is brought to life in the form of a performance in which a frightened young girl is forced to act as Leda in accompaniment with a large mechanical swan.The myth is also mentioned in Richard Yates' 1962 novel ''Revolutionary Road''.", "The character Frank Wheeler, married to April Wheeler, after having had sex with an office secretary ponders what to say as he is leaving: \"Did the swan apologize to Leda?", "Did an eagle apologize?", "Did a lion apologize?", "Hell no!", "\"In Robert Galbraith's 2020 novel, ''Troubled Blood'', one of the main characters Robin Ellacott, visits a painting gallery where she sees a painting of Leda and the swan done by one character who is an artist in the novel." ], [ "In fashion", "Achilleion in Corfu, Greece.In 1935, German-born movie star Marlene Dietrich wore a dramatically designed Leda costume to a Hollywood costume party.", "Designed by the acclaimed costume designer Travis Banton, a longtime Dietrich collaborator, the white tulle and feather dress featured a thigh-slit, a mid-length train and, most characteristically, a fabric and feather \"swan\" neck which coiled around Dietrich's own neck, as well a pair of large feathered wings, one stretching downwards across her chest and the other one upwards across her left shoulder.66 years later, at the 2001 Academy Awards, Icelandic singer Björk wore a dress by Marjan Pejoski in nude mesh and a white tulle skirt.", "The skirt gradually narrowed upwards over the torso to turn into a swan-neck made out of fabric which coiled around the wearer's neck in exactly the same way as Dietrich's dress from 1935.Although Dietrich's costume remains largely unknown to the general public, Björk's dress \"attained cult status instantly\" and became an icon of red carpet culture.", "Yet, the reference to Marlene Dietrich's costume was rarely (if ever) mentioned at the time.In June 2021, Maria Grazia Chiuri as creative director for the French fashion house Dior, designed a collection strongly inspired by Hellenistic culture, the Olympic Games, and Ancient Greek Mythology, and showed it at the Panathenaic Stadium in Athens as an homage to the Olympic tradition (the collection was shown a month before the beginning of the 2020 Summer Olympics).", "The collection's closing pièce de résistance was a Leda-inspired swan dress.", "The immediate visual similarity between Chiuri's swan Dress and Björk's swan dress sparked excitement on social media as most people inevitably thought the Dior dress was directly inspired by Pejoski's iconic 2001 creation.", "However, only a few days later, Dior openly defended the inspiration of the dress referring to it on its Twitter account as a recreation of a costume worn by Marlene Dietrich, who was, famously, an important and loyal client of the French brand during the 40s and 50s.", "Notably, Chiuri's 2021 Dior dress featured feathered swan-wings spanning over the chest and shoulder.", "This dramatic detail, taken directly from Dietrich's costume from 1935, sets Chiuri's dress for Dior entirely apart from Björk's red-carpet dress, and makes it, irrefutably, a reference to Dietrich's costume, and by extension, to the myth of Leda and the Swan." ], [ "In modern media", "Leda column of Las Incantadas, Louvre.A version of the Leda and the Swan story is the foundation myth in the Canadian futuristic thriller television series ''Orphan Black'' which aired over 5 seasons from 2013 to 2017.A corporation uses genetic engineering to create a series of female clones (Leda) and a series of male clones (Castor) who are also brothers and sisters clones as they derive from one mother who is a chimera with male and female genomes.Musical artist Hozier released the single Swan Upon Leda in 2022, referencing the myth as a tool to advocate for reproductive rights.The 2021 wordless, 3D feature film Leda transports the myth to dark forests and deep lakes that surround a mid-19th century mansion.", "Directed by Samuel Tressler IV and starring Adeline Thery, the story focuses on a pregnant Leda, nightmarishly haunted by the image of a swan and lost between dream and reality in a state of trauma." ], [ "In commerce", "The Philadelphia cigar maker 'Bobrow Brothers' made a brand of cigars with the name 'Leda' which was sold at least into the 1940s.", "The cigar label depicted Leda and the Swan in a river." ], [ "Modern censorship", "In April 2012 an art gallery in London, England, was instructed by the police to remove a modern exhibit of Leda and the Swan.", "The law concerned was Section 63 of the Criminal Justice and Immigration Act 2008, condemning 'violent pornography', brought in by the Labour Party government of 2005–2010." ], [ "Gallery", "File:0 Léda et Zeus métamorphosé en cygne - Musei Capitolini (1).JPG\|''Leda and Zeus transformed into a swan'', Palazzo Nuovo (Capitoline Museums), Rome.", "2nd century BCEFile:Leda and the Swan, Pompeian fresco.jpg\|''Leda and the Swan'', ancient fresco from PompeiiImage:Leda Melzi Uffizi.jpg\|''Leda and the Swan'' copy by Giovanni Francesco Melzi after the lost painting by Leonardo, 1508–1515, oil on canvas, Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence, Italy.File:Cornelis Bos - Leda and the Swan - WGA2486.jpg\|Drawing by Cornelis Bos after the lost original by Michelangelo.", "Between 1530 and 1550File:Leda y el cisne (Pencz).jpg\|''Leda and the Swan''.", "Georg PenczFile:Benvenuto cellini, leda e il cigno.JPG\|''Leda and the Swan'' by Benvenuto CelliniFile:Leda and the Swan, by Massimiliano Soldani, 11364501.jpg\|''Leda and the Swan'', by Massimiliano Soldani, 1725File:Attribué à François Boucher, Léda et le Cygne (vers 1740).jpg\|Attributed to François Boucher, 1740, oil on canvas.File:Leda y el cisne.jpg\|''Leda and the Swan'', charcoal, gouache on paper.", "(Ulpiano Checa)File:Leda and the Swan by Fernando Botero.jpg\|alt=Leda and the Swan by Fernando Botero\|''Leda and the Swan'' by Fernando Botero, 1996File:Egg on Pefnos island.jpg\|Egg sculpture on Pefnos, 2020, by Yiannis Gouzos and Petros Themelis." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "Bull, Malcolm, ''The Mirror of the Gods, How Renaissance Artists Rediscovered the Pagan Gods'', Oxford UP, 2005," ], [ "Further reading", "" ], [ "External links", "* Version of Leda and the Swan myth, in the \"Fabulae\" of Hyginus* Ovid Illustrated – large site from the University of Virginia, where many depictions of Leda and the Swan from Renaissance and later editions of the Metamorphoses will (eventually) be found.", "* Yeats' \"Leda and the Swan\": an image's coming of age* The Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (images of Leda and the Swan)* Greek vase from the Getty* Samuelson blog with thoughts and pictures* 16th century Venetian painting by Il Padovanino* Alternative detail view of the Getty vase* Roman statue from the Getty* Baroque bronze from the Getty* Sculpture c 1900* ''Leda and the swan'' – Bronze miniature* ''Leda and the Swan'', by Tintoretto, from the Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence; explore other depictions of ''Leda and the Swan'' and compare to similar themes* * Jai Vilas Palace Museum, Gwalior, India" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lions Clubs International" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lions Clubs International''', is an international service organization, currently headquartered in Oak Brook, IL, USA.", ", it had over 46,000 local clubs and more than 1.4 million members (including the youth wing Leo) in more than 200 countries and geographic areas around the world." ], [ "Introduction", "Melvin Jones, the founder of Lions Clubs International, in MadridThe Association of Lions Clubs was established in 1917 in Chicago, Illinois, by Melvin Jones, a Chicago business leader and a Freemason.", "The Association went international in 1920 when Border Cities Lions Clubs in Windsor, Canada, was established.", "The name of Lions Clubs International has been used since then.", "It subsequently evolved as an international service organization under the guidance and supervision of its secretary, Melvin Jones.In 1917, Jones was a 38-year-old Chicago business leader who told members of his local business club they should reach beyond business issues and address the betterment of their communities and the world.", "Jones' group, the Business Circle of Chicago, agreed.", "After contacting similar groups around the United States, an organizational meeting was held on June 7, 1917, in Chicago.", "The Business Circle subsequently joined one of the invited groups, the \"International Association of Lions Clubs\" and at a national convention held in Dallas, Texas, later that year, those who were assembled: (1) adopted a Constitution, By-Laws, Code of Ethics and an Emblem; (2) established as a main tenet \"unselfish service to others\", (3) unanimously elected Woods as its first president, effectively securing his leadership for the first two years of the existence of the International Association of Lions, and (4) selected Jones to serve as the organization's secretary-treasurer.", "The Lions motto is \"We Serve\".", "Local Lions Club programs include sight conservation, hearing and speech conservation, diabetes awareness, youth outreach, international relations, environmental issues, and many other programs.", "The discussion of partisan politics and sectarian religion is forbidden.", "The LIONS acronym also stands for Liberty, Intelligence, Our Nations' Safety." ], [ "Focus of Lions", "===Service projects===Lions Clubs plan and participate in a variety of service projects.", "Examples include donations to hospices, or community campaigns such as ''Message in a bottle'', a United Kingdom and Ireland initiative which places a plastic bottle with critical medical information inside the refrigerators of vulnerable people.", "Money is also raised for international purposes.", "Some of this is donated in reaction to events such as the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and the 2013 Typhoon Haiyan (Yolanda).", "Other money is used to support international campaigns, coordinated by the Lions Clubs International Foundation (LCIF), such as Sight First and Lions World Sight Day, which was launched in 1998 to draw world media attention to the plight of sight loss in the developing world.Lions focus on work for the blind and visually impaired began when Helen Keller addressed the international convention at Cedar Point, Ohio, on 30 June 1925 and charged Lions to be ''Knights of the Blind''.Lions also conduct community hearing- and cancer-screening projects.", "In Perth, Western Australia, they have conducted hearing screening for over 30 years and provided seed funding for the Lions Ear and Hearing Institute established September 9, 2001, a center of excellence in the diagnosis, management, and research of ear and hearing disorders.", "In Perth, Lions have also assisted in the establishment of the Lions Eye Institute.", "In Brisbane, Queensland, the Lions Medical Research Foundation provides funding to a number of researchers.", "Ian Frazer's initial work, leading to the development of a HPV vaccine for the human papillomavirus which could lead to cervical cancer, was funded by the Lions Medical Research Foundation.Lions Clubs International has supported the work of the United Nations since that organization's inception in 1945, when it was one of the non-governmental organizations invited to assist in the drafting of the United Nations Charter in San Francisco, California.===Lions Clubs International Foundation===Lions Club Bridge in Aachen, GermanyLions Clubs International Foundation is \"Lions helping Lions serve the world\".", "Donations provide funding in the form of grants to financially assist Lions districts with large-scale humanitarian projects that are too expensive and costly for Lions to finance on their own.The Foundation aids Lions in making a greater impact in their local communities, as well as around the world.", "Major initiatives of the foundation include the following:SightFirst programsChildhood Blindness ProjectLions Eye Health Program (LEHP, pronounced \"leap\")* River blindness/TrachomaSightFirst China ActionSight for KidsOther sight programsCore 4 PreschoolVision ScreeningDisability programsLions World Services for the Blind Diabetes Prevention/Treatment Habitat for Humanity PartnershipLions Affordable Hearing Aid ProjectLow Vision Special Olympics Opening EyesYouth ProgramsLEO ClubsLions QuestLion CubsHighest Club recognitionsModel Clubs100\|100 Clubs===SightFirst===Upon endorsing the biggest ever collaborative disease eradication program called the London Declaration on Neglected Tropical Diseases launched on 30 January 2012 in London, the organization has implemented SightFirst program by which it aims to eradicate blindness due to trachoma, one of the neglected tropical diseases.", "It has allocated over US$11 million in 10 countries for eye surgeries, medical training, distribution of Zithromax and tetracycline, and sanitary services.", "It has also announced US$6.9 million funding to support the Government of China for the same cause.===Membership===Membership in the Lions Club is by \"invitation only\" as mandated by its constitution and by-laws.", "All member applicants need a sponsor who is an active member and of good standing in the club they intend to join.", "While sponsorship may be obtained by an applicant in order to become a legitimate member, sponsorship is no guarantee of membership.", "Acceptance of membership is still subject to the approval of the majority of the club's board of directors.", "A Lions Club chooses its members diligently as it requires time and financial commitments.", "Prospective applicants must be a person of good moral character in his or her community.", "Attendance at meetings is encouraged on a monthly or fortnightly basis.", "Due to the hierarchical nature of Lions Clubs International, members have the opportunity to advance from a local club to an office at the zone, district, multiple district, and international levels.In 1987 the constitution of Lions Clubs International was amended to allow for women to become members.", "Since then many clubs have admitted women, but some all-male clubs still exist.", "In 2003, 8 out of 17 members at the Lions Club in Worcester, England, resigned when a woman joined the club.Among the famous and noteworthy members of Lions International are former U.S. President Jimmy Carter, Sophie, Duchess of Edinburgh, a member of the Wokingham Lions Club and Royal Patron of the Lions Clubs of the British Isles, and Sir Edmund Hillary, a member of the Remuera Lions Club in New Zealand." ], [ "Spread of Lions", "left=== Lions Clubs around the world ===Map showing Lions Clubs involvement around the globe.Lions International Building visible in Chicago in 1970.The organization expanded internationally on 12 March 1920, when a club opened in Windsor, Ontario, Canada.", "In 1937 the club expanded to San Juan in Puerto Rico.", "Currently Lions Clubs operate in more than 200 countries and have over 1.4 million members." ], [ "International convention", "An international convention is held annually in cities across the globe for members to meet other Lions, elect the coming year's officers, and partake in the many activities planned.", "At the convention, Lions can participate in elections and parades, display and discuss fundraisers and service projects, and trade pins and other souvenirs.", "The first convention was held in 1917, the first year of the club's existence, in Dallas, Texas.", "The 2006 convention was due to be held in New Orleans, but damage sustained during Hurricane Katrina meant that the convention had to be relocated to Boston.", "The latest convention was held in Boston from 7th to 11th July, 2023." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "**" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Laches (equity)" ], [ "Introduction", "In common-law legal systems, '''laches''' ( ; Law French: ''remissness'', ''dilatoriness'', from Old French ''laschesse'') is a lack of diligence and activity in making a legal claim, or moving forward with legal enforcement of a right, particularly in regard to equity.", "This means that it is an ''unreasonable'' delay that can be viewed as prejudicing the opposing party.", "When asserted in litigation, it is an equity defense, that is, a defense to a claim for an equitable remedy.The person invoking laches is asserting that an opposing party has \"slept on its rights\", and that, as a result of this delay, circumstances have changed (witnesses or evidence may have been lost or no longer available, etc.", "), such that it is no longer a just resolution to grant the plaintiff's claim.", "Laches is associated with the maxim of equity: \"Equity aids the vigilant\" - not those who sleep on their rights.", "Put another way, failure to assert one's rights in a timely manner can result in a claim being barred by laches." ], [ "Origin, definition, overview", "Laches is a legal term derived from the Old French ''laschesse,'' meaning \"remissness\" or \"dilatoriness,\" and is viewed as the opposite of \"vigilance.\"", "The United States Supreme Court case ''Costello v. United States'' 365 US 265, 282 (1961) is often cited for a definition of laches.", "Costello defined Laches as \"Lack of diligence by the party against whom the defense is asserted combined with prejudice to the party asserting the defense\".Invoking laches is a reference to a lack of diligence and activity in making a legal claim, or moving forward with legal enforcement of a right, in particular with regard to equity, and so is an \"unreasonable delay pursuing a right or claim, in a way that prejudices the opposing party\".", "When asserted in litigation, it is an equitable defense, that is, a defense to a claim for an equitable remedy.", "The essential element of ''laches'' is an unreasonable delay by the plaintiff in bringing the claim; because laches is an equitable defense, it is ordinarily applied only to claims for equitable relief (such as injunctions), and not to claims for legal relief (such as damages).", "The person invoking laches is asserting that an opposing party has \"slept on its rights\", and that, as a result of this delay, witnesses or evidence may have been lost or no longer available, and circumstances have changed such that it is no longer just to grant the plaintiff's original claim; hence, laches is associated with the maxim of equity: ''Vigilantibus non dormientibus æquitas subvenit'' (\"Equity aids the vigilant, not the sleeping ones that is, those who sleep on their rights\").", "Put another way, failure to assert one's rights in a timely manner can result in a claim being barred by laches.", "Sometimes courts will also require that the party invoking the doctrine has changed its position as a result of the delay, but that requirement is more typical of the related (but more stringent) defense and equally cause of action of estoppel." ], [ "Components", "A claim of laches requires the following components:# a delay in bringing the action,# a delay that is unreasonable and# that prejudices the defendant.===Delay===The period of delay begins when the plaintiff knew, or reasonably ought to have known, that the cause of action existed; the period of delay ends only when the legal action is formally filed.", "Informing or warning the defendant of the cause of action (for example by sending a cease-and-desist letter or merely ''threatening'' a lawsuit) does ''not'', by itself, end the period of delay.===Unreasonableness===In order to invoke laches, the delay by the opposing party in initiating the lawsuit must be unreasonable.", "The courts have recognized the following causes of delay as reasonable:* the exhaustion of remedies through the administrative process* the evaluation and preparation of a complicated claim* to determine whether the scope of proposed infringement will justify the cost of litigationBy contrast, it is ''not'' reasonable to delay a lawsuit to \"capitalize on the value of the infringer's labor\".", "In ''Danjaq v. Sony'', the Ninth Circuit decided that a screenwriter who waited for a film studio to publicize and distribute a film based on a script he allegedly owned had delayed his lawsuit unreasonably.===Prejudice===Unreasonable delay must prejudice the defendant.", "Examples of such prejudice include:* evidence favorable to the defendant becoming lost or degraded* witnesses favorable to the defendant dying or losing their memories* the defendant making economic decisions (e.g.", "investing in a movie or a manufacturing process) that it would not have done, had the lawsuit been filed earlier.Unreasonable delay may also prejudice the rights of third-parties who were unknown in the case earlier but whose rights got created in the intervening period of the delay (e.g.", ": the defendant inducts new persons on a disputed property by sale, or by lease)." ], [ "Procedure", "A defense lawyer raising the defense of ''laches'' against a motion for injunctive relief (a form of equitable relief) might argue that the plaintiff comes \"waltzing in at the eleventh hour\" when it is now too late to grant the relief sought, at least not without causing great harm that the plaintiff could have avoided.", "In certain types of cases (for example, cases involving time-sensitive matters, such as elections), a delay of even a few days is likely to be met with a defense of ''laches'', even where the applicable statute of limitations might allow the type of action to be commenced within a much longer time period.", "In courts in the United States, laches has often been applied even where a statute of limitations exists, although there is a division of authority on this point.If a court does accept the laches defense, it can decide either to deny the request for equitable relief or to narrow the equitable relief that it would otherwise give.", "Even if the court denies equitable relief to a plaintiff because of laches, the plaintiff may still have a claim for legal relief if the statute of limitations has not run out.Under the United States Federal Rules of Civil Procedure, ''laches'' is an affirmative defense, which means that the burden of asserting ''laches'' is on the party responding to the claim to which it applies.The ''laches'' defense does not apply if the claimant was a minor during the time that the claim was not brought, so a party can bring a claim against an historical injustice when they reach their majority." ], [ "Compared to statute of limitations", "The defense of ''laches'' resembles a statute of limitations since both are concerned with ensuring that plaintiffs bring their claims in a timely fashion.However, a statute of limitations is concerned only with the time that has passed.", "Laches is concerned with the reasonableness of the delay in a particular situation and so is more case-specific and more focused on the equitable conduct of the plaintiff.", "Those considerations are not unique to the laches defense because they are characteristic of equitable reasoning and equitable remedies.", "Whereas, limitation is a statutory remedy.In the US, the proper disposal of claims in light of those two areas of law has required attention through to the Supreme Court.", "In ''Petrella v. Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer'' (2014), the US Supreme Court rebuffed a defendant's claim that laches barred a copyright infringement suit because Congress had established a detailed statutory scheme, including a statute of limitations." ], [ "Examples", "In the Virginia Republican primary for the 2012 US presidential election, several candidates did not appear on the ballot because they failed to obtain sufficient petition signatures.", "Four of the unsuccessful candidates—Rick Perry, Jon Huntsman, Newt Gingrich, and Rick Santorum—sued, claiming that restrictions on the persons allowed to gather signatures were unconstitutional.", "Their claim was dismissed by the district court on the grounds of laches, because, in the words of the appellate court: The appeals court upheld the dismissal on grounds of laches, but it added that the challenge would likely have succeeded if it had been brought in a timely fashion.In Grand Haven, Michigan, the Northwest Ottawa Community Health System sued Grand Haven Township and Health Pointe, which was in the process of building a competing medical facility in the township, arguing that the township ignored its own zoning ordinance in approving the project.", "On March 24, 2017, as part of a ruling dismissing the lawsuit, Circuit Court Judge Jon A.", "Van Allsburg noted that the Northwest Ottawa Community Health System waited more than eight months from the date the project was approved before filing the lawsuit and that during that time, plaintiff Health Pointe had purchased construction materials.The defense of laches is often used as an affirmative defense in patent infringement lawsuits in the USA.", "In 2021, the Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit allowed the USPTO to use laches as a reason for denying patents to an applicant, who filed hundreds of applications, that were \"atypically long and complex\", and who filed amendments, which increased the total number of claims to roughly 115,000.This applicant alone forced the USPTO to create an art unit of twelve experienced examiners solely to examine its patents." ], [ "See also", "* Adverse possession* Estoppel by acquiescence* Equitable tolling* Submarine patent* Statute of limitations" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "External links", "* Nair, Manisha Singh (2006) \"Laches and Acquiescence\" in Indian intellectual property law" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Legion" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Legion''' may refer to:" ], [ "Military", "* Roman legion, the basic military unit of the ancient Roman armyAviazione Legionaria, Italian air force during the Spanish Civil War A legion is the regional unit of the Italian carabinieri* Spanish Legion, an elite military unit within the Spanish Army* Condor Legion, a unit of military personnel from the air force and army of Nazi Germany* French Foreign Legion, a part of the French Army, created for foreign nationals willing to serve in the French Armed Forces* International Legion (Ukraine), a Ukrainian foreign volunteer wing of the 2022 Russo-Ukrainian war* HMS ''Legion'' (1914), a Royal Navy World War I destroyer* HMS ''Legion'' (G74), a Royal Navy World War II destroyer sunk in 1942* Legion of the United States, a reorganization of the United States Army from 1792 to 1796* Various military legions, often composed of soldiers from a specific ethnic, national, religious or ideological background" ], [ "Veterans' organizations", "* American Legion, an organization of American veterans* Royal British Legion, a UK charity providing support for members of the British Armed Forces and their dependents* Royal Canadian Legion, a non-profit Canadian veterans' organization* South African Legion of Military Veterans, the oldest veterans organization organisation in South Africa* Society of the Cavaliers of the Order of Lāčplēsis & Freedom Fighters, also known as the Legion, a right-wing veterans' organisation founded by Voldemārs Ozols (1884–1949)" ], [ "Arts and media", "=== Comics ===* Legion (Marvel Comics), a Marvel Comics antihero* Legion (DC Comics), a DC Comics supervillain* Legion of Super-Heroes, a DC Comics superhero team* The Legion (comics), one of the comic books where the Legion of Super-Heroes was published* Legion, a group of characters from the ''Spawn'' series* Legion, a member of the Special Executive* ''L.E.G.I.O.N.", "'', a 1989 DC Comics title and a team of superheroes, the 20th century forerunners to the Legion of Superheroes* ''Ghostbusters: Legion'', a 2004 comic book series=== Film and television ===* \"Legion\" (''Law & Order: Criminal Intent''), the eighteenth episode in the second season of ''Law & Order: Criminal Intent''* \"Legion\" (''Red Dwarf''), the second episode of ''Red Dwarf'' Series VI* ''Legion'' (1998 film) a 1998 made-for-television film* ''Legion'' (2010 film) a 2010 apocalyptic supernatural action film* ''The Legion'' (film) a 2020 film starring Mickey Rourke* ''Legions'' (film), a 2022 Argentine supernatural horror film* ''Legion'' (TV series), an FX TV series based on the Marvel Comics character* \"Legion\", an eighth-season episode of the television series ''Smallville''* Legion, an alien kaiju seen in the film ''Gamera 2: Attack of Legion''* Legion, a fictional computer network in the 2019 film ''Terminator: Dark Fate''=== Games ===* Legion, a often appearing enemy in the Castlevania series.", "* ''Legion Gold'', or simply Legion, a strategy game* Legions (Magic: The Gathering), a set of cards in the game ''Magic: The Gathering''* Legion (Mass Effect), the adopted name of a synthetic intelligence in ''Mass Effect 2''* Legion, central villain of the video game ''Shadow Man''* Legion, an artificial intelligence unit in ''Command & Conquer 3: Kane's Wrath''* ''World of Warcraft: Legion'', the sixth ''World of Warcraft'' expansion setThe Legion, a group of killer characters in the horror video game ''Dead by Daylight''''Watch Dogs: Legion'', an action-adventure game and the third installment in the ''Watch Dogs'' series=== Plays ===* ''Legion'', a play by Hal Corley=== In print ===* ''Legion'' (novella series), a series of novellas by Brandon Sanderson* ''Legion'', a unit in the army of the fictional The Domination* ''Legion'' (Blatty novel), a 1983 novel by William Peter Blatty* Legion (demons), a group of demons referred to in the Christian Bible* ''Legion'', by Dan Abnett, book 7 in the ''Horus Heresy'' book series* ''The Legion'' (novel), a 2010 historical novel by Simon Scarrow=== Music ===* Legion Records, started in 1997 by Michael Brosnan under the name Goatboy Records* Legion (band) a deathcore band from Columbus, Ohio* Legion, stage name of Erik Hagstedt, Swedish vocalist in the black metal band Marduk* The Legion, a hip hop group from the Bronx, New York, associated with Black Sheep* ''Legion'' (album), a 1992 album by Deicide* ''Legion'', a 1985 album by Mark Shreeve* ''Legions'', a 2013 album by the Danish band Artillery* \"Legion\", a song by Candiria from the album ''Kiss the Lie''* \"Legion\", a song by HammerFall from the album ''No Sacrifice, No Victory''* \"Legion\", a song by Junkie XL from the album ''Big Sounds of the Drags''* \"Legion\", a song by Saviour Machine from the album ''Saviour Machine I''* \"Legion\", a song by Slaughter Lord, covered by At the Gates in the 2002 re-issue of the album ''Slaughter of the Soul''* \"Legion\", a song by Tesseract from the album ''War of Being''* \"Legion\", a song by VNV Nation from the album ''Empires''* \"Legions\", a song by Winds of Plague from the album ''Decimate the Weak''" ], [ "Sports", "* Legion Field, a stadium in Birmingham, Alabama* Legion Sports Complex, a complex in Wilmington, North Carolina* Legion Stadium (disambiguation)* Racine Legion, an American football team from 1922 to 1925" ], [ "Other uses", "* Legion (demons), the collective name of the demons in the gospel account of the Gerasene demoniac* Legion Park (disambiguation)* Legion (taxonomy), a taxonomic rank in biology* Legion (software), a computer software system* Legion Interactive, an Australian telecommunications company* Catholic Legion (disambiguation)* Legionnaire (disambiguation)* Legionary* Lenovo Legion, a series of high-end gaming laptops." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lyman Abbott" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lyman J. Abbott''' (December 18, 1835 – October 22, 1922) was an American Congregationalist theologian, editor, and author." ], [ "Biography", "===Early years===Abbott was born at Roxbury, Massachusetts, on December 18, 1835, the son of the prolific author, educator and historian Jacob Abbott, and his mother being Harriet Vaughan.", "Abbott grew up in Farmington, Maine, and later in New York City.", "Abbott's ancestors were from England, and came to America roughly twenty years after Plymouth Rock.He graduated from the New York University in 1853, where he was a member of the Eucleian Society, studied law, and was admitted to the bar in 1856.Abbott soon abandoned the legal profession, however, and after studying theology with his uncle, John Stevens Cabot Abbott, was ordained a minister of the Congregational Church in 1860.He was married October 14, 1857, to Abby F., daughter of Hannibal Hamlin of Boston, Mass.===Career===He was pastor of the Congregational Church in Terre Haute, Indiana, from 1860 to 1865 and of the New England Church in New York City in 1865–1869.From 1865 to 1868 he was secretary of the American Union Commission (later called the American Freedmen's and Union Commission).", "In 1869 he resigned his pastorate to devote himself to literature.With Booker Washington and other dignitariesAbbot worked variously in the publishing profession as an associate editor of ''Harper's Magazine'', and was the founder of a publication called the ''Illustrated Christian Weekly,'' which he edited for six years.", "He was also the co-editor of ''The Christian Union'' with Henry Ward Beecher from 1876 to 1881.Abbott later succeeded Beecher in 1888 as pastor of Plymouth Church, Brooklyn.", "He also wrote the official biography of Beecher and edited his papers.From 1881 Abbott was editor-in-chief of ''The Christian Union'', renamed ''The Outlook'' in 1891; this periodical reflected his efforts toward social reform, and, in theology, a liberality, humanitarianism and nearly unitarian.", "The latter characteristics marked his published works also.Abbott's opinions differed from those of Beecher.", "Abbott was a constant advocate of Industrial Democracy, and was an advocate of Theodore Roosevelt's progressivism for almost 20 years.", "He would later adopt a pronouncedly liberal theology.", "He was also a pronounced Christian Evolutionist.", "In two of his books, ''The Evolution of Christianity'' and ''The Theology of an Evolutionist'', Abbott applied the concept of evolution in a Christian theological perspective.", "Although he himself objected to being called an advocate of Darwinism, he was an optimistic advocate of evolution who thought that \"what Jesus saw, humanity is becoming.", "\"Abbott was a religious figure of some public note and was called upon on October 30, 1897, to deliver an address in New York at the funeral of economist, Henry George.", "He ultimately resigned his pastorate in November 1898.His son, Lawrence Fraser Abbott, accompanied President Roosevelt on a tour of Europe and Africa (1909–10).", "In 1913 Lyman Abbott was expelled from the American Peace Society because military preparedness was vigorously advocated in ''The Outlook'', which he edited, and because he was a member of the Army and Navy League.", "During the World War I he was a strong supporter of the government's war policies.He received the degree D.D.", "from the University of the City of New York in 1879; from Harvard in 1891, from Yale in 1903, and LL.D.", "from Western Reserve in 1900.===Death and legacy===Lyman Abbott died on October 22, 1922, and was buried in Woodlawn Cemetery at New Windsor, New York.The editors of ''The Outlook'' kept their normal routine, publishing without \"departure from the normal course of publication\" since that was what their departed colleague would have wanted.", "The issue asked readers for understanding as the paper \"waited until the next week to give to his friends, known and unknown, a record of his life and of the tributes which marked his passing.\"", "A brief tribute appeared in that issue, but the November 8th edition contained the official remembrance and tributes.", "Fifteen pages in that issue dealt with Abbott, and the publishers included \"several long essays in Abbott's honor from close relatives, shorter tributes from friends and past associates, and blurbs from many American press companies.", "\"The many diverse and prominent author who contributed tributes \"demonstrated the scope and magnitude of Lyman Abbott's influence within American religious and intellectual culture during his long career.\"", "Prominent examples include a re-published 1915 tribute from former United States president Theodore Roosevelt and articles from prestigious newspapers such as ''The New York Times'' and the ''New York Herald''.", "Roosevelt praised Abbott for being \"one of those men whose work and life give strength to all who believe in this country,\" and the New York Herald recalled Abbott's ability to \"convey his valuable opinions to the entire intellectual public.\"", "Dr. Henry Sloane Coffin noted at a later memorial service, \"Measured by the number of people he reached, Dr. Abbott was unquestionably the greatest teacher of religion of this generation.", "\"Abbott's lasting influence and widespread appeal is readily apparent in later evaluations of his life.", "Abbott's one biographer, Ira V. Brown, confirmed Abbott's importance via \"testimonials by the dozen,\" and added that Abbott \"directly reached several hundred thousands of people\" through his work as a \"minister, lecturer, author, and editor.\"", "Abbott was \"something of a national patriarch\" by the time of his death, and according to Brown, he was \"no less than a modern oracle\" to thousands of followers.", "Abbott influenced hundreds every week through his sermons at the prestigious Plymouth Avenue Congregationalist Church.", "He also gave speeches at many American colleges, published several books that sold between five and ten thousand copies, and edited the Outlook that, at its peak, sold \"about 125,000 copies a week.\"", "The magazine \"was a prominent news source for Protestant ministers and laypeople all over the United States, demonstrating Abbott's lasting influence.\"" ], [ "Works", "* ''Sermons of Henry Ward Beecher'' (Editor).", "(2 vols., 1868)''Jesus of Nazareth'' (1869)''Illustrated Commentary on the New Testament'' (4 vols., 1875)''A Study in Human Nature'' (1885) ''What is Christianity?''", "in: ''The Arena'' (1891)''Life of Christ'' (1894)''The Evolution of Christianity'' (1896) (Lowell Lectures, reissued by Cambridge University Press, 2009, )''The Theology of an Evolutionist'' (1897)''Christianity and Social Problems'' (1897)''Life and Letters of Paul'' (1898)''The Life that Really is'' (1899)''Why Go To Church?''", "(1900) (Published in \"The Day's Work Series\" by L. C. Page)''Problems of Life'' (1900)''The Rights of Man'' (1901)''Henry Ward Beecher'' (1903)''The Other Room'' (1903)''The Great Companion'' (1904) (New edition published September 1906)''The Christian Ministry'' (1905)''The Personality of God'' (1905)''Industrial Problems'' (1905)\"Impressions of a Careless Traveler\" (1907)''Christ's Secret of Happiness'' (1907)''The Home Builder'' (1908)''The Temple'' (1909)''The Spirit of Democracy'' (1910)''America in the Making'' (1911) (Yale Lectures on the Responsibility of Citizenship)''Letters to Unknown Friends'' (1913)''Reminiscences'' (1915)''The Twentieth Century Crusade'' (1918)''What Christianity Means to Me'' (1921)" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "Further reading", "Brown, Ira V. ''Lyman Abbott, Christian Evolutionist: A Study in Religious Liberalism''.", "Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1953.", "Lagerwey, Caleb.", "\"Chaplain of Progress: The Role of Progress and Evolution in Lyman Abbott's Justification for American Expansion in 1898–1900.\"", "Thesis, Calvin College, 2012.Retrieved December 18, 2012.", "Reid, Daniel G., et al.", "''Dictionary of Christianity in America''.", "Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1990.", "Wetzel, Benjamin James.", "\"A 'Scourge and Minister': Lyman Abbott, Liberal Protestantism, and American Warfare, 1861–1920\" Master's thesis, Baylor University, 2011.Retrieved from PDF – Baylor University Retrieved December 18, 2012.", "Wetzel, Benjamin James.", "\"Onward Christian Soldiers: Lyman Abbott's Justification of the Spanish–American War.\"", "''Journal of Church and State'' 53, no.", "3 (Summer 2012): 406–425.PDF Retrieved January 22, 2013." ], [ "External links", "** Appleton's Cyclopedia of American Biography, edited by James Grant Wilson, John Fiske and Stanley L. Klos.", "Six volumes, New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1887–1889* * * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Leap second" ], [ "Introduction", "Screenshot of the UTC clock from during the leap second on 31 December 2016.A '''leap second''' is a one-second adjustment that is occasionally applied to Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), to accommodate the difference between precise time (International Atomic Time (TAI), as measured by atomic clocks) and imprecise observed solar time (UT1), which varies due to irregularities and long-term slowdown in the Earth's rotation.", "The UTC time standard, widely used for international timekeeping and as the reference for civil time in most countries, uses TAI and consequently would run ahead of observed solar time unless it is reset to UT1 as needed.", "The leap second facility exists to provide this adjustment.", "The leap second was introduced in 1972 and since then 27 leap seconds have been added to UTC.Because the Earth's rotational speed varies in response to climatic and geological events, UTC leap seconds are irregularly spaced and unpredictable.", "Insertion of each UTC leap second is usually decided about six months in advance by the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS), to ensure that the difference between the UTC and UT1 readings will never exceed 0.9 seconds.This practice has proven disruptive, particularly in the twenty-first century and especially in services that depend on precise timestamping or time-critical process control.", "And since not all computers are adjusted by leap-second, they will display times differing from those that have been adjusted.", "After many years of discussions by different standards bodies, in November 2022, at the 27th General Conference on Weights and Measures, it was decided to abandon the leap second by or before 2035." ], [ "History", "Graph showing the difference between UT1 and UTC.", "Vertical segments correspond to leap seconds.In about , Ptolemy, the Alexandrian astronomer, sexagesimally subdivided both the mean solar day and the true solar day to at least six places after the sexagesimal point, and he used simple fractions of both the equinoctial hour and the seasonal hour, none of which resemble the modern second.", "Muslim scholars, including al-Biruni in 1000, subdivided the mean solar day into 24 equinoctial hours, each of which was subdivided sexagesimally, that is into the units of minute, second, third, fourth and fifth, creating the modern second as of the mean solar day in the process.", "With this definition, the second was proposed in 1874 as the base unit of time in the CGS system of units.", "Soon afterwards Simon Newcomb and others discovered that Earth's rotation period varied irregularly, so in 1952, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) defined the second as a fraction of the sidereal year.", "In 1955, considering the tropical year to be more fundamental than the sidereal year, the IAU redefined the second as the fraction of the 1900.0 mean tropical year.", "In 1956, a slightly more precise value of was adopted for the definition of the second by the International Committee for Weights and Measures, and in 1960 by the General Conference on Weights and Measures, becoming a part of the International System of Units (SI).Eventually, this definition too was found to be inadequate for precise time measurements, so in 1967, the SI second was again redefined as 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation emitted by a caesium-133 atom in the transition between the two hyperfine levels of its ground state.", "That value agreed to 1 part in 1010 with the astronomical (ephemeris) second then in use.", "It was also close to of the mean solar day as averaged between years 1750 and 1892.However, for the past several centuries, the length of the mean solar day has been increasing by about 1.4–1.7 ms per century, depending on the averaging time.", "By 1961, the mean solar day was already a millisecond or two longer than SI seconds.", "Therefore, time standards that change the date after precisely SI seconds, such as the International Atomic Time (TAI), would become increasingly ahead of time standards tied to the mean solar day, such as Universal Time (UT).When the Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) standard was instituted in 1960, based on atomic clocks, it was felt necessary to maintain agreement with UT, which, until then, had been the reference for broadcast time services.", "From 1960 to 1971, the rate of UTC atomic clocks was offset from a pure atomic time scale by the BIH to remain synchronized with UT2, a practice known as the \"rubber second\".", "The rate of UTC was decided at the start of each year, and was offset from the rate of atomic time by −150 parts per 10 for 1960–1962, by −130 parts per 10 for 1962–63, by −150 parts per 10 again for 1964–65, and by −300 parts per 10 for 1966–1971.Alongside the shift in rate, an occasional 0.1 s step (0.05 s before 1963) was needed.", "This predominantly frequency-shifted rate of UTC was broadcast by MSF, WWV, and CHU among other time stations.", "In 1966, the CCIR approved \"stepped atomic time\" (SAT), which adjusted atomic time with more frequent 0.2 s adjustments to keep it within 0.1 s of UT2, because it had no rate adjustments.", "SAT was broadcast by WWVB among other time stations.In 1972, the leap-second system was introduced so that the UTC seconds could be set exactly equal to the standard SI second, while still maintaining the UTC time of day and changes of UTC date synchronized with those of UT1.By then, the UTC clock was already 10 seconds behind TAI, which had been synchronized with UT1 in 1958, but had been counting true SI seconds since then.", "After 1972, both clocks have been ticking in SI seconds, so the difference between their displays at any time is 10 seconds plus the total number of leap seconds that have been applied to UTC as of that time; , 27 leap seconds have been applied to UTC, so the difference is 10 + 27 = 37 seconds." ], [ "Insertion of leap seconds", "+ Announced leap seconds to date Year 30 Jun 31 Dec 1972 +1 +1 1973 0 +1 1974 0 +1 1975 0 +1 1976 0 +1 1977 0 +1 1978 0 +1 1979 0 +1 1980 0 0 1981 +1 0 1982 +1 0 1983 +1 0 1984 0 0 1985 +1 0 1986 0 0 1987 0 +1 1988 0 0 1989 0 +1 1990 0 +1 1991 0 0 1992 +1 0 1993 +1 0 1994 +1 0 1995 0 +1 1996 0 0 1997 +1 0 1998 0 +1 1999 0 0 2000 0 0 2001 0 0 2002 0 0 2003 0 0 2004 0 0 2005 0 +1 2006 0 0 2007 0 0 2008 0 +1 2009 0 0 2010 0 0 2011 0 0 2012 +1 0 2013 0 0 2014 0 0 2015 +1 0 2016 0 +1 2017 0 0 2018 0 0 2019 0 0 2020 0 0 2021 0 0 2022 0 0 2023 0 0 2024 0 Year 30 Jun 31 Dec Total 11 16 27 Current TAI − UTC 37The scheduling of leap seconds was initially delegated to the Bureau International de l'Heure (BIH), but passed to the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS) on 1 January 1988.IERS usually decides to apply a leap second whenever the difference between UTC and UT1 approaches 0.6 s, in order to keep the difference between UTC and UT1 from exceeding 0.9 s.The UTC standard allows leap seconds to be applied at the end of any UTC month, with first preference to June and December and second preference to March and September.", ", all of them have been inserted at the end of either 30 June or 31 December.", "IERS publishes announcements every six months, whether leap seconds are to occur or not, in its \"Bulletin C\".", "Such announcements are typically published well in advance of each possible leap second date – usually in early January for 30 June and in early July for 31 December.", "Some time signal broadcasts give voice announcements of an impending leap second.Between 1972 and 2020, a leap second has been inserted about every 21 months, on average.", "However, the spacing is quite irregular and apparently increasing: there were no leap seconds in the six-year interval between 1 January 1999 and 31 December 31, 2004 but there were nine leap seconds in the eight years 1972–1979.Since the introduction of leap seconds, 1972 has been the longest year on record: 366 days and two seconds.Unlike leap days, which begin after 28 February, 23:59:59 local time, UTC leap seconds occur simultaneously worldwide; for example, the leap second on 31 December 2005, 23:59:60 UTC was 31 December 2005, 18:59:60 (6:59:60 p.m.) in U.S. Eastern Standard Time and 1 January 2006, 08:59:60 (a.m.) in Japan Standard Time.===Process===When it is mandated, a positive leap second is inserted between second 23:59:59 of a chosen UTC calendar date and second 00:00:00 of the following date.", "The definition of UTC states that the last day of December and June are preferred, with the last day of March or September as second preference, and the last day of any other month as third preference.", "All leap seconds (as of 2019) have been scheduled for either 30 June or 31 December.", "The extra second is displayed on UTC clocks as 23:59:60.On clocks that display local time tied to UTC, the leap second may be inserted at the end of some other hour (or half-hour or quarter-hour), depending on the local time zone.", "A negative leap second would suppress second 23:59:59 of the last day of a chosen month so that second 23:59:58 of that date would be followed immediately by second 00:00:00 of the following date.", "Since the introduction of leap seconds, the mean solar day has outpaced atomic time only for very brief periods and has not triggered a negative leap second." ], [ "Slowing rotation of the Earth", "Deviation of day length from SI based day with shorter days resulting from faster planetary rotation.Leap seconds are irregularly spaced because the Earth's rotation speed changes irregularly.", "Indeed, the Earth's rotation is quite unpredictable in the long term, which explains why leap seconds are announced only six months in advance.A mathematical model of the variations in the length of the solar day was developed by F. R. Stephenson and L. V. Morrison, based on records of eclipses for the period to , telescopic observations of occultations for the period 1623 until 1967 and atomic clocks thereafter.", "The model shows a steady increase of the mean solar day by 1.70 ms (±0.05 ms) per century, plus a periodic shift of about 4 ms amplitude and period of about 1,500 yr. Over the last few centuries, rate of lengthening of the mean solar day has been about 1.4 ms per century, being the sum of the periodic component and the overall rate.The main reason for the slowing down of the Earth's rotation is tidal friction, which alone would lengthen the day by 2.3 ms/century.", "Other contributing factors are the movement of the Earth's crust relative to its core, changes in mantle convection, and any other events or processes that cause a significant redistribution of mass.", "These processes change the Earth's moment of inertia, affecting the rate of rotation due to the conservation of angular momentum.", "Some of these redistributions increase Earth's rotational speed, shorten the solar day and oppose tidal friction.", "For example, glacial rebound shortens the solar day by 0.6 ms/century and the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake is thought to have shortened it by 2.68 microseconds.It is a mistake, however, to consider leap seconds as indicators of a slowing of Earth's rotation rate; they are indicators of the accumulated difference between atomic time and time measured by Earth rotation.", "The plot at the top of this section shows that in 1972 the average length of day was approximately seconds and in 2016 it was approximately seconds, indicating an overall increase in Earth's rotation rate over that time period.", "Positive leap seconds were inserted during that time because the annual average length of day remained greater than SI seconds, not because of any slowing of Earth's rotation rate.In 2021, it was reported that Earth was spinning faster in 2020 and experienced the 28 shortest days since 1960, each of which lasted less than seconds.", "This caused engineers worldwide to discuss a negative leap second and other possible timekeeping measures, some of which could eliminate leap seconds." ], [ "Future of leap seconds", "The TAI and UT1 time scales are precisely defined, the former by atomic clocks (and thus independent of Earth's rotation) and the latter by astronomical observations (that measure actual planetary rotation and thus the solar time at the Greenwich meridian).", "UTC (on which civil time is usually based) is a compromise, stepping with atomic seconds but periodically reset by a leap second to match UT1.The irregularity and unpredictability of UTC leap seconds is problematic for several areas, especially computing (see below).", "With increasing requirements for accuracy in automation systems and high-frequency trading, this raises a number of issues.", "Consequently, the long-standing practice of inserting leap seconds is under review by the relevant international standards body.===International proposals for elimination of leap seconds===On 5 July 2005, the Head of the Earth Orientation Center of the IERS sent a notice to IERS Bulletins C and D subscribers, soliciting comments on a U.S. proposal before the ITU-R Study Group 7's WP7-A to eliminate leap seconds from the UTC broadcast standard before 2008 (the ITU-R is responsible for the definition of UTC).", "It was expected to be considered in November 2005, but the discussion has since been postponed.", "Under the proposal, leap seconds would be technically replaced by leap hours as an attempt to satisfy the legal requirements of several ITU-R member nations that civil time be astronomically tied to the Sun.A number of objections to the proposal have been raised.", "P. Kenneth Seidelmann, editor of the Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac, wrote a letter lamenting the lack of consistent public information about the proposal and adequate justification.", "In an op-ed for ''Science News'', Steve Allen of the University of California, Santa Cruz said that the process has a large impact on astronomers.", "Allen has an extensive online site devoted to the issues and the history of leap seconds, including a set of references about the proposal and arguments against it.At the 2014 General Assembly of the International Union of Radio Scientists (URSI), Demetrios Matsakis, the United States Naval Observatory's Chief Scientist for Time Services, presented the reasoning in favor of the redefinition and rebuttals to the arguments made against it.", "He stressed the practical inability of software programmers to allow for the fact that leap seconds make time appear to go backwards, particularly when most of them do not even know that leap seconds exist.", "The possibility of leap seconds being a hazard to navigation was presented, as well as the observed effects on commerce.The United States formulated its position on this matter based upon the advice of the National Telecommunications and Information Administration and the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), which solicited comments from the general public.", "This position is in favor of the redefinition.In 2011, Chunhao Han of the Beijing Global Information Center of Application and Exploration said China had not decided what its vote would be in January 2012, but some Chinese scholars consider it important to maintain a link between civil and astronomical time due to Chinese tradition.", "The 2012 vote was ultimately deferred.", "At an ITU/BIPM-sponsored workshop on the leap second, Han expressed his personal view in favor of abolishing the leap second, and similar support for the redefinition was again expressed by Han, along with other Chinese timekeeping scientists, at the URSI General Assembly in 2014.At a special session of the Asia-Pacific Telecommunity Meeting on 10 February 2015, Chunhao Han indicated China was now supporting the elimination of future leap seconds, as were all the other presenting national representatives (from Australia, Japan, and the Republic of Korea).", "At this meeting, Bruce Warrington (NMI, Australia) and Tsukasa Iwama (NICT, Japan) indicated particular concern for the financial markets due to the leap second occurring in the middle of a workday in their part of the world.", "Subsequent to the CPM15-2 meeting in March/April 2015 the draft gives four methods which the WRC-15 might use to satisfy Resolution 653 from WRC-12.Arguments against the proposal include the unknown expense of such a major change and the fact that universal time will no longer correspond to mean solar time.", "It is also answered that two timescales that do not follow leap seconds are already available, International Atomic Time (TAI) and Global Positioning System (GPS) time.", "Computers, for example, could use these and convert to UTC or local civil time as necessary for output.", "Inexpensive GPS timing receivers are readily available, and the satellite broadcasts include the necessary information to convert GPS time to UTC.", "It is also easy to convert GPS time to TAI, as TAI is always exactly 19 seconds ahead of GPS time.", "Examples of systems based on GPS time include the CDMA digital cellular systems IS-95 and CDMA2000.In general, computer systems use UTC and synchronize their clocks using Network Time Protocol (NTP).", "Systems that cannot tolerate disruptions caused by leap seconds can base their time on TAI and use Precision Time Protocol.", "However, the BIPM has pointed out that this proliferation of timescales leads to confusion.At the 47th meeting of the Civil Global Positioning System Service Interface Committee in Fort Worth, Texas, in September 2007, it was announced that a mailed vote would go out on stopping leap seconds.", "The plan for the vote was:* April 2008: ITU Working Party 7A will submit to ITU Study Group 7 project recommendation on stopping leap seconds* During 2008, Study Group 7 will conduct a vote through mail among member states* October 2011: The ITU-R released its status paper, ''Status of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) study in ITU-R'', in preparation for the January 2012 meeting in Geneva; the paper reported that, to date, in response to the UN agency's 2010 and 2011 web-based surveys requesting input on the topic, it had received 16 responses from the 192 Member States with \"13 being in favor of change, 3 being contrary.", "\"* January 2012: The ITU makes a decision.In January 2012, rather than decide yes or no per this plan, the ITU decided to postpone a decision on leap seconds to the World Radiocommunication Conference in November 2015.At this conference, it was again decided to continue using leap seconds, pending further study and consideration at the next conference in 2023.In October 2014, Włodzimierz Lewandowski, chair of the timing subcommittee of the Civil GPS Interface Service Committee and a member of the ESA Navigation Program Board, presented a CGSIC-endorsed resolution to the ITU that supported the redefinition and described leap seconds as a \"hazard to navigation\".Some of the objections to the proposed change have been addressed by its supporters.", "For example, Felicitas Arias, who, as Director of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM)'s Time, Frequency, and Gravimetry Department, was responsible for generating UTC, noted in a press release that the drift of about one minute every 60–90 years could be compared to the 16-minute annual variation between true solar time and mean solar time, the one hour offset by use of daylight time, and the several-hours offset in certain geographically extra-large time zones.Proposed alternatives to the leap second are the leap hour, which requires changes only once every few centuries; and the leap minute, with changes coming every half-century.On 18 November 2022, the General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) resolved to eliminate leap seconds by or before 2035.The difference between atomic and astronomical time will be allowed to grow to a larger value yet to be determined.", "A suggested possible future measure would be to let the discrepancy increase to a full minute, which would take 50 to 100 years, and then have the last minute of the day taking two minutes in a \"kind of smear\" with no discontinuity.", "The year 2035 for eliminating leap seconds was chosen considering Russia's request to extend the timeline to 2040, since, unlike the United States's global navigation satellite system, GPS, which does not adjust its time with leap seconds, Russia's system, GLONASS, does adjust its time with leap seconds." ], [ "Issues created by insertion (or removal) of leap seconds", "===Calculation of time differences and sequence of events===To compute the elapsed time in seconds between two given UTC dates requires the consultation of a table of leap seconds, which needs to be updated whenever a new leap second is announced.", "Since leap seconds are known only 6 months in advance, time intervals for UTC dates further in the future cannot be computed.===Missing leap seconds announcement===Although BIPM announces a leap second 6 months in advance, most time distribution systems (SNTP, IRIG-B, PTP) announce leap seconds at most 12 hours in advance, sometimes only in the last minute and some even not at all (DNP 03).", "===Implementation differences===Not all clocks implement leap seconds in the same manner.", "Leap seconds in Unix time are commonly implemented by repeating 23:59:59 or adding the time-stamp 23:59:60.Network Time Protocol (SNTP) freezes time during the leap second, some time servers declare \"alarm condition\".", "Other schemes ''smear'' time in the vicinity of a leap second, spreading out the second of change over a longer period.", "This aims to avoid any negative effects of a substantial (by modern standards) step in time.", "This approach has led to differences between systems, as leap smear is not standardized and several different schemes are used in practice.===Textual representation of the leap second===The textual representation of a leap second is defined by BIPM as \"23:59:60\".", "There are programs that are not familiar with this format and may report an error when dealing with such input.===Binary representation of the leap second===Most computer operating systems and most time distribution systems represent time with a binary counter indicating the number of seconds elapsed since an arbitrary epoch; for instance, since 00:00:00 in POSIX machines or since 00:00:00 in NTP.", "This counter does not count positive leap seconds, and has no indicator that a leap second has been inserted, therefore two seconds in sequence will have the same counter value.", "Some computer operating systems, in particular Linux, assign to the leap second the counter value of the preceding, 23:59:59 second ( sequence), while other computers (and the IRIG-B time distribution) assign to the leap second the counter value of the next, 00:00:00 second ( sequence).", "Since there is no standard governing this sequence, the timestamp of values sampled at exactly the same time can vary by one second.", "This may explain flaws in time-critical systems that rely on timestamped values.===Other reported software problems associated with the leap second===Several models of global navigation satellite receivers have software flaws associated with leap seconds:* Some older versions of Motorola Oncore VP, UT, GT, and M12 GPS receivers had a software bug that would cause a single timestamp to be off by a day if no leap second was scheduled for 256 weeks.", "On 28 November 2003, this happened.", "At midnight, the receivers with this firmware reported 29 November 2003, for one second and then reverted to 28 November 2003.", "* Older Trimble GPS receivers had a software flaw that would insert a leap second immediately after the GPS constellation started broadcasting the next leap second insertion time (some months in advance of the actual leap second), rather than waiting for the next leap second to happen.", "This left the receiver's time off by a second in the interim.", "* Older Datum Tymeserve 2100 GPS receivers and Symmetricom Tymeserve 2100 receivers apply a leap second as soon as the a leap second notification is received, instead of waiting for the correct date.", "The manufacturers no longer supports these models and no corrected software is available.", "A workaround has been described and tested, but if the GPS system rebroadcasts the announcement, or the unit is powered off, the problem will occur again.", "* Four different brands of navigational receivers that use data from BeiDou satellites were found to implement leap seconds one day early.", "This was traced to a bug related to how the BeiDou protocol numbers the days of the week.Several software vendors have distributed software that has not properly functioned with the concept of leap seconds:* NTP specifies a flag to inform the receiver that a leap second is imminent.", "However, some NTP server implementations have failed to set their leap second flag correctly.", "Some NTP servers have responded with the wrong time for up to a day after a leap second insertion.", "* A number of organizations reported problems caused by flawed software following the leap second that occurred on 30 June 2012.Among the sites which reported problems were Reddit (Apache Cassandra), Mozilla (Hadoop), Qantas, and various sites running Linux.", "* Despite the publicity given to the 2015 leap second, a small number of network failures occurred due to leap second-related software errors of some routers.", "Several older versions of the Cisco Systems NEXUS 5000 Series Operating System NX-OS (versions 5.0, 5.1, 5.2) are affected by leap second bugs.Some businesses and service providers have been impacted by leap-second related software bugs:* In 2015, interruptions occurred with Twitter, Instagram, Pinterest, Netflix, Amazon, and Apple's music streaming series Beats 1.", "* Leap second software bugs in Linux reportedly affected the Altea airlines reservation system, used by Qantas and Virgin Australia, in 2015.", "* Cloudflare was affected by a leap second software bug.", "Its DNS resolver implementation incorrectly calculated a negative number when subtracting two timestamps obtained from the Go programming language's time.Now()function, which then used only a real-time clock source.", "This could have been avoided by using a monotonic clock source, which has since been added to Go 1.9.", "* The Intercontinental Exchange, parent body to 7 clearing houses and 11 stock exchanges including the New York Stock Exchange, chose to cease operations for 61 minutes at the time of the 30 June 2015, leap second.There were misplaced concerns that farming equipment using GPS navigation during harvests occurring on 31 December 2016, would be affected by the 2016 leap second.", "GPS navigation makes use of GPS time, which is not impacted by the leap second.Due to a software error, the UTC time broadcast by the NavStar GPS system was incorrect by about 13 microseconds on 25–26 January 2016." ], [ "Workarounds for leap second problems", "The most obvious workaround is to use the TAI scale for all operational purposes and convert to UTC for human-readable text.", "UTC can always be derived from TAI with a suitable table of leap seconds.", "The Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers (SMPTE) video/audio industry standards body selected TAI for deriving timestamps of media.", "IEC/IEEE 60802 (Time sensitive networks) specifies TAI for all operations.", "Grid automation is planning to switch to TAI for global distribution of events in electrical grids.", "Bluetooth mesh networking also uses TAI.Instead of inserting a leap second at the end of the day, Google servers implement a \"leap smear\", extending seconds slightly over a 24-hour period centered on the leap second.", "Amazon followed a similar, but slightly different, pattern for the introduction of the 30 June 2015, leap second, leading to another case of the proliferation of timescales.", "They later released an NTP service for EC2 instances which performs leap smearing.", "UTC-SLS was proposed as a version of UTC with linear leap smearing, but it never became standard.It has been proposed that media clients using the Real-time Transport Protocol inhibit generation or use of NTP timestamps during the leap second and the second preceding it.NIST has established a special NTP time server to deliver UT1 instead of UTC.", "Such a server would be particularly useful in the event the ITU resolution passes and leap seconds are no longer inserted.", "Those astronomical observatories and other users that require UT1 could run off UT1 – although in many cases these users already download UT1-UTC from the IERS, and apply corrections in software." ], [ "See also", "* Clock drift, phenomenon where a clock gains or loses time compared to another clock* DUT1, which describes the difference between coordinated universal time (UTC) and universal time (UT1)* Dynamical time scale* Leap year, a year containing one extra day or month" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * " ], [ "External links", " IERS Bulletins, including Bulletin C (leap second announcements)* LeapSecond.com – A web site dedicated to precise time and frequency* NIST FAQ about leap year and leap second* The leap second: its history and possible future*** Judah Levine's Everyday Time and Atomic Time series********" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Luca Pacioli" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Fra.", "Luca Bartolomeo de Pacioli''' (sometimes ''Paccioli'' or ''Paciolo''; 1447 – 19 June 1517) was an Italian mathematician, Franciscan friar, collaborator with Leonardo da Vinci, and an early contributor to the field now known as accounting.", "He is referred to as the father of accounting and bookkeeping and he was the first person to publish a work on the double-entry system of book-keeping on the continent.", "He was also called '''Luca di Borgo''' after his birthplace, Borgo Sansepolcro, Tuscany.Several of his works were plagiarised from Piero della Francesca, in what has been called \"probably the first full-blown case of plagiarism in the history of mathematics\"." ], [ "Life", "A woodcut of Pacioli which appears throughout the ''Summa de arithmetica''Luca Pacioli was born between 1446 and 1448 in the Tuscan town of Sansepolcro where he received an abbaco education.", "This was education in the vernacular (''i.e.", "'', the local tongue) rather than Latin and focused on the knowledge required of merchants.", "His father was Bartolomeo Pacioli; however, Luca Pacioli was said to have lived with the Befolci family as a child in his birth town Sansepolcro.", "He moved to Venice around 1464, where he continued his own education while working as a tutor to the three sons of a merchant.", "It was during this period that he wrote his first book, a treatise on arithmetic for the boys he was tutoring.", "Between 1472 and 1475, he became a Franciscan friar.", "Thus, he could be referred to as Fra ('Friar') Luca.In 1475, he started teaching in Perugia as a private teacher before becoming first chair in mathematics in 1477.During this time, he wrote a comprehensive textbook in the vernacular for his students.", "He continued to work as a private tutor of mathematics and was instructed to stop teaching at this level in Sansepolcro in 1491.In 1494, his first book, , was published in Venice.", "In 1497, he accepted an invitation from Duke Ludovico Sforza to work in Milan.", "There he met, taught mathematics to, collaborated, and lived with Leonardo da Vinci.", "In 1499, Pacioli and Leonardo were forced to flee Milan when Louis XII of France seized the city and drove out their patron.", "Their paths appear to have finally separated around 1506.Pacioli died at about the age of 70 on 19 June 1517, most likely in Sansepolcro, where it is thought that he had spent much of his final years." ], [ "Mathematics", "The first printed illustration of a rhombicuboctahedron, by Leonardo da Vinci, published in ''Divina proportione''Woodcut illustrating the proportions of the human face from the second part of ''Divina proportione'', which covers the Vitruvian systemPacioli published several works on mathematics, including:* (Ms. Vatican Library, Lat.", "3129), a nearly 600-page textbook dedicated to his students at the University of Perugia where Pacioli taught from 1477 to 1480.The manuscript was written between December 1477 and 29 April 1478.It contains 16 sections on merchant arithmetic, such as barter, exchange, profit, mixing metals, and algebra, though 25 pages from the chapter on algebra are missing.", "A modern transcription was published by Calzoni and Cavazzoni (1996) along with a partial translation of the chapter on partitioning problems.", "* (Venice 1494), a textbook for use in the schools of Northern Italy.", "It was a synthesis of the mathematical knowledge of his time and contained the first printed work on algebra written in the vernacular (''i.e.", "'', the spoken language of the day).", "It is also notable for including one of the first published descriptions of the bookkeeping method that Venetian merchants used during the Italian Renaissance, known as the double-entry accounting system.", "The system he published included most of the accounting cycle as we know it today.", "He described the use of journals and ledgers and warned that a person should not go to sleep at night until the debits equalled the credits.", "His ledger had accounts for assets (including receivables and inventories), liabilities, capital, income, and expenses – the account categories that are reported on an organization's balance sheet and income statement, respectively.", "He demonstrated year-end closing entries and proposed that a trial balance be used to prove a balanced ledger.", "Additionally, his treatise touches on a wide range of related topics from accounting ethics to cost accounting.", "He introduced the Rule of 72, using an approximation of 100ln 2 more than 100 years before Napier and Briggs.", "Its exercises were largely copied without credit from Piero della Francesca's earlier book, ''Trattato d'abaco''.", " (Ms. Università degli Studi di Bologna, 1496–1508), a treatise on mathematics and magic.", "Written between 1496 and 1508, it contains the first reference to card tricks as well as guidance on how to juggle, eat fire, and make coins dance.", "It is the first work to note that Leonardo was left-handed.", "''De viribus quantitatis'' is divided into three sections: Mathematical problems, puzzles, and tricks, along with a collection of proverbs and verses.", "The book has been described as the \"Foundation of modern magic and numerical puzzles,\" but it was never published and sat in the archives of the University of Bologna, where it was seen by only a small number of scholars during the Middle Ages.", "The book was rediscovered after David Singmaster, a mathematician, came across a reference to it in a 19th-century manuscript.", "An English translation was published for the first time in 2007.", "* ''Geometry'' (1509), a Latin translation of Euclid's ''Elements''.", "* ''Divina proportione'' (written in Milan in 1496–1498, published in Venice in 1509).", "Two versions of the original manuscript are extant, one in the Biblioteca Ambrosiana in Milan, the other in the Bibliothèque Publique et Universitaire in Geneva.", "The subject was mathematical and artistic proportion, especially the mathematics of the golden ratio and its application in architecture.", "It incorporates without credit a translation of the entire book ''De quinque corporibus regularibus'' by Piero della Francesca.", "Leonardo da Vinci drew the illustrations of the regular solids in ''Divina proportione'' while he lived with and took mathematics lessons from Pacioli.", "Leonardo's drawings are probably the first illustrations of skeletal solids, which allowed an easy distinction between front and back.", "The work also discusses the use of perspective by painters such as Piero della Francesca, Melozzo da Forlì, and Marco Palmezzano.===Translation of Piero della Francesca's work===The majority of the second volume of was a slightly rewritten version of one of Piero della Francesca's works.", "The third volume of Pacioli's ''Divina proportione'' was an Italian translation of Piero della Francesca's Latin book ''De quinque corporibus regularibus''.", "In neither case did Pacioli include an attribution to Piero.", "He was severely criticized for this and accused of plagiarism by sixteenth-century art historian and biographer Giorgio Vasari.", "R. Emmett Taylor (1889–1956) said that Pacioli may have had nothing to do with the translated volume ''Divina proportione'', and that it may just have been appended to his work.", "However, no such defense can be presented concerning the inclusion of Piero della Francesca's material in Pacioli's Summa." ], [ "Impact on accounting and business", "Pacioli dramatically affected the practice of accounting by describing the double-entry accounting method used in parts of Italy.", "This revolutionized how businesses oversaw their operations, enabling improved efficiency and profitability.", "The ''Summa'''s section on accounting was used internationally as an accounting textbook up to the mid-16th century.", "The essentials of double-entry accounting have for the most part remained unchanged for over 500 years.", "\"Accounting practitioners in public accounting, industry, and not-for-profit organizations, as well as investors, lending institutions, business firms, and all other users for financial information are indebted to Luca Pacioli for his monumental role in the development of accounting.", "\"The ICAEW Library's rare book collection at Chartered Accountants' Hall holds the complete published works of Luca Pacioli.", "Sections of two of Pacioli's books, 'Summa de arithmetica' and 'Divina proportione' can be viewed online using Turning the Pages, an interactive tool developed by the British Library." ], [ "Chess", "Luca Pacioli also wrote an unpublished treatise on chess, ''De ludo scachorum'' (''On the Game of Chess'').", "Long thought to have been lost, a surviving manuscript was rediscovered in 2006, in the 22,000-volume library of Count Guglielmo Coronini-Cronberg in Gorizia.", "A facsimile edition of the book was published in Pacioli's home town of Sansepolcro in 2008.Based on Leonardo da Vinci's long association with the author and his having illustrated ''Divina proportione'', some scholars speculate that Leonardo either drew the chess problems that appear in the manuscript or at least designed the chess pieces used in the problems." ], [ "See also", "List of Roman Catholic scientist-clericsDella mercatura e del mercante perfetto" ], [ "References", "'''Footnotes''''''Citations'''===Sources===** Calzoni, Giuseppe and Gianfranco Cavazzoni (eds.)", "(1996) ''Tractatus Mathematicus ad Discipulos Perusinos'', Città di Castello, Perugia.", "Galassi, Giuseppe.", "\"Pacioli, Luca (c.", "1445-c.1517).\"", "In ''History of Accounting: an International Encyclopedia,'' edited by Michael Chatfield and Richard Vangermeersch.", "New York: Garland Publishing, 1996.pp. 445–447.", " Gleeson-White, Jane, \"Double Entry: How the Merchants of Venice Created Modern Finance,\" New York: Norton, 2012.", "* Heeffer, Albrecht, \"Algebraic partitioning problems from Luca Paccioli's Perugia manuscript (Vat.", "Lat.", "3129)\" in ''Sources and Commentaries in Exact Sciences'', (2010), 11, pp. 3–52.", "* Pacioli, Luca.", "''De divina proportione'' (English: ''On the Divine Proportion''), (Antonio Capella) Venice: Paganino Paganini (1509).", "* Smith, Murphy, Luca Pacioli: The Father of Accounting (2018).", "Available at SSRN: or https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2320658.", "* Taylor, Emmet, R. ''No Royal Road: Luca Paccioli and his Times'' (1942)* Full Biography of Pacioli (St.Andrews) * Lucas Paccioli - Catholic Encyclopedia article* ''Libellus de quinque corporibus regularibus'', corredato della versione volgare di Luca Paccioli facsimile del Codice Vat.", "Urb.", "Lat.", "632; eds.", "Cecil Grayson,... Marisa Dalai Emiliani, Carlo Maccagni.", "Firenze, Giunti, 1995.3 vol.", "(68 ff., XLIV-213, XXII-223 pp.).", "* Varisco, Alessio, ''Borgo Sansepolcro.", "Città di cavalieri e pellegrini'' Pessano con Bornago, Mimep-Docete (2012)." ], [ "External links", "* * * The Enigma of Luca Paccioli's Portrait* Full text of ''De divina proportione''* Luca Paccioli's economic research programme* ''Diuina proportione'', Venice, 1509, digitized at , Biblioteca Nacional de España* Lauwers, Luc & Willekens, Marleen: ''Five Hundred Years of Bookkeeping: A Portrait of Luca Pacioli'' (Tijdschrift voor Economie en Management, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, 1994, vol.", "XXXIX issue 3 pp.", "289–304) pdf" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lower Mainland" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Lower Mainland''' is a geographic and cultural region of the mainland coast of British Columbia that generally comprises the regional districts of Metro Vancouver and the Fraser Valley.", "Home to approximately 3.05million people as of the 2021 Canadian census, the Lower Mainland contains sixteen of the province's 30 most populous municipalities and approximately 60% of the province's total population.The region is the traditional territory of the Sto:lo, a Halkomelem-speaking people of the Coast Salish linguistic and cultural grouping." ], [ "Boundaries", "Although the term ''Lower Mainland'' has been recorded from the earliest period of colonization in British Columbia, it has never been officially defined in legal terms.", "The term has historically been in popular usage for over a century to describe a region that extends from Horseshoe Bay south to the Canada–United States border and east to Hope at the eastern end of the Fraser Valley.", "This definition makes the term ''Lower Mainland'' almost synonymous with the regional districts of Metro Vancouver and Fraser Valley.However, the British Columbia Geographical Names Information System (BCGNIS) comments that most residents of Vancouver might consider it to be only areas west of Mission and Abbotsford, while residents in the rest of the province consider it to be the Sea-to-Sky Corridor south of Whistler and west of Hope." ], [ "Geography", "The region is bounded to the north by the Pacific Ranges and to the southeast by the Cascade Mountains, and is traversed from east to west by the Fraser River.", "Due to its consistency of climate, flora and fauna, geology and land use, \"Lower Mainland\" is also the name of an ecoregion—a biogeoclimatic region—that comprises the eastern part of the Georgia Depression and extends from Powell River on the Sunshine Coast to Hope at the eastern end of the Fraser Valley.===Climate===One of the mildest climates in Canada, the region has a mean annual temperature of with a summer mean of and a winter mean of .", "Annual precipitation ranges from an annual mean of in the west end to in the eastern end of the Fraser Valley and at higher elevations.", "Maximum precipitation occurs as rain in winter.", "Less than ten percent falls as snow at sea level but the amount of snowfall increases significantly with elevation." ], [ "Demographics", "===Population===As of the 2021 census, the population of the Lower Mainland core area totals 2,966,830:* 2,642,825 in Metro Vancouver Regional District* 324,005 in the Fraser Valley Regional DistrictThese figures are slightly inflated due to the inclusion of areas within the regional districts which are not normally considered to be part of the Lower Mainland, notably the lower Fraser Canyon and the heads of Harrison and Pitt Lakes, which are within the FVRD, and Lions Bay and Bowen Island, which are within the Metro Vancouver Regional District.===Ethnicity===The Lower Mainland is among the most multicultural and diverse regions in Canada.", "As of 2021, Europeans form a plurality with 1,337,105 persons or 45.7 percent of the total population, followed by East Asians with 614,860 persons or 21.0 percent and South Asians with 422,880 persons or 14.5 percent.+ Panethnic groups in the Lower Mainland (2001−2021)Panethnicgroup20212016201120062001 European 1,337,105 1,387,125 1,403,525 1,381,770 1,397,990 East Asian 614,860 564,445 494,130 458,165 399,785 South Asian 422,880 330,925 285,780 233,530 183,660 Southeast Asian 207,420 173,060 159,430 115,185 88,000 Middle Eastern 89,135 63,300 49,505 36,085 27,595 Indigenous 87,355 83,660 70,915 54,845 48,380 Latin American 54,545 36,855 30,510 24,480 20,040 African 44,700 32,325 25,385 21,945 19,320 Other/Multiracial 67,755 43,295 33,165 25,815 16,565 Total responses 2,924,685 2,715,000 2,552,350 2,351,805 2,201,330 Total population 2,966,830 2,759,365 2,590,921 2,373,612 2,224,515 ===Religion===The Lower Mainland includes large irreligious, Christian, and Sikh communities.", "The Sikh population, numbering over 265,000 persons or 9.1 percent of the total population is statistically significant across Metro Vancouver and the Fraser Valley; proportionally, it is more than four times the national average of 2.1 percent.+ Religious groups in the Lower Mainland (2001−2021)Religiousgroup202120112001 Irreligion 1,361,800 1,042,815 758,130 Christianity 989,105 1,088,160 1,138,505 Sikhism 265,870 184,810 116,110 Islam 113,880 74,320 53,225 Buddhism 72,595 79,680 76,140 Hinduism 71,210 42,205 28,440 Judaism 20,430 19,125 17,555 Indigenous spirituality 2,895 2,590 2,225 Other 26,900 18,640 11,015 Total responses 2,924,685 2,552,350 2,201,325 Total population 2,966,830 2,590,921 2,224,515 ===Language===+Knowledge of language (2016−2021) Language20212016English 2,772,150 2,569,215 Mandarin 295,400 252,260 Punjabi 286,270 223,510 Cantonese 235,220 224,655 French 185,330 185,420 Tagalog 113,205 98,395 Hindi 119,435 75,125 Spanish 100,355 79,885 Korean 63,335 52,650 German 43,490 47,825 Total responses 2,924,680 2,714,995 Total population 2,966,830 2,759,365 +Mother tongue (2016−2021) Language20212016English 1,576,995 1,537,875 Punjabi 219,015 182,050 Mandarin 193,190 176,435 Cantonese 183,860 185,135 Tagalog 69,895 68,240 Persian 54,985 41,645 Korean 54,385 47,715 Spanish 49,255 38,705 French 27,280 27,820 German 24,795 32,210 Total responses 2,939,500 2,731,255 Total population 2,966,830 2,759,365" ], [ "Regional districts", "Regional districts were first created across British Columbia from 1966 to 1967 to form bodies for inter-municipal coordination and to extend municipal-level powers to areas outside existing municipalities.", "Today, the Lower Mainland includes two regional districts: the Metro Vancouver Regional District (MVRD) and the Fraser Valley Regional District (FVRD).", "Both regional districts, however, include areas outside the traditional limits of the Lower Mainland.", "Metro Vancouver includes areas like Surrey and Langley that are geographically in the Fraser Valley.The Metro Vancouver Regional District is made up of 21 municipalities.", "The MVRD is bordered on the west by the Strait of Georgia, to the north by the Squamish-Lillooet Regional District, on the east by the Fraser Valley Regional District, and to the south by Whatcom County, Washington, in the United States.The Fraser Valley Regional District lies east of the Metro Vancouver Regional District, and comprises the cities of Abbotsford and Chilliwack, the district municipalities of Mission, Kent, and Hope, and the village of Harrison Hot Springs.", "It also includes many unincorporated areas in the Fraser Valley and along the west side of the Fraser Canyon (the Fraser Canyon is not in the Lower Mainland).Regional district powers are very limited and other localized provincial government services are delivered through other regionalization systems." ], [ "Indigenous territories", "The traditional territories of the Musqueam and Tsleil'waututh lie completely within the region; the southern portion of Squamish traditional territory is also in the region.", "Its claims overlap those of the Tsleil-waututh, Musqueam, and Kwikwetlem.", "Other peoples whose territories lie within the region are the Sto:lo, Chehalis, Katzie, Kwantlen, Tsawwassen, and Semiahmoo; many of their territories overlap with those of the Musqueam, and with each other.", "Many other peoples of the Georgia Strait region also frequented the lower Fraser, including those from Vancouver Island and what is now Whatcom County, Washington.Sto:lo traditional territory, known as ''Solh Temexw'' in Halkomelem, more or less coincides with the traditional conception of the Lower Mainland, except for the inclusion of Port Douglas at the head of Harrison Lake, which is in In-SHUCK-ch territory, and the lands around Burrard Inlet." ], [ "Health regions", "Health system services and governance in the Lower Mainland are provided by Vancouver Coastal Health, serving Vancouver, Richmond and the North Shore, and the mainland coast as far north as the Central Coast region, and Fraser Health, which serves the area of the Lower Mainland east of Vancouver and Richmond." ], [ "Natural threats", "===Flooding===The Lower Mainland is considered to have a high vulnerability to flood risk.", "There have been two major region-wide floods in 1894 and 1948, both associated with an extreme spring freshet of the Fraser River.", "Other major floods in the Lower Mainlandincluding June 1972, November 1990, and November 2021have been more localized, primarily impacting areas in the Fraser Valley like the Sumas Prairie, with comparatively minor impacts to Metro Vancouver.", "Prior to the 2021 flood, according to the Fraser Basin Council, scientists predicted a one-in-three chance of a similar-sized flood occurring in the next 50 years.In the second quarter of 2007, the Lower Mainland was on high alert for flooding.", "Higher than normal snow packs in the British Columbia Interior prompted municipal governments to start taking emergency measures in the region.", "Dikes along the Fraser River are regulated to handle approximately at the Mission Gauge (the height above sea level of the dykes at Mission).", "Warmer than normal weather in the province's Interior region caused large amounts of snow to melt prematurely, resulting in higher-than-normal water levels, which, nevertheless, remained well below flood levels.Flooding can cover much of the Lower Mainland.", "Cloverdale, Barnston Island, low-lying areas of Maple Ridge, areas west of Hope, White Rock, Richmond, parts of Vancouver, and parts of Surrey are potentially at risk.", "In 2007, the Lower Mainland was largely spared, although northern regions of the province, along the Skeena and Nechako Rivers, experienced floods.", "Climate scientists predict that increasing temperatures will mean wetter winters and more snow at the high elevations.", "This will increase the likelihood of snowmelt floods.The provincial government maintains an integrated flood hazard management program and extensive flood protection infrastructure in the Lower Mainland.", "The infrastructure consists of dikes, pump stations, floodboxes, riprap, and relief wells.===Earthquakes===While earthquakes are common in British Columbia and adjacent coastal waters, most are minor in energy release or are sufficiently remote to have little effect on populated areas.", "Nevertheless, earthquakes with a magnitude of up to 7.3 have occurred within of the Lower Mainland.Based on geological evidence, however, stronger earthquakes appear to have occurred at approximately 600-year intervals.", "Therefore, there is a probability that there will be a major earthquake in the region within the next 200 years.In April 2008, the United States Geological Survey released information concerning a newly found fault south of downtown Abbotsford, called the Boulder Creek Fault.", "Scientists now believe this fault is active and capable of producing earthquakes in the 6.8 magnitude range.===Volcanoes===Much of the Lower Mainland is vulnerable to explosive eruptions from the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt.", "Volcanoes in this zone are capable of producing large quantities of volcanic ash that may cause short and long term water supply problems for Lower Mainland communities.", "All airports covered by the accompanying eruption column would be closed, heavy ash falls would damage electrical equipment and weak structures could collapse under the weight of the ash." ], [ "Communities", "The Lower Mainland's communities includes large cities in Metro Vancouver, and smaller cities, towns and villages along both banks of the Fraser River.", "Neighbourhoods within cities are not listed unless historically or otherwise notable and/or separate.", "Only some of the many Indian Reserves are listed.===Upper Fraser Valley===* Agassiz* Bridal Falls* Chehalis* Chilliwack* Cultus Lake* Greendale* Lake Errock* Kent* Harrison Hot Springs* Harrison Mills* Hope* Flood* Laidlaw* Popkum* Rosedale* Ruby Creek* Sardis* Yarrow===Central Fraser Valley===* Abbotsford* Aldergrove* Bradner* Clayburn* Clearbrook* Deroche* Dewdney* Durieu* Hatzic* Huntingdon* Matsqui* Mission* Mount Lehman* Nicomen Island* Ruskin* Silverdale* Silverhill* Squamish* Stave Falls* Steelhead* Sumas (Sumas Prairie)* Whonnock===Lower Fraser Valley / Metro Vancouver===* Albion* Anmore* Annieville* Barnston Island* Belcarra* Boundary Bay* Bridgeport* Brighouse* Burnaby* Burquitlam* Cloverdale* Coquitlam* Crescent Beach* Derby (\"Old Derby\")* Douglas* Delta* Fort Langley* Haney* Kanaka Creek* Langley City* Langley District* Lions Bay* Maillardville* Maple Ridge* New Westminster* Newton* North Vancouver City* North Vancouver District* Pitt Meadows* Port Coquitlam* Port Hammond (Hammond)* Port Kells* Port Moody* Queensborough* Richmond* Sapperton* Scottsdale* Steveston* Surrey* Tsawwassen* Vancouver* West Vancouver* Whalley* White Rock* Yennadon" ], [ "See also", "* Fraser Lowland* List of provincial parks of the Lower Mainland=== Notes ===" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lucius Afranius (poet)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lucius Afranius''' was an ancient Roman comic poet who lived at the beginning of the 1st century BC." ], [ "Life", "Afranius' comedies described Roman scenes and manners (the genre called ''comoediae togatae'') and the subjects were mostly taken from the life of the lower classes (''comoediae tabernariae'').", "They were considered by some ancients to be frequently polluted with disgraceful amours, which, according to Quintilian, were only a representation of the conduct of Afranius.", "He depicted, however, Roman life with such accuracy that he is classed with Menander, from whom indeed he borrowed largely.", "He imitated the style of Gaius Titius, and his language is praised by Cicero.", "His comedies are spoken of in the highest terms by the ancient writers, and under the Empire they not only continued to be read, but were even acted, of which an example occurs in the time of Nero.", "They seem to have been well known even at the latter end of the 4th century AD." ], [ "Quintilian's judgement", "The Spanish-Roman teacher of rhetoric Quintilian wrote of Afranius's plays::''Togātīs excellit Afrānius: utinam non inquināsset argūmenta puerōrum foedīs amōribus, mōrēs suōs fassus.", "'':(\"Afranius excelled in Roman-style comedies: if only he hadn't polluted his plots with unseemly sexual affairs with boys, confessing his own habits.", "\")Such is the generally accepted interpretation of this sentence.", "An alternative view is proposed by Welsh (2010), who, noting that there is no trace of pederasty or any lewdness in any of the quoted fragments of Afranius, proposed to translate the sentence \"if only he hadn't polluted his plots with disreputable love affairs (conducted) by boys\", something which Quintilian perhaps thought unsuited to the moralising tone of Roman comedies.", "A problem with this interpretation, as Welsh himself admits, is that in Roman literature the word ''pueri'' is usually used for the boys who are object of love affairs, not the young men who conduct them." ], [ "Surviving titles and fragments", "Afranius wrote many comedies.", "The titles of forty-two of his plays are still preserved, along with associated fragments and quotations:''Abducta'' (Abducted Woman)''Aequales'' (Just Alike)''Auctio'' (Auction)''Augur'' (The Augur)''Brundisiae'' (Women from Brundisium)''Cinerarius'' (Male Hair-Curler)''Compitalia'' (The Compitalia Festival)''Consobrini'' (Cousins)''Crimen'' (Crime)''Deditio'' (The Surrender)''Depositum'' (Deposit)''Divortium'' (Divorce)''Emancipatus'' (The Emancipated Man)''Epistula'' (The Letter)''Exceptus''''Fratriae'' (Sisters-in-Law)''Incendium'' (Fire)''Inimici'' (Enemies)''Libertus'' (Freedman)''Mariti'' (Married Couple)''Matertertae'' (Maternal Aunts)''Megalensia'' (The Megalensia Festival)''Omen'' (The Omen)''Pantelius''''Pompa'' (Procession, or Parade)''Privignus'' (The Stepson)''Prodigus'' (The Prodigal)''Proditus'' (The Betrayed Man)''Promus'' (The Steward)''Prosa''''Purgamentum'' (Filth)''Repudiatus'' (The Divorced Man)''Sella'' (The Chair)''Simulans'' (The Pretender)''Sorores'' (Sisters)''Suspecta'' (The Suspected Woman)''Talio'' (Retaliation)''Temerarius'' (The Thoughtless Man)''Thais'' (Thais)''Titulus'' (Notice of Sale)''Virgo'' (Virgin)''Vopiscus'' (Surviving Twin)" ], [ "References", "===Attribution===**" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "London Post Office Railway" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Post Office Railway''' is a narrow gauge, driverless underground railway in London that was built by the Post Office with assistance from the Underground Electric Railways Company of London, to transport mail between sorting offices.", "Inspired by the Chicago Tunnel Company, it opened in 1927 and operated for 76 years until it closed in 2003.A museum within the former railway was opened in September 2017." ], [ "Geography", "The line ran from Paddington Head District Sorting Office in the west to the Eastern Head District Sorting Office at Whitechapel in the east, a distance of .", "It had eight stations, the largest of which was underneath Mount Pleasant, but by 2003 only three stations remained in use because the sorting offices above the other stations had been relocated." ], [ "History", "===Use as post office railway===In 1911, a plan evolved to build an underground railway long from Paddington to Whitechapel serving the main sorting offices along the route; road traffic congestion was causing unacceptable delays.", "The contract to build the tunnels was won by John Mowlem and Co. Construction of the tunnels started in February 1915 from a series of shafts.", "Most of the line was constructed using the Greathead shield system, with limited amounts of hand-mining for connecting tunnels at stations.The main line has a single diameter tube with two tracks.", "Just before stations, tunnels diverge into two single-track diameter tunnels leading to two parallel diameter station tunnels.", "The main tube is at a depth of around .", "Stations are at a much shallower depth, with a 1-in-20 gradient into the stations.", "The gradients assist in slowing the trains when approaching stations, and accelerating them away.", "There is also less distance to lift mail from the stations to the surface.", "At Oxford Circus the tunnel runs close to the Bakerloo line tunnel of the London Underground.", "The tunnel also runs under Selfridges as the recent 2018 refurbishment of the building revealed.Map of the Post Office RailwayDuring 1917, work was suspended due to the shortage of labour and materials.", "By June 1924, track laying had started.", "In February 1927, the first section, between Paddington and the West Central District Office, was made available for training.", "The line became available for the Christmas parcel post in 1927 and letters were carried from February 1928.In 1954, plans were developed for a new Western District Office at Rathbone Place, which required a diversion, opening in 1958.It was not until 3 August 1965 that the new station and office were opened by the Postmaster General, Tony Benn.", "The disused section was used as a store tunnel; some parts of it still have the track in place.===Closure===A Royal Mail press release in April 2003 said that the railway would be closed and mothballed at the end of May that year.", "Royal Mail had earlier stated that using the railway was five times more expensive than using road transport for the same task.", "The Communication Workers Union claimed the actual figure was closer to three times more expensive but argued that this was the result of a deliberate policy of running the railway down and using it at only one-third of its capacity.", "A local governmental report by the Greater London Authority stated that the \"line carries an average of four million letters and parcels per day\" and was in support of continued use and criticized the increase of lorries on local roads, estimated to be 80 more truck loads per week.", "The railway was closed on 31 May 2003.In April 2011, an urban exploration group called the \"Consolidation Crew\" published accounts of illicit access to the tunnels.", "Detailed photography and text revealed that the railway is still largely in good condition, despite some natural decay.", "More recently, media have been admitted to the tunnels as part of the pre-launch publicity for the Postal Museum.", "Photographs show much of the infrastructure in place.A team from the University of Cambridge has taken over a short, double track section of unused Post Office tunnel near Liverpool Street Station, where a newly built tunnel for Crossrail is situated some two metres beneath.", "The study is to establish how the original cast-iron lining sections, which are similar to those used for many miles of railway under London, resist possible deformation and soil movement caused by the new works.", "Digital cameras, fibre optic deformation sensors, laser scanners and other low-cost instruments, reporting in real time, have been installed in the vacated tunnel.", "As well as providing information about the behaviour of the old construction materials, the scheme can also provide an early warning if the new tunnel bores are creating dangerous soil movement.===Redevelopment and preservation===Tour carriages on the Mail Rail at the Postal MuseumIn October 2013, the British Postal Museum & Archive announced that it intended opening part of the network to the public.", "After approval was granted by Islington Council, work on the new museum and the railway began in 2014.Special tourist trains were installed in late 2016.It was planned to open a circular route, running beneath the depot at Mount Pleasant with a journey time of around 15 minutes, by mid-2017.The museum opened on 5 September.In its first year of operation (2017–2018), the trains performed 9,000 trips totalling , with the railway and museum hosting over 198,000 visitors." ], [ "Rolling stock", "The first stock was delivered in 1926 with the opening of the system.", "All stock used was electrically powered.1930 Stock Car No.", "803 at the Buckinghamshire Railway Centre===Electric locomotives===1926 Electric Locomotives — Original locomotives===Electric units===1927 Stock — Original stock1930 & 1936 Stock — Replacement stock for 1927 Stock1962 Stock — Prototype stock1980 Stock — Replacement stockSome trains have been preserved at the Launceston Steam Railway." ], [ "In fiction", "The railway features in the novel ''The Horn of Mortal Danger'' by Lawrence Leonard in which there is a connecting tunnel to a secret railway to the North London network.", "The only other known connection is in the disused tunnel between Highgate and the disused Cranley Gardens.", "A version of the railway is featured in the novel ''The Great Game'' by Lavie Tidhar.", "It takes mail to Buckingham Palace, and is run by the book's featured Simulacra.", "The railway appears in the film ''Hudson Hawk'' as 'Poste Vaticane' in the Vatican City.", "Bruce Willis (as Hawk) stows away in one of the mail containers.", "A mail train system closely based on the railway is in Charlie Higson's third ''Young Bond'' book, ''Double or Die''.", "The railway is prominent in Oliver Harris's 2014 book ''Deep Shelter''.", "The railway features in Mark Leggatt's 2016 novel ''The London Cage,'' as a means for Connor Montrose to move about London.", "The International Thriller, a follow-up to ''Names of the Dead'','' was'' published by Scottish-based publisher Fledgling Press in June 2016.", "The railways make an appearance in Adrian Tchaikovsky's 2020 novel ''The Doors of Eden'' as Khan and Lee are being led by Stig towards a door to escape from pursuit by Rove's henchmen." ], [ "Similar railways", "A pneumatic underground railway was used by the Post Office in London between 1863 and 1874 using individual wheeled capsules, operated by the London Pneumatic Despatch Company.In 1910, a tunnel railway opened in Munich, Germany between München Hauptbahnhof and the nearby Post office.", "The tunnels were damaged in World War II, restored in 1948 and partially rebuilt in 1966 to allow for the first Munich S-Bahn tunnel.", "Operations ceased in 1988.Postal Telegraph and Telephone (Switzerland) opened the Post-U-Bahn (underground railway) in Zürich in 1938.It ran between Zürich Hauptbahnhof and the , Zürich's main post office.", "The track gauge was 60 cm, and the small electric railcar, which could carry 250 kg of mail, collected power from wires between the tracks.", "Operations ceased on 11 October 1980 when a rubber-tired system replaced the train.The Chicago Tunnel Company, in operation between 1906 and 1959, delivered freight, parcels, and coal, and disposed of ash and excavation debris.", "It operated an elaborate network of narrow gauge track in tunnels running under the streets throughout the central business district including and surrounding the \"Loop\"." ], [ "See also", "Subterranean LondonList of British heritage and private railwaysTravelling Post OfficeLondon UndergroundRoyal Mail" ], [ "References", "=== Notes ====== Literature === * * Bradley Garrett (2013).", "\"Explore Everything: Place-Hacking the City\".", "Verso Books, London.", "* * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "" ], [ "External links", "* The British Postal Museum & Archive* Place Hacking A collective report of the trespass into the network by urban explorers in 2011.", "* Guardian article on proposed mothballing.", "* BBC article A video from the mothballed railway, detailing plans for future use.", "* Mail rail in openstreetmap.org" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lulach" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lulach mac Gille Coemgáin''' (Modern Gaelic: ''Lughlagh mac Gille Chomghain'', known in English simply as '''Lulach''', and nicknamed '''Tairbith''', \"the Unfortunate\" and '''Fatuus''', \"the Simple-minded\" or \"the Foolish\"; before 1033 – 17 March 1058) was King of Alba (Scotland) between 15 August 1057 and 17 March 1058.Lulach was the son of Gruoch of Scotland, from her first marriage to Gille Coemgáin, Mormaer of Moray, and thus the stepson of Macbeth (Mac Bethad mac Findlaích).Following the death of Macbeth at the Battle of Lumphanan on 15 August 1057, the king's followers placed Lulach on the throne.", "He has the distinction of being the first king of Scotland of whom there are coronation details available: he was crowned, probably on 8 September 1057 at Scone.", "Lulach appears to have been a weak king, as his nicknames suggest, and ruled only for a few months before being assassinated and usurped by Malcolm III.", "However, it is also plausible his nicknames are the results of negative propaganda, and were established as part of a smear campaign by Malcolm III.Lulach's son Máel Snechtai was Mormaer of Moray, while Óengus of Moray was the son of Lulach's daughter.He is believed to be buried on Saint Columba's Holy Island of Iona in or around the monastery.", "The exact position of his grave is unknown." ], [ "Depictions in fiction", "Lulach is an important secondary character in Dorothy Dunnett's historical novel ''King Hereafter'', where he is portrayed as a seer.", "In the novel, Dunnett used Lulach as a mouthpiece for researched information about the real Macbeth.Lulach is also one of the protagonists in Jackie French's children's novel ''Macbeth and Son'' and in Susan Fraser King's novel ''Lady MacBeth''.Lulach is also a character in David Greig's play ''Dunsinane'' where he is hunted by the English soldiers as a threat to peace in Malcolm's Scotland.Lulach McPritchett in Modern Family, a Comedy series,a Scottish warrior and ancestor of Jay Pritchett.Lulach appears in a 2024 adaptation of Shakespeare's play called ''Gruoch and Macbeth: a screenplay'' by Graham J. Howard." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Lulach at the official website of the British monarchy" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lexicography" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lexicography''' is the study of lexicons, and is divided into two separate academic disciplines.", "It is the art of compiling dictionaries.", "* '''Practical lexicography''' is the art or craft of compiling, writing and editing dictionaries.", "* '''Theoretical lexicography''' is the scholarly study of semantic, orthographic, syntagmatic and paradigmatic features of lexemes of the lexicon (vocabulary) of a language, developing theories of dictionary components and structures linking the data in dictionaries, the needs for information by users in specific types of situations, and how users may best access the data incorporated in printed and electronic dictionaries.", "This is sometimes referred to as \"metalexicography\".There is some disagreement on the definition of lexicology, as distinct from lexicography.", "Some use \"lexicology\" as a synonym for theoretical lexicography; others use it to mean a branch of linguistics pertaining to the inventory of words in a particular language.A person devoted to lexicography is called a '''lexicographer''' and is, according to a jest of Samuel Johnson, a \"harmless drudge\"." ], [ "Focus", "Generally, lexicography focuses on the design, compilation, use and evaluation of general dictionaries, i.e.", "dictionaries that provide a description of the language in general use.", "Such a dictionary is usually called a general dictionary or LGP dictionary (Language for General Purpose).", "Specialized lexicography focuses on the design, compilation, use and evaluation of specialized dictionaries, i.e.", "dictionaries that are devoted to a (relatively restricted) set of linguistic and factual elements of one or more specialist subject fields, e.g.", "legal lexicography.", "Such a dictionary is usually called a specialized dictionary or Language for specific purposes dictionary and following Nielsen 1994, specialized dictionaries are either multi-field, single-field or sub-field dictionaries.It is now widely accepted that lexicography is a scholarly discipline in its own right and not a sub-branch of applied linguistics, as the chief object of study in lexicography is the dictionary (see e.g.", "Bergenholtz/Nielsen/Tarp 2009).Lexicography is the practice of creating books, computer programs, or databases that reflect lexicographical work and are intended for public use.", "These include dictionaries and thesauri which are widely accessible resources that present various aspects of lexicology, such as spelling, pronunciation, and meaning.Lexicographers are tasked with defining simple words as well as figuring out how compound or complex words or words with many meanings can be clearly explained.", "They also make decisions regarding which words should be kept, added, or removed from a dictionary.", "They are responsible for arranging lexical material (usually alphabetically) to facilitate understanding and navigation." ], [ "Etymology", "Coined in English 1680, the word \"lexicography\" derives from the Greek λεξικογράφος (''lexikographos''), \"lexicographer\", from λεξικόν (''lexicon''), neut.", "of λεξικός ''lexikos'', \"of or for words\", from λέξις (''lexis''), \"speech\", \"word\" (in turn from λέγω (''lego''), \"to say\", \"to speak\") and γράφω (''grapho''), \"to scratch, to inscribe, to write\"." ], [ "Aspects", "Practical lexicographic work involves several activities, and the compilation of well-crafted dictionaries requires careful consideration of all or some of the following aspects:* profiling the intended users (i.e.", "linguistic and non-linguistic competences) and identifying their needs* defining the communicative and cognitive functions of the dictionary* selecting and organizing the components of the dictionary* choosing the appropriate structures for presenting the data in the dictionary (i.e.", "frame structure, distribution structure, macro-structure, micro-structure and cross-reference structure)* selecting words and affixes for systematization as entries* selecting collocations, phrases and examples* choosing lemma forms for each word or part of word to be lemmatized* defining words* organizing definitions* specifying pronunciations of words* labeling definitions and pronunciations for register and dialect, where appropriate* selecting equivalents in bi- and multi-lingual dictionaries* translating collocations, phrases and examples in bi- and multilingual dictionaries* designing the best way in which users can access the data in printed and electronic dictionariesOne important goal of lexicography is to keep the lexicographic information costs incurred by dictionary users as low as possible.", "Nielsen (2008) suggests relevant aspects for lexicographers to consider when making dictionaries as they all affect the users' impression and actual use of specific dictionaries.Theoretical lexicography concerns the same aspects as lexicography, but aims to develop principles that can improve the quality of future dictionaries, for instance in terms of access to data and lexicographic information costs.", "Several perspectives or branches of such academic dictionary research have been distinguished: 'dictionary criticism' (or evaluating the quality of one or more dictionaries, e.g.", "by means of reviews (see Nielsen 1999), 'dictionary history' (or tracing the traditions of a type of dictionary or of lexicography in a particular country or language), 'dictionary typology' (or classifying the various genres of reference works, such as dictionary versus encyclopedia, monolingual versus bilingual dictionary, general versus technical or pedagogical dictionary), 'dictionary structure' (or formatting the various ways in which the information is presented in a dictionary), 'dictionary use' (or observing the reference acts and skills of dictionary users), and 'dictionary IT' (or applying computer aids to the process of dictionary compilation).One important consideration is the status of 'bilingual lexicography', or the compilation and use of the bilingual dictionary in all its aspects (see e.g.", "Nielsen 1894).", "In spite of a relatively long history of this type of dictionary, it is often said to be less developed in a number of respects than its unilingual counterpart, especially in cases where one of the languages involved is not a major language.", "Not all genres of reference works are available in interlingual versions, e.g.", "LSP, learners' and encyclopedic types, although sometimes these challenges produce new subtypes, e.g.", "'semi-bilingual' or 'bilingualised' dictionaries such as Hornby's ''(Oxford) Advanced Learner's Dictionary English-Chinese'', which have been developed by translating existing monolingual dictionaries (see Marello 1998)." ], [ "See also", "* Dictionary Bilingual dictionary Monolingual learner's dictionary Specialized dictionary (Picture dictionary, Multi-field dictionary, Single-field dictionary, Sub-field dictionary, LSP dictionary) Glossary (defining dictionary, Core glossary)* Linguistic description* List of lexicographers* Lexicology* Lexicon* Lexical definition* Vocabulary* Idioms Lexicon* Specialised lexicography* English lexicology and lexicography* Terminology* Dictionary Society of North America* Dreaming of Words" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Atkins, B.T.S.", "& Rundell, Michael (2008) ''The Oxford Guide to Practical Lexicography'', Oxford U.P.", "* Béjoint, Henri (2000) ''Modern Lexicography: An Introduction'', Oxford U.P.", "* Considine, John, ed.", "(2019) ''The Cambridge World History of Lexicography.''", "Cambridge University Press.", "* Bergenholtz, H., Nielsen, S., Tarp, S.", "(eds.", "): ''Lexicography at a Crossroads: Dictionaries and Encyclopedias Today, Lexicographical Tools Tomorrow''.", "Peter Lang 2009.", "* Bergenholtz, Henning & Tarp, Sven (eds.)", "(1995) ''Manual of Specialised Lexicography: The Preparation of Specialised Dictionaries'', J. Benjamins.", "* Green, Jonathon (1996) ''Chasing the Sun: Dictionary-Makers and the Dictionaries They Made'', J. Cape.", "* Hartmann, R.R.K.", "(2001) ''Teaching and Researching Lexicography'', Pearson Education.", "* Hartmann, R.R.K.", "(ed.)", "(2003) ''Lexicography: Critical Concepts'', Routledge/Taylor & Francis, 3 volumes.", "* Hartmann, R.R.K.", "& James, Gregory (comps.)", "(1998/2001) ''Dictionary of Lexicography'', Routledge.", "* Inglis, Douglas (2004) Cognitive Grammar and lexicography.", "Payap University Graduate School Linguistics Department.", "* Kirkness, Alan (2004) \"Lexicography\", in ''The Handbook of Applied Linguistics'' ed.", "by A. Davies & C. Elder, Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 54–81.", "* Landau, Sidney (2001) ''Dictionaries: The Art and Craft of Lexicography'', Cambridge U.P.", "2nd ed.", "* Marello, Carla (1998) \"Hornby's bilingualized dictionaries\", in ''International Journal of Lexicography'' 11,4, pp. 292–314.", "* Nielsen, Sandro (1994) ''The Bilingual LSP Dictionary'', G. Narr.", "* Nielsen, Sandro (2008) \"The effect of lexicographical information costs on dictionary making and use\", in ''Lexikos'' (AFRILEX-reeks/series 18), pp. 170–189.", "* Nielsen, Sandro (2009): \"Reviewing printed and electronic dictionaries: A theoretical and practical framework\".", "In S. Nielsen/S.", "Tarp (eds): ''Lexicography in the 21st Century.", "In honour of Henning Bergenholtz''.", "Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 23–41..* Ooi, Vincent (1998) ''Computer Corpus Lexicography'', Edinburgh U.P.", "* Zgusta, Ladislav (1971) ''Manual of lexicography'' (Janua Linguarum.", "Series maior 39).", "Prague: Academia / The Hague, Paris: Mouton." ], [ "External links", "* ''International Journal of Lexicography''* ''Lexicographica.", "International Annual for Lexicography - Revue Internationale de Lexicographie - Internationales Jahrbuch für Lexikographie''===Societies===* Centre for Lexicography EN version* Dictionary Society of North America* Euralex – European Association for Lexicography* Afrilex – African Association for Lexicography* Australex – Australasian Association for Lexicography* Nordic Federation for Lexicography* Asialex – Asian Association for Lexicography" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Law enforcement" ], [ "Introduction", "New York City Police Department lieutenant debriefing police officers at Times Square'''Law enforcement''' is the activity of some members of government who act in an organized manner to enforce the law by discovering, deterring, rehabilitating, or punishing people who violate the rules and norms governing that society.", "The term encompasses police, courts, and corrections.", "These three components may operate independently of each other or collectively through the use of record sharing and cooperation.", "Throughout the world, law enforcement are also associated with protecting the public, life, property, and keeping the peace in society.The concept of law enforcement dates back to ancient times, and forms of law enforcement and police have existed in various forms across many human societies.", "Modern state legal codes use the term law enforcement officer or peace officer to include every person vested by the legislating state with police power or authority; traditionally, anyone sworn or badged who can arrest any person for a violation of criminal law is included under the umbrella term of law enforcement.Although law enforcement may be most concerned with the prevention and punishment of crimes, organizations exist to discourage a wide variety of non-criminal violations of rules and norms, effected through the imposition of less severe consequences such as probation." ], [ "History", "248x248pxLaw enforcement organizations existed in ancient times, such as prefects in ancient China, ''paqūdus'' in Babylonia, ''curaca'' in the Inca Empire, ''vigiles'' in the Roman Empire, and Medjay in ancient Egypt.", "Who law enforcers were and reported to depended on the civilization and often changed over time, but they were typically enslaved people, soldiers, officers of a judge, or hired by settlements and households.", "Aside from their duties to enforce laws, many ancient law enforcers also served as slave catchers, firefighters, watchmen, city guards, and bodyguards.By the post-classical period and the Middle Ages, forces such as the Santa Hermandades, the s''hurta'', and the ''Maréchaussée'' provided services ranging from law enforcement and personal protection to customs enforcement and waste collection.", "In England, a complex law enforcement system emerged, where tithings, groups of ten families, were responsible for ensuring good behavior and apprehending criminals; groups of ten tithings (\"hundreds\") were overseen by a reeve; hundreds were governed by administrative divisions known as shires; and shires were overseen by shire-reeves.", "In feudal Japan, samurai were responsible for enforcing laws.The concept of police as the primary law enforcement organization originated in Europe in the early modern period; the first statutory police force was the High Constables of Edinburgh in 1611, while the first organized police force was the Paris ''lieutenant général de police'' in 1667.Until the 18th century, law enforcement in England was mostly the responsibility of private citizens and thief-takers, albeit also including constables and watchmen.", "This system gradually shifted to government control following the 1749 establishment of the London Bow Street Runners, the first formal police force in Britain.", "In 1800, Napoleon reorganized French law enforcement to form the Paris Police Prefecture; the British government passed the Glasgow Police Act, establishing the City of Glasgow Police; and the Thames River Police was formed in England to combat theft on the River Thames.", "In September 1829, Robert Peel merged the Bow Street Runners and the Thames River Police to form the Metropolitan Police.", "The title of the \"first modern police force\" has still been claimed by the modern successors to these organizations.Following European colonization of the Americas, the first law enforcement agencies in the Thirteen Colonies were the New York Sheriff's Office and the Albany County Sheriff's Department, both formed in the 1660s in the Province of New York.", "The Province of Carolina established slave-catcher patrols in the 1700s, and by 1785, the Charleston Guard and Watch was reported to have the duties and organization of a modern police force.", "The first municipal police department in the United States was the Philadelphia Police Department, while the first American state police, federal law enforcement agency was the United States Marshals Service, both formed in 1789.In the American frontier, law enforcement was the responsibility of county sheriffs, rangers, constables, and marshals.", "The first law enforcement agency in Canada was the Royal Newfoundland Constabulary, established in 1729, while the first Canadian national law enforcement agency was the Dominion Police, established in 1868.Indonesian National Police officers conducting a foot patrolBy the late modern period, improvements in technology, greater global connections, and changes in the sociopolitical order led to the establishment of police forces worldwide.", "National, regional, and municipal civilian law enforcement agencies exist in practically all countries; to promote their international cooperation, the International Criminal Police Organization, also known as Interpol, was formed in September 1923.Technology has made an immense impact on law enforcement, leading to the development and regular use of police cars, police radio systems, police aviation, police tactical units, and police body cameras." ], [ "Law enforcement agencies", "pursuit termination in Scotts Valley, CaliforniaMost law enforcement is conducted by some law enforcement agency, typically a police force.", "Civilians generally staff police agencies, which are typically not a military branch.", "However, some militaries do have branches that enforce laws among the civilian populace, often called gendarmerie, security forces, or internal troops.", "Social investment in enforcement through such organizations can be massive in terms of the resources invested in the activity and the number of people professionally engaged to perform those functions.Law enforcement agencies are limited to operating within a specified jurisdiction.", "These are typically organized into three basic levels: national, regional, and municipal.", "However, depending on certain factors, there may be more or less levels, or they may be merged: in the United States, there are federal, state, and local police and sheriff agencies; in Canada, some territories may only have national-level law enforcement, while some provinces have national, provincial, and municipal; in Japan, there is a national police agency, which supervises the police agencies for each individual prefecture; and in Niger, there is a national police for urban areas and a gendarmerie for rural areas, both technically national-level.", "In some cases, there may be multiple agencies at the same level but with different focuses: for example, in the United States, the Drug Enforcement Administration and the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives are both national-level federal law enforcement agencies, but the DEA focuses on narcotics crimes, while the ATF focuses on weapon regulation violations.Various segments of society may have their own specialist law enforcement agency, such as the military having military police, schools having school police or campus police, or airports having airport police.", "Private police may exist in some jurisdictions, often to provide dedicated law enforcement for privately-owned property or infrastructure, such as railroad police for private railways or hospital police for privately-owned hospital campuses.Depending on various factors, such as whether an agency is autonomous or dependent on other organizations for its operations, the governing body that funds and oversees the agency may decide to dissolve or consolidate its operations.", "Dissolution of an agency may occur when the governing body or the agent itself decides to end operations.", "This can occur due to multiple reasons, including criminal justice reform, a lack of population in the jurisdiction, mass resignations, efforts to deter corruption, or the governing body contracting with a different agency that renders the original agency redundant or obsolete.", "According to the International Association of Chiefs of Police, agency consolidation can occur to improve efficiency, consolidate resources, or when forming a new type of government." ], [ "See also", "* Outline of law enforcement – structured list of topics related to law enforcement, organized by subject area* Law enforcement by country* Vigilantism* Criminal law* Parking enforcement officer" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Libido" ], [ "Introduction", "In psychology, '''libido''' (; from the Latin , 'desire') is psychic drive or energy, usually conceived as sexual in nature, but sometimes conceived as including other forms of desire.", "The term ''libido'' was originally used by the neurologist and pioneering psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud who began by employing it simply to denote sexual desire.", "Over time it came to signify the psychic energy of the sexual drive, and became a vital concept in psychoanalytic theory.", "Freud's later conception was broadened to include the fundamental energy of all expressions of love, pleasure, and self-preservation.In common or colloquial usage, a person's overall sexual drive is often referred to as that person's \"libido\".", "In this sense, libido is influenced by biological, psychological, and social factors.", "Biologically, the sex hormones and associated neurotransmitters that act upon the nucleus accumbens (primarily testosterone, estrogen, and dopamine, respectively) regulate sex drive in humans.", "Sexual drive can be affected by social factors such as work and family; psychological factors such as personality and stress; also by medical conditions, medications, lifestyle, relationship issues, and age." ], [ "Psychological perspectives", "===Freud===Sigmund FreudSigmund Freud, who is considered the originator of the modern use of the term, defined libido as \"the energy, regarded as a quantitative magnitude... of those instincts which have to do with all that may be comprised under the word 'love'.\"", "It is the instinctual energy or force, contained in what Freud called the id, the strictly unconscious structure of the psyche.", "He also explained that it is analogous to hunger, the will to power, and so on insisting that it is a fundamental instinct that is innate in all humans.Freud pointed out that these libidinal drives can conflict with the conventions of civilised behavior, represented in the psyche by the superego.", "It is this need to conform to society and control the libido that leads to tension and anxiety in the individual, prompting the use of ego defenses which channel the psychic energy of the unconscious drives into forms that are acceptable to the ego and superego.", "Excessive use of ego defenses results in neurosis, so a primary goal of psychoanalysis is to make the drives accessible to consciousness, allowing them to be addressed directly, thus reducing the patient's automatic resort to ego defenses.Freud viewed libido as passing through a series of developmental stages in the individual, in which the libido fixates on different erogenous zones: first the oral stage (exemplified by an infant's pleasure in nursing), then the anal stage (exemplified by a toddler's pleasure in controlling his or her bowels), then the phallic stage, through a latency stage in which the libido is dormant, to its reemergence at puberty in the genital stage (Karl Abraham would later add subdivisions in both oral and anal stages.).", "Failure to adequately adapt to the demands of these different stages could result in libidinal energy becoming 'dammed up' or fixated in these stages, producing certain pathological character traits in adulthood.===Jung===Swiss psychiatrist Carl Gustav Jung identified the libido with psychic energy in general.", "According to Jung, 'energy', in its subjective and psychological sense, is 'desire', of which sexual desire is just one aspect.", "Libido thus denotes \"a desire or impulse which is unchecked by any kind of authority, moral or otherwise.", "Libido is appetite in its natural state.", "From the genetic point of view it is bodily needs like hunger, thirst, sleep, and sex, and emotional states or affects, which constitute the essence of libido.\"", "It is \"the energy that manifests itself in the life process and is perceived subjectively as striving and desire.\"", "Duality (opposition) creates the energy (or libido) of the psyche, which Jung asserts expresses itself only through symbols.", "These symbols may manifest as \"fantasy-images\" in the process of psychoanalysis, giving subjective expression to the contents of the libido, which otherwise lacks any definite form.", "Desire, conceived generally as a psychic longing, movement, displacement and structuring, manifests itself in definable forms which are apprehended through analysis.=== Other psychological and social perspectives ===A person may have a desire for sex, but not have the opportunity to act on that desire, or may on personal, moral or religious reasons refrain from acting on the urge.", "Psychologically, a person's urge can be repressed or sublimated.", "Conversely, a person can engage in sexual activity without an actual desire for it.", "Multiple factors affect human sex drive, including stress, illness, pregnancy, and others.", "A 2001 review found that, on average, men have a higher desire for sex than women.Certain psychological or social factors can reduce the desire for sex.", "These factors can include lack of privacy or intimacy, stress or fatigue, distraction, or depression.", "Environmental stress, such as prolonged exposure to elevated sound levels or bright light, can also affect libido.", "Other causes include experience of sexual abuse, assault, trauma, or neglect, body image issues, and anxiety about engaging in sexual activity.Individuals with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) may find themselves with reduced sexual desire.", "Struggling to find pleasure, as well as having trust issues, many with PTSD experience feelings of vulnerability, rage and anger, and emotional shutdowns, which have been shown to inhibit sexual desire in those with PTSD.", "Reduced sex drive may also be present in trauma victims due to issues arising in sexual function.", "For women, it has been found that treatment can improve sexual function, thus helping restore sexual desire.", "Depression and libido decline often coincide, with reduced sex drive being one of the symptoms of depression.", "Those with depression often report the decline in libido to be far reaching and more noticeable than other symptoms.", "In addition, those with depression often are reluctant to report their reduced sex drive, often normalizing it with cultural/social values, or by the failure of the physician to inquire about it.Sexual desires are often an important factor in the formation and maintenance of intimate relationships in humans.", "A lack or loss of sexual desire can adversely affect relationships.", "Changes in the sexual desires of any partner in a sexual relationship, if sustained and unresolved, may cause problems in the relationship.", "The infidelity of a partner may be an indication that a partner's changing sexual desires can no longer be satisfied within the current relationship.", "Problems can arise from disparity of sexual desires between partners, or poor communication between partners of sexual needs and preferences." ], [ "Biological perspectives", "=== Endogenous compounds ===Libido is governed primarily by activity in the mesolimbic dopamine pathway (ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens).", "Consequently, dopamine and related trace amines (primarily phenethylamine) that modulate dopamine neurotransmission play a critical role in regulating libido.Other neurotransmitters, neuropeptides, and sex hormones that affect sex drive by modulating activity in or acting upon this pathway include:* Testosterone (directly correlated) – and other androgens* Estrogen (directly correlated) – and related female sex hormones* Progesterone (inversely correlated)* Oxytocin (directly correlated)* Serotonin (inversely correlated)* Norepinephrine (directly correlated)* Acetylcholine==== Sex hormone levels and the menstrual cycle ====A woman's desire for sex is correlated to her menstrual cycle, with many women experiencing a heightened sexual desire in the several days immediately before ovulation, which is her peak fertility period, which normally occurs two days before and until two days after the ovulation.", "This cycle has been associated with changes in a woman's testosterone levels during the menstrual cycle.", "According to Gabrielle Lichterman, testosterone levels have a direct impact on a woman's interest in sex.", "According to her, testosterone levels rise gradually from about the 24th day of a woman's menstrual cycle until ovulation on about the 14th day of the next cycle, and during this period the woman's desire for sex increases consistently.", "The 13th day is generally the day with the highest testosterone levels.", "In the week following ovulation, the testosterone level is the lowest and as a result women will experience less interest in sex.Also, during the week following ovulation, progesterone levels increase, resulting in a woman experiencing difficulty achieving orgasm.", "Although the last days of the menstrual cycle are marked by a constant testosterone level, women's libido may get a boost as a result of the thickening of the uterine lining which stimulates nerve endings and makes a woman feel aroused.", "Also, during these days, estrogen levels decline, resulting in a decrease of natural lubrication.Although some specialists disagree with this theory, menopause is still considered by the majority a factor that can cause decreased sexual desire in women.", "The levels of estrogen decrease at menopause and this usually causes a lower interest in sex and vaginal dryness which makes sex painful.", "However, the levels of testosterone increase at menopause and this may be why some women may experience a contrary effect of an increased libido.=== Physical factors ===Physical factors that can affect libido include endocrine issues such as hypothyroidism, the effect of certain prescription medications (for example flutamide), and the attractiveness and biological fitness of one's partner, among various other lifestyle factors.Anemia is a cause of lack of libido in women due to the loss of iron during the period.Smoking tobacco, alcohol use disorder, and the use of certain drugs can also lead to a decreased libido.", "Moreover, specialists suggest that several lifestyle changes such as exercising, quitting smoking, lowering consumption of alcohol or using prescription drugs may help increase one's sexual desire.==== Medications ====Some people purposefully attempt to decrease their libido through the usage of anaphrodisiacs.", "Aphrodisiacs, such as dopaminergic psychostimulants, are a class of drugs which can increase libido.", "On the other hand, a reduced libido is also often iatrogenic and can be caused by many medications, such as hormonal contraception, SSRIs and other antidepressants, antipsychotics, opioids, beta blockers and isotretinoin.Isotretinoin, finasteride and many SSRIs uncommonly can cause a long-term decrease in libido and overall sexual function, sometimes lasting for months or years after users of these drugs have stopped taking them.", "These long-lasting effects have been classified as iatrogenic medical disorders, respectively termed post-retinoid sexual dysfunction/post-Accutane syndrome (PRSD/PAS), post-finasteride syndrome (PFS) and post-SSRI sexual dysfunction (PSSD).", "These three disorders share many overlapping symptoms in addition to reduced libido, and are thought to share a common etiology, but collectively remain poorly-understood and lack effective treatments.Multiple studies have shown that with the exception of bupropion (Wellbutrin), trazodone (Desyrel) and nefazodone (Serzone), antidepressants generally will lead to lowered libido.", "SSRIs that typically lead to decreased libido are fluoxetine (Prozac), paroxetine (Paxil), fluvoxamine (Luvox), citalopram (Celexa) and sertraline (Zoloft).", "Some antidepressant users have tried decreasing their dosage in the hopes of maintaining an adequate sex drive.", "Other users try enrolling in psychotherapy to solve depression-related issues of libido.", "However, the effectiveness of this therapy is mixed, with many reporting that it had no or little effect on sexual drive.Testosterone is one of the hormones controlling libido in human beings.", "Emerging research is showing that hormonal contraception methods like oral contraceptive pills (which rely on estrogen and progesterone together) are causing low libido in females by elevating levels of sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG).", "SHBG binds to sex hormones, including testosterone, rendering them unavailable.", "Research is showing that even after ending a hormonal contraceptive method, SHBG levels remain elevated and no reliable data exists to predict when this phenomenon will diminish.Oral contraceptives lower androgen levels in users, and lowered androgen levels generally lead to a decrease in sexual desire.", "However, usage of oral contraceptives has shown to typically not have a connection with lowered libido in women.==== Effects of age ====Males reach the peak of their sex drive in their teenage years , while females reach it in their thirties.", "The surge in testosterone hits the male at puberty resulting in a sudden and extreme sex drive which reaches its peak at age 15–16, then drops slowly over his lifetime.", "In contrast, a female's libido increases slowly during adolescence and peaks in her mid-thirties.Actual testosterone and estrogen levels that affect a person's sex drive vary considerably.Some boys and girls will start expressing romantic or sexual interest by age 10–12.The romantic feelings are not necessarily sexual, but are more associated with attraction and desire for another.", "For boys and girls in their preteen years (ages 11–12), at least 25% report \"thinking a lot about sex\".", "By the early teenage years (ages 13–14), however, boys are much more likely to have sexual fantasies than girls.", "In addition, boys are much more likely to report an interest in sexual intercourse at this age than girls.", "Masturbation among youth is common, with prevalence among the population generally increasing until the late 20s and early 30s.", "Boys generally start masturbating earlier, with less than 10% boys masturbating around age 10, around half participating by age 11–12, and over a substantial majority by age 13–14.This is in sharp contrast to girls where virtually none are engaging in masturbation before age 13, and only around 20% by age 13–14.People in their 60s and early 70s generally retain a healthy sex drive, but this may start to decline in the early to mid-70s.", "Older adults generally develop a reduced libido due to declining health and environmental or social factors.", "In contrast to common belief, postmenopausal women often report an increase in sexual desire and an increased willingness to satisfy their partner.", "Women often report family responsibilities, health, relationship problems, and well-being as inhibitors to their sexual desires.", "Aging adults often have more positive attitudes towards sex in older age due to being more relaxed about it, freedom from other responsibilities, and increased self-confidence.", "Those exhibiting negative attitudes generally cite health as one of the main reasons.", "Stereotypes about aging adults and sexuality often regard seniors as asexual beings, doing them no favors when they try to talk about sexual interest with caregivers and medical professionals.", "Non-western cultures often follow a narrative of older women having a much lower libido, thus not encouraging any sort of sexual behavior for women.", "Residence in retirement homes has affects on residents' libidos.", "In these homes, sex occurs, but it is not encouraged by the staff or other residents.", "Lack of privacy and resident gender imbalance are the main factors lowering desire.", "Generally, for older adults, being excited about sex, good health, sexual self-esteem and having a sexually talented partner can be factors." ], [ "Sexual desire disorders", "Sexual desire disorders are more common in women than in men, and women tend to exhibit less frequent and less intense sexual desires than men.", "Erectile dysfunction may happen to the penis because of lack of sexual desire, but these two should not be confused since the two can commonly occur simultaneously.", "For example, moderate to large recreational doses of cocaine, amphetamine or methamphetamine can simultaneously cause erectile dysfunction (evidently due to vasoconstriction) while still significantly increasing libido due to heightened levels of dopamine.", "Although conversely, excessive or very regular/repeated high-dose amphetamine use may damage leydig cells in the male testes, potentially leading to markedly lowered sexual desire subsequently due to hypogonadism.", "However in contrast to this, other stimulants such as cocaine and even caffeine appear to lack negative impacts on testosterone levels, and may even increase their concentrations in the body.", "Studies on cannabis however seem to be exceptionally mixed, with some claiming decreased levels on testosterone, others reporting increased levels, and with some showing no measurable changes at all.", "This varying data seems to coincidence with the almost equally conflicting data on cannabis' effects on sex drive as well, which may be dosage or frequency-dependent, due to different amounts of distinct cannabinoids in the plant, or based on individual enzyme properties responsible for metabolism of the drug.", "Evidence on alcohol's effects on testosterone however invariably show a clear decrease, however (like amphetamine, albeit to a lesser degree); temporary increases in libido and related sexual behavior have long been observed during alcohol intoxication in both sexes, but likely most noticeable with moderation, particularly in males.", "Additionally, men often also naturally experience a decrease in their libido as they age due to decreased productions in testosterone.The American Medical Association has estimated that several million US women have a female sexual arousal disorder, though arousal is not at all synonymous with desire, so this finding is of limited relevance to the discussion of libido.", "Some specialists claim that women may experience low libido due to some hormonal abnormalities such as lack of luteinising hormone or androgenic hormones, although these theories are still controversial." ], [ "See also" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Ellenberger, Henri (1970).", "''The Discovery of the Unconscious: The History and Evolution of Dynamic Psychiatry''.", "New York: Basic Books.", "Hardcover , softcover .", "* Froböse, Gabriele, and Froböse, Rolf.", "''Lust and Love: Is It More than Chemistry?''", "Michael Gross (trans.", "and ed.).", "Royal Society of Chemistry, (2006).", "* Giles, James, ''The Nature of Sexual Desire'', Lanham, Maryland: University Press of America, 2008." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Larissa" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Larissa''' (; , , ) is the capital and largest city of the Thessaly region in Greece.", "It is the fifth-most populous city in Greece with a population of 148,562 in the city proper, according to the 2021 census.", "It is also capital of the Larissa regional unit.", "It is a principal agricultural centre and a national transport hub, linked by road and rail with the port of Volos, the cities of Thessaloniki and Athens.", "The municipality of Larissa has inhabitants, while the regional unit of Larissa reached a population of ().Legend has it that Achilles was born here.", "Hippocrates, the \"Father of Medicine\", died here.", "Today, Larissa is an important commercial, transportation, educational, agricultural and industrial centre of Greece.", "The city straddles the Pineios river and N.-NE.", "of the city are the Mount Olympus and Mount Kissavos." ], [ "Mythology", "According to Greek mythology it is said that the city was founded by Acrisius, who was killed accidentally by his grandson, Perseus.", "There lived Peleus, the hero beloved by the gods, and his son Achilles.In mythology, the nymph Larissa was a daughter of the primordial man Pelasgus.The city of Larissa is mentioned in Book II of ''Iliad'' by Homer: \"Hippothous led the tribes of Pelasgian spearsmen, who dwelt in fertile '''Larissa'''- Hippothous, and Pylaeus of the race of Mars, two sons of the Pelasgian Lethus, son of Teutamus.\"", "In this paragraph, Homer shows that the Pelasgians, Trojan allies, used to live in the city of Larissa.", "It is likely that this city of Larissa was different to the city that was the birthplace of Achilles.", "The Larissa that features as a Trojan ally in the ''Iliad'' was likely to be located in the Troad, on the other side of the Aegean Sea." ], [ "History", "===Antiquity===File:Larissa drachma.jpg\|thumb\|Silver drachma of Larissa (410-405 BC).", "Head of the nymph Larissa left, wearing pearl earring, her hair bound in sakkos / ΛΑΡΙΣΑ above, IA below (retrograde), bridled horse -symbol of the city- galloping right.====Pre-history====Traces of Paleolithic human settlement have been recovered from the area, but it was peripheral to areas of advanced culture.", "The area around Larissa was extremely fruitful; it was agriculturally important and in antiquity was known for its horses.====Archaic Era====The name Larissa (Λάρισα ''Lárīsa'') is in origin a Pelasgian word for \"fortress\".", "There were many ancient Greek cities with this name.The name of Thessalian Larissa is first recorded in connection with the aristocratic Aleuadai family.", "It was also a polis (city-state).====Classical Era====Larissa was a polis (city-state) during the Classical Era.", "Larissa is thought to be where the famous Greek physician Hippocrates and the famous philosopher Gorgias of Leontini died.Coinage of Thessaly, possibly king Hellokrates, with portrait of Aleuas.", "''Obv'': head of Aleuas facing slightly left, wearing conical helmet, ALEU to right; labrys behind.", "''Rev'': Eagle standing right, head left, on thunderbolt; ELLA to left, LARISAYA to right.", "Thessaly, Larissa.", "BC.When Larissa ceased minting the federal coins it shared with other Thessalian towns and adopted its own coinage in the late fifth century BC, it chose local types for its coins.", "The obverse depicted the nymph of the local spring, Larissa, for whom the town was named; probably the choice was inspired by the famous coins of Kimon depicting the Syracusan nymph Arethusa.", "The reverse depicted a horse in various poses.", "The horse was an appropriate symbol of Thessaly, a land of plains, which was well known for its horses.", "Usually there is a male figure; he should perhaps be seen as the eponymous hero of the Thessalians, Thessalos, who is probably also to be identified on many of the earlier, federal coins of Thessaly.first ancient theatre of the city.", "It was constructed inside the ancient city's centre during the reign of Antigonus II Gonatas towards the end of the third century BC.", "The theatre was in use for six centuries, until the end of the third century AD.Pedestrian zone beside the First Ancient Greek theatresecond ancient theatreLarissa, sometimes written Larisa on ancient coins and inscriptions, is near the site of the Homeric Argissa.", "It appears in early times, when Thessaly was mainly governed by a few aristocratic families, as an important city under the rule of the Aleuadae, whose authority extended over the whole district of Pelasgiotis.", "This powerful family possessed for many generations before 369 BC the privilege of furnishing the ''tagus'', the local term for the ''strategos'' of the combined Thessalian forces.", "The principal rivals of the Aleuadae were the Scopadae of Crannon, the remains of which are about 14 miles south west.Larissa was the birthplace of Meno, who thus became, along with Xenophon and a few others, one of the generals leading several thousands Greeks from various places, in the ill-fated expedition of 401 (retold in Xenophon's ''Anabasis'') meant to help Cyrus the Younger, son of Darius II, king of Persia, overthrow his elder brother Artaxerxes II and take over the throne of Persia (Meno is featured in Plato's dialogue bearing his name, in which Socrates uses the example of ''\"the way to Larissa\"'' to help explain Meno the difference between true opinion and science (Meno, 97a–c); this \"way to Larissa\" might well be on the part of Socrates an attempt to call to Meno's mind a \"way home\", understood as the way toward one's true and \"eternal\" home reached only at death, that each man is supposed to seek in his life).The constitution of the town was democratic, which explains why it sided with Athens in the Peloponnesian War.", "In the neighbourhood of Larissa was celebrated a festival which recalled the Roman Saturnalia, and at which the slaves were waited on by their masters.", "As the chief city of ancient Thessaly, Larissa was taken by the Thebans and later directly annexed by Philip II of Macedon in 344.It remained under Macedonian control afterwards, except for a brief period when Demetrius Poliorcetes captured it in 302 BC.====Hellenistic Era========Roman Era====It was in Larissa that Philip V of Macedon signed in 197 BC a treaty with the Romans after his defeat at the Battle of Cynoscephalae, and it was there also that Antiochus III the Great, won a great victory in 192 BC.", "In 196 BC Larissa became an ally of Rome and was the headquarters of the Thessalian League.Larissa is frequently mentioned in connection with the Roman civil wars which preceded the establishment of the Roman Empire and Pompey sought refuge there after the defeat of Pharsalus.===Middle Ages===Remains of the Basilica of St. Achillios, destroyed during the Ottoman eraGravure of Larissa, c. 1820The archaeological excavations on Frourio Hill, with the Bezesten of Larissa in the backgroundA street in the Frourio quarterLarissa was sacked by the Ostrogoths in the late 5th century, and rebuilt under the Byzantine emperor Justinian I.In the eighth century, the city became the metropolis of the theme of Hellas.", "The city was captured in 986 by Tsar Samuel of Bulgaria, who carried off the relics of its patron saint, Saint Achilleios, to Prespa.", "It was again unsuccessfully besieged by the Italo-Normans under Bohemond I in 1082/3.After the Fourth Crusade, the King of Thessalonica, Boniface of Montferrat, gave the city to Lombard barons, but they launched a rebellion in 1209 that had to be subdued by the Latin Emperor Henry of Flanders himself.", "The city was recovered by Epirus soon after.=== Ottoman period ===Larissa was conquered by the Ottoman Empire in 1386/87 and again in the 1390s, but only came under permanent Ottoman control in 1423, by Turahan Bey.", "Under Ottoman rule, the city was known as ''Yeni-şehir i-Fenari'', \"new citadel\".", "As the chief town and military base of Ottoman Thessaly, Larissa was a predominantly Muslim city.", "In 1521 (Hijri 927) the town had 693 Muslim and 75 Christian households; according to Gökbilgin (1956), it also included Albanian and Jewish communities.", "During Ottoman rule the administration of the Metropolis of Larissa was transferred to nearby Trikala where it remained until 1734, when Metropolitan Iakovos II returned the see from Trikala to Larissa and established the present-day metropolis of Larissa and Tyrnavos.The town was noted for its trade fair in the 17th and 18th centuries, while the seat of the pasha of Thessaly was also transferred there in 1770.Larissa was the headquarters of Hursid Pasha during the Greek War of Independence.", "It was also renowned for its mosques (four of which were still in use in the late 19th century) and its muslim cemeteries.The city remained a part of the Ottoman Empire until Thessaly became part of the independent Kingdom of Greece in 1881, except for a period where Ottoman forces re-occupied it during the Greco-Turkish War of 1897.In the late 19th century, there was still a small village in the outskirts of the town inhabited by Africans from Sudan, a curious remnant of the forces collected by Ali Pasha.In the 19th century, the town produced leather, cotton, silk and tobacco.", "Fevers and agues were prevalent owing to bad drainage and the overflowing of the river; and the death rate was higher than the birth rate.===Modern Greek era===Old postcard of the city, Alexandras Street, 1910In 1881, the city, along with the rest of Thessaly, was incorporated into the Kingdom of Greece during the prime ministry of Alexandros Koumoundouros.", "On 31 August 1881 a unit of the Greek Army headed by General Skarlatos Soutsos entered the city.", "A considerable portion of the Turkish population emigrated into the Ottoman Empire at that point.", "In this new era the city starts gradually to expand and to be rebuilt by the Greek authorities.A German Messerschmitt which was crash-landed on the military airfield at Larissa, shot down by RAF pilots during WWIIDuring the Greco-Turkish War of 1897, the city was the headquarters of Greek Crown Prince Constantine.", "The flight of the Greek army from here to Farsala took place on April 23, 1897.Turkish troops entered the city two days later.", "After a treaty for peace was signed, they withdrew and Larissa remained permanently in Greece.", "This was followed by a further exodus of Turks in 1898.The Hassan Bey mosque (which was built in the early 16th century) was demolished in 1908.During the Axis Occupation of the country, the Jewish community of the city (dated back to second BC, see Romaniotes) suffered heavy losses.", "Today in the city there is a Holocaust memorial and a synagogue.=== After WWII ===The \"floating river\" fountain in Central Square of Larissa (Sapka, former Themidos)After WWII the city was expanded rapidly.", "Today Larissa is the fourth largest Greek city with many squares, taverns and cafes.", "It has three public hospitals with one being a military hospital.", "It hosts the Hellenic Air Force Headquarters and NATO Headquarters in Greece.", "It has a School of Medicine and a School of Biochemistry – Biotechnology and the third largest in the country Institute of Technology.", "It occupies the first place among Greek cities into green coverage rate per square-metre urban space and the first place with the highest percentance of bars-taverns-restaurants per capita in Greece.", "It also has two public libraries and five museums." ], [ "Ecclesiastical history", "Pineios river with the church of St. Achillios in the background, patron saint of the cityChristianity penetrated early to Larissa, though its first bishop is recorded only in 325 at the Council of Nicaea.", "St. Achillius of the fourth century, is celebrated for his miracles.", "Le Quien cites twenty-nine bishops from the fourth to the 18th centuries; the most famous is Jeremias II, who occupied the see until 733, when the Emperor Leo III the Isaurian transferred it from the jurisdiction of the Pope of Rome to the Patriarchate of Constantinople.", "In the first years of the tenth century it had ten suffragan sees; subsequently the number increased and about the year 1175 under the Emperor Manuel I Comnenus, it reached twenty-eight.", "At the close of the 15th century, under the Ottoman domination, there were only ten suffragan sees, which gradually grew less and finally disappeared.Interior of the Jewish synagogue of LarissaLarissa is an Orthodox Metropolis of the Church of Greece.It was also briefly a Latin archbishopric in the early 13th century, and remains a Latin Metropolitan (top-ranking) titular see of the Roman Catholic Church, which must not be confused with the Latin episcopal (low-ranking) titular see Larissa in Syria.", "Today there is a Catholic church in the city (Sacred Heart of Jesus)." ], [ "Sights", "In the area from the Frourio hill to the Central square is located the old part of the city where some of its main landmarks are.", "Sights of the city are:* The Frourio Hill and the adjacent First Ancient Greek Theatre area.", "* The Pineios river that crosses the city center near the St. Achillios church and the Alkazar Park next to the lush river banks of Pineios river.", "* The First Ancient Greek Theatre of Larissa, built in the 3rd c.", "BC.", "* The Second Ancient Theatre, built in the 1st c.", "BC.", "* The Basilica of St. Achillios.", "Early Byzantine basilica ruins dedicated to the city's patron saint, St. Achillios.", "* The church of St. Achillios Cathedral.", "* The Bezesten of Larissa.", "Built in the 15th c. was an ottoman enclosed market and also used in the 19th c. as a gunpowder magazine and fort.", "* The Yeni Mosque, a rare example of 19th c. mosque built in neoclassical style, now used as a museum.", "* The Ottoman Baths probably built in the 15th c.* The Cenotaph monument of Hippocrates, the 4th c. B.C.", "votive stele dedicated to Poseidon and many other ancient ruins and monuments.", "* The Diachronic Museum of Larissa with finds that cover all history of Larissa since antiquity.", "* Historical buildings that have been listed as architecturally preserved, such as the Mill of Pappas, the Cine Palace (architect Colonello), the Charokopos Tower (arch.", "Anastasios Metaxas, buit in 1902, endangered to collapse as of 2022) and the neoclassical complex of the Averofeios Agricultural School (built in 1908)." ], [ "Geography", "Plain of LarissaMount Kissavos viewed from Pineios bridge in LarissaLarissa is around south-west of Thessaloniki and around north-west of Athens.There are a number of highways including E75 and the main railway from Athens to Thessaloniki (Salonika) crossing through Thessaly.", "The region is directly linked to the rest of Europe through the International Airport of Central Greece located in Nea Anchialos a short distance from Larissa (about ).", "Larissa lies on the river Pineios.The municipality of Larissa has an area of , the municipal unit Larissa has an area of , and the community Larissa has an area of .The city is in close proximity of destinations such as Mount Olympus, Mount Kissavos, Meteora, Lake Plastira, Pilio, etc.The Larissa Chasma, a deep gash in the surface of Dione, a natural satellite of Saturn, was named after Larissa.===Climate===The climate of Larissa is cold semi-arid (Köppen: ''BSk'') with some Mediterranean climate (''Csa'') characteristics such as the drier summers and the somewhat wetter winters.", "The winter is cold, and some snowfalls may occur, though few of them are heavy.", "The summer is particularly hot, and temperatures near or above typically occur every year for a few days.", "Thunderstorms during the summer months are sometimes heavy and may cause agricultural damage.", "Larissa receives about of rain per year and has an average annual average temperature of ." ], [ "Administration", "The municipality Larissa was formed at the 2011 local government reform by the merger of the following 3 former municipalities, that became municipal units:GiannouliKoiladaLarissa=== Districts ===The municipal unit of Larissa is divided into four city-districts or municipal communities (29 city areas) plus 2 suburban communities (Amphithea and Koulourion).", "The municipality includes also the Community of Terpsithèa (with the suburban community of Argyssa).1st Municipal District(pop.", "26,035)# Papastàvrou# Saint Athanàsios# Alkazàr# Hippocrates-Pèra# Potamòpolis# Philippòpolis# Livadàki# Saint Thomas# Saint Paraskevi-Mezourlo# Neàpolis2nd Municipal District(pop.", "41,816)# Saint Achellios# Saint Nikòlaos# Ambelòkipoi# Saints Sarànta# Saint Konstantinos# Stathmòs3rd Municipal District(pop.", "30,121)# Lachanòkipoi# Nèa Smyrne-Kamynia# Kalyvia-Saint Marina# Saint Geòrgios# Anatoli# Koulouri# Amphithèa4th Municipal District(pop.", "26,814)# Charavgi-Toumba-OKE# Pyrovolikà-Pharos# Avèrof-Sèkfo# Nèa Politia# Epiròtika# Anthoupolis# Neràida# KàmposCommunity of Terpsithèa(pop.", "1,290)# Terpsithèa# ArgyssaFrom 1 January 2011, in accordance with the Kallikratis Plan (new administrative division of Greece), the new municipality of Larissa includes also the former municipalities of Giannouli and Koilada.===Province===The province of Larissa () was one of the provinces of the Larissa Prefecture.", "Its territory corresponded with that of the current municipalities Larissa (except the municipal unit Giannouli) and Tempi (except the municipal units Gonnoi and Kato Olympos).", "It was abolished in 2006.=== Main streets === Anthimou Gazi Street* Kouma Street* Roosevelt Street* 31 August Street* Karamanli Avenue* Koumoundourou* Mandilara* Rizopoulou* Papanastasiou* Venizelou (former Makedonias)* Kyprou (Alexandras)* Polykarpou* Asclepiou Street* Iroon Polytechniou Avenue* Lambraki Street* Thetidos Street* Korai* Ipsilanti* Tsimiski* Sklirou* Panagouli* Ioanninon* Kolokotroni* Manolaki* Nikitara=== List of mayors ===The mayors of Larissa from 1881 to 2023 were as follows:* Hasan Etem Aga (1881–1882)* Argyrios Didikas* Christos Georgiadis* Dionysios Galatis* Achilleas Asteriadis* Achilleas Logiotatou* Konstantinos Anastasiadis* Konstantinos Markidis* Vasileios Sylivridis* Anastasios Zarmanis* Michail Sapkas (1914–1917, 1925–1934)* Konstantinos Vlachos* Christos Koutsoubas* Dimitris Papageorgiou* Vasileios Arsenidis* Stylianos Asteriadis* Nikolaos Tzavellas* Dimitrios Karathanos* Sotirios Zazias* Dimitrios Hatzigiannis* Athanasios Messinis* Stylianos Zografidis* Agamemnon Blanas (1975–1978)* Alexandros Chondronasios (1978–1980)* Aristeides Labroulis (1980–1994)* Christodoulos Kafes (1994–1998)* Konstantinos Tzanakoulis (1998–2014)* Apostolos Kalogiannis (2014–2023)* (2024–present)" ], [ "Economy", "Larissa is a major agricultural center of Greece, due to the plain of Thessaly.In manufacturing sector, Larissa is among others home to Biokarpet carpet company (whose owners were also major shareholders of AEL FC in the past) and Orient Bikes.It comes also in first place with the highest percentage of bars-taverns-restaurants per capita in Greece.", "Mikel Coffee Company and Bruno Coffee Stores chains started and have also their base in the city." ], [ "Culture", "A horse statueAlcazar parkThe ''Thessalian Theatre''New Year's Eve concert at Frourio Hill===Theatres and Odeons===Municipal Conservatory of LarissaPappas's Mile TheatreMunicipal Theatre OUHL of Larissa (Thessalian Theatre)Hatzigianeio Cultural CentreTiritomba Shadows Theatre===Cuisine===Old Mills of PappasLocal specialities:''Batzina'' (Μπατζίνα) pie baked in the oven''Kelaidi'' (Κελαηδί)''Pita'' (Πίτα, traditional pies with pasta phyllo, baked in the oven) like ''Kreatopita'', ''Loukanikopita'', ''Melintzanopita'', ''Tyropita'', ''Spanakopita''''Plastós'' (Πλαστός) pie''Lahanópsomo'' (Λαχανόψωμο) cabbage bread''Halvas'' (Χαλβάς) sweet===Museums===Diachronic Museum of Larissa / Archaeological and Byzantine Myseum of LarissaMunicipal Gallery of Larissa – G.I.", "Katsigras MuseumFolklore and Historical Museum of LarissaMilitary Veterinary Museum of LarissaMuseum of the Folklore Society of LarissaMuseum of Grain and Flours===Media===TV: Thessalian Radio Television (TRT), Astra TV, ForMedia TVPress: ''Eleftheria, Politia Larisseon (newspaper)''===Festivals===Among the notable festivals that the city hosts, is the \" Pineiou Festival\" (mainly music), \" Mill of Performing Arts\" and \"AgroThessaly\", a major agricultural fair.===Organizations===Panhellenic Federation of Cultural Associations of Vlachs===In popular culture===A notable film of the Greek cinema partially shot in the area of Larissa and referred to the history of the region is ''Blood on the Land'' (1966) by Vasilis Georgiadis." ], [ "Transport", "Larissa sits in the middle of the plain of Thessaly, with connections to Motorway A1 and national roads EO3 and EO6.", "Larissa's Urban Bus SystemLarissa's Interurban System (Ktel Larissas)Larissa Central Railway Station Station at Mezourlo Freight Railway station at Larissa National Airport (military)" ], [ "Sports", "Alcazar StadiumThe local football club AEL FC currently participates in Superleague Greece.", "The team won the Greek Championship, in 1988, and won the Greek Cup in 1985 and 2007.These titles place AEL among the five most important football clubs in Greece.Two other professional football clubs with long histories also represent the city: Apollon and Iraklis.AEL has hosted its home games at the AEL FC Arena, a UEFA 3-star-rated football ground, since November 2010.Other important sport venues are the ''National Sport Center of Larissa'' (EAK Larissas), which includes the Alcazar Stadium and the Neapoli Indoor Hall.The National Sports Center of Larissa can accommodate a number of sports and events (football, basketball, wrestling, swimming, boxing, martial arts, handball, water polo, etc.", "), while the Sports Hall has hosted important athletic events (the 1995 FIBA Under-19 World Cup, the 1997 Women's EuroLeague Final Four, the 2003 Greek Basketball Cup Final Four, martial arts events, etc.", "), and it is also used for cultural events, such as dance festivals.+Notable sport clubs based in LarissaClubSportsFoundedAchievementsApollon LarissaFootball1930Presence in Super League 2A.E.L.", "(Athletic Union of Larissa)Football1964Winner of Greek Championship and Greek CupBasketball2006Previous presence in Greek Basket LeagueEA LarissaVolleyball1968Previous presence in Greek Volleyball LeagueIraklis LarissaFootball1930/1982 (refoundation)Presence in Super League 2Olympia Larissa Basketball1979Previous presence in Greek Basket LeagueLarisa Basketball1984Presence in Greek Basket LeagueGymnastikos S. Larissas Basketball1928Previous in Greek Basket LeagueFilathlitikos Larissaikos Syllogos Volleyball1990Previous presence in Greek Women's Volleyball League" ], [ "Historical population", "The population of Larissa at different times was as follows: Year Municipal Unit Municipality 1940 32,686 35344 1951 41,016 - 1961 56,010 - 1971 72,336 - 1981 102,426 - 1991 113,090 129,429 2001 131,095 145,981 2011 146,926 162,591 2021 164,381" ], [ "Notable people", "A statue of Hippocrates in the cenotaph monument (sculptor Georgios Kalakalas)Achillius of LarissaTheoklitos FarmakidisVassilis Spanoulis===Ancient===Campaspe, mistress of Alexander the GreatAchilles (mythology)Gorgias of Leontinoi (483 BC–375 BC), sophist.", "He worked and died in Larissa.", "Hippocrates of Kos (460 BC–370 BC), physician.", "He worked and died in Larissa.", "Medius (4th century BC), officer of Alexander the GreatPhilinna (4th century BC), dancer, mother of Philip III ArrhidaeusPhilo (1st century BC), philosopherHeliodorus of Larissa, mathematicianAchillius of Larissa (270–330), first bishop and patron saint of the city===Medieval===Irene of Larissa, empress consort of BulgariaAgatha, wife of Samuel of BulgariaNikoulitzas Delphinas, Byzantine lord of Larissa===Modern===Alexander Helladius, scholarGiorgakis Olympios (1772–1821), commander of the Greek War of IndependenceTheoklitos Farmakidis (1784–1860), scholar, figure of the Modern Greek EnlightenmentMoshe Pesach (1869–1955), rabbiMichail Sapkas, mayor of Larissa and MPAchilleas Protosyngelos, Army officerM. Karagatsis (1908–1960), novelist and journalistSofia Vembo (1910–1978), singer and actressEleni Zafeiriou (1916–2004), actressAntonis Vratsanos (1919–2008), resistance figure during WWIIKostas Gousgounis (1931–2022), pornographic actorAthena Tacha (1936–), artistEfthymios Christodoulou (1932–), economistGeorgios Souflias (1941–), politicianAngela Kokkola, politicianPetros Efthimiou (1950–), politicianLakis Lazopoulos (1956–), actor, comedian, script author and directorThanasis Papakonstantinou (1959–), poet, songwriter, singer and musicianGeorgios Mitsibonas (1962–1997), footballerMaria Papayanni (1964–), writerVassilis Karapialis (1965–), footballerChristos Papoutsis, politicianMaria Spyraki, politicianEkaterini Voggoli (1970–), discus throwerAlexis Georgoulis (1974–), actorKostas Chalkias (1974–), footballerYannis Goumas (1975–), footballerDimosthenis Dikoudis (1977–), basketball playerNestoras Kommatos (1977–), basketball playerFani Halkia (1979–), hurdlerDimitris Spanoulis (1979–), basketball playerTheofanis Gekas (1980–), footballerVangelis Moras (1981–), footballerVassilis Spanoulis (1982–), basketball playerGiorgos Tsiaras (1982–), basketball playerVasilios Koutsianikoulis (1988–), footballerHaido Alexouli (1991–), long jumperChrysoula Anagnostopoulou (1991–), discus throwerVasileia Zachou (1994–), gymnast" ], [ "Twin towns – sister cities", "Larissa is twinned with: Anapa, Russia (2016)* Bălți, Moldova (1986)* Banská Bystrica, Slovakia (1985)* Foča, Bosnia and Herzegovina (1994)* Knoxville, United States (1996)* Kos, Greece (1978)* Larnaca, Cyprus (1990)* Rybnik, Poland (2003)* Stara Zagora, Bulgaria (1985)" ], [ "Gallery", "File:Larissa1920.jpg\|Central square (Themidos), 1920File:Λάρισα κεντρικη πλατεία προτομη Κουμουνδούρου 1.jpg\|A bust of Koumoundouros in central squareFile:Oldlarissa.jpg\|View of the city in the 1940sFile:Oldlarissasquare.jpg\|Tachidromiou Square in 1950sFile:Исторически паметник в чест на загиналите в Балканската война, Лариса, Гърция.jpg\|War memorialFile:Larissa Holocaust memorial.jpg\|Holocaust memorialFile:Larisa%2C_Greece_-_City_with_snow_in_winter_2.jpg\|City with snow in winterFile:20111009_Yeni_Tzami_former_seat_of_the_Archeological_Museum_Larissa_Thessaly_Greece.jpg\|Yeni Tzami, the former seat of the Archeological Museum of LarissaFile:ΠΛΑΤΕΙΑ ΣΙΔΗΡ.", "ΣΤΑΘΜΟΥ - panoramio.jpg\|Rail Station Square" ], [ "See also", "Ampelakia, LarissaVale of TempeUniversity of ThessalyCERETETH, Center of Technology Thessaly" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "** Source* Official Website* Region of Thessaly Official Website* International airport of Central Greece* Larissa on Web* Larissa The Official website of the Greek National Tourism Organisation* Larissa Photos" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lead and follow" ], [ "Introduction", "In some types of partner dance, '''lead and follow''' are designations for the two dancers' roles in a dance pairing.", "The leader is responsible for guiding the couple and initiating transitions to different dance steps and, in improvised dances, for choosing the dance steps to perform.", "The leader communicates choices to the follower, and directs the follower by means of subtle physical and visual signals, thereby allowing the pair to be smoothly coordinated.The amount of direction given by the leader depends on several factors, including dance style, social context of the dance, and experience and personalities of the dancers." ], [ "Gender roles", "Traditionally, the male dance partner is the leader and the female dance partner is the follower, though this is not always the case, such as in Schottische danced in the Madrid style where women lead and men follow (although this is not totally true: during the dance there is an exchange of roles, the leader becomes the follower and vice versa).", "Many social dance forms have a long history of same-sex (e.g.", "tango) and role-crossing partnerships, and there have been some changes to the strict gendering of partner dances in some competition or performance contexts.", "An example is a \"Jack and Jack\" dance contest." ], [ "Communication", "Partner dancing requires awareness and clear communication; this is essential both for safety and for the overall success of the dance.", "If following in the dance, it helps to maintain a centered readiness to the leader.", "This helps the follower be ready for cues both visually and physically.", "The leader in the dance will best support the follower by giving clear directions.For the leader and follower to interact with each other, communication needs to occur between the dance couple.", "Dancers take cues through physical connection, with the follower using it to communicate feedback to the leader just as the leader uses it to suggest moves to the follower.", "The most accomplished dancers use connection as a line of communication which allows the leader to incorporate the follower's ideas, abilities, and creative suggestions into their own styling and selection of moves.In many partner dances, the leader's steps differ from the follower's.", "In face-to-face positions, the follower generally \"mirrors\" the leader's footwork.", "For example, if the leader begins on their left foot, the follower will begin on their right foot.", "In choreographed pieces and other situations where the follower is in a tandem position or shadow position, the leader and follower will use the same footwork.", "Usually both partners move together as a unit, but in some dances the partners move in opposite directions - together and apart again.In partner dancing, dancers seek to work together to create synchronized or complementary movements.", "The leader is largely responsible for ''initiating'' movement, whereas the follower's role is to ''maintain'' this movement (though they may choose not to).", "This process can be described as involving the initiation of momentum or 'energy' (by the leader) and then the subsequent maintenance, exaggeration, decreasing or dissolving of this momentum by both partners.This momentum or energy may be manifested as movement (in its most obvious form), or in a range of more complex interactions between partners:* Compression (where each partner 'compress' the energy by bending joints and moving towards or 'into' their partner, to varying degrees);* Leverage (where one partner – usually the leader – exploits the development of compression or connection to shift their follower's weight or to 'ground' (develop 'compression' downwards, with the contact their feet make with the floor) themselves more thoroughly before initiating movement);* Tension (is the opposite of compression - partners moving away from each other but still in contact)It is also helpful for dancers to regard their partners in terms of their ''points of balance'' to help the leader initiate movements for their follower.", "These points of balance include the front-facing side of the shoulders, the front facing side of the hips, and the follower's center (the abdomen).", "If the leader wants to bring the follower close, the leader is to apply tension and draw the hand in and down toward the leader's own hip; to send the follower away, the leader would guide the hand toward the follower and add compression, signaling the move away.===Obstruction avoidance===A general rule is that both leader and follower watch each other's back in a dance hall situation.", "Collision avoidance is one of the cases when the follower is required to \"backlead\" or at least to communicate about the danger to the leader.", "In travelling dances, such as waltz, common follower signals of danger are an unusual resistance to the leader, or a slight tap by the shoulder.", "In open-position dances, such as swing or Latin dances, maintaining eye contact with the partner is an important safety communication link.===Weight transfer===For partner dancers, using weight transfers is a way for a leader to communicate a 'lead' for a dance step to a follower.In another example, for a leader to have their follower walk forwards while connected, the leader begins by taking his or her center back, indicating a backward walking move.", "As the partners' arms/points of contact move away from each other, they develop tension, which the follower may either break by dropping their arms or breaking the hold, or 'follow' by moving.A more experienced leader may realize (if only on an unconscious level) that the most effective execution of even this \"simple\" step is achieved by preparing for movement before the step begins.The leader-follower connection facilitates this.", "The principles of leading and following are explored in contact improvisation of modern dance.===Recovery from miscommunication===Sometimes a miscommunication will occur between the leader and follower.", "Techniques of the recovery of connection and synchronization vary from dance to dance, but below are a few common examples.", "In dances without obligatory body contact (Latin, swing, hustle, American Smooth), free spin recovers from anything.", "In dances danced in body contact (waltz, tango, quickstep, foxtrot) it is very important to recover the feet match.", "To recover, leaders may initiate a well-known (i.e.", "basic) step with slightly exaggerated sideways shift of weight to force the follower to free the required foot.", "For example, in waltz or foxtrot one might end a measure in the open promenade position, as there would then be no doubt as to the direction of the movement and which foot to use at the beginning of the next measure." ], [ "Lead", "===Methods to lead===Body leadArm lead====Body lead vs. arm lead====A body lead occurs where the leader initiates a lead by moving their body, which moves their arm(s), and thus transmits a lead to the follower.", "'Body lead' means much the same as 'weight transfer'.An arm lead occurs where the leader moves their arm(s) without moving their body, or moves their body in a different direction to their arm.While an 'arm lead' without the transfer of weight (or movement of the body) on the part of the leader is often a marker of an inexperienced or poorly taught dancer, the process of leading and following, particularly at an advanced level, often involves the contrasting uses of weight transfers and 'arm moves'.", "As an example, a leader may lead a follower back onto their right foot through the leader's own weight transfer forwards onto their left foot; yet at the same time turn the follower's torso to the left from above the hips.===Techniques of leading===The leader has to communicate the direction of the movement to the follower.", "Traditionally, the leader's right hand is on the follower's back, near the lowest part of the shoulder-blade.", "This is the strongest part of the back and the leader can easily pull the follower's body inwards.", "To enable the leader to communicate a step forward (backward for the follower) the follower has to constantly put a little weight against the leader's right hand.", "When the leader goes forward, the follower will naturally go backwards.An important leading mechanism is the leader's left hand, which usually holds the follower's right hand.", "At no point should it be necessary for any partner to firmly grab the other's hand.", "It is sufficient to press the hand or even only finger tips slightly against each other, the follower's hand following the leader's hand.Another important leading mechanism is hip contact.", "Though not possible in traditional Latin dances like Rumba, Cha-cha, Tango Argentino because of partner separation, hip contact is a harmonious and sensual way of communicating movement to the partner, used primarily in Standard or Ballroom dances (English / slow waltz, European tango, quickstep etc.)", "and Caribbean dances." ], [ "Follow", "===Types of follow===Active followPassive follow===Techniques of following======Backleading===Backleading is when a follower is executing steps without waiting for, or contrary to the lead's lead.", "Both are considered bad dancing habits because it makes the follower difficult to lead and dance with.Backleading can be a teaching tool that is often used intentionally by an instructor when dancing with a student lead, in order to help them learn the desired technique.Backleading sounds similar to \"hijacking\", and indeed it is often used in place of \"hijacking\".", "However the two terms have significant differences, stemming from intentions.", "The first difference is superficial; hijacking is usually an occasional \"outburst\" from the follower, who otherwise diligently follows the lead, while a \"backlead\" may refer to a consistent habit.", "The second difference is more significant; hijacking is an actual reversal of roles, meaning that the hijacker leads the leader and takes control of the dance, while backleading only takes care of the follower.===Hijacking===Sometimes the follower steals the lead and the couple reverses roles for some time.", "This is called ''hijacking'' (also known as ''lead stealing'').", "Hijacking requires experience and good connection, since without proper timing it may look like sloppy dancing.", "A signal for hijacking is typically an unusually changed (mostly, increased) stress in the connection from the follower's side.", "\"Unusually\" meaning more than typically required for the execution of the current step (by these partners).", "For a follower to hijack, they must be sure that the lead will understand or at least guess the follower's intentions." ], [ "See also", "* Glossary of partner dance terms" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lexeme" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''lexeme''' () is a unit of lexical meaning that underlies a set of words that are related through inflection.", "It is a basic abstract unit of meaning, a unit of morphological analysis in linguistics that roughly corresponds to a set of forms taken by a single root word.", "For example, in English, ''run'', ''runs'', ''ran'' and ''running'' are forms of the same lexeme, which can be represented as RUN.One form, the lemma (or citation form), is chosen by convention as the canonical form of a lexeme.", "The lemma is the form used in dictionaries as an entry's headword.", "Other forms of a lexeme are often listed later in the entry if they are uncommon or irregularly inflected." ], [ "Description", "The notion of the lexeme is central to morphology, the basis for defining other concepts in that field.", "For example, the difference between inflection and derivation can be stated in terms of lexemes:* Inflectional rules relate a lexeme to its forms.", "* Derivational rules relate a lexeme to another lexeme.A lexeme belongs to a particular syntactic category, has a certain meaning (semantic value), and in inflecting languages, has a corresponding inflectional paradigm.", "That is, a lexeme in many languages will have many different forms.", "For example, the lexeme RUN has a present third person singular form ''runs'', a present non-third-person singular form ''run'' (which also functions as the past participle and non-finite form), a past form ''ran'', and a present participle ''running''.", "(It does not include ''runner, runners, runnable'' etc.)", "The use of the forms of a lexeme is governed by rules of grammar.", "In the case of English verbs such as RUN, they include subject–verb agreement and compound tense rules, which determine the form of a verb that can be used in a given sentence.In many formal theories of language, lexemes have subcategorization frames to account for the number and types of complements.", "They occur within sentences and other syntactic structures." ], [ "Decomposition", "A language's lexemes are often composed of smaller units with individual meaning called morphemes, according to root morpheme + derivational morphemes + affix (not necessarily in that order), where:* The root morpheme is the primary lexical unit of a word, which carries the most significant aspects of semantic content and cannot be reduced to smaller constituents.", "* The derivational morphemes carry only derivational information.", "* The affix is composed of all inflectional morphemes, and carries only inflectional information.The compound root morpheme + derivational morphemes is often called the stem.", "The decomposition stem + desinence can then be used to study inflection." ], [ "See also", "* Ending (linguistics)* Inflection* Lemma* Lexical word vs. grammatical word* Marker (linguistics)* Multiword expression* Null morpheme* Root (linguistics)* Stem* Syntagma (linguistics)* Word family" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lord's Prayer" ], [ "Introduction", "''The Lord's Prayer'' (''Le Pater Noster''), by James TissotThe '''Lord's Prayer''', often known by its incipit '''Our Father''' (, ), is a central Christian prayer that Jesus taught as the way to pray.", "Two versions of this prayer are recorded in the gospels: a longer form within the Sermon on the Mount in the Gospel of Matthew, and a shorter form in the Gospel of Luke when \"one of his disciples said to him, 'Lord, teach us to pray, as John taught his disciples.", "Regarding the presence of the two versions, some have suggested that both were original, the Matthean version spoken by Jesus early in his ministry in Galilee, and the Lucan version one year later, \"very likely in Judea\".", "''Didache'' (at chapter VIII) reports a version which is closely similar to that of Matthew and also to the modern prayer.", "It ends with the Minor Doxology.The first three of the seven petitions in Matthew address God; the other four are related to human needs and concerns.", "Matthew's account alone includes the \"Your will be done\" and the \"Rescue us from the evil one\" (or \"Deliver us from evil\") petitions.", "Both original Greek texts contain the adjective ''epiousion''; while controversial, \"daily\" has been the most common English-language translation of this word.Initial words on the topic from the ''Catechism of the Catholic Church'' teach that it \"is truly the summary of the whole gospel\".", "The prayer is used by most Christian denominations in their worship and with few exceptions, the liturgical form is the version from the gospel of Matthew.", "Protestants usually conclude the prayer with a doxology (in some versions, \"For thine is the kingdom, the power and the glory, for ever and ever, Amen\"), a later addition appearing in some manuscripts of Matthew.", "Although theological differences and various modes of worship divide Christians, according to Fuller Theological Seminary professor Clayton Schmit, \"there is a sense of solidarity in knowing that Christians around the globe are praying together ... and these words always unite us.\"" ], [ "Texts", "===New International Version=== Matthew 6:9–13 (NIV)Luke 11:2–4 (NIV) Our Father in heaven, Father, Some manuscripts ''Our Father in heaven'' hallowed be your name, hallowed be your name, your kingdom come, your kingdom come.", "your will be done,:on earth as it is in heaven.Some manuscripts ''come.", "May your will be done on earth as it is in heaven.''", "Give us today our daily bread.", "Give us each day our daily bread.", "And forgive us our debts,:as we also have forgiven our debtors.", "Forgive us our sins,:for we also forgive everyone who sins against us.", "Greek ''everyone who is indebted to us'' And lead us not into temptation, The Greek for ''temptation'' can also mean ''testing''.", ":but deliver us from the evil one.", "Or ''from evil'' And lead us not into temptation.", "Some manuscripts ''temptation, but deliver us from the evil one'' some late manuscripts ''one, / for yours is the kingdom and the power and the glory forever.", "Amen.''", "===Relationship between the Matthaean and Lucan texts===In biblical criticism, the absence of the Lord's Prayer in the Gospel of Mark, together with its occurrence in Matthew and Luke, has caused scholars who accept the two-source hypothesis (against other document hypotheses) to conclude that it is probably a ''logion'' original to the Q source.", "The common source of the two existing versions, whether Q or an oral or another written tradition, was elaborated differently in the Gospels of Matthew and Luke.Marianus Pale Hera considers it unlikely that either of the two used the other as its source and that it is possible that they \"preserve two versions of the Lord's Prayer used in two different communities: the Matthean in a Jewish Christian community and the Lucan in the Gentile Christian community\".If either evangelist built on the other, Joachim Jeremias attributes priority to Luke on the grounds that \"in the early period, before wordings were fixed, liturgical texts were elaborated, expanded and enriched\".", "On the other hand, Michael Goulder, Thomas J. Mosbo and Ken Olson see the shorter Lucan version as a reworking of the Matthaean text, removing unnecessary verbiage and repetition.The Matthaean version has completely ousted the Lucan in general Christian usage.", "The following considerations are based on the Matthaean version.===Original Greek text and Syriac and Latin translations==='''Standard edition of Greek text''':'''Standard edition of Syriac text of Peshitta''':1.:''(ʾăḇūn d-ḇa-šmayyā)'':2.:''(neṯqaddaš šmāḵ)'':3.:''(têṯē malkūṯāḵ)'':4.:''(nēhwē ṣeḇyānāḵ ʾaykannā ḏ-ḇa-šmayyā ʾāp̄ b-ʾarʿā)'':5.:''(haḇ lan laḥmā ḏ-sūnqānan yawmānā)'':6.:''(wa-šḇoq lan ḥawbayn ʾaykannā ḏ-ʾāp̄ ḥnan šḇaqn l-ḥayyāḇayn)'':7.:''(w-lā ṯaʿlan l-nesyōnā ʾellā p̄aṣṣān men bīšā)'':'''Vulgata Clementina''' (1692):1.pater noster qui es in cælis:2.sanctificetur nomen tuum:3.adveniat regnum tuum:4.fiat voluntas tua sicut in cælo et in terra:5.panem nostrum supersubstantialem da nobis hodie:6.et dimitte nobis debita nostra sicut et nos dimittimus debitoribus nostris:7.et ne nos inducas in tentationem sed libera nos a malo===Liturgical texts: Greek, Syriac, Latin===The Lord's Prayer (Latin liturgical text) with Gregorian chant annotation'''Patriarchal Edition 1904''',,,...:'''Syriac liturgical'''::''(our father who art in heaven)''::''(hallowed be thy name)''::''(thy kingdom come)''::''(thy will be done as it is in heaven also on earth)''::''(give us the bread of our need this day)''::''(and forgive us our debts '''and our sins''' as we have forgiven our debtors)''::''(and bring us not into temptation but deliver us from evil)''::''(for thine is the kingdom the power the glory for an age of ages amen)'''''Roman Missal''':''Pater noster qui es in cælis:'':''sanctificétur nomen tuum;'':''advéniat regnum tuum;'':''fiat volúntas tua, sicut in cælo, et in terra.", "'':''Panem nostrum cotidiánum da nobis hódie;'':''et dimítte nobis débita nostra,'':''sicut et nos dimíttimus debitóribus nostris;'':''et ne nos indúcas in tentatiónem;'':''sed líbera nos a malo.", "''===Greek texts=== Liturgical text Codex Vaticanus text ''Didache'' text πάτερ ἡμῶν ὁ ἐν '''τοῖς οὐρανοῖς''' πατερ ημων ο εν '''τοις ουρανοις''' πατερ ημων ο εν '''τω ουρανω''' ἁγιασθήτω τὸ ὄνομά σου αγιασθητω το ονομα σου αγιασθητω το ονομα σου ἐλθέτω ἡ βασιλεία σου ελθετω η βασιλεια σου ελθετω η βασιλεια σου γενηθήτω τὸ θέλημά σου ὡς ἐν οὐρανῷ καὶ ἐπὶ '''τῆς''' γῆς γενηθητω το θελημα σου ως εν ουρανω και επι γης γενηθητω το θελημα σου ως εν ουρανω και επι γης τὸν ἄρτον ἡμῶν τὸν ἐπιούσιον δὸς ἡμῖν σήμερον τον αρτον ημων τον επιουσιον δος ημιν σημερον τον αρτον ημων τον επιουσιον δος ημιν σημερον καὶ ἄφες ἡμῖν '''τὰ ὀφειλήματα''' ἡμῶν ὡς καὶ ἡμεῖς '''ἀφίεμεν''' τοῖς ὀφειλέταις ἡμῶν και αφες ημιν '''τα οφειληματα''' ημων ως και ημεις '''αφηκαμεν''' τοις οφειλεταις ημων και αφες ημιν '''την οφειλην''' ημων ως και ημεις '''αφιεμεν''' τοις οφειλεταις ημων καὶ μὴ εἰσενέγκῃς ἡμᾶς εἰς πειρασμόν ἀλλὰ ῥῦσαι ἡμᾶς ἀπὸ τοῦ πονηροῦ και μη εισενεγκης ημας εις πειρασμον αλλα ρυσαι ημας απο του πονηρου και μη εισενεγκης ημας εις πειρασμον αλλα ρυσαι ημας απο του πονηρου===English versions===Owen JonesThere are several different English translations of the Lord's Prayer from Greek or Latin, beginning around AD 650 with the Northumbrian translation.", "Of those in current liturgical use, the three best-known are:* The translation in the 1662 ''Book of Common Prayer'' of the Church of England* The slightly modernized \"traditional ecumenical\" form used in the Catholic and (often with doxology) many Protestant Churches* The 1988 translation of the ecumenical English Language Liturgical Consultation (ELLC)The concluding doxology (\"For thine is the kingdom and the power, and the glory, for ever and ever.", "Amen\") is often added at the end of the prayer by Protestants.", "The 1662 ''Book of Common Prayer'' (BCP) adds doxology in some of the services, but not in all.", "For example, the doxology is not used in the 1662 BCP at Morning and Evening Prayer when it is preceded by the Kyrie eleison.", "Older English translations of the Bible, based on late Byzantine Greek manuscripts, included it, but it is excluded in critical editions of the New Testament, such as that of the United Bible Societies.", "It is absent in the oldest manuscripts and is not considered to be part of the original text of Matthew 6:9–13.In the Byzantine Rite, whenever a priest is officiating, after the Lord's Prayer he intones this augmented form of the doxology, \"For thine is the kingdom and the power and the glory: of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit, now and ever, and unto ages of ages.", "\", and in either instance, reciter(s) of the prayer reply \"Amen\".The Catholic Latin liturgical rites have never attached the doxology to the end of the Lord's Prayer.", "The doxology does appear in the Roman Rite Mass as revised in 1969.After the conclusion of the Lord's Prayer, the priest says a prayer known as the embolism.", "In the official International Commission on English in the Liturgy (ICEL) English translation, the embolism reads: \"Deliver us, Lord, we pray, from every evil, graciously grant peace in our days, that, by the help of your mercy, we may be always free from sin and safe from all distress, as we await the blessed hope and the coming of our Saviour, Jesus Christ.\"", "This elaborates on the final petition, \"Deliver us from evil.\"", "The people then respond to this with the doxology: \"For the kingdom, the power, and the glory are yours, now and forever.", "\"The translators of the 1611 King James Bible assumed that a Greek manuscript they possessed was ancient and therefore adopted the phrase \"For thine is the kingdom, the power, and the glory for ever\" into the Lord's Prayer of Matthew's Gospel.", "However, the use of the doxology in English dates from at least 1549 with the First Prayer Book of Edward VI which was influenced by William Tyndale's New Testament translation in 1526.Later scholarship demonstrated that inclusion of the doxology in New Testament manuscripts was actually a later addition based in part on Eastern liturgical tradition.", ":'''1662 Anglican BCP''':Our Father, which art in heaven,:Hallowed be thy Name;:Thy kingdom come;:Thy will be done:in earth, as it is in heaven::Give us this day our daily bread;:And forgive us our trespasses,:as we forgive them that trespass against us;:And lead us not into temptation,:But deliver us from evil;:For thine is the kingdom,:the power, and the glory,:For ever and ever.:Amen.", ":'''Traditional Ecumenical Version''':Our Father, who art in heaven,:hallowed be thy name;:thy kingdom come,:thy will be done:on earth as it is in heaven.", ":Give us this day our daily bread,:and forgive us our trespasses,:as we forgive those who trespass against us;:and lead us not into temptation,:but deliver us from evil.", ":''Most Protestants conclude with the doxology:'':For thine is the kingdom,:and the power, and the glory,:for ever and ever.", "Amen.", "(''or'' ...forever.", "Amen.", "):''At Mass in the Catholic Church the embolism is followed by:'':For the kingdom,:the power and the glory are yours,:now and for ever.", ":'''1988 ELLC''':Our Father in heaven,::hallowed be your name,::your kingdom come,::your will be done,:::on earth as in heaven.", ":Give us today our daily bread.", ":Forgive us our sins::as we forgive those who sin against us.", ":Save us from the time of trial::and deliver us from evil.", ":For the kingdom, the power, and the glory are yours::now and for ever.", "Amen.==== King James Version ====Although Matthew 6:12 uses the term ''debts'', most older English versions of the Lord's Prayer use the term ''trespasses'', while ecumenical versions often use the term ''sins''.", "The last choice may be due to Luke 11:4, which uses the word ''sins'', while the former may be due to Matthew 6:14 (immediately after the text of the prayer), where Jesus speaks of ''trespasses''.", "As early as the third century, Origen of Alexandria used the word ''trespasses'' () in the prayer.", "Although the Latin form that was traditionally used in Western Europe has ''debita'' (''debts''), most English-speaking Christians (except Scottish Presbyterians and some others of the Dutch Reformed tradition) use ''trespasses''.", "For example, the Church of Scotland, the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.), the Reformed Church in America, as well as some Congregational heritage churches in the United Church of Christ follow the version found in Matthew 6 in the King James Version, which in the prayer uses the words ''debts'' and ''debtors''.", "::'''King James Version (1611)'''::Our father which art in heaven,::Hallowed be thy name.", "::Thy kingdom come.", "::Thy will be done, in earth,::as it is in heaven.", "::Give us this day our daily bread.", "::And forgive us our debts,::as we forgive our debtors.", "::And lead us not into temptation,::but deliver us from evil:::For thine is the kingdom,::and the power, and the glory,::for ever, Amen.", "::'''Slightly Modernized AV/KJV Version'''::Our Father, who art in heaven, ::Hallowed be thy name.", "::Thy kingdom come,::Thy will be done on earth, ::as it is in heaven.", "::Give us this day our daily bread.", "::And forgive us our debts, ::as we forgive our debtors.", "::And lead us not into temptation,::but deliver us from evil:::For thine is the kingdom,::and the power, and the glory,::forever.", "Amen.All these versions are based on the text in Matthew, rather than Luke, of the prayer given by Jesus:'''Matthew 6:9–13''' (ESV):\"Pray then like this: 'Our Father in heaven, hallowed be your name.", "Your kingdom come, your will be done, on earth as it is in heaven.", "Give us this day our daily bread, and forgive us our debts, as we also have forgiven our debtors.", "And lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil.", "'''Luke 11:2–4''' (ESV):And he said to them, \"When you pray, say: 'Father, hallowed be your name.", "Your kingdom come.", "Give us each day our daily bread, and forgive us our sins, for we ourselves forgive everyone who is indebted to us.", "And lead us not into temptation." ], [ "Analysis", "GreekSaint Augustine of Hippo gives the following analysis of the Lord's Prayer, which elaborates on Jesus' words just before it in Matthew's Gospel: \"Your Father knows what you need before you ask him.", "Pray then in this way\" (Mt.", "6:8–9):This excerpt from Augustine is included in the Office of Readings in the Catholic Liturgy of the Hours.Many have written biblical commentaries on the Lord's Prayer.", "Contained below are a variety of selections from some of those commentaries.===Introduction==='''This subheading and those that follow use 1662 ''Book of Common Prayer'' (BCP) (see above)'''\"Our\" indicates that the prayer is that of a group of people who consider themselves children of God and who call God their \"Father\".", "\"In heaven\" indicates that the Father who is addressed is distinct from human fathers on earth.Augustine interpreted \"heaven\" (''coelum'', sky) in this context as meaning \"in the hearts of the righteous, as it were in His holy temple\".===First Petition===Former archbishop of Canterbury Rowan Williams explains this phrase as a petition that people may look upon God's name as holy, as something that inspires awe and reverence, and that they may not trivialize it by making God a tool for their purposes, to \"put other people down, or as a sort of magic to make themselves feel safe\".", "He sums up the meaning of the phrase by saying: \"Understand what you're talking about when you're talking about God, this is serious, this is the most wonderful and frightening reality that we could imagine, more wonderful and frightening than we can imagine.", "\"Richard Challoner writes that: \"this petition hold the primary place in the Lord's prayer, because the first and principal duty of a Christian is, to love his God with his whole heart and soul, and therefore the first and principal thing he should desire and pray for is, the great honor and glory of God.", "\"===Second Petition===\"This petition has its parallel in the Jewish prayer, 'May he establish his Kingdom during your life and during your days.", "In the gospels Jesus speaks frequently of God's kingdom, but never defines the concept: \"He assumed this was a concept so familiar that it did not require definition.\"", "Concerning how Jesus' audience in the gospels would have understood him, G. E. Ladd turns to the concept's Hebrew biblical background: \"The Hebrew word ''malkuth'' ... refers first to a reign, dominion, or rule and only secondarily to the realm over which a reign is exercised.", "...", "When ''malkuth'' is used of God, it almost always refers to his authority or to his rule as the heavenly King.\"", "This petition looks to the perfect establishment of God's rule in the world in the future, an act of God resulting in the eschatological order of the new age.The Catholic Church believes that, by praying the Lord's prayer, a Christian hastens the Second Coming.", "Like the church, some denominations see the coming of God's kingdom as a divine gift to be prayed for, not a human achievement.", "Others believe that the Kingdom will be fostered by the hands of those faithful who work for a better world.", "These believe that Jesus' commands to feed the hungry and clothe the needy make the seeds of the kingdom already present on earth (Lk 8:5–15; Mt 25:31–40).Hilda C. Graef notes that the operative Greek word, ''basileia,'' means both kingdom and kingship (i.e., reign, dominion, governing, etc.", "), but that the English word kingdom loses this double meaning.", "Kingship adds a psychological meaning to the petition: one is also praying for the condition of soul where one follows God's will.Richard Challoner, commenting on this petition, notes that the kingdom of God can be understood in three ways: 1) of the eternal kingdom of God in heaven.", "2) of the spiritual kingdom of Christ, in his Church upon earth.", "3) of the mystical kingdom of God, in our souls, according to the words of Christ, \"The kingdom of God is within you\" (Luke 17:21).===Third Petition===According to William Barclay, this phrase is a couplet with the same meaning as \"Thy kingdom come.\"", "Barclay argues: \"The kingdom is a state of things on earth in which God's will is as perfectly done as it is in heaven.", "...To do the will of God and to be in the Kingdom of God are one and the same thing.", "\"John Ortberg interprets this phrase as follows: \"Many people think our job is to get my afterlife destination taken care of, then tread water till we all get ejected and God comes back and torches this place.", "But Jesus never told anybody – neither his disciples nor us – to pray, 'Get me out of here so I can go up there.'", "His prayer was, 'Make up there come down here.'", "Make things down here run the way they do up there.\"", "The request that \"thy will be done\" is God's invitation to \"join him in making things down here the way they are up there\".===Fourth Petition===As mentioned earlier, the original word (''epiousion''), commonly characterized as ''daily'', is unique to the Lord's Prayer in all of ancient Greek literature.", "The word is almost a ''hapax legomenon'', occurring only in Luke and Matthew's versions of the Lord's Prayer, and nowhere else in any other extant Greek texts.", "While ''epiousion'' is often substituted by the word \"daily\", all other New Testament translations from the Greek into \"daily\" otherwise reference ''hemeran'' (ἡμέραν, \"the day\"), which does not appear in this usage.Jerome by linguistic parsing translated \"ἐπιούσιον\" (''epiousion'') as \"''supersubstantialem''\" in the Gospel of Matthew, but as \"''cotidianum''\" (\"daily\") in the Gospel of Luke.", "This wide-ranging difference with respect to meaning of ''epiousion'' is discussed in detail in the current ''Catechism of the Catholic Church'' in an inclusive approach toward tradition as well as a literal one for meaning: \"Taken in a temporal sense, this word is a pedagogical repetition of 'this day', to confirm us in trust 'without reservation'.", "Taken in the qualitative sense, it signifies what is necessary for life, and more broadly every good thing sufficient for subsistence.", "Taken literally (''epi-ousios'': 'super-essential'), it refers directly to the Bread of Life, the Body of Christ, the 'medicine of immortality,' without which we have no life within us.", "\"''Epiousion'' is translated as ''supersubstantialem'' in the Vulgate Matthew 6:11 and accordingly as ''supersubstantial'' in the Douay–Rheims Bible Matthew 6:11.Barclay M. Newman's ''A Concise Greek-English Dictionary of the New Testament'', published in a revised edition in 2010 by the United Bible Societies, has the following entry:It thus derives the word from the preposition ἐπί (''epi'') and the verb εἰμί (''eimi''), from the latter of which are derived words such as οὐσία (''ousia''), the range of whose meanings is indicated in ''A Greek–English Lexicon''.===Fifth Petition===The Presbyterian and other Reformed churches tend to use the rendering \"forgive us our debts, as we forgive our debtors\".", "Roman Catholics, Lutherans, Anglicans and Methodists are more likely to say \"trespasses... those who trespass against us\".", "The \"debts\" form appears in the first English translation of the Bible, by John Wycliffe in 1395 (Wycliffe spelling \"dettis\").", "The \"trespasses\" version appears in the 1526 translation by William Tyndale (Tyndale spelling \"treaspases\").", "In 1549 the first ''Book of Common Prayer'' in English used a version of the prayer with \"trespasses\".", "This became the \"official\" version used in Anglican congregations.", "On the other hand, the 1611 King James Version, the version specifically authorized for the Church of England, has \"forgive us our debts, as we forgive our debtors\".After the request for bread, Matthew and Luke diverge slightly.", "Matthew continues with a request for debts to be forgiven in the same manner as people have forgiven those who have debts against them.", "Luke, on the other hand, makes a similar request about sins being forgiven in the manner of debts being forgiven between people.", "The word \"debts\" () does not necessarily mean financial obligations, as shown by the use of the verbal form of the same word () in passages such as Romans 13:8.The Aramaic word ''ḥôbâ'' can mean \"debt\" or \"sin\".", "This difference between Luke's and Matthew's wording could be explained by the original form of the prayer having been in Aramaic.", "The generally accepted interpretation is thus that the request is for forgiveness of sin, not of supposed loans granted by God.", "Asking for forgiveness from God was a staple of Jewish prayers (e.g., Penitential Psalms).", "It was also considered proper for individuals to be forgiving of others, so the sentiment expressed in the prayer would have been a common one of the time.Anthony C. Deane, Canon of Worcester Cathedral, suggested that the choice of the word \"ὀφειλήματα\" (debts), rather than \"ἁμαρτίας\" (sins), indicates a reference to failures to use opportunities of doing good.", "He linked this with the parable of the sheep and the goats (also in Matthew's Gospel), in which the grounds for condemnation are not wrongdoing in the ordinary sense, but failure to do right, missing opportunities for showing love to others.", "\"As we forgive ...\".", "Divergence between Matthew's \"debts\" and Luke's \"sins\" is relatively trivial compared to the impact of the second half of this statement.", "The verses immediately following the Lord's Prayer, Matthew 6:14–15 show Jesus teaching that the forgiveness of our sin/debt (by God) is linked with how we forgive others, as in the Parable of the Unforgiving Servant Matthew 18:23–35, which Matthew gives later.", "R. T. France comments:===Sixth Petition===Interpretations of the penultimate petition of the prayer – not to be led by God into ''peirasmos –'' vary considerably.", "The range of meanings of the Greek word \"πειρασμός\" (''peirasmos'') is illustrated in New Testament Greek lexicons.", "In different contexts it can mean temptation, testing, trial, experiment.", "Although the traditional English translation uses the word \"temptation\" and Carl Jung saw God as actually leading people astray, Christians generally interpret the petition as not contradicting James 1:13–14: \"Let no one say when he is tempted, 'I am being tempted by God', for God cannot be tempted with evil, and he himself tempts no one.", "But each person is tempted when he is lured and enticed by his own desire.\"", "Some see the petition as an eschatological appeal against unfavourable Last Judgment, a theory supported by the use of the word \"''peirasmos''\" in this sense in Revelation 3:10.Others see it as a plea against hard ''tests'' described elsewhere in scripture, such as those of Job.", "It is also read as: \"Do not let us be led (by ourselves, by others, by Satan) into temptations\".", "Since it follows shortly after a plea for daily bread (i.e., material sustenance), it is also seen as referring to not being caught up in the material pleasures given.", "A similar phrase appears in Matthew 26:41 and Luke 22:40 in connection with the prayer of Jesus in Gethsemane.Joseph Smith, the founder of the Latter Day Saint movement, in a version of the Holy Bible which was not published before his death, used: \"And suffer us not to be led into temptation\".In a conversation on the Italian TV channel TV2000 on 6 December 2017, Pope Francis commented that the then Italian wording of this petition (similar to the traditional English) was a poor translation.", "He said \"the French\" (i.e., the Bishops' Conference of France) had changed the petition to \"Do not let us fall in/into temptation\".", "He was referring to the 2017 change to a new French version, ''Et ne nous laisse pas entrer en tentation'' (\"Do not let us enter into temptation\"), but spoke of it in terms of the Spanish translation, ''no nos dejes caer en la tentación'' (\"do not let us fall in/into temptation\"), that he was accustomed to recite in Argentina before his election as Pope.", "He explained: \"I am the one who falls; it's not him God pushing me into temptation to then see how I have fallen\".", "Anglican theologian Ian Paul said that such a proposal was \"stepping into a theological debate about the nature of evil\".In January 2018, after \"in-depth study\", the German Bishops' Conference rejected any rewording of their translation of the Lord's Prayer.In November 2018, the Episcopal Conference of Italy adopted a new edition of the ''Messale Romano'', the Italian translation of the Roman Missal.", "One of the changes made from the older (1983) edition was to render this petition as ''non abbandonarci alla tentazione'' (\"do not abandon us to temptation\").", "This was approved by Pope Francis; however, there are no current plans to make a similar change for the English translation as of 2019.The Italian-speaking Union of Methodist and Waldensian Churches maintains its translation of the petition: ''non esporci alla tentazione'' (\"do not expose us to temptation\").===Seventh Petition===Translations and scholars are divided over whether the final word here refers to \"evil\" in general or \"the evil one\" (the devil) in particular.", "In the original Greek, as well as in the Latin translation, the word could be either of neuter (evil in general) or masculine (the evil one) gender.", "Matthew's version of the prayer appears in the Sermon on the Mount, in earlier parts of which the term is used to refer to general evil.", "Later parts of Matthew refer to the devil when discussing similar issues.", "However, the devil is never referred to as ''the evil one'' in any known Aramaic sources.", "While John Calvin accepted the vagueness of the term's meaning, he considered that there is little real difference between the two interpretations, and that therefore the question is of no real consequence.", "Similar phrases are found in John 17:15 and Thessalonians 3:3.===Doxology=======Content====The doxology sometimes attached to the prayer in English is similar to a passage in 1 Chronicles 29:11 – \"Yours, O LORD, is the greatness and the power and the glory and the victory and the majesty, for all that is in the heavens and in the earth is yours.", "Yours is the kingdom, O LORD, and you are exalted as head above all.\"", "It is also similar to the paean to King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon in Daniel 2:37 – \"You, O king, the king of kings, to whom the God of heaven has given the kingdom, the power, and the might, and the glory\".The doxology has been interpreted as connected with the final petition: \"Deliver us from evil\".", "The kingdom, the power and the glory are the Father's, not of our antagonist's, who is subject to him to whom Christ will hand over the kingdom after he has destroyed all dominion, authority and power (1 Corinthians 15:24).", "It makes the prayer end as well as begin with the vision of God in heaven, in the majesty of his name and kingdom and the perfection of his will and purpose.====Origin====The doxology is not included in Luke's version of the Lord's Prayer, nor is it present in the earliest manuscripts (papyrus or parchment) of Matthew, representative of the Alexandrian text, although it is present in the manuscripts representative of the later Byzantine text.", "Most scholars do not consider it part of the original text of Matthew.", "The Codex Washingtonianus, which adds a doxology (in the familiar text), is of the early fifth or late fourth century.", "New translations generally omit it except as a footnote.The ''Didache'', generally considered a first-century text, has a doxology, \"for yours is the power and the glory forever\", as a conclusion for the Lord's Prayer (''Didache'', 8:2).", "C. Clifton Black, although regarding the ''Didache'' as an \"early second century\" text, nevertheless considers the doxology it contains to be the \"earliest additional ending we can trace\".", "Of a longer version, Black observes: \"Its earliest appearance may have been in Tatian's ''Diatessaron'', a second-century harmony of the four Gospels\".", "The first three editions of the United Bible Societies text cited the ''Diatessaron'' for inclusion of the familiar doxology in Matthew 6:13, but in the later editions it cites the ''Diatessaron'' for excluding it.", "The ''Apostolic Constitutions'' added \"the kingdom\" to the beginning of the formula in the ''Didache'', thus establishing the now familiar doxology.====Varied liturgical use====In the Byzantine Rite, whenever a priest is officiating, after the last line of the prayer he intones the doxology, \"For thine is the kingdom and the power and the glory: of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit, now and ever, and unto ages of ages.", "\", and in either instance, reciter(s) of the prayer reply \"Amen\".Adding a doxology to the Our Father is not part of the liturgical tradition of the Roman Rite nor does the Latin Vulgate of St. Jerome contain the doxology that appears in late Greek manuscripts.", "However, it is recited since 1970 in the Roman Rite Order of Mass, not as part of the Lord's Prayer but separately as a response acclamation after the embolism developing the seventh petition in the perspective of the Final Coming of Christ.In most Anglican editions of the ''Book of Common Prayer'', the Lord's Prayer ends with the doxology unless it is preceded by the Kyrie eleison.", "This happens at the daily offices of Morning Prayer (Mattins) and Evening Prayer (Evensong) and in a few other offices.", "The vast majority of Protestant churches conclude the Lord's Prayer with the doxology." ], [ "Use as a language comparison tool", "Detail of the ''Europa Polyglotta'' published with ''Synopsis Universae Philologiae'' in 1741; the map gives the first phrase of the Lord's Prayer in 33 different languages of EuropeIn the course of Christianization, one of the first texts to be translated between many languages has historically been the Lord's Prayer, long before the full Bible would be translated into the respective languages.", "Since the 16th century, collections of translations of the prayer have often been used for a quick comparison of languages.", "The first such collection, with 22 versions, was ''Mithridates, de differentiis linguarum'' by Conrad Gessner (1555; the title refers to Mithridates VI of Pontus who according to Pliny the Elder was an exceptional polyglot).Gessner's idea of collecting translations of the prayer was taken up by authors of the 17th century, including Hieronymus Megiserus (1603) and Georg Pistorius (1621).", "Thomas Lüdeken in 1680 published an enlarged collection of 83 versions of the prayer, of which three were in fictional philosophical languages.Lüdeken quotes a ''Barnimus Hagius'' as his source for the exotic scripts used, while their true (anonymous) author was Andreas Müller.In 1700, Lüdeken's collection was re-edited by B. Mottus as ''Oratio dominica plus centum linguis versionibus aut characteribus reddita et expressa''.This edition was comparatively inferior, but a second, revised edition was published in 1715 by John Chamberlain.This 1715 edition was used by Gottfried Hensel in his ''Synopsis Universae Philologiae'' (1741) to compile \"geographico-polyglot maps\" where the beginning of the prayer was shown in the geographical area where the respective languages were spoken.Johann Ulrich Kraus also published a collection with more than 100 entries.These collections continued to be improved and expanded well into the 19th century; Johann Christoph Adelung and Johann Severin Vater in 1806–1817 published the prayer in \"well-nigh five hundred languages and dialects\".Samples of scripture, including the Lord's Prayer, were published in 52 oriental languages, most of them not previously found in such collections, translated by the brethren of the Serampore Mission and printed at the mission press there in 1818." ], [ "Indulgence", "===History===In the Catholic Church, a rescript of Pope Pius VII and subsequent decree of the Pro-Vicar Cardinal of 18 April 1809 introduced a 300-day indulgence for whom would recite with heart contrite and devoutly, on behalf of a suffering faithful, 3 ''Our Father''s in memory of the Passion and agony of Jesus and 3 ''Hail Mary''s in memory of the pains of the Virgin in the presence of her divine son.", "Furthermore, for those who have performed this pious practice at least once a day for a month, they granted plenary indulgence, and the remission of all sins on a day of their choice in which they had confessed, communicated and prayed according to the intentions of the Pope at the time.", "These indulgences ''\"are perpetual\"'' and can be applied to souls in Purgatory.===After the Second Vatican Council===This type of indulgence was suppressed by the ''Indulgentiarum Doctrina'' of Pope Paul VI.In occasion of the 2020-2021 jubilee of Saint Joseph, Pope Francis signed a decree that granted the plenary indulgence to those who shall contemplate the Lord's Prayer for at least 30 minutes." ], [ "Comparisons with other prayer traditions", "The book ''The Comprehensive New Testament'', by T.E.", "Clontz and J. Clontz, points to similarities between elements of the Lord's Prayer and expressions in writings of other religions as diverse as the ''Dhammapada'', the ''Epic of Gilgamesh'', the ''Golden Verses'', and the Egyptian ''Book of the Dead''.", "It mentions in particular parallels in 1 Chronicles.Rabbi Aron Mendes Chumaceiro says that nearly all the elements of the prayer have counterparts in the Jewish Bible and Deuterocanonical books: the first part in Isaiah 63 (\"Look down from heaven and see, from your holy and beautiful habitation... for you are our Father\") and Ezekiel 36 (\"I will vindicate the holiness of my great name...\") and 38 (\"I will show my greatness and my holiness and make myself known in the eyes of many nations...\"), the second part in Obadiah 1 (\"Saviours shall go up to Mount Zion to rule Mount Esau, and the kingdom shall be the LORD's\") and 1 Samuel 3 (\"...It is the LORD.", "Let him do what seems good to him.", "\"), the third part in Proverbs 30 (\"...feed me with my apportioned bread...\"), the fourth part in Sirach 28 (\"Forgive your neighbour the wrong he has done, and then your sins will be pardoned when you pray.\").", "\"Deliver us from evil\" can be compared with Psalm 119 (\"...let no iniquity get dominion over me.", "\").Chumaceiro says that, because the idea of God leading a human into temptation contradicts the righteousness and love of God, \"Lead us not into temptation\" has no counterpart in the Jewish Bible/Christian Old Testament.", "However, the word \"πειρασμός\", which is translated as \"temptation\", can also be translated as \"test\" or \"trial\", making evident the attitude of someone's heart, and in the Old Testament God tested Abraham, and told David, \"Go, number Israel and Judah,\" an action that David later acknowledged as sin; and the testing of Job in the Book of Job.Reuben Bredenhof says that the various petitions of the Lord's Prayer, as well as the doxology attached to it, have a conceptual and thematic background in the Old Testament Book of Psalms.On the other hand, Andrew Wommack says that the Lord's Prayer \"technically speaking... isn't even a true New Testament prayer\".In post-biblical Jewish prayer, especially Kiddushin 81a (Babylonian).", "\"Our Father which art in heaven\" (אבינו שבשמים, ''Avinu shebashamayim'') is the beginning of many Hebrew prayers.", "\"Hallowed be thy name\" is reflected in the Kaddish.", "\"Lead us not into sin\" is echoed in the \"morning blessings\" of Jewish prayer.", "A blessing said by some Jewish communities after the evening ''Shema'' includes a phrase quite similar to the opening of the Lord's Prayer: \"Our God in heaven, hallow thy name, and establish thy kingdom forever, and rule over us for ever and ever.", "Amen.\"" ], [ "Musical settings", "Various composers have incorporated the Lord's Prayer into a musical setting for utilization during liturgical services for a variety of religious traditions as well as interfaith ceremonies.", "Included among them are:* 9th–10th century: Gregorian chant1565: Robert Stone – The Lord's Prayer1573: Orlandus Lassus – Pater Noster a41592: John Farmer – The Lord's Prayer1625: Heinrich Schütz – Pater Noster1783: William Billings – \"Kittery\" (words from Tate and Brady)1854: Josef Rheinberger – Vater Unser* 1878: Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky – ''Otche Nash'' (Отче наш; Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom, op.", "41)* 1883: Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov – ''Otche Nash''* 1906: Leoš Janáček – ''Otče náš''\t* 1910: Sergei Rachmaninoff – ''Otche Nash'' (Отче наш; Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom, op.", "31)* 1919: Emil von Reznicek – \"Vater Unser im Himmel\" ( A Choral Fantasy with Mixed Chorus and Organ)* 1926: Igor Stravinsky – ''Otche Nash'' (Church Slavonic), arr.", "''Pater Noster'' (Latin, c. 1949)* 1935: Albert Hay Malotte – \"The Lord's Prayer\"1961: Bernard Rose – Lord's Prayer (as part of Preces and Responses) 1973: Arnold Strals – \"The Lord's Prayer\" (performed by Sister Janet Mead)* 1975: Mark Alburger – ''The Lord's Prayer'', Op.", "5* 1976: Maurice Duruflé – ''Notre Père''* 1985: Clive Strutt – ''XIII Paternoster'' in the ''Festal Eucharist in honour of Saint Olaf, King and Martyr''* 1992: John Serry Sr. – ''The Lord's Prayer'' for Organ & Chorus* 1999: Paul Field and Stephen Deal – \"The Millennium Prayer\" (performed by Cliff Richard)* 2000: John Tavener – \"The Lord's Prayer\"* 2005: Christopher Tin — ''Baba Yetu''* 2016: Chris M. Allport — ''The Lord's Prayer''" ], [ "In popular culture", "As with other prayers, the Lord's Prayer was used by cooks to time their recipes before the spread of clocks.", "For example, a step could be \"simmer the broth for three Lord's Prayers\".American songwriter and arranger Brian Wilson set the text of the Lord's Prayer to an elaborate close-harmony arrangement loosely based on Malotte's melody.", "Wilson's group, The Beach Boys, would return to the piece several times throughout their recording career, most notably as the B-side to their 1964 single \"Little Saint Nick.\"", "The band Yazoo used the prayer interspersed with the lyrics of \"In My Room\" on the album ''Upstairs at Eric's''.Beat Generation poet Lawrence Ferlinghetti wrote and performed a \"Loud Prayer\" parodying the Lord's Prayer, one version of which was featured in the 1978 film The Last Waltz.In July 2023, Filipino drag queen and former ''Drag Den'' contestant Pura Luka Vega drew controversy online for posting a video of themselves dressing up as Jesus Christ and dancing to a punk rock version of ''Ama Namin'', the Filipino version of the Lord's Prayer.", "The video was also condemned by several Philippine politicians and the Catholic Bishops' Conference of the Philippines." ], [ "Images", "File:St Mary's Church, Mundon, Lord's Prayer.jpg\| 18th-century painting of the Lord's Prayer, on the north side of the chancel of St Mary's Church, Mundon, Essex.File:The Lord's prayer LCCN2004662429.jpg\|The Lord's Prayer, ink and watercolor by John Morgan Coaley, 1889.Library of Congress.File:Lord's prayer fragment from Lindisfarne Gorpels.png\|Lord's Prayer fragment from Lindisfarne Gospels, f. 37r, Latin text, translated in Northumbrian dialect of the Old English.File:Teeline-Lords-prayer.png\|The text of the English Language Liturgical Consultation version of the Lord's Prayer, written in Teeline Shorthand and in Latin script for comparison.File:OLAFTAW.jpg\|Lord's Prayer written in Syriac.File:Отче Наш Глаголица Кирилица 03.03.2020.png\|Lord's Prayer, three versions from left to right: (1) from Codex Zographensis in Glagolitic script (1100s); (2) from Codex Assemanius in Glagolitic script (1000s); (3) from Gospels of Tsar Ivan Alexander in Bulgarian Cyrillic script (1355)." ], [ "See also", "Al-Fatiha Amen* , ''Lord's Prayer'' sung in Swahili * Church of the Pater Noster on the Mount of Olives, Jerusalem* Discourse on ostentation, a portion of the Sermon on the Mount* Five Discourses of Matthew* Hail Mary* High Priestly Prayer* Prayer in the New Testament* Rosary* ''Didache'', an early book of rituals which mentions saying the prayer three times daily* ''Novum Testamentum Graece'', the primary source for most contemporary New Testament translations* ''Textus Receptus''* List of New Testament verses not included in modern English translations" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Sources===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", "=== Text === Pater Noster : a chirographic opus in one hundred and twenty-six languages, by Z. W. Wolkowski* Learning the Lord's Prayer in Gothic, by Robert Oliphant* the Lord's Prayer in Aramaic* The Lord's Prayer in different languages=== Commentary ===* '' Jewish Encyclopedia''* Max Heindel: Rosicrucian view* Jehovah's Witnesses view* Rudolf Steiner lecture=== Music ===*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lightworks" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lightworks''' is a freemium non-linear editing system (NLE) for editing and mastering digital video.", "It was an early developer of computer-based non-linear editing systems, and has been in development since 1989.Lightworks won a 2017 EMMY Award for being one of the first to create digital nonlinear editing software.", "The development of an open-source version was announced on April 11, 2010.However, no source code of the program has been released.", "In July 2020, a Lightworks product manager confirmed that they \"Still hope to announce something in the future\" about Lightworks' open source development." ], [ "Features", "The free version comes with a limited number of features:* Realtime effects* Multicam editing* Second monitor output* Ability to import a range of file types* Export to Vimeo (H.264/MPEG-4) up to 720p * Export to YouTube (H.264/MPEG-4) up to 720p The free version cannot export to DVD or Blu-ray, but can export to a hard drive (since Lightworks 14)." ], [ "Use in films and TV series", " Film title Year Director Editor ''Pulp Fiction'' 1994 Quentin Tarantino Sally Menke ''The Cure'' 1995 Peter Horton Anthony Sherin''Congo''1995Frank MarshallAnne V. Coates''Heat''1995Michael MannDov Hoenig''Braveheart''1995Mel GibsonSteven Rosenbaum ''Romeo + Juliet'' 1996 Baz Luhrmann Jill Bilcock''Broken Arrow''1996John WooJohn Wright ''L.A.", "Confidential'' 1997 Curtis Hanson Peter Honess ''Moulin Rouge!''", "2001 Baz Luhrmann Jill Bilcock ''28 Days Later'' 2002 Danny Boyle Chris Gill ''Bruce Almighty'' 2003 Tom Shadyac Scott Hill ''Revolutionary Road'' 2008 Sam Mendes Tariq Anwar ''Centurion'' 2010 Neil Marshall Chris Gill ''The King's Speech'' 2010 Tom Hooper Tariq Anwar ''The Wolf of Wall Street'' 2013 Martin Scorsese Thelma Schoonmaker ''Silence'' 2016 Martin Scorsese Thelma Schoonmaker" ], [ "History", "OLE Limited was founded in 1989 by Paul Bamborough, Nick Pollock and Neil Harris.", "In 1994 it was sold to Tektronix.", "In 1999 it was sold on to the newly formed Lightworks Inc., then owned by Fairlight Japan, and then purchased by Gee Broadcast in May 2004.=== Gee Broadcast ownership, 2004–2009 ===Under Gee Broadcast ownership, new product releases resumed with the release of the Lightworks ''Touch'' range, and the ''Alacrity'' and ''Softworks'' ranges for SD & HD editing.", "Softworks offered the Lightworks User Interface and toolset in a software only package for laptops or office workstations.", "Softworks and Alacrity supported mixed formats and resolutions in real time and project output in different resolutions without re-rendering.", "Alacrity supported dual outputs while the same facility was available for Softworks users as an option.=== EditShare ownership, 2009–2020 ===In August 2009, the UK and US based company ''EditShare'' acquired Gee Broadcast and the Lightworks editing platform from, along with their video server system ''GeeVS''.At the annual convention of the National Association of Broadcasters, NAB Show, on 11 April 2010, EditShare announced that they plan to transform Lightworks into Lightworks Open Source.", "It was presented at IBC in Amsterdam September 2010.On 9 November 2010, EditShare announced that Lightworks would be downloadable on 29 November of the same year, at first exclusively for the users who had registered during the initial announcement, but subsequently publishing the software as \"public beta\".EditShare planned the release of the open source version in Q4 of 2011, after they finished code review.", "They plan to make money from proprietary plugins offered in their associated online shop, including plugins needed to access professional video formats.", "Shortly before the scheduled release date of 29 November 2011, EditShare announced that an open source release of the software would be temporarily delayed, but did not announce a new release date.", "The announcement noted that they were not yet satisfied with the stability of the new version.==== Windows version released at NAB 2012 ====After an 18-month beta program, EditShare released Lightworks 11, for Windows only, on 28 May 2012.The non beta release of Lightworks includes a host of new features for editors, and runs on wide range of PC hardware.", "The software was re-designed and re-written for portability (versions for Linux and Mac OS X have also been released) and now supports many more codecs including AVCHD, H.264, AVC-Intra, DNxHD, ProRes, Red R3D, DPX, XDCAM HD 50, XDCAM EX, DVD, Blu-ray, and 4K, but only for the paid Pro version.", "The free version supports DV, MPEG, Uncompressed and other codecs for both import and export.==== Windows version 11.1 released 29 May 2013 ====On 29 May 2013, v11.1 stable release was made available for download.", "A major development in the Pro version is improved performance of the H.264/AVC codec in MP4 and MOV containers.", "This makes it possible to edit this format natively, even with less powerful CPUs.", "This should interest HDSLR and GoPro camera users.", "Native editing of H.264 MTS files has been possible since version 11.0.3.This version of Lightworks has also replaced HASP with the new EditShare Licensing System (ELS), which eliminates some installation problems.", "Lightworks Free users can now download the 64 bit version, which was previously limited to Pro users.", "The Free version now also comes with a 30-day Pro Trial period.==== Linux version announced at IBC 2012 ====EditShare demonstrated the Linux version at the NAB in Las Vegas in April 2012, and posted a video of it running on Ubuntu on their YouTube channel.", "At IBC in Amsterdam in September, an updated Linux demo was presented, and EditShare announced that the initial Linux alpha version would become available on 30 October .", "Lightworks 11 alpha for Linux was released on 30 April 2012, but only to a limited audience.", "The Linux version of Lightworks was made available as a Public Beta on 30 April 2013.==== Lightworks 12 beta released for Windows, Linux and Mac ====On 8 August 2014, the first beta of Lightworks version 12 working on Windows, Linux and Mac was released.==== Lightworks 12.6 released for Windows, Linux and Mac ====On 29 August 2015, Lightworks version 12.5 for Windows, Linux and Mac was released.==== Lightworks 12.7 released for Windows, Linux and Mac ====On 4 February 2016, Lightworks version 12.6 for Windows, Linux and Mac was released.==== Lightworks 14.5 released for Windows, Linux and Mac ====In October 2018, Lightworks released version 14.5 for Windows, Linux and Mac platforms.", "14.5 added a vast array of new features including variable frame rate support, a huge amount of codec support including Red Cinema R3D, Cineform and Blackmagic Q1 codecs.=== LWKS Software Ltd ownership, 2020-present ===In September 2020, a new company, LWKS Software Ltd, founded in August of the same year by two members of the development team, took ownership of Lightworks, as well as QScan AQC software.", "the agreement also mentions Key member of the development teams of both software joining the new company." ], [ "Users", "Lightworks confirmed that over 4-million downloads and registrations had taken place." ], [ "See also", "* List of video editing software* Comparison of video editing software" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Lightworks Tutorials* Lightworks Users' Video Tutorials" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Love Parade" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Love Parade''' () was an electronic dance music festival and technoparade that originated in 1989 in West Berlin, Germany.", "It was held annually in Berlin from 1989 to 2003 and in 2006, then from 2007 to 2010 in the Ruhr region.", "Events scheduled for 2004 and 2005 in Berlin and for 2009 in Bochum were canceled.On 24 July 2010, a crowd crush at the Love Parade in Duisburg caused the deaths of 21 people, with at least 500 others injured.", "As a consequence, the organizer of the festival announced that no further Love Parades would be held and that the festival was permanently canceled." ], [ "History", "Lovers on the Love Parade, 1999The parade first occurred in July 1989, when 150 people took to the streets in Berlin.", "It was started by the Berlin underground at the initiative of Matthias Roeingh (also known as \"Dr Motte\") and Danielle de Picciotto, who were partners at the time.", "It was conceived as a political demonstration for peace and international understanding through love and music.", "It was supposed to be a bigger birthday party for Roeingh, and the motto ''Friede, Freude, Eierkuchen'' (in English — ''Peace, Joy, Pancakes'') stood for disarmament (peace), music (joy) and a fair food production/distribution (pancakes).", "Roeingh dissociated himself from the parade in 2006 because of the commercialization of the event.The parade was held on the Berlin Kurfürstendamm until 1996.Because of overcrowding on this street, the festival moved to the Straße des 17.Juni in the Großer Tiergarten park in the center of Berlin.", "The festival became centered around the ''Siegessäule'' in the middle of the park; and the golden angel atop the column became the parade's emblem.Many people from Germany and abroad traveled to Berlin to take part in the Parade — over a million attended in the years 1997 through 2000 and 800,000 in 2001.Attendance at the 2001 festival was significantly lower because the date of the parade was changed with little advance notice.", "2002 and 2003 also saw lower figures, and in 2004 and 2005 the parade was canceled because of funding difficulties.", "The parade had inspired opposition because of the damage to the Tiergarten by attendees, who were provided with insufficient toilet facilities.", "Opponents allegedly complicated matters for organisers by booking their own events in Berlin and so to exclude the parade from being able to register with city police.", "In 2004, however, a scaled-down version took place which served more as a mini-protest and was promoted with the title ''Love Weekend''.", "Dozens of clubs promoted the weekend-long event all over the city, with various clubs staying open for three days straight without closing.", "In 2006, the parade made a comeback with the help of German exercise studio McFit.The Love Parade 2007 was planned for 7 July 2007 in Berlin.", "However, the Berlin event was canceled in February because the Senate of Berlin did not issue the necessary permits at that time.", "After negotiations with several German cities, on 21 July, it was announced that the parade would move to the Ruhr Area for the next five years.", "The first event took place in Essen on 25 August.", "The parade in Essen saw 1.2 million visitors in comparison to the 500,000 who attended the 2006 parade in Berlin.In 2008, the festival took place in Dortmund on 19 July on the Bundesstraße 1 under the motto ''Highway of Love''.", "The event was planned as a \"Love Weekend\", with parties throughout the region.", "The official estimate is that 1.6 million visitors attended, making it the largest parade to date.The 2009 event, planned for Bochum, was canceled; a year later, the deaths of 21 attendees at the Duisburg venue prompted the parade's organiser Rainer Schaller to declare an end to the festival.", "\"The Love Parade has always been a peaceful party, but it will forever be overshadowed by the accident, so out of respect for the victims the Love Parade will never take place again,\" Schaller said.", "The parade was one of the oldest and largest festivals of electronic music, together with Zürich's Streetparade, Mayday and Nature One.On 9 July 2022, the Love Parade founder took part in the Rave the Planet Parade in Berlin to call for the city’s electronic music culture to be added to a World Heritage list." ], [ "Setup", "The music played at the events was predominantly electronic dance music — in this case mainly house & techno, and schranz music.", "Attempts to introduce other music styles, such as hip hop, have failed.", "Hardcore and gabber music were part of the parade in early years, but were later removed.", "They are now celebrated separately on a counter-demonstration called \"Fuckparade\".The parade was seen to be louder and more crowded than most concerts.", "With its water-cooled sound systems on every truck, the parade produced an extremely loud sound floor.", "After the 2001 arrangement, veterinarians at the Berlin Zoo blamed the parade for giving more than half of its animals diarrhea.", "Chairman Heiner Kloes said veterinarians told him the heavy bass was to blame for disturbing the animals.", "The parade consisted of the sound trucks that usually featured local, or important, clubs and their DJs.", "It had become a rule that only trucks that had sponsors from a techno-related field, such as clubs, labels or stores, were allowed, but advertising space was increased after the 2006 event to offset the high costs of equipping a truck.", "The trucks were usually open on top and featured dancers, with box-systems mounted on the side or rear.The parade was a place where some exhibited and enjoyed other people's exhibitionist tendencies.", "Some attendees enjoyed carrying around toys or other items such as dummies (pacifiers) or face masks.", "Often the crowd was imaginative in terms of clothing (or lack thereof) and appearance.One famous picture from the parade is people sitting and dancing on streetlamps, trees, commercial signs, telephone booths, which gave the event's nickname \"the greatest amateur circus on earth\".The demonstration concluded with the so-called \"Abschlusskundgebung\" which were sets of the world's leading top DJs such as DJ Tiesto, Paul Van Dyk, Carl Cox, Armin Van Buuren, DJ Rush, DJ Hell, Westbam, Drum Connection, Miss Djax, Marusha or Chris Liebing.", "During this time all trucks (usually about 40) were connected to each other and set online to the statue of victory where the turntables are.", "This was one of the few chances a DJ can ever have to play for a crowd of about one million people." ], [ "Disturbances", "The parade was quite peaceful for an event of its size, seeing few arrests.", "In 2008, for example, charges were pressed for six robberies, three sexually related offences and forty thefts.", "Twenty-three attendees were caught with drugs and forty-nine were charged with bodily harm.", "There were 177 parade visitors provisionally arrested by the police.", "Arrests were usually related to drug crimes and most other incidents featured people passing out due to dehydration or hyperthermia.", "In 2000, after the parade, a girl under the influence of ecstasy was run over by an S-Bahn after she had been leaning on the door too hard." ], [ "2010 disaster", "At the 2010 Love Parade in Duisburg, the number of people attending allegedly reached 1.4 million – the original expectation was around 800,000 – whereas police believed around 400,000 people were present.", "21 people were killed, and more than 600 injured, in an incident on an overcrowded ramp leading from a tunnel into the festival.", "All of the victims were crushed to death, according to officials.Safety experts and a fire service investigator had previously warned that the site was not suitable for the numbers expected to attend.", "Rainer Schaller, the festival's organizer and chief executive officer, later said the festival would not continue in future.A preliminary investigation of the ministry of the interior placed heavy blame on the organizers around Rainer Schaller.", "Schaller in turn claimed that errors by the police in controlling streams of visitors led to the accident." ], [ "Love Parade International", "Similar festivals have taken place in other cities of Germany and many other countries worldwide.", "Large spin-off festivals in Europe include Zürich's Street Parade, Geneva's Lake Parade, Paris's Techno Parade, Rotterdam's FFWD Dance Parade, Munich's Union Move, Hamburg's Generation Move, Hannover's Reincarnation, Bremen's Vision Parade and the Love Parade and the Freeparade in Vienna.", "In 1994, 1995 and 1996 an event called Love Parade was held in Melbourne, Australia.", "Unlike its overseas counterparts, this was a smaller \"rave party\" version of the festival.", "In 1996 it was held at Festival Hall in West Melbourne and included a parade that made the evening news.", "It was followed in 1997 by a Love Parade in Sydney, Australia, likewise a smaller rave party, held at the infamous Graffiti Hall of Fame in Redfern.", "In 1999 and 2000 technoparades named \"Buenos Aires Energy Parade\" took place in Buenos Aires, Argentina under the motto \"Love, Peace and Dance\".", "On Saturday 8 July 2000 a Love Parade was held in Roundhay Park, Leeds, United Kingdom sponsored by BBC Radio 1.In 2001, the official UK parade had moved to Newcastle upon Tyne which was to have seen a parade through the streets of Newcastle before ending up on Town Moor but was canceled after the police refused a license: BBC Radio 1 still hosted a more contained event, however.", "Since then no Love Parade has taken place in the United Kingdom.", "In Summer 2000 one of the first public events that took place in post-war Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, was Futura, Festival of Electronic Music.", "Some of the world's most famous DJs, including the organizers of the Berlin Love Parade, performed in a bombed and burnt out factory.LoveParade in Tel Aviv in October 2004After being held in the North-American Continent for the first time in Mexico (2002), in the fall of 2004 the Love Parade was held in San Francisco.", "They had held their inaugural Parade in September 2004 with 37,000 attending.", "The parade was held again in San Francisco in September 2005 as a rousing success drawing over 50–60,000 people.", "In 2006, the parade was held on 23 September and was renamed Love Fest because the Loveparade Berlin organization did not renew any of their worldwide licenses not already under contract so they could focus on their own event.", "2009 was the biggest success of the parade now renamed Lovevolution with over 100,000 people.", "The first Love Parade in Santiago was held in 2005 and gathered over 100,000 people; the 2006 version gathered over 200,000 people.", "The first Love Parade in Caracas was held in June 2007 and gathered over 25,000 people.Spin-off festivals of the Love Parade have taken place in:Berlin, Hamburg, Munich, Frankfurt, Bremen and Hannover, GermanyZürich, Geneva, Basel and Bern, SwitzerlandVienna and Salzburg, AustriaParis, FranceRotterdam, NetherlandsBologna and Turin, ItalyOporto, PortugalSydney, AustraliaBuenos Aires, ArgentinaRio de Janeiro, BrazilSantiago, ChileLeeds, EnglandBudapest, HungaryTel Aviv, IsraelMexico City and Acapulco, MexicoOslo, Norway (Summer Parade)Cape Town, South AfricaCaracas, VenezuelaLittle Rock, Arkansas; and San Francisco, California, United StatesSarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina" ], [ "Legal issues", "Under German law the state has to pay for security during political demonstrations as well as cleaning up the streets after the demonstration.", "In the case of a commercial event however, the organizer must cover these expenses.", "For a large event like the Love Parade the costs are quite high: an estimated €300,000 to €400,000.The Love Parade was initially held as a political demonstration to save costs; however it was organized by two companies set up just for the Love Parade.", "Due to this there was a dispute between the organizers and the city of Berlin every year about the status of the Love Parade and who should bear what costs.", "Finally in 2001, the courts ruled that the Love Parade had to be held as commercial event." ], [ "Anthems", "Every German parade has had its own anthem.", "Year Artist Title 1997 Dr. Motte and WestBam Sunshine 1998 Dr. Motte and WestBam One World One Future 1999 Dr. Motte and WestBam Music Is the Key 2000 Dr. Motte and WestBam One World One Loveparade 2001 The Love Committee You Can't Stop Us 2002 The Love Committee Access Peace 2003 The Love Committee Love Rules 2006 WestBam & the Love Committee United States of Love 2007 WestBam & the Love Committee Love Is Everywhere (New Location) 2008 WestBam & the Love Committee Highway to Love 2010 Anthony Rother The Art of Love" ], [ "List of Love Parades", " Year Location Motto Attendees 1989 Berlin ''Friede, Freude, Eierkuchen''(Eng.)", "Peace, Joy, Pancakes 150 1990 Berlin The Future Is Ours 2,000 1991 Berlin My House Is Your House And Your House Is Mine 6,000 1992 Berlin The Spirit Makes You Move 15,000 1993 Berlin The Worldwide Party People Weekend 31,000 1994 Berlin Love 2 Love 110,000 1995 Berlin Peace on Earth 280,000 1996 Berlin We Are One Family 750,000 1997 Berlin Let the Sunshine in Your Heart 1,000,000 1997 Sydney 1998 Berlin One World One Future 800,000 1999 Berlin Music Is The Key 1,500,000 1999 Buenos Aires (Buenos Aires Energy Parade) Amor, Paz y Dance parte 1 (Love, Peace and Dance part one) 450,000 2000 Berlin One World One Loveparade 1,300,000 2000 Leeds Radio One & Trade – One Love 500,000 2000 Buenos Aires (Buenos Aires Energy Parade) Amor, Paz y Dance parte 2 (Love, Peace and Dance part two) 750,000 2001 Berlin Join The Love Republic 800,000 2001 Newcastle upon Tyne (canceled) 2002 Berlin Access Peace 750,000 2002 Mexico City 2003 Berlin Love Rules 750,000 2004 San Francisco 2005 San Francisco 2005 Santiago Sal a la calle y baila (eng.", "Get out there and dance) 100,000 2006 Berlin The Love is Back 1,200,000 2006 San Francisco (as LoveFest) 2006 Santiago El Baile es de Todos 200,000 2007 Essen Love is everywhere 1,200,000 2007 Caracas Live the Love!", "80,000 2007 San Francisco as LoveFest 89,000 2008 Dortmund Highway to love 1,600,000 2008 Rotterdam Olympic Edition 500,000 2008 San Francisco as LoveFest 120,000 2008 Caracas Keep the Love Alive!", "2009 Bochum (canceled) 2009 San Francisco as LovEvolution150,000 2010 Duisburg The Art of Love1,400,000According to media reports, the attendance figures had been misstated by the organizers for years.", "Accurate counts are not available since entry is free and uncontrolled.", "The mayor of Dortmund and the police confirmed the number of attendees in Dortmund." ], [ "See also", "List of technoparadesList of electronic music festivalsFuckparadeLove Parade disaster" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Love Parade 2008 in Dortmund – Official Site* Berlin Life: 'The Death of Dance?'", "A history of the Berlin Love Parade* San Francisco Love Fest (formerly Love Parade San Francisco)* 2005 Lovefest Gallery* Festivalpigs Love Parade and Euro Techno & Trance Festivals info* Sean Nye and Ronald Hitzler.", "The Love Parade: European Techno, The EDM Festival, and The Tragedy in Duisburg* Love Parade Argentina (Buenos Aires Energy Parade)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lost Generation" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Lost Generation''' was the social generational cohort in the Western world that was in early adulthood during World War I, and preceding the Greatest Generation.", "The generation is generally defined as people born from 1883 to 1900, coming of age in either the 1900s or the 1910s.", "The term is also particularly used to refer to a group of American expatriate writers living in Paris during the 1920s.", "Gertrude Stein is credited with coining the term, and it was subsequently popularised by Ernest Hemingway, who used it in the epigraph for his 1926 novel ''The Sun Also Rises'': \"You are all a lost generation.\"", "\"Lost\" in this context refers to the \"disoriented, wandering, directionless\" spirit of many of the war's survivors in the early postwar period.In the wake of the Industrial Revolution, Western members of the Lost Generation grew up in societies that were more literate, consumerist, and media-saturated than ever before, but which also tended to maintain strictly conservative social values.", "Young men of the cohort were mobilized on a mass scale for World War I, a conflict that was often seen as the defining moment of their age group's lifespan.", "Young women also contributed to and were affected by the war, and in its aftermath gained greater freedoms politically and in other areas of life.", "The Lost Generation was also heavily vulnerable to the Spanish flu pandemic and became the driving force behind many cultural changes, particularly in major cities during what became known as the Roaring Twenties.Later in their midlife, they experienced the economic effects of the Great Depression and often saw their own sons leave for the battlefields of World War II.", "In the developed world, they tended to reach retirement and average life expectancy during the decades after the conflict, but some significantly outlived the norm.", "The last surviving person who was known to have been born during the 19th century was Nabi Tajima, who died in 2018 at age 117.Most members were parents of the Greatest Generation and Silent Generation." ], [ "Terminology", "The first named generation, the term \"Lost Generation\" is used for the young people who came of age around the time of World War I.", "In Europe, they are mostly known as the \"Generation of 1914\", for the year World War I began.", "In France, they were sometimes called the ''Génération du feu'', the \"(gun)fire generation\".", "In the United Kingdom, the term was originally used for those who died in the war, and often implicitly referred to upper-class casualties who were perceived to have died disproportionately, robbing the country of a future elite.", "Many felt that \"the flower of youth and the best manhood of the peoples had been mowed down\", for example, such notable casualties as the poets Isaac Rosenberg, Rupert Brooke, Edward Thomas, and Wilfred Owen, composer George Butterworth, and physicist Henry Moseley." ], [ "Date and age range definitions", "Authors William Strauss and Neil Howe define the Lost Generation as the cohort born from 1883 to 1900, who came of age during World War I and the Roaring Twenties." ], [ "Characteristics", "===As children and adolescents=======Family life and upbringing====Family in Queensland pictured at home (circa 1900)When the Lost Generation was growing up, the ideal family arrangement was generally seen as the man of the house being the breadwinner and primary authority figure whilst his wife dedicated herself to caring for the home and children.", "Most, even less well-off, married couples attempted to conform to this ideal.", "It was common for family members of three different generations to share a home.", "Wealthier households also tended to include domestic servants, though their numbers would have varied from a single maid to a large team depending on how rich the family was.Public concern for the welfare of children was intensifying by the later 19th century with laws being passed and societies formed to prevent their abuse.", "The state increasingly gained the legal right to intervene in private homes and family life to protect minors from harm.", "However, beating children for misbehaviour was not only common but viewed as the duty of a responsible caregiver.", "====Health and living conditions====''The Child's Bath'' by Mary Cassatt from 1893 of a woman giving a child a wash.", "The link between hygiene and good health was becoming better understood in Western society by the end of the 19th century and frequent bathing had become common.Sewer systems designed to remove human waste from urban areas had become widespread in industrial cities by the late 19th century, helping to reduce the spread of diseases such as cholera.", "Legal standards for the quality of drinking water also began to be introduced.", "However, the introduction of electricity was slower, and during the formative years of the Lost Generation gas lights and candles were still the most common form of lighting.Though statistics on child mortality dating back to the beginning of the Lost Generation's lifespan are limited, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention report that in 1900 one in ten American infants died before their first birthday.", "Figures for the United Kingdom state that during the final years of the 19th century, mortality in the first five years of childhood was plateauing at a little under one in every four births.", "At around one in three in 1800, the early childhood mortality rate had declined overall throughout the next hundred years but would fall most sharply during the first half of the 20th century, reaching less than one in twenty by 1950.This meant that members of the Lost Generation were somewhat less likely to die at a very early age than their parents and grandparents, but were significantly more likely to do so than children born even a few decades later.====Literacy and education====Class photo taken at a school in Sweden (1900)Laws restricting child labour in factories had begun to appear from around 1840 onwards and by the end of the 19th century, compulsory education had been introduced throughout much of the Western world for at least a few years of childhood.", "By 1900, levels of illiteracy had fallen to less than 11% in the United States, around 3% in Great Britain, and only 1% in Germany.", "However, the problems of illiteracy and lack of school provision or attendance were felt more acutely in parts of Eastern and Southern Europe.Schools of this time period tended to emphasise strict discipline, expecting pupils to memorize information by rote.", "To help deal with teacher shortages, older students were often used to help supervise and educate their younger peers.", "Dividing children into classes based on age became more common as schools grew.However, whilst elementary schooling was becoming increasingly accessible for Western children at the turn of the century, secondary education was still much more of a luxury.", "Only 11% of American fourteen to seventeen-year-olds were enrolled at High School in 1900, a figure which had only marginally increased by 1910.Though the school leaving age was officially meant to be 14 by 1900, until the First World War, most British children could leave school through rules put in place by local authorities at 12 or 13 years old.", "It was not uncommon at the end of the 19th century for Canadian children to leave school at nine or ten years old.====Leisure and play====Children playing with toys (c. 1890s)By the 1890s, children's toys entered into mass production.", "In 1893, the British toy company William Britain revolutionized the production of toy soldiers by devising the method of hollow casting, making soldiers that were cheaper and lighter than their competitors.", "This led to metal toy soldiers, which had previously been the preserve of boys from wealthier families, gaining mass appeal during the late Victorian and Edwardian period.", "Dolls often sold by street vendors at a low price were popular with girls.", "Teddy bears appeared for the first time in the early 1900s.", "Tin plated penny toys were also sold by street sellers for a single penny.The turn of the 20th century saw a surge in public park building in parts of the west to provide public space in rapidly growing industrial towns.", "They provided a means for children from different backgrounds to play and interact together, sometimes in specially designed facilities.", "They held frequent concerts and performances.====Popular culture and mass media====Vitagraph film, 1912)Beginning around the middle of the 19th century, magazines of various types which had previously mainly targeted the few that could afford them found rising popularity among the general public.", "The latter part of the century not only saw rising popularity for magazines targeted specifically at young boys but the development of a relatively new genre aimed at girls.A significant milestone was reached in the development of cinema when, in 1895, projected moving images were first shown to a paying audience in Paris.", "Early films were very short (generally taking the form of newsreels, comedic sketches, and short documentaries).", "They lacked sound but were accompanied by music, lectures, and a lot of audience participation.", "A notable film industry had developed by the start of the First World War.===As young adults=======Military service in the First World War====The Lost Generation is best known as being the cohort that primarily fought in World War I.", "More than 70 million people were mobilized during the First World War, around 8.5 million of whom were killed and 21 million wounded in the conflict.", "About 2 million soldiers are believed to have been killed by disease, while individual battles sometimes caused hundreds of thousands of deaths.French poilus on a battlefield during the First World WarAround 60 million of the enlisted originated from the European continent, which saw its younger men mobilized on a mass scale.", "Most of Europe's great powers operated peacetime conscription systems where men were expected to do a brief period of military training in their youth before spending the rest of their lives in the army reserve.", "Nations with this system saw a huge portion of their manpower directly invested in the conflict: 55% of male Italians and Bulgarians aged 18 to 50 were called to military service.", "Elsewhere the proportions were even higher: 63% of military-aged men in Serbia, 78% in Austro-Hungary, and 81% of military-aged men in France and Germany served.", "Britain, which traditionally relied primarily on the Royal Navy for its security, was a notable exception to this rule and did not introduce conscription until 1916.Around 5 million British men fought in the First World War out of a total United Kingdom population of 46 million including women, children, and men too old to bear arms.Additionally, nations recruited heavily from their colonial empires.", "Three million men from around the British Empire outside the United Kingdom served in the British Army as soldiers and laborers, whilst France recruited 475,000 soldiers from its colonies.", "Other nations involved include the United States which enlisted 4 million men during the conflict and the Ottoman Empire which mobilized 2,850,000 soldiers.Beyond the extent of the deaths, the war had a profound effect on many of its survivors, giving many young men severe mental health problems and crippling physical disabilities.", "The war also unsettled many soldiers' sense of reality, who had gone into the conflict with a belief that battle and hardship was a path to redemption and greatness.", "When years of pain, suffering, and loss seemed to bring about little in the way of a better future, many were left with a profound sense of disillusionment.====Young women in the 1910s and 1920s====A young woman burning a cable for scrap at a shipbuilding yard in Glasgow during World War I.Though soldiers on the frontlines of the First World War were exclusively men, women contributed to the war effort in other ways.", "Many took the jobs men had left in previously male-dominated sectors such as heavy industry, while some even took on non-combat military roles.", "Many, particularly wealthier women, took part in voluntary work to contribute to the war effort or to help those suffering due to it, such as the wounded or refugees.", "Often they were experiencing manual labor for the first time.", "However, this reshaping of the female role led to fears that the sexes having the same responsibilities would disrupt the fabric of society and that more competition for work would leave men unemployed and erode their pay.", "Most women had to exit the employment they had taken during the war as soon as it concluded.The war also had a personal impact on the lives of female members of the Lost Generation.", "Many women lost their husbands in the conflict, which frequently meant losing the main breadwinner of the household.", "However, war widows often received a pension and financial assistance to support their children.", "Even with some economic support, raising a family alone was often financially difficult and emotionally draining, and women faced losing their pensions if they remarried or were accused of engaging in frowned-upon behavior.", "In some cases, grief and the other pressures on them drove widows to alcoholism, depression, or suicide.", "Additionally, the large number of men killed in the First World War made it harder for many young women who were still single at the start of conflict to get married; this accelerated a trend towards them gaining greater independence and embarking on careers.Women's gaining of political rights sped up in the Western world after the First World War, while employment opportunities for unmarried women widened.", "This time period saw the development of a new type of young woman in popular culture known as a flapper, who was known for their rebellion against previous social norms.", "They had a physically distinctive appearance compared to their predecessors only a few years earlier, cutting their hair into bobs, wearing shorter dresses and more makeup, while taking on a new code of behaviour filled with more recklessness, party-going, and overt sexuality.====Aftermath of the First World War====The aftermath of the First World War saw substantive changes in the political situation, including a trend towards republicanism, the founding of many new relatively small nation-states which had previously been part of larger empires, and greater suffrage for groups such as the working class and women.", "France and the United Kingdom both gained territory from their enemies, while the war and the damage it did to the European empires are generally considered major stepping stones in the United States' path to becoming the world's dominant superpower.", "The German and Italian populations' resentment against what they generally saw as a peace settlement that took too much away from the former or didn't give enough to the latter fed into the fascist movements, which would eventually turn those countries into totalitarian dictatorships.", "For Russia, the years after its revolution in 1917 were plagued by disease, famine, terror, and civil war eventually concluded in the establishment of the Soviet Union.Image taken from a magazine cover (published 1924) of a couple dressed in fashionable clothing of the period.The immediate post-World War One period was characterized by continued political violence and economic instability.", "The late 1910s saw the Spanish flu pandemic, which was unusual in the sense that it killed many younger adults of the same Lost Generation age group that had mainly died in the war.", "Later, especially in major cities, much of the 1920s is considered to have been a more prosperous period when the Lost Generation, in particular, escaped the suffering and turmoil they had lived through by rebelling against the social and cultural norms of their elders.===In midlife=======1930s=========Politics and economics=====This more optimistic period was short-lived, however, as 1929 saw the beginning of the Great Depression, which would continue throughout the 1930s and become the longest and most severe financial downturn ever experienced in Western industrialized history.", "Though it had begun in the United States, the crises led to sharp increases in worldwide unemployment, reductions in economic output and deflation.", "The depression was also a major catalyst for the rise of Nazism in Germany and the beginnings of its quest to establish dominance over the European continent, which would eventually lead to World War II in Europe.", "Additionally, the 1930s saw the less badly damaged Imperial Japan engage in its own empire-building, contributing to conflict in the Far East, where some scholars have argued the Second World War began as early as 1931.=====Popular media=====The 1930s saw rising popularity for radio, with the vast majority of Western households having access to the medium by the end of the decade.", "Programming included soap operas, music, and sport.", "Educational broadcasts were frequently available.", "The airwaves also provided a source of news and, particularly for the era's autocratic regimes, an outlet for political propaganda.====Second World War====Weapons training for members of the Volkssturm, a militia all German men not already in military service up to the age of sixty were obliged to join in the final months of World War II.When World War II broke out in 1939, the Lost Generation faced a major global conflict for the second time in their lifetime, and now often had to watch their sons go to the battlefield.", "The place of the older generation who had been young adults during World War I in the new conflict was a theme in popular media of the time period, with examples including ''Waterloo Bridge'' and ''Old Bill and Son.''", "Civil defense organizations designed to provide a final line of resistance against invasion and assist in home defense more broadly recruited heavily from the older male population.", "Like in the First World War, women helped to make up for labour shortages caused by mass military recruitment by entering more traditionally masculine employment and entering the conflict more directly in female military branches and underground resistance movements.", "However, those in middle age were generally less likely to become involved in this kind of work than the young.", "This was particularly true of any kind of military involvement.===In later life===In the West, the Lost Generation tended to reach the end of their working lives around the 1950s and 1960s.", "For those members of the cohort who had fought in World War I, their military service frequently was viewed as a defining moment in their lives even many years later.", "Retirement notices of this era often included information on a man's service in the First World War.Though there were slight differences between individual countries and from one year to the next, the average life expectancy in the developed world during the 1950s, 1960s and early 1970s was typically around seventy years old.", "However, some members of the Lost Generation outlived the norm by several decades.", "Nabi Tajima, the last surviving person known to have been born in the 19th century, died in 2018.The final remaining veteran to have served in World War I in any capacity was Florence Green, who died in 2012, while Claude Choules, the last veteran to have been involved in combat, had died the previous year.", "However, these individuals were born in 1902 and 1901 respectively, putting them outside the usual birth years for the Lost Generation." ], [ "In literature", "Gertrude Stein with Ernest Hemingway's son Jack in 1924.Stein is credited with bringing the term \"Lost Generation\" into use.In his memoir ''A Moveable Feast'' (1964), published after Hemingway's and Stein's deaths, Ernest Hemingway writes that Gertrude Stein heard the phrase from a French garage owner who serviced Stein's car.", "When a young mechanic failed to repair the car quickly enough, the garage owner shouted at the young man, \"You are all a ''génération perdue''.\"", "While telling Hemingway the story, Stein added: \"That is what you are.", "That's what you all are ... all of you young people who served in the war.", "You are a lost generation.\"", "Hemingway thus credits the phrase to Stein, who was then his mentor and patron.The 1926 publication of Hemingway's ''The Sun Also Rises'' popularized the term; that novel serves to epitomize the post-war expatriate generation.", "However, Hemingway later wrote to his editor Max Perkins that the \"point of the book\" was not so much about a generation being lost, but that \"the earth abideth forever\".", "Hemingway believed the characters in ''The Sun Also Rises'' may have been \"battered\" but were not lost.Consistent with this ambivalence, Hemingway employs \"Lost Generation\" as one of two contrasting epigraphs for his novel.", "In ''A Moveable Feast'', Hemingway writes, \"I tried to balance Miss Stein's quotation from the garage owner with one from Ecclesiastes.\"", "A few lines later, recalling the risks and losses of the war, he adds: \"I thought of Miss Stein and Sherwood Anderson and egotism and mental laziness versus discipline and I thought 'who is calling who a lost generation?===Themes===Typewriters entered common use as a writing tool for the Lost GenerationThe writings of the Lost Generation literary figures often pertained to the writers' experiences in World War I and the years following it.", "It is said that the work of these writers was autobiographical based on their use of mythologized versions of their lives.", "One of the themes that commonly appear in the authors' works is decadence and the frivolous lifestyle of the wealthy.", "Both Hemingway and F. Scott Fitzgerald touched on this theme throughout the novels ''The Sun Also Rises'' and ''The Great Gatsby''.", "Another theme commonly found in the works of these authors was the death of the American Dream, which is exhibited throughout many of their novels.", "It is particularly prominent in ''The Great Gatsby'', in which the character Nick Carraway comes to realize the corruption that surrounds him.===Notable figures===Notable figures of the Lost Generation include F. Scott Fitzgerald, Gertrude Stein, Ernest Hemingway, T. S. Eliot, Ezra Pound, Jean Rhys Henry Strater, and Sylvia Beach." ], [ "See also", "* Aftermath of World War I* Belle Époque* Edwardian era* Fin de siècle* Gay Nineties* List of named generations* Roaring Twenties* World War I" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Dolan, Marc.", "''Modern Lives: A Cultural Re-Reading of the \"Lost Generation\"'' (Purdue University Press, 1996).", "* Doyle, Barry M., \"Urban Liberalism and the 'lost generation': Politics and middle-class culture in Norwich, 1900–1935\".", "''Historical Journal'' 38.3 (1995): 617–634.in Great Britain.", "* * Green, Nancy L. \"Expatriation, expatriates, and expats: The American transformation of a concept.\"", "''American Historical Review'' 114.2 (2009): 307-328.online* Hansen, Arlen J.", "''Expatriate Paris: A Cultural and Literary Guide to Paris of the 1920s'' (2012) excerpt* Kotin, Joshua, Clifford E. Wulfman, and Jesse McCarthy.", "\"Mapping Expatriate Paris: A Digital Humanities Project.\"", "''Princeton University Library Chronicle'' 77.1-2 (2016): 17-34.online* McAuliffe, Mary.", "''When Paris Sizzled: The 1920s Paris of Hemingway, Chanel, Cocteau, Cole Porter, Josephine Baker, and Their Friends'' (2019) excerpt* * Monk, Craig.", "''Writing the Lost Generation: Expatriate Autobiography and American Modernism'' (University of Iowa Press, 2010).", "* Winter, Jay M., \"Britain's 'Lost Generation' of the First World War\".", "''Population Studies'' 31.3 (1977): 449–466.online, covers the statistical and demographic history." ], [ "External links", "* Writers of the Lost Generation discussed in ''Conversations from Penn State'' interview" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Left-wing politics" ], [ "Introduction", " Labour union demonstrators at the 1912 Lawrence textile strike '''Left-wing politics''' describes the range of political ideologies that support and seek to achieve social equality and egalitarianism, often in opposition to social hierarchy as a whole or certain social hierarchies.", "Left-wing politics typically involve a concern for those in society whom its adherents perceive as disadvantaged relative to others as well as a belief that there are unjustified inequalities that need to be reduced or abolished through radical means that change the nature of the society they are implemented in.", "According to emeritus professor of economics Barry Clark, supporters of left-wing politics \"claim that human development flourishes when individuals engage in cooperative, mutually respectful relations that can thrive only when excessive differences in status, power, and wealth are eliminated.", "\"Within the left–right political spectrum, ''Left'' and ''Right'' were coined during the French Revolution, referring to the seating arrangement in the French Estates General.", "Those who sat on the left generally opposed the Ancien Régime and the Bourbon monarchy and supported the Revolution, the creation of a democratic republic and the secularisation of society while those on the right were supportive of the traditional institutions of the Ancien Régime.", "Usage of the term ''Left'' became more prominent after the restoration of the French monarchy in 1815, when it was applied to the ''Independents''.", "The word ''wing'' was first appended to Left and Right in the late 19th century, usually with disparaging intent, and ''left-wing'' was applied to those who were unorthodox in their religious or political views.Ideologies considered to be ''left-wing'' vary greatly depending on the placement along the political spectrum in a given time and place.", "At the end of the 18th century, upon the founding of the first liberal democracies, the term ''Left'' was used to describe liberalism in the United States and republicanism in France, supporting a lesser degree of hierarchical decision-making than the ''right-wing politics'' of the traditional conservatives and monarchists.", "In modern politics, the term ''Left'' typically applies to ideologies and movements to the left of classical liberalism, supporting some degree of democracy in the economic sphere.", "Today, ideologies such as social liberalism and social democracy are considered to be centre-left, while ''the Left'' is typically reserved for movements more critical of capitalism, including the labour movement, socialism, anarchism, communism, Marxism and syndicalism, each of which rose to prominence in the 19th and 20th centuries.In addition, the term ''left-wing'' has also been applied to a broad range of culturally liberal social movements, including the civil rights movement, feminist movement, LGBT rights movement, abortion-rights movements, multiculturalism, anti-war movement and environmental movement as well as a wide range of political parties.‌" ], [ "Positions", "The following positions are typically associated with left-wing politics.=== Economics ===Left-leaning economic beliefs range from Keynesian economics and the welfare state through industrial democracy and the social market to the nationalization of the economy and central planning, to the anarcho-syndicalist advocacy of a council-based and self-managed anarchist communism.", "During the Industrial Revolution, leftists supported trade unions.", "At the beginning of the 20th century, many leftists advocated strong government intervention in the economy.", "Leftists continue to criticize the perceived exploitative nature of globalization, the \"race to the bottom\" and unjust lay-offs and exploitation of workers.", "In the last quarter of the 20th century, the belief that the government (ruling in accordance with the interests of the people) ought to be directly involved in the day-to-day workings of an economy declined in popularity amongst the centre-left, especially social democrats who adopted the Third Way.", "Left-wing politics are typically associated with popular or state control of major political and economic institutions.", "Other leftists believe in Marxian economics, named after the economic theories of Karl Marx.", "Some distinguish Marx's economic theories from his political philosophy, arguing that Marx's approach to understanding the economy is independent of his advocacy of revolutionary socialism or his belief in the inevitability of a proletarian revolution.", "Marxian economics do not exclusively rely on Marx and draw from a range of Marxist and non-Marxist sources.", "The ''dictatorship of the proletariat'' and ''workers' state'' are terms used by some Marxists, particularly Leninists and Marxist–Leninists, to describe what they see as a temporary state between the capitalist state of affairs and a communist society.", "Marx defined the proletariat as salaried workers, in contrast to the lumpenproletariat, who he defined as the outcasts of society such as beggars, tricksters, entertainers, buskers, criminals and prostitutes.", "The political relevance of farmers has divided the left.", "In , Marx scarcely mentioned the subject.", "Mikhail Bakunin thought the lumpenproletariat was a revolutionary class, while Mao Zedong believed that it would be rural peasants, not urban workers, who would bring about the proletarian revolution.Left-libertarians, anarchists and libertarian socialists believe in a decentralized economy run by trade unions, workers' councils, cooperatives, municipalities and communes, opposing both state and private control of the economy, preferring social ownership and local control in which a nation of decentralized regions is united in a confederation.", "The global justice movement, also known as the anti-globalisation movement and the alter-globalisation movement, protests against corporate economic globalisation due to its negative consequences for the poor, workers, the environment, and small businesses.Leftists generally believe in innovation in various technological and philosophical fields and disciplines to help causes they support.=== Environment ===One of the foremost left-wing advocates was Thomas Paine, one of the first individuals since ''left'' and ''right'' became political terms to describe the collective human ownership of the world which he speaks of in Agrarian Justice.", "As such, most of left-wing thought and literature regarding environmentalism stems from this duty of ownership and the aforementioned form of cooperative ownership means that humanity must take care of the Earth.", "This principle is reflected in much of the historical left-wing thought and literature that came afterwards, although there were disagreements about what this entailed.", "Both Karl Marx and the early socialist philosopher and scholar William Morris arguably had a concern for environmental matters.", "According to Marx, \"even an entire society, a nation, or all simultaneously existing societies taken together, are not the owners of the earth.", "They are simply its possessors, its beneficiaries, and have to bequeath it in an improved state to succeeding generations\".", "Following the Russian Revolution, environmental scientists such as revolutionary Alexander Bogdanov and the Proletkult organisation made efforts to incorporate environmentalism into Bolshevism and \"integrate production with natural laws and limits\" in the first decade of Soviet rule, before Joseph Stalin attacked ecologists and the science of ecology, purged environmentalists and promoted the pseudoscience of Trofim Lysenko during his rule up until his death in 1953.Similarly, Mao Zedong rejected environmentalism and believed that based on the laws of historical materialism, all of nature must be put into the service of revolution.From the 1970s onwards, environmentalism became an increasing concern of the left, with social movements and several unions campaigning on environmental issues and causes.", "In Australia, the left-wing Builders Labourers Federation, led by the communist Jack Mundy, united with environmentalists to place green bans on environmentally destructive development projects.", "Several segments of the socialist and Marxist left consciously merged environmentalism and anti-capitalism into an eco-socialist ideology.", "Barry Commoner articulated a left-wing response to ''The Limits to Growth'' model that predicted catastrophic resource depletion and spurred environmentalism, postulating that capitalist technologies were the key cause responsible for environmental degradation, as opposed to human population pressures.", "Environmental degradation can be seen as a class or equity issue, as environmental destruction disproportionately affects poorer communities and countries.Ms.''", "magazine.Several left-wing or socialist groupings have an overt environmental concern and several green parties contain a strong socialist presence.", "The Green Party of England and Wales features an eco-socialist group, the Green Left, which was founded in June 2005.Its members held several influential positions within the party, including both the former Principal Speakers Siân Berry and Derek Wall, himself an eco-socialist and Marxist academic.", "In Europe, several green left political parties such as the European United Left–Nordic Green Left combine traditional social-democratic values such as a desire for greater economic equality and workers rights with demands for environmental protection.", "Democratic socialist Bolivian president Evo Morales has traced environmental degradation to capitalist consumerism, stating that \"the Earth does not have enough for the North to live better and better, but it does have enough for all of us to live well\".", "James Hansen, Noam Chomsky, Raj Patel, Naomi Klein, The Yes Men and Dennis Kucinich hold similar views.In climate change mitigation, the Left is also divided over how to effectively and equitably reduce carbon emissions as the center-left often advocates a reliance on market measures such as emissions trading and a carbon tax while those further to the left support direct government regulation and intervention in the form of a Green New Deal, either alongside or instead of market mechanisms.=== Nationalism, anti-imperialism and anti-nationalism ===The question of nationality, imperialism and nationalism has been a central feature of political debates on the Left.", "During the French Revolution, nationalism was a key policy of the Republican Left.", "The Republican Left advocated for civic nationalism and argued that the nation is a \"daily plebiscite\" formed by the subjective \"will to live together\".", "Related to revanchism, the belligerent will to take revenge against Germany and retake control of Alsace-Lorraine, nationalism was sometimes opposed to imperialism.", "In the 1880s, there was a debate between leftists such as the Radical Georges Clemenceau, the Socialist Jean Jaurès and the nationalist Maurice Barrès, who argued that colonialism diverted France from liberating the \"blue line of the Vosges\", in reference to Alsace-Lorraine; and the \"colonial lobby\" such as Jules Ferry of the Moderate Republicans, Léon Gambetta of the Republicans and Eugène Etienne, the president of the Parliamentary Colonial Group.", "After the antisemitic Dreyfus Affair in which officer Alfred Dreyfus was falsely convicted of sedition and exiled to a penal colony in 1894 before being exonerated in 1906, nationalism in the form of Boulangism increasingly became associated with the far-right.The Marxist social class theory of proletarian internationalism asserts that members of the working class should act in solidarity with working people in other countries in pursuit of a common class interest, rather than only focusing on their own countries.", "Proletarian internationalism is summed up in the slogan: \"Workers of the world, unite!", "\", the last line of ''The Communist Manifesto''.", "Union members had learned that more members meant more bargaining power.", "Taken to an international level, leftists argued that workers should act in solidarity with the international proletariat in order to further increase the power of the working class.", "Proletarian internationalism saw itself as a deterrent against war and international conflicts, because people with a common interest are less likely to take up arms against one another, instead focusing on fighting the bourgeoisie as the ruling class.", "According to Marxist theory, the antonym of proletarian internationalism is bourgeois nationalism.", "Some Marxists, together with others on the left, view nationalism, racism (including antisemitism) and religion as divide and conquer tactics used by the ruling classes to prevent the working class from uniting against them in solidarity with one another.", "Left-wing movements have often taken up anti-imperialist positions.", "Anarchism has developed a critique of nationalism that focuses on nationalism's role in justifying and consolidating state power and domination.", "Through its unifying goal, nationalism strives for centralisation (both in specific territories and in a ruling elite of individuals) while it prepares a population for capitalist exploitation.", "Within anarchism, this subject has been extensively discussed by Rudolf Rocker in his book titled ''Nationalism and Culture'' and by the works of Fredy Perlman such as ''Against His-Story, Against Leviathan'' and ''The Continuing Appeal of Nationalism''.The failure of revolutions in Germany and Hungary in the 1918–1920 years ended Bolshevik hopes for an imminent world revolution and led to the promotion of the doctrine of socialism in one country by Joseph Stalin.", "In the first edition of his book titled ''Osnovy Leninizma'' (''Foundations of Leninism'', 1924), Stalin argued that revolution in one country is insufficient.", "By the end of that year in the second edition of the book, he argued that the \"proletariat can and must build the socialist society in one country\".", "In April 1925, Nikolai Bukharin elaborated on the issue in his brochure titled ''Can We Build Socialism in One Country in the Absence of the Victory of the West-European Proletariat?", "'', whose position was adopted as state policy after Stalin's January 1926 article titled ''On the Issues of Leninism'' (К вопросам ленинизма) was published.", "This idea was opposed by Leon Trotsky and his supporters, who declared the need for an international \"permanent revolution\" and condemned Stalin for betraying the goals and ideals of the socialist revolution.", "Various Fourth Internationalist groups around the world who describe themselves as Trotskyist see themselves as standing in this tradition while Maoist China formally supported the theory of socialism in one country.European social democrats strongly support Europeanism and supranational integration within the European Union, although there is a minority of nationalists and Eurosceptics on the left.", "Several scholars have linked this form of left-wing nationalism to the pressure generated by economic integration with other countries, often encouraged by neoliberal free trade agreements.", "This view is sometimes used to justify hostility towards supranational organizations.", "Left-wing nationalism can also refer to any form of nationalism which emphasizes a leftist working-class populist agenda that seeks to overcome exploitation or oppression by other nations.", "Many Third World anti-colonialist movements have adopted leftist and socialist ideas.", "Third-Worldism is a tendency within leftist thought that regards the division between First World and Second World developed countries and Third World developing countries as being of high political importance.", "This tendency supports decolonization and national liberation movements against imperialism by capitalists.", "Third-Worldism is closely connected with African socialism, Latin American socialism, Maoism, pan-Africanism and pan-Arabism.", "Several left-wing groups in the developing world such as the Zapatista Army of National Liberation in Mexico, the Abahlali baseMjondolo in South Africa and the Naxalites in India have argued that the First World and the Second World Left takes a racist and paternalistic attitude towards liberation movements in the Third World.=== Religion ===The original French Left was firmly anti-clerical, strongly opposing the influence of the Roman Catholic Church and supporting atheism and the separation of church and state, ushering in a policy known as ''laïcité''.", "Karl Marx asserted that \"religion is the sigh of the oppressed creature, the heart of a heartless world, and the soul of soulless conditions.", "It is the opium of the people\".", "In Soviet Russia, the Bolsheviks under Vladimir Lenin originally embraced an ideological principle which professed that all religion would eventually atrophy and resolved to eradicate organized Christianity and other religious institutions.", "In 1918, 10 Russian Orthodox hierarchs were summarily executed by a firing squad, and children were deprived of any religious education outside of the home.Today in the Western world, those on the Left generally support secularization and the separation of church and state.", "However, religious beliefs have also been associated with many left-wing movements such as the progressive movement, the Social Gospel movement, the civil rights movement, the anti-war movement, the anti-capital punishment movement and Liberation Theology.", "Early utopian socialist thinkers such as Robert Owen, Charles Fourier and the Comte de Saint-Simon based their theories of socialism upon Christian principles.", "Other common leftist concerns such as pacifism, social justice, racial equality, human rights and the rejection of capitalism and excessive wealth can be found in the Bible.", "In the late 19th century, the Protestant Social Gospel movement arose in the United States which integrated progressive and socialist thought with Christianity through faith-based social activism.", "Other left-wing religious movements include Buddhist socialism, Jewish socialism and Islamic socialism.", "There have been alliances between the left and anti-war Muslims, such as the Respect Party and the Stop the War Coalition in Britain.", "In France, the left has been divided over moves to ban the hijab from schools, with some leftists supporting a ban based on the separation of church and state in accordance with the principle of ''laïcité'' and other leftists opposing the prohibition based on personal and religious freedom.=== Social progressivism and counterculture ===Social progressivism is another common feature of modern leftism, particularly in the United States, where social progressives played an important role in the abolition of slavery, the enshrinement of women's suffrage in the United States Constitution, and the protection of civil rights, LGBTQ rights, women's rights and multiculturalism.", "Progressives have both advocated for alcohol prohibition legislation and worked towards its repeal in the mid to late 1920s and early 1930s.", "Current positions associated with social progressivism in the Western world include strong opposition to the death penalty, torture, mass surveillance, and the war on drugs, and support for abortion rights, cognitive liberty, LGBTQ rights including legal recognition of same-sex marriage, same-sex adoption of children, the right to change one's legal gender, distribution of contraceptives, and public funding of embryonic stem-cell research.", "The desire for an expansion of social and civil liberties often overlaps that of the libertarian movement.", "Public education was a subject of great interest to groundbreaking social progressives such as Lester Frank Ward and John Dewey, who believed that a democratic society and system of government was practically impossible without a universal and comprehensive nationwide system of education.Various counterculture and anti-war movements in the 1960s and 1970s were associated with the New Left.", "Unlike the earlier leftist focus on labour union activism and a proletarian revolution, the New Left instead adopted a broader definition of political activism commonly called social activism.", "The New Left in the United States is associated with the hippie movement, mass protest movements on school campuses and a broadening of focus from protesting class-based oppression to include issues such as gender, race and sexual orientation.", "The British New Left was an intellectually driven movement which attempted to correct the perceived errors of the Old Left.", "The New Left opposed prevailing authoritarian structures in society which it designated as \"The Establishment\" and became known as the \"Anti-Establishment\".", "The New Left did not seek to recruit industrial workers en masse, but instead concentrated on a social activist approach to organization, convinced that they could be the source for a better kind of social revolution.", "This view has been criticized by several Marxists, especially Trotskyists, who characterized this approach as \"substitutionism\" which they described as a misguided and non-Marxist belief that other groups in society could \"substitute\" for and \"replace\" the revolutionary agency of the working class.Many early feminists and advocates of women's rights were considered a part of the Left by their contemporaries.", "Feminist pioneer Mary Wollstonecraft was influenced by Thomas Paine.", "Many notable leftists have been strong supporters of gender equality such as Marxist philosophers and activists Rosa Luxemburg, Clara Zetkin and Alexandra Kollontai, anarchist philosophers and activists such as Virginia Bolten, Emma Goldman and Lucía Sánchez Saornil and democratic socialist philosophers and activists such as Helen Keller and Annie Besant.", "However, Marxists such as Rosa Luxemburg, Clara Zetkin, and Alexandra Kollontai, who are supporters of radical social equality for women and have rejected and opposed liberal feminism because they considered it to be a capitalist bourgeois ideology.", "Marxists were responsible for organizing the first International Working Women's Day events.The women's liberation movement is closely connected to the New Left and other new social movements which openly challenged the orthodoxies of the Old Left.", "Socialist feminism as exemplified by the Freedom Socialist Party and Radical Women and Marxist feminism, spearheaded by Selma James, saw themselves as a part of the Left that challenges male-dominated and sexist structures within the Left.", "The connection between left-wing ideologies and the struggle for LGBTQ rights also has an important history.", "Prominent socialists who were involved in early struggles for LGBTQ rights include Edward Carpenter, Oscar Wilde, Harry Hay, Bayard Rustin and Daniel Guérin, among others.", "The New Left is also strongly supportive of LGBTQ rights and liberation, having been instrumental in the founding of the LGBTQ rights movement in the aftermath of the Stonewall Riots of 1969.Contemporary leftist activists and socialist countries such as Cuba are actively supportive of LGBTQ+ people and are involved in the struggle for LGBTQ+ rights and equality." ], [ "History", "The 5 May 1789 opening of the Estates General of 1789 in VersaillesIn politics, the term ''Left'' derives from the French Revolution as the political groups opposed to the royal veto privilege (Montagnard and Jacobin deputies from the Third Estate) generally sat to the left of the presiding member's chair in parliament while the ones in favour of the royal veto privilege sat on its right.", "That habit began in the French Estates General of 1789.Throughout the 19th century, the main line dividing Left and Right was between supporters of the French republic and those of the monarchy's privileges.", "The June Days uprising during the Second Republic was an attempt by the Left to re-assert itself after the 1848 Revolution, but only a small portion of the population supported this.In the mid-19th century, nationalism, socialism, democracy and anti-clericalism became key features of the French Left.", "After Napoleon III's 1851 coup and the subsequent establishment of the Second Empire, Marxism began to rival radical republicanism and utopian socialism as a force within left-wing politics.", "The influential ''Communist Manifesto'' by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, published amidst the wave of revolutions of 1848 across Europe, asserted that all of human history is defined by class struggle.", "They predicted that a proletarian revolution would eventually overthrow bourgeois capitalism and create a stateless, moneyless and classless communist society.", "It was in this period that the word ''wing'' was appended to both Left and Right.The International Workingmen's Association (1864–1876), sometimes called the First International, brought together delegates from many different countries, with many different views about how to reach a classless and stateless society.", "Following a split between supporters of Marx and Mikhail Bakunin, anarchists formed the Saint-Imier International and later the International Workers' Association (IWA–AIT).", "The Second International (1888–1916) became divided over the issue of World War I.", "Those who opposed the war, among them Vladimir Lenin and Rosa Luxemburg, saw themselves as further to the left.In the United States, leftists such as social liberals, progressives and trade unionists were influenced by the works of Thomas Paine, who introduced the concept of asset-based egalitarianism which theorises that social equality is possible by a redistribution of resources.", "After the Reconstruction era in the aftermath of the American Civil War, the phrase \"the Left\" was used to describe those who supported trade unions, the civil rights movement and the anti-war movement.", "More recently, ''left-wing'' and ''right-wing'' have often been used as synonyms for the Democratic and Republican parties, or as synonyms for liberalism and conservatism, respectively.Since the Right was populist, both in the Western and the Eastern Bloc anything viewed as avant-garde art was called leftist across Europe, thus the identification of Picasso's ''Guernica'' as \"leftist\" in Europe and the condemnation of the Russian composer Shostakovich's opera (''The Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk District'') in ''Pravda'' as follows: \"Here we have 'leftist' confusion instead of natural, human music\"." ], [ "Types", "The spectrum of left-wing politics ranges from centre-left to far-left or ultra-left.", "The term ''centre-left'' describes a position within the political mainstream that accepts capitalism and a market economy.", "The terms ''far-left'' and ''ultra-left'' are used for positions that are more radical, more strongly rejecting capitalism and mainstream representative democracy, instead advocating for a socialist society based on economic democracy and direct democracy, representing economic, political and social democracy.", "The centre-left includes social democrats, social liberals, progressives and greens.", "Centre-left supporters accept market allocation of resources in a mixed economy with an empowered public sector and a thriving private sector.", "Centre-left policies tend to favour limited state intervention in matters pertaining to the public interest.In several countries, the terms ''far-left'' and ''radical left'' have been associated with many varieties of anarchism, autonomism and communism.", "They have been used to describe groups that advocate anti-capitalism and eco-terrorism.", "In France, a distinction is made between the centre-left and the left represented by the Socialist Party and the French Communist Party and the far-left as represented by anarcho-communists, Maoists and Trotskyists.", "The United States Department of Homeland Security defines \"left-wing extremism\" as groups that \"seek to bring about change through violent revolution, rather than through established political processes\".", "Similar to far-right politics, extremist far-left politics have motivated political violence, radicalization, genocide, terrorism, sabotage and damage to property, the formation of militant organizations, political repression, conspiracism, xenophobia, and nationalism.In China, the term ''Chinese New Left'' denotes those who oppose the economic reforms enacted by Deng Xiaoping in the 1980s and 1990s, favour instead the restoration of Maoist policies and the immediate transition to a socialist economy.", "In the Western world, the term ''New Left'' is used for social and cultural politics.In the United Kingdom during the 1980s, the term ''hard left'' was applied to supporters of Tony Benn such as the Campaign Group and those involved in the ''London Labour Briefing'' newspaper as well as Trotskyist groups such as Militant and the Alliance for Workers' Liberty.", "In the same period, the term ''soft left'' was applied to supporters of the British Labour Party who were perceived to be more moderate and closer to the centre, accepting Keynesianism.", "Under the leadership of Tony Blair and Gordon Brown, the Labour Party adopted the Third Way and rebranded itself as New Labour in order to promote the notion that it was less left-wing than it had been in the past to accommodate the neoliberal trend arising since the 1970s with the displacement of Keynesianism and post-war social democracy.", "One of the first actions of Ed Miliband, the Labour Party leader who succeeded Blair and Brown, was the rejection of the New Labour label and a promise to abandon the Third Way and turn back to the left.", "However, Labour's voting record in the House of Commons from 2010 to 2015 indicated that the Labour Party under Miliband had maintained the same distance from the left as it did under Blair.", "In contrast, the election of Jeremy Corbyn as the Labour Party leader was viewed by scholars and political commentators as Labour turning back toward its more classical socialist roots, rejecting neoliberalism and the Third Way whilst supporting a democratic socialist society and an end to austerity measures." ], [ "See also", "* Conflict theories* History of trade unions in the United Kingdom* Labor history of the United States* Left-wing populism* Left-wing terrorism* List of left-wing internationals* List of left-wing political parties* Post-left anarchy* Red-baiting* Red Scare* Redwashing* Social criticism* ''Woke''" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * ''Encyclopedia of the American Left'', ed.", "by Mari Jo Buhle, Paul Buhle, Dan Georgakas, Second Edition, Oxford University Press 1998, .", "* Lin Chun, ''The British New Left'', Edinburgh: Edinburgh Univ.", "Press, 1993.", "* Geoff Eley, ''Forging Democracy: The History of the Left in Europe, 1850–2000'', Oxford University Press 2002, .", "* \"Leftism in India, 1917–1947\", Satyabrata Rai Chowdhuri, Palgrave Macmillan, UK, 2007, ." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Los Angeles-class submarine" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''''Los Angeles'' class''' of submarines are nuclear-powered fast attack submarines (SSN) in service with the United States Navy.", "Also known as the '''688 class''' (pronounced \"six-eighty-eight\") after the hull number of lead vessel , 62 were built from 1972 to 1996, the latter 23 to an improved '''688i''' standard.", "As of 2022, 26 of the ''Los Angeles'' class remain in commission—more than any other class in the world—and they account for more than half of the U.S. Navy's 50 fast attack submarines.Submarines of this class are named after American towns and cities, such as Albany, New York; Los Angeles, California; and Tucson, Arizona, with the exception of , named for the \"father of the nuclear Navy.\"", "This was a change from traditionally naming attack submarines after marine animals, such as or .", "Rickover's response to the decision to name the submarines after cities (and occasionally politicians influential in defense issues) was that \"Fish don't vote.\"" ], [ "Development", "In the late 1960s, the Soviet Union's advances in submarine technology increasingly threatened the survivability of US Navy (USN) carrier battle groups.", "Soviet fast-attack submarines became capable of keeping pace with carrier groups, while their newer missile submarines could potentially overwhelm the group's defenses with salvos of missiles.", "Development of the ''Los Angeles'' class commenced in 1967 as a response.", "The class originally had essentially the same weapons and sensors as the preceding ''Sturgeon''-class submarine, but was approximately 50% larger with \"major improvements\" in stealth and speed so that they too could keep up with carrier battle groups.On 1 December 1976 General Dynamics Electric Boat (GDEB) submitted a $544 million claim related to its contract for 18 ''Los-Angeles''-class submarines; the contractor alleged the USN made an undue amount of design changes while the government argued that Electric Boat mismanaged its operations.", "The USN and General Dynamics reached an $843 million settlement agreement in June 1978; the contract price was increased by $125 million, GDEB absorbed a $359 million loss, and the USN paid an additional $359 million under the authority of Public Law 85-804.The USN and General Dynamics had a further dispute in 1979–1980 when it was discovered that nonconforming steel had been used in the construction of the submarines and thousands of welds were found to be either defective or missing.", "This led General Dynamics to file a $100 million insurance claim to cover the costs of re-inspections of the yard's work, \"thus, Electric Boat was asking the Navy to reimburse it for its own mis-management.\"", "The parties reached an agreement in 1981 whereby GDEB was awarded a firm contract for an additional 688-class boat and two options; the Navy needed GDEB's shipbuilding capacity to achieve its procurement goals.", "''Los Angeles''-class submarines were built in three successive flights: Flight Pennant numbers Ordered dates Upgrades (where applicable) I SSNs 688–718 1971–1977 N/A II SSNs 719–750 1977–198212 vertical launch tubes for Tomahawk cruise missiles and an upgraded reactor core.", "III SSNs 751–773 1982–1989 \"688i\" (for Improved): Quieter, advanced BSY-1 sonar suite, the ability to lay mines and configured for under-ice operations." ], [ "Design", "===Flights===Flight II 688 VLS.Flight III 688I.In 1982, after building 31 boats, the class underwent a minor redesign.", "The following eight that made up the second \"flight\" of subs had 12 new vertical launch tubes that could fire Tomahawk missiles.", "The last 23 had a significant upgrade with the '''688i''' improvement program.", "These boats are quieter, with more advanced electronics, sensors, and noise-reduction technology.", "The diving planes are placed at the bow rather than on the sail, and are retractable.", "A further four boats were proposed by the Navy, but later cancelled.===Capabilities===Crewmen monitor consoles at the diving station aboard a ''Los Angeles''-class submarineAccording to the U.S. Department of Defense, the top speed of the submarines of the ''Los Angeles'' class is over , although the actual maximum is classified.", "Some published estimates have placed their top speed at .", "In his book ''Submarine: A Guided Tour Inside a Nuclear Warship'', Tom Clancy estimated the top speed of ''Los Angeles''-class submarines at about .The U.S. Navy gives the maximum operating depth of the ''Los Angeles'' class as , while Patrick Tyler, in his book ''Running Critical'', suggests a maximum operating depth of .", "Although Tyler cites the 688-class design committee for this figure, the government has not commented on it.", "The maximum diving depth is according to ''Jane's Fighting Ships, 2004–2005 Edition'', edited by Commodore Stephen Saunders of the Royal Navy.===Weapons===A portside bow view of the fore section of tied up at the pier in February 1994: The doors of the Mark 36 vertical launch system for the Tomahawk missiles are in the \"open\" position.", "''Los Angeles''-class submarines carry about 25 torpedo tube-launched weapons, as well as Mark 67 and Mark 60 CAPTOR mines and were designed to launch Tomahawk cruise missiles, and Harpoon missiles horizontally (from the torpedo tubes).", "The last 31 boats of this class (Flight II and Flight III/688i) also have 12 dedicated vertical launching system tubes for launching Tomahawks.", "The tube configuration for the first two boats of Flight II differed from the later ones: ''Providence'' and ''Pittsburgh'' have four rows of three tubes vs. the inner two rows of four and outer two rows of two tubes found on other examples.===Control systems===Over close to 40 years, the control suite of the class has changed dramatically.", "The class was originally equipped with the Mk 113 mod 10 fire control system, also known as the Pargo display program.", "The Mk 113 runs on a UYK-7 computer.The Mk 117 FCS, the first \"all digital\" fire control system, replaced the Mk 113.The Mk 117 transferred the duties of the analog Mk 75 attack director to the UYK-7, and the digital Mk 81 weapon control consoles, removing the two analog conversions, and allowing \"all digital\" control of the digital Mk 48 control.", "The first 688 sub to be built with the Mk 117 was .The Mark 1 Combat Control System/All Digital Attack Center replaced the Mk 117 FCS, on which it was based.", "The Mk 1 CCS was built by Lockheed Martin, and gave the class the ability to fire Tomahawk missiles.", "The CSS internal tracker model provides processing for both towed-array and spherical-array trackers.", "Trackers are signal followers that generate bearing, arrival angle, and frequency reports based on information received by an acoustic sensor.", "It incorporated the Gyro Static Navigator into the system in replacement of the DMINS of the earlier 688 class.The Mk 1 CCS was replaced by the Mk 2, which was built by Raytheon.", "Mk 2 provides Tomahawk Block III vertical launch capability as well as fleet-requested improvements to Mk 48 ADCAP torpedo and Towed Array Target Motion Analysis operability.", "The Mk 2 CCS paired with the AN/BQQ-5E system is referred to as the QE-2\" system.", "The CCS MK2 Block 1 A/B system architecture extends the CCS MK2 tactical system with a network of tactical advanced computers (TAC-3).", "These TAC-3s are configured to support the SFMPL, NTCS-A, LINK-11 and ATWCS subsystems.===Sensors=======Sonar=========AN/BQQ-5=====AN/BQQ-5 sensor suite consists of the AN/BQS-13 spherical sonar array and AN/UYK-44 computer.", "The AN/BQQ-5 was developed from the AN/BQQ-2 sonar system.", "The BQS 11, 12, and 13 spherical arrays have 1,241 transducers.", "Also equipped are a conformal hull array with 104 to 156 hydrophones and two towed arrays: the TB-12 (later replaced by the TB-16) and TB-23 or TB-29, of which there are multiple variants.", "There are five versions of the AN/BQQ-5 system, sequentially identified by letters A–E.The 688i (Improved) subclass was initially equipped with the AN/BSY-1 SUBACS submarine advanced combat system that used an AN/BQQ-5E sensor system with updated computers and interface equipment.", "Development of the AN/BSY-1 and its sister the AN/BSY-2 for the was widely reported as one of the most problematic programs for the Navy, its cost and schedule suffering many setbacks.A series of conformal passive hydrophones are hard-mounted to each side of the hull, using the AN/BQR-24 internal processor.", "The system uses FLIT (frequency line integration tracking) which homes in on precise narrowband frequencies of sound and, using the Doppler principle, can accurately provide firing solutions against very quiet submarines.", "The AN/BQQ-5's hull array doubled the performance of its predecessors.=====AN/BQQ-10=====The AN/BQQ-5 system was replaced by the AN/BQQ-10 system.", "Acoustic Rapid Commercial Off-The-Shelf Insertion (A-RCI), designated AN/BQQ-10, is a four-phase program for transforming existing submarine sonar systems (AN/BSY-1, AN/BQQ-5, and AN/BQQ-6) from legacy systems to a more capable and flexible COTS/Open System Architecture (OSA) and also provide the submarine force with a common sonar system.", "A single A-RCI Multi-Purpose Processor (MPP) has as much computing power as the entire ''Los Angeles'' (SSN-688/688I) submarine fleet combined and will allow the development and use of complex algorithms previously beyond the reach of legacy processors.", "The use of COTS/OSA technologies and systems will enable rapid periodic updates to both software and hardware.", "COTS-based processors will allow computer power growth at a rate commensurate with the commercial industry.===Engineering and auxiliary systems===The aft end of the control room for in June 2009Two watertight compartments are used in the ''Los Angeles''-class submarines.", "The forward compartment contains crew living spaces, weapons-handling spaces, and control spaces not critical to recovering propulsion.", "The aft compartment contains the bulk of the submarine's engineering systems, power generation turbines, and water-making equipment.", "Some submarines in the class are capable of delivering Navy SEALs through either a SEAL Delivery Vehicle deployed from the Dry Deck Shelter or the Advanced SEAL Delivery System mounted on the dorsal side, although the latter was cancelled in 2006 and removed from service in 2009.A variety of atmospheric control devices are used to allow the vessel to remain submerged for long periods of time without ventilating, including an electrolytic oxygen generator, which produces oxygen for the crew and hydrogen as a byproduct.", "The hydrogen is pumped overboard but there is always a risk of fire or explosion from this process.ASDSWhile on the surface or at snorkel depth, the submarine may use the submarine's auxiliary or emergency diesel generator for power or ventilation (e.g., following a fire).", "The diesel engine in a 688 class can be quickly started by compressed air during emergencies or to evacuate noxious (nonvolatile) gases from the boat, although 'ventilation' requires raising a snorkel mast.", "During nonemergency situations, design constraints call for operators to allow the engine to reach normal operating temperatures before it is capable of producing full power, a process that may take from 20 to 30 minutes.", "However, the diesel generator can be immediately loaded to 100% power output, despite design criteria cautions, at the discretion of the submarine commander on the recommendation of the submarine's engineer, if necessity dictates such actions to: (a) restore electrical power to the submarine, (b) prevent a reactor incident from occurring or escalating, or (c) to protect the lives of the crew or others as determined necessary by the commanding officer.", "submerged at periscope depth off the coast of Honolulu, Hawaii in July 2004===Propulsion===The ''Los Angeles'' class is powered by the General Electric S6G pressurized water reactor.", "The hot reactor coolant water heats water in the steam generators, producing steam to power the propulsion turbines and ship service turbine generators (SSTGs), which generate the submarine's electrical power.", "The high-speed propulsion turbines drive the shaft and propeller through a reduction gear.", "In the case of a reactor plant casualty, the submarine has a diesel generator and a bank of batteries to provide electrical power.", "An emergency propulsion motor on the shaft line or a retractable 325-hp secondary propulsion motor power the submarine off the battery or diesel generator.The S6G reactor plant was originally designed to use the D1G-2 core, similar to the D2G reactor used on the guided missile cruiser .", "The D1G-2 core had a rated thermal power of 150 MW and the turbines were rated at 30,000 shp.", "All ''Los Angeles''-class submarines from on were built with a D2W core and older submarines with D1G-2 cores have been refueled with D2W cores.", "The D2W core is rated at 165 MW and turbine power rose to approximately 33,500 shp." ], [ "Boats in class", "Summary of Status CountActive, in commission24Active (Reserve), Awaiting Decommissioning1Converted to moored training ship2Inactive or decommissioned & stricken24Disposed of by submarine recycling11'''Total''''''62'''The class has a total of 62 boats divided into three flights as follows:31 × Flight I8 × Flight II with VLS23 × Flight III 688i (Improved)=== Submarines === Name Hull number Flight Builder Ordered Laid down Launched Commissioned Decommissioned Service life Status Homeport/NVR page''Los Angeles'' SSN-688'''I'''Newport News Shipbuilding, Newport News8 January 19718 January 19726 April 197413 November 19764 February 2011Disposed of by submarine recyclingN/A''Baton Rouge''SSN-68918 November 197226 April 197525 June 197713 January 1995Disposed of by submarine recyclingN/A''Philadelphia'' SSN-690General Dynamics Electric Boat, Groton12 August 197219 October 197425 June 197725 June 2010, 0 months and 0 daysStricken, final disposition pendingN/A''Memphis''SSN-691Newport News Shipbuilding, Newport News4 February 197123 June 19733 April 197617 December 19771 April 2011Stricken, final disposition pendingN/A''Omaha''SSN-692General Dynamics Electric Boat, Groton31 January 197127 January 197321 February 197611 March 19785 October 1995Disposed of by submarine recyclingN/A''Cincinnati''SSN-693Newport News Shipbuilding, Newport News4 February 19716 April 197419 February 197711 March 197829 July 1996Disposed of by submarine recyclingN/A''Groton''SSN-694General Dynamics Electric Boat, Groton31 January 19713 August 19739 October 19768 July 19787 November 1997Disposed of by submarine recyclingN/A''Birmingham''SSN-695Newport News Shipbuilding, Newport News24 January 197226 April 197529 October 197716 December 197822 December 1997(0 months)Disposed of by submarine recyclingN/A''New York City''SSN-696General Dynamics Electric Boat, Groton15 December 197318 June 19773 March 197930 April 1997Stricken, to be disposed of by submarine recyclingN/A''Indianapolis''SSN-69719 October 197430 July 19775 January 198022 December 1998Stricken, final disposition pendingN/A''Bremerton''SSN-6988 May 197622 July 197828 March 198121 May 2021Stricken, final disposition pendingN/A''Jacksonville''SSN-69921 February 197618 November 197816 May 198116 November 2021Stricken, final disposition pendingN/A''Dallas''SSN-70031 January 19739 October 197628 April 197918 July 19814 April 2018Stricken, final disposition pendingN/A''La Jolla''SSN-701/MTS-70110 December 197316 October 197611 August 197924 October 198115 November 2019Converted to a moored training ship for the Nuclear Power School as of 2020Charleston, SC''Phoenix''SSN-70231 October 197330 July 19778 December 197919 December 198129 July 1998Stricken, final disposition pendingN/A''Boston''SSN-70310 December 197311 August 197819 April 198030 January 198219 November 1999Disposed of by submarine recyclingN/A''Baltimore''SSN-70431 October 197321 May 197913 December 198024 July 198210 July 1998Stricken, final disposition pendingN/A''City of Corpus Christi''SSN-7054 September 197925 April 19818 January 19833 August 2017Stricken, final disposition pendingN/A''Albuquerque''SSN-70627 December 197913 March 198221 May 198327 February 2017Stricken, final disposition pendingN/A''Portsmouth''SSN-70710 December 19738 May 198018 September 19821 October 198310 September 2004Stricken, final disposition pendingN/A''Minneapolis-Saint Paul''SSN-70831 October 197320 January 198119 March 198310 March 198428 August 2008Disposed of by submarine recyclingN/A''Hyman G. Rickover''(ex-''Providence'')SSN-70910 December 197324 July 198127 August 198321 July 198414 December 2006Stricken, final disposition pendingN/A''Augusta''SSN-7101 April 198321 January 198419 January 198511 February 2009(0 months) Disposed of by submarine recyclingN/A''San Francisco''SSN-711/MTS-711Newport News Shipbuilding, Newport News1 August 197526 May 197727 October 197924 April 19815 May 2022Converted to a moored training ship for the Nuclear Power School as of 2021Charleston, SC''Atlanta'' SSN-71217 August 197816 August 19806 March 198216 December 1999Stricken, final disposition pendingN/A''Houston''SSN-71329 January 197921 March 198125 September 198226 August 2016Stricken, final disposition pendingN/A''Norfolk'' SSN-71420 February 19761 August 197931 October 198121 May 198311 December 2014Stricken, final disposition pendingN/A''Buffalo''SSN-71523 February 197625 January 19808 May 19825 November 198330 January 2019Stricken, final disposition pendingN/A''Salt Lake City'' SSN-71615 September 197726 August 198016 October 198212 May 198415 January 2006Disposed of by submarine recyclingN/A''Olympia'' SSN-71731 March 198130 April 198317 November 19845 February 2021Stricken, final disposition pendingN/A''Honolulu'' SSN-71810 November 198124 September 19836 July 19852 November 2007Disposed of by submarine recyclingN/A''Providence'' SSN-719'''II with VLS'''General Dynamics Electric Boat, Groton16 April 197914 October 19824 August 198427 July 198522 August 2022Stricken, final disposition pendingN/A''Pittsburgh'' SSN-72015 April 19838 December 198423 November 198515 April 2020Stricken, final disposition pendingN/A''Chicago''SSN-721Newport News Shipbuilding, Newport News13 August 19815 January 198313 October 198427 September 198621 July 2023Stricken, final disposition pendingN/A''Key West''SSN-7226 July 198320 July 198512 September 1987Proposed 2023In Commission, in Reserve (Stand Down), commencement of inactivation availabilityBremerton, WA''Oklahoma City'' SSN-7234 January 19842 November 19859 July 19889 September 2022Stricken, final disposition pendingN/A''Louisville''SSN-724General Dynamics Electric Boat, Groton11 February 198224 September 198414 December 19858 November 19869 March 2021Stricken, final disposition pendingN/A''Helena''SSN-72519 April 198228 March 198528 June 198611 July 1987Proposed 2025Active, in commissionNorfolk, VA''Newport News''SSN-750Newport News Shipbuilding, Newport News3 March 198415 March 19863 June 1989Proposed 2026Groton, CT''San Juan'' SSN-751'''III 688i (Improved)'''General Dynamics Electric Boat, Groton30 November 19829 August 19856 December 19866 August 1988Proposed 2024Active, in commissionGroton, CT''Pasadena'' SSN-75220 December 198512 September 198711 February 1989Proposed 2025Active, in commissionNorfolk, VA''Albany''SSN-753Newport News Shipbuilding, Newport News29 November 198322 April 198513 June 19877 April 1990Active, in commissionNorfolk, VA''Topeka'' SSN-754General Dynamics Electric Boat, Groton28 November 198313 May 198623 January 198821 October 1989Proposed 2024Active, in commissionPearl Harbor, HI''Miami'' SSN-75524 October 198612 November 198830 June 199028 March 2014Stricken, final disposition pendingN/A''Scranton''SSN-756Newport News Shipbuilding, Newport News26 November 198429 August 19863 July 198926 January 1991Proposed 2026Active, in commissionSan Diego, CA''Alexandria'' SSN-757General Dynamics Electric Boat, Groton19 June 198723 June 199029 June 1991Proposed 2026Active, in commissionSan Diego, CA''Asheville''SSN-758Newport News Shipbuilding, Newport News9 January 198724 February 199028 September 1991Active, in commissionApra Harbor, GU''Jefferson City''SSN-759 21 September 198717 August 199029 February 1992Active, in commissionApra Harbor, GU''Annapolis''SSN-760General Dynamics Electric Boat, Groton21 March 198615 June 198818 May 199111 April 1992Proposed 2027Active, in commissionApra Harbor, GU''Springfield''SSN-76129 January 19904 January 19929 January 1993Active, in commissionApra Harbor, GU''Columbus''SSN-7629 January 19911 August 199224 July 1993Active, in commissionPearl Harbor, HI''Santa Fe''SSN-7639 July 199112 December 19928 January 1994Active, in commissionSan Diego, CA''Boise''SSN-764Newport News Shipbuilding, Newport News6 February 198725 August 198823 March 19917 November 1992Active, in commissionNorfolk, VA''Montpelier''SSN-76519 May 198923 August 199113 March 1993Active, in commissionNorfolk, VA''Charlotte''SSN-76617 August 19903 October 199216 September 1994Active, in commissionPearl Harbor, HI''Hampton''SSN-7672 March 19903 April 19926 November 1993Active, in commissionSan Diego, CA''Hartford''SSN-768General Dynamics Electric Boat, Groton30 June 198822 February 19924 December 199310 December 1994Active, in commissionGroton, CT''Toledo''SSN-769Newport News Shipbuilding, Newport News10 June 19886 May 199128 August 199324 February 1995Active, in commissionGroton, CT''Tucson''SSN-77015 August 199120 March 199418 August 1995Active, in commissionPearl Harbor, HI''Columbia''SSN-771General Dynamics Electric Boat, Groton14 December 198821 April 199324 September 19949 October 1995Active, in commissionPearl Harbor, HI''Greeneville''SSN-772Newport News Shipbuilding, Newport News28 February 199217 September 199416 February 1996Active, in commissionPearl Harbor, HI''Cheyenne''SSN-77328 November 19896 July 199216 April 199513 September 1996Active, in commissionPearl Harbor, HIAmong the retired boats, a few were in commission for nearly 40 years or more, including ''Bremerton'' (40), ''Jacksonville'' (40), ''La Jolla'' (38) and ''San Francisco'' (41).", "With a wide variance in longevity, twelve boats were laid up halfway through their projected lifespans, with ''Baltimore'' being the youngest to be retired at only 15 years, 11 months.", "Another five boats were also laid up early (within 20–25 years), due to their midlife reactor refueling being cancelled, and one was lost during overhaul due to arson.", "All retired boats have been or will be scrapped per the Navy's Ship-Submarine Recycling Program.", "In addition, two boats, ''La Jolla'' and ''San Francisco'', have been converted to moored training ships." ], [ "In popular culture", " ''Los Angeles''-class submarines have been featured prominently in numerous Tom Clancy literary works and film adaptations, most notably in ''The Hunt for Red October''.", "Other appearances include in the novel ''Red Storm Rising'' and in ''SSN''.", "In addition to fictional works, Clancy's 1993 non-fiction book ''Submarine: A Guided Tour Inside a Nuclear Warship'' features an in-depth exploration of .", "* was used in the 2008 made-for-television film ''Stargate: Continuum''.", "* ''688 Attack Sub'', a 1989 MS-DOS submarine simulator, allowed the player to control a ''Los Angeles''-class submarine during a set of Cold War missions.", "The game was also released for the Sega Genesis console.", "* ''Jane's 688(i) Hunter/Killer'', ''Sub Command'', ''Dangerous Waters'', developed by Sonalysts Inc., and ''Cold Waters'' by Killerfish Games, are video games where players control the 688i ''Los Angeles''-class submarine." ], [ "See also", "* List of active ''Los Angeles''-class submarines by homeport* List of submarine classes of the United States Navy* List of submarines of the United States Navy* List of submarine classes in service* Submarines in the United States Navy* Cruise missile submarine* Attack submarine" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " Role of the Modern Submarine'' at Submarine History''." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lucretia" ], [ "Introduction", "Titian's ''Tarquin and Lucretia'' (1571), a depiction of Lucretia's rape by Sextus TarquiniusWillem de Poorter's ''Lucrèce à l'ouvrage'' (1633), a less common depiction of Lucretia weaving with her ladies''Dead Lucrecia'' (1804), by Catalan sculptor Damià Campeny.", "Barcelona: Llotja de Mar.According to Roman tradition, '''Lucretia''' (/luːˈkriːʃə/ ''loo-KREE-shə'', Classical Latin: Help:IPA/Latin\|ɫʊˈkreːtia; died ), anglicized as '''Lucrece''', was a noblewoman in ancient Rome.", "Sextus Tarquinius (Tarquin) raped her and her subsequent suicide precipitated a rebellion that overthrew the Roman monarchy and led to the transition of Roman government from a kingdom to a republic.", "After Tarquin raped Lucretia, flames of dissatisfaction were kindled over the tyrannical methods of Tarquin's father, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, the last king of Rome.", "As a result, the prominent families instituted a republic, drove the extensive royal family of Tarquin from Rome, and successfully defended the republic against attempted Etruscan and Latin intervention.There are no contemporary sources of Lucretia and Tarquin’s rape of her.", "Information regarding Lucretia, how and when Tarquin raped her, her suicide, and the consequence of this being the start of the Roman Republic, come from the accounts of Roman historian Livy and Greco-Roman historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus approximately 500 years later.", "Secondary sources on the establishment of the republic reiterate the basic events of Lucretia's story, though accounts vary slightly between historians.", "The evidence points to the historical existence of a woman named Lucretia and an event that played a critical part in the downfall of the monarchy.", "However, specific details are debatable and vary depending on the writer.", "According to modern sources, Lucretia's narrative is considered a part of Roman mythohistory.", "Much like the rape of the Sabine women, Lucretia's story provides an explanation for historical change in Rome through a recounting of sexual assault against women by men." ], [ "Early life and marriage", "Lucretia was the daughter of magistrate Spurius Lucretius and the wife of Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus.", "The marriage between Lucretia and Collatinus was depicted as the ideal Roman union, as both Lucretia and Collatinus were faithfully devoted to one another.", "According to Livy, Lucretia was an exemplar of \"beauty and purity,\" as well as Roman standards.", "While her husband was away at battle, Lucretia would stay at home and pray for his safe return.", "As with Livy, Dionysius' depiction of Lucretia separates her from the rest of Roman women in a story about the men returning home from a battle.", "The narrative begins with a bet between the sons of Tarquinius and their kinsmen, Brutus and Collatinus.", "The men fight over which of their wives best exemplified sophrosyne, an ideal of superb moral and intellectual character.", "The men return home to find the women socializing with each other, presumably in conversation.", "By contrast, they find Lucretia home alone, working with her wool in silence.", "Because of her devotion to her husband, Roman writers Livy and Dionysius outline Lucretia as the role model for Roman girls.''''''" ], [ "Rape", "''Lucrecia'', 1525, Monogrammist I.W.", "active in the Cranach studio –1540.Lucretia wielding a dagger before her suicide.As the events of the story move rapidly, the date that Tarquin raped Lucretia is most likely the same year as the first of the ''fasti''.", "Dionysius of Halicarnassus sets this year \"at the beginning of the sixty-eighth Olympiad ... Isagoras being the annual archon at Athens\"; that is, 508/507 BC.", "According to Dionysius, Lucretia therefore died in 508 BC.", "This approximate date is met with consensus by other historians; however, the exact year is debatable within a range of about five years.While engaged in the siege of Ardea, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, the last king of Rome, sent his son, Tarquin, on a military errand to Collatia.", "Tarquin was received with great hospitality at the governor's mansion, home of Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus, son of the king's cousin, Arruns Tarquinius, former governor of Collatia and first of the Tarquinii Collatini.", "Spurius Lucretius, father of Collatinus' wife Lucretia and prefect of Rome, made sure that the king's son was treated as a guest and a figure of his rank.In a variant of the story, Tarquin and Collatinus, at a wine party on furlough, were debating the virtues of wives when Collatinus volunteered to settle the debate.", "In order to do so, he proposed riding to his home to observe Lucretia.", "Upon their arrival, she was weaving with her maids.", "The party awarded her the palm of victory and Collatinus invited them to stay, but for the time being they returned to camp.Later in the night, Tarquin entered Lucretia's bedroom, quietly avoiding the slaves who were sleeping at her door.", "When she awoke, he identified himself and offered her two choices: he would rape her and she would become his wife and future queen, or he would kill her and one of her slaves and place the bodies together, then claim he had caught her having adulterous sex (see sexuality in ancient Rome for Roman attitudes toward sex).", "In the alternative story, he returned from camp a few days later with one companion to take Collatinus up on his invitation to visit and was lodged in a guest bedroom.", "He entered Lucretia's room while she lay naked in her bed and started to wash her belly with water, which woke her up.", "Tarquin tried to convince Lucretia that she should be with him, using \"every argument likely to influence a female heart.\"", "However, Lucretia stood firm in her devotion to her husband, even when Tarquin threatened her life and honor, while ultimately raping her." ], [ "Suicide", "''Death of Lucretia'' (1478–1480), by Filippino Lippi===''The account of Dionysius of Halicarnassus''===In Dionysius of Halicarnassus' account, the following day Lucretia dressed in black and went to her father's house in Rome and cast herself down in the supplicant's position (embracing the knees), weeping in front of her father and husband.", "She asked to explain herself and insisted on summoning witnesses before she told them about her rape.", "After disclosing that Tarquin had raped her, she asked them for vengeance, a plea that could not be ignored because she was speaking to the chief magistrate of Rome.", "While the men debated the proper course of action, Lucretia drew a concealed dagger and stabbed herself in the heart.", "She died in her father's arms, while the women present lamented her death.", "According to Dionysius, \"This dreadful scene struck the Romans who were present with so much horror and compassion that they all cried out with one voice that they would rather die a thousand deaths in defense of their liberty than suffer such outrages to be committed by the tyrants.", "\"===''The account of Livy''===In Livy's version, Lucretia acts quickly and calmly, deciding not to go to Rome, but instead sends for her father and her husband, asking them to bring one friend each to act as a witness.", "Those selected were Publius Valerius Publicola from Rome and Lucius Junius Brutus from the camp at Ardea.", "Once the men found Lucretia in her room, her explanation of Tarquin’s rape of her leads the men to state that \"it is the mind that sins, not the body, and where there has been no consent there is no guilt.\"", "After exacting an oath of vengeance while the men were discussing the matter—\"Pledge me your solemn word that the adulterer shall not go unpunished\"— Lucretia drew a poignard and stabbed herself in her heart.===''The account of Dio''===In Dio's version, Lucretia's request for revenge is: \"And, whereas I (for I am a woman) shall act in a manner which is fitting for me: you, if you are men, and if you care for your wives and children, exact vengeance on my behalf and free your selves and show the tyrants what sort of woman they outraged, and what sort of men were her menfolk!\"", "She follows her statement by plunging the dagger into her chest and promptly dying.In this version, Collatinus and Brutus were encountered returning to Rome unaware of Tarquin's rape of Lucretia, were briefed, and were brought to the death scene.", "Brutus happened to be a politically motivated participant.", "By kinship he was a Tarquin on his mother's side, the son of Tarquinia, daughter of Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, the third king before last.", "He was a candidate for the throne if anything should happen to Superbus.", "By law, however, because he was a Junius on his father's side, he was thus not a Tarquin and therefore could later propose the exile of the Tarquins without fear for himself.", "Superbus had taken his inheritance and left him a pittance, keeping him at court for entertainment.Brutus holding the dead Lucretia and swearing the oathCollatinus, seeing his wife dead, became distraught.", "He held her, kissed her, called her name and spoke to her.", "Dio stated that after seeing the hand of Destiny in these events, Brutus called the grieving party to order, explained that his simplicity had been a sham, and proposed that they drive the Tarquins from Rome.", "Grasping the bloody dagger, he swore by Mars and all the other gods that he would do everything in his power to overthrow the dominion of the Tarquinii.", "He stated that he would neither be reconciled to the tyrants himself, nor tolerate any who should be reconciled to them, but would look upon every man who thought otherwise as an enemy, and til his death would pursue with unrelenting hatred both the tyranny and its abettors; and if he should violate his oath, he prayed that he and his children might meet with the same end as Lucretia.He passed the dagger around and each mourner swore the same oath by it.", "The primary sources of both Dio and Livy agree on this point: Livy's version is:By this blood—most pure before the outrage wrought by the king's son—I swear, and you, O gods, I call to witness that I will drive hence Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, together with his cursed wife and his whole blood, with fire and sword and every means in my power, and I will not suffer them or anyone else to reign in Rome." ], [ "Revolution", "''Lucretia'' by Lucas Cranach the Elder The rape, by Artemisia GentileschiThe newly sworn revolutionary committee paraded the bloody corpse of Lucretia to the Roman Forum where it remained on display as a reminder of the dishonor committed.", "At the forum, the committee heard grievances against the Tarquins and began to enlist an army to abolish the monarchy.", "Brutus \"urged them to act as men and Romans and take up arms against their insolent foes\" in response to the death of a dutiful wife.", "The gates of Rome were blockaded by the new revolutionary soldiers and more were sent to guard Collatia.", "By now a crowd had gathered in the forum; the presence of the magistrates among the revolutionaries kept them in good order.Brutus was the Tribune of the Celeres, a minor office of some religious duties, which as a magistracy gave him the theoretical power to summon the curiae, an organization of patrician families used mainly to ratify the decrees of the king.", "Summoning them on the spot, he transformed the crowd into an authoritative legislative assembly and began to address them in one of the more noted and effective speeches of ancient Rome.He began by revealing that his pose as a fool was a sham designed to protect him against an evil king.", "He levelled a number of charges against the king and his family: Tarquin’s rape of Lucretia, whom everyone could see on the dais, the king's tyranny, the forced labor of the plebeians in the ditches and sewers of Rome.", "In his speech, he pointed out that Superbus had come to rule by the murder of Servius Tullius, his wife's father, next-to-the-last king of Rome.", "He \"solemnly invoked the gods as the avengers of murdered parents.\"", "He suggested that the king's wife, Tullia, was in fact in Rome and probably was a witness to the proceedings from her palace near the forum.", "Seeing herself the target of so much animosity, she fled from the palace in fear of her life and proceeded to the camp at Ardea.Brutus opened a debate on the form of government Rome ought to have, a debate at which many patricians spoke.", "In summation, he proposed the banishment of the Tarquins from all the territories of Rome and the appointment of an interrex to nominate new magistrates and conduct an election of ratification.", "They decided on a republican form of government with two consuls in place of a king executing the will of a patrician senate.", "This was a temporary measure until they could consider the details more carefully.", "Brutus renounced all right to the throne.", "In subsequent years, the powers of the king were divided among various elected magistracies.A final vote of the curiae carried the interim constitution.", "Spurius Lucretius was swiftly elected interrex; he was prefect of the city already.", "He proposed Brutus and Collatinus as the first two consuls and that choice was ratified by the curiae.", "Needing to acquire the assent of the population as a whole, they paraded Lucretia through the streets, summoning the plebeians to a legal assembly in the forum.", "Once there, they heard a constitutional speech by Brutus.", "It began:A general election was held and the vote won in favor of the republic.", "This ended the monarchy, and during these proceedings Lucretia was still displayed in the forum.The constitutional consequences of this event ended the reign of the hereditary king; however, later emperors were absolute rulers in all but name.", "This constitutional tradition prevented both Julius Caesar and Octavian Augustus from accepting a crown; instead, they had to devise a confluence of several republican offices onto their persons in order to secure absolute power.", "Their successors both in Rome and in Constantinople adhered to this tradition in essence, and the office of German Holy Roman Emperor remained elective rather than hereditary—up to its abolition in the Napoleonic Wars, over 2300 years later.The Story of Lucretia'' (), by Sandro Botticelli.", "Here citizens with swords are swearing the overthrow of the monarchy." ], [ "In literature and music", "Marcantonio Raimondi's 1534 engraving of her suicideLucretia became an important embodiment of political and literary ideals for different authors throughout the ages, specifically because \"stories of sexual violence against women serve as foundational myths of Western culture.", "\"Lucretia, by Rembrandt (1664).", "This painting follows the likes of other iconic depictions: Lucretia clutching the dagger moments before she takes her own life.", "Livy's account in ''Ab Urbe Condita Libri'' (c. 25–8 BC) is the earliest surviving full historical treatment.", "In his account, her husband has boasted of the virtue of his wife to Tarquin and others.", "Livy contrasts the virtue of the Roman Lucretia, who remained in her room weaving, with the Etruscan ladies who feasted with friends.", "Ovid recounts the story of Lucretia in Book II of his ''Fasti'', published in 8 AD, concentrating on the bold over-reaching character of Tarquin.", "Later, St. Augustine made use of the figure of Lucretia in ''The City of God'' (published 426 AD) to defend the honour of Christian women who had been raped in the sack of Rome and had not committed suicide.The story of Lucretia was a popular moral tale in the later Middle Ages.", "Lucretia appears to Dante in the section of Limbo, reserved for the nobles of Rome and other \"virtuous pagans\", in Canto IV of the ''Inferno''.", "Christine de Pizan used Lucretia, just as St. Augustine of Hippo did, in her ''City of Ladies'', defending a woman's sanctity.The myth is recounted in Geoffrey Chaucer's ''The Legend of Good Women'', and it follows a similar storyline to Livy's.", "Lucretia calls for her father and husband, but Chaucer's tale also has her call for her mother and attendants as well, whereas Livy's has both her father and husband bring a friend as witness.", "The tale also deviates from Livy's account, as it begins with her husband coming home to surprise her, rather than the men placing a bet on the virtue of their wives.John Gower's ''Confessio Amantis'' (Book VII), and John Lydgate's ''Fall of Princes'' recount the myth of Lucretia.", "Gower's work is a collection of narrative poems.", "In Book VII, he tells the \"Tale of the Rape of Lucrece.\"", "Lydgate's work is a long poem containing stories and myths about various kings and princes who fell from power.", "It follows their lives from their rise into power and their fall into adversity.", "Lydgate's poem mentions the fall of Tarquin, the rape and suicide of Lucretia, and her speech prior to death.Lucretia's rape and suicide is also the subject of William Shakespeare's 1594 long poem ''The Rape of Lucrece'', which draws extensively on Ovid's treatment of the story; he also mentions her in ''Titus Andronicus'', in ''As You Like It'', and in ''Twelfth Night,'' wherein Malvolio authenticates his fateful letter by spotting Olivia's Lucrece seal.", "Shakespeare also alludes to her in ''Macbeth'', and in ''Cymbeline'' he further refers to the story, though without mentioning Lucretia by name.", "Shakespeare's poem, based on the rape of Lucretia, draws on the beginning of the Livy's account of the incident.", "The poem begins with a bet between husbands about the virtuousness of their wives.", "Shakespeare draws on the idea of Lucretia as a moral agent, as Livy did, when he explores his characters' response to death and her unwillingness to yield to her rapist.", "A direct excerpt from Livy is used when Shakespeare prefaces his poem with a brief prose called \"Argument\".", "This is the internal deliberation Lucrece suffered from, following the rape.Niccolò Machiavelli's comedy ''La Mandragola'' is loosely based on the Lucretia story.She is also mentioned in the poem \"Appius and Virginia\" by John Webster and Thomas Heywood, which includes the following lines:Thomas Heywood's play ''The Rape of Lucretia'' dates from 1607.The subject also enjoyed a revival in the mid twentieth century; André Obey's 1931 play '''' was adapted by librettist Ronald Duncan for ''The Rape of Lucretia'', a 1946 opera by Benjamin Britten which premiered at Glyndebourne.", "Ernst Krenek set Emmet Lavery's libretto ''Tarquin'' (1940), a version in a contemporary setting.Jacques Gallot (died ) composed the allemandes \"Lucrèce\" and \"Tarquin\" for baroque lute.In Samuel Richardson's 1740 novel ''Pamela'', Mr. B. cites the story of Lucretia as a reason why Pamela ought not fear for her reputation, should he rape her.", "Pamela quickly sets him straight with a better reading of the story.", "Colonial Mexican poet Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz also mentions Lucretia in her poem \"Redondillas,\" a commentary on prostitution and who is to blame.In 1769, doctor Juan Ramis wrote a tragedy in Menorca entitled ''Lucrecia''.", "The play is written in the Catalan language using a neoclassical style and is a significant work of the eighteenth century written in this language.In 1932, the play ''Lucrece'' was produced on Broadway, starring legendary actress Katharine Cornell in the title part.", "It was mostly performed in pantomime.In 1989, a song entitled ''The Rape of Lucretia'' was released by the Scottish musician Momus.In Donna Leon's 2009 Venetian novel, ''About Face'', Franca Marinello refers to the tale of Tarquin and Lucrezia, as recounted in Ovid's ''Fasti'' (Book II, for February 24, \"Regifugium\") to explain her actions to Commissario Brunetti.On American Thrash Metal band Megadeth’s Megadeth 1990 album Rust in Peace Rust In Peace, the name “Lucretia” is used for the sixth track.", "The song itself is not about Lucretia, instead it is about Lucretia acting as a muse for Dave Mustaine becoming sober.", "It also features Mustaine referencing himself saying “My friends all say, Dave you’re mental anyway!”" ], [ "Subject in art", "Since the Renaissance, the suicide of Lucretia has been an enduring subject for visual artists, including Titian, Rembrandt, Dürer, Raphael, Botticelli, Jörg Breu the Elder, Johannes Moreelse, Artemisia Gentileschi, Damià Campeny, Eduardo Rosales, Lucas Cranach the Elder, and others.", "Most commonly, either the moment of the rape is shown, or Lucretia is shown alone at the moment of her suicide.", "In either situation, her clothing is loosened or absent, while Tarquin is normally clothed.The subject was one of a group showing women from legend or the Bible who were either powerless, such as Susanna and Verginia, or only able to escape their situations by suicide, such as Dido of Carthage and Lucretia.", "These formed a counterpoint to, or sub-group of, the set of subjects known as the Power of Women, showing female violence against, or domination of, men.", "These were often depicted by the same artists, and especially popular in Northern Renaissance art.", "The story of Esther lay somewhere between these two extremes.The subject of Lucretia spinning with her ladies, is sometimes depicted, as in a series of four engravings of her story by Hendrick Goltzius, which also includes a banquet.", ";Examples with article''Tarquin and Lucretia''— life-size image of the rape by Titian''The Story of Lucretia'' (Botticelli)—three scenes, of the rape, Brutus arousing the people, and the suicide''The Suicide of Lucretia'' (Dürer)—single figure painting''Lucretia and her Husband''—distinctive depiction of Lucretia with a knife, and a shadowy male figure just behind.", "He is either Tarquin or her husband.", "By either Titian or Palma Vecchio.", "''Lucretia'' (Veronese)" ], [ "See also", "Lucretia gensVerginiaThe Rape of the Sabine WomenMatter of Rome" ], [ "References", ";SourcesDionysius of Halicarnassus (2007) 1939.", "\"Book IV, sections 64–85\".", "In Thayer, William (ed.).", "''Roman Antiquities''.", "Loeb Classical Library.", "Translated by Cary, Earnest.", "Cambridge MA, Chicago: Harvard University, University of Chicago.", "Donaldson, Ian (1982).", "''The Rapes of Lucretia: A Myth and Its Transformations''.", "New York: Oxford University Press.", "Livy (1912).", "\"Book I, sections 57-60\" in ''History of Rome''.", "English Translation by Rev.", "Canon Roberts.", "New York: E.P.", "Dutton and Co.Russell, H. D., & Barnes, B.", "(1990).", "''Eva/Ave: Women in Renaissance and Baroque Prints''.", "National Gallery of Art." ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lightweight Directory Access Protocol" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Lightweight Directory Access Protocol''' ('''LDAP''' ) is an open, vendor-neutral, industry standard application protocol for accessing and maintaining distributed directory information services over an Internet Protocol (IP) network.", "Directory services play an important role in developing intranet and Internet applications by allowing the sharing of information about users, systems, networks, services, and applications throughout the network.", "As examples, directory services may provide any organized set of records, often with a hierarchical structure, such as a corporate email directory.", "Similarly, a telephone directory is a list of subscribers with an address and a phone number.LDAP is specified in a series of Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) Standard Track publications called Request for Comments (RFCs), using the description language ASN.1.The latest specification is Version 3, published as RFC 4511 (a road map to the technical specifications is provided by RFC4510).A common use of LDAP is to provide a central place to store usernames and passwords.", "This allows many different applications and services to connect to the LDAP server to validate users.LDAP is based on a simpler subset of the standards contained within the X.500 standard.", "Because of this relationship, LDAP is sometimes called X.500-lite." ], [ "History", "Telecommunication companies' understanding of directory requirements were well developed after some 70 years of producing and managing telephone directories.", "These companies introduced the concept of directory services to information technology and computer networking, their input culminating in the comprehensive X.500 specification, a suite of protocols produced by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) in the 1980s.X.500 directory services were traditionally accessed via the X.500 Directory Access Protocol (DAP), which required the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) protocol stack.", "LDAP was originally intended to be a lightweight alternative protocol for accessing X.500 directory services through the simpler (and now widespread) TCP/IP protocol stack.", "This model of directory access was borrowed from the DIXIE and Directory Assistance Service protocols.The protocol was originally created by Tim Howes of the University of Michigan, Steve Kille of Isode Limited, Colin Robbins of Nexor and Wengyik Yeong of Performance Systems International, circa 1993, as a successor to DIXIE and DAS.", "Mark Wahl of Critical Angle Inc., Tim Howes, and Steve Kille started work in 1996 on a new version of LDAP, LDAPv3, under the aegis of the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF).", "LDAPv3, first published in 1997, superseded LDAPv2 and added support for extensibility, integrated the Simple Authentication and Security Layer, and better aligned the protocol to the 1993 edition of X.500.Further development of the LDAPv3 specifications themselves and of numerous extensions adding features to LDAPv3 has come through the IETF.In the early engineering stages of LDAP, it was known as ''Lightweight Directory Browsing Protocol'', or ''LDBP''.", "It was renamed with the expansion of the scope of the protocol beyond directory browsing and searching, to include directory update functions.", "It was given its ''Lightweight'' name because it was not as network intensive as its DAP predecessor and thus was more easily implemented over the Internet due to its relatively modest bandwidth usage.LDAP has influenced subsequent Internet protocols, including later versions of X.500, XML Enabled Directory (XED), Directory Service Markup Language (DSML), Service Provisioning Markup Language (SPML), and the Service Location Protocol (SLP).", "It is also used as the basis for Microsoft's Active Directory." ], [ "Protocol overview", "A client starts an LDAP session by connecting to an LDAP server, called a Directory System Agent (DSA), by default on TCP and UDP port 389, or on port 636 for LDAPS (LDAP over TLS/SSL, see below).", "The client then sends an operation request to the server, and a server sends responses in return.", "With some exceptions, the client does not need to wait for a response before sending the next request, and the server may send the responses in any order.", "All information is transmitted using Basic Encoding Rules (BER).The client may request the following operations:* StartTLS – use the LDAPv3 Transport Layer Security (TLS) extension for a secure connection* Bind – authenticate and specify LDAP protocol version* Search – search for and/or retrieve directory entries* Compare – test if a named entry contains a given attribute value* Add a new entry* Delete an entry* Modify an entry* Modify Distinguished Name (DN) – move or rename an entry* Abandon – abort a previous request* Extended Operation – generic operation used to define other operations* Unbind – close the connection (not the inverse of Bind)In addition the server may send \"Unsolicited Notifications\" that are not responses to any request, e.g.", "before the connection is timed out.A common alternative method of securing LDAP communication is using an SSL tunnel.", "The default port for LDAP over SSL is 636.The use of LDAP over SSL was common in LDAP Version 2 (LDAPv2) but it was never standardized in any formal specification.", "This usage has been deprecated along with LDAPv2, which was officially retired in 2003." ], [ "Directory structure", "The protocol provides an interface with directories that follow the 1993 edition of the X.500 model:* An entry consists of a set of attributes.", "* An attribute has a name (an ''attribute type'' or ''attribute description'') and one or more values.", "The attributes are defined in a ''schema'' (see below).", "* Each entry has a unique identifier: its ''Distinguished Name'' (DN).", "This consists of its ''Relative Distinguished Name'' (RDN), constructed from some attribute(s) in the entry, followed by the parent entry's DN.", "Think of the DN as the full file path and the RDN as its relative filename in its parent folder (e.g.", "if /foo/bar/myfile.txt were the DN, then myfile.txt would be the RDN).A DN may change over the lifetime of the entry, for instance, when entries are moved within a tree.", "To reliably and unambiguously identify entries, a UUID might be provided in the set of the entry's ''operational attributes''.An entry can look like this when represented in LDAP Data Interchange Format (LDIF), a plain text format (as opposed a binary protocol such as LDAP itself):dn: cn=John Doe,dc=example,dc=comcn: John DoegivenName: Johnsn: DoetelephoneNumber: +1 888 555 6789telephoneNumber: +1 888 555 1232mail: [email protected]: cn=Barbara Doe,dc=example,dc=comobjectClass: inetOrgPersonobjectClass: organizationalPersonobjectClass: personobjectClass: top\"dn\" is the distinguished name of the entry; it is neither an attribute nor a part of the entry.", "\"cn=John Doe\" is the entry's RDN (Relative Distinguished Name), and \"dc=example,dc=com\" is the DN of the parent entry, where \"dc\" denotes 'Domain Component'.", "The other lines show the attributes in the entry.", "Attribute names are typically mnemonic strings, like \"cn\" for common name, \"dc\" for domain component, \"mail\" for email address, and \"sn\" for surname.A server holds a subtree starting from a specific entry, e.g.", "\"dc=example,dc=com\" and its children.", "Servers may also hold references to other servers, so an attempt to access \"ou=department,dc=example,dc=com\" could return a ''referral'' or ''continuation reference'' to a server that holds that part of the directory tree.", "The client can then contact the other server.", "Some servers also support ''chaining'', which means the server contacts the other server and returns the results to the client.LDAP rarely defines any ordering: The server may return the values of an attribute, the attributes in an entry, and the entries found by a search operation in any order.", "This follows from the formal definitions - an entry is defined as a set of attributes, and an attribute is a set of values, and sets need not be ordered." ], [ "Operations", "===Add===The ADD operation inserts a new entry into the directory-server database.", "If the distinguished name in the add request already exists in the directory, then the server will not add a duplicate entry but will set the result code in the add result to decimal 68, \"entryAlreadyExists\".", "* LDAP-compliant servers will never dereference the distinguished name transmitted in the add request when attempting to locate the entry, that is, distinguished names are never de-aliased.", "* LDAP-compliant servers will ensure that the distinguished name and all attributes conform to naming standards.", "* The entry to be added must not exist, and the immediate superior must exist.dn: uid=user,ou=people,dc=example,dc=comchangetype: addobjectClass:topobjectClass:personuid: usersn: last-namecn: common-nameuserPassword: passwordIn the above example, uid=user,ou=people,dc=example,dc=com must not exist, and ou=people,dc=example,dc=com must exist.===Bind (authenticate)===When an LDAP session is created, that is, when an LDAP client connects to the server, the '''authentication state''' of the sessionis set to anonymous.", "The BIND operation establishes the authentication state for a session.Simple BIND and SASL PLAIN can send the user's DN and password in plaintext, so the connections utilizing either Simple or SASL PLAINshould be encrypted using Transport Layer Security (TLS).", "The server typically checks the password against the userPasswordattribute in the named entry.", "Anonymous BIND (with empty DN and password) resets the connection to anonymous state.SASL (Simple Authentication and Security Layer) BIND provides authentication services through awide range of mechanisms, e.g.", "Kerberos or the client certificate sent with TLS.BIND also sets the LDAP protocol version by sending a version number in the form of an integer.", "If the client requests a version that the server does not support, the server must set the result code in the BIND response to the code for a protocol error.", "Normally clients should use LDAPv3, which is thedefault in the protocol but not always in LDAP libraries.BIND had to be the first operation in a session in LDAPv2, but is not required as of LDAPv3.In LDAPv3, eachsuccessful BIND request changes the authentication state of the session and each unsuccessful BIND request resets the authentication stateof the session.===Delete===To delete an entry, an LDAP client transmits a properly formed delete request to the server.", "* A delete request must contain the distinguished name of the entry to be deleted* Request controls may also be attached to the delete request* Servers do not dereference aliases when processing a delete request* Only leaf entries (entries with no subordinates) may be deleted by a delete request.", "Some servers support an operational attribute hasSubordinates whose value indicates whether an entry has any subordinate entries, and some servers support an operational attribute numSubordinates indicating the number of entries subordinate to the entry containing the numSubordinates attribute.", "* Some servers support the subtree delete request control permitting deletion of the DN and all objects subordinate to the DN, subject to access controls.", "Delete requests are subject to access controls, that is, whether a connection with a given authentication state will be permitted to delete a given entry is governed by server-specific access control mechanisms.===Search and compare===The Search operation is used to both search for and read entries.", "Its parameters are:; baseObject : The name of the base object entry (or possibly the root) relative to which the search is to be performed.", "; scope : What elements below the baseObject to search.", "This can be BaseObject (search just the named entry, typically used to read one entry), singleLevel (entries immediately below the base DN), or wholeSubtree (the entire subtree starting at the base DN).", "; filter : Criteria to use in selecting elements within scope.", "For example, the filter (&(objectClass=person)(\|(givenName=John)(mail=john))) will select \"persons\" (elements of objectClass person) where the matching rules for givenName and mail determine whether the values for those attributes match the filter assertion.", "Note that a common misconception is that LDAP data is case-sensitive, whereas in fact matching rules and ordering rules determine matching, comparisons, and relative value relationships.", "If the example filters were required to match the case of the attribute value, an ''extensible match filter'' must be used, for example, (&(objectClass=person)(\|(givenName:caseExactMatch:=John)(mail:caseExactSubstringsMatch:=john))); derefAliases : Whether and how to follow alias entries (entries that refer to other entries),; attributes : Which attributes to return in result entries.", "; sizeLimit, timeLimit : Maximum number of entries to return, and maximum time to allow search to run.", "These values, however, cannot override any restrictions the server places on size limit and time limit.", "; typesOnly : Return attribute types only, not attribute values.The server returns the matching entries and potentially continuation references.", "These may be returned in any order.", "The final result will include the result code.The Compare operation takes a DN, an attribute name and an attribute value, and checks if the named entry contains that attribute with that value.===Modify===The MODIFY operation is used by LDAP clients to request that the LDAP server make changes to existing entries.", "Attempts to modify entries that do not exist will fail.", "MODIFY requests are subject to access controls as implemented by the server.The MODIFY operation requires that the distinguished name (DN) of the entry be specified, and a sequence of changes.", "Each change in the sequence must be one of:* add (add a new value, which must not already exist in the attribute)* delete (delete an existing value)* replace (replace an existing value with a new value)LDIF example of adding a value to an attribute:dn: dc=example,dc=comchangetype: modifyadd: cncn: the-new-cn-value-to-be-added-To replace the value of an existing attribute, use the replace keyword.", "If the attribute is multi-valued, the client must specify the value of the attribute to update.To delete an attribute from an entry, use the keyword delete and the changetype designator modify.", "If the attribute is multi-valued, the client must specify the value of the attribute to delete.There is also a Modify-Increment extension which allows an incrementable attribute value to be incremented by a specified amount.", "The following example using LDIF increments employeeNumber by 5:dn: uid=user.0,ou=people,dc=example,dc=comchangetype: modifyincrement: employeeNumberemployeeNumber: 5-When LDAP servers are in a replicated topology, LDAP clients should consider using the post-read control to verify updates instead of a search after an update.", "The post-read control is designed so that applications need not issue a search request after an update – it is bad form to retrieve an entry for the sole purpose of checking that an update worked because of the replication eventual consistency model.", "An LDAP client should not assume that it connects to the same directory server for each request because architects may have placed load-balancers or LDAP proxies or both between LDAP clients and servers.===Modify DN===Modify DN (move/rename entry) takes the new RDN (Relative Distinguished Name), optionally the new parent's DN, and a flag that indicates whether to delete the value(s) in the entry that match the old RDN.", "The server may support renaming of entire directory subtrees.An update operation is atomic: Other operations will see either the new entry or the old one.", "On the other hand, LDAP does not define transactions of multiple operations: If you read an entry and then modify it, another client may have updated the entry in the meantime.", "Servers may implement extensions that support this, though.===Extended operations===The Extended Operation is a generic LDAP operation that can define new operations that were not part of the original protocol specification.", "StartTLS is one of the most significant extensions.", "Other examples include Cancel and Password Modify.====StartTLS====The StartTLS operation establishes Transport Layer Security (the descendant of SSL) on the connection.", "It can provide data confidentiality (to protect data from being observed by third parties) and/or data integrity protection (which protects the data from tampering).", "During TLS negotiation the server sends its X.509 certificate to prove its identity.", "The client may also send a certificate to prove its identity.", "After doing so, the client may then use SASL/EXTERNAL.", "By using the SASL/EXTERNAL, the client requests the server derive its identity from credentials provided at a lower level (such as TLS).", "Though technically the server may use any identity information established at any lower level, typically the server will use the identity information established by TLS.Servers also often support the non-standard \"LDAPS\" (\"Secure LDAP\", commonly known as \"LDAP over SSL\") protocol on a separate port, by default 636.LDAPS differs from LDAP in two ways:1) upon connect, the client and server establish TLS before any LDAP messages are transferred (without a StartTLS operation) and2) the LDAPS connection must be closed upon TLS closure.Some \"LDAPS\" client libraries only encrypt communication; they do not check the host name against the name in the supplied certificate.===Abandon===The Abandon operation requests that the server abort an operation named by a message ID.", "The server need not honor the request.", "Neither Abandon nor a successfully abandoned operation send a response.", "A similar Cancel extended operation does send responses, but not all implementations support this.===Unbind===The Unbind operation abandons any outstanding operations and closes the connection.", "It has no response.", "The name is of historical origin, and is ''not'' the opposite of the Bind operation.Clients can abort a session by simply closing the connection, but they should use Unbind.", "Unbind allows the server to gracefully close the connection and free resources that it would otherwise keep for some time until discovering the client had abandoned the connection.", "It also instructs the server to cancel operations that can be canceled, and to not send responses for operations that cannot be canceled." ], [ "URI scheme", "An LDAP uniform resource identifier (URI) scheme exists, which clients support in varying degrees, and servers return in referrals and continuation references (see RFC 4516): ldap://host:port/DN?attributes?scope?filter?extensionsMost of the components described below are optional.", "* ''host'' is the FQDN or IP address of the LDAP server to search.", "* ''port'' is the network port (default port 389) of the LDAP server.", "* ''DN'' is the distinguished name to use as the search base.", "* ''attributes'' is a comma-separated list of attributes to retrieve.", "* ''scope'' specifies the search scope and can be \"base\" (the default), \"one\" or \"sub\".", "* ''filter'' is a search filter.", "For example, (objectClass=) as defined in RFC 4515.", " ''extensions'' are extensions to the LDAP URL format.For example, \"ldap://ldap.example.com/cn=John%20Doe,dc=example,dc=com\" refers to all user attributes in John Doe's entry in ldap.example.com, while \"ldap:///dc=example,dc=com??sub?", "(givenName=John)\" searches for the entry in the default server (note the triple slash, omitting the host, and the double question mark, omitting the attributes).", "As in other URLs, special characters must be percent-encoded.There is a similar non-standard ldaps URI scheme for LDAP over SSL.", "This should not be confused with LDAP with TLS, which is achieved using the StartTLS operation using the standard ldap scheme." ], [ "Schema", "The contents of the entries in a subtree are governed by a directory schema, a set of definitions and constraints concerning the structure of the directory information tree (DIT).The schema of a Directory Server defines a set of rules that govern the kinds of information that the server can hold.", "It has a number of elements, including:* Attribute Syntaxes—Provide information about the kind of information that can be stored in an attribute.", "* Matching Rules—Provide information about how to make comparisons against attribute values.", "* Matching Rule Uses—Indicate which attribute types may be used in conjunction with a particular matching rule.", "* Attribute Types—Define an object identifier (OID) and a set of names that may refer to a given attribute, and associates that attribute with a syntax and set of matching rules.", "* Object Classes—Define named collections of attributes and classify them into sets of required and optional attributes.", "* Name Forms—Define rules for the set of attributes that should be included in the RDN for an entry.", "* Content Rules—Define additional constraints about the object classes and attributes that may be used in conjunction with an entry.", "* Structure Rule—Define rules that govern the kinds of subordinate entries that a given entry may have.Attributes are the elements responsible for storing information in a directory, and the schema defines the rules for which attributes may be used in an entry, the kinds of values that those attributes may have, and how clients may interact with those values.Clients may learn about the schema elements that the server supports by retrieving an appropriate subschema subentry.The schema defines ''object classes''.", "Each entry must have an objectClass attribute, containing named classes defined in the schema.", "The schema definition of the classes of an entry defines what kind of object the entry may represent - e.g.", "a person, organization or domain.", "The object class definitions also define the list of attributes that must contain values and the list of attributes which may contain values.For example, an entry representing a person might belong to the classes \"top\" and \"person\".", "Membership in the \"person\" class would require the entry to contain the \"sn\" and \"cn\" attributes, and allow the entry also to contain \"userPassword\", \"telephoneNumber\", and other attributes.", "Since entries may have multiple ObjectClasses values, each entry has a complex of optional and mandatory attribute sets formed from the union of the object classes it represents.", "ObjectClasses can be inherited, and a single entry can have multiple ObjectClasses values that define the available and required attributes of the entry itself.", "A parallel to the schema of an objectClass is a class definition and an instance in Object-oriented programming, representing LDAP objectClass and LDAP entry, respectively.Directory servers may publish the directory schema controlling an entry at a base DN given by the entry's subschemaSubentry operational attribute.", "(An ''operational attribute'' describes operation of the directory rather than user information and is only returned from a search when it is explicitly requested.", ")Server administrators can add additional schema entries in addition to the provided schema elements.", "A schema for representing individual people within organizations is termed a white pages schema." ], [ "Variations", "A lot of the server operation is left to the implementor or administrator to decide.", "Accordingly, servers may be set up to support a wide variety of scenarios.For example, data storage in the server is not specified - the server may use flat files, databases, or just be a gateway to some other server.", "Access control is not standardized, though there has been work on it and there are commonly used models.", "Users' passwords may be stored in their entries or elsewhere.", "The server may refuse to perform operations when it wishes, and impose various limits.Most parts of LDAP are extensible.", "Examples: One can define new operations.", "''Controls'' may modify requests and responses, e.g.", "to request sorted search results.", "New search scopes and Bind methods can be defined.", "Attributes can have ''options'' that may modify their semantics." ], [ "Other data models", "As LDAP has gained momentum, vendors have provided it as an access protocol to other services.", "The implementation then recasts the data to mimic the LDAP/X.500 model, but how closely this model is followed varies.", "For example, there is software to access SQL databases through LDAP, even though LDAP does not readily lend itself to this.", "X.500 servers may support LDAP as well.Similarly, data previously held in other types of data stores are sometimes moved to LDAP directories.", "For example, Unix user and group information can be stored in LDAP and accessed via PAM and NSS modules.", "LDAP is often used by other services for authentication and/or authorization (what actions a given already-authenticated user can do on what service).", "For example in Active Directory Kerberos is used in the authentication step, while LDAP is used in the authorization step.An example of such data model is the GLUE Schema, which is used in a distributed information system based on LDAP that enable users, applications and services to discover which services exist in a Grid infrastructure and further information about their structure and state." ], [ "Usage", "An LDAP server may return referrals to other servers for requests that it cannot fulfill itself.", "This requires a naming structure for LDAP entries so one can find a server holding a given distinguished name (DN), a concept defined in the X.500 Directory and also used in LDAP.", "Another way of locating LDAP servers for an organization is a DNS server record (SRV).An organization with the domain example.org may use the top level LDAP DN dc=example, dc=org (where ''dc'' means domain component).", "If the LDAP server is also named ldap.example.org, the organization's top level LDAP URL becomes ldap://ldap.example.org/dc=example,dc=org.Primarily two common styles of naming are used in both X.500 2008 and LDAPv3.These are documented in the ITU specifications and IETF RFCs.", "The original form takes the top level object as the country object, such as c=US, c=FR.", "The domain component model uses the model described above.", "An example of country based naming could be l=Locality, ou=Some Organizational Unit, o=Some Organization, c=FR, or in the US: cn=Common Name, l=Locality, ou=Some Organizational Unit, o=Some Organization, st=CA, c=US." ], [ "See also", "* Ambiguous name resolution* CCSO Nameserver* Federated Naming Service* Hesiod (name service)* Hierarchical database model* Key server (cryptographic)* LDAP Application Program Interface* List of LDAP software* Simple Authentication and Security Layer (SASL)" ], [ "References", "===Sources===* ITU-T Rec.", "X.680, \"Abstract Syntax Notation One (ASN.1) - Specification of Basic Notation\", 1994* Basic encoding rules (BER) - ITU-T Rec.", "X.690, \"Specification of ASN.1 encoding rules: Basic, Canonical, and Distinguished Encoding Rules\", 1994* - Generic String Encoding Rules (GSER) for ASN.1 Types* - The TLS Protocol Version 1.1* - Simple Authentication and Security Layer (SASL)* SASL mechanisms registered at IANA" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * " ], [ "External links", "List of public LDAP Servers (2013):" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Latina" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Latina''' or '''Latinas''' most often refers to:* Latinas, a demographic group in the United States* Latino (demonym), a term used in the United States for people with cultural ties to Latin America.", "Latin Americans'''Latina''' and '''Latinas''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Arts and entertainment", "''Latina'' (magazine), a monthly American magazine''Latina'', an album by Cristina Pato''Latina'' (album), a 2016 album by Thalía\"Latina\", a song on the 1967 album ''High Blues Pressure''\"Latina\", a song on the 1994 album ''Love Will Find a Way''\"Latina\", a song on the 2014 album ''TZN - The Best of Tiziano Ferro''" ], [ "Geography", "===Italy===Province of Latina, a province in Latium (Lazio), ItalyLatina, Lazio, the capital of the province of LatinaLatina Nuclear Power PlantValle Latina, a valley of Lazio, Italy, from south of Rome to Cassino===Spain===Latina (Madrid), a district of MadridBarrio de La Latina (Madrid), a neighbourhood of Madrid" ], [ "Language and science", " or Latin, from the Latin name of the language''Latina'' (genus), a genus of parasitic waspsLatina (architecture), a type of Indian shikhara (tower or spire on top of a shrine)" ], [ "Other uses", "Latina Calcio 1932, an Italian football clubLatina Televisión, a Peruvian television channel" ], [ "See also", "* Latin (disambiguation)* Latino (disambiguation)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Latino (demonym)" ], [ "Introduction", "The masculine term '''''Latino''''' (), along with its feminine form '''''Latina''''', is a noun and adjective, often used in English, Spanish, and Portuguese, that most commonly refers to United States inhabitants who have cultural ties to Latin America.Within the Latino community itself in the United States, there is some variation in how the term is defined or used.", "Various governmental agencies, especially the U.S. Census Bureau, have specific definitions of ''Latino'' which may or may not agree with community usage.", "These agencies also employ the term ''Hispanic'', which includes Spaniards, whereas ''Latino'' often does not.", "Conversely, ''Latino'' can include Brazilians, and may include Spaniards and sometimes even some European romanophones such as Portuguese (a usage sometimes found in bilingual subgroups within the U.S., borrowing from how the word is defined in Spanish), but ''Hispanic'' does not include any of those other than Spaniards.Usage of the term is mostly limited to the United States.", "Residents of Central and South American countries usually refer to themselves by national origin, rarely as ''Latino''.", "Because of this, many Latin American scholars, journalists, and Indigenous-rights organizations have objected to the mass-media use of the word to refer to all people of Latin American background." ], [ "Origins", "The terms ''Latino'' and ''Latina'' originated in Ancient Rome.", "In the English language, the term ''Latino'' is a loan word from American Spanish.", "(''Oxford Dictionaries'' attributes the origin to Latin-American Spanish.)", "Its origin is generally given as a shortening of , Spanish for 'Latin American'.", "The ''Oxford English Dictionary'' traces its usage to 1946.", "''Latino'' has its origins in the French term , coined in the mid-19th century during the Second Mexican Empire to identify areas of the Americas colonized by Romance-speaking people and used to show affinity with French allies during the Mexican Empire, also termed the Mexican intervention.By the late 1850s, with the loss of California to Anglo-Americans or the United States, owing to the Mexican–American War, the term ''latino'' was being used in local California newspapers such as ''El Clamor Publico'' by Californios writing about ''America latina'' and ''Latinoamerica'', and identifying themselves as ''latinos'' as the abbreviated term for their \"hemispheric membership in \"." ], [ "Usage", "=== Community usage ===Both ''Hispanic'' and ''Latino'' are generally used to denote people living in the United States.", "Marcelo M. Suárez-Orozco and Mariela Páez write that \"Outside the United States, we don't speak of Latinos; we speak of Mexicans, Cubans, Puerto Ricans, and so forth.\"", "In Latin America, the term is not a common endonym and its usage in Spanish as a demonym is restricted to the Latin American-descended population of the United States, but this is not always the case.", "The exception is Spain where is a common demonym for immigrants from Latin America.Sociologist Salvador Vidal‑Ortiz and literary scholar Juliana Martínez write that after the U.S. census introduced ''Hispanic'' in the 1970s, ''Latino'' emerged as \"a term of resistance to the explicit colonial relations that 'Hispanic' sets between Spain and countries in Latin America\".=== Governmental usage ===The U.S. government Office of Management and Budget (OMB) has defined ''Hispanic or Latino'' people as \"a person of Cuban, Mexican, Puerto Rican, South or Central American, or other Spanish culture or origin, regardless of race\".", "The U.S. census uses the ethnonym ''Hispanic or Latino'' to refer to \"a person of Cuban, Mexican, Puerto Rican, South or Central American, or other Spanish culture or origin regardless of race\".", "The Census Bureau also explains that \"origin can be viewed as the heritage, nationality group, lineage, or country of birth of the person or the person's ancestors before their arrival in the United States.", "People who identify their origin as Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish may be of any race.\"", "Hence the U.S. census and the OMB are using the terms differently.", "The U.S. census and the OMB use the terms interchangeably, where both terms are synonyms.", "According to a study by the Pew Research Center, the majority (51%) of Hispanic and Latino Americans prefer to identify with their families' country of origin, while only 24% prefer the term ''Hispanic'' or ''Latino''.=== Style guides ===The ''AP Stylebook'' recommends usage of ''Latino'' for persons of Spanish-speaking ancestry, as well as persons \"from – or whose ancestors were from – ... Latin America, including Brazilians\".", "However, in the recent past, the term ''Latinos'' was also applied to people from the Caribbean region, but those from former French, Dutch and British colonies are excluded.=== Contrast with ''Hispanic'' ===Whereas ''Latino'' designates someone with roots in Latin America, the term ''Hispanic'' in contrast is a demonym that includes Spaniards and other speakers of the Spanish language.The term ''Latino'' was officially adopted in 1997 by the United States Government in the ethnonym ''Hispanic or Latino'', which replaced the single term ''Hispanic'': \"Because regional usage of the terms differs – Hispanic is commonly used in the eastern portion of the United States, whereas Latino is commonly used in the western portion.\"U.S.", "official use of the term ''Hispanic'' has its origins in the 1970 census.", "The Census Bureau attempted to identify all Hispanics by use of the following criteria in sampled sets::* Spanish speakers and persons belonging to a household where Spanish was spoken:* Persons with Spanish heritage by birth location:* Persons who self-identify with Latin America, excluding Brazil, Haiti and French GuianaNeither ''Hispanic'' nor ''Latino'' refers to a race, as a person of Latino or Hispanic ethnicity can be of any race.", "Like non-Latinos, a Latino can be of any race or combination of races: White, Black or African American, Asian American, Native American or Alaskan Native, Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander American, or two or more ethnicities.", "While Brazilian Americans are not included with Hispanics and Latinos in the government's census population reports, any Brazilian American can report as being Hispanic or Latino since Hispanic or Latino origin is, like race or ethnicity, a matter of self-identification.Other federal and local government agencies and non-profit organizations include Brazilians and Portuguese in their definition of ''Hispanic''.", "The U.S. Department of Transportation defines \"Hispanic Americans\" as: \"persons of Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Dominican, Central or South American, or other Spanish or Portuguese culture or origin, regardless of race\".", "This definition has been adopted by the Small Business Administration as well as by many federal, state, and municipal agencies for the purposes of awarding government contracts to minority owned businesses.", "The Congressional Hispanic Caucus and the Congressional Hispanic Conference include representatives of Spanish and Portuguese descent.", "The Hispanic Society of America is dedicated to the study of the arts and cultures of Spain, Portugal, and Latin America.", "Each year since 1997 the International Latino Book Award is conferred to the best achievements in Spanish or Portuguese literature at BookExpo America, the largest publishing trade show in the United States.", "The Hispanic Association of Colleges and Universities, which proclaims itself the champion of Hispanic success in higher education, has member institutions in the U.S., Puerto Rico, Latin America, Spain, and Portugal.The ''American Heritage Dictionary'' maintains a distinction between the terms ''Hispanic'' and ''Latino'':Though often used interchangeably in American English, ''Hispanic'' and ''Latino'' are not identical terms, and in certain contexts the choice between them can be significant.", "''Hispanic'', from the Latin word for \"Spain,\" has the broader reference, potentially encompassing all Spanish-speaking peoples in both hemispheres and emphasizing the common denominator of language among communities that sometimes have little else in common.", "''Latino''—which in Spanish and Portuguese means \"Latin\" but which as an English word is probably a shortening of the Spanish word ''latinoamericano''—refers more exclusively to persons or communities of Latin American origin.", "Of the two, only ''Hispanic'' can be used in referring to Spain and its history and culture; a native of Spain residing in the United States is a ''Hispanic'', not a ''Latino'', and one cannot substitute ''Latino'' in the phrase ''the Hispanic influence on native Mexican cultures'' without garbling the meaning.", "In practice, however, this distinction is of little significance when referring to residents of the United States, most of whom are of Latin American origin and can theoretically be called by either word.The ''AP Stylebook'' also distinguishes between the terms ''Hispanic'' and ''Latino''.", "The Stylebook limits the term ''Hispanic'' to people \"from – or whose ancestors were from – a Spanish-speaking land or culture\".", "It provides a more expansive definition, however, of the term ''Latino''.", "The Stylebook definition of Latino includes not only people of Spanish-speaking ancestry, but also more generally includes persons \"from – or whose ancestors were from – .", ".", ".", "Latin America\".", "The Stylebook specifically lists \"Brazilian\" as an example of a group which can be considered Latino.There were 28 categories tabulated in the 2000 United States census: Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Dominican, Central American: Costa Rican, Guatemalan, Honduran, Nicaraguan, Panamanian, Salvadoran, Other Central American; South American: Argentinian, Bolivian, Chilean, Colombian, Ecuadorian, Paraguayan, Peruvian, Uruguayan, Venezuelan, Other South American; Other Hispanic or Latino: Spaniard, Spanish, Spanish American, All other Hispanic or Latino.===Debates===The use of the term ''Latino'', despite its increasing popularity, is still highly debated among those who are called by the name.", "Since the adoption of the term by the U.S. Census Bureau and its subsequent widespread use, there have been several controversies and disagreements, especially in the United States and, to a lesser extent, in Mexico and other Spanish-speaking countries.", "Many Latin American scholars, journalists, and indigenous-rights organisations have objected to the mass-media use of the word ''Latino'', pointing out that such ethnonyms are optional and should be used only to describe people involved in the practices, ideologies, and identity politics of their supporters.", "Journalist Rodolfo Acuña writes:When and why the Latino identity came about is a more involved story.", "Essentially, politicians, the media, and marketers find it convenient to deal with the different U.S. Spanish-speaking people under one umbrella.", "However, many people with Spanish surnames contest the term ''Latino''.", "They claim it is misleading because no Latino or Hispanic nationality exists since no Latino state exists, so generalizing the term ''Latino'' slights the various national identities included under the umbrella." ], [ "Gender-neutral forms", "Attempts have been made to introduce gender-neutral language into Spanish by changing the ending of ''Latino'', as in the terms ''Latin@'', ''Latine'', ''Latino/a'', and ''Latinx''.", "Both supporters and opponents of ''Latinx'' have cited linguistic imperialism as a reason for supporting or opposing the use of the term." ], [ "See also", "* Chicano* Latin American Australians* Latin American Canadians* Latin Union* Latino diaspora* Latino (disambiguation)* Latino studies* List of Latinos in film* Race and ethnicity in the United States Census* Racial and ethnic demographics of the United States" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "''The Oxford Encyclopedia of Latinos and Latinas in the United States'', 4 Vols., Oxford University Press, 2006, Miguel A.", "De La Torre (ed.", "), ''Hispanic American Religious Cultures'', 2 Vols., ABC-CLIO Publishers, 2009," ], [ "External links", "* Latino Cultural Heritage Digital Archives* What's in a name?", "* Yale University – Understanding Ethnic Labels and Puerto Rican Identity* Chicano/Latino Studies University of California, Irvine* Latino news for and about Latinos* Progressives, Hispanics are not 'Latinx.'", "Stop trying to Anglicize our Spanish language." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Latin America" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Latin America''' is a collective region of the Americas where Romance languages—languages derived from Latin—are predominantly spoken.", "The term was coined in France in the mid-19th century to refer to regions in the Americas that were ruled by the Spanish, Portuguese, and French empires.The term does not have a precise definition, but it is \"commonly used to describe South America, Central America, Mexico, and the islands of the Caribbean\".", "In a narrow sense, it refers to Spanish America and Brazil (Portuguese America).", "The term \"Latin America\" is broader than ''Hispanic America'', which specifically refers to Spanish-speaking countries; and narrower than categories such as ''Ibero-America'', a term that refers to both Spanish and Portuguese-speaking countries from the Americas, and sometimes from Europe.The term ''Latin America'' was first used in Paris at a conference in 1856 called \"Initiative of America: Idea for a Federal Congress of the Republics\" (''Iniciativa de la América.", "Idea de un Congreso Federal de las Repúblicas''), by the Chilean politician Francisco Bilbao.", "The term was further popularized by French emperor Napoleon III's government of political strongman that in the 1860s as to justify France's military involvement in the Second Mexican Empire and to include French-speaking territories in the Americas, such as French Canada, Haiti, French Louisiana, French Guiana, Martinique, Guadeloupe and the French Antillean Creole Caribbean islands Saint Lucia, and Dominica, in the larger group of countries where Spanish and Portuguese languages prevailed.The region covers an area that stretches from Mexico to Tierra del Fuego and includes much of the Caribbean.", "It has an area of approximately 19,197,000 km (7,412,000 sq mi), almost 13% of the Earth's land surface area.", "As of March 2, 2020, the population of Latin America and the Caribbean was estimated at more than 652 million, and in 2019, Latin America had a combined nominal GDP of US$5,188,250 trillion and a GDP PPP of US$10,284,588 trillion.", "More than 40 of the 50 most dangerous cities in the world are located in Latin America." ], [ "Etymology and definitions", "===Origins===Presencia de América Latina (''Presence of Latin America'', 1964–65) is a mural at the hall of the Arts House of the University of Concepción, Chile.", "It is also known as ''Latin America's Integration''.The concept and term came into use in the mid-nineteenth century.", "Gobat states, \"the idea did stem from the French concept of a “Latin race,” which Latin American émigrés in Europe helped spread to the other side of the Atlantic.\"", "It was popularized in 1860s France during the reign of Napoleon III.", "The term ''Latin America'' was a part of his attempt to create a French empire in the Americas.", "Research has shown that the idea that a part of the Americas has a linguistic and cultural affinity with the Romance cultures as a whole can be traced back to the 1830s, in the writing of the French Saint-Simonian Michel Chevalier, who postulated that a part of the Americas was inhabited by people of a \"Latin race\", and that it could, therefore, ally itself with \"Latin Europe\", ultimately overlapping the Latin Church, in a struggle with \"Teutonic Europe\" and \"Anglo-Saxon America\" with its Anglo-Saxonism, as well as \"Slavic Europe\" with its Pan-Slavism.Historian John Leddy Phelan located the popularity of the term ''Latin America'' to be from the French occupation of Mexico.", "His argument is that French imperialists used the concept of \"Latin\" America as a way to counter British imperialism, as well as to challenge the German threat to France.", "The idea of a \"Latin race\" was then taken up by Latin American intellectuals and political leaders of the mid- and late-nineteenth century, who no longer looked to Spain or Portugal as cultural models, but rather to France.", "Napoleon III had a strong interest in extending French commercial and political power in the region.", "He and his business promoter Felix Belly called it \"Latin America\" to emphasize the shared Latin background of France with the former viceroyalties of Spain and colonies of Portugal.", "This led to Napoleon III's failed attempt to take military control of Mexico in the 1860s.Scholarship has political origins of the term.", "Two Latin American historians, Uruguayan Arturo Ardao and Chilean Miguel Rojas Mix, found evidence that the term \"Latin America\" was used earlier than Phelan claimed, and the first use of the term was in fact in opposition to imperialist projects in the Americas.", "Ardao wrote about this subject in his book ''Génesis de la idea y el nombre de América latina'' (Genesis of the Idea and the Name of Latin America, 1980), and Miguel Rojas Mix in his article \"Bilbao y el hallazgo de América latina: Unión continental, socialista y libertaria\" (Bilbao and the Finding of Latin America: a Continental, Socialist and Libertarian Union, 1986).", "As Michel Gobat points out in his article \"The Invention of Latin America: A Transnational History of Anti-Imperialism, Democracy, and Race\", \"Arturo Ardao, Miguel Rojas Mix, and Aims McGuinness have revealed that the term 'Latin America' had already been used in 1856 by Central Americans and South Americans protesting US expansion into the Southern Hemisphere\".", "Edward Shawcross summarizes Ardao's and Rojas Mix's findings in the following way: \"Ardao identified the term in a poem by a Colombian diplomat and intellectual resident in France, José María Torres Caicedo, published on 15 February 1857 in a French based Spanish-language newspaper, while Rojas Mix located it in a speech delivered in France by the radical liberal Chilean politician Francisco Bilbao in June 1856\".By the late 1850s, the term was being used in California (which had become a part of the United States), in local newspapers such as ''El Clamor Público'' by Californios writing about and , and identifying as as the abbreviated term for their \"hemispheric membership in \".The words \"Latin\" and \"America\" were first found to be combined in a printed work to produce the term \"Latin America\" in 1856 in a conference by the Chilean politician Francisco Bilbao in Paris.", "The conference had the title \"Initiative of the America.", "Idea for a Federal Congress of Republics.\"", "The following year, Colombian writer José María Torres Caicedo also used the term in his poem \"The Two Americas\".", "Two events related with the United States played a central role in both works.", "The first event happened less than a decade before the publication of Bilbao's and Torres Caicedo's works: the Invasion of Mexico or, in USA, the Mexican–American War, after which Mexico lost a third of its territory.", "The second event, the Walker affair, which happened the same year that both works were written: the decision by US president Franklin Pierce to recognize the regime recently established in Nicaragua by American William Walker and his band of filibusters who ruled Nicaragua for nearly a year (1856–57) and attempted to reinstate slavery there, where it had been already abolished for three decadesIn both Bilbao's and Torres Caicedo's works, the Mexican–American War (1846–48) and William Walker's expedition to Nicaragua are explicitly mentioned as examples of dangers for the region.", "For Bilbao, \"Latin America\" was not a geographical concept, as he excluded Brazil, Paraguay, and Mexico.", "Both authors also asked for the union of all Latin American countries as the only way to defend their territories against further foreign US interventions.", "Both also rejected European imperialism, claiming that the return of European countries to non-democratic forms of government was another danger for Latin American countries, and used the same word to describe the state of European politics at the time: \"despotism.\"", "Several years later, during the French invasion of Mexico, Bilbao wrote another work, \"Emancipation of the Spirit in America\", where he asked all Latin American countries to support the Mexican cause against France, and rejected French imperialism in Asia, Africa, Europe and the Americas.", "He asked Latin American intellectuals to search for their \"intellectual emancipation\" by abandoning all French ideas, claiming that France was: \"Hypocrite, because she France calls herself protector of the Latin race just to subject it to her exploitation regime; treacherous, because she speaks of freedom and nationality, when, unable to conquer freedom for herself, she enslaves others instead!\"", "Therefore, as Michel Gobat puts it, the term Latin America itself had an \"anti-imperial genesis,\" and their creators were far from supporting any form of imperialism in the region, or in any other place of the globe.In France, the term Latin America was used with the opposite intention.", "It was employed by the French Empire of Napoleon III during the French invasion of Mexico as a way to include France among countries with influence in the Americas and to exclude Anglophone countries.", "It played a role in his campaign to imply cultural kinship of the region with France, transform France into a cultural and political leader of the area, and install Maximilian of Habsburg as emperor of the Second Mexican Empire.", "The term was also used in 1861 by French scholars in ''La revue des races Latines,'' a magazine dedicated to the Pan-Latinism movement.=== Contemporary definitions ===The four common subregions in Latin America* ''Latin America'' is often used synonymously with Ibero-America (\"Iberian America\"), where the populations speak Spanish or Portuguese and the dominant religion is Roman Catholic.", "Puerto Rico, the Spanish-speaking Caribbean territory of the United States, acquired from the Spanish Empire following its defeat in the 1898 Spanish American War, is usually included.", "This definition excludes the predominantly Protestant English-speaking and Dutch-speaking regions, as well as French-speaking predominantly Catholic regions.", "Belize, Guyana and Suriname, as well as several French overseas departments, are excluded from the definition.", "* In another definition, ''Latin America'' designates the set of countries in the Americas where a Romance language (a language derived from Latin) predominates: Spanish, Portuguese, or French.", "Thus, it includes Mexico; most of Central and South America; and in the Caribbean, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, and Haiti.", "''Latin America'' then comprises all of the countries in the Americas that were once part of the Spanish, Portuguese, and French Empires.", "Puerto Rico, although not a sovereign nation, is often included.", "* The term is sometimes used more broadly to refer to all of the Americas south of the United States, thus including the Guianas (French Guiana, Guyana, and Suriname); the Anglophone Caribbean (and Belize); the Francophone Caribbean; and the Dutch Caribbean.", "This definition emphasizes a similar socioeconomic history of the region, which was characterized by formal or informal colonialism, rather than cultural aspects (see, for example, dependency theory).", "Some sources avoid this simplification by using the alternative phrase \"Latin America and the Caribbean\", as in the United Nations geoscheme for the Americas.", "A number of academic area-studies programs and centers of Latin American studies are titled \"Latin American and Caribbean\" studies, such as the Center for Latin American and Caribbean Studies, University of Michigan, New York University Center for Latin American and Caribbean Studies (CLACS), and University of Washington's Latin American and Caribbean Studies, The Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies.", "Although the U.S. acquired a large swath of territory from the Spanish Empire and called Spanish borderlands and nearly 20% of the U.S. population identifies as \"Hispanic\" (or \"Latino\"), the U.S. is generally not classified as being part of Latin America.", "However, the significant demographic is sometimes brought under the umbrella of Latin American studies, such as at University of Albany.The distinction between ''Latin America'' and ''Anglo-America'' is a convention based on the predominant languages in the Americas by which Romance language- and English-speaking cultures are distinguished.", "Neither area is culturally or linguistically homogeneous; in substantial portions of Latin America (e.g., highland Peru, Bolivia, Mexico, Guatemala), Native American cultures and, to a lesser extent, Amerindian languages, are predominant, and in other areas, the influence of African cultures is strong (e.g., the Caribbean basinincluding parts of Colombia and Venezuela).The term's meaning is contested and not without controversy.", "Historian Mauricio Tenorio-Trillo explores at length the \"allure and power\" of the idea of Latin America.", "He remarks at the outset, \"The idea of 'Latin America' ought to have vanished with the obsolescence of racial theory...", "But it is not easy to declare something dead when it can hardly be said to have existed,\" going on to say, \"The term is here to stay, and it is important.\"", "Following in the tradition of Chilean writer Francisco Bilbao, who excluded Brazil, Argentina and Paraguay from his early conceptualization of Latin America, Chilean historian Jaime Eyzaguirre has criticized the term Latin America for \"disguising\" and \"diluting\" the Spanish character of a region (i.e.", "Hispanic America) with the inclusion of nations that, according to him, do not share the same pattern of conquest and colonization.The Francophone part of North America which includes Quebec and Acadia is generally excluded from the definition of Latin America.===Subregions and countries===Latin America can be subdivided into several subregions based on geography, politics, democracy, demographics and culture.", "The basic geographical subregions are North America, Central America, the Caribbean and South America; the latter contains further politico-geographical subdivisions such as the Southern Cone, the Guianas and the Andean states.", "It may be subdivided on linguistic grounds into Spanish America, Portuguese America, and French America.The term \"Latin America\" is defined to mean parts of Americas south of USA mainland where a Romance language (a language derived from Latin) predominates, that is, a language of Spanish, Portuguese or French.", "As is customary, Puerto Rico is included and Dominica, Grenada, and Saint Lucia (where French is spoken but not official language) are excluded from Latin America.", "Flag Arms Country/Territory Capital(s) Name(s) in official language(s) Population Area Density Time(s) zone(s) Subregion Argentina Buenos Aires Argentina UTC/GMT -3 hours South America Bolivia Sucre and La Paz Bolivia; Buliwya; Wuliwya; Volívia UTC/GMT -4 hours South America Brazil Brasília Brasil UTC/GMT -2 hours (Fernando de Noronha)UTC/GMT -3 hours (Brasília)UTC/GMT -4 hours (Amazonas)UTC/GMT -5 hours (Acre) South America Chile Santiago Chile UTC/GMT -3 hours (Magallanes and Chilean Antarctica)UTC/GMT -4 hours (Continental Chile)UTC/GMT -6 hours (Easter Island) South America Colombia Bogotá Colombia UTC/GMT -5 hours South America Costa Rica San José Costa Rica UTC/GMT -6 hours Central America Cuba Havana Cuba UTC/GMT -5 hours Caribbean Dominican Republic Santo Domingo República Dominicana UTC/GMT -4 hours Caribbean Ecuador Quito Ecuador UTC/GMT -5 hours (mainland Ecuador)UTC/GMT -6 hours (Galápagos Islands) South America El Salvador San Salvador El Salvador UTC/GMT -6 hours Central America French Guiana* Cayenne Guyane UTC/GMT -3 hours South America Guadeloupe* Basse-Terre Guadeloupe UTC/GMT -4 hours Caribbean Guatemala Guatemala City Guatemala UTC/GMT -6 hours Central America Haiti Port-au-Prince Haïti; Ayiti UTC/GMT -5 hours Caribbean Honduras Tegucigalpa Honduras UTC/GMT -6 hours Central America Martinique* Fort-de-France Martinique UTC/GMT -4 hours Caribbean Mexico Mexico City México UTC/GMT -5 hours (''Zona Sureste'')UTC/GMT -6 hours (''Zona Centro'')UTC/GMT -7 hours (''Zona Pacífico'')UTC/GMT -8 hours (''Zona Noroeste'') North America Nicaragua Managua Nicaragua UTC/GMT -6 hours Central America Panama Panama City Panamá UTC/GMT -5 hours Central America Paraguay Asunción Paraguay; Tetã Paraguái UTC/GMT -4 hours South America Peru Lima Perú UTC/GMT -5 hours South America Puerto Rico* San Juan Puerto Rico UTC/GMT -4 hours Caribbean Saint Barthélemy* Gustavia Saint-Barthélemy UTC/GMT -4 hours Caribbean Saint Martin* Marigot Saint-Martin UTC/GMT -4 hours Caribbean Uruguay Montevideo Uruguay UTC/GMT -3 hours South America Venezuela Caracas Venezuela UTC/GMT -4 hours South America Total : Not a sovereign state" ], [ "History", "===Before European contact in 1492=== Mayan UNESCO World Heritage Site of Chichén ItzáA view of UNESCO World Heritage Site of Machu Picchu, a pre-Columbian Inca site in PeruUNESCO World Heritage Site of Tiwanaku a Pre-Columbian archaeological site in BoliviaThe earliest known human settlement in the area was identified at Monte Verde, near Puerto Montt in southern Chile.", "Its occupation dates to some 14,000 years ago and there is disputed evidence of even earlier occupation.", "Over the course of millennia, people spread to all parts of the North and South America and the Caribbean islands.", "Although the region now known as Latin America stretches from northern Mexico to Tierra del Fuego, the diversity of its geography, topography, climate, and cultivable land means that populations were not evenly distributed.", "Sedentary populations of fixed settlements supported by agriculture gave rise to complex civilizations in Mesoamerica (central and southern Mexico and Central America) and the highland Andes populations of Quechua and Aymara, as well as Chibcha.Agricultural surpluses from intensive cultivation of maize in Mesoamerica and potatoes and hardy grains in the Andes were able to support distant populations beyond farmers' households and communities.", "Surpluses allowed the creation of social, political, religious, and military hierarchies, urbanization with stable village settlements and major cities, specialization of craft work, and the transfer of products via tribute and trade.", "In the Andes, llamas were domesticated and used to transport goods; Mesoamerica had no large domesticated animals to aid human labor or provide meat.", "Mesoamerican civilizations developed systems of writing; in the Andes, knotted quipus emerged as a system of accounting.The Caribbean region had sedentary populations settled by Arawak or Tainos and in what is now Brazil, many Tupian peoples lived in fixed settlements.", "Semi-sedentary populations had agriculture and settled villages, but soil exhaustion required relocation of settlements.", "Populations were less dense and social and political hierarchies less institutionalized.", "Non-sedentary peoples lived in small bands, with low population density and without agriculture.", "They lived in harsh environments.", "By the first millennium CE, the Western Hemisphere was the home of tens of millions of people; the exact numbers are a source of ongoing research and controversy.The last two great civilizations, the Aztecs and Incas, emerged into prominence in the early fourteenth century and mid-fifteenth centuries.", "Although the Indigenous empires were conquered by Europeans, the sub-imperial organization of the densely populated regions remained in place.", "The presence or absence of Indigenous populations had an impact on how European imperialism played out in the Americas.", "The pre-Columbian civilizations of Mesoamerica and the highland Andes became sources of pride for American-born Spaniards in the late colonial era and for nationalists in the post-independence era.", "For some modern Latin American nation-states, the Indigenous roots of national identity are expressed in the ideology of ''indigenismo''.", "These modern constructions of national identity usually critique their colonial past.===Colonial era, 1492-1825===Cristóbal de Olid leads Spanish soldiers with Tlaxcalan allies against Indigenous warriors during the European colonization of the Americas.Capture of Atahualpa in Cajamarca (modern Peru), led by Francisco Pizarro.", "It marked the beginning of the conquest of the Inca Empire.Map of Brazil showing Indigenous men cutting brazilwood and Portuguese shipsSpanish and Portuguese colonization of the Western Hemisphere laid the basis for societies now seen as characteristic of Latin America.", "In the fifteenth century, both Portugal and Spain embarked on voyages of overseas exploration, following the Christian Reconquista of Iberia from Muslims.", "Portugal sailed down the west coast of Africa and the Crown of Castile in central Spain authorized the voyage of Genoese mariner Christopher Columbus.", "Portugal's maritime expansion into the Indian Ocean was initially its main interest; but the off-course voyage of Pedro Álvares Cabral in 1500 allowed Portugal to claim Brazil.", "The 1494 line of demarcation between Spain and Portugal gave Spain all areas to the west, and Portugal all areas to the east.", "For Portugal, the riches of Africa, India, and the Spice Islands were far more important initially than the unknown territory of Brazil.", "By contrast, having no better prospects, the Spanish crown directed its energies to its New World territories.", "Spanish colonists began founding permanent settlements in the circum-Caribbean region, starting in 1493.In these regions of early contact, Spaniards established patterns of interaction with Indigenous peoples that they transferred to the mainland.", "At the time of European contact, the area was densely populated by Indigenous peoples who had not organized as empires, nor created large physical complexes.", "With the expedition of Hernán Cortés from Cuba to Mexico in 1519, Spaniards encountered the Indigenous imperial civilization of the Aztecs.", "Using techniques of warfare honed in their early Caribbean settlements, Cortés sought Indigenous allies to topple the superstructure of the Aztec Empire after a two-year war of conquest.", "The Spanish recognized many Indigenous elites as nobles under Spanish rule with continued power and influence over commoners, and used them as intermediaries in the emerging Spanish imperial system.With the example of the conquest of central Mexico, Spaniards sought similar great empires to conquer, and expanded into other regions of Mexico and Central America, and then the Inca empire, by Francisco Pizarro.", "By the end of the sixteenth century Spain and Portugal claimed territory extending from Alaska to the southern tip of Patagonia.", "They founded cities that remain important centers.", "In Spanish America, these include Buenos Aires (1536), Panama City (1519), Mexico City (1521) Guadalajara (1531–42), Cartagena (1532), Cuzco (1534), Lima (1535), Quito (1534) and Potosí (1545).In Brazil, coastal cities were founded: Olinda (1537), Salvador de Bahia (1549), São Paulo (1554), and Rio de Janeiro (1565).", "Areas claimed by the Spanish and Portuguese empires in 1790Spaniards explored extensively in the mainland territories they claimed, but they settled in great numbers in areas with dense and hierarchically organized Indigenous populations and exploitable resources, especially silver.", "Early Spanish conquerors saw the Indigenous themselves as an exploitable resource for tribute and labor, and individual Spaniards were awarded grants of encomienda forced labor as reward for participation in the conquest.", "Throughout most of Spanish America, Indigenous populations were the largest component, with some black slaves serving in auxiliary positions.", "The three main racial groups during the colonial era were European whites, black Africans, and Indigenous.", "Over time, these populations intermixed, resulting in castas.", "In most of Spanish America, the Indigenous were the majority population.Both dense Indigenous populations and silver were found in New Spain (colonial Mexico) and Peru, and the now-countries became centers of the Spanish empire.", "The Viceroyalty of New Spain, centered in Mexico City, was established in 1535 and the Viceroyalty of Peru, centered in Lima, in 1542.The Viceroyalty of New Spain also had jurisdiction over the Spanish East Indies, once the Spanish established themselves there in the late sixteenth century.", "The viceroy was the direct representative of the king.The Roman Catholic Church, as an institution, launched a \"spiritual conquest\" to convert Indigenous populations to Christianity, incorporating them into Christendom, with no other religion permitted.", "Pope Alexander VI in 1493 had bestowed on the Catholic Monarchs great power over ecclesiastical appointments and the functioning of the church in overseas possessions.", "The monarch was the patron of the institutional church.", "The state and the Catholic church were the institutional pillars of Spanish colonial rule.", "In the late eighteenth century, the crown also established a royal military to defend its possessions against foreign incursions, especially by the British.", "It also increased the number of viceroyalties in Spanish South America.Portugal did not establish firm institutional rule in Brazil until the 1530s, but it paralleled many patterns of colonization in Spanish America.", "The Brazilian Indigenous peoples were initially dense, but were semi-sedentary and lacked the organization that allowed Spaniards to more easily incorporate the Indigenous into the colonial order.", "The Portuguese used Indigenous laborers to extract the valuable commodity known as brazilwood, which gave its name to the colony.", "Portugal took greater control of the region to prevent other European powers, particularly France, from threatening its claims.Potosí the \"Cerro Rico\" that produced massive amounts of silver from a single site.", "The first image published in Europe.", "Pedro Cieza de León, 1553.Europeans sought wealth in the form of high-value, low-bulk products exported to Europe.", "The Spanish Empire established institutions to secure wealth for itself and protect its empire in the Americas from rivals.", "In trade it followed principles of mercantilism, where its overseas possessions were to enrich the center of power in Iberia.", "Trade was regulated through the royal House of Trade in Seville, Spain, with the main export from Spanish America to Spain being silver, later followed by the red dye cochineal.", "Silver was found in the Andes, in particular the silver mountain Cerro Rico of Potosí, (now in Bolivia) in the region where Indigenous men were forced to labor in the mines.", "Many historians refer to Potosi's Cerro Rico as the richest source of silver in the history of mankind.", "Between the 16th and 18th centuries, 80% of the world's silver supply came out of this mine.In New Spain, rich deposits of silver were found in northern Mexico, in Zacatecas and Guanajuato, outside areas of dense Indigenous settlement.", "Labor was attracted from elsewhere for mining and landed estates were established to raise wheat, range cattle and sheep.", "Mules were bred for transportation and to replace of human labor in refining silver.", "Sugar processing by skilled black slave laborers.", "Sugar cane must be processed immediately once cut in order to capture the most sugar juice, so ''engenhos'' needed to be constructed near fields.In Brazil and some Spanish Caribbean islands, plantations for sugar cultivation developed on a large scale for the export market.", "For Brazil, the development of the plantation complex transformed the colony from a backwater of the Portuguese empire to a major asset.", "The Portuguese transported enslaved laborers from their African territories and the seventeenth-century \"age of sugar\" was transformational, seeing Brazil becoming a major economic component of the Portuguese empire.", "The population increase exponentially, with the majority being enslaved Africans.", "Settlement and economic development was largely coastal, the goal of sugar export to European markets.", "With competition from other sugar producers, Brazil's fortunes based on sugar declined, but in the eighteenth century, diamonds and gold were found in the southern interior, fueling a new wave of economic activity.", "As the economic center of the colony shifted from the sugar-producing northeast to the southern region of gold and diamond mines, the capital was transferred from Salvador de Bahia to Rio de Janeiro in 1763.During the colonial era, Brazil was also the manufacturing center for Portugal's ships.", "As a global maritime empire, Portugal created a vital industry in Brazil.", "Once Brazil achieved its independence, this industry languished.In Spanish America, manufactured and luxury goods were sent from Spain and entered Spanish America legally only through the Caribbean ports of Veracruz, Havana, and Cartagena, as well as the Pacific port of Callao, in Peru.", "Trans-Pacific trade was established in the late sixteenth century from Acapulco to the Philippines via the Manila Galleon, transporting silver from Mexico and Peru to Asia; Chinese silks and porcelains were sent first to Mexico and then re-exported to Spain.", "This system of commerce was in theory was tightly controlled, but was increasingly undermined by other European powers.", "The English, French, and Dutch seized Caribbean islands claimed by the Spanish and established their own sugar plantations.", "The islands also became hubs for contraband trade with Spanish America.", "Many regions of Spanish America that were not well supplied by Spanish merchants, such as Central America, participated in contraband trade with foreign merchants.", "The eighteenth-century Bourbon reforms sought to modernize the mercantile system to stimulate greater trade exchanges between Spain and Spanish America in a system known as ''comercio libre''.", "It was not free trade in the modern sense, but rather free commerce within the Spanish empire.", "Liberalization of trade and limited deregulation sought to break the monopoly of merchants based in the Spanish port of Cádiz.", "Administrative reforms created the system of districts known as intendancies, modeled on those in France.", "Their creation was aimed at strengthening crown control over its possessions and sparking economic development.Both Spain and Portugal restricted foreign powers from trading in their American colonies or entering coastal waters it had claimed.", "Other European powers challenged the exclusive rights claimed by the Iberian powers.", "The English, Dutch, and French permanently seized islands in the Caribbean and created sugar plantations on the model developed in Brazil.", "In Brazil, the Dutch seized the sugar-producing area of the northeast, but after 30 years they were expelled.====Colonial legacies====Monument to Christopher Columbus, Buenos Aires before its 2013 removal and replaced by the statue of Juana Azurduy, a Bolivian fighter for independenceMore than three centuries of direct Spanish and Portuguese colonial rule left lasting imprints on Latin America.", "Spanish and Portuguese are the dominant languages of the region, and Roman Catholicism is the dominant religion.", "Diseases to which Indigenous peoples had no immunity devastated their populations, although populations still exist in many places.", "The forced transportation of African slaves transformed major regions where they labored to produce the export products, especially sugar.", "In regions with dense Indigenous populations, they remained the largest percentage of the population; sugar-producing regions had the largest percentage of blacks.", "European whites in both Spanish America and Brazil were a small percentage of the population, but they were also the wealthiest and most socially elite; and the racial hierarchies they established in the colonial era have persisted.", "Cities founded by Europeans in the colonial era remain major centers of power.", "In the modern era, Latin American governments have worked to designate many colonial cities as UNESCO World Heritage Sites.", "Exports of metals and agricultural products to Europe dominate Latin American economies, with the manufacturing sector deliberately suppressed; the development of modern, industrial economies of Europe depended on the underdevelopment of Latin America.Despite the many commonalities of colonial Spanish America and Brazil, they did not think of themselves as being part of a particular region; that was a development of the post-independence period beginning in the nineteenth century.", "The imprint of Christopher Columbus and Iberian colonialism in Latin America began shifting in the twentieth century.", "\"Discovery\" by Europeans was reframed as \"encounter\" between the Old World and the New.", "An example of the new consciousness was the dismantling of the Christopher Columbus monument in Buenos Aires, one of many in the hemisphere, mandated by leftist President Cristina Fernández de Kirchner.", "Its replacement was a statue to a Bolivian fighter for independence, Juana Azurduy de Padilla, provoking a major controversy in Argentina over historical and national identity.===Independence era (1776–1825)==='''Development of Spanish American Independence'''Ferdinand VII of Spain in whose name Spanish American juntas ruled during his exile 1808–1814; when restored to power in 1814, he reinstated autocratic rule, renewing independence movements.Battle of Ayacucho, which secured the independence of Peru and ensured independence for the rest of South America\|250x250pxIndependence in the Americas was not inevitable or uniform in the Americas.", "Events in Europe had a profound impact on the colonial empires of Spain, Portugal, and France in the Americas.", "France and Spain had supported the American Revolution that saw the independence of the Thirteen Colonies from Britain, which had defeated them in the Seven Years' War (1757–63).", "The outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789, a political and social uprising toppling the Bourbon monarchy and overturning the established order, precipitated events in France's rich Caribbean sugar colony of Saint-Domingue, whose black population rose up, led by Toussaint L'ouverture.", "The Haitian Revolution had far-reaching consequences.", "Britain declared war on France and attacked ports in Saint-Domingue.", "Haiti gained independence in 1804, led by ex-slave Jean-Jacques Dessalines following many years of violent struggle, with huge atrocities on both sides.", "Haitian independence affected colonial empires in the Americas, as well as the United States.", "Many white, slave-owning sugar planters of Saint-Domingue fled to the Spanish island of Cuba, where they established sugar plantations that became the basis of Cuba's economy.", "Uniquely in the hemisphere, the black victors in Haiti abolished slavery at independence.", "Many thousands of remaining whites were executed on the orders of Dessalines.", "For other regions with large enslaved populations, the Haitian Revolution was a cautionary tale for the white slave-owning planters.", "Despite Spain and Britain's satisfaction with France's defeat, they \"were obsessed by the possible impact of the slave uprising on Cuba, Santo Domingo, and Jamaica\", by then a British sugar colony.", "US President Thomas Jefferson, a wealthy slave owner, refused to recognize Haiti's independence.", "Recognition only came in 1862 from President Abraham Lincoln.", "Given France's failure to defeat the slave insurgency and since needing money for the war with Britain, Napoleon Bonaparte sold France's remaining mainland holdings in North America to the United States in the 1803 Louisiana Purchase.Napoleon's invasion of the Iberian peninsula in 1807-1808 was a major change in the world order, with the stability of both the metropoles and their overseas possessions upended.", "It resulted in the movement, with British help, of the Portuguese royal court to Brazil, its richest colony.", "In Spain, France forced abdication of the Spanish Bourbon monarchs and their replacement with Napoleon's brother Joseph Bonaparte as king.", "The period from 1808 to the restoration in 1814 of the Bourbon monarchy saw new political experiments.", "In Spanish America, the question of the legitimacy of the new foreign monarch's right to rule set off fierce debate and in many regions to wars of independence.", "The conflicts were regional and usually quite complex.", "Chronologically, the Spanish American independence wars were the conquest in reverse, with the areas most recently incorporated into the Spanish empire, such as Argentina and Chile, becoming the first to achieve independence, while the colonial strongholds of Mexico and Peru were the last to achieve independence in the early nineteenth century.", "Cuba and Puerto Rico, both old Caribbean sugar-producing areas, were not detached from Spain until the 1898 Spanish–American War, with US intervention.", "Constitution of 1812In Spain, a bloody war against the French invaders broke out and regional juntas were established to rule in the name of the deposed Bourbon king, Ferdinand VII.", "In Spanish America, local juntas also rejected Napoleon's brother as their monarch.", "Spanish Liberals re-imagined the Spanish Empire as equally being Iberia and the overseas territories.", "Liberals sought a new model of government, a constitutional monarchy, with limits on the power of the king as well as on the Catholic Church.", "Ruling in the name of the deposed Bourbon monarch Ferdinand VII, representatives of the Spanish empire, both from the peninsula and Spanish America, convened a convention in the port of Cadiz.", "For Spanish American elites who had been shut out of official positions in the late eighteenth century in favor of peninsular-born appointees, this was a major recognition of their role in the empire.", "These empire-wide representatives drafted and ratified the Spanish Constitution of 1812, establishing a constitutional monarchy and set down other rules of governance, including citizenship and limitations on the Catholic Church.", "Constitutional rule was a break from absolutist monarchy and gave Spanish America a starting point for constitutional governance.", "So long as Napoleon controlled Spain, the liberal constitution was the governing document.When Napoleon was defeated and the Bourbon monarchy was restored in 1814, Ferdinand VII and his conservative supporters immediately reasserted absolutist monarchy, ending the liberal interregnum.", "In Spanish America, it set off a new wave of struggles for independence.Dom Pedro I, emperor of Brazil In South America, Simón Bolívar of Venezuela, José de San Martín of Argentina, and Bernardo O'Higgins in Chile led armies who fought for independence.", "In Mexico, which had seen the initial insurgency led by Hidalgo and José María Morelos, royalist forces maintained control.", "In 1820, when military officers in Spain restored the liberal Constitution of 1812, conservatives in Mexico saw independence as a better option.", "Royalist military officer Agustín de Iturbide changed sides and forged an alliance with insurgent leader Vicente Guerrero, and together they brought about Mexico's independence in 1821.For Portugal and Brazil, Napoleon's defeat did not immediately result in the return of the Portuguese monarch to Portugal, as Brazil was the richest part of the Portuguese empire.", "As with Spain in 1820, Portuguese liberals threatened the power of the monarchy and compelled John VI to return in April 1821, leaving his son Pedro to rule Brazil as regent.", "In Brazil, Pedro contended with revolutionaries and insubordination by Portuguese troops, all of whom he subdued.", "The Portuguese government threatened to revoke the political autonomy that Brazil had enjoyed since 1808, provoking widespread opposition in Brazil.", "Pedro declared Brazil's independence from Portugal on 7 September 1822 and became emperor.", "By March 1824 he had defeated all armies loyal to Portugal.", "Brazil's independence was achieved relatively peaceably, territorial integrity was maintained, and its ruler was from the Royal House of Braganza, whose successors ruled Brazil until their overthrow in 1889.File:Bolivar Arturo Michelena.jpg\|Simón Bolívar, liberator of Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Bolivia, Peru and PanamaFile:Retrato más canónico de José de San Martín.jpg\|José de San Martín, liberator of Argentina, Chile and PeruFile:Ohiggins.jpg\|Bernardo O'Higgins, hero of Chilean independenceFile:Miguel Hidalgo con estandarte.jpg\|Father Miguel Hidalgo, father of Mexican independence, with the banner of Our Lady of GuadalupeFile:Vicente Ramón Guerrero Saldaña.png\|Vicente Guerrero, insurgent hero of Mexican independence, who joined with IturbideFile:Agustin I of Mexico.jpg\|Agustín de Iturbide, former royal military officer who brought about Mexican independence and was crowned emperor===Early Post-Independence, ca.", "1825–1879===Spanish America and BrazilAfter independence Spanish America and Brazil differed in their forms of state rule, with most of Spanish America becoming federated republics (with the exceptions of Cuba and Puerto Rico, which remained Spanish colonies), and Brazil becoming a monarchy ruled by the Brazilian branch of the Portuguese royal family.", "Spanish America's fragmentation into republics with weakened state structures meant that political turmoil and violence on many levels was a characteristic of the era throughout the region.", "Brazil's monarchy was a stabilizing political force and the territorial integrity of the Portuguese colony carried over into the post-independence era.Although much of Latin America gained its independence in the early nineteenth century, formal recognition by their former metropolitan powers in Spain and Portugal did not come immediately.", "Portugal officially recognized Brazil on August 29, 1825.The Spanish crown did not recognize new Spanish American nations' independence and sent expeditions to Mexico in failed attempts to regain control over its valuable former territory.", "Spain finally recognized Mexico's independence in 1836, 15 years after it was achieved.", "Its recognition of Ecuador's independence came in 1840 and Paraguay's as late as 1880.The new independent territories exerted their rights to establish a government, control their national territory, establish trade relations with other nations, and levy taxes.", "Brazil and Mexico both established independent monarchies in 1822.Mexico's was short-lived (1822–23) under leader of the independence movement General Iturbide, who was elected constitutional emperor 19 May 1822 and forced to abdicate 19 March 1823.Iturbide had no royal pedigree, so as a commoner he had no prestige or permanent legitimacy as ruler.", "Brazil's monarchy, a branch of the House of Braganza, lasted until 1889.Spanish America fragmented into various regions.Argentine caudillo Juan Manuel de RosasMexican strongman Antonio López de Santa AnnaEmperor Pedro II of BrazilAs a consequence of the violent struggles for independence in most of Spanish America, the military grew in importance.", "In the post-independence period, it often played a key role in politics.", "Military leaders often became the initial heads of state, but regional strongmen, or caudillos, also emerged.", "The first half of the nineteenth century is sometimes characterized as the \"age of caudillos.\"", "In Argentina, Juan Manuel Rosas and in Mexico Antonio López de Santa Anna are exemplars of caudillos.", "Although most countries created written constitutions and created separate branches of government, the state and the rule of law were weak, and the military emerged as the dominant institution in the civil sphere.", "Constitutions were written laying out division of powers, but the rule of personalist strongmen dominated.", "Dictatorial powers were granted to some strongmen, nominally ruling as presidents under a constitution, as \"constitutional dictators.\"", "In the religious sphere, the Roman Catholic Church, one of the pillars of colonial rule, remained a powerful institution and generally continued as the only permissible religion.", "With the Spanish monarch no longer the patron of the church, many national governments asserted their right to appoint clerics as a logical transfer of power to a sovereign state.", "The Catholic Church denied that this right had transferred to the new governments, and for a time the Vatican refused to appoint new bishops.", "In Brazil, because the ruler after independence was a member of the House of Braganza, and Portugal recognized political independence quite speedily, the Vatican appointed a papal nuncio to Brazil in 1830.This official had jurisdiction over not just Brazil, but also the new states in Spanish America.", "However, in Brazil, there were also conflicts between church and state.", "During the reign of Pedro II, Protestant missionaries were tolerated, and when the monarchy was overthrown in 1889, the Catholic Church was disestablished.In the new nation-states, conservatives favored the old order of a powerful, centralized state and continuation of the Catholic Church as a key institution.", "In Mexico, following the abdication of Emperor Iturbide in 1823, Mexican political leaders wrote a constitution for its newly declared federated republic, the Constitution of 1824.Central America opted out of joining the new federated republic of Mexico, with no real conflict.", "Hero of the insurgency Guadalupe Victoria became the first president of Mexico in 1824.Conservatives pushed to take control of the government, favoring central rule of the nation, as opposed to liberals, who generally favored the power of states expressed in federalism.", "General Santa Anna was elected president in 1833 and was in and out of office until 1854.In South America, Gran Colombia came into being, spanning what are now the separate countries of Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Panama, and Peru, with independence leader Simón Bolívar as head of state (1819–30).", "Gran Colombia dissolved in 1831 due to conflicts similar to those elsewhere in Spanish America between centralist conservatives and pro-federalist liberals.", "In Argentina, the conflict resulted in a prolonged civil war between ''unitarianas'' (i.e.", "''centralists'') and ''federalists'', which were in some aspects respectively analogous to liberals and conservatives in other countries.", "Adding to this dispute was the almost inherited colonial-era conflict over its borders with Brazil.", "The Cisplatine War erupted in 1814 and ended in 1828, resulting in occupation and further secession of Provincia Oriental which in 1830 became the modern Republic of Uruguay with a central government in Montevideo.", "Between 1832 and 1852, Argentina existed as a confederation, without a head of state, although the federalist governor of Buenos Aires province, Juan Manuel de Rosas, was given the power to pay debt and manage international relations, and exerted a growing hegemony over the country.", "A national constitution was not enacted until 1853, and reformed in 1860, and the country reorganized as a federal republic led by a liberal-conservative elite.", "Centralist Uruguay enacted its constitution on its first day of existence in 1830, but wasn't immune to a similar polarization of the new state that involved ''blancos'' and ''colorados'', where the agrarian conservative interests of ''blancos'' were pitted against the liberal commercial interests of ''colorados'' based in Montevideo, and which eventually resulted in the ''Guerra Grande'' civil war (1839–1851).", "Both the blancos and colorados evolved into political parties of the same names that still exist in Uruguay today and are considered among the first and most longstanding political parties in the world.In Brazil, Emperor Dom Pedro I, worn down by years of administrative turmoil and political dissension with both the liberal and conservative sides of politics (including an attempt of republican secession), went to Portugal in 1831 to reclaim his daughter's crown, abdicating the Brazilian throne in favor of his five-year-old son and heir (who thus became the Empire's second monarch, with the title of Dom Pedro II).", "As a minor, the new Emperor could not exert his constitutional powers until he came of age, so a regency was set up by the National Assembly.", "In the absence of a charismatic figure who could represent a moderate face of power, during this period a series of localized rebellions took place, as the Cabanagem, the Malê Revolt, the Balaiada, the Sabinada, and the Ragamuffin War, which emerged from dissatisfaction of the provinces with the central power, coupled with old and latent social tensions peculiar to a vast, slave-holding and newly independent nation state.", "This period of internal political and social upheaval, which included the Praieira revolt, was overcome only at the end of the 1840s, years after the end of the regency, which occurred with the premature coronation of Pedro II in 1841.During the last phase of the monarchy, an internal political debate was centered on the issue of slavery.", "The Atlantic slave trade was abandoned in 1850, as a result of the British Aberdeen Act, but only in May 1888 after a long process of internal mobilization and debate for an ethical and legal dismantling of slavery in the country, was the institution formally abolished.", "On 15 November 1889, worn out by years of economic stagnation, attrition of the majority of Army officers, as well as with rural and financial elites (for different reasons), the monarchy was overthrown by a military coup.Foreign powers, particularly the Great Britain and the U.S., were keenly interested in the possibilities resulting from political independence.", "They quickly recognized the governments of newly independent countries in Latin America and established commercial relationships with them.", "The former imperial limits on trade with foreign powers ended with independence and foreign investors sought newly opened opportunities.", "With the 1803 Louisiana Purchase from France, the U.S. now bordered New Spain.", "Both the U.S. and Spain sought clarity about their borders, signing the 1819 Adams-Onís Treaty ceding Florida to the U.S. and setting the northern border of Spain's claim in North America.", "When Mexico achieved independence in 1821 and briefly became a monarchy, the U.S. recognized the government under Agustín de Iturbide, sending diplomat Joel Poinsett as its representative 1822–23.Poinsett concluded an agreement with Mexico confirming the terms of the Adams-Onís Treaty.", "Previously Poinsett had traveled widely in Latin America and had concluded a trade agreement with independent Argentina.", "European and U.S. interests in the region fueled the demand for Latin American travelogues, an important source of information that described economic, political, and social conditions.The U.S. saw itself as an important power in the Americas and had a foreign policy interest in the hemisphere to exclude former imperial powers from regaining their influence.", "The first major articulation of U.S. foreign policy toward Latin America as a region was the 1820 Monroe Doctrine.", "It warned foreign powers not to intervene in the Americas.", "The U.S. was relatively weak compared to the powerful British Empire, but it was a key policy that informed U.S. actions toward Latin America to the current day.", "The U.S. was concerned that foreign powers could support Spain in its attempts to reclaim its empire.", "The actions that the U.S. took against potential reclamation of foreign powers of their former colonies often included its own direct interventions in the region, justified by President Theodore Roosevelt in his 1904 Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine.For Britain, their commercial interests were eager to seize the opportunity to trade with newly independent Latin America.", "Britain and Portugal had long been allies against the Spanish and French, so British recognition of Brazil's 1822 independence followed quickly after Portugal's.", "As with many other Latin American countries, Brazil exported raw materials and imported manufactured goods, which for both Britain and Brazil suited their economic strengths.", "For Britain, asserting economic dominance in Latin America (what is now called neocolonialism) meant that nation-states were sovereign countries, but were dependent on other powers economically.", "British dominance hindered the development of Latin American industries and strengthened their dependence on the world trade network.", "Britain now replaced Spain as the region's largest trading partner.", "Great Britain invested significant capital in Latin America to develop the area as a market for processed goods.", "American occupation of Mexico CityFrom the early 1820s to 1850, the post-independence economies of Latin American countries were lagging and stagnant.", "Over the nineteenth century, enhanced trade between Britain and Latin America led to development such as infrastructure improvements, including roads and railroads, which grew the trade between the countries and outside nations such as Great Britain.", "By 1870, exports dramatically increased, attracting capital from abroad (including Europe and USA).", "Until 1914 and the outbreak of World War I, Britain was a major economic power in Latin America, especially in South America.For the U.S., its initial sphere of influence was in Mexico, but the drive for territorial expansion, particularly for Southern slave-owners seeking new territory for their enterprises, saw immigration of white slave-owners with their slaves to Texas, which ultimately precipitated conflict between the Mexican government and the Anglo-American settlers.", "The Texas Revolution of 1836-37 defeated Mexican forces, and in 1845, U.S. annexation of the Texas territory that Mexico still claimed set the stage for the Mexican–American War (1846–48).", "The war resulted in the resounding defeat of Mexico.", "U.S. troops occupied Mexico City.", "The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo added a huge swath of what had been north and northwest Mexico to the U.S., territory that Spain and then Mexico had claimed, but had not succeeded in occupying effectively.", "Southern slave owners were also interested in the possibility of the U.S. acquiring Cuba from Spain, with the aim of expanding both slavery and U.S. territory.", "The 1854 leak of the Ostend Manifesto, offering $130 million to Spain, caused a scandal among abolitionists in the U.S., who sought to end the expansion of slavery.", "It was repudiated by U.S. President Franklin Pierce.", "The American Civil War (1861–1865) decided the question of slavery.", "Another episode in US–Latin American relations involved the filibuster William Walker.", "In 1855, he traveled to Nicaragua hoping to overthrow the government and take territory for the United States.", "With Only 56 followers, he was able to take over the city of Granada, declaring himself commander of the army and installing Patricio Rivas as a puppet president.", "However, Rivas' presidency ended when he fled Nicaragua; Walker rigged the ensuing election to ensure that he became the next president.", "His presidency did not last long, however, as he was met with much opposition in Nicaragua and from neighboring countries.", "On 1 May 1857, Walker was forced by a coalition of Central American armies to surrender himself to a United States Navy officer who repatriated him and his followers.", "When Walker subsequently returned to Central America in 1860, he was apprehended by the Honduran authorities and executed.", "''The Execution of Emperor Maximilian'', Édouard Manet 1868.The execution ended monarchic rule in Mexico, and Mexican liberals triumphed.Britain's nineteenth-century policy was to end slavery and the slave trade, including in Latin America.", "In Brazil, Britain made the end of the slave trade a condition for diplomatic recognition.", "The Brazilian economy was entirely dependent on slaves.", "Abolitionists in Brazil pressed for the end of slavery, which finally ended in 1888, followed the next year by the fall of the Brazilian monarchy.The French also sought commercial ties to Latin America, to export luxury goods and establish financial ties, including extending foreign loans to governments, often in dire need of revenue.", "As Mexican conservatives and liberals fought the War of the Reform over La Reforma, Mexican conservatives, to bolster their side, sought a European monarch to put on the throne of Mexico.", "Napoleon III of France invaded Mexico in 1862 and facilitated the appointment of Maximilian von Hapsburg.", "Since the U.S. was embroiled in its own civil war, it could not hinder the French occupation, which it saw as a violation of the Monroe Doctrine, but the government of Abraham Lincoln continued to recognize the Republic of Mexico as the nation's government under President Benito Juárez.", "The French were expelled in 1867 and Emperor Maximilian executed by the victorious Republican forces, setting the stage for an era of stability and foreign economic investment a few years later when Porfirio Díaz liberal hero of the war against the French, became president of Mexico for 30 years.===Export boom and neocolonialism===A poster used in Japan to attract immigrants to Brazil from the 1920s.", "It reads: \"Let's go to South America with families.", "\"Latin American nations after about 1870 were stable enough politically and produced commodities in demand in Western Europe and the United States so that export economies tied producing countries to consuming countries.", "Rather than formally ruling countries in the region, investors and their government backers exercised power and influence over local elites seeking to maintain or enhance their own positions.", "Companies in Great Britain forged ties especially in Brazil and Argentina, with Brazilian coffee and Argentine beef and wheat becoming staples on European dining tables.", "Britain constructed infrastructure to enable the efficient movement of goods and people, building port facilities to accommodate transatlantic shipping, railroads to transport goods from interior regions of production to ports, and electricity enabling telegraphs, later telephones, and street lighting in urban areas.", "As technology became more sophisticated, bulky agricultural products like wheat could be shipped on large ships at relatively low cost.", "As refrigerated ships were developed, chilled beef and tropical bananas could be shipped efficiently enough that they would not spoil.", "The U.S. in particular imported bananas from Central and South America.", "The U.S. United Fruit Company and Cuyamel Fruit Company, both ancestors of Chiquita, and the Standard Fruit Company (now Dole), acquired large tracts of land in Central America, including Guatemala, Honduras, and Costa Rica, as well as Ecuador.", "The companies gained leverage over governments and ruling elites in these countries by dominating their economies and paying kickbacks, and exploited local workers.", "Such countries came to be called banana republics.", "Demand for commodities fueled armed conflicts for territory with economic potential.", "One such conflict was the Spanish–American War in 1898, where the U.S. intervened in the long-standing independence war in Cuba against the Spanish crown, which had held onto it after the almost complete loss of is overseas territories in the early nineteenth century.", "Cuba produced sugar and tobacco, both in high demand in the U.S.", "In the treaty with Spain ending the war, the U.S. gained Puerto Rico, Spain's other remaining Caribbean colony, as well as the Philippine Islands.", "There were also conflicts between Latin American nations in the late nineteenth century, as well as protracted civil wars in Mexico and Colombia.", "One notable international conflict was the War of the Pacific from 1879 to 1884, in which Chile seized territory and resources from Peru and Bolivia, gaining valuable nitrate deposits and leaving Bolivia landlocked.", "Another notable conflict was the War of the Triple Alliance (1864–1870) in which Paraguay, under Francisco Solano López, tried to assist Uruguay against the Brazil-backed rebels, which angered Brazil and led to a war against Paraguay.", "With Brazil allied to Argentina and Uruguay, the war escalated to total war and decimated Paraguay in what became one of the most horrendous chapters in the history of the continent, with huge loss of life, land, and the destruction of the modernized sector.The export boom created a demand for labor, which many countries could not meet domestically.", "Countries such as Argentina, Brazil, and Peru, sought laborers from abroad, some of whom immigrated permanently, while other workers developed a pattern of cyclical work, returning to their home countries at intervals.", "Workers came from poorer regions of Europe, such as Italy, but also China and Japan, with single men and few women making up the initial immigrant populations.=== World War I (1914–1918) ===Washington to Ambassador Heinrich von Eckardt (German ambassador to Mexico)In general, Latin America stayed out of direct conflict in World War I, but the Great Powers were aware of the region's importance for the short and long term.", "Germany attempted to draw Mexico into supporting its side against the British, the French, and especially the U.S., by trying to leverage anti-Americanism to its advantage.", "The Great Powers had been actively working to affect the course of the Mexican Revolution (1910–1920).", "Great Britain and the U.S. had huge investments in Mexico, with Germany close behind, so the outcome of the conflict would have consequences there.", "The U.S. directly intervened militarily, but not on a huge scale.", "A German diplomatic proposal, now known as the January 1917 Zimmermann Telegram, sought to entice Mexico to join an alliance with Germany in the event of the United States entering World War I against Germany by promising the return of territory Mexico had lost to the U.S.", "The proposal was intercepted and decoded by British intelligence.", "The revelation of the contents outraged the American public and swayed public opinion.", "The news helped to generate support for the United States declaration of war on Germany in April 1917 as well as to calm U.S.-Mexico relations.", "Mexico, far weaker militarily, economically, and politically than the U.S., ignored the German proposal; after the U.S. entered the war, it officially rejected it.When the U.S. entered the conflict in 1917, it abandoned its hunt in Mexico for the revolutionary Pancho Villa who had attacked the U.S. in Columbus, New Mexico.", "The Mexican government was not pro-Villa, but was angered by U.S. violation of Mexico's sovereign territory with troops.", "The expeditionary force led by General John J. Pershing that had hopelessly chased him around northern Mexico was deployed to Europe.", "The U.S. then asked Latin American nations to join Britain, France, and the U.S. against Germany.", "They were not quick to join, as Germany was now a major financial lender to Latin America, and a number of nations were antipathetic to the traditional lenders in Britain and France.", "While Latin America did join the allies, it was not without cost.", "The U.S. sought hemispheric solidarity against Germany, and Brazil, Costa Rica, Cuba, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua and Haiti declared war.", "Others took the lesser step of breaking diplomatic relations.", "Argentina, Chile, Mexico and Uruguay remained neutral.", "More important was the impact of the war on transatlantic shipping, the economic lifeline for their export economies.", "Export economies from the mining sector and especially nitrates for gunpowder did boom, but agricultural exports of sugar and coffee languished when European economies turned to war production.", "Britain was on the winning side of the war, but in the aftermath its economic power was fairly reduced.", "After 1914, the U.S. replaced Britain as the major foreign power in Latin America.", "Latin American nations gained standing internationally in the aftermath of the war, participating in the Versailles Conference, signing the Treaty of Versailles and joining the League of Nations.", "Latin America also played an important role in the International Court of Justice.===Interwar and World War II, 1920s–1945===U.S.", "President Roosevelt and Mexican President Manuel Avila Camacho, Monterrey, Mexico 1943.Roosevelt sought strong ties between the U.S. and Latin America in the World War II era.The Great Depression was a worldwide phenomenon and had an impact on Latin America.", "Exports largely fell and economies stagnated.", "For a number of Latin American countries, the Depression made them favor an internal economic development policy of import substitution industrialization.World War I and the League of Nations did not settle conflicts between European nations, but in the wake of World War I, Latin American nations gained success in pressing discussions of hemispheric importance.", "The Inter-American System was institutionally established with the First International Conference of American States of 1889–1890, where 17 Latin American nations sent delegates to Washington, D.C., and formed the Pan American Union.", "Subsequent Pan-American Conferences saw the initial dominance of the U.S. in the hemisphere give way as Latin American nations asserted their priorities.", "The Havana Conference of 1928 was the high water mark of U.S. dominance and assertion of its right to intervene in Latin America, but with the election of Franklin Delano Roosevelt to the U.S. presidency in 1932, U.S. policy changed toward Latin America.", "He abandoned the routine U.S. interventions in Latin America that it had claimed as its right and initiated the Good Neighbor Policy in March 1933.He sought hemispheric cooperation rather than U.S. coercion in the region.", "At the Montevideo Convention in December 1933, the U.S. Secretary of State voted in favor of the Convention on the Rights and Duties of States, declaring \"no state has the right to intervene in the internal or external affairs of another.\"", "President Roosevelt himself attended the inaugural session of the hemispheric conference in Buenos Aires in 1936, where the U.S. reaffirmed the policy of non-intervention in Latin America and discussed the issue of neutrality for the hemisphere should war break out.", "With the Nazi invasion of Poland in September 1939 and the spread of war in Europe, foreign ministers of hemispheric nations met in Panama, at which the Declaration of Neutrality was signed, and the territorial waters bordering the hemisphere were expanded.", "The aim of these moves was to strengthen hemispheric solidarity and security.", "With the 7 December 1941 Japanese attack on the U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor, hemispheric ministers met in January 1942 in Rio de Janeiro.", "Some nations had already declared war on the Axis powers, while others severed relations with the Axis.", "Chile did not do so until 1943, and Argentina, traditionally pro-German, not until 1945.The U.S. requested that Germans suspected of Nazi sympathies be deported from Latin America to the U.S.===Cold War era (1945–1992)===Many Latin American economies continued to grow in the post-World War II era, but not as quickly as they had hoped.", "When the transatlantic trade re-opened following the peace, Europe looked as if it would need Latin American food exports and raw materials.", "The policies of import substitution industrialization adopted in Latin America when exports slowed due to the Great Depression and subsequent isolation in World War II were now subject to international competition.", "Those who supported a return to the export of commodities for which Latin America had a competitive advantage disagreed with advocates of an expanded industrial sector.", "The rebuilding of Europe, including Germany, with the aid of the U.S. after World War II did not bring stronger demand for Latin American exports.", "In Latin America, much of the hard currency earned by their participation in the war went to nationalize foreign-owned industries and pay down their debt.", "A number of governments set tariff and exchange rate policies that undermined the export sector and aided the urban working classes.", "Growth slowed in the post-war period and by the mid-1950s, the optimism of the postwar period was replaced by pessimism.Following World War II, the United States policy toward Latin America focused on what it perceived as the threat of communism and the Soviet Union to the interests of Western Europe and the United States.", "Although Latin American countries had been staunch allies in the war and reaped some benefits from it, in the post-war period the region did not prosper as it had expected.", "Latin America struggled in the post-war period without large-scale aid from the U.S., which devoted its resources to rebuilding Western Europe, including Germany.", "In Latin America there was increasing inequality, with political consequences in the individual countries.", "The U.S. returned to a policy of interventionism when it felt its political and economic interests were threatened.", "With the breakup of the Soviet bloc in the late 1980s and early 1990s, including the Soviet Union itself, Latin America sought to find new solutions to long-standing problems.", "With its Soviet alliance dissolved, Cuba entered a Special Period of severe economic disruption, high death rates, and food shortages.Agrarian reform poster, Guatemala 1952Deeply alarming for the U.S. were two revolutions that threaten, fed its dominance in the region.", "The Guatemalan Revolution (1944–54) saw the replacement of a U.S.-backed regime of Jorge Ubico in 1945 followed by elections.", "Reformist Juan José Arévalo (1945–51) was elected and began instituting populist reforms.", "Reforms included land laws that threatened the interests of large foreign-owned enterprises, a social security law, workmen's compensation, laws allowing labor to organize and strike, and universal suffrage except for illiterate women.", "His government established diplomatic ties with the Soviet Union in April 1945, when the Soviet Union and the U.S. were allied against the Axis powers.", "Communists entered leadership positions in the labor movement.", "At the end of his term, his hand-picked successor, the populist and nationalist Jacobo Arbenz, was elected.", "Arbenz proposed placing capital in the hands of Guatemalans, building new infrastructure, and significant land reform via Decree 900.With what the U.S. considered the prospect of even more radical changes in Guatemala, it backed a coup against Arbenz in 1954, overthrowing him.", "Argentine Che Guevara was in Guatemala during the Arbenz presidency; the coup ousting Arbenz was instructive for him and for Latin American nations seeking significant structural change.", "In 1954 the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency aided successful military coup against Arbenz.Fidel Castro and his men in the Sierra Maestra, 2 December 1956 The 1959 Cuban Revolution led by Cuban lawyer Fidel Castro overthrew the regime of Fulgencio Batista, with 1 January 1959 marking as the revolution's victory.", "The revolution was a huge event not only in Cuban history, but also the history of Latin America and the world.", "Almost the immediately, the U.S. reacted with hostility against the new regime.", "As the revolutionaries began consolidating power, many middle- and upper-class Cubans left for the U.S., likely not expecting the Castro regime to last long.", "Cuba became a poorer and blacker country, and the Cuba Revolution sought to transform the social and economic inequalities and political instability of the previous regimes into a more socially and economically equal one.", "The government put emphasis on literacy as a key to Cuba's overall betterment, essentially wiping out illiteracy after an early major literacy campaign.", "Schools became a means to instill in Cuban students messages of nationalism, solidarity with the Third World, and Marxism.", "Cuba also made a commitment to universal health care, so the education of doctors and construction of hospitals were top priorities.", "Cuba also sought to diversify its economy, until then based mainly on sugar, but also tobacco.The U.S. attempted to overthrow Castro, using the template of the successful 1954 coup in Guatemala.", "In the April 1961 Bay of Pigs invasion, Cuba entered into a formal alliance with the Soviet Union.", "In February 1962, the U.S. placed an embargo on trade with Cuba, which remains in force as of 2021.In February 1962, the U.S. pressured members of the Organization of American States to expel Cuba, attempting to isolate it.", "In response to the Bay of Pigs, Cuba called for revolution in the Americas.", "The efforts ultimately failed, most notably with Che Guevara in Bolivia, where he was isolated, captured, and executed.When the U.S. discovered that the Soviet Union had placed missiles in Cuba in 1962, they reacted swiftly with a showdown now called the Cuban Missile Crisis, which ended with an agreement between the U.S. and the Soviet Union, who did not consult Cuba about its terms.", "One term of the agreement was that the U.S. would cease efforts to invade Cuba, a guarantee of its sovereignty.", "However, the U.S. continued to attempt to remove Castro from power by assassination.", "The Soviet Union continued to materially support the Cuban regime, providing oil and other petrochemicals, technical support, and other aid, in exchange for Cuban sugar and tobacco.Che Guevara Cuban revolutionary posterFrom 1959 to 1992, Fidel Castro ruled as a caudillo, or strong man, dominating politics and the international stage.", "His commitment to social and economic equality brought about positive changes in Cuba, including the improvement of the position of women, eliminating prostitution, reducing homelessness, and raising the standard of living for most Cubans.", "However, Cuba lacks freedom of expression; dissenters were monitored by the Committees for the Defense of the Revolution, and travel was restricted.", "In 1980, Castro told Cubans who wanted to leave to do so, promising that the government would not stop them.", "The Mariel boatlift saw some 125,000 Cubans sail from the Cuban port of Mariel, across the straits to the U.S., where U.S. President Carter initially welcomed them.The Cuban Revolution had a tremendous impact not just on Cuba, but on Latin America as a whole, and the world.", "The Cuban Revolution was for many countries an inspiration and a model, but for the U.S. it was a challenge to its power and influence in Latin America.", "After leftists took power in Chile (1970) and Nicaragua (1979), Fidel Castro visited them both, extending Cuban solidarity.", "In Chile, Salvador Allende and a coalition of leftists, Unidad Popular, won an electoral victory in 1970 and lasted until the violent military coup of 11 September 1973.In the Nicaragua leftists held power from 1979 to 1990.The U.S. was concerned with the spread of communism in Latin America, and U.S. President Dwight Eisenhower responded to the threat he saw in the Dominican Republic's dictator Rafael Trujillo, who voiced a desire to seek an alliance with the Soviet Union.", "In 1961, Trujillo was murdered with weapons supplied by the CIA.", "U.S. President John F. Kennedy initiated the Alliance for Progress in 1961, to establish economic cooperation between the U.S. and Latin America and provide $20 billion for reform and counterinsurgency measures.", "The reform failed because of the simplistic theory that guided it and the lack of experienced American experts who understood Latin American customs.From 1966 to the late 1980s, the Soviet government upgraded Cuba's military capabilities, and Cuba was active in foreign interventions, assisting with movements in several countries in Latin America and elsewhere in the world.", "Most notable were the MPLA during the Angolan Civil War and the Derg during the Ogaden War.", "They also supported governments and rebel movements in Syria, Mozambique, Algeria, Venezuela, Bolivia, and Vietnam.Chilean dictator Augusto Pinochet and U.S. Secretary of State Henry KissingerIn Chile, the postwar period saw uneven economic development.", "The mining sector (copper, nitrates) continued to be important, but an industrial sector also emerged.", "The agricultural sector stagnated and Chile needed to import foodstuffs.", "After the 1958 election, Chile entered a period of reform.", "The secret ballot was introduced, the Communist Party was relegalized, and populism grew in the countryside.", "In 1970, democratic elections brought to power socialist Salvador Allende, who implemented many reforms begun in 1964 under Christian Democrat Eduardo Frei.", "The economy continued to depend on mineral exports and a large portion of the population reaped no benefits from the prosperity and modernity of some sectors.", "Chile had a long tradition of stable electoral democracy, In the 1970 election, a coalition of leftists, the Unidad Popular (\"popular unity\") candidate Allende was elected.", "Allende and his coalition held power for three years, with the increasing hostility of the U.S.", "The Chilean military staged a bloody coup with US support in 1973.The military under General Augusto Pinochet then held power until 1990.The name Augusto Sandino, Nicaraguan nationalist hero for his struggle against the United States, was taken by leftist guerrillas as the Sandinista National Liberation Front (FSLN).Exhumation of corpses in the aftermath of the Guatemalan genocideThe 1970s and 1980s saw a large and complex political conflict in Central America.", "The U.S. administration of Ronald Reagan funded right-wing governments and proxy fighters against left-wing challenges to the political order.", "Complicating matters were the liberation theology emerging in the Catholic Church and the rapid growth of evangelical Christianity, which were entwined with politics.", "The Nicaraguan Revolution revealed the country as a major proxy war battleground in the Cold War.", "Although the initial overthrow of the Somoza regime in 1978–79 was a bloody affair, the Contra War of the 1980s took the lives of tens of thousands of Nicaraguans and was the subject of fierce international debate.", "During the 1980s both the FSLN (a leftist collection of political parties) and the Contras (a rightist collection of counter-revolutionary groups) received considerable aid from the Cold War superpowers.", "The Sandinistas allowed free elections in 1990 and after years of war, lost the election.", "They became the opposition party, following a peaceful transfer of power.", "A civil war in El Salvador pitted leftist guerrillas against a repressive government.", "The bloody war there ended in a stalemate, and following the fall of the Soviet Union, a negotiated peace accord ended the conflict in 1992.In Guatemala, the civil war included genocide of Mayan peasants.", "A peace accord was reached in 1996 and the Catholic Church called for a truth and reconciliation commission.Pope Paul VI and Salvadoran cleric Oscar Romero (now St Oscar Romero)In the religious sphere, the Roman Catholic Church continued to be a major institution in nineteenth-century Latin America.", "For a number of countries in the nineteenth century, especially Mexico, liberals viewed the Catholic Church as an intransigent obstacle to modernization, and when liberals gained power, anticlericalism was written into law, such as the Mexican liberal Constitution of 1857 and the Uruguayan Constitution of 1913 which secularized the state.", "Nevertheless, most Latin Americans identified as Catholic, even if they did not attend church regularly.", "Many followed folk Catholicism, venerated saints, and celebrated religious festivals.", "Many communities did not have a resident priest or even visits by priests to keep contact between the institutional church and the people.", "In the 1950s, evangelical Protestants began proselytizing in Latin America.", "In Brazil, the Catholic bishops organized themselves into a national council, aimed at better meeting the competition not only of Protestants, but also of secular socialism and communism.", "Following Vatican II (1962–65) called by Pope John XXIII, the Catholic Church initiated a series of major reforms empowering the laity.", "Pope Paul VI actively implemented reforms and sought to align the Catholic Church on the side of the dispossessed, (\"preferential option for the poor\"), rather than remain a of conservative elites and right-wing repressive regimes.", "Colombian Catholic priest Camilo Torres took up arms with the Colombian guerrilla movement ELN, which modeled itself on Cuba but was killed in his first combat in 1966.In 1968, Pope Paul came to the meeting of Latin American bishops in Medellín, Colombia.", "Peruvian priest Gustavo Gutiérrez was one of the founders of liberation theology, a term he coined in 1968, sometimes described as linking Christianity and Marxism.", "Conservatives saw the church as politicized, and priests ask proselytizing leftist positions.", "Priests became targets as \"subversives,\" such as Salvadoran Jesuit Rutilio Grande.", "Archbishop of El Salvador Óscar Romero called for an end to persecution of the church, and took positions of social justice.", "He was assassinated on 24 March 1980 while saying mass.", "Liberation theology informed the struggle by Nicaraguan leftists against the Somoza dictatorship, and when they came to power in 1979, the ruling group included some priests.When a Polish cleric became Pope John Paul II following the death of Paul VI, and the brief papacy of John Paul I, he reversed the progressive position of the church, evident in the 1979 Puebla conference of Latin American bishops.", "On a papal visit to Nicaragua in 1983, he reprimanded Father Ernesto Cardenal, who was Minister of Culture, and called on priests to leave politics.", "Brazilian theologian Leonardo Boff was silenced by the Vatican.", "Despite the Vatican stance against liberation theology, articulated in 1984 by Cardinal Josef Ratzinger, later Pope Benedict XVI, many Catholic clergy and laity worked against repressive military regimes.", "After a military coup ousted the democratically elected Salvador Allende, the Chilean Catholic Church was a force in opposition to the regime of Augusto Pinochet and for human rights.", "The Argentine Church did not follow the Chilean pattern of opposition however.", "When Jesuit Jorge Bergoglio was elected Pope Francis, his actions during the Dirty War were an issue, as portrayed in the film ''The Two Popes''.Calls for justice in the wake of the Guatemalan genocideAlthough most countries did not have Catholicism as the established religion, Protestantism made few inroads in the region until the late twentieth century.", "Evangelical Protestants, particularly Pentecostals, proselytized and gained adherents in Brazil, Central America, and elsewhere.", "In Brazil, Pentecostals had a long history.", "But in a number of countries ruled by military dictatorships many Catholics followed the social and political teachings of liberation theology and were seen as subversives.", "Under these conditions, the influence of religious non-Catholics grew.", "Evangelical churches often grew quickly in poor communities where small churches and members could participate in ecstatic worship, often many times a week.", "Pastors in these churches did attend a seminary nor were there other institutional requirements.", "In some cases, the first evangelical pastors came from the U.S., but these churches quickly became \"Latin Americanized,\" with local pastors building religious communities.", "In some countries, they gained a significant hold and were not persecuted by military dictators, since they were largely apolitical.", "In Guatemala under General Efraín Ríos Montt, an evangelical Christian, Catholic Maya peasants were targeted as subversives and slaughtered.", "Perpetrators were later put on trial in Guatemala, including Ríos Montt.===Post-Cold War era===Roll-on/roll-offships, such as this one pictured here at Miraflores locks, are among the largest ships to pass through the Panama Canal.", "The canal cuts across the Isthmus of Panama and is a key conduit for international maritime trade.After the fall of the Soviet Union, the Cold War which saw U.S. intervention in Latin America as preventing Soviet influence dissipating.", "The Central American wars ended, with a free and fair election in Nicaragua that voted out the leftist Sandinistas, a peace treaty was concluded between factions in El Salvador, and the Guatemalan civil war ended.", "Cuba had lost its political and economic patron, the Soviet Union, which could no longer provide support.", "Cuba entered what is known there are the Special Period, when the economy contracted severely, but the revolutionary government nonetheless retained power and the U.S. remained hostile to its revolution.", "U.S. policy-makers developed the Washington Consensus, a set of specific economic policy prescriptions considered the standard reform package for crisis-wracked developing countries by Washington, D.C.-based institutions such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the World Bank, and the US Department of the Treasury during the 1980s and 1990s.", "The term has become associated with neoliberal policies in general and drawn into the broader debate over the expanding role of the free market, constraints upon the state, and US influence on other countries' national sovereignty.", "The politico-economical initiative was institutionalized in North America by the 1994 NAFTA, and elsewhere in the Americas through a series of similar agreements.", "The comprehensive Free Trade Area of the Americas project, however, was rejected by most South American countries at the 4th Summit of the Americas in 2005.A debt crisis ensured after 1982 when the price of oil crashed and Mexico announced that it could not meet its foreign debt payment obligations.", "Other Latin American economies followed suit, with hyperinflation and the inability of governments to meet their debt obligations and the era became known as the \"lost decade.\"", "The debt crisis would lead to neoliberal reforms that would instigate many social movements in the region.", "A \"reversal of development\" reigned over Latin America, seen through negative economic growth, declines in industrial production, and thus, falling living standards for the middle and lower classes.", "Governments made financial security their primary policy goal over social programs, enacting new neoliberal economic policies that implemented privatization of previously national industries and the informal sector of labor.", "In an effort to bring more investors to these industries, these governments also embraced globalization through more open interactions with the international economy.Significantly, democratic governments began replacing military regimes across much of Latin America and the realm of the state became more inclusive (a trend that proved conducive to social movements), but economic ventures remained exclusive to a few elite groups within society.", "Neoliberal restructuring consistently redistributed income upward, while denying political responsibility to provide social welfare rights, and development projects throughout the region increased both inequality and poverty.", "Feeling excluded from the new projects, the lower classes took ownership of their own democracy through a revitalization of social movements in Latin America.Comandanta Ramona of the Zapatista Army of National Liberation, MexicoBoth urban and rural populations had serious grievances as a result of economic and global trends and voiced them in mass demonstrations.", "Some of the largest and most violent have been protests against cuts in urban services to the poor, such as the Caracazo in Venezuela and the Argentinazo in Argentina.", "In 2000, the Cochabamba Water War in Bolivia saw major protests against a World Bank-funded project that would have brought potable water to the city, but at a price that no residents could afford.", "The title of the Oscar nominated film ''Even the Rain'' alludes to the fact that Cochabamba residents could no longer legally collect rainwater; the film depicts the protest movement.Rural movements made demands related to unequal land distribution, displacement at the hands of development projects and dams, environmental and Indigenous concerns, neoliberal agricultural restructuring, and insufficient means of livelihood.", "In Bolivia, coca workers organized into a union, and Evo Morales, ethnically an Aymara, became its head.", "The cocaleros supported the struggles in the Cochabamba water war.", "The rural-urban coalition became a political party, Movement for Socialism (Bolivia) (MAS, \"more\"), which decisively won the 2005 presidential election, making Evo Morales the first Indigenous president of Bolivia.", "A documentary of the campaign, ''Cocalero'', shows how they successfully organized.A number of movements have benefited considerably from transnational support from conservationists and INGOs.", "The Movement of Rural Landless Workers (MST) in Brazil for example is an important contemporary Latin American social movement.Indigenous movements account for a large portion of rural social movements, including, in Mexico, the Zapatista rebellion and the broad Indigenous movement in Guerrero, Also important are the Confederation of Indigenous Nationalities of Ecuador (CONAIE) and Indigenous organizations in the Amazon region of Ecuador and Bolivia, pan-Mayan communities in Guatemala, and mobilization by the Indigenous groups of Yanomami peoples in the Amazon, Kuna peoples in Panama, and Altiplano Aymara and Quechua peoples in Bolivia.===After 2000===UNASUR summit in the Palacio de la Moneda, Santiago de ChileIn many countries in the early 2000s, left-wing political parties rose to power, known as the Pink tide.", "The presidencies of Hugo Chávez (1999–2013) in Venezuela, Ricardo Lagos and Michelle Bachelet in Chile, Lula da Silva and Dilma Rousseff of the Workers Party (PT) in Brazil, Néstor Kirchner and his wife Cristina Fernández in Argentina, Tabaré Vázquez and José Mujica in Uruguay, Evo Morales in Bolivia, Daniel Ortega in Nicaragua, Rafael Correa in Ecuador, Fernando Lugo in Paraguay, Manuel Zelaya in Honduras (removed from power by a coup d'état), Mauricio Funes and Salvador Sánchez Cerén in El Salvador are all part of this wave of left-wing politicians who often declare themselves socialists, Latin Americanists, or anti-imperialists, often implying opposition to US policies towards the region.", "An aspect of this has been the creation of the eight-member ALBA alliance, or \"The Bolivarian Alliance for the Peoples of Our America\" (Spanish: ''Alianza Bolivariana para los Pueblos de Nuestra América'') by some of these countries.Honduran demonstrator holding a banner with a \"don't turn left\" sign, 2009Following the pink tide, there was a Conservative wave across Latin America.", "In Mexico, the rightwing National Action Party (PAN) won the presidential election of 2000 with its candidate Vicente Fox, ending the 71-year rule of the Institutional Revolutionary Party.", "He was succeed six-years later by another conservative, Felipe Calderón (2006–2012), who attempted to crack down on the Mexican drug cartels and instigated the Mexican drug war .", "Several right-wing leaders rose to power, including Argentina's Mauricio Macri and Brazil's Michel Temer, following the impeachment of the country's first female president.", "In Chile, the conservative Sebastián Piñera succeeded the socialist Michelle Bachelet in 2017.In 2019, center-right Luis Lacalle Pou ended a 15-year leftist rule in Uruguay, after defeating the Broad Front candidate.Economically, the 2000s commodities boom caused positive effects for many Latin American economies.", "Another trend was the rapidly increasing importance of their relations with China.However, with the Great Recession beginning in 2008, there was an end to the commodity boom, resulting in economic stagnation or recession resulted in some countries.", "A number of left-wing governments of the Pink tide lost support.", "The worst-hit was Venezuela, which is facing severe social and economic upheaval.Charges of against a major Brazilian conglomerate, Odebrecht, has raised allegations of corruption across the region's governments (see Operation Car Wash).", "This bribery ring has become the largest corruption scandal in Latin American history.", "As of July 2017, the highest ranking politicians charged were former Brazilian President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, who was arrested, and former Peruvian presidents Ollanta Humala and Alejandro Toledo, who fled to the United States and was extradited back to Peru.The COVID-19 pandemic proved a political challenge for many unstable Latin American democracies, with scholars identifying a decline in civil liberties as a result of opportunistic emergency powers.", "This was especially true for countries with strong presidential regimes, such as Brazil." ], [ "Inequality", "Wealth inequality in Latin America and the Caribbean remains a serious issue despite strong economic growth and improved social indicators.", "A report released in 2013 by the UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs entitled ''Inequality Matters: Report of the World Social Situation'', observed that: 'Declines in the wage share have been attributed to the impact of labour-saving technological change and to a general weakening of labour market regulations and institutions.'", "Such declines are likely to disproportionately affect individuals in the middle and bottom of the income distribution, as they rely mostly on wages for income.", "In addition, the report noted that 'highly-unequal land distribution has created social and political tensions and is a source of economic inefficiency, as small landholders frequently lack access to credit and other resources to increase productivity, while big owners may not have had enough incentive to do so.According to the United Nations ECLAC, Latin America is the most unequal region in the world.", "Inequality in Latin America has deep historical roots in the Latin European racially based Casta system instituted in Latin America during colonial times that has been difficult to eradicate because of the differences between initial endowments and opportunities among social groups have constrained the poorest's social mobility, thus causing poverty to transmit from generation to generation, and become a vicious cycle.", "Inequality has been reproduced and transmitted through generations because Latin American political systems allow a differentiated access on the influence that social groups have in the decision-making process, and it responds in different ways to the least favored groups that have less political representation and capacity of pressure.", "Recent economic liberalisation also plays a role as not everyone is equally capable of taking advantage of its benefits.", "Differences in opportunities and endowments tend to be based on race, ethnicity, rurality, and gender.", "Because inequality in gender and location are near-universal, race and ethnicity play a larger, more integral role in discriminatory practices in Latin America.", "The differences have a strong impact on the distribution of income, capital and political standing.One indicator of inequality is access to and quality of education.", "During the first phase of globalization in Latin America, educational inequality was on the rise, peaking around the end of the 19th century.", "In comparison with other developing regions, Latin America then had the highest level of educational inequality, which is certainly a contributing factor for its current general high inequality.", "During the 20th century, however, educational inequality started decreasing.=== Standard of living ===Latin America has the highest levels of income inequality in the world.", "The following table lists all the countries in Latin America indicating a valuation of the country's Human Development Index, GDP at purchasing power parity per capita, measurement of inequality through the Gini index, measurement of poverty through the Human Poverty Index, a measure of extreme poverty based on people living on less than 1.25 dollars a day, life expectancy, murder rates and a measurement of safety through the Global Peace Index.", "Green cells indicate the best performance in each category, and red the lowest.+'''Social and economic indicators for Latin American countries''' Country HDI (2019) GDP (PPP) per capita in US$(2015) Real GDP growth % (2015) Income inequality Gini (2015) Extreme poverty % (2011) Youth literacy % (2015) Life expectancy (2016) Murder rate per 100,000 (2014) Peace GPI (2016) 0.845 ('''VH''') 20,170 2.6 43.6 0.9 99.2 78 6 1.957 0.718 ('''H''') 6,421 4.1 46.6 14.0 99.4 70 12 (2012) 2.038 0.765 ('''H''') 15,690 −3.0 52.7 0.9 97.5 70 29 2.176 0.851 ('''VH''') 25,564 2.3 50.8 0.8 98.9 79 4 1.635 0.767 ('''H''') 13,794 2.5 52.2 8.2 98.2 76 28 2.764 0.810 ('''VH''') 15,318 3.0 48.6 0.7 98.3 79 10 1.699 0.783 ('''H''') 100.0 79 2.057 0.756 ('''H''') 15,777 5.5 45.7 4.3 97.0 78 17 2.143 0.759 ('''H''') 11,168 −0.6 46.6 5.1 98.7 77 8 2.020 0.673 ('''M''') 8,293 2.3 41.8 15.1 96.0 75 64 2.237 0.663 ('''M''') 7,721 3.8 52.4 16.9 87.4 72 31 2.270 0.510 ('''L''') 1,794 2.5 59.2 54.9 72.3 64 10 (2012) 2.066 0.634 ('''M''') 4,861 3.5 57.4 23.3 95.9 71 75 2.237 0.779 ('''H''') 18,335 2.3 48.1 8.4 98.5 77 16 2.557 0.660 ('''M''') 4,972 4.0 45.7 15.8 87.0 73 8 (2019) 1.975 0.815 ('''VH''') 20,512 6.0 51.9 9.5 97.6 79 18 (2012) 1.837 0.728 ('''H''') 8,671 3.0 48.0 5.1 98.6 77 9 2.037 0.777 ('''H''') 12,077 2.4 45.3 5.9 97.4 74 7 2.057 0.817 ('''VH''') 21,719 2.5 41.3 0.0 98.8 77 8 1.726 0.711 ('''H''') 15,892 −10.0 44.8 3.5 98.5 75 62 2.651" ], [ "Demographics", "===Life expectancy===List of countries by life expectancy at birth for 2021 according to the World Bank Group.", "This service doesn't provide data for French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Martinique, and Saint Barthélemy.Countries &territories2021Historical dataCOVID-19 impactAllMaleFemale200020142014→201920192019→202020202020→202120212014→2021 80.38 77.25 83.62 6.37 76.66 3.30 79.97 0.02 79.98 0.17 80.15 0.23 80.38 0.40 0.41 80.16 75.86 84.52 8.66 75.98 2.95 78.93 0.13 79.06 −1.02 78.04 2.12 80.16 1.10 1.23 78.94 76.47 81.44 4.97 76.87 2.60 79.47 0.85 80.33 −0.95 79.38 −0.43 78.94 −1.38 −0.53 77.02 74.42 79.81 5.39 77.59 1.19 78.77 0.65 79.43 −0.15 79.28 −2.25 77.02 −2.40 −1.75 76.22 73.05 79.59 6.54 74.00 3.25 77.25 0.56 77.81 −1.15 76.66 −0.43 76.22 −1.59 −1.03 75.44 71.65 79.26 7.60 75.03 2.34 77.37 0.14 77.51 0.92 78.43 −2.99 75.44 −2.07 −1.93 75.39 72.18 78.65 6.47 73.93 2.83 76.75 0.53 77.28 −1.39 75.89 −0.50 75.39 −1.89 −1.36 73.84 70.84 76.80 5.97 67.23 5.58 72.81 1.24 74.05 −2.26 71.80 2.04 73.84 −0.22 1.03 73.68 71.25 76.36 5.11 76.18 1.67 77.85 −0.24 77.61 −0.04 77.57 −3.88 73.68 −3.93 −4.17 73.67 70.26 77.46 7.20 72.84 3.78 76.62 0.67 77.30 −5.14 72.15 1.52 73.67 −3.63 −2.95 72.83 69.40 76.44 7.04 71.32 4.72 76.04 0.71 76.75 −1.98 74.77 −1.94 72.83 −3.92 −3.21 72.75 69.56 76.01 6.45 69.74 4.57 74.31 1.03 75.34 −1.33 74.01 −1.26 72.75 −2.59 −1.56 72.61 69.30 76.29 6.99 69.42 3.44 72.87 0.71 73.58 −0.69 72.89 −0.27 72.61 −0.96 −0.25 72.38 70.12 74.75 4.62 70.42 4.91 75.33 0.82 76.16 −2.49 73.67 −1.29 72.38 −3.78 −2.96 '''World''' '''71.33''' '''68.89''' '''73.95''' '''5.06''' '''67.70''' '''4.18''' '''71.88''' '''1.10''' '''72.98''' '''−0.74''' '''72.24''' '''−0.92''' '''71.33''' '''−1.65''' '''−0.55''' 70.75 66.08 75.15 9.07 69.86 1.88 71.75 0.81 72.56 −1.50 71.06 −0.31 70.75 −1.81 −1.00 70.55 66.26 75.21 8.95 72.48 0.38 72.85 −0.69 72.16 −1.07 71.09 −0.54 70.55 −1.61 −2.30 70.26 67.43 73.39 5.95 69.75 3.13 72.88 0.74 73.62 −0.44 73.18 −2.92 70.26 −3.36 −2.62 70.21 66.06 74.86 8.81 73.57 1.23 74.80 −0.59 74.20 −4.07 70.13 0.08 70.21 −3.99 −4.58 70.12 67.89 72.53 4.64 68.66 3.60 72.26 0.62 72.88 −1.42 71.46 −1.34 70.12 −2.76 −2.14 69.24 66.00 72.65 6.65 67.45 4.52 71.96 1.17 73.13 −1.33 71.80 −2.56 69.24 −3.89 −2.73 63.63 60.88 66.80 5.92 62.35 4.82 67.16 0.68 67.84 −3.37 64.47 −0.84 63.63 −4.21 −3.53 63.19 60.40 66.12 5.72 58.37 4.62 62.99 1.27 64.25 −0.20 64.05 −0.86 63.19 −1.06 0.20===Largest cities===Urbanization accelerated starting in the mid-twentieth century, especially in capital cities, or in the case of Brazil, traditional economic and political hubs founded in the colonial era.", "In Mexico, the rapid growth and modernization in country's north has seen the growth of Monterrey, in Nuevo León.", "The following is a list of the ten largest metropolitan areas in Latin America.", "Entries in \"bold\" indicate they are ranked the highest.", "City Country 2017 population 2014 GDP (PPP, $million, USD) 2014 GDP per capita, (USD)Mexico City Mexico 23,655,355 $403,561 $19,239 São Paulo Brazil 23,467,354 '''$430,510''' $20,650 Buenos Aires Argentina 15,564,354 $315,885 $23,606 Rio de Janeiro Brazil 14,440,345 $176,630 $14,176Lima Peru 9,804,609 $176,447 $16,530 Bogotá Colombia 7,337,449 $209,150 $19,497Santiago Chile 7,164,400 $171,436 $23,290Belo Horizonte Brazil 6,145,800 $95,686 $17,635Guadalajara Mexico 4,687,700 $80,656 $17,206 Monterrey Mexico 4,344,200 $122,896 '''$28,290'''===Race and ethnicity===Eighteenth-century Mexican Casta painting showing 16 castas hierarchically arranged.", "Ignacio Maria Barreda, 1777.Real Academia Española de la Lengua, Madrid.Latin American populations are diverse, with descendants of the Indigenous peoples, Europeans, Africans initially brought as slaves, and Asians, as well as new immigrants.", "Mixing of groups was a fact of life at contact of the Old World and the New, but colonial regimes established legal and social discrimination against non-white populations simply on the basis of perceived ethnicity and skin color.", "Social class was usually linked to a person's racial category, with European-born Spaniards and Portuguese on top.", "During the colonial era, with a dearth initially of European women, European men and Indigenous women and African women produced what were considered mixed-race children.", "In Spanish America, the so-called ''Sociedad de castas'' or ''Sistema de castas'' was constructed by white elites to try to rationalize the processes at work.", "In the sixteenth century the Spanish crown sought to protect Indigenous populations from exploitation by white elites for their labor and land.", "The crown created the'' '' to paternalistically govern and protect Indigenous peoples.", "It also created the ''República de Españoles'', which included not only European whites, but all non-Indigenous peoples, such as blacks, mulattoes, and mixed-race castas who were not dwelling in Indigenous communities.", "In the religious sphere, the Indigenous were deemed perpetual neophytes in the Catholic faith, which meant Indigenous men were not eligible to be ordained as Catholic priests; however, Indigenous were also excluded from the jurisdiction of the Inquisition.", "Catholics saw military conquest and religious conquest as two parts of the assimilation of Indigenous populations, suppressing Indigenous religious practices and eliminating the Indigenous priesthood.", "Some worship continued underground.", "Jews and other non-Catholics, such as Protestants (all called \"Lutherans\") were banned from settling and were subject to the Inquisition.", "Considerable mixing of populations occurred in cities, while the countryside was largely Indigenous.", "At independence in the early nineteenth century, in many places in Spanish America formal racial and legal distinctions disappeared, although slavery was not uniformly abolished.Significant black populations exist in Brazil and Spanish Caribbean islands such as Cuba and Puerto Rico and the circum-Caribbean mainland (Venezuela, Colombia, Panama), as long as in the southern part of South America and Central America (Honduras, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Ecuador, and Peru) a legacy of their use in plantations.", "All these areas had small white populations.", "In Brazil, coastal Indigenous peoples largely died out in the early sixteenth century, with Indigenous populations surviving far from cities, sugar plantations, and other European enterprises.Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Cuba, and Brazil have dominate Mulatto/Triracial populations (\"Pardo\" in Brazil), in Brazil and Cuba, there is equally large white populations and smaller black populations, while Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico are more Mulatto/Triracial dominated, with significant black and white minorities.", "Parts of Central America and northern South America are more diverse in that they are dominated by Mestizos and whites but also have large numbers of Mulattos, blacks, and indigenous, especially Colombia, Venezuela, and Panama.", "The southern cone region, Argentina, Uruguay, and Chile are dominated by whites and mestizos.", "Haiti and other areas in the French Caribbean are dominated mostly by blacks.", "The rest of Latin America, including México, northern Central America (Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras), and central South America (Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, Paraguay), are dominated by mestizos but also have large white and indigenous minorities.In the nineteenth century, a number of Latin American countries sought immigrants from Europe and Asia.", "With the abolition of black slavery in 1888, the Brazilian monarchy fell in 1889.By then, another source of cheap labor to work on coffee plantations was found in Japan.", "Chinese male immigrants arrived in Cuba, Mexico, Peru and elsewhere.", "With political turmoil in Europe during the mid-nineteenth century and widespread poverty, Germans, Spaniards, and Italians immigrated to Latin America in large numbers, welcomed by Latin American governments both as a source of labor as well as a way to increase the size of their white populations.", "In Argentina, many Afro-Argentines married Europeans.In twentieth-century Brazil, sociologist Gilberto Freyre proposed that Brazil was a \"racial democracy\", with less discrimination against blacks than in the U.S.", "Even if a system of legal racial segregation was never implemented in Latin America, unlike the United States, subsequent research has shown that in Brazil there's discrimination against darker citizens, and that whites remain the elites in the country.", "In Mexico, the mestizo population was considered the true embodiment of \"the cosmic race\", according to Mexican intellectual José Vasconcelos, thus erasing other populations.", "There was considerable discrimination against Asians, with calls for the expulsion of Chinese in northern Mexico during the Mexican Revolution (1910-1920) and racially motivated massacres.In a number of Latin American countries, Indigenous groups have organized explicitly as Indigenous, to claim human rights and influence political power.", "With the passage of anti-colonial resolutions in the United Nations General Assembly and the signing of resolutions for Indigenous rights, the Indigenous are able to act to guarantee their existence within nation-states with legal standing.===Language===Linguistic map of Latin America.", "Spanish in green, Portuguese in orange, and French in blue.Spanish is the predominant language of Latin America.", "It is spoken as first language by about 60% of the population.", "Portuguese is spoken by about 30%, and about 10% speak other languages such as Quechua, Mayan languages, Guaraní, Aymara, Nahuatl, English, French, Dutch and Italian.", "Portuguese is spoken mostly in Brazil, the largest and most populous country in the region.", "Spanish is the official language of most of the other countries and territories on the Latin American mainland, as well as in Cuba and Puerto Rico (where it is co-official with English), and the Dominican Republic.", "French is spoken in Haiti and in the French overseas departments of Guadeloupe, Martinique, and Guiana.", "It is also spoken by some Panamanians of Afro-Antillean descent.", "Dutch is the official language in Suriname, Aruba, Curaçao, and the Netherlands Antilles.", "(As Dutch is a Germanic language, the territories are not necessarily considered part of Latin America.)", "However, the native language of Aruba, Bonaire, and Curaçao, is Papiamento, a creole language largely based on Portuguese and Spanish that has had a considerable influence from Dutch and the Portuguese-based creole languages.", "'''''', '''''', '''''', '''''', '''''', '''Mapudungun'''Amerindian languages are widely spoken in Peru, Guatemala, Bolivia, Paraguay and Mexico, and to a lesser degree, in Panama, Ecuador, Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela, Argentina, and Chile.", "In other Latin American countries, the population of speakers of Indigenous languages tend to be very small or even non-existent, for example in Uruguay.", "Mexico is possibly contains more Indigenous languages than any other Latin American country, but the most-spoken Indigenous language there is Nahuatl.In Peru, Quechua is an official language, alongside Spanish and other Indigenous languages in the areas where they predominate.", "In Ecuador, while Quichua holds no official status, it is a recognized language under the country's constitution; however, it is only spoken by a few groups in the country's highlands.", "In Bolivia, Aymara, Quechua and Guaraní hold official status alongside Spanish.", "Guaraní, like Spanish, is an official language of Paraguay, and is spoken by a majority of the population, which is, for the most part, bilingual, and it is co-official with Spanish in the Argentine province of Corrientes.", "In Nicaragua, Spanish is the official language, but on the country's Caribbean coast English and Indigenous languages such as Miskito, Sumo, and Rama also hold official status.", "Colombia recognizes all Indigenous languages spoken within its territory as official, though fewer than 1% of its population are native speakers of these languages.", "Nahuatl is one of the 62 Native languages spoken by Indigenous people in Mexico, which are officially recognized by the government as \"national languages\" along with Spanish.Other European languages spoken in Latin America include: English, by half of the current population in Puerto Rico, as well as in nearby countries that may or may not be considered Latin American, like Belize and Guyana, and spoken by descendants of British settlers in Argentina and Chile.", "German is spoken in southern Brazil, southern Chile, portions of Argentina, Venezuela and Paraguay; Italian in Brazil, Argentina, Venezuela, and Uruguay; Ukrainian, Polish, and Russian in southern Brazil and Argentina; and Welsh, in southern Argentina.", "Yiddish and Hebrew are possible to be heard around Buenos Aires and São Paulo especially.", "Non-European or Asian languages include Japanese in Brazil, Peru, Bolivia, and Paraguay, Korean in Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay, and Chile, Arabic in Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela, and Chile, and Chinese throughout South America.", "Countries like Venezuela, Argentina and Brazil have their own dialects or variations of German and Italian.In several nations, especially in the Caribbean region, creole languages are spoken.", "The most widely-spoken creole language in Latin America and the Caribbean is Haitian Creole, the predominant language of Haiti, derived primarily from French and certain West African tongues, with Amerindian, English, Portuguese and Spanish influences as well.", "Creole languages of mainland Latin America, similarly, are derived from European languages and various African tongues.The Garifuna language is spoken along the Caribbean coast in Honduras, Guatemala, Nicaragua and Belize, mostly by the Garifuna people, a mixed-race Zambo people who were the result of mixing between Indigenous Caribbeans and escaped Black slaves.", "Primarily an Arawakan language, it has influences from Caribbean and European languages.Archaeologists have deciphered over 15 pre-Columbian distinct writing systems from Mesoamerican societies.", "Ancient Maya had the most sophisticated textually written language, but since texts were largely confined to the religious and administrative elite, traditions were passed down orally.", "Oral traditions also prevailed in other major Indigenous groups including, but not limited to the Aztecs and other Nahuatl speakers, Quechua and Aymara of the Andean regions, the Quiché of Central America, the Tupi-Guaraní in today's Brazil, the Guaraní in Paraguay and the Mapuche in Chile.===Religion===The Las Lajas Sanctuary in southern Colombia, Department of NariñoCathedral of Arequipa, in southern PeruThe vast majority of Latin Americans are Christians (90%), mostly Roman Catholics belonging to the Latin Church.", "About 70% of the Latin American population considers itself Catholic.", "In 2012 Latin America constitutes in absolute terms the second world's largest Christian population, after Europe.According to the detailed Pew multi-country survey in 2014, 69% of the Latin American population is Catholic and 19% is Protestant.", "Protestants are 26% in Brazil and over 40% in much of Central America.", "More than half of these are converts from Roman Catholicism.+Religion in Latin America (2014) Country Catholic (%) Protestant (%) Irreligion (%) Other (%) Paraguay 89 7 1 2 Mexico 81 9 7 4 Colombia 79 13 6 2 Ecuador 79 13 5 3 Bolivia 77 16 4 3 Peru 76 17 4 3 Venezuela 73 17 7 4 Argentina 71 15 12 3 Panama 70 19 7 4 Chile 64 17 16 3 Costa Rica 62 25 9 4 Brazil 61 26 8 5 Dominican Republic 57 23 18 2 Puerto Rico 56 33 8 2 El Salvador 50 36 12 3 Guatemala 50 41 6 3 Nicaragua 50 40 7 4 Honduras 46 41 10 2 Uruguay 42 15 37 6 '''Total''' '''69''' '''19''' '''8''' '''3'''===Migration===The entire hemisphere was settled by migrants from Asia, Europe, and Africa.", "Native American populations settled throughout the hemisphere before the arrival of Europeans in the late fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and the forced migration of slaves from Africa.In the post-independence period, a number of Latin American countries sought to attract European immigrants as a source of labor as well as to deliberately change the proportions of racial and ethnic groups within their borders.", "Chile, Argentina, and Brazil actively recruited labor from Catholic southern Europe, where populations were poor and sought better economic opportunities.", "Many nineteenth-century immigrants went to the United States and Canada, but a significant number arrived in Latin America.", "Although Mexico tried to attract immigrants, it largely failed.", "As black slavery was abolished in Brazil in 1888, coffee growers recruited Japanese migrants to work in coffee plantations.", "There is a significant population of Japanese descent in Brazil.", "Cuba and Peru recruited Chinese labor in the late nineteenth century.", "Some Chinese immigrants who were excluded from immigrating to the U.S. settled in northern Mexico.", "When the U.S. acquired its southwest by conquest in the Mexican American War, Latin American populations did not cross the border to the U.S., the border crossed them.In the twentieth century there have been several types of migration.", "One is the movement of rural populations within a given country to cities in search of work, causing many Latin American cities to grow significantly.", "Another is international movement of populations, often fleeing repression or war.", "Other international migration is for economic reasons, often unregulated or undocumented.", "Mexicans immigrated to the U.S. during the violence of the Mexican Revolution (1910-1920) and the religious Cristero War (1926–29); during World War II, Mexican men worked in the U.S. in the bracero program.", "Economic migration from Mexico followed the crash of the Mexican economy in the 1980s.Spanish refugees fled to Mexico following the fascist victory in the Spanish Civil War (1936–38), with some 50,000 exiles finding refuge at the invitation of President Lázaro Cárdenas.", "Following World War II a larger wave of refugees to Latin America, many of them Jews, settled in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Cuba, and Venezuela.", "Some were only transiting through the region, but others stayed and created communities.", "A number of Nazis escaped to Latin America, living under assumed names, in an attempting to avoid attention and prosecution.In the aftermath of the Cuban Revolution, middle class and elite Cubans moved to the U.S., particularly to Florida.", "Some fled Chile for the U.S. and Europe after the 1973 military coup.", "Colombians migrated to Spain and the United Kingdom during the region's political turmoil, compounded by the rise of narcotrafficking and guerrilla warfare.", "During the Central American wars of the 1970s to the 1990s, many Salvadorans, Guatemalans, and Hondurans migrated to the U.S. to escape narcotrafficking, gangs, and poverty.", "As living conditions deteriorated in Venezuela under Hugo Chávez and Nicolás Maduro, many left for neighboring Colombia and Ecuador.", "In the 1990s, economic stress in Ecuador during the La Década Perdida triggered considerable migration to Spain and to the U.S.Some Latin American countries seek to strengthen links between migrants and their states of origin, while promoting their integration in the receiving state.", "These emigrant policies focus on the rights, obligations and opportunities for participation of emigrated citizens who already live outside the borders of the country of origin.", "Research on Latin America shows that the extension of policies towards migrants is linked to a focus on civil rights and state benefits that can positively influence integration in recipient countries.", "In addition, the tolerance of dual citizenship has spread more in Latin America than in any other region of the world.===Education===World map indicating literacy rate by country in 2015 (2015 CIA ''World Factbook'').", "Grey = no data.Despite significant progress, education access and school completion remains unequal in Latin America.", "The region has made great progress in educational coverage; almost all children attend primary school, and access to secondary education has increased considerably.", "Quality issues such as poor teaching methods, lack of appropriate equipment, and overcrowding exist throughout the region.", "These issues lead to adolescents dropping out of the educational system early.", "Most educational systems in the region have implemented various types of administrative and institutional reforms that have enabled reach for places and communities that had no access to education services in the early 1990s.", "School meal programs are also employed to expand access to education, and at least 23 countries in the Latin America and Caribbean region have large-scale school feeding activities, altogether reaching 88% of primary school-age children in the region.", "Compared to prior generations, Latin American youth have seen an increase in their levels of education.", "On average, they have completed two more years of school than their parents.However, there are still 23 million children in the region between the ages of 4 and 17 outside of the formal education system.", "Estimates indicate that 30% of preschool age children (ages 4–5) do not attend school, and for the most vulnerable populations, the poor and rural, this proportion exceeds 40 percent.", "Among primary school age children (ages 6 to 12), attendance is almost universal; however there is still a need to enroll five million more children in the primary education system.", "These children mostly live in remote areas, are Indigenous or Afro-descendants and live in extreme poverty.Among people between the ages of 13 and 17 years, only 80% are full-time students, and only 66% of these advance to secondary school.", "These percentages are lower among vulnerable population groups: only 75% of the poorest youth between the ages of 13 and 17 years attend school.", "Tertiary education has the lowest coverage, with only 70% of people between the ages of 18 and 25 years outside of the education system.", "Currently, more than half of low income or rural children fail to complete nine years of education.===Crime and violence===homicide rate.", "As of 2015, the Latin American countries with the highest rates were El Salvador (108.64 per 100,000 people), Honduras (63.75) and Venezuela (57.15).", "The countries with the lowest rates were Chile (3.59), Cuba (4.72) and Argentina (6.53).Latin America and the Caribbean have been cited by numerous sources to be the most dangerous regions in the world.", "Studies have shown that Latin America contains the majority of the world's most dangerous cities.", "Many analysts attribute this to social and income inequality in the region.", "Many agree that the prison crisis will not be resolved until the gap between the rich and the poor is addressed.Crime and violence prevention and public security are now important issues for governments and citizens in Latin America and the Caribbean region.", "Homicide rates in Latin America are the highest in the world.", "From the early 1980s through the mid-1990s, homicide rates increased by 50 percent.", "Latin America and the Caribbean experienced more than 2.5 million murders between 2000 and 2017.There were a total of 63,880 murders in Brazil in 2018.The most frequent victims of such homicides are young men, 69 percent of them between the ages of 15 and 19.Countries with the highest homicide rate per year per 100,000 inhabitants in 2015 were: El Salvador 109, Honduras 64, Venezuela 57, Jamaica 43, Belize 34.4, St. Kitts and Nevis 34, Guatemala 34, Trinidad and Tobago 31, the Bahamas 30, Brazil 26.7, Colombia 26.5, the Dominican Republic 22, St. Lucia 22, Guyana 19, Mexico 16, Puerto Rico 16, Ecuador 13, Grenada 13, Costa Rica 12, Bolivia 12, Nicaragua 12, Panama 11, Antigua and Barbuda 11, and Haiti 10.Most of the countries with the highest homicide rates are in Africa and Latin America.", "Countries in Central America, like El Salvador and Honduras, top the list of homicides in the world.Brazil has more overall homicides than any country in the world, at 50,108, accounting for one in 10 globally.", "Crime-related violence is the biggest threat to public health in Latin America, striking more victims than HIV/AIDS or any other infectious disease.", "Countries with the lowest homicide rate per year per 100,000 inhabitants as of 2015 were: Chile 3, Peru 7, Argentina 7, Uruguay 8 and Paraguay 9.=== Public health ===Life expectancy and healthy life expectancy in Latin America in 2019==== Water ======== Reproductive rights ======== HIV/AIDS ====" ], [ "Economy", "===Size===According to Goldman Sachs' BRICS review of emerging economies, by 2050 the largest economies in the world will be as follows: China, United States, India, Japan, Germany, United Kingdom, Mexico and Brazil.+'''Population and economy size for Latin American countries'''CountryPopulation(, millions)GDP (nominal)(2019, millions US$)GDP (PPP)(2019, millions US$) 445,469 903,542 42,401 94,392 1,847,020 3,456,357 294,237 502,846 327,895 783,002 61,021 91,611 89,475 201,266 107,914 202,773 26,871 55,731 81,318 153,322 8,819 21,124 24,449 51,757 1,274,175 2,627,851 12,528 34,531 68,536 113,156 40,714 97,163 228,989 478,303 59,918 82,969 70,140 '''Total''' 577,8 ===Agriculture===São Paulo.", "In 2018, Brazil was the world's largest producer, with 746 million tons.", "Latin America produces more than half of the world's sugarcane.Soybean plantation in Mato Grosso.", "In 2020, Brazil was the world's largest producer, with 130 million tons.", "Latin America produces half of the world's soybeans.Coffee in Minas Gerais.", "In 2018, Brazil was the world's largest producer, with 3.5 million tons.", "Latin America produces half of the world's coffee.Oranges in São Paulo.", "In 2018, Brazil was the world's largest producer, with 17 million tons.", "Latin America produces 30% of the world's oranges.The four countries with the strongest agricultural sector in South America are Brazil, Argentina, Chile and Colombia.", "Currently:* Brazil is the world's largest producer of sugarcane, soy, coffee, oranges, guaraná, açaí and Brazil nut; is one of the top five producers of maize, papaya, tobacco, pineapple, banana, cotton, beans, coconut, watermelon, lemon and yerba mate; is one of the top ten world producers of cocoa, cashew, avocado, tangerine, persimmon, mango, guava, rice, oat, sorghum and tomato; and is one of the top 15 world producers of grapes, apples, melons, peanuts, figs, peaches, onions, palm oil and natural rubber;* Argentina is the world's largest producer of yerba mate; is one of the five largest producers in the world of soy, maize, sunflower seeds, lemons and pears, one of the 10 largest producers in the world of barley, grapes, artichokes, tobacco and cotton, and one of the 15 largest producers in the world of wheat, oats, chickpeas, sugarcane, sorghum and grapefruit;* Chile is one of the five largest world producers of cherries and cranberries, and one of the ten largest world producers of grapes, apples, kiwi, peaches, plums and hazelnuts, focusing on exporting high-value fruits;* Colombia is one of the five largest producers in the world of coffee, avocados and palm oil, and one of the ten largest producers in the world of sugarcane, bananas, pineapples and cocoa;* Peru is the world's largest producer of quinoa; is one of the five largest producers of avocados, blueberry, artichokes and asparagus; one of the ten largest producers in the world of coffee and cocoa; one of the 15 largest producers in the world of potatoes and pineapples, and also has a large production of grapes, sugarcane, rice, bananas, maize and cassava; its agriculture is considerably diversified;* Paraguay is currently the 6th largest producer of soy in the world and entering the list of the 20 largest producers of maize and sugarcane.In Central America, the following stand out:* Guatemala is one of the ten largest producers in the world of coffee, sugar cane, melons and natural rubber, and one of the world's 15 largest producers of bananas and palm oil;* Honduras is one of the five largest producers of coffee in the world, and one of the ten largest producers of palm oil;* Costa Rica is the world's largest producer of pineapples;* Dominican Republic is one of the world's top five producers of papayas and avocados, and one of the ten largest producers of cocoa.", "* Mexico is the world's largest producer of avocados, one of the world's top five producers of Chile, lemons, oranges, mangos, papayas, strawberries, grapefruit, pumpkins and asparagus, and one of the world's 10 largest producers of sugar cane, maize, sorghum, beans, tomatoes, coconuts, pineapple, melons and blueberries.Truck of a meat company in Brazil.", "Latin America produces 25% of the world's beef and chicken meat.Brazil is the world's largest exporter of chicken meat: 3.77 million tons in 2019.The country had the second largest herd of cattle in the world, 22.2% of the world herd.", "The country was the second largest producer of beef in 2019, responsible for 15.4% of global production.", "It was also the third largest world producer of milk in 2018.This year, the country produced 35.1 billion liters.", "In 2019, Brazil was the fourth largest pork producer in the world, with almost four million tons.In 2018, Argentina was the fourth largest producer of beef in the world, with a production of 3 million tons (behind only United States, Brazil and China).", "Uruguay is also a major meat producer.", "In 2018, it produced 589 thousand tons of beef.In the production of chicken meat, Mexico is among the ten largest producers in the world, Argentina among the 15 largest and Peru and Colombia among the 20 largest.", "In beef production, Mexico is one of the ten largest producers in the world and Colombia is one of the 20 largest producers.", "In the production of pork, Mexico is among the 15 largest producers in the world.", "In the production of honey, Argentina is among the five largest producers in the world, Mexico among the ten largest and Brazil among the 15 largest.", "In terms of cow's milk production, Mexico is among the 15 largest producers in the world and Argentina among the 20 largest.===Mining and petroleum===Chile is a first world producer of copper.Cerro Rico, Potosi, Bolivia, still a major silver mineAmethyst mine in Ametista do Sul.", "Latin America is a major producer of gems such as amethyst, topaz, emeralds, aquamarine and tourmaline.Iron mine in Minas Gerais.", "Brazil is the world's second largest iron ore exporter.Mining is one of the most important economic sectors in Latin America, especially for Chile, Peru and Bolivia, whose economies are highly dependent on this sector.", "The continent has large productions of:gold (mainly in Peru, Mexico, Brazil and Argentina); silver (mainly in Mexico, Peru, Chile, Bolivia and Argentina); copper (mainly in Chile, Peru, Mexico and Brazil); iron ore (Brazil, Peru and Chile); zinc (Peru, Mexico, Bolivia and Brazil); molybdenum (Chile, Peru and Mexico); lithium (Chile, Argentina and Brazil); lead (Peru, Mexico and Bolivia); bauxite (Brazil and Jamaica); tin (Peru, Bolivia and Brazil); manganese (Brazil and Mexico); antimony (Bolivia, Mexico, Guatemala and Ecuador); nickel (Brazil, Dominican Republic and Cuba); niobium (Brazil); rhenium (Chile); iodine (Chile),Brazil stands out in the extraction of iron ore (where it is the 2nd largest producer and exporter in the world—iron ore is usually one of the three export products that generate the greatest value in the country's trade balance)coppergoldbauxite (one of the five largest producers in the world)manganese (one of the five largest producers in the world)tin (one of the largest producers in the world)niobium (98% of known world reserves) and nickelIn terms of gemstones, Brazil is the world's largest producer of amethysts, topaz, and agates and one of the main producers of tourmaline, emeralds, aquamarines, garnets and opals.Chile contributes about a third of the world's copper production.", "In addition, Chile was, in 2019, the world's largest producer of iodine and rhenium, the second largest producer of lithium and molybdenum, the sixth largest producer of silver, the seventh largest producer of salt, the eighth largest producer of potash, the thirteenth-largest producer of sulfur and the thirteenth largest producer of iron ore in the world.In 2019, Peru was the second largest world producer of copper and silver, 8th largest world producer of gold, third largest world producer of lead, second largest world producer of zinc, fourth largest world producer of tin, fifth largest world producer of boron, and fourth largest world producer of molybdenum.In 2019, Bolivia was the eighth largest world producer of silver; fourth largest world producer of boron; fifth largest world producer of antimony; fifth largest world producer of tin; sixth largest world producer of tungsten; seventh largest producer of zinc, and the eighth largest producer of lead.In 2019, Mexico was the world's largest producer of silver (representing almost 23% of world production, producing more than 200 million ounces in 2019); ninth largest producer of gold, the eighth largest producer of copper, the world's fifth largest producer of lead, the world's sixth largest producer of zinc, the world's fifth largest producer of molybdenum, the world's third largest producer of mercury, the world's fifth largest producer of bismuth, the world's 13th largest producer of manganese and the 23rd largest world producer of phosphate.", "It is also the eighth largest world producer of salt.In 2019, Argentina was the fourth largest world producer of lithium, the ninth largest world producer of silver, the 17th largest world producer of gold and the seventh largest world producer of boron.Colombia is the world's largest producer of emeralds.", "In the production of gold, between 2006 and 2017, the country produced 15 tons per year until 2007, when its production increased significantly, breaking a record of 66.1 tons extracted in 2012.In 2017, it extracted 52.2 tons.", "The country is among the 25 largest gold producers in the world.", "In the production of silver, in 2017 the country extracted 15,5 tons.In the production of oil, Brazil was the tenth largest oil producer in the world in 2019, with 2.8 million barrels a day.", "Mexico was the twelfth largest, with 2.1 million barrels a day, Colombia in 20th place with 886 thousand barrels a day, Venezuela was the twenty-first place, with 877 thousand barrels a day, Ecuador in 28th with 531 thousand barrels a day and Argentina.", "29th with 507 thousand barrels a day.", "Since Venezuela and Ecuador consume little oil and export most of their production, they are part of OPEC.", "Venezuela had a big drop in production after 2015 (when it produced 2.5 million barrels a day), falling in 2016 to 2.2 million, in 2017 to 2 million, in 2018 to 1.4 million and in 2019 to 877 thousand, due to lack of investment.In the production of natural gas, in 2018, Argentina produced 1,524 bcf (billions of cubic feet), Mexico produced 999, Venezuela 946, Brazil 877, Bolivia 617, Peru 451, Colombia 379.In the production of coal, the continent had three of the 30 largest world producers in 2018: Colombia (12th), Mexico (24th) and Brazil (27th).===Manufacturing===Braskem, the largest Brazilian chemical industryEMS, the largest Brazilian pharmaceutical industryThe World Bank annually lists the top manufacturing countries by total manufacturing value.", "According to the 2019 list:Mexico had the twelfth most valuable industry in the world (US$217.8 billion)Brazil the thirteenth largest (US$173.6 billion)Venezuela the thirtieth largest (US$58.2 billion, however, it depends on oil to reach this value)Argentina the 31st largest (US$57.7 billion)Colombia the 46th largest (US$35.4 billion)Peru the 50th largest (US$28.7 billion) Chile the 51st largest (US$28.3 billion).In Latin America, few countries stand out in industrial activity: Brazil, Argentina, Mexico and, less prominently, Chile.", "Begun late, the industrialization of these countries received a great boost from World War II: this prevented the countries at war from buying the products they were used to importing and exporting what they produced.", "At that time, benefiting from the abundant local raw material, the low wages paid to the labor force and a certain specialization brought by immigrants, countries such as Brazil, Mexico and Argentina, as well as Venezuela, Chile, Colombia and Peru, were able to implement important industrial parks.", "In general, in these countries there are industries that require little capital and simple technology for their installation, such as the food processing and textile industries.", "The basic industries (steel, etc.)", "also stand out, as well as the metallurgical and mechanical industries.The industrial parks of Brazil, Mexico, Argentina and Chile, however, present much greater diversity and sophistication, producing advanced technology items.", "In the rest of Latin American countries, mainly in Central America, the processing industries of primary products for export predominate.In the food industry, in 2019, Brazil was the second largest exporter of processed foods in the world.", "In 2016, the country was the second largest producer of pulp in the world and the eighth largest producer of paper.", "In the footwear industry, in 2019, Brazil ranked fourth among world producers.", "In 2019, the country was the eighth largest producer of vehicles and the ninth largest producer of steel in the world.", "In 2018, the chemical industry of Brazil was the eighth largest in the world.", "In the textile industry, Brazil, although it was among the five largest world producers in 2013, is very little integrated into world trade.", "In the aviation sector, Brazil has Embraer, the third largest aircraft manufacturer in the world, behind Boeing and Airbus.===Infrastructure===Panama Canal expansion project; New ''Agua Clara'' locks (Atlantic side)Rodovia dos Bandeirantes, BrazilRuta 9 / 14, in Zarate, ArgentinaGeneral Rafael Urdaneta BridgeTransport in Latin America is basically carried out using the road mode, the most developed in the region.", "There is also a considerable infrastructure of ports and airports.", "The railway and fluvial sector, although it has potential, is usually treated in a secondary way.Brazil has more than 1.7 million km of roads, of which 215,000 km are paved, and about 14,000 km are divided highways.", "The two most important highways in the country are BR-101 and BR-116.Argentina has more than 600,000 km of roads, of which about 70,000 km are paved, and about 2,500 km are divided highways.", "The three most important highways in the country are Route 9, Route 7 and Route 14.Colombia has about 210,000 km of roads, and about 2,300 km are divided highways.", "Chile has about 82,000 km of roads, 20,000 km of which are paved, and about 2,000 km are divided highways.", "The most important highway in the country is the Route 5 (Pan-American Highway) These 4 countries are the ones with the best road infrastructure and with the largest number of double-lane highways, in South America.The roadway network in Mexico has an extent of , of which are paved, Of these, are multi-lane expressways: are four-lane highways and the rest have 6 or more lanes.Due to the Andes Mountains, Amazon River and Amazon Forest, there have always been difficulties in implementing transcontinental or bioceanic highways.", "Practically the only route that existed was the one that connected Brazil to Buenos Aires, in Argentina and later to Santiago, in Chile.", "However, in recent years, with the combined effort of countries, new routes have started to emerge, such as Brazil-Peru (Interoceanic Highway), and a new highway between Brazil, Paraguay, northern Argentina and northern Chile (Bioceanic Corridor).Mexico City International AirportPort of Itajaí, Santa Catarina, BrazilThere are more than 2,000 airports in Brazil.", "The country has the second largest number of airports in the world, behind only the United States.", "São Paulo International Airport, located in the Metropolitan Region of São Paulo, is the largest and busiest in the country – the airport connects São Paulo to practically all major cities around the world.", "Brazil has 44 international airports, such as those in Rio de Janeiro, Brasília, Belo Horizonte, Porto Alegre, Florianópolis, Cuiabá, Salvador, Recife, Fortaleza, Belém and Manaus, among others.", "Argentina has important international airports such as Buenos Aires, Cordoba, Bariloche, Mendoza, Salta, Puerto Iguazú, Neuquén and Usuhaia, among others.", "Chile has important international airports such as Santiago, Antofagasta, Puerto Montt, Punta Arenas and Iquique, among others.", "Colombia has important international airports such as Bogotá, Medellín, Cartagena, Cali and Barranquilla, among others.", "Peru has important international airports such as Lima, Cuzco and Arequipa.", "Other important airports are those in the capitals of Uruguay (Montevideo), Paraguay (Asunción), Bolivia (La Paz) and Ecuador (Quito).", "The 10 busiest airports in South America in 2017 were: São Paulo-Guarulhos (Brazil), Bogotá (Colombia), São Paulo-Congonhas (Brazil), Santiago (Chile), Lima (Peru), Brasília (Brazil), Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), Buenos Aires-Aeroparque (Argentina), Buenos Aires-Ezeiza (Argentina), and Minas Gerais (Brazil).There are 1,834 airports in Mexico, the third-largest number of airports by country in the world.", "The seven largest airports—which absorb 90% of air travel—are (in order of air traffic): Mexico City, Cancún, Guadalajara, Monterrey, Tijuana, Acapulco, and Puerto Vallarta.", "Considering all of Latin America, the 10 busiest airports in 2017 were: Mexico City (Mexico), São Paulo-Guarulhos (Brazil), Bogotá (Colombia), Cancún (Mexico), São Paulo-Congonhas (Brazil), Santiago ( Chile), Lima (Peru), Brasilia (Brazil), Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) and Tocumen (Panama).About ports, Brazil has some of the busiest ports in South America, such as Port of Santos, Port of Rio de Janeiro, Port of Paranaguá, Port of Itajaí, Port of Rio Grande, Port of São Francisco do Sul and Suape Port.", "Argentina has ports such as Port of Buenos Aires and Port of Rosario.", "Chile has important ports in Valparaíso, Caldera, Mejillones, Antofagasta, Iquique, Arica and Puerto Montt.", "Colombia has important ports such as Buenaventura, Cartagena Container Terminal and Puerto Bolivar.", "Peru has important ports in Callao, Ilo and Matarani.", "The 15 busiest ports in South America are: Port of Santos (Brazil), Port of Bahia de Cartagena (Colombia), Callao (Peru), Guayaquil (Ecuador), Buenos Aires (Argentina), San Antonio (Chile), Buenaventura (Colombia), Itajaí (Brazil), Valparaíso (Chile), Montevideo (Uruguay), Paranaguá (Brazil), Rio Grande (Brazil), São Francisco do Sul (Brazil), Manaus (Brazil) and Coronel (Chile).The four major seaports concentrating around 60% of the merchandise traffic in Mexico are Altamira and Veracruz in the Gulf of Mexico, and Manzanillo and Lázaro Cárdenas in the Pacific Ocean.", "Considering all of Latin America, the 10 largest ports in terms of movement are: Colon (Panama), Santos (Brazil), Manzanillo (Mexico), Bahia de Cartagena (Colombia), Pacifico (Panama), Callao (Peru), Guayaquil ( Ecuador), Buenos Aires (Argentina), San Antonio (Chile) and Buenaventura (Colombia).The Brazilian railway network has an extension of about 30,000 kilometers.", "It is basically used for transporting ores.", "The Argentine rail network, with 47,000 km of tracks, was one of the largest in the world and continues to be the most extensive in Latin America.", "It came to have about 100,000 km of rails, but the lifting of tracks and the emphasis placed on motor transport gradually reduced it.", "It has four different trails and international connections with Paraguay, Bolivia, Chile, Brazil and Uruguay.", "Chile has almost 7,000 km of railways, with connections to Argentina, Bolivia and Peru.", "Colombia has only about 3,500 km of railways.Among the main Brazilian waterways, two stand out: Hidrovia Tietê-Paraná (which has a length of 2,400 km, 1,600 on the Paraná River and 800 km on the Tietê River, draining agricultural production from the states of Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, Goiás and part of Rondônia, Tocantins and Minas General) and Hidrovia do Solimões-Amazonas (it has two sections: Solimões, which extends from Tabatinga to Manaus, with approximately 1600 km, and Amazonas, which extends from Manaus to Belém, with 1650 km.", "Almost entirely passenger transport from the Amazon plain is done by this waterway, in addition to practically all cargo transportation that is directed to the major regional centers of Belém and Manaus).", "In Brazil, this transport is still underutilized: the most important waterway stretches, from an economic point of view, are found in the Southeast and South of the country.", "Its full use still depends on the construction of locks, major dredging works and, mainly, of ports that allow intermodal integration.", "In Argentina, the waterway network is made up of the La Plata, Paraná, Paraguay and Uruguay rivers.", "The main river ports are Zárate and Campana.", "The port of Buenos Aires is historically the first in individual importance, but the area known as Up-River, which stretches along 67 km of the Santa Fé portion of the Paraná River, brings together 17 ports that concentrate 50% of the total exports of the country.=== Energy =======Brazil====Itaipu Dam in ParanáWind power in ParnaíbaAngra Nuclear Power Plant in Angra dos Reis, Rio de JaneiroPirapora Solar Complex, the largest in Brazil and Latin America with a capacity of 321 MWThe Brazilian government has undertaken an ambitious program to reduce dependence on imported petroleum.", "Imports previously accounted for more than 70% of the country's oil needs but Brazil became self-sufficient in oil in 2006–2007.Brazil was the 10th largest oil producer in the world in 2019, with 2.8 million barrels / day.", "Production manages to supply the country's demand.", "In the beginning of 2020, in the production of oil and natural gas, the country exceeded 4 million barrels of oil equivalent per day, for the first time.", "In January this year, 3.168 million barrels of oil per day and 138.753 million cubic meters of natural gas were extracted.Brazil is one of the main world producers of hydroelectric power.", "In 2019, Brazil had 217 hydroelectric plants in operation, with an installed capacity of 98,581 MW, 60.16% of the country's energy generation.", "In the total generation of electricity, in 2019 Brazil reached 170,000 megawatts of installed capacity, more than 75% from renewable sources (the majority, hydroelectric).In 2013, the Southeast Region used about 50% of the load of the National Integrated System (SIN), being the main energy consuming region in the country.", "The region's installed electricity generation capacity totaled almost 42,500 MW, which represented about a third of Brazil's generation capacity.", "The hydroelectric generation represented 58% of the region's installed capacity, with the remaining 42% corresponding basically to the thermoelectric generation.", "São Paulo accounted for 40% of this capacity; Minas Gerais by about 25%; Rio de Janeiro by 13.3%; and Espírito Santo accounted for the rest.", "The South Region owns the Itaipu Dam, which was the largest hydroelectric plant in the world for several years, until the inauguration of Three Gorges Dam in China.", "It remains the second largest operating hydroelectric in the world.", "Brazil is the co-owner of the Itaipu Plant with Paraguay: the dam is located on the Paraná River, located on the border between countries.", "It has an installed generation capacity of 14 GW for 20 generating units of 700 MW each.", "North Region has large hydroelectric plants, such as Belo Monte Dam and Tucuruí Dam, which produce much of the national energy.", "Brazil's hydroelectric potential has not yet been fully exploited, so the country still has the capacity to build several renewable energy plants in its territory.", "according to ONS, total installed capacity of wind power was 22 GW, with average capacity factor of 58%.", "While the world average wind production capacity factors is 24.7%, there are areas in Northern Brazil, specially in Bahia State, where some wind farms record with average capacity factors over 60%; the average capacity factor in the Northeast Region is 45% in the coast and 49% in the interior.", "In 2019, wind energy represented 9% of the energy generated in the country.", "In 2019, it was estimated that the country had an estimated wind power generation potential of around 522 GW (this, only onshore), enough energy to meet three times the country's current demand.", "In 2021 Brazil was the 7th country in the world in terms of installed wind power (21 GW), and the 4th largest producer of wind energy in the world (72 TWh), behind only China, USA and Germany.Nuclear energy accounts for about 4% of Brazil's electricity.", "The nuclear power generation monopoly is owned by Eletronuclear (Eletrobrás Eletronuclear S/A), a wholly owned subsidiary of Eletrobrás.", "Nuclear energy is produced by two reactors at Angra.", "It is located at the Central Nuclear Almirante Álvaro Alberto (CNAAA) on the Praia de Itaorna in Angra dos Reis, Rio de Janeiro.", "It consists of two pressurized water reactors, Angra I, with capacity of 657 MW, connected to the power grid in 1982, and Angra II, with capacity of 1,350 MW, connected in 2000.A third reactor, Angra III, with a projected output of 1,350 MW, is planned to be finished.", "according to ONS, total installed capacity of photovoltaic solar was 21 GW, with average capacity factor of 23%.", "Some of the most irradiated Brazilian States are MG (\"Minas Gerais\"), BA (\"Bahia\") and GO (\"Goiás\"), which have indeed world irradiation level records.", "In 2019, solar power represented 1.27% of the energy generated in the country.", "In 2021, Brazil was the 14th country in the world in terms of installed solar power (13 GW), and the 11th largest producer of solar energy in the world (16.8 TWh).In 2020, Brazil was the 2nd largest country in the world in the production of energy through biomass (energy production from solid biofuels and renewable waste), with 15,2 GW installed.====Other countries====After Brazil, Mexico is the country in Latin America that most stands out in energy production.", "In 2020, the country was the 14th largest petroleum producer in the world, and in 2018 it was the 12th largest exporter.", "In natural gas, the country was, in 2015, the 21st largest producer in the world, and in 2007 it was the 29th largest exporter.", "Mexico was also the world's 24th largest producer of coal in 2018.In renewable energies, in 2020, the country ranked 14th in the world in terms of installed wind energy (8.1 GW), 20th in the world in terms of installed solar energy (5.6 GW) and 19th in the world in terms of installed hydroelectric power (12.6 GW).", "In third place, Colombia stands out: In 2020, the country was the 20th largest petroleum producer in the world, and in 2015 it was the 19th largest exporter.", "In natural gas, the country was, in 2015, the 40th largest producer in the world.", "Colombia's biggest highlight is in coal, where the country was, in 2018, the world's 12th largest producer and the 5th largest exporter.", "In renewable energies, in 2020, the country ranked 45th in the world in terms of installed wind energy (0.5 GW), 76th in the world in terms of installed solar energy (0.1 GW) and 20th in the world in terms of installed hydroelectric power (12.6 GW).", "Venezuela, which was one of the world's largest oil producers (about 2.5 million barrels/day in 2015) and one of the largest exporters, due to its political problems, has had its production drastically reduced in recent years: in 2016, it dropped to 2.2 million, in 2017 to 2 million, in 2018 to 1.4 million and in 2019 to 877 thousand, reaching only 300,000 barrels/day at a given point.", "The country also stands out in hydroelectricity, where it was the 14th country in the world in terms of installed capacity in 2020 (16,5 GW).", "Argentina was, in 2017, the 18th largest producer in the world, and the largest producer in Latin America, of natural gas, in addition to being the 28th largest oil producer; although the country has the Vaca Muerta field, which holds close to 16 billion barrels of technically recoverable shale oil, and is the second largest shale natural gas deposit in the world, the country lacks the capacity to exploit the deposit: it is necessary capital, technology and knowledge that can only come from offshore energy companies, who view Argentina and its erratic economic policies with considerable suspicion, not wanting to invest in the country.", "In renewable energies, in 2020, the country ranked 27th in the world in terms of installed wind energy (2.6 GW), 42nd in the world in terms of installed solar energy (0.7 GW) and 21st in the world in terms of installed hydroelectric power (11.3 GW).", "The country has great future potential for the production of wind energy in the Patagonia region.", "Chile, although currently not a major energy producer, has great future potential for solar energy production in the Atacama Desert region.", "Paraguay stands out today in hydroelectric production thanks to the Itaipu Power Plant.", "Trinidad and Tobago and Bolivia stand out in the production of natural gas, where they were, respectively, the 20th and 31st largest in the world in 2015.Ecuador, because it consumes little energy, is part of OPEC and was the 27th largest oil producer in the world in 2020, being the 22nd largest exporter in 2014." ], [ "Trade blocs", "Native New World crops exchanged globally: maize, tomato, potato, vanilla, rubber, cocoa, tobaccoRafael Correa, Evo Morales, Néstor Kirchner, Cristina Fernández, Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, Nicanor Duarte, and Hugo Chávez at the signing of the founding charter of the Bank of the SouthThe major trade blocs (or agreements) in the region are the Pacific Alliance and Mercosur.", "Minor blocs or trade agreements are the G3 Free Trade Agreement, the Dominican Republic – Central America Free Trade Agreement (DR-CAFTA), the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) and the Andean Community of Nations (CAN).", "However, major reconfigurations are taking place along opposing approaches to integration and trade; Venezuela has officially withdrawn from both the CAN and G3 and it has been formally admitted into the Mercosur (pending ratification from the Paraguayan legislature).", "The president-elect of Ecuador has manifested his intentions of following the same path.", "This bloc nominally opposes any Free Trade Agreement (FTA) with the United States, although Uruguay has manifested its intention otherwise.", "Chile, Peru, Colombia and Mexico are the only four Latin American nations that have an FTA with the United States and Canada, both members of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA).=== China ===China's economic influence in Latin America increased substantially in the 21st century.", "Imports from China valued $8.3 billion in 2000, but by 2022 its value was $450 billion and had grown to be the largest trading partner of South America, as well as the second-largest for the broader Latin America.", "In particular, many of the investments are related to the Belt and Road Initiative or energy.", "China has also provided loans to several Latin American countries; this has raised concerns about the possibility of \"debt traps.\"", "Specifically, Venezuela, Brazil, Ecuador, and Argentina received the most loans from China during 2005–2016." ], [ "Tourism", "Aerial view of Cancún.", "Mexico is the most visited country in Latin America and 6th in the world.Income from tourism is key to the economy of several Latin American countries.", "Mexico is the only Latin American country to be ranked in the top 10 worldwide in the number of tourist visits.", "It received by far the largest number of international tourists, with 39.3 million visitors in 2017, followed by Argentina, with 6.7 million; then Brazil, with 6.6 million; Chile, with 6.5 million; Dominican Republic, with 6.2 million; Cuba with 4.3 million; Peru and Colombia with 4.0 million.", "The World Tourism Organization reports the following destinations as the top six tourism earners for the year 2017: Mexico, with US$21,333 million; the Dominican Republic, with US$7,178 million; Brazil, with US$6,024 million; Colombia, with US$4,773 million; Argentina, with US$4,687 million; and Panama, with US$4,258 million.Places such as Cancún, Riviera Maya, Chichen Itza, Cabo San Lucas, Mexico City, Acapulco, Puerto Vallarta, Guanajuato City, San Miguel de Allende, Guadalajara in Mexico, Punta Cana, Santo Domingo in Dominican Republic, Punta del Este in Uruguay, Labadee in Haiti, San Juan, Ponce in Puerto Rico, Panama City in Panama, Poás Volcano National Park in Costa Rica, Viña del Mar in Chile, Rio de Janeiro, Florianópolis, Iguazu Falls, São Paulo, Armação dos Búzios, Salvador, Bombinhas, Angra dos Reis, Balneário Camboriú, Paraty, Ipojuca, Natal, Cairu, Fortaleza and Itapema in Brazil; Buenos Aires, Bariloche, Salta, Jujuy, Perito Moreno Glacier, Valdes Peninsula, Guarani Jesuit Missions in the cities of Misiones and Corrientes, Ischigualasto Provincial Park, Ushuaia and Patagonia in Argentina;Isla Margarita, Angel Falls, Los Roques archipelago, Gran Sabana in Venezuela; Machu Picchu, Lima, Nazca Lines, Cuzco in Peru; Lake Titicaca, Salar de Uyuni, La Paz, Jesuit Missions of Chiquitos in Bolivia; Tayrona National Natural Park, Santa Marta, Bogotá, Cali, Medellín, Cartagena, San Andrés in Colombia, and the Galápagos Islands in Ecuador.", "are popular among international visitors in the region.+Performance indicators for international tourism in Latin America Country International tourist arrivals (2017) (1000s) International tourism receipts (2017) (Millions of US$) Tourism receipts (2011) (US$ per arrival) Tourism receipts (2011) (US$ per capita) Tourism receipts (2003) (as % of exports) Tourism receipts (2003) (as % of GDP) Direct and indirect employment in tourism (2005) (%) Tourism competitiveness (2011) (TTCI) 6,705 5,060 945 133 7.4 1.8 9.1 4.20 959 784 31 9.4 2.2 7.6 3.35 6,589 5,809 1,207 34 3.2 0.5 7.0 4.36 6,450 3,634 596 107 5.3 1.9 6.8 4.27 4,027 4,773 873 45 6.6 1.4 5.9 3.94 2,910 3,876 982 459 17.5 8.1 13.3 4.43 4,297 3,045 872 194 6,188 7,178 1,011 440 36.2 18.8 19.8 3.99 1,608 1,657 734 58 6.3 1.5 7.4 3.79 1,556 873 351 67 12.9 3.4 6.8 3.68 1,660 1,550 1,102 94 16.0 2.6 6.0 3.82 516* 504 655 17 19.4 3.2 4.7 908 686 753 92 13.5 5.0 8.5 3.79 39,298 21,333 507 105 5.7 1.6 14.2 4.43 1,787 841 356 65 15.5 3.7 5.6 3.56 1,843 4,452 1,308 550 10.6 6.3 12.9 4.30 1,537 603 460 37 4.2 1.3 6.4 3.26 4,032 3,710 908 81 9.0 1.6 7.6 4.04 3,674 2,540 765 643 14.2 3.6 10.7 4.24 789* 575* 1,449 25 1.3 0.4 8.1 3.46() Data for 2015 rather than 2017, as the newest data is currently unavailable." ], [ "Culture", "Roman Catholic Easter procession in Comayagua, HondurasNicaraguan women wearing the Mestizaje costume, which is a traditional costume worn to dance the Mestizaje dance.", "The costume demonstrates the Spanish influence upon Nicaraguan clothing.Latin American culture is a mixture of many influences:* Indigenous cultures of the people who inhabited the continent prior to European colonization.", "Ancient and advanced civilizations developed their own political, social and religious systems.", "The Maya, the Aztec and the Inca are examples of these.", "Indigenous legacies in music, dance, foods, arts and crafts, clothing, folk culture and traditions are strong in Latin America.", "Indigenous languages affected Spanish and Portuguese, giving rise to loanwords like pampa, taco, tamale, cacique.", "* The culture of Europe was brought mainly by the colonial powersthe Spanish, Portuguese and Frenchbetween the 16th and 19th centuries.", "The most enduring European colonial influences are language, institutions, customs and Catholicism.", "* Additional cultural influences came from the Europe during the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries, due to growing immigration from Germany, Italy, France, Spain and Portugal; as well as artistic, ideological and technological developments of the time.", "Due to the impact of Enlightenment ideals after the French revolution, a certain number of Iberian American countries decriminalized homosexuality after France and French territories in the Americas did so in 1791.Some of the countries that abolished sodomy laws or banned state interference in consensual adult sexuality in the 19th century were Dominican Republic (1822), Brazil (1824), Peru (1836), Mexico (1871), Paraguay (1880), Argentina (1887), Honduras (1899), Guatemala, and El Salvador.", "Today same-sex marriage is legal in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Mexico, Uruguay, and French overseas departments.", "South America experienced waves of immigration of Europeans, especially Italians, Spaniards, Portuguese, Germans, Austrians, Poles, Ukrainians, French, Dutch, Russians, Croatians, Lithuanians, and Ashkenazi Jews.", "With the end of colonialism, French culture also exerted a direct influence in Latin America, especially in the realms of high culture, Independentism, science and medicine.", "This can be seen in the region's artistic traditions, including painting, literature, and music, and in the realms of science and politics.", "* African cultures, whose presence stems from a long history of the Atlantic slave trade.", "People of African descent have influenced the ethno-scapes of Latin America and the Caribbean.", "This is manifested for instance in music, dance and religion, especially in countries like Brazil, Puerto Rico, Venezuela, Colombia, Panama, Haiti, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, and Cuba.", "* Asian cultures, whose part of the presence derives from the long history of the coolies who mostly arrived during the 19th and 20th centuries, most commonly Chinese workers in Peru and Venezuela, but also from Japanese and Korean immigration.", "especially headed to Brazil.", "This has greatly affected cuisine and other traditions including literature, art and lifestyles and politics.", "Asian influences have especially affected Brazil, Cuba, Panama and Peru.", "* The influence of the United States and globalization is present throughout the region, with particular strength in northern Latin America, especially Puerto Rico, which is an American territory.", "Prior to 1959, Cuba, which fought for its independence with American aid in the Spanish–American War, also had a close political and economic relationship with the United States.", "The United States also helped Panama become independent from Colombia and built the twenty-mile-long Panama Canal Zone in Panama, which it held from 1903—the Panama Canal opened to transoceanic freight traffic in 1914—to 1999, when the Torrijos-Carter Treaties restored Panamanian control of the Canal Zone.", "===Art===Diego Rivera's mural depicting Mexico's history at the National Palace in Mexico CityBeyond the tradition of Indigenous art, the development of Latin American visual art owed much to the influence of Spanish, Portuguese and French Baroque painting, which in turn often followed the trends of the Italians.", "In general, artistic Eurocentrism began to wane in the early twentieth century with the increased appreciation for indigenous forms of representation.Mural by Santiago Martinez Delgado at the Colombian CongressFrom the early twentieth century, the art of Latin America was greatly inspired by the Constructivist Movement.", "The movement rapidly spread from Russia to Europe and then into Latin America.", "Joaquín Torres García and Manuel Rendón have been credited with bringing the Constructivist Movement into Latin America from Europe.An important artistic movement generated in Latin America is ''muralism'' represented by Diego Rivera, David Alfaro Siqueiros, José Clemente Orozco and Rufino Tamayo in Mexico, Santiago Martinez Delgado and Pedro Nel Gómez in Colombia and Antonio Berni in Argentina.", "Some of the most impressive ''Muralista'' works can be found in Mexico, Colombia, New York City, San Francisco, Los Angeles and Philadelphia.Painter Frida Kahlo, one of the most famous Mexican artists, painted about her own life and the Mexican culture in a style combining Realism, Symbolism and Surrealism.", "Kahlo's work commands the highest selling price of all Latin American paintings.The Venezuelan Armando Reverón, whose work begins to be recognized internationally, is one of the most important artists of the 20th century in South America; he is a precursor of Arte Povera and Happening.", "In the 60s kinetic art emerged in Venezuela.", "Its main representatives are Jesús Soto, Carlos Cruz-Diez, Alejandro Otero and Gego.Colombian sculptor and painter Fernando Botero is also widely known for his works which, on first examination, are noted for their exaggerated proportions and the corpulence of the human and animal figures.The Ecuadorian Oswaldo Guayasamín, considered one of the most important and seminal artists in Ecuador and South America.", "In his life, he made over 13,000 paintings and held more than 180 exhibitions all over the world, including Paris, Barcelona, New York, Buenos Aires, Moscow, Prague, and Rome.", "He brought his unique style of expressionism and cubism to the collection of Ecuador artwork during the Age of Anger which relates to the period of the Cold War when the United States opposed communist presence in South America.", "Social criticism of human and social inequality was central to his artwork.===Film===The Guadalajara International Film Festival is considered the most prestigious film festival in Latin America.Latin American film is both rich and diverse.", "Historically, the main centers of production have been Mexico, Argentina, Brazil, and Cuba.", "Latin American film flourished after sound was introduced in cinema, which added a linguistic barrier to the export of Hollywood film south of the border.In 2015, Alejandro González Iñárritu became the second Mexican director in a row to win both the Academy Award for Best Director and the Directors Guild of America Award for Best Director.", "He won his second Oscar in 2016 for ''The Revenant''.Mexican cinema began in the silent era from 1896 to 1929 and flourished in the Golden Era of the 1940s.", "It boasted a huge industry comparable to Hollywood at the time, with stars such as María Félix, Dolores del Río, and Pedro Infante.", "In the 1970s, Mexico was the location for many cult horror and action movies.", "More recently, films such as ''Amores Perros'' (2000) and ''Y tu mamá también'' (2001) enjoyed box office and critical acclaim and propelled Alfonso Cuarón and Alejandro González Iñárritu to the front rank of Hollywood directors.", "Iñárritu in 2010 directed ''Biutiful'' and ''Birdman'' (2014), Alfonso Cuarón directed ''Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban'' in 2004 and ''Gravity'' in 2013.A close friend of both, Guillermo del Toro, a top rank Hollywood director in Hollywood and Spain, directed ''Pan's Labyrinth'' (2006) and produced ''El Orfanato'' (2007).", "Carlos Carrera (''The Crime of Father Amaro)'', and screenwriter Guillermo Arriaga are also some of the best known modern Mexican film makers.", "''Rudo y Cursi'' released in December (2008) in Mexico, was directed by Carlos Cuarón.President Cristina Fernández with the film director Juan José Campanella and the cast of ''The Secret in Their Eyes'' (2009) with the Oscar for Best Foreign Language FilmArgentine cinema has also been prominent since the first half of the 20th century and today averages over 60 full-length titles yearly.", "The industry suffered during the 1976–1983 military dictatorship; but re-emerged to produce the Academy Award winner ''The Official Story'' in 1985.A wave of imported US films again damaged the industry in the early 1990s, though it soon recovered, thriving even during the Argentine economic crisis around 2001.Many Argentine movies produced during recent years have been internationally acclaimed, including ''Nueve reinas'' (2000), ''Son of the Bride'' (2001), ''El abrazo partido'' (2004), ''El otro'' (2007), the 2010 Foreign Language Academy Award winner ''El secreto de sus ojos'', ''Wild Tales'' (2014) and ''Argentina, 1985'' (2022).In Brazil, the ''Cinema Novo'' movement created a particular way of making movies with critical and intellectual screenplays, clearer photography related to the light of the outdoors in a tropical landscape, and a political message.", "The modern Brazilian film industry has become more profitable inside the country, and some of its productions have received prizes and recognition in Europe and the United States, with movies such as ''Central do Brasil'' (1999), ''Cidade de Deus'' (2002) and ''Tropa de Elite'' (2007).Cast of A Fantastic Woman on the red carpet at the Teatro de la Ciudad (City Theatre).", "It was selected as the Chilean entry for the Best Foreign Language Film where it won in the 90th Academy Awards.Puerto Rican cinema has produced some notable films, such as ''Una Aventura Llamada Menudo'', ''Los Diaz de Doris'' and ''Casi Casi''.", "An influx of Hollywood films affected the local film industry in Puerto Rico during the 1980s and 1990s, but several Puerto Rican films have been produced since and it has been recovering.Cuban cinema has enjoyed much official support since the Cuban revolution and important film-makers include Tomás Gutiérrez Alea.Venezuelan television has also had a great impact in Latin America, is said that whilst \"Venezuelan cinema began sporadically in the 1950s, it only emerged as a national-cultural movement in the mid-1970s\" when it gained state support and auteurs could produce work.", "International co-productions with Latin America and Spain continued into this era and beyond, and Venezuelan films of this time were counted among the works of New Latin American Cinema.", "This period is known as Venezuela's Golden Age of cinema, having massive popularity even though it was a time of much social and political upheaval.One of the most famous Venezuelan films, even to date, is the 1976 film Soy un delincuente by Clemente de la Cerda, which won the Special Jury Prize at the 1977 Locarno International Film Festival.", "Soy un delincuente was one of nine films for which the state gave substantial funding to produce, made in the year after the Venezuelan state began giving financial support to cinema in 1975.The support likely came from increased oil wealth in the early 1970s, and the subsequent 1973 credit incentive policy.", "At the time of its production the film was the most popular film in the country, and took a decade to be usurped from this position, even though it was only one in a string of films designed to tell social realist stories of struggle in the 1950s and '60s.", "Equally famous is the 1977 film El Pez que Fuma (Román Chalbaud).", "In 1981 FONCINE (the Venezuelan Film Fund) was founded, and this year it provided even more funding to produce seventeen feature films.", "A few years later in 1983 with Viernes Negro, oil prices dropped and Venezuela entered a depression which prevented such extravagant funding, but film production continued; more transnational productions occurred, many more with Spain due to Latin America's poor economic fortune in general, and there was some in new cinema, as well: Fina Torres' 1985 Oriana won the Caméra d'Or Prize at the 1985 Cannes Film Festival as the best first feature.", "Film production peaked in 1984–5,:37 with 1986 considered Venezuelan cinema's most successful year by the state, thanks to over 4 million admissions to national films, according to Venezuelanalysis.", "The Venezuelan capital of Caracas hosted the Ibero-American Forum on Cinematography Integration in 1989, from which the pan-continental IBERMEDIA was formed; a union which provides regional funding.===Literature===Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz in 1772 by Andrés de IslasArgentine Jorge Luis Borges in L'Hôtel, Paris in 1969Peruvian Mario Vargas Llosa, the winner of the 2010 Nobel Prize in Literature and the 1994 Miguel de Cervantes Prize, among othersPre-Columbian cultures were primarily oral, although the Aztecs and Maya, for instance, produced elaborate codices.", "Oral accounts of mythological and religious beliefs were also sometimes recorded after the arrival of European colonizers, as was the case with the Popol Vuh.", "Moreover, a tradition of oral narrative survives to this day, for instance among the Quechua-speaking population of Peru and the Quiché (K'iche') of Guatemala.From the very moment of Europe's discovery of the continents, early explorers and conquistadores produced written accounts and crónicas of their experiencesuch as Columbus's letters or Bernal Díaz del Castillo's description of the conquest of Mexico.", "During the colonial period, written culture was often in the hands of the church, within which context Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz wrote memorable poetry and philosophical essays.", "Towards the end of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th, a distinctive criollo literary tradition emerged, including the first novels such as Lizardi's ''El Periquillo Sarniento'' (1816).The 19th century was a period of \"foundational fictions\" in critic Doris Sommer's words, novels in the Romantic or Naturalist traditions that attempted to establish a sense of national identity, and which often focussed on the Indigenous question or the dichotomy of \"civilization or barbarism\" (for which see, say, Domingo Sarmiento's ''Facundo'' (1845), Juan León Mera's ''Cumandá'' (1879), or Euclides da Cunha's ''Os Sertões'' (1902)).", "The 19th century also witnessed the realist work of Machado de Assis, who made use of surreal devices of metaphor and playful narrative construction, much admired by critic Harold Bloom.At the turn of the 20th century, ''modernismo'' emerged, a poetic movement whose founding text was Nicaraguan poet Rubén Darío's ''Azul'' (1888).", "This was the first Latin American literary movement to influence literary culture outside of the region, and was also the first truly Latin American literature, in that national differences were no longer so much at issue.", "José Martí, for instance, though a Cuban patriot, also lived in Mexico and the United States and wrote for journals in Argentina and elsewhere.Chilean poet Gabriela Mistral, first Latin American to win a Nobel Prize in Literature, in 1945García Márquez signing a copy of ''One Hundred Years of Solitude''However, what really put Latin American literature on the global map was no doubt the literary boom of the 1960s and 1970s, distinguished by daring and experimental novels (such as Julio Cortázar's ''Rayuela'' (1963)) that were frequently published in Spain and quickly translated into English.", "The Boom's defining novel was Gabriel García Márquez's ''Cien años de soledad'' (1967), which led to the association of Latin American literature with magic realism, though other important writers of the period such as the Peruvian Mario Vargas Llosa and Carlos Fuentes do not fit so easily within this framework.", "Arguably, the Boom's culmination was Augusto Roa Bastos's monumental ''Yo, el supremo'' (1974).", "In the wake of the Boom, influential precursors such as Juan Rulfo, Alejo Carpentier, and above all Jorge Luis Borges were also rediscovered.Contemporary literature in the region is vibrant and varied, ranging from the best-selling Paulo Coelho and Isabel Allende to the more avant-garde and critically acclaimed work of writers such as Diamela Eltit, Giannina Braschi, Ricardo Piglia, or Roberto Bolaño.", "There has also been considerable attention paid to the genre of testimonio, texts produced in collaboration with subaltern subjects such as Rigoberta Menchú.", "Finally, a new breed of chroniclers is represented by the more journalistic Carlos Monsiváis and Pedro Lemebel.The region boasts six Nobel Prize winners: in addition to the two Chilean poets Gabriela Mistral (1945) and Pablo Neruda (1971), there is also the Guatemalan novelist Miguel Ángel Asturias (1967), the Colombian writer Gabriel García Márquez (1982), the Mexican poet and essayist Octavio Paz (1990), and the Peruvian novelist Mario Vargas Llosa (2010).===Music and dance===Salsa dancing in Cali, ColombiaLatin America has produced many successful worldwide artists in terms of recorded global music sales.", "Among the most successful have been Juan Gabriel (Mexico) only Latin American musician to have sold over 200 million records worldwide, Gloria Estefan (Cuba), Carlos Santana, Luis Miguel (Mexico) of whom have sold over 90 million records, Shakira (Colombia) and Vicente Fernández (Mexico) with over 50 million records sold worldwide.", "Enrique Iglesias, although not a Latin American, has also contributed for the success of Latin music.Other notable successful mainstream acts through the years, include RBD, Celia Cruz, Soda Stereo, Thalía, Ricky Martin, Maná, Marc Anthony, Ricardo Arjona, Selena, and Menudo.Latin Caribbean music, such as merengue, bachata, salsa, and more recently reggaeton, from such countries as the Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Cuba, and Panama, has been strongly influenced by African rhythms and melodies.", "Haiti's compas is a genre of music that is influenced by its Latin Caribbean counterparts, along with elements of jazz and modern sounds.", "The French Antillean zouk (derived from Haitian compas) is a musical style originating from the Caribbean islands of Guadeloupe and Martinique and popularized by the French Antillean Creole band Kassav' in the early 1980s then became popular mainly in the Caribbean islands of Saint Lucia, Dominica, and Haiti, all in the French Antilles (French West Indies).Traditional Mexican dance Jarabe TapatíoAnother well-known Latin American musical genre includes the Argentine and Uruguayan tango (with Carlos Gardel as the greatest exponent), as well as the distinct nuevo tango, a fusion of tango, acoustic and electronic music popularized by bandoneón virtuoso Ástor Piazzolla.", "Samba, North American jazz, European classical music and choro combined to form ''bossa nova'' in Brazil, popularized by guitarist João Gilberto with singer Astrud Gilberto and pianist Antonio Carlos Jobim.Other influential Latin American sounds include the Antillean soca and calypso, Dennery segment which is a style of Soca music developed in Saint Lucia in the early 2010s which came from Kuduro music, Zouk influence and Lucian drums alongside lyrics usually sung in French Antillean Creole Kwéyòl, Bouyon music is a mixture of Soca, Zouk, and traditional genres native to Dominica which is sung in French Antillean Creole and is one of the most popular musical genres in Dominica, the Honduran (Garifuna) punta, the Colombian cumbia and vallenato, the Chilean cueca, the Ecuadorian boleros, and rockoleras, the Mexican ranchera and the mariachi which is the epitome of Mexican soul, the Nicaraguan palo de Mayo, the Peruvian marinera and tondero, the Uruguayan candombe and the various styles of music from pre-Columbian traditions that are widespread in the Andean region.Brazilian singer Carmen Miranda helped popularize samba internationally.The classical composer Heitor Villa-Lobos (1887–1959) worked on the recording of Native musical traditions within his homeland of Brazil.", "The traditions of his homeland heavily influenced his classical works.", "Also notable is the recent work of the Cuban Leo Brouwer, Uruguayan-American Miguel del Águila, guitar works of the Venezuelan Antonio Lauro and the Paraguayan Agustín Barrios.", "Latin America has also produced world-class classical performers such as the Chilean pianist Claudio Arrau, Brazilian pianist Nelson Freire and the Argentine pianist and conductor Daniel Barenboim.", "Brazilian opera soprano Bidu Sayão, one of Brazil's most famous musicians, was a leading artist of the Metropolitan Opera in New York City from 1937 to 1952.tango.Arguably, the main contribution to music entered through folklore, where the true soul of the Latin American and Caribbean countries is expressed.", "Musicians such as Yma Súmac, Chabuca Granda, Atahualpa Yupanqui, Violeta Parra, Víctor Jara, Jorge Cafrune, Facundo Cabral, Mercedes Sosa, Jorge Negrete, Luiz Gonzaga, Caetano Veloso, Susana Baca, Chavela Vargas, Simon Diaz, Julio Jaramillo, Toto la Momposina, Gilberto Gil, Maria Bethânia, Nana Caymmi, Nara Leão, Gal Costa, Ney Matogrosso as well as musical ensembles such as Inti Illimani and Los Kjarkas are magnificent examples of the heights that this soul can reach.Latin pop, including many forms of rock, is popular in Latin America today (see Spanish language rock and roll).", "A few examples are Café Tacuba, Soda Stereo, Maná, Los Fabulosos Cadillacs, Rita Lee, Mutantes, Secos e Molhados Legião Urbana, Titãs, Paralamas do Sucesso, Cazuza, Barão Vermelho, Skank, Miranda!, Cansei de Ser Sexy or CSS, and Bajo Fondo.More recently, reggaeton, which blends Jamaican reggae and dancehall with Latin America genres such as bomba and plena, as well as hip hop, is becoming more popular, in spite of the controversy surrounding its lyrics, dance steps (Perreo) and music videos.", "It has become very popular among populations with a \"migrant culture\" influence – both Latino populations in the United States, such as southern Florida and New York City, and parts of Latin America where migration to the United States is common, such as Trinidad and Tobago, Dominican Republic, Colombia, Ecuador, El Salvador, and Mexico.===World Heritage Sites===The following is a list of the ten countries with the most UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Latin America.Country Natural sites Cultural sites Mixed sites Total sites 6 28 1 35 7 14 0 21 2 9 2 13 5 6 0 11 2 7 0 9 2 6 1 9 1 6 0 7 0 6 0 6 3 2 0 5 2 3 0 5 0 2 1 3" ], [ "See also", "* Americas (terminology)* Anglo-America* Euro-Latin American Parliamentary Assembly* French America* Hispanic America* Hispanic and Latino Americans* Ibero-America* Indigenous peoples of the Americas (Amerindians)* Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance* Latin America and the Caribbean* Latin America and the League of Nations* Latin America–United States relations* Latin American diaspora* Latin American integration* Latin American studies* Latin American Studies Association* Latin Americans* List of Latin Americans* Mesoamerica* Organization of American States* Pan-American Conferences* Pan-Americanism" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Alonso, Paul.", "''Digital Humor as Cultural Globalization in Latin America.''", "Internet, Humor, and Nation in Latin/x America, 2022.", "* Ardao, Arturo.", "''Génesis de la idea y nombre de América Latina''.", "Caracas: Centro de Estudios Latinoamericanos Rómulo Gallegos, 1980.", "* Ayala Mora, Enrique.", "\"El origen del nombre América Latina y la tradición católica del siglo XIX.\"", "''Anuario Colombiano de Historia Social y de la Cultura'' 40, no.", "1 (2013), 213–41.", "* Berryman, Phillip.", "''Latin America at 200''.", "Austin: University of Texas Press 2016.", "* Bethell, Leslie, The Cambridge History of Latin America.", "12 volumes.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1985–2008.", "* Bomfim, Manoel.", "''A América latina: Males de origem''.", "Rio de Janeiro: H. Garnier 1905.", "* Braudel, Fernand.", "\"Y a-t-il une Amérique latine?\"", "''Annales ESC'' 3 (1948), 467–71.", "* Calderón, Fernando and Manuel Castells.", "''The New Latin America''.", "Cambridge: Polity Press 2020.", "* Coatsworth, John H., and Alan M. Taylor, eds.", "''Latin America and the World Economy Since 1800''.", "Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press 1998.", "* Edwards, Sebastián.", "''Left Behind: Latin America and the False Promise of Populism''.", "University of Chicago Press, 2010.", "* * Galeano, Eduardo.", "''Open Veins of Latin America: Five Centuries of the Pillage of a Continent''.", "1973* Gobat, Michel, \"The Invention of Latin America: A Transnational History of Anti-Imperialism, Democracy, and Race\", American Historical Review Vol.", "118, no.", "3 (December 2013), pp. 1345–1375.", "* Halperin Donghi, Tulio.", "''The Contemporary History of Latin America''.", "Durham: Duke University Press 1993.", "* Lockhart, James and Stuart B. Schwartz.", "''Early Latin America''.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1982.", "* Martínez Estrada, Ezequiel.", "''Diferencias y semejanzas entre los países de América Latina''.", "Mexico\" Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México 1962.", "* Maurer Queipo, Isabel (ed.", "): \"Directory of World Cinema: Latin America\", intellectbooks, Bristol 2013, * Mazzuca, Sebastián, ''Latecomer State Formation: Political Geography and Capacity Failure in Latin America.''", "New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2021.", "* McGinnes, Aims.", "\"Searching for 'Latin America': Race and Sovereignty in the Americas in the 1850s.\"", "In ''Race and Nation in Modern Latin America'', edited by Nancy P. Appelbaum, Anne S. Macpherson, and Karin alejandra Rosemblatt.", "Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press 2003, pp, 87–107.", "* Mignolo, Walter, ''The Idea of Latin America''.", "Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell 2005.", "* Moraña, Mabel, Enrique Dussel, and Carlos A. Jáuregui, eds.", "''Coloniality at Large: Latin America and the Postcolonial Debate''.", "Durham: Duke University Press 2008.", "* Phelan, John Leddy.", "(1968).", "''Pan-latinisms, French Intervention in Mexico (1861–1867) and the Genesis of the Idea of Latin America''.", "Mexico City: Universidad Nacional Autonónoma de México 1968.", "* Tenenbaum, Barbara A. ed.", "''Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture.''", "5 vols.", "New York: Charles Scribner's Sons 1996* Tenorio-Trillo, Mauricio.", "''Latin America: The Allure and Power of an Idea''.", "Chicago: University of Chicago Press 2017.", "* Vasconcelos, José.", "''Indología: Una interpretación de la cultura ibero-americana''.", "Barcelona: Agencia Mundial de Librería 1927.", "* Zea, Leopoldo, ed.", "''Fuentes de la cultura latinoamericana''.", "2 vols.", "Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Económica 1993." ], [ "External links", "* IDB Education Initiative * Latin American, Caribbean, U.S. Latinx, and Iberian Online Free E-Resources (LACLI).", "* Latin American Network Information Center * Latin America Data Base * Washington Office on Latin America* Council on Hemispheric Affairs* Codigos De Barra* * Map of Land Cover: Latin America and Caribbean (FAO) * Lessons From Latin America by Benjamin Dangl, ''The Nation'', March 4, 2009* * * Latin America Cold War Resources, Yale University* Latin America Cold War, Harvard University* Latin American Research Centre, University of Calgary* ''The war on Democracy'', by John Pilger" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lynx (web browser)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lynx''' is a customizable text-based web browser for use on cursor-addressable character cell terminals.", ", it is the oldest web browser still being maintained, having started in 1992." ], [ "History", "Lynx was a product of the Distributed Computing Group within Academic Computing Services of the University of Kansas.", "It was initially developed in 1992 by a team of students and staff at the university (Lou Montulli, Michael Grobe and Charles Rezac) as a hypertext browser used solely to distribute campus information as part of a ''Campus-Wide Information System'' and for browsing the Gopher space.", "Beta availability was announced to Usenet on 22 July 1992.In 1993, Montulli added an Internet interface and released a new version (2.0) of the browser.", "the support of communication protocols in Lynx is implemented using a version of libwww, forked from the library's code base in 1996.The supported protocols include Gopher, HTTP, HTTPS, FTP, NNTP and WAIS.", "Support for NNTP was added to libwww from ongoing Lynx development in 1994.Support for HTTPS was added to Lynx's fork of libwww later, initially as patches due to concerns about encryption.Garrett Blythe created DosLynx in April 1994 and later joined the Lynx effort as well.", "Foteos Macrides ported much of Lynx to VMS and maintained it for a time.", "In 1995, Lynx was released under the GNU General Public License, and is now maintained by a group of volunteers led by Thomas Dickey." ], [ "Features", "Firefox rendering the same pageBrowsing in Lynx consists of highlighting the chosen link using cursor keys, or having all links on a page numbered and entering the chosen link's number.", "Current versions support SSL and many HTML features.", "Tables are formatted using spaces, while frames are identified by name and can be explored as if they were separate pages.", "Lynx is not inherently able to display various types of non-text content on the web, such as images and video, but it can launch external programs to handle it, such as an image viewer or a video player.Unlike most web browsers, Lynx does not support JavaScript, which many websites require to work correctly.The speed benefits of text-only browsing are most apparent when using low bandwidth internet connections, or older computer hardware that may be slow to render image-heavy content.===Privacy===Because Lynx does not support graphics, web bugs that track user information are not fetched, meaning that web pages can be read without the privacy concerns of graphic web browsers.", "However, Lynx does support HTTP cookies, which can also be used to track user information.", "Lynx therefore supports cookie whitelisting and blacklisting, or alternatively cookie support can be disabled permanently.As with conventional browsers, Lynx also supports browsing histories and page caching, both of which can raise privacy concerns.===Configurability===Lynx supports both command-line options and configuration files.", "There are 142 command-line options according to its help message.", "The template configuration file lynx.cfg lists 233 configurable features.", "There is some overlap between the two approaches to configuration, although there are command-line options such as -restrict which are not matched in lynx.cfg.", "In addition to pre-set options by command-line and configuration file, Lynx's behavior can be adjusted at runtime using its options menu.", "Again, there is some overlap between the settings.", "Lynx implements many of these runtime optional features, optionally (controlled through a setting in the configuration file) allowing the choices to be saved to a separate writable configuration file.", "The reason for restricting the options which can be saved originated in a usage of Lynx which was more common in the mid-1990s, i.e., using Lynx itself as a front-end application to the Internet accessed by dial-in connections.===Accessibility===Because Lynx is a text-based browser, it can be used for internet access by visually impaired users on a refreshable braille display and is easily compatible with text-to-speech software.", "As Lynx substitutes images, frames and other non-textual content with the text from alt, name and title HTML attributes and allows hiding the user interface elements, the browser becomes specifically suitable for use with cost-effective general purpose screen reading software.", "A version of Lynx specifically enhanced for use with screen readers on Windows was developed at Indian Institute of Technology Madras.===Remote access===Lynx is also useful for accessing websites from a remotely connected system in which no graphical display is available.", "Despite its text-only nature and age, it can still be used to effectively browse much of the modern web, including performing interactive tasks such as editing Wikipedia.===Web design and robots===Since Lynx will take keystrokes from a text file, it is still very useful for automated data entry, web page navigation, and web scraping.", "Consequently, Lynx is used in some web crawlers.", "Web designers may use Lynx to determine the way in which search engines and web crawlers see the sites that they develop.", "Online services that provide Lynx's view of a given web page are available.Lynx is also used to test websites' performance.", "As one can run the browser from different locations over remote access technologies like telnet and ssh, one can use Lynx to test the web site's connection performance from different geographical locations simultaneously.", "Another possible web design application of the browser is quick checking of the site's links." ], [ "Supported platforms", "Icon for OS/2 portLynx was originally designed for Unix-like operating systems.", "It was ported to VMS soon after its public release and to other systems, including DOS, Microsoft Windows, Classic Mac OS and OS/2.It was included in the default OpenBSD installation from OpenBSD 2.3 (May 1998) to 5.5(May 2014), being in the main tree prior to July 2014, subsequently being made available through the ports tree.", "Lynx can also be found in the repositories of most Linux distributions, as well as in the Homebrew, Fink, and MacPorts repositories for macOS.", "Ports to BeOS, MINIX, QNX, AmigaOS and OS/2 are also available.The sources can be built on many platforms, such as Google's Android operating system." ], [ "See also", "Computer accessibilityLinks (web browser)ELinksw3mModSecurity#Former Lynx browser blockingComparison of web browsersTimeline of web browsersComparison of Usenet newsreaders" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "**************************************" ], [ "External links", "" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lynx (programming language)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lynx''' is a programming language for large distributed networks, using remote procedure calls.", "It was developed by the University of Wisconsin–Madison in 1984 for the Charlotte multicomputer operating system.", "In 1986 at the University of Rochester Lynx was ported to the Chrysalis operating system running on a BBN Butterfly multiprocessor." ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "M. L. Scott, \"The Lynx Distributed Programming Language: Motivation, Design, and Experience,\" ''Computer Languages'' 16:3/4 (1991), pp.", "209-233.http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/scott91lynx.html" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "L'Hôpital's rule" ], [ "Introduction", "Example application of l'Hôpital's rule to and : the function is undefined at , but can be completed to a continuous function on all of by defining .", "'''L'Hôpital's rule''' (, ), also known as '''Bernoulli's rule''', is a mathematical theorem that allows evaluating limits of indeterminate forms using derivatives.", "Application (or repeated application) of the rule often converts an indeterminate form to an expression that can be easily evaluated by substitution.", "The rule is named after the 17th-century French mathematician Guillaume de l'Hôpital.", "Although the rule is often attributed to l'Hôpital, the theorem was first introduced to him in 1694 by the Swiss mathematician Johann Bernoulli.L'Hôpital's rule states that for functions and which are differentiable on an open interval except possibly at a point contained in , if and for all in with , and exists, then:The differentiation of the numerator and denominator often simplifies the quotient or converts it to a limit that can be evaluated directly." ], [ "History", "Guillaume de l'Hôpital (also written l'Hospital) published this rule in his 1696 book ''Analyse des Infiniment Petits pour l'Intelligence des Lignes Courbes'' (literal translation: ''Analysis of the Infinitely Small for the Understanding of Curved Lines''), the first textbook on differential calculus.", "However, it is believed that the rule was discovered by the Swiss mathematician Johann Bernoulli." ], [ "General form", "The general form of L'Hôpital's rule covers many cases.", "Let and be extended real numbers (i.e., real numbers, positive infinity, or negative infinity).", "Let be an open interval containing (for a two-sided limit) or an open interval with endpoint (for a one-sided limit, or a limit at infinity if is infinite).", "The real valued functions and are assumed to be differentiable on except possibly at , and additionally on except possibly at .", "It is also assumed that Thus, the rule applies to situations in which the ratio of the derivatives has a finite or infinite limit, but not to situations in which that ratio fluctuates permanently as gets closer and closer to .If eitherorthenAlthough we have written throughout, the limits may also be one-sided limits ( or ), when is a finite endpoint of .In the second case, the hypothesis that diverges to infinity is not used in the proof (see note at the end of the proof section); thus, while the conditions of the rule are normally stated as above, the second sufficient condition for the rule's procedure to be valid can be more briefly stated as The hypothesis that appears most commonly in the literature, but some authors sidestep this hypothesis by adding other hypotheses elsewhere.", "One method is to define the limit of a function with the additional requirement that the limiting function is defined everywhere on the relevant interval except possibly at .", "Another method is to require that both and be differentiable everywhere on an interval containing ." ], [ "Cases where theorem cannot be applied (Necessity of conditions)", "All four conditions for L'Hôpital's rule are necessary:# Indeterminacy of form: or ; and# Differentiability of functions: and are differentiable on an open interval except possibly at a point contained in (the same point from the limit) ; and# Non-zero derivative of denominator: for all in with ; and# Existence of limit of the quotient of the derivatives: exists.Where one of the above conditions is not satisfied, L'Hôpital's rule is not valid in general, and so it cannot always be applied.=== Form is not indeterminate ===The necessity of the first condition can be seen by considering the counterexample where the functions are and and the limit is .The first condition is not satisfied for this counterexample because and .", "This means that the form is not indeterminate.The second and third conditions are satisfied by and .", "The fourth condition is also satisfied with .But, L'Hôpital's rule fails in this counterexample, since .=== Differentiability of functions ===Differentiability of functions is a requirement because if a function is not differentiable, then the derivative of the functions is not guaranteed to exist at each point in .", "The fact that is an open interval is grandfathered in from the hypothesis of the Cauchy's mean value theorem.", "The notable exception of the possibility of the functions being not differentiable at exists because L'Hôpital's rule only requires the derivative to exist as the function approaches ; the derivative does not need to be taken at .", "For example, let , , and .", "In this case, is not differentiable at .", "However, since is differentiable everywhere except , then still exists.", "Thus, since and exists, L'Hôpital's rule still holds.=== Derivative of denominator is zero ===The necessity of the condition that near can be seen by the following counterexample due to Otto Stolz.", "Let and Then there is no limit for as However,:which tends to 0 as .", "Further examples of this type were found by Ralph P. Boas Jr.=== Limit of derivatives does not exist ===The requirement that the limit:exists is essential.", "Without this condition, or may exhibit undamped oscillations as approaches , in which case L'Hôpital's rule does not apply.", "For example, if , and , then:this expression does not approach a limit as goes to , since the cosine function oscillates between and .", "But working with the original functions, can be shown to exist::In a case such as this, all that can be concluded is that: so that if the limit of ''f''/''g'' exists, then it must lie between the inferior and superior limits of .", "(In the example above, this is true, since 1 indeed lies between 0 and 2.)" ], [ "Examples", "* Here is a basic example involving the exponential function, which involves the indeterminate form at : * This is a more elaborate example involving .", "Applying L'Hôpital's rule a single time still results in an indeterminate form.", "In this case, the limit may be evaluated by applying the rule three times: * Here is an example involving : Repeatedly apply L'Hôpital's rule until the exponent is zero (if is an integer) or negative (if is fractional) to conclude that the limit is zero.", "* Here is an example involving the indeterminate form (see below), which is rewritten as the form : Here is an example involving the mortgage repayment formula and .", "Let be the principal (loan amount), the interest rate per period and the number of periods.", "When is zero, the repayment amount per period is (since only principal is being repaid); this is consistent with the formula for non-zero interest rates: One can also use L'Hôpital's rule to prove the following theorem.", "If is twice-differentiable in a neighborhood of and that its second derivative is continuous on this neighbourhood, then Sometimes L'Hôpital's rule is invoked in a tricky way: suppose converges as and that converges to positive or negative infinity.", "Then: and so, exists and The result remains true without the added hypothesis that converges to positive or negative infinity, but the justification is then incomplete." ], [ "Complications", "Sometimes L'Hôpital's rule does not lead to an answer in a finite number of steps unless some additional steps are applied.", "Examples include the following: Two applications can lead to a return to the original expression that was to be evaluated: This situation can be dealt with by substituting and noting that goes to infinity as goes to infinity; with this substitution, this problem can be solved with a single application of the rule: Alternatively, the numerator and denominator can both be multiplied by at which point L'Hôpital's rule can immediately be applied successfully: An arbitrarily large number of applications may never lead to an answer even without repeating:This situation too can be dealt with by a transformation of variables, in this case : Again, an alternative approach is to multiply numerator and denominator by before applying L'Hôpital's rule: A common pitfall is using L'Hôpital's rule with some circular reasoning to compute a derivative via a difference quotient.", "For example, consider the task of proving the derivative formula for powers of ''x''::Applying L'Hôpital's rule and finding the derivatives with respect to of the numerator and the denominator yields as expected.", "However, differentiating the numerator requires the use of the very fact that is being proven.", "This is an example of begging the question, since one may not assume the fact to be proven during the course of the proof.", "A similar pitfall occurs in the calculation of Proving that differentiating gives involves calculating the difference quotient in the first place, so a different method such as squeeze theorem must be used instead." ], [ "Other indeterminate forms", "Other indeterminate forms, such as , , , , and , can sometimes be evaluated using L'Hôpital's rule.", "For example, to evaluate a limit involving , convert the difference of two functions to a quotient::where L'Hôpital's rule is applied when going from (1) to (2) and again when going from (3) to (4).L'Hôpital's rule can be used on indeterminate forms involving exponents by using logarithms to \"move the exponent down\".", "Here is an example involving the indeterminate form ::It is valid to move the limit inside the exponential function because the exponential function is continuous.", "Now the exponent has been \"moved down\".", "The limit is of the indeterminate form , but as shown in an example above, l'Hôpital's rule may be used to determine that:Thus:The following table lists the most common indeterminate forms, and the transformations for applying l'Hôpital's rule:Indeterminate formConditionsTransformation to" ], [ "Stolz–Cesàro theorem", "The Stolz–Cesàro theorem is a similar result involving limits of sequences, but it uses finite difference operators rather than derivatives." ], [ "Geometric interpretation", "Consider the curve in the plane whose -coordinate is given by and whose -coordinate is given by , with both functions continuous, i.e., the locus of points of the form .", "Suppose .", "The limit of the ratio as is the slope of the tangent to the curve at the point .", "The tangent to the curve at the point is given by .", "L'Hôpital's rule then states that the slope of the curve when is the limit of the slope of the tangent to the curve as the curve approaches the origin, provided that this is defined." ], [ "Proof of L'Hôpital's rule", "===Special case===The proof of L'Hôpital's rule is simple in the case where and are continuously differentiable at the point and where a finite limit is found after the first round of differentiation.", "It is not a proof of the general L'Hôpital's rule because it is stricter in its definition, requiring both differentiability and that ''c'' be a real number.", "Since many common functions have continuous derivatives (e.g.", "polynomials, sine and cosine, exponential functions), it is a special case worthy of attention.Suppose that and are continuously differentiable at a real number , that , and that .", "Then: This follows from the difference-quotient definition of the derivative.", "The last equality follows from the continuity of the derivatives at .", "The limit in the conclusion is not indeterminate because .The proof of a more general version of L'Hôpital's rule is given below.===General proof===The following proof is due to , where a unified proof for the and indeterminate forms is given.", "Taylor notes that different proofs may be found in and .Let ''f'' and ''g'' be functions satisfying the hypotheses in the General form section.", "Let be the open interval in the hypothesis with endpoint ''c''.", "Considering that on this interval and ''g'' is continuous, can be chosen smaller so that ''g'' is nonzero on .For each ''x'' in the interval, define and as ranges over all values between ''x'' and ''c''.", "(The symbols inf and sup denote the infimum and supremum.", ")From the differentiability of ''f'' and ''g'' on , Cauchy's mean value theorem ensures that for any two distinct points ''x'' and ''y'' in there exists a between ''x'' and ''y'' such that .", "Consequently, for all choices of distinct ''x'' and ''y'' in the interval.", "The value ''g''(''x'')-''g''(''y'') is always nonzero for distinct ''x'' and ''y'' in the interval, for if it was not, the mean value theorem would imply the existence of a ''p'' between ''x'' and ''y'' such that ''g' ''(''p'')=0.The definition of ''m''(''x'') and ''M''(''x'') will result in an extended real number, and so it is possible for them to take on the values ±∞.", "In the following two cases, ''m''(''x'') and ''M''(''x'') will establish bounds on the ratio .", "'''Case 1:''' For any ''x'' in the interval , and point ''y'' between ''x'' and ''c'',:and therefore as ''y'' approaches ''c'', and become zero, and so:'''Case 2:''' For every ''x'' in the interval , define .", "For every point ''y'' between ''x'' and ''c'',: As ''y'' approaches ''c'', both and become zero, and therefore: The limit superior and limit inferior are necessary since the existence of the limit of has not yet been established.It is also the case that :and: and In case 1, the squeeze theorem establishes that exists and is equal to ''L''.", "In the case 2, and the squeeze theorem again asserts that , and so the limit exists and is equal to ''L''.", "This is the result that was to be proven.In case 2 the assumption that ''f''(''x'') diverges to infinity was not used within the proof.", "This means that if \|''g''(''x'')\| diverges to infinity as ''x'' approaches ''c'' and both ''f'' and ''g'' satisfy the hypotheses of L'Hôpital's rule, then no additional assumption is needed about the limit of ''f''(''x''): It could even be the case that the limit of ''f''(''x'') does not exist.", "In this case, L'Hopital's theorem is actually a consequence of Cesàro–Stolz.In the case when \|''g''(''x'')\| diverges to infinity as ''x'' approaches ''c'' and ''f''(''x'') converges to a finite limit at ''c'', then L'Hôpital's rule would be applicable, but not absolutely necessary, since basic limit calculus will show that the limit of ''f''(''x'')/''g''(''x'') as ''x'' approaches ''c'' must be zero." ], [ "Corollary", "A simple but very useful consequence of L'Hopital's rule is a well-known criterion for differentiability.", "It states the following:suppose that ''f'' is continuous at ''a'', and that exists for all ''x'' in some open interval containing ''a'', except perhaps for .", "Suppose, moreover, that exists.", "Then also exists and:In particular, ''f''' is also continuous at ''a''.===Proof===Consider the functions and .", "The continuity of ''f'' at ''a'' tells us that .", "Moreover, since a polynomial function is always continuous everywhere.", "Applying L'Hopital's rule shows that ." ], [ "See also", " L'Hôpital controversy" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Sources ===*****" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lexicology" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lexicology''' is the branch of linguistics that analyzes the lexicon of a specific language.", "A word is the smallest meaningful unit of a language that can stand on its own, and is made up of small components called morphemes and even smaller elements known as phonemes, or distinguishing sounds.", "Lexicology examines every feature of a word – including formation, spelling, origin, usage, and definition.Lexicology also considers the relationships that exist between words.", "In linguistics, the lexicon of a language is composed of lexemes, which are abstract units of meaning that correspond to a set of related forms of a word.", "Lexicology looks at how words can be broken down as well as identifies common patterns they follow.Lexicology is associated with lexicography, which is the practice of compiling dictionaries." ], [ "Etymology", "The term ''lexicology'' derives from the Greek word λεξικόν ''lexicon'' (neuter of λεξικός ''lexikos'', \"of or for words\", from λέξις ''lexis'', \"speech\" or \"word\") and -λογία ''-logia'', \"the study of\" (a suffix derived from λόγος ''logos'', amongst others meaning \"learning, reasoning, explanation, subject-matter\").Etymology as a science is actually a focus of lexicology.", "Since lexicology studies the meaning of words and their semantic relations, it often explores the history and development of a word.", "Etymologists analyze related languages using the comparative method, which is a set of techniques that allow linguists to recover the ancestral phonological, morphological, syntactic, etc., components of modern languages by comparing their cognate material.", "This means many word roots from different branches of the Indo-European language family can be traced back to single words from the Proto-Indo-European language.", "The English language, for instance, contains more borrowed words (or loan words) in its vocabulary than native words.", "Examples include ''parkour'' from French, ''karaoke'' from Japanese, ''coconut'' from Portuguese, ''mango'' from Hindi, etc.", "A lot of music terminology, like ''piano'', ''solo'', and ''opera'', is borrowed from Italian.", "These words can be further classified according to the linguistic element that is borrowed: phonemes, morphemes, and semantics." ], [ "Approach", "'''General lexicology''' is the broad study of words regardless of a language's specific properties.", "It is concerned with linguistic features that are common among all languages, such as phonemes and morphemes.", "'''Special lexicology''', on the other hand, looks at what a particular language contributes to its vocabulary, such as grammars.", "Altogether lexicological studies can be approached two ways:# '''Diachronic or historical''' lexicology is devoted to the evolution of words and word-formation over time.", "It investigates the origins of a word and the ways in which its structure, meaning, and usage have since changed.# '''Synchronic or descriptive''' lexicology examines the words of a language within a certain time frame.", "This could be a period during the language's early stages of development, its current state, or any given interval in between.These complementary perspectives were proposed by Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure.", "Lexicology can have both comparative and contrastive methodologies.", "'''Comparative lexicology''' searches for similar features that are shared among two or more languages.", "'''Contrastive lexicology''' identifies the linguistic characteristics which distinguish between related and unrelated languages." ], [ "Semantics", "The subfield of semantics that pertains especially to lexicological work is called lexical semantics.", "In brief, lexical semantics contemplates the significance of words and their meanings through several lenses, including synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy, and polysemy, among others.", "Semantic analysis of lexical material may involve both the contextualization of the word(s) and syntactic ambiguity.", "Semasiology and onomasiology are relevant linguistic disciplines associated with lexical semantics.A word can have two kinds of meaning: grammatical and lexical.", "'''Grammatical meaning''' refers to a word's function in a language, such as tense or plurality, which can be deduced from affixes.", "'''Lexical meaning''' is not limited to a single form of a word, but rather what the word denotes as a base word.", "For example, the verb ''to walk'' can become ''walks'', ''walked'', and ''walking –'' each word has a different grammatical meaning, but the same lexical meaning (\"to move one's feet at a regular pace\")." ], [ "Phraseology", "Another focus of lexicology is phraseology, which studies multi-word expressions, or idioms, like 'raining cats and dogs.'", "The meaning of the phrase as a whole has a different meaning than each word does on its own and is often unpredictable when considering its components individually.", "Phraseology examines how and why such meanings exist, and analyzes the laws that govern these word combinations.Idioms and other phraseological units can be classified according to content and/ or meaning.", "They are difficult to translate word-for-word from one language to another." ], [ "Lexicography" ], [ "Lexicologists", "* Dámaso Alonso (October 22, 1898 - January 25, 1990): Spanish poet, literary critic, and philologist* Roland Barthes (November 12, 1915 - March 25, 1980): French writer, critic, and semiotician* Ghil'ad Zuckermann (born June 1, 1971): Israeli linguist and language revivalist" ], [ "See also", "* CalqueComputational lexicologyLexicostatisticsLexical semanticsLexical analysisEnglish lexicology and lexicography List of lexicographers* List of linguists* Lexical Markup Framework" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "===Societies===* Association for Automatic Language Processing (ATALA), Paris, France* International Society for Historical Lexicography and Lexicology, University of Leicester===Theory===* Lexicology vs. lexicography – an explanation* Lexicography, lexicology, lexicon theory===Glossary===* 'L' entries (from lexeme to lexicon) at SIL (Summer Institute of Linguistics)'s glossary of linguistic terms===Teaching material===* ''English and General Historical Lexicology'' (by Joachim Grzega and Marion Schöner===Journals===* ''Lexis, E-Journal in English Lexicology'' (by Denis Jamet)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lake Abitibi" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lake Abitibi''' (, ) is a shallow lake in northeastern Ontario and western Quebec, Canada.", "The lake, which lies within the vast Clay Belt, is separated in two distinct portions by a short narrows, making it actually two lakes.", "Its total area is , and net area .", "The lake is shallow and studded with islands.", "Its shores and vicinity are covered with small timber.Its outlet is the Abitibi River, a tributary of the Moose River, which empties into James Bay.", "The lake takes its name from the river.", "\"Abitibi\" comes from the Algonquin words ''abitah'', meaning middle and ''nipi'' meaning water, possibly a reference to its geographic location between the Harricana (from the Algonquin word ''Nanikana'', meaning \"the main way\") to the east and the Kapuskasing–Mattagami river system to the west.Water levels on the lake are influenced by the Twin Falls Dam on the Abitibi River.Portions of Lake Abitibi's southern shores and a section of the Abitibi River are part of the Abitibi-de-Troyes Provincial Park.", "The islands in Ontario's portion of the lake are protected in the Lake Abitibi Islands Provincial Park.", "The entire McDougall Point Peninsula, that separates the lake in two, is part of the Mcdougal Point Peninsula Conservation Reserve.Pointe Abitibi at the mouth of the Duparquet River is a National Historic Site of Canada.", "This site, known as Apitipik National Historic Site of Canada, was a summer gathering place for the Abitibiwinnik until 1956 and the location of several trading posts between 1686 and 1922." ], [ "History", "Hudson's Bay Company post on Lake Abitibi, Application of ''Abitibi'' to describe the lake and the people living in the area around it was first noted in The Jesuit Relations in 1640.One of the first Europeans in this area was Pierre de Troyes, who built a post on Lake Abitibi when he was on his way to capture English HBC posts on James Bay in 1686.The Abitibi Post lay halfway between trading posts on James Bay and those on the Ottawa River and was in continuous existence throughout the French period.The lake was part of the canoe route from James Bay to Montreal, via the Moose and Abitibi Rivers, then a series of intermediate streams and portages to Lake Temiskaming and the Ottawa River.After the British conquered Canada in 1763, free traders either took over the French fort or built another post on the lake, providing strong trading competition to the main Hudson's Bay Company (HBC) fort at Moose Factory and the HBC outpost at Frederick House.", "This moved the HBC to set up a post, called Abitibi House, on Lake Abitibi in 1794, located on the peninsula at the mouth of the Duparquet River.", "In subsequent decades this post, as well as competing posts of the North West Company, were rebuilt or moved to various locations around the lake and its islands.", "Being unproductive due to competition, the HBC abandoned Abitibi House in 1811.When two companies merged in 1821, the HBC took over the trading post of the North West Company on Lake Abitibi.The construction of the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway (now Canadian National Railway) through this district made it of some importance at the start of the 20th century." ], [ "Lake Abitibi Islands", "The Lake Abitibi Islands Provincial Park protects nearly all the islands on the Ontario side of Lake Abitibi.", "It includes 786 islands, from tiny shoals to large islands of up to .", "Some of the larger islands are Deer, Dominion, and St. Patrick, as well as the Mistaken Islands (the largest island in the lake, Nepawa Island, is not part of the park since it is in Clerval, Quebec).", "The park was created in 2005 when the Abitibi-De-Troyes Provincial Park was reconfigured.The park is an important nesting habitat for many bird species, including great blue heron, bald eagle, osprey, and double-crested cormorant.", "The vegetation is characterized by intolerant hardwood and mixedwood forests, with black spruce, white spruce, and white birch as the common tree species.It is a non-operating park, meaning that there are no facilities or services, and only accessible via air or water." ], [ "See also", "Pont de l'Île - covered bridge connecting Nepawa Island to the mainlandWahgoshig First NationBlake River Megacaldera ComplexList of lakes in Ontario" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "" ], [ "External links", " Canadian Model Forests Network" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Lansing, Michigan" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lansing''' () is the capital of the U.S. state of Michigan.", "It is mostly in Ingham County, although portions of the city extend west into Eaton County and north into Clinton County.", "The 2020 census placed the city's population at 112,644, making it the sixth most populous city in Michigan.", "The population of its metropolitan statistical area (MSA) was 541,297 at the 2020 census, the third largest in the state after metropolitan Detroit and Grand Rapids.", "It was named the new state capital of Michigan in 1847, ten years after Michigan became a state.The Lansing metropolitan area, colloquially referred to as \"Mid-Michigan\", is an important center for educational, cultural, governmental, commercial, and industrial functions.", "Neighboring East Lansing is home to Michigan State University, a public research university with an enrollment of more than 50,000.The area features two medical schools, one veterinary school, two nursing schools, and two law schools.", "It is the site of the Michigan State Capitol, the state Supreme Court, the Court of Appeals, a federal court, the Library of Michigan and Historical Center, and headquarters of four national insurance companies.Lansing is the only U.S. state capital (among the 47 located in counties) that is not also a county seat.", "The seat of government of Ingham County is Mason, but the county maintains some offices in Lansing." ], [ "History", "===Exploration by Europeans===The first recorded person of European descent to travel through the area that is now Lansing was British fur trader Hugh Heward and his French-Canadian team on April 24, 1790, while canoeing the Grand River.", "The land that was to become Lansing was surveyed as \"Township 4 North Range 2 West\" in February 1827 in what was then dense forest.", "It was the last of the county's townships to be surveyed, and the land was not offered for sale until October 1830.There would be no roads to this area for decades to come.Grand River overlooking Lansing River Trail Bridge===Founding myth===Historians have lamented the persistence of a myth about Lansing's founding.The incorrect story of Lansing's beginnings states that in the winter of 1835 and early 1836, two brothers from New York plotted the area now known as REO Town just south of downtown Lansing and named it \"Biddle City\".", "This land lay in a floodplain and was underwater during the majority of the year.", "Nevertheless, the brothers went back to Lansing, New York, to sell plots for the town that did not exist.", "They told the New Yorkers this new \"city\" had an area of 65 blocks, a church and a public and academic square.", "16 men bought plots in the nonexistent city, and upon reaching the area later that year found they were the victims of the scam.", "Many in the group, disappointed and now without funds to move on again, opted to stay and ended up settling around what is now metropolitan Lansing.The story has persisted due to a 1904 newspaper article, which cited a memoir told by Daniel W. Buck, a respected Lansing mayor and son of one of the early pioneers.", "His story was cited in Michigan pioneer papers and retold in newspaper articles multiple times in the decades that followed.", "His characterization of the city as being born from a \"land scam\" was incorrect, though his story had some elements of truth as well.===Origins as a town===The brothers were William and Jerry Ford.", "Although they were originally from New York, they were well-respected businessmen who hailed from Jackson and were instrumental during its earliest years.In 1836, they bought 290 acres in the northwest corner of Ingham County.", "They platted the land and hoped to build a community they named Biddle City, located south of the convergence of the Grand River and the Red Cedar River, in Lansing's present-day REO Town neighborhood.", "Biddle City's plat map included plans for a public square, church square and academy square.", "They sold 21 parcels of it — mostly to other Michiganders, not New Yorkers — and buyers understood that it was not yet a real city.", "Unfortunately, Biddle City never took off.", "The financial Panic of 1837 forced the brothers to heavily mortgage the property, and the city never materialized.Biddle City was not Lansing's original name, nor a precursor to it, as the plat was located outside of Lansing's original city limits.Originally, all that existed was Lansing Township, named in 1842 by an early settler, Joseph E. North Sr., after Lansing in Tompkins County, NY, where he was from.The settlement of fewer than 20 people that would become the City of Lansing remained quiet until the winter of 1847.The state constitution required the capital be moved from Detroit to a more central and safer location in the state's interior in 1847; many were concerned about Detroit's proximity to British-controlled Canada, which had captured Detroit in the War of 1812.The United States had recaptured the city in 1813, but these events led to the dire need to have the center of government relocated further away from hostile British territory.", "There was also concern with Detroit's strong influence over Michigan politics, being the state's largest city as well as the capital city.During the multi-day session to determine a new location for the state capital, many cities, including Ann Arbor, Marshall, and Jackson, lobbied hard to win this designation.", "Unable to publicly reach a consensus because of constant political wrangling, the Michigan House of Representatives privately chose the Township of Lansing out of frustration.", "When announced, many present openly laughed that such an insignificant settlement was now Michigan's capital.", "Two months later, Governor William L. Greenly signed into law the act of the legislature making Lansing Township the state capital.An 1847 plat map of \"the town of Michigan,\" prior to the selection of \"Lansing\" as the capital's name the following year.", "(The map is oriented with north to the right.", ")With the announcement that Lansing Township had been made the capital, the small settlement quickly transformed into the seat of state government.", "Within months after it became the capital city, further individual settlements began to develop around it, along three key points along the Grand River in the township:* \"Lower Village/Town\", where present-day Old Town stands, was the oldest of the three villages.", "It was home to the first house built in Lansing in 1843 by pioneer James Seymour and his family.", "Lower Town began to develop in 1847 with the completion of the Franklin Avenue (now Grand River Avenue) covered bridge over the Grand River.", "* \"Upper Village/Town\", where present-day REO Town stands at the confluence of the Grand River and the Red Cedar River.", "It began to take off in 1847 when the Main Street Bridge was constructed over the Grand River.", "This village's focal point was the Benton House, a 4-story hotel, which opened in 1848.It was the first brick building in Lansing and was later razed in 1900.", "* Michigan State Capitol\"Middle Village/Town\", where downtown Lansing now stands, was the last of the three villages to develop in 1848 with the completion of the Michigan Avenue bridge across the Grand River and the completion of the temporary capitol building which sat where Cooley Law School stands today on Capitol Avenue between Allegan and Washtenaw Streets, and finally the relocation of the post office to the village in 1851.This area would grow to become larger than the other two villages up and down river.The collection of original settlements (\"Upper Town\", \"Lower Town\" and \"Middle Town\") had for some years been collectively referred to as the \"Village of Michigan\".", "On February 16, 1842, Alaiedon township was split into the townships of Lansing, Delhi and Meridian (originally suggested as \"Genoa\") based on a petition submitted in December 1841 by Henry North, Roswell Everett and Zalmon Holmes.", "Henry North proposed the name \"Lansing\" for the township at the request of his father, who wanted it named after their old town of Lansing, New York.On February 15, 1859, the settlement, having grown to nearly 3,000 and encompassing about in area, was incorporated as a city, carving off a section of seven square miles from Lansing Township.", "The boundaries of the original city were Douglas Avenue to the north, Wood and Regent streets to the east, Mount Hope Avenue to the south, and Jenison Avenue to the west.", "These boundaries would remain until 1916.Lansing began to grow steadily over the next two decades with the completion of the railroads through the city, a plank road, and the completion of the current capitol building in 1878.Most of what is known as Lansing today is the result of the city becoming an industrial powerhouse which began with the founding of Olds Motor Vehicle Company in August 1897.The company went through many changes, including a buyout, between its founding to 1905 when founder Ransom E. Olds started his new REO Motor Car Company, which would last in Lansing for another 70 years.", "Olds would be joined by the less successful Clarkmobile around 1903.Over the next decades, the city would be transformed into a major American industrial center for the manufacturing of automobiles and parts, among other industries.", "The city also continued to grow in area.", "By 1956, the city had grown to , and doubled in size over the next decade to its current size of roughly .Today, the city's economy is diversified among government service, healthcare, manufacturing, insurance, banking, and education.===Notable events=======Anti-slavery movement====In the late 1840s to early 1850s, the citizens of Lansing were unified against slavery, and the city became a secondary stop on the Underground Railroad, as one of the last steps of an escape route that led through Battle Creek, Schoolcraft and Cassopolis.", "From Lansing, the route led to Durand, and then to either Port Huron or Detroit.====Major fires====The Kerns Hotel fire on December 11, 1934, was the deadliest in the city's history.", "Perhaps thirty-four people died in the fire, although the hotel register was also destroyed making an exact count impossible.On February 8, 1951, the Elliott-Larsen Building was intentionally set on fire by a state office employee.", "The following morning, the seventh floor collapsed down to the next level, which destroyed a large number of state historical records.====Elephant incident====On September 26, 1963, a 12-year-old, 3,000-pound female dancing elephant named Rajje (alternately reported as Raji and Little Rajjee, among other variations) rebelled against her trainer during a performance in a shopping-center circus near what was then Logan Street and Holmes Road in Lansing, and escaped into the streets, aggravated by the frenzied pursuit of nearly 4,000 local residents.", "The incident ended with the shooting of the elephant by Lansing police.", "Provoked by the growing crowd, Rajje's rampage took her through the men's wear, sporting goods and gift departments of a local Arlan's discount store before leading police on a two-mile chase in which she knocked down and injured a 67-year-old man, tried to move a car, and caused thousands of dollars in damage before being killed.", "''Life Magazine'' quoted Rajje's trainer, William Pratt, as shouting at the scene, \"Damn these people ...", "They wouldn't leave her alone.", "\"The incident was widely reported, including a photospread in ''Life''.", "While the ''Lansing State Journal'' coverage stressed the danger of the incident, the ''Detroit Free Press'' noted that witnesses cried out \"Murderers!", "Murderers!\"", "as police fired eight shots.Author Nelson Algren cites the injustice and sad end of the pursuit of \"Raji, the Pixie-Eared Elephant\" in continuity with the ambush of Bonnie Parker and Clyde Barrow in his introduction to a 1968 biography of the outlaws.", "Then teenage Lansing residents who had goaded the elephant later on recalled the incident with sober regret in a local newspaper retrospective in 2011." ], [ "Geography", "Lansing is the centerpiece of a region of Michigan known as Mid-Michigan.The North Lansing dam of the Grand River.", "The Lansing River Trail and Ottawa Street Power Station are visible behind.According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and is water.", "This figure includes two 425 Agreements with Alaiedon Township and Meridian Township, and the four 425 Agreements with Delta Township since 2000.Since the 2010 census, the city has entered into two additional 425 Agreements.", "The first agreement consisted of the temporary transfer of 1,888.2 acres of Lansing Capital Region International Airport to the city from DeWitt Township in 2011.The second agreement consisted of the temporary transfer of in Alaiedon Township for the expansion of the headquarters of Jackson National Life Insurance Company in 2013 bringing the area either fully or conditionally under control of the city to .Under Michigan law, 425 Agreements are only temporary land sharing agreements and do not count as official annexations.", "The Census Bureau, however, for statistical purposes does count these as annexations.", "Not counting the temporary 425 Agreements, Lansing administers total.Lansing is located in the south-central part of the Lower Peninsula of Michigan, where the Grand River meets the Red Cedar River.", "The city occupies most of what had formerly been part of Lansing Charter Township.", "It has also annexed adjacent tracts of land in Delta Charter Township and Windsor Township in Eaton County to the west, Delhi Charter Township in Ingham County to the south, and in DeWitt Charter Township in Clinton County to the north.", "The city also controls three non-contiguous tracts of land through 425 Agreements (conditional land transfer agreements) with Meridian Charter Township, Delta Charter Township, and Alaiedon Township in Ingham County to the southeast.", "It is also located between the state's two largest cities, Detroit and Grand Rapids.Lansing BWL's Ottawa Street Power StationLansing elevations range between above sea level on the far south side of Lansing along Northrup Street near the Cedar Street intersection, to to above sea level along the Grand River.The Grand River, the largest river in Michigan, flows through downtown Lansing, and the Red Cedar River, a tributary of the Grand, flows through the campus of Michigan State University to its confluence with the Grand in Lansing.", "Sycamore Creek, a tributary of the Red Cedar, flows northward through the southeastern part of the city.", "There are two lakes in the area, Park Lake and Lake Lansing, both northeast of the city.", "Lake Lansing is approximately in size and is a summer favorite for swimmers, boaters, and fishermen.", "Michigan State University Sailing Club and the Lansing Sailing Club are located on Lake Lansing, where sailing regattas are hosted throughout the summer.The City of Lansing operates a total of of parkland, of which is parkland, are golflands, and are cemetery lands.", "However, this figure includes the Waverly Hills Golf Course and adjacent Michigan Avenue Park, whose are located within neighboring Lansing Township, but operated by the City of Lansing, and does not include the of the combined Hawk Island County Park and adjacent Soldan Dog Park operated by Ingham County within the city of Lansing.", "All together then, of the city (or approximately 10%) is publicly administered open space.===Climate===Climate chart for LansingLansing has a Midwestern humid continental climate (Köppen ''Dfb/Dfa'') that is influenced by the Great Lakes, and is part of USDA Hardiness zone 5b.", "Winters are cold with moderate to heavy snowfall, while summers are very warm and humid.", "The monthly daily average temperature in July is , while the same figure for January is ; the annual mean is .", "On average, temperatures reach or exceed on 8.8 days of the year and drop to or below on 10.5 nights.", "Precipitation is generally greatest during summer but still frequent and significant in winter.", "Snowfall, which normally occurs from November to April, averages per season, significantly less than areas to the west such as Grand Rapids as Lansing is relatively immune to lake-effect snows; seasonal snowfall has historically ranged from in 1863−64 to in 1880−81.The highest and lowest officially recorded temperatures were on July 6, 2012, and on February 2, 1868, with the last or colder reading occurred on February 27, 1994; the record low maximum is on January 22, 1883, while, conversely, the record high minimum is on August 1, 2006, and July 18, 1942.Freezing temperatures in June are exceedingly rare and have not occurred in July or August since the 19th century; on average, they arrive on October 4 and depart on May 7, allowing a growing season of 149 days.", "The average window for measurable snow (≥) is November 4 through April 6." ], [ "Neighborhoods", "Boji Tower, Lansing's tallest building, located downtownThe city's downtown is dominated by state government buildings, especially the State Capitol; but downtown has also experienced recent growth in new restaurants, retail stores and residential developments.", "Downtown Lansing had a historic city market that was one of the oldest continuously operating farmers' markets in the United States, until it closed in 2019.Downriver and north of downtown is historic Old Town Lansing with many architecturally significant buildings dating to the mid-19th century.", "Directly south of downtown on the other side of I-496 along Washington Avenue lies \"REO Town\", the birthplace of the automobile in the United States, is where Ransom Eli Olds built factories along Washington Avenue.", "Ransom Eli Olds' home, which once overlooked the factories along Washington Avenue, was displaced by I-496.Lansing is generally divided into four sections: the Eastside, Westside, Northwestside, and Southside.", "Each section contains a diverse array of neighborhoods.", "The Eastside, located east of the Grand River and north of the Red Cedar River, is the most ethnically diverse side of Lansing, with foreign-born citizens making up more of its population than any other side in the city.", "The Eastside's commercial districts are located mainly along Michigan Avenue, and to a lesser extent along Kalamazoo Street.", "It is anchored by Frandor Shopping Center on the very eastern edge of the eastside.The Westside, roughly located north, west, and south of the Grand River as it curves through the city, is sometimes regarded as the city's most socio-economically diverse section.", "This side also contains Lansing's downtown area, though this neighborhood is often included as an area all its own.", "Outside downtown, this side is largely a collection of residential neighborhoods and is served by only one other commercial area along Saginaw Street.", "However, it also includes a small part of the Old Town Commercial Association.The Northwestside, generally located north of the Grand River, with the city limits defining its north and western borders, is physically the smallest side of the city.", "This part of the city includes moderate-density residential areas and some green areas.", "North of Grand River Avenue, the main street of the side, lie warehouses and light industrial areas served by a major rail line that runs through Lansing.", "The most notable landmark of this side is Lansing's airport: Capital Region International Airport.The Southside, usually described as the neighborhoods located south of the Grand and Red Cedar rivers and the I-496 freeway, is physically the largest and most populous side of the city.", "The area is largely residential in nature (south of Mount Hope Road near the northern edge) and is served by numerous commercial strips along Cedar Street, Martin Luther King Jr. Boulevard, Pennsylvania Avenue, and Waverly Road, which run north–south.", "The large Edgewood District is located in the southernmost part of the Southside and is sometimes referred to as South Lansing.", "Though it is the largest area of the city by both physical size and population, it has often been regarded by Southside citizens as Lansing's most overlooked and forgotten area, as most of Lansing's attention in recent decades has been put into the revitalization of the city's historic core located mostly on small parts of both the East and Westside.The middle of the Southside—South-Central Lansing—contains the Old Everett Area.", "This location once contained the Everett School District and was annexed into the city in 1948.Unincorporated areas adjacent to Lansing include parts of Lansing Charter Township, such as the unincorporated community of Edgemont Park, as well as parts of Delta Charter Township, such as the unincorporated community of Waverly.", "Though they are not part of the City of Lansing, these unincorporated communities often use Lansing mailing addresses.Colonial VillageGenesee Neighborhood===Districts===* Cherry Hill* Churchill Downs* Colonial Village* Eastside* Edgewood* Genesee* Gier Park* Hosmer* Lansing-Eaton* Moores Park* Museum District* Old Everett* Old Town* REO Town* Stadium District* Walnut* Washington Square* Westside" ], [ "Demographics", "===2020 census===+Racial composition in Lansing Race Number Percentage White (non-Hispanic) 57,838 51.4% Black or African American (non-Hispanic) 25,376 22.5% Native American 504 0.4% Asian 4,732 4.2% Pacific Islander 32 0.03% Other/Mixed 8,695 7.7% Hispanic or Latino 15,467 13.7%===2010 census===As of the 2010 census, there were 114,297 people, 48,450 households, and 26,234 families residing in the city.", "The population density was .", "There were 54,181 housing units at an average density of .", "The racial makeup of the city was 61.2% White (55.5% non-Hispanic White), 23.7% African American, 0.8% Native American, 3.7% Asian, 0.04% Pacific Islander, 4.3% from other races, and 6.2% from two or more races.", "Hispanic or Latino of any race were 12.5% of the population.", "Foreign-born residents made up 8.3% of the population.The median age in the city was 32.2 years.", "24.2% of residents were under the age of 18; 12.3% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 30.2% were from 25 to 44; 23.8% were from 45 to 64; and 9.7% were 65 years of age or older.", "The gender makeup of the city was 48.4% male and 51.6% female.===2000 census===As of the 2000 census, there were 119,128 people, 49,505 households, and 28,366 families residing in the city.", "The population density was .", "There were 53,159 housing units at an average density of .", "The racial makeup of the city was 65.28% White (61.4% non-Hispanic White), 21.91% African American, 0.80% Native American, 2.83% Asian, 0.05% Pacific Islander, 4.54% from other races, and 4.60% from two or more races.", "Hispanic or Latino of any race were 10.0% of the population.", "The city's foreign-born population stood at 5.9%.As of 2000, the city's population rose by 32,293 (27%) to 151,421 during the day due to the influx of workers.There were 49,505 households, out of which 30.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 35.8% were married couples living together, 17.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 42.7% were non-families.", "33.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 8.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.", "The average household size was 2.39 and the average family size was 3.08.In the city, the population was spread out, with 26.8% under the age of 18, 11.4% from 18 to 24, 32.7% from 25 to 44, 19.3% from 45 to 64, and 9.7% who were 65 years of age or older.", "The median age was 31 years.", "For every 100 females, there were 92.3 males.", "For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87.9 males.The median income for a household in the city was $34,833, and the median income for a family was $41,283.Males had a median income of $32,648 versus $27,051 for females.", "The per capita income for the city was $17,924.About 13.2% of families and 16.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 23.2% of those under age 18 and 9.0% of those age 65 or over.===Immigration and refugee resettlement===The Brookings Institution has ranked Greater Lansing among the top 10 \"medium-sized metropolitan areas\" in the United States for refugee resettlement, with 5,369 refugees resettled from 1983 to 2004.St.", "Vincent Catholic Charities and Lutheran Social Services handle the adult and unaccompanied minor resettlement processes, respectively, while other organizations, such as the Refugee Development Center, focus on providing educational and social support services to refugees in the Lansing area.", "Nearby Michigan State University provides a source of volunteers for many of these programs., the Lansing area has about 2,000 Arab Americans, mostly second-generation Christian Lebanese Americans as well as some Palestinian Americans.The city is also home to a large number of temporary foreign residents enrolled as international students at Lansing Community College and nearby Michigan State University, with the city's visitors bureau specifically promoting Mandarin-language video tours of Lansing, touting the \"more than 6,000\" Chinese students enrolled at MSU.", "The Lansing School District offers language immersion programs for its students in both Spanish and Chinese." ], [ "Government", "Lansing City Hall & Lansing Police Department Central PrecinctLansing is administered under a mayor–council government, more specifically a strong mayor form in which the mayor is the city's chief executive officer.", "The mayor is obligated to appoint department heads (subject to council approval), and draft and administer a city budget among other responsibilities.", "The mayor may also veto legislation from council, though the veto can be overridden by an affirmative vote of two-thirds of the council.", "The mayor and city clerk are elected at-large every four years.The city council is the legislative body of the city and consists of eight members.", "Four members are elected from four single-member districts using the first-past-the-post method in the city's wards, and four members are elected at-large using the block voting method.", "Members of the council serve staggered four-year terms.", "Half the council is up for election every two years, including two ward seats and two at-large seats.", "At its first meeting of the year, the council chooses from amongst its members a president and vice president.", "The president is the council's presiding officer, and also chooses the chairs of council committees.", "In the absence of the president and vice president, the city clerk chairs the council.The city largely supports the Democratic Party.", "It has not had a Republican mayor in office since 1993 when then-Democratic state representative David Hollister defeated incumbent Mayor Jim Crawford, who had formerly served as a Republican member on the Ingham County Board of Commissioners.", "However, all city elections are held on an officially nonpartisan basis.Since given the ability to do so by the state in 1964, the city has levied an income tax of 1 percent on residents.", "0.5 percent on non-residents, and 1.0 percent on corporations.===State and federal representation===Lansing is currently split between three congressional districts.", "Most of the city lies within the boundaries of Michigan's 8th congressional district, which is represented by Democratic congresswoman Elissa Slotkin, who was elected in the 2018 midterm election.", "The small portion of the city that extends into Eaton County is located in the 7th district, which has been represented by Republican congressman Tim Walberg since 2011.The small portion of the city that extends into Clinton County is located in the 4th district, which has been represented by Republican congressman John Moolenaar since 2015.At the state level, most of Lansing is located in the 23rd district of the Michigan Senate, which has been represented by Democratic state senator Curtis Hertel Jr. since 2015.The small portions of the city that extend into Eaton County and Clinton County is located in the 24th district of the Michigan Senate, are currently represented by Republican state senator Tom Barrett.", "The city lies in the 67th, 68th, 71st, and 93rd districts of the Michigan State House of Representatives, represented by state representatives Kara Hope (D-67), Sarah Anthony (D-68), Angela Witwer (D-71), and Graham Filler (R-93).Though Lansing is not the designated county seat, some Ingham County offices are located in downtown Lansing, including a branch office of the county clerk, the county personnel office, and some courtrooms.quq==Economy=='''Top City Employers'''Source: ''Lansing Economic Area Partnership'' Rank Company/Organization # 1State of Michigan14,390 2Michigan State University10,253 3Sparrow Health System7,600 4General Motors4,549 5Lansing Community College3,1446McLaren Greater Lansing3,000 7Auto-Owners Insurance2,578 8Peckham2,510 9Jackson National Life2,500 10Dart Container2,000 11Meijer1,500 12Dean Transportation800 13Delta Dental800 14MSU Federal Credit Union800 15Michigan Farm Bureau750The Lansing metropolitan area's major industries are government, education, insurance, healthcare, and automobile manufacturing.", "Being the state capital, many state government workers reside in the area.Michigan State University, Thomas M. Cooley Law School, and Lansing Community College are significant employers in the region.General Motors has offices and a hi-tech manufacturing facility in Lansing and several manufacturing facilities immediately outside the city, as well, in nearby Lansing and Delta townships.", "The Lansing area is headquarters to four major national insurance companies: Auto-Owners Insurance Company, Jackson National Life, the Accident Fund, and Michigan Millers Insurance Company.", "Other insurers based in Lansing include Farm Bureau Insurance of Michigan.The Otto E. Eckert power plant along the Grand River, operated by the Lansing Board of Water and LightLocally owned and operated convenience store chain Quality Dairy is a significant presence in the Lansing market.", "The first Quality Dairy Store opened in 1936 and as of 2023 there are 26 retail locations in the Mid-Michigan area.", "Quality Dairy Company's headquarters is located near REO Town in Lansing and operates its Dairy Plant and Bakery Plant from central Lansing as well.The recent decline of the auto industry in the region has increased the region's awareness of the importance of a strategy to foster the high-technology sector.Early availability of high-speed Internet in 1996, as well as the MSU, Cooley Law School, and Lansing Community College student body population, fostered an intellectual environment for information technology companies to incubate.", "Lansing has a number of technology companies in the fields of information technology and biotechnology.===Healthcare===Sparrow Hospital is a 740-bed hospital affiliated with Michigan State University and its College of Human Medicine and College of Osteopathic Medicine.", "It offers a Level I Trauma Center and its own helicopter service.McLaren–Greater Lansing Hospital enjoys a special affiliation in radiation oncology with the University of Michigan and Michigan State University; McLaren–Greater Lansing is part of the Great Lakes Cancer Institute (GLCI).===Urban renewal and downtown redevelopment===Several urban renewal projects by private developers are adding higher end apartments and condominiums to the Lansing market.", "The Arbaugh, a former department store across from Cooley Law School, was converted into apartments in 2005.Motor Wheel Lofts, a former industrial site, was converted into loft-style living spaces in mid-2006.A combination retail and residential complex immediately south of Cooley Law School Stadium (formerly ''Oldsmobile Park'') called \"The Stadium District\", was completed in 2007.The Stadium District was redeveloped using a grant from the Michigan State Housing Development Authority through the Cool Cities Initiative.In May 2006 the historically significant Mutual Building located on Capitol Avenue was purchased by The Christman Company to be renovated back to its original grandeur and used as the company's headquarters.", "Additional downtown developments include the renovation of the historic Hollister Building and the expansion of the former Abrams Aerial Building.", "As of August 2008, an 18-story condominium high-rise called Capitol Club Tower was in the design phase with the adjacent parking structure having been approved by city council and purchased by the developer.", "The city market, in existence since 1909, was approved to be sold for a multi-building mixed-use development called MarketPlace, right next to the current market on the adjacent riverfront.", "The MarketPlace project was redeveloped along with BallPark North, another mixed-use development that will be immediately north of Oldsmobile Stadium.", "A new city market was built north of the Lansing Center, but closed in 2019.Across the river, the Accident Fund Insurance Company renovated the former (art deco) Ottawa Street Powerplant into their new headquarters.", "In addition to the renovation, Accident Fund Insurance Company built a modern addition to the north of the historic portion that is connected by an atrium for more office space, as well as a parking structure.", "In 2009, the restaurant Troppo began construction on a new 2-story building that will have an open-air patio on the roof facing the Capitol building.", "Developer Eyde Co. announced plans on April 6, 2010, to renovate the historical and prominent Knapp's building in downtown Lansing for first floor retail, office space and apartments/condos on the top floor (5th) in a $22–24 million project.===Retail===The Lansing area has two major malls: Lansing Mall and Meridian Mall.", "Other major retail centers include Eastwood Towne Center and Frandor Shopping Center." ], [ "Education", "J.W.", "Sexton High School,Westside LansingEverett High School,Southside LansingMichigan State University, a member of the Big Ten Conference, is known as \"the pioneer land grant college\", located in neighboring East Lansing.", "MSU has one of the largest land campuses in the United States and is home to several nationally and internationally recognized academic and research-oriented programs.", "Michigan State offers over 200 programs of study and is home to fourteen different degree-granting schools and colleges including two medical schools, a veterinary school, a law school, and numerous PhD programs.", "It is the only university in the nation with three medical schools.", "MSU is consistently one of the top three programs in the United States for study abroad programs.", "The MSU College of Education is also consistently rated as the top education program in the nation.", "Michigan State University is the oldest agricultural college in the United States.", "The MSU School of Criminal Justice is the oldest continuous degree granting criminal justice program in the nation.", "In 2008, the Department of Energy announced MSU won the contest for a $550 million Facility for Rare Isotope Beams that will attract top researchers from around the world to conduct experiments in nuclear science, astrophysics and applications of isotopes to other fields.The Thomas M. Cooley Law School is the largest law school in the nation and is located in downtown Lansing.", "Cooley is fully accredited by the American Bar Association.", "A majority of Cooley students are from out-of-state.Lansing Community College offers more than 500 areas of study to over 18,000 students at its main facilities in Lansing, and another 5,000 students at twenty-nine extension centers and a site in Otsu, Japan.", "LCC's new, state-of-the-art University Center enables students to take courses with the goal of eventually earning an undergraduate or graduate degree from other Michigan institutions.", "The University Center stands on the former site of \"Old Central\", Lansing's first public high school, which was established in 1875 as Lansing High School.", "(In the 1920s it was renamed as Central High School, and in 1957 became the first building on the LCC campus.", ")Other institutions of higher education include Western Michigan University (branch campus in Delta Township), Davenport University in Downtown Lansing, Central Michigan University (branch campus), and Great Lakes Christian College (campus in Delta Township).Eastern High School,Eastside LansingWithin Ingham County, most of Lansing is in Lansing School District.", "Some portions are in East Lansing School District, Holt Public Schools, Mason Public Schools, Okemos Public Schools, and Waverly Community Schools.Within Clinton County, school districts which include parts of Lansing are Lansing School District and DeWitt Public Schools.In Eaton County, school districts serving parts of Lansing include Lansing School District, Holt Public Schools, and Grand Ledge Public Schools.", ";Public schools* Lansing School DistrictLansing Eastern High SchoolLansing Everett High School*J. W. Sexton High SchoolGrand Ledge Public Schools* Ingham Intermediate School District** Ingham Academy High SchoolWaverly School District;Charter schoolsMid-Michigan Public School Academy* El-Hajj Malik El-Shabazz Academy (named after Malcolm X) (closed)* Sankofa Shule (closed);Private schoolsCapitol City Baptist SchoolEmanuel Lutheran SchoolLansing Catholic High SchoolLansing Christian SchoolsNew Covenant Christian SchoolOur Savior Lutheran School" ], [ "Cultural celebrations", "===Parades===The African American Parade occurs in Lansing's Westside as part of the annual Juneteenth CelebrationEach year in August, the Michigan Pride festival includes an LGBT pride parade from Riverfront Park to the capitol.The annual Silver Bells in the City Electric Light Parade proceeds through the streets of downtown Lansing every November, the Friday before Thanksgiving.", "It is followed by the lighting of Michigan's official Christmas tree in front of the State Capitol and a firework show (weather permitting) over the State Capitol.===Music===The Lansing Symphony Orchestra has been entertaining generations of Lansing-area residents since 1929.The current music director is Timothy Muffett.The Lansing JazzFest and the Old Town BluesFest host leading musicians, and are two of the larger music festivals held each year in the state.Old Town's Festival of the Moon and Sun is a two-day festival of food and live music.Old Town Oktoberfest is a two-day event drawing hundreds to the Old Town neighborhood for live polka music, authentic German food and world-renowned German-style beer.It was announced in May 2007 that the city would host \"Blues on the Square\", a series of summertime blues concerts featuring national acts Thursday nights along Washington Square in downtown Lansing.", "In 2008 the event regularly drew crowds over 500.The Common Ground Festival is a musical event held over a week every July at the Adado Riverfront Park in downtown Lansing pulling in crowds over 90,000 for the week.", "It began in 2000 and replaced the Michigan Festival that was held in nearby East Lansing.", "It has a wide range of musical acts.", "In 2008 acts included Staind, Drowning Pool, Sammy Hagar, The Hard Lessons, Snoop Dogg, REO Speedwagon, Kellie Pickler, Seether and Trace Adkins.", "2012 acts included The Flaming Lips, Man Man, Motion City Soundtrack, Joshua Davis, mewithoutyou, with local ensembles The Lansing Unionized Vaudeville Spectacle and Vandalay on the bill.Every year ''City Pulse'' names the \"Top Original Act\" in the Top of the Town Awards.", "The 2010 winner was Eastside neighborhood native indie rock band Loune.", "The 2011 winner was pop punk act Frank and Earnest.On June 23, 2018, REO Town hosted the Three Stacks Music Festival featuring Against Me!, Murder by Death, Pup, mewithoutyou, Screaming Females, Camp Cove, Petal, Oceanator, City Mouse, Worn Spirit, Stefanie Haapala, Ness Lake, and Secret Forte.Other notable Lansing musicians include Tell Yo Mama, Root Doctor, Jen Sygit, James Gardin, The Further Adventures of Fat Boy and the Jive Turkeys, MSU Professors of Jazz, Joe Hertler and the Rainbow Seekers, Jahshua Smith, BLAT!", "Pack, Deacon Earl and Frontier Ruckus." ], [ "Points of interest", "Michigan State Capitol ===Farmers' markets===Farmers' market in LansingLansing has several farmers' markets throughout the city in the summer months.", "These markets include the Allen Street Farmer's Market on the city's eastside, the Westside Farmers' Market, the Old Town Farmer's Market, and the South Lansing Farmer's Market.===Libraries===The Library of Michigan and Historical Center is a state library and research center.", "The library is one of the top five genealogical research facilities in the United States.", "The Capital Area District Library has 13 branches within Ingham County, some of these include the Main Library downtown, the Foster Library on the east side, and the South Lansing Library on the south side.===Museums===Lansing is home to a number of small, specialized museums:The Impression 5 Science Center is a children's science center located in a historic wagon works factory on the Grand River.", " The Michigan Library and Historical Center contains one of the 10 largest genealogy collections in the nation, has a museum dedicated to Michigan's history among other attractions.", "The Michigan Women's Hall of Fame is a museum dedicated to the historical accomplishments and achievements of Michigan women.", "The house is located directly south of downtown in the 1903-built Cooley-Haze House.", "The museum is surrounded by Cooley Gardens.", " The R. E. Olds Transportation Museum is dedicated to the education of Lansing's role in the development of transportation, particularly the automobile.", "* The Turner-Dodge House is a museum dedicated to Lansing's early pioneers.", "The museum sits in the Classical Revival-styled Turner-Dodge Mansion, built in 1858 for James and Marion Turner, and later by their daughter and her husband.", "It is on the National Register of Historic Places.===Theatre===* The Riverwalk Theatre, (formerly the Okemos Barn Theatre), the Lansing Civic Players, and the now defunct BoarsHead Theater are or were all located in downtown.", "* Peppermint Creek Theatre Company is a well established \"new\" theater company.", "Happendance, Michigan's longest-running professional modern dance company, has been based in Greater Lansing since 1976.", "The Greater Lansing Ballet Company is a ballet and dance company.", "* The Creole Gallery brings in various musicians and hosts the Icarus Falling Theater group.===Potter Park Zoo===The historic Potter Park Zoo, located along the Red Cedar River in Lansing, is a 102-acre park that has more than 160 species of animals.", "The park holds numerous programs and events for children and families to enjoy.", "With annual attendance increasing every year since 2006 (110,167 in 2006, 137,237 in 2008, and 167,000 in 2009) there are $667,100 in capital improvements planned for 2009 including a giant walk-in aviary and a new female tiger.", "In 2009 the zoo began a $1.4 million renovation to its rhinoceros exhibit.", "This is in addition to $1.3 million spent on capital improvements in 2008.In 2011 the Black Rhino exhibit opened; and three tiger cubs were born.", "In 2016 a 3-acre moose exhibit opened in the park.===Other area destinations===In October 2009 the Wharton Center for Performing Arts completed a , $18.5 million expansion and renovation, having already spent over $1.3 million in 2008.Many Broadway shows come to The Wharton Center before traveling to theaters in larger places such as Chicago.", "The Kresge Art Museum, the MSU Museum, and the Abrams Planetarium are highly acclaimed cultural destinations located on the campus of Michigan State University in East Lansing.", "In June 2007 MSU announced the plans to build a new art museum after a $26 million gift from Eli and Edythe Broad.", "Internationally known Pritzker Prize winning architect Zaha Hadid of London won the design competition for the East Lansing museum that was completed in November 2012." ], [ "Media", "===Newspapers and magazines===* ''Lansing State Journal''* ''City Pulse''* ''The New Citizens Press''* ''Capital Gains Media''* ''Capital Area Women's Lifestyle Magazine''* ''The Greater Lansing Business Monthly''* ''Greater Lansing Woman Magazine''* ''The Hub''* ''MIRS News-Michigan Information & Research Service''* ''The State News''* ''Gongwer News Service''* ''The Michigan Bulletin''* ''Patient In Charge Magazine''===Television===Cable slots listed reflect the Comcast cable system in Lansing.", "* WLNS 6 (CBS) (Cable 9)* WILX 10 (NBC) (Cable 4)* WKAR 23 (PBS) (Cable 13) / DT2 (World) (Cable 20) / DT3 (Create) (Cable 18) / DT4 (PBS Kids) (Cable 293)* WSYM 47 (Fox) (Cable 7)* WLAJ 53 (ABC) (Cable 3) / DT2 (The CW) (Cable 5)===Radio===Note: If the station has no city listed before the format, it is licensed to Lansing.", "* 88.1 WLGH – (Leroy Township, contemporary Christian) \"Smile FM\"* 88.5 WJOM – (Eagle, contemporary Christian) \"Smile FM\"* 88.9 WDBM – (East Lansing, college/Michigan State University) \"The Impact\"* 89.7 WLNZ – (public radio/Lansing Community College)* 90.5 WKAR – (East Lansing, public radio/Michigan State University)** Note: WKAR has an effective radiated power of 86,000 watts* 91.3 WOES – (Ovid, polka/Ovid-Elsie High School)* 92.1 WQTX – (St. Johns, Classic Hip Hop/R&B) \"The Hits That Power the Party...Stacks 92.1\"* 92.9 WLMI – (Grand Ledge, Classic Hits radio) \"Lansing's Greatest Hits\"* 93.7 WBCT-FM – (Grand Rapids, country) \"B93\"** Note: WBCT has an effective radiated power 320,000 watts* 94.1 WWDK – (Jackson, Classic Country) \"94.1 Duke FM\"* 94.9 WMMQ – (East Lansing, classic rock)* 96.5 WQHH – (DeWitt, urban) \"Power 96.5\"* 97.5 WJIM – (CHR) \"97-5 Now-FM\"* 99.1 WFMK – (East Lansing, adult contemporary)* 99.9 W260BX - (religious/southern gospel) \"Family Life Radio\" ** Rebroadcasts WUNN 1110 AM.", "* 100.7 WITL-FM – (country) \"Whittle\"* 101.7 WHZZ – (adult hits) \"Mike-FM\"* 105.7 WSRW – (Grand Rapids, adult contemporary) \"Star 105.7\"* 106.1 WJXQ – (Charlotte, active rock) \"Q106\"* 107.3 WTNR – (Greenville/Grand Rapids, Country)* 730 AM WVFN – (East Lansing, sports talk) \"The Game\"* 870 AM WKAR – (East Lansing, NPR news/talk)* 1110 AM WUNN – (Mason, religious/southern gospel) \"Family Life Radio\" * 1180 AM WXLA – Dimondale, (adult standards) \"Timeless Classics 1180\"* 1240 AM WJIM – (news/talk) \"Lansing's Big Talker\"* 1320 AM WILS – (news/talk) \"More Compelling Talk Radio\"* 1390 AM WLCM – (Charlotte, religious)* 1580 AM WWSJ – (St. Johns, urban contemporary gospel) \"Joy 1580\"* 162.400 WXK81 – NOAA Weather Radio (Onondaga, weather)Radio stations from Ann Arbor, Grand Rapids, Kalamazoo, Saginaw, and Flint can also be heard in the Lansing area." ], [ "Sports", "'''Club''''''Sport''' '''League''' '''Venue''''''Years of Existence'''Lansing LugnutsBaseballHigh-A CentralJackson Field1996–presentMichigan State SpartansCollege athleticsBig Ten ConferenceVarious StadiumsLansing Community CollegeCollege athleticsMichigan Community College Athletic AssociationAim High SportsCapital City SavagesWomen's FootballWomen's Football AllianceOkemos High School2017–presentLansing Roller DerbyRoller derbyWomen's Flat Track Derby AssociationLansing CenterLansing Common FCSoccerMidwest Premier LeagueEastern Stadium2020–presentThe Lansing Lugnuts are a High-A Central league, Minor League Baseball team, currently affiliated with the Oakland A's.", "The team plays its home games at Jackson Field, which was built at a cost of $12.7 million and opened in 1996 in downtown Lansing.", "It was partially renovated in 2006.Jackson Field has a seating capacity of 11,215 fans, and was built to accommodate additional expansion.", "Previously known as ''Oldsmobile Park'', the facility was renamed ''Thomas M. Cooley Law School Stadium'' in April 2010, in reference to the park's new sponsor.", "It was renamed again to ''Jackson Field'' after a change in sponsorship to Jackson National Life.Michigan State University, located in East Lansing, is the largest university in the State of Michigan.", "MSU sponsors both men's and women's sports, usually competing as a member of the Big Ten Conference.", "The Spartans have won National Titles in Men's Basketball, Football, Men's Boxing, Men's Cross Country, Men's Gymnastics, Men's Ice Hockey, Men's Soccer, and Men's Wrestling.Lansing Community College also sponsors many sports, competing as members of the Michigan Community College Athletic Association.", "The Stars have won NJCAA titles in the following sports: Women's Softball, Men's Basketball, Women's Basketball, Men's Cross Country, Women's Cross Country, Women's Marathon and Men's Marathon.The Lansing area is also known for its many golf courses, with two courses owned by Michigan State University, four municipal courses, and many additional public and private courses in the area.", "The former Walnut Hills Country Club in nearby East Lansing formerly hosted the LPGA's Oldsmobile Classic from 1992 to 2000.The Michigan PGA recently relocated from the Detroit area to Bath, Michigan, which is on the northern edge of Lansing.In the 1980s and 1990s Lansing was a major player in semi-pro football.", "The Lansing Crusaders won MFL/MCFL championships in 1982, 1983, 1985, 1987, 1989, and 1990.The team finished second in 1984, 1986, and 1991.Other past sports teams include:* Lansing – Michigan State League (baseball) – 1889–1890* Lansing Senators – Michigan State League (baseball) – 1895 and 1902 Southern Michigan League – 1907–1914 Central League – 1921–1922 renamed the Lansing Lancers – Michigan State League – 1940 and then back as the Lansing Senators – Michigan State League – 1941* Lansing Capitals – North American Basketball League – 1966–67 to 1967–68* Lansing Lancers – International Hockey League – 1974–1975* Capital City Cardinals – Michigan Charity Football League – 1980* Lansing Crusaders – Michigan Charity Football League – 1980–1988** Michigan Football League – 1989–1994* Capital City Cowboys – Michigan Football League – 1992* Capital City Stealth – Michigan Minor League Football – 2010–2019* Lansing Ice Nuts – International Independent Hockey League – 2003–2004* Lansing United – USL PDL – 2014–2018* Lansing Ignite – USL League One – 2018–2019* Lansing Sting – American Basketball Association – 2013–2014* Lansing Hot Rods – Continental Indoor Lacrosse League – 2013–* Lansing Pharaohs – The Basketball League (TBL) – 2022" ], [ "Transportation", "===Airports===Scheduled commercial airline service is offered from Capital Region International Airport (formerly known as ''Capital City Airport'').", "Delta Air Lines maintains routes to Detroit and Minneapolis.", "United Airlines maintains routes to Chicago O'Hare.", "American Airlines offers non-stop flights to Washington, D.C., and Chicago O'Hare.", "Apple Vacations provides seasonal flights to Cancún, Mexico; Montego Bay, Jamaica; and Punta Cana, Dominican Republic.", "UPS has a freight hub at Capital Region International Airport making up part of the 42 million pounds of annual cargo moving through the airport.", "In 2008 the airport received a port of entry designation – known as ''Port Lansing'' – and now has a permanent customs facility, thus changing its name to reflect the port of entry status.", "The same year a extension to the largest of the three runways – now – was completed to allow for larger aircraft to use the airport.===Major highways===* runs from Indianapolis north to Lansing and east to Flint and Port Huron, connecting to Canada.", "* runs from Muskegon, past Grand Rapids and Lansing, to Detroit.", "* loops through downtown Lansing, connecting with I-96 on either end.", "* is a loop route running through Lansing and East Lansing.", "* is a loop route running through Lansing.", "* a loop route off I-496 serving the state capitol and other downtown facilities.", "* is a north–south highway passing between the city and neighboring East Lansing, continuing northerly toward Clare and Grayling and southerly toward Jackson, Michigan, and into Ohio.", "* (Saginaw Street/Grand River Avenue)* (Martin Luther King Jr. Boulevard)===Railways===* Amtrak provides intercity passenger rail service at a stop in nearby East Lansing, on the ''Blue Water'' line from Chicago to Port Huron.", "* Three freight railroads serve Lansing including Canadian National Railway, CSX Transportation, and the Jackson & Lansing Railroad.===Public transportation===* Capital Area Transportation Authority (CATA) provides public transit bus service to the Lansing-East Lansing Metropolitan area on 33 routes.", "CATA boasts the second highest ridership in the state of Michigan after Detroit with 53,000 daily rides in September 2008 and 11,306,339 rides in fiscal year 2008.CATA also provides paratransit services through Spec-Tran and the \"Night Owl.\"", "Also, the \"Entertainment Express\" (CATA route 4) runs Thursday through Saturday from 7 pm to 2 am connecting downtown Lansing's and East Lansing's entertainment districts.", "CATA won APTA's America's Best Transit Award in the medium-size category (4–30 million rides) in 2007.CATA has two transportation centers (CTC), one in downtown Lansing and one on the campus of Michigan State University.", "In 2010, a study was conducted to consider ways of enhancing the Lansing-to-East Lansing route (currently known as Route 1), with options including enhanced bus service, single-car trolley service and light rail service.", "(Heavy rail was eliminated as an option early in the process, with enhanced bus service eventually winning out.", ")* Greyhound Lines provides inter-city bus service.", "CATA and Greyhound are both located in the CATA Transportation Center (CTC) in downtown Lansing.", "* Several taxicab companies serve the area.", "In 2001, Big Daddy Taxi opened using large vans to address the safety concerns of drunk driving and offered $3 rides for students of Michigan State University.", "In 2008 the Green Cab Company opened using Toyota Prius hybrid cars to provide \"green\" cabs to Lansing.", "* The Michigan Flyer provides bus service between Lansing and Detroit Metro Airport 12 times daily, with a stop in Ann Arbor along the way.===Bicycling===* The , non-motorized Lansing River Trail runs along the Grand River and the Red Cedar River, running as far east as Michigan State University, and passes Potter Park Zoo, the Capitol Loop, and several other destinations of interest, and as far west as Moores Park.", "The trail is accessible at many points along it, some with car parking lots.", "The trails breadth is extended from time to time.", "Currently, the trailheads are: North – Dietrich Park; East – Kircher Park; South – Maguire Park; West – Moores Park.", "All segments are hard-surfaced.", "The River Trail connects to other pathways/trails in the Lansing-metro area: East – Michigan State University path system; South – Sycamore Trail.", "Since the trail follows a river, most street crossings use platforms under existing street bridges to provide an uncommon amount of grade separation, to the benefit of both trail users and automobile traffic.", "As of February 2015, the River Trail is under construction to add paths as far as Holt." ], [ "Utilities", "Water supply, power and steam are municipally owned utilities which are provided by Lansing Board of Water & Light.", "In 2008 the Lansing BWL constructed Michigan's largest solar array towards the goal of increasing renewable energy in the energy grid.Natural gas is provided by Consumers Energy." ], [ "Notable people", "* Joel Bakan, Canadian law professor and documentary filmmaker* Ray Stannard Baker, journalist and author* L. Anna Ballard, first female medical physician in Lansing, Michigan* Terry Brunk, ex-WWE, ECW, TNA/WCW professional wrestler known as \"Sabu\"* Timothy Busfield, actor and director, ''thirtysomething'', ''Field of Dreams'', ''The West Wing''* Ricky Berry, NBA player for Sacramento Kings* Lingg Brewer, politician and educator* Charles G. Callard, co-founder of Callard Madden & Associates and a pioneer developer of corporate valuation models* Candi Carpenter, country singer & songwriter* Jim Cash, screenwriter of ''Top Gun'' and other commercially successful films* Carolyn Cassady, writer, wife of beat generation icon Neal CassadyAlva M. Cummins, lawyer and 1922 Democratic nominee for Governor of Michigan Doc Corbin Dart, singer of punk band The Crucifucks* DJ Infamous, hip-hop DJ* Tony Earl, former Governor of Wisconsin* Ed Emshwiller, visual artist and founder of CalArts computer animation Lab* Rashad Evans, UFC fighter* David Fairchild, botanist* Ed Farhat, professional wrestler known as \"The Sheik\"* Jonathan Farwell, actor* Bryn Forbes, NBA basketball player* Chris Hansen, ''Dateline NBC'' correspondent* Thom Hartmann, radio talk-show host and author* Ahney Her, actress, ''Gran Torino''* Joel Higgins, actor, graduated from Michigan State* Andy Hilbert, NHL hockey player* Keiffer Hubbell, figure skater* Madison Hubbell, figure skater* Steve Huffman, American entrepreneur and web developer, CEO and co-founder of Reddit* John Hughes, film writer and director, born in Lansing* Carol Hutchins, softball Hall of Famer* Kevin Jackson, Olympic gold medalist and two-time World Champion in freestyle wrestling* Magic Johnson, Michigan State University and NBA basketball star* Jacquelyn Kelley, All-American Girls Professional Baseball League player* Michael Kimball, novelist* Lisa Kron, theatre actress and playwright* Matthew Lillard, actor* Dean Look, football player and official* Malcolm X, human rights activist* Jef Mallett, creator and artist of the comic strip ''Frazz''* Suzanne Malveaux, CNN television news reporter* Teal Marchande, actress * Todd Martin, tennis player* Pop McKale, athlete and coach; University of Arizona arena bears his name* Drew Miller, NHL hockey player* Kelly Miller, NHL player* Kip Miller, NHL player, 1990 recipient of Hobey Baker Memorial Award* Ryan Miller, NHL and Olympic hockey player* Muhsin Muhammad, NFL football player* Needlz, hip-hop and rap producer* Ransom E. Olds, automobile manufacturer, founded Olds Motor Vehicle Company* Larry Page, co-founder of Google.com* DJ Perry, film writer, actor and director, born in Lansing* Wally Pipp, former Baseball player and member of the New York Yankees* Alice Pollitt, All-American Girls Professional Baseball League player* Corey Potter, NHL hockey player* Merv Pregulman, NFL player for Green Bay Packers, Detroit Lions* Dan Price, co-founder and CEO of Gravity Payments* Greg Raymer, 2004 World Series of Poker champion* Carl Benton Reid, actor* Burt Reynolds, Oscar-nominated and Golden Globe award-winning actor, born and raised in Lansing* Vic Saier, MLB player* Steven Seagal, actor and martial artist, born in Lansing* Frederic L. Smith, co-founder of General Motors, born in Lansing* John Smoltz, MLB pitcher, 1996 Cy Young Award winner, Hall of Famer* Lori Nelson Spielman, Author of the bestseller ''Life List'' * Debbie Stabenow, U.S. senator* Gary Starkweather, Inventor of the laser printer* Billy Strings, guitarist and bluegrass musician* Marcus Taylor, professional basketball player* George Teague, NFL player for Green Bay Packers, Dallas Cowboys, Miami Dolphins* Denzel Valentine, professional basketball player* Jay Vincent, professional basketball player* Sam Vincent, professional basketball player* Gretchen Whitmer, Governor of Michigan and former Minority Leader of the Michigan State Senate* Howard Wolpe, Congressman who was a Lansing resident during his term in office.", "* Lebbeus Woods, architect.", "* Ian Conyers,former member of the Michigan State Senate" ], [ "International relations", "===Sister cities===Lansing's sister cities are:* Akuapim South District, Eastern Region, Ghana* Asan, Chungcheongnam-do, South Korea* Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico* Ōtsu, Shiga, Japan* Pianezza, Piedmont, Italy* Saltillo, Coahuila, Mexico* Sanming, Fujian, ChinaLansing was a sister city of Kubyashi District in Saint Petersburg, Russia.", "The agreement began in 1992 and ended in practice when a change to the political structure of Saint Petersburg cancelled the district.", "The relations were officially severed by Lansing in 2013 as a protest of the laws against LGBT rights in Russia.===Friendship cities===Lansing's friendship cities are:* Cosenza, Calabria, Italy* Dar es Salaam, Tanzania* Sakaide, Kagawa, Japan" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Available on NewsBank, Record Number: 33658e6f3e435749c466e59bf44dd1b692752.", "* * " ], [ "External links", " City of Lansing official website* Greater Lansing Convention & Visitors Bureau* Great Lakes Capital Fund promotes affordable housing and community economic development activities in Lansing* ''The Lansing Republican'', excerpts from 1859 editions*** OpenStreetMap:Lansing, Michigan" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Leukemia" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Leukemia''' (also spelled '''leukaemia''' and pronounced ) is a group of blood cancers that usually begin in the bone marrow and result in high numbers of abnormal blood cells.", "These blood cells are not fully developed and are called ''blasts'' or ''leukemia cells''.", "Symptoms may include bleeding and bruising, bone pain, fatigue, fever, and an increased risk of infections.", "These symptoms occur due to a lack of normal blood cells.", "Diagnosis is typically made by blood tests or bone marrow biopsy.The exact cause of leukemia is unknown.", "A combination of genetic factors and environmental (non-inherited) factors are believed to play a role.", "Risk factors include smoking, ionizing radiation, petrochemicals (such as benzene), prior chemotherapy, and Down syndrome.", "People with a family history of leukemia are also at higher risk.", "There are four main types of leukemia—acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL), acute myeloid leukemia (AML), chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) and chronic myeloid leukemia (CML)—as well as a number of less common types.", "Leukemias and lymphomas both belong to a broader group of tumors that affect the blood, bone marrow, and lymphoid system, known as tumors of the hematopoietic and lymphoid tissues.Treatment may involve some combination of chemotherapy, radiation therapy, targeted therapy, and bone marrow transplant, in addition to supportive care and palliative care as needed.", "Certain types of leukemia may be managed with watchful waiting.", "The success of treatment depends on the type of leukemia and the age of the person.", "Outcomes have improved in the developed world.", "Five-year survival rate is 65% in the United States.", "In children under 15 in first-world countries, the five-year survival rate is greater than 60% or even 90%, depending on the type of leukemia.", "In children with acute leukemia who are cancer-free after five years, the cancer is unlikely to return.In 2015, leukemia was present in 2.3 million people worldwide and caused 353,500 deaths.", "In 2012, it had newly developed in 352,000 people.", "It is the most common type of cancer in children, with three-quarters of leukemia cases in children being the acute lymphoblastic type.", "However, over 90% of all leukemias are diagnosed in adults, with CLL and AML being most common in adults.", "It occurs more commonly in the developed world." ], [ "Classification", "+Four major kinds of leukemia Cell type Acute Chronic '''Lymphocytic leukemia'''(or \"lymphoblastic\") Acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) '''Myelogenous leukemia'''(\"myeloid\" or \"nonlymphocytic\") Acute myelogenous leukemia (AML or myeloblastic) Chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML)An explanation of acute leukemia===General classification===Clinically and pathologically, leukemia is subdivided into a variety of large groups.", "The first division is between its ''acute'' and ''chronic'' forms:* Acute leukemia is characterized by a rapid increase in the number of immature blood cells.", "The crowding that results from such cells makes the bone marrow unable to produce healthy blood cells resulting in low hemoglobin and low platelets.", "Immediate treatment is required in acute leukemia because of the rapid progression and accumulation of the malignant cells, which then spill over into the bloodstream and spread to other organs of the body.", "Acute forms of leukemia are the most common forms of leukemia in children.", "* Chronic leukemia is characterized by the excessive buildup of relatively mature, but still abnormal, white blood cells (or, more rarely, red blood cells).", "Typically taking months or years to progress, the cells are produced at a much higher rate than normal, resulting in many abnormal white blood cells.", "Whereas acute leukemia must be treated immediately, chronic forms are sometimes monitored for some time before treatment to ensure maximum effectiveness of therapy.", "Chronic leukemia mostly occurs in older people but can occur in any age group.Additionally, the diseases are subdivided according to which kind of blood cell is affected.", "This divides leukemias into lymphoblastic or ''lymphocytic leukemias'' and myeloid or ''myelogenous leukemias'':* In lymphoblastic or lymphocytic leukemias, the cancerous change takes place in a type of marrow cell that normally goes on to form lymphocytes, which are infection-fighting immune system cells.", "Most lymphocytic leukemias involve a specific subtype of lymphocyte, the B cell.", "* In myeloid or myelogenous leukemias, the cancerous change takes place in a type of marrow cell that normally goes on to form red blood cells, some other types of white cells, and platelets.Combining these two classifications provides a total of four main categories.", "Within each of these main categories, there are typically several subcategories.", "Finally, some rarer types are usually considered to be outside of this classification scheme.===Specific types===* Acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) is the most common type of leukemia in young children.", "It also affects adults, especially those 65 and older.", "Standard treatments involve chemotherapy and radiotherapy.", "Subtypes include precursor B acute lymphoblastic leukemia, precursor T acute lymphoblastic leukemia, Burkitt's leukemia, and acute biphenotypic leukemia.", "While most cases of ALL occur in children, 80% of deaths from ALL occur in adults.", "* Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) most often affects adults over the age of 55.It sometimes occurs in younger adults, but it almost never affects children.", "Two-thirds of affected people are men.", "The five-year survival rate is 85%.", "It is incurable, but there are many effective treatments.", "One subtype is B-cell prolymphocytic leukemia, a more aggressive disease.", "* Acute myelogenous leukemia (AML) occurs far more commonly in adults than in children, and more commonly in men than women.", "It is treated with chemotherapy.", "The five-year survival rate is 20%.", "Subtypes of AML include acute promyelocytic leukemia, acute myeloblastic leukemia, and acute megakaryoblastic leukemia.", "* Chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML) occurs mainly in adults; a very small number of children also develop this disease.", "It is treated with imatinib (Gleevec in United States, Glivec in Europe) or other drugs.", "The five-year survival rate is 90%.", "One subtype is chronic myelomonocytic leukemia.", "* Hairy cell leukemia (HCL) is sometimes considered a subset of chronic lymphocytic leukemia, but does not fit neatly into this category.", "About 80% of affected people are adult men.", "No cases in children have been reported.", "HCL is incurable but easily treatable.", "Survival is 96% to 100% at ten years.", "* T-cell prolymphocytic leukemia (T-PLL) is a very rare and aggressive leukemia affecting adults; somewhat more men than women are diagnosed with this disease.", "Despite its overall rarity, it is the most common type of mature T cell leukemia; nearly all other leukemias involve B cells.", "It is difficult to treat, and the median survival is measured in months.", "* Large granular lymphocytic leukemia may involve either T-cells or NK cells; like hairy cell leukemia, which involves solely B cells, it is a rare and indolent (not aggressive) leukemia.", "* Adult T-cell leukemia is caused by human T-lymphotropic virus (HTLV), a virus similar to HIV.", "Like HIV, HTLV infects CD4+ T-cells and replicates within them; however, unlike HIV, it does not destroy them.", "Instead, HTLV \"immortalizes\" the infected T-cells, giving them the ability to proliferate abnormally.", "Human T-cell lymphotropic virus types I and II (HTLV-I/II) are endemic in certain areas of the world.", "* Clonal eosinophilias (also called ''clonal hypereosinophilias'') are a group of blood disorders characterized by the growth of eosinophils in the bone marrow, blood, and/or other tissues.", "They may be pre-cancerous or cancerous.", "Clonal eosinophilias involve a \"clone\" of eosinophils, i.e., a group of genetically identical eosinophils that all grew from the same mutated ancestor cell.", "These disorders may evolve into chronic eosinophilic leukemia or may be associated with various forms of myeloid neoplasms, lymphoid neoplasms, myelofibrosis, or the myelodysplastic syndrome.===Pre-leukemia===* Transient myeloproliferative disease, also termed transient leukemia, involves the abnormal proliferation of a clone of non-cancerous megakaryoblasts.", "The disease is restricted to individuals with Down syndrome or genetic changes similar to those in Down syndrome, develops in a baby during pregnancy or shortly after birth, and resolves within 3 months or, in ~10% of cases, progresses to acute megakaryoblastic leukemia.", "Transient myeloid leukemia is a pre-leukemic condition." ], [ "Signs and symptoms", "image description page in Wikimedia CommonsThe most common symptoms in children are easy bruising, pale skin, fever, and an enlarged spleen or liver.Damage to the bone marrow, by way of displacing the normal bone marrow cells with higher numbers of immature white blood cells, results in a lack of blood platelets, which are important in the blood clotting process.", "This means people with leukemia may easily become bruised, bleed excessively, or develop pinprick bleeds (petechiae).White blood cells, which are involved in fighting pathogens, may be suppressed or dysfunctional.", "This could cause the person's immune system to be unable to fight off a simple infection or to start attacking other body cells.", "Because leukemia prevents the immune system from working normally, some people experience frequent infection, ranging from infected tonsils, sores in the mouth, or diarrhea to life-threatening pneumonia or opportunistic infections.Finally, the red blood cell deficiency leads to anemia, which may cause dyspnea and pallor.Some people experience other symptoms, such as fevers, chills, night sweats, weakness in the limbs, feeling fatigued and other common flu-like symptoms.", "Some people experience nausea or a feeling of fullness due to an enlarged liver and spleen; this can result in unintentional weight loss.", "Blasts affected by the disease may come together and become swollen in the liver or in the lymph nodes causing pain and leading to nausea.If the leukemic cells invade the central nervous system, then neurological symptoms (notably headaches) can occur.", "Uncommon neurological symptoms like migraines, seizures, or coma can occur as a result of brain stem pressure.", "All symptoms associated with leukemia can be attributed to other diseases.", "Consequently, leukemia is always diagnosed through medical tests.The word ''leukemia'', which means 'white blood', is derived from the characteristic high white blood cell count that presents in most affected people before treatment.", "The high number of white blood cells is apparent when a blood sample is viewed under a microscope, with the extra white blood cells frequently being immature or dysfunctional.", "The excessive number of cells can also interfere with the level of other cells, causing further harmful imbalance in the blood count.Some people diagnosed with leukemia do not have high white blood cell counts visible during a regular blood count.", "This less-common condition is called ''aleukemia''.", "The bone marrow still contains cancerous white blood cells that disrupt the normal production of blood cells, but they remain in the marrow instead of entering the bloodstream, where they would be visible in a blood test.", "For a person with aleukemia, the white blood cell counts in the bloodstream can be normal or low.", "Aleukemia can occur in any of the four major types of leukemia, and is particularly common in hairy cell leukemia." ], [ "Causes", "Studies in 2009 and 2010 have shown a positive correlation between exposure to formaldehyde and the development of leukemia, particularly myeloid leukemia.", "The different leukemias likely have different causes.Leukemia, like other cancers, results from mutations in the DNA.", "Certain mutations can trigger leukemia by activating oncogenes or deactivating tumor suppressor genes, and thereby disrupting the regulation of cell death, differentiation or division.", "These mutations may occur spontaneously or as a result of exposure to radiation or carcinogenic substances.Among adults, the known causes are natural and artificial ionizing radiation and petrochemicals, notably benzene and alkylating chemotherapy agents for previous malignancies.", "Use of tobacco is associated with a small increase in the risk of developing acute myeloid leukemia in adults.", "Cohort and case-control studies have linked exposure to some petrochemicals and hair dyes to the development of some forms of leukemia.", "Diet has very limited or no effect, although eating more vegetables may confer a small protective benefit.Viruses have also been linked to some forms of leukemia.", "For example, human T-lymphotropic virus (HTLV-1) causes adult T-cell leukemia.A few cases of maternal-fetal transmission (a baby acquires leukemia because its mother had leukemia during the pregnancy) have been reported.", "Children born to mothers who use fertility drugs to induce ovulation are more than twice as likely to develop leukemia during their childhoods than other children.In a recent systematic review and meta-analysis of any type of leukemia in neonates using phototherapy, typically to treat neonatal jaundice, a statistically significant association was detected between using phototherapy and myeloid leukemia.", "However, it is still questionable whether phototherapy is genuinely the cause of cancer or simply a result of the same underlying factors that gave rise to cancer.", "===Radiation===Large doses of Sr-90 (called a bone seeking radioisotope) from nuclear reactor accidents, increases the risk of bone cancer and leukemia in animals and is presumed to do so in people.===Genetic conditions===Some people have a genetic predisposition towards developing leukemia.", "This predisposition is demonstrated by family histories and twin studies.", "The affected people may have a single gene or multiple genes in common.", "In some cases, families tend to develop the same kinds of leukemia as other members; in other families, affected people may develop different forms of leukemia or related blood cancers.In addition to these genetic issues, people with chromosomal abnormalities or certain other genetic conditions have a greater risk of leukemia.", "For example, people with Down syndrome have a significantly increased risk of developing forms of acute leukemia (especially acute myeloid leukemia), and Fanconi anemia is a risk factor for developing acute myeloid leukemia.", "Mutation in SPRED1 gene has been associated with a predisposition to childhood leukemia.Chronic myelogenous leukemia is associated with a genetic abnormality called the Philadelphia translocation; 95% of people with CML carry the Philadelphia mutation, although this is not exclusive to CML and can be observed in people with other types of leukemia.===Non-ionizing radiation===Whether or not non-ionizing radiation causes leukemia has been studied for several decades.", "The International Agency for Research on Cancer expert working group undertook a detailed review of all data on static and extremely low frequency electromagnetic energy, which occurs naturally and in association with the generation, transmission, and use of electrical power.", "They concluded that there is limited evidence that high levels of ELF magnetic (but not electric) fields might cause some cases of childhood leukemia.", "No evidence for a relationship to leukemia or another form of malignancy in adults has been demonstrated.", "Since exposure to such levels of ELFs is relatively uncommon, the World Health Organization concludes that ELF exposure, if later proven to be causative, would account for just 100 to 2400 cases worldwide each year, representing 0.2 to 4.9% of the total incidence of childhood leukemia for that year (about 0.03 to 0.9% of all leukemias)." ], [ "Diagnosis", "The increase in white blood cells in leukemia.Diagnosis is usually based on repeated complete blood counts and a bone marrow examination following observations of the symptoms.", "Sometimes, blood tests may not show that a person has leukemia, especially in the early stages of the disease or during remission.", "A lymph node biopsy can be performed to diagnose certain types of leukemia in certain situations.Following diagnosis, blood chemistry tests can be used to determine the degree of liver and kidney damage or the effects of chemotherapy on the person.", "When concerns arise about other damages due to leukemia, doctors may use an X-ray, MRI, or ultrasound.", "These can potentially show leukemia's effects on such body parts as bones (X-ray), the brain (MRI), or the kidneys, spleen, and liver (ultrasound).", "CT scans can be used to check lymph nodes in the chest, though this is uncommon.Despite the use of these methods to diagnose whether or not a person has leukemia, many people have not been diagnosed because many of the symptoms are vague, non-specific, and can refer to other diseases.", "For this reason, the American Cancer Society estimates that at least one-fifth of the people with leukemia have not yet been diagnosed." ], [ "Treatment", "Most forms of leukemia are treated with pharmaceutical medication, typically combined into a multi-drug chemotherapy regimen.", "Some are also treated with radiation therapy.", "In some cases, a bone marrow transplant is effective.===Acute lymphoblastic===Management of ALL is directed towards control of bone marrow and systemic (whole-body) disease.", "Additionally, treatment must prevent leukemic cells from spreading to other sites, particularly the central nervous system (CNS) e.g.", "monthly lumbar punctures.", "In general, ALL treatment is divided into several phases:* ''Induction chemotherapy'' to bring about bone marrow remission.", "For adults, standard induction plans include prednisone, vincristine, and an anthracycline drug; other drug plans may include L-asparaginase or cyclophosphamide.", "For children with low-risk ALL, standard therapy usually consists of three drugs (prednisone, L-asparaginase, and vincristine) for the first month of treatment.", "* ''Consolidation therapy'' or ''intensification therapy'' to eliminate any remaining leukemia cells.", "There are many different approaches to consolidation, but it is typically a high-dose, multi-drug treatment that is undertaken for a few months.", "People with low- to average-risk ALL receive therapy with antimetabolite drugs such as methotrexate and 6-mercaptopurine (6-MP).", "People who are high-risk receive higher drug doses of these drugs, plus additional drugs.", "* ''CNS prophylaxis'' (preventive therapy) to stop cancer from spreading to the brain and nervous system in high-risk people.", "Standard prophylaxis may include radiation of the head and/or drugs delivered directly into the spine.", "* ''Maintenance treatments'' with chemotherapeutic drugs to prevent disease recurrence once remission has been achieved.", "Maintenance therapy usually involves lower drug doses and may continue for up to three years.", "* Alternatively, ''allogeneic bone marrow transplantation'' may be appropriate for high-risk or relapsed people.===Chronic lymphocytic=======Decision to treat====Hematologists base CLL treatment on both the stage and symptoms of the individual person.", "A large group of people with CLL have low-grade disease, which does not benefit from treatment.", "Individuals with CLL-related complications or more advanced disease often benefit from treatment.", "In general, the indications for treatment are:* Falling hemoglobin or platelet count* Progression to a later stage of disease* Painful, disease-related overgrowth of lymph nodes or spleen* An increase in the rate of lymphocyte production====Treatment approach====Most CLL cases are incurable by present treatments, so treatment is directed towards suppressing the disease for many years, rather than curing it.", "The primary chemotherapeutic plan is combination chemotherapy with chlorambucil or cyclophosphamide, plus a corticosteroid such as prednisone or prednisolone.", "The use of a corticosteroid has the additional benefit of suppressing some related autoimmune diseases, such as immunohemolytic anemia or immune-mediated thrombocytopenia.", "In resistant cases, single-agent treatments with nucleoside drugs such as fludarabine, pentostatin, or cladribine may be successful.", "Younger and healthier people may choose allogeneic or autologous bone marrow transplantation in the hope of a permanent cure.===Acute myelogenous===Many different anti-cancer drugs are effective for the treatment of AML.", "Treatments vary somewhat according to the age of the person and according to the specific subtype of AML.", "Overall, the strategy is to control bone marrow and systemic (whole-body) disease, while offering specific treatment for the central nervous system (CNS), if involved.In general, most oncologists rely on combinations of drugs for the initial, ''induction phase'' of chemotherapy.", "Such combination chemotherapy usually offers the benefits of early remission and a lower risk of disease resistance.", "''Consolidation'' and ''maintenance'' treatments are intended to prevent disease recurrence.", "Consolidation treatment often entails a repetition of induction chemotherapy or the intensification of chemotherapy with additional drugs.", "By contrast, maintenance treatment involves drug doses that are lower than those administered during the induction phase.===Chronic myelogenous===There are many possible treatments for CML, but the standard of care for newly diagnosed people is imatinib (Gleevec) therapy.", "Compared to most anti-cancer drugs, it has relatively few side effects and can be taken orally at home.", "With this drug, more than 90% of people will be able to keep the disease in check for at least five years, so that CML becomes a chronic, manageable condition.In a more advanced, uncontrolled state, when the person cannot tolerate imatinib, or if the person wishes to attempt a permanent cure, then an allogeneic bone marrow transplantation may be performed.", "This procedure involves high-dose chemotherapy and radiation followed by infusion of bone marrow from a compatible donor.", "Approximately 30% of people die from this procedure.===Hairy cell==='''Decision to treat'''People with hairy cell leukemia who are symptom-free typically do not receive immediate treatment.", "Treatment is generally considered necessary when the person shows signs and symptoms such as low blood cell counts (e.g., infection-fighting neutrophil count below 1.0 K/µL), frequent infections, unexplained bruises, anemia, or fatigue that is significant enough to disrupt the person's everyday life.", "'''Typical treatment approach'''People who need treatment usually receive either one week of cladribine, given daily by intravenous infusion or a simple injection under the skin, or six months of pentostatin, given every four weeks by intravenous infusion.", "In most cases, one round of treatment will produce a prolonged remission.Other treatments include rituximab infusion or self-injection with Interferon-alpha.", "In limited cases, the person may benefit from ''splenectomy'' (removal of the spleen).", "These treatments are not typically given as the first treatment because their success rates are lower than cladribine or pentostatin.===T-cell prolymphocytic===Most people with T-cell prolymphocytic leukemia, a rare and aggressive leukemia with a median survival of less than one year, require immediate treatment.T-cell prolymphocytic leukemia is difficult to treat, and it does not respond to most available chemotherapeutic drugs.", "Many different treatments have been attempted, with limited success in certain people: purine analogues (pentostatin, fludarabine, cladribine), chlorambucil, and various forms of combination chemotherapy (cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, vincristine, prednisone CHOP, cyclophosphamide, vincristine, prednisone COP, vincristine, doxorubicin, prednisone, etoposide, cyclophosphamide, bleomycin VAPEC-B).", "Alemtuzumab (Campath), a monoclonal antibody that attacks white blood cells, has been used in treatment with greater success than previous options.Some people who successfully respond to treatment also undergo stem cell transplantation to consolidate the response.===Juvenile myelomonocytic===Treatment for juvenile myelomonocytic leukemia can include splenectomy, chemotherapy, and bone marrow transplantation." ], [ "Prognosis", "The success of treatment depends on the type of leukemia and the age of the person.", "Outcomes have improved in the developed world.", "The average five-year survival rate is 65% in the United States.", "In children under 15, the five-year survival rate is greater (60 to 85%), depending on the type of leukemia.", "In children with acute leukemia who are cancer-free after five years, the cancer is unlikely to return.Outcomes depend on whether it is acute or chronic, the specific abnormal white blood cell type, the presence and severity of anemia or thrombocytopenia, the degree of tissue abnormality, the presence of metastasis and lymph node and bone marrow infiltration, the availability of therapies and the skills of the health care team.", "Treatment outcomes may be better when people are treated at larger centers with greater experience." ], [ "Epidemiology", "238x238pxIn 2010, globally, approximately 281,500 people died of leukemia.", "In 2000, approximately 256,000 children and adults around the world developed a form of leukemia, and 209,000 died from it.", "This represents about 3% of the almost seven million deaths due to cancer that year, and about 0.35% of all deaths from any cause.", "Of the sixteen separate sites the body compared, leukemia was the 12th most common class of neoplastic disease and the 11th most common cause of cancer-related death.", "Leukemia occurs more commonly in the developed world.===United States===About 245,000 people in the United States are affected with some form of leukemia, including those that have achieved remission or cure.", "Rates from 1975 to 2011 have increased by 0.7% per year among children.", "Approximately 44,270 new cases of leukemia were diagnosed in the year 2008 in the US.", "This represents 2.9% of all cancers (excluding simple basal cell and squamous cell skin cancers) in the United States, and 30.4% of all blood cancers.Among children with some form of cancer, about a third have a type of leukemia, most commonly acute lymphoblastic leukemia.", "A type of leukemia is the second most common form of cancer in infants (under the age of 12 months) and the most common form of cancer in older children.", "Boys are somewhat more likely to develop leukemia than girls, and white American children are almost twice as likely to develop leukemia than black American children.", "Only about 3% cancer diagnoses among adults are for leukemias, but because cancer is much more common among adults, more than 90% of all leukemias are diagnosed in adults.Race is a risk factor in the United States.", "Hispanics, especially those under the age of 20, are at the highest risk for leukemia, while whites, Native Americans, Asian Americans, and Alaska Natives are at higher risk than African Americans.More men than women are diagnosed with leukemia and die from the disease.", "Around 30 percent more men than women have leukemia.===Australia===In Australia, leukemia is the eleventh most common cancer.", "In 2014–2018, Australians diagnosed with leukaemia had a 64% chance (65% for males and 64% for females) of surviving for five years compared to the rest of the Australian population–there was a 21% increase in survival rates between 1989–1993.===UK===Overall, leukemia is the eleventh most common cancer in the UK (around 8,600 people were diagnosed with the disease in 2011), and it is the ninth most common cause of cancer death (around 4,800 people died in 2012)." ], [ "History", "Rudolf VirchowLeukemia was first described by anatomist and surgeon Alfred-Armand-Louis-Marie Velpeau in 1827.A more complete description was given by pathologist Rudolf Virchow in 1845.Around ten years after Virchow's findings, pathologist Franz Ernst Christian Neumann found that the bone marrow of a deceased person with leukemia was colored \"dirty green-yellow\" as opposed to the normal red.", "This finding allowed Neumann to conclude that a bone marrow problem was responsible for the abnormal blood of people with leukemia.By 1900, leukemia was viewed as a family of diseases as opposed to a single disease.", "By 1947, Boston pathologist Sidney Farber believed from past experiments that aminopterin, a folic acid mimic, could potentially cure leukemia in children.", "The majority of the children with ALL who were tested showed signs of improvement in their bone marrow, but none of them were actually cured.", "Nevertheless, this result did lead to further experiments.In 1962, researchers Emil J. Freireich, Jr. and Emil Frei III used combination chemotherapy to attempt to cure leukemia.", "The tests were successful with some people surviving long after the tests.===Etymology===Observing an abnormally large number of white blood cells in a blood sample from a person, Virchow called the condition ''Leukämie'' in German, which he formed from the two Greek words ''leukos'' (λευκός), meaning 'white', and ''haima'' (αἷμα), meaning 'blood'.", "It was formerly also called ''leucemia''." ], [ "Society and culture", "According to Susan Sontag, leukemia was often romanticized in 20th-century fiction, portrayed as a joy-ending, clean disease whose fair, innocent and gentle victims die young or at the wrong time.", "As such, it was the cultural successor to tuberculosis, which held this cultural position until it was discovered to be an infectious disease.", "The 1970 romance novel ''Love Story'' is an example of this romanticization of leukemia.In the United States, around $5.4 billion is spent on treatment a year." ], [ "Research directions", "Significant research into the causes, prevalence, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of leukemia is being performed.", "Hundreds of clinical trials are being planned or conducted at any given time.", "Studies may focus on effective means of treatment, better ways of treating the disease, improving the quality of life for people, or appropriate care in remission or after cures.In general, there are two types of leukemia research: clinical or translational research and basic research.", "Clinical/translational research focuses on studying the disease in a defined and generally immediately applicable way, such as testing a new drug in people.", "By contrast, basic science research studies the disease process at a distance, such as seeing whether a suspected carcinogen can cause leukemic changes in isolated cells in the laboratory or how the DNA changes inside leukemia cells as the disease progresses.", "The results from basic research studies are generally less immediately useful to people with the disease.Treatment through gene therapy is currently being pursued.", "One such approach used genetically modified T cells, known as chimeric antigen receptor T cells (CAR-T cells), to attack cancer cells.", "In 2011, a year after treatment, two of the three people with advanced chronic lymphocytic leukemia were reported to be cancer-free and in 2013, three of five subjects who had acute lymphocytic leukemia were reported to be in remission for five months to two years.", "Subsequent studies with a variety of CAR-T types continue to be promising.", "As of 2018, two CAR-T therapies have been approved by the Food and Drug Administration.", "CAR-T treatment has significant side effects, and loss of the antigen targeted by the CAR-T cells is a common mechanism for relapse.", "The stem cells that cause different types of leukemia are also being researched." ], [ "Pregnancy", "Leukemia is rarely associated with pregnancy, affecting only about 1 in 10,000 pregnant women.", "How it is handled depends primarily on the type of leukemia.", "Nearly all leukemias appearing in pregnant women are acute leukemias.", "Acute leukemias normally require prompt, aggressive treatment, despite significant risks of pregnancy loss and birth defects, especially if chemotherapy is given during the developmentally sensitive first trimester.", "Chronic myelogenous leukemia can be treated with relative safety at any time during pregnancy with Interferon-alpha hormones.", "Treatment for chronic lymphocytic leukemias, which are rare in pregnant women, can often be postponed until after the end of the pregnancy." ], [ "See also", "* Acute erythroid leukemia* Antileukemic drugs, medications used to kill leukemia cells* Cancer-related fatigue* Hematologic diseases, the large class of blood-related disorders, including leukemia* Multiple myeloma" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Leukaemia information from Cancer Research UK" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Length" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Length''' is a measure of distance.", "In the International System of Quantities, length is a quantity with dimension distance.", "In most systems of measurement a base unit for length is chosen, from which all other units are derived.", "In the International System of Units (SI) system the base unit for length is the metre.", "Length is commonly understood to mean the most extended dimension of a fixed object.", "However, this is not always the case and may depend on the position the object is in.Various terms for the length of a fixed object are used, and these include height, which is vertical length or vertical extent, and '''width''', '''breadth''' or '''depth'''.", "Height is used when there is a base from which vertical measurements can be taken.", "Width or breadth usually refer to a shorter dimension when length is the longest one.", "Depth is used for the third dimension of a three dimensional object.Length is the measure of one spatial dimension, whereas area is a measure of two dimensions (length squared) and volume is a measure of three dimensions (length cubed)." ], [ "History", "Measurement has been important ever since humans settled from nomadic lifestyles and started using building materials, occupying land and trading with neighbours.", "As trade between different places increased, the need for standard units of length increased.", "And later, as society has become more technologically oriented, much higher accuracy of measurement is required in an increasingly diverse set of fields, from micro-electronics to interplanetary ranging.Under Einstein's special relativity, length can no longer be thought of as being constant in all reference frames.", "Thus a ruler that is one metre long in one frame of reference will not be one metre long in a reference frame that is moving relative to the first frame.", "This means the length of an object varies depending on the speed of the observer." ], [ "Use in mathematics", "=== Euclidean geometry ===In Euclidean geometry, length is measured along straight lines unless otherwise specified and refers to segments on them.", "Pythagoras's theorem relating the length of the sides of a right triangle is one of many applications in Euclidean geometry.", "Length may also be measured along other types of curves and is referred to as arclength.In a triangle, the length of an altitude, a line segment drawn from a vertex perpendicular to the side not passing through the vertex (referred to as a base of the triangle), is called the height of the triangle.The area of a rectangle is defined to be length × width of the rectangle.", "If a long thin rectangle is stood up on its short side then its area could also be described as its height × width.The volume of a solid rectangular box (such as a plank of wood) is often described as length × height × depth.The perimeter of a polygon is the sum of the lengths of its sides.The circumference of a circular disk is the length of the boundary (a circle) of that disk.=== Other geometries ===In other geometries, length may be measured along possibly curved paths, called geodesics.", "The Riemannian geometry used in general relativity is an example of such a geometry.", "In spherical geometry, length is measured along the great circles on the sphere and the distance between two points on the sphere is the shorter of the two lengths on the great circle, which is determined by the plane through the two points and the center of the sphere.===Graph theory===In an unweighted graph, the length of a cycle, path, or walk is the number of edges it uses.", "In a weighted graph, it may instead be the sum of the weights of the edges that it uses.Length is used to define the shortest path, girth (shortest cycle length), and longest path between two vertices in a graph.=== Measure theory ===In measure theory, length is most often generalized to general sets of via the Lebesgue measure.", "In the one-dimensional case, the Lebesgue outer measure of a set is defined in terms of the lengths of open intervals.", "Concretely, the length of an open interval is first defined as:so that the Lebesgue outer measure of a general set may then be defined as:" ], [ "Units", "In the physical sciences and engineering, when one speaks of , the word is synonymous with distance.", "There are several units that are used to measure length.", "Historically, units of length may have been derived from the lengths of human body parts, the distance traveled in a number of paces, the distance between landmarks or places on the Earth, or arbitrarily on the length of some common object.In the International System of Units (SI), the base unit of length is the metre (symbol, m) and is now defined in terms of the speed of light (about 300 million metres per second).", "The millimetre (mm), centimetre (cm) and the kilometre (km), derived from the metre, are also commonly used units.", "In U.S. customary units, English or Imperial system of units, commonly used units of length are the inch (in), the foot (ft), the yard (yd), and the mile (mi).", "A unit of length used in navigation is the nautical mile (nmi).Units used to denote distances in the vastness of space, as in astronomy, are much longer than those typically used on Earth (metre or centimetre) and include the astronomical unit (au), the light-year, and the parsec (pc).Units used to denote sub-atomic distances, as in nuclear physics, are much smaller than the centimetre.", "Examples include the fermi." ], [ "See also", "* Arc length* Conversion of units* Humorous units of length* Length measurement* Metric system* Metric units* Orders of magnitude (length)* Reciprocal length" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Louis Ginzberg" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Louis Ginzberg''' (, ''Levy Gintzburg''; , ''Levy Ginzberg''; November 28, 1873 – November 11, 1953) was a Russian-born American rabbi and Talmudic scholar of Lithuanian-Jewish descent, contributing editor to numerous articles of ''The Jewish Encyclopedia'' (1906), and leading figure in the Conservative movement of Judaism during the early 20th century." ], [ "Early life", "Ginzberg was born in Kaunas, Vilna Governorate (then called Kovno).", "His religious Lithuanian-Jewish family's piety and erudition were renowned, seeing that they traced their lineage back to the Gaon of Vilna's brother.", "Ginzberg received a traditional Jewish education, and later studied in German universities." ], [ "Career", "Ginzberg first arrived in the United States in 1899.He began teaching the Talmud at the Jewish Theological Seminary of America (JTS) from its reorganization in 1902 until his death in 1953.During this time, he trained two generations of future Conservative rabbis, influencing almost every rabbi of the Conservative movement in a personal way.", "Ginzberg was highly praised by his colleagues; JTS leader Louis Finkelstein described him as a \"living symbol of love for Torah\".", "Leading Israeli Conservative posek David Golinkin has written prolifically on Ginzberg, having published a collection of 93 of his responsa.Ginzberg's knowledge made him the expert to defend Judaism both in national and international affairs.", "In 1906, he defended the Jewish community against anti-Semitic accusations that Jews ritually slaughtered Gentiles.", "In 1913, Louis Marshall requested that Ginzberg refute the Beilis blood libel charge in Kyiv.", "On account of his impressive scholarship in Jewish studies, Ginzberg was one of 66 scholars honored with a doctorate by Harvard University in celebration of its tercentenary in 1936." ], [ "Views", "In his opening address to students, Ginzberg spoke of the need to keep Conservative Jewry under the rubric of ''halakha''.", "Ginzberg's initiative to base ''halakhic'' decisions on law committees and not laymen is the method the Conservative movement describes as its present one till today.In 1918, at the Sixth Annual Convention, Ginzberg, as the acting president, declared that United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism stood for 'historical Judaism' and thus elaborates:Ginzberg sought to emulate the Vilna Gaon's intermingling of \"academic knowledge\" in Torah studies under the label \"historical Judaism\"; for example, in his book ''Students, Scholars and Saints'', Ginzberg quotes the Vilna Gaon's instruction, \"Do not regard the views of the Shulchan Aruch as binding if you think that they are not in agreement with those of the Talmud.", "\"In 1943, Ginzberg predicted that after the war, only two centers of Jewish culture would remain in the world: The United States and Palestine—with the latter depending upon the former for support.", "He foresaw problems for the Jews remaining in Europe due to their being perceived as those who caused Germany to lose the war." ], [ "Responsa", "One of Ginzberg's responsa concerns the use of wine in the Jewish community during the Prohibition Era.", "The Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified on January 16, 1920, declared that \"the manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors within ... the United States ... for beverage purposes is hereby prohibited.\"", "The subsequent Volstead Act defined \"intoxicating liquors\" and provided for several exceptions, one of which as for sacramental use.", "The Christian Church was able to successfully regulate the use of ceremonial wine.", "The clergy could easily monitor the nominal amount of sacramental wine that each worshipper drank, especially because it was usually drunk only in Church and only on Sundays (for the communion or Eucharist ceremony).", "This was not the case for the Jews, who needed a greater quantity of wine per person.", "Furthermore, the wine was drunk in the privacy of the home on Shabbat, Jewish holidays, weddings, and ''brit milah'' (circumcision) ceremonies.", "This alone would have made the regulation of ceremonial wine complicated.", "It was not difficult for crooks to rig illegal \"wine synagogues\" to trick the government to receive their wine which would then be bootlegged.While contemporary Orthodox Jewish authorities are generally permissive of grape juice as a wine substitute, Orthodox rabbis of the 1920s soundly rejected its use.", "The Reform movement in 1920 proclaimed that grape juice be used instead of wine to eliminate future complaints.", "Shortly afterwards, on January 24, 1922, the Conservative movement publicized the 71-page response written by Ginzberg tackling the ''halakhic'' aspects of drinking grape juice instead of wine in light of the historical circumstances.", "Besides Ginzberg's well-grounded decision to permit grape juice, he includes meta-''halakhic'' reasoning:At the time of Ginzburg's responsum, the Orthodox rabbinate had exclusive authority to sanction sacramental wine for Jews, and the responsum was thought by the Orthodox community to be tainted by self-interest." ], [ "Works", "Ginzberg was the author of a number of scholarly Jewish works, including a commentary on the Jerusalem Talmud and his six-volume (plus a one-volume index) ''The Legends of the Jews,'' (1909) which combined hundreds of legends and parables from a lifetime of midrash research.", "''The Legends of the Jews'' is an original synthesis of a vast amount of ''aggadah'' from all of classical rabbinic literature, as well as apocryphal, pseudopigraphical and even early Christian literature, with legends ranging from the creation of the world and the fall of Adam, through a huge collection of legends on Moses, and ending with the story of Esther and the Jews in Persia.Ginzberg also write ''Geonica'' (1909), an account of the Babylonian Geonim containing lengthy extracts from their responsa, as discovered in the form of fragments in the Cairo Genizah.", "He continued this work in the similar collection entitled ''Ginze Schechter'' (1929).Ginzberg wrote 406 articles and several monograph-length entries for the ''Jewish Encyclopedia'' (Levy 2002), some later collected in his ''Legend and Lore.''", "He was also founder and president of the American Academy of Jewish Research.Many of his ''halakhic'' responsa are collected in ''The Responsa of Professor Louis Ginzberg,'' edited by David Golinkin" ], [ "Personal life", "Ginzberg had a long term platonic relationship with Henrietta Szold, who was his editor at the Jewish Publication Society.", "She was in love with him, but was 13 years older than him.Ginzberg visited Berlin in 1908 and became engaged to Adele Katzenstein while he was there.", "Katzenstein was about 22 at the time.", "They had two children.", "Son Eli Ginzberg (1911–2002) was a professor of economics at Columbia University.", "The second child was a daughter, Sophie Ginzberg Gould (1914–1985)." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Excerpts from ''The Responsa of Professor Louis Ginzberg''* Loeb Family Tree* * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Left-arm unorthodox spin" ], [ "Introduction", "Trajectory of a left-arm unorthodox spin delivery'''Left-arm unorthodox spin''', also known as '''slow left-arm wrist spin''', is a type of spin bowling in the sport of cricket.", "Left-arm unorthodox spin bowlers use wrist spin to spin the ball, and make it deviate, or 'turn' from left to right after pitching.", "The direction of turn is the same as that of a traditional right-handed off spin bowler, although the ball will usually turn more sharply due to the spin being imparted predominantly by the wrist.Some left-arm unorthodox bowlers also bowl the equivalent of a googly, or 'wrong'un', which turns from right to left on the pitch.", "The ball turns away from the right-handed batsman, as if the bowler were an orthodox left-arm spinner.", "The delivery was sometimes historically called a '''chinaman'''." ], [ "Notable left-arm unorthodox spin bowlers", "The first cricketer known to bowl the style of delivery was 19th-century South African bowler Charlie Llewellyn.", "Llewellyn toured North America with Bernard Bosanquet, the originator of the googly delivery, and it is likely that Llewellyn learned the googly-style of delivery from him, bowling it with his left-arm.Among noted players who have bowled the delivery are Denis Compton, who originally bowled orthodox slow-left arm deliveries but developed left-arm wrist spin, taking most of his 622 first-class wickets using the delivery.", "Chuck Fleetwood-Smith used the delivery in the 1930s, including in his 10 Test matches.", "Although better known for fast bowling and orthodox slow left-arm, Garfield Sobers could also use it to good effect.", "In cricket's modern era, Australian Brad Hogg brought the delivery to wider notice and had one of the most well-disguised wrong'uns.", "Kuldeep Yadav, who debuted for India in March 2017, bowls left-arm wrist spin, and Paul Adams played 45 Test matches and 24 One-day internationals for South Africa between 1995 and 2004 using the delivery.", "Michael Bevan and Dave Mohammed are also considered to be \"among the better known\" bowlers to use the style.In 2021 ''The Guardian'' claimed that Kuldeep, Tabraiz Shamsi of South Africa and the Afghan bowler Noor Ahmad were \"probably the foremost left-arm wrist-spinners in world cricket\", while in 2022 Michael Rippon was reported as \"the first specialist left-arm wristspinner\" to play for New Zealand.", "In the women's game, Kary Chan of Hong Kong uses left-arm wrist spin deliveries.CricInfo suggests that left-arm wrist-spin bowlers are uncommon because it is \"difficult to control left-arm wrist spin.", "And ... the ball coming in to a right-hander is considered less dangerous than the one leaving him\".", "Instances of left-arm unorthodox spinners taking ten wickets in a Test match are, therefore, rare.", "Examples where this has occurred include Chuck Fleetwood-Smith against England in 1936–37, Michael Bevan against the West Indies in 1996–97, and Paul Adams against Bangladesh in 2002–03." ], [ "Historical use of the term 'chinaman'", "Historically the term \"chinaman\" was sometimes used to describe the googly delivery or other unusual deliveries, whether bowled by right or left-arm bowlers.", "The left-arm wrist spinner's delivery that is the equivalent of the googly eventually became known as the \"chinaman\".The origin of the term is unclear, although it is known to have been in use in Yorkshire during the 1920s and may have been first used in reference to Roy Kilner.", "It is possible that it is a guarded reference to Charlie Llewellyn, the first left-arm bowler to bowl the equivalent of the googly.", "It is first known to have been used in print in ''The Guardian'' in 1926 in reference to the possibility of Yorkshire bowler George Macaulay bowling a googly, but the term became more widely used after a Test match between England and West Indies at Old Trafford in 1933.Ellis Achong, a player of Chinese origin who bowled slow left-arm orthodox spin, had Walter Robins stumped off an orthodox delivery.", "As he walked back to the pavilion, Robins reportedly made a racist comment to the umpire, \"fancy being done by a bloody Chinaman!", "\", which was a reference to Achong, rather than the ball, though the story has been widely mis-told over the years.", "In 2017, Australian journalist Andrew Wu, who is of Chinese descent, raised concerns about the use of the term as \"racially offensive\", arguing the term itself \"has historically been used in a contemptuous manner to describe the Chinese\".", "''Wisden'' formally changed their wording of the term to slow left-arm wrist-spin in the 2018 edition of the Almanack, describing chinaman as \"no longer appropriate\".", "CricInfo followed suit in 2021, noting that although some argued that its use in cricket \"was not meant to be derogatory\", that its continued use was inappropriate.", "Some writers continue to use the term." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* ''Cricket and Race'' by Jack Williams * ''Wisden'', 1968, 1987 and 2018 editions" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Louis IX of France" ], [ "Introduction", "Emile Signol'''Louis IX''' (25 April 1214 – 25 August 1270), commonly revered as '''Saint Louis''', was King of France from 1226 until his death in 1270.He is widely recognized as the most distinguished of the Direct Capetians.", "Following the death of his father, Louis VIII, he was crowned in Reims at the age of 12.His mother, Blanche of Castile, effectively ruled the kingdom as regent until he came of age and continued to serve as his trusted adviser until her death.", "During his formative years, Blanche successfully confronted rebellious vassals and championed the Capetian cause in the Albigensian Crusade, which had been ongoing for the past two decades.As an adult, Louis IX grappled with persistent conflicts involving some of the most influential nobles in his kingdom, including Hugh X of Lusignan and Peter of Dreux.", "Concurrently, England's Henry III sought to reclaim the Angevin continental holdings, only to be decisively defeated at the Battle of Taillebourg.", "Louis expanded his territory by annexing several provinces, including parts of Aquitaine, Maine, and Provence.", "Keeping a promise he made while praying for recovery from a grave illness, Louis led the ill-fated Seventh and Eighth Crusades against the Muslim dynasties that controlled North Africa, Egypt, and the Holy Land.", "He was captured and ransomed during the Seventh Crusade, and later succumbed to dysentery during the Eighth Crusade.", "His son, Philip III, succeeded him.Louis instigated significant reforms in the French legal system, creating a royal justice mechanism that allowed petitioners to appeal judgements directly to the monarch.", "He abolished trials by ordeal, endeavored to terminate private wars, and incorporated the presumption of innocence into criminal proceedings.", "To implement his new legal framework, he established the offices of provosts and bailiffs.", "Louis IX's reign is often marked as an economic and political zenith for medieval France, and he held immense respect throughout Christendom.", "His reputation as a fair and judicious ruler led to his being solicited to mediate disputes beyond his own kingdom.Louis' admirers through the centuries have celebrated him as the quintessential Christian monarch.", "His skill as a knight and engaging manner with the public contributed to his popularity, although he was occasionally criticized as being overly pious, earning the moniker of a \"monk king\".", "Despite his progressive legal reforms, Louis was a staunch Christian and rigorously enforced Catholic orthodoxy.", "He enacted harsh laws against blasphemy and launched actions against France's Jewish population, including the notorious burning of the Talmud following the Disputation of Paris.", "Louis IX holds the distinction of being the sole canonized king of France." ], [ "Sources", "Much of what is known of Louis's life comes from Jean de Joinville's famous ''Life of Saint Louis''.", "Joinville was a close friend, confidant, and counselor to the king.", "He participated as a witness in the papal inquest into Louis's life that resulted in his canonization in 1297 by Pope Boniface VIII.Two other important biographies were written by the king's confessor, Geoffrey of Beaulieu, and his chaplain, William of Chartres.", "While several individuals wrote biographies in the decades following the king's death, only Jean of Joinville, Geoffrey of Beaulieu, and William of Chartres wrote from personal knowledge of the king and of the events they describe, and all three are biased favorably to the king.", "The fourth important source of information is William of Saint-Parthus's 19th-century biography, which he wrote using material from the papal inquest mentioned above." ], [ "Early life", "Louis was born on 25 April 1214 at Poissy, near Paris, the son of Louis the Lion and Blanche of Castile, and was baptized there in ''La Collégiale Notre-Dame'' church.", "His grandfather on his father's side was Philip II, king of France; his grandfather on his mother's side was Alfonso VIII, king of Castile.", "Tutors of Blanche's choosing taught him Latin, public speaking, writing, military arts, and government.", "He was nine years old when his grandfather Philip II died and his father became King Louis VIII." ], [ "Minority (1226–1234)", "Louis was 12 years old when his father died on 8 November 1226.He was crowned king within the month at Reims Cathedral.", "His mother, Blanche, ruled France as regent during his minority.", "Louis's mother instilled in him her devout Christianity.", "She is once recorded to have said:His younger brother Charles I of Sicily (1227–85) was created count of Anjou, thus founding the Capetian Angevin dynasty.In 1229, when Louis was 15, his mother ended the Albigensian Crusade by signing an agreement with Raymond VII of Toulouse.", "Raymond VI of Toulouse had been suspected of ordering the assassination of Pierre de Castelnau, a Roman Catholic preacher who attempted to convert the Cathars.On 27 May 1234, Louis married Margaret of Provence (1221–1295); she was crowned in the cathedral of Sens the next day.", "Margaret was the sister of Eleanor of Provence, who later married Henry III of England.", "The new queen's religious zeal made her a well-suited partner for the king, and they are attested to have gotten along well, enjoying riding together, reading, and listening to music.", "His closeness to Margaret aroused jealousy in his mother, who tried to keep the couple apart as much as she could.While his contemporaries viewed his reign as co-rule between the king and his mother, historians generally believe Louis began ruling personally in 1234, with his mother assuming a more advisory role.", "She continued to have a strong influence on the king until her death in 1252." ], [ "Louis as king", "=== Arts ===Pope Innocent IV with Louis IX at ClunyLouis's patronage of the arts inspired much innovation in Gothic art and architecture.", "The style of his court was influential throughout Europe, both because of artwork purchased from Parisian masters for export, and by the marriage of the king's daughters and other female relatives to foreigners.", "They became emissaries of Parisian models and styles elsewhere.", "Louis's personal chapel, the ''Sainte-Chapelle'' in Paris, which was known for its intricate stained-glass windows, was copied more than once by his descendants elsewhere.", "Louis is believed to have ordered the production of the Morgan Bible and the Arsenal Bible, both deluxe illuminated manuscripts.During the so-called \"golden century of Saint Louis\", the kingdom of France was at its height in Europe, both politically and economically.", "Saint Louis was regarded as ''\"primus inter pares\",'' first among equals, among the kings and rulers of the continent.", "He commanded the largest army and ruled the largest and wealthiest kingdom, the European centre of arts and intellectual thought at the time.", "The foundations for the notable college of theology, later known as the Sorbonne, were laid in Paris about the year 1257.=== Arbitration ===Seal of Louis IX, legend: The prestige and respect felt by Europeans for King Louis IX were due more to the appeal of his personality than to military domination.", "For his contemporaries, he was the quintessential example of the Christian prince and embodied the whole of Christendom in his person.", "His reputation for fairness and even saintliness was already well established while he was alive, and on many occasions he was chosen as an arbiter in quarrels among the rulers of Europe.Shortly before 1256, Enguerrand IV, Lord of Coucy, arrested and without trial hanged three young squires of Laon, whom he accused of poaching in his forest.", "In 1256 Louis had the lord arrested and brought to the Louvre by his sergeants.", "Enguerrand demanded judgment by his peers and trial by battle, which the king refused because he thought it obsolete.", "Enguerrand was tried, sentenced, and ordered to pay 12,000 livres.", "Part of the money was to pay for masses to be said in perpetuity for the souls of the men he had hanged.In 1258, Louis and James I of Aragon signed the Treaty of Corbeil to end areas of contention between them.", "By this treaty, Louis renounced his feudal overlordship over the County of Barcelona and Roussillon, which was held by the King of Aragon.", "James in turn renounced his feudal overlordship over several counties in southern France, including Provence and Languedoc.", "In 1259 Louis signed the Treaty of Paris, by which Henry III of England was confirmed in his possession of territories in southwestern France, and Louis received the provinces of Anjou, Normandy (Normandie), Poitou, Maine, and Touraine.=== Religion ===The perception of Louis IX by his contemporaries as the exemplary Christian prince was reinforced by his religious zeal.", "Louis was an extremely devout Catholic, and he built the ''Sainte-Chapelle'' (\"Holy Chapel\"), located within the royal palace complex (now the Paris Hall of Justice), on the ''Île de la Cité'' in the centre of Paris.", "The ''Sainte Chapelle'', a prime example of the Rayonnant style of Gothic architecture, was erected as a shrine for the Crown of Thorns and a fragment of the True Cross, precious relics of the Passion of Christ.", "He acquired these in 1239–41 from Emperor Baldwin II of the Latin Empire of Constantinople by agreeing to pay off Baldwin's debt to the Venetian merchant Niccolo Quirino, for which Baldwin had pledged the Crown of Thorns as collateral.", "Louis IX paid the exorbitant sum of 135,000 livres to clear the debt.Reliquary of Saint Louis (end of the 13th century) Basilica of Saint Dominic, Bologna, Italy In 1230, the King forbade all forms of usury, defined at the time as any taking of interest and therefore covering most banking activities.", "Louis used these anti-usury laws to extract funds from Jewish and Lombard moneylenders, with the hopes that it would help pay for a future crusade.", "Louis also oversaw the Disputation of Paris in 1240, in which Paris's Jewish leaders were imprisoned and forced to admit to anti-Christian passages in the Talmud, the major source of Jewish commentaries on the Bible and religious law.", "As a result of the disputation, Pope Gregory IX declared that all copies of the Talmud should be seized and destroyed.", "In 1242, Louis ordered the burning of 12,000 Talmudim, along with other important Jewish books and scripture.", "The edict against the Talmud was eventually overturned by Gregory IX's successor, Innocent IV.Louis also expanded the scope of the Inquisition in France.", "He set the punishment for blasphemy to mutilation of the tongue and lips.", "The area most affected by this expansion was southern France, where the Cathar sect had been strongest.", "The rate of confiscation of property from the Cathars and others reached its highest levels in the years before his first crusade and slowed upon his return to France in 1254.In 1250, Louis headed a crusade to Egypt and was taken prisoner.", "During his captivity, he recited the Divine Office every day.", "After his release against ransom, he visited the Holy Land before returning to France.", "In these deeds, Louis IX tried to fulfill what he considered the duty of France as \"the eldest daughter of the Church\" (''la fille aînée de l'Église''), a tradition of protector of the Church going back to the Franks and Charlemagne, who had been crowned by Pope Leo III in Rome in 800.The kings of France were known in the Church by the title \"most Christian king\" (''Rex Christianissimus'').Louis founded many hospitals and houses: the House of the Filles-Dieu for reformed prostitutes; the Quinze-Vingt for 300 blind men (1254), and hospitals at Pontoise, Vernon, and Compiégne.St.", "Louis installed a house of the Trinitarian Order at Fontainebleau, his chateau and estate near Paris.", "He chose Trinitarians as his chaplains and was accompanied by them on his crusades.", "In his spiritual testament he wrote, \"My dearest son, you should permit yourself to be tormented by every kind of martyrdom before you would allow yourself to commit a mortal sin.", "\"Louis authored and sent the ''Enseignements'', or teachings, to his son Philip III.", "The letter outlined how Philip should follow the example of Jesus Christ in order to be a moral leader.", "The letter is estimated to have been written in 1267, three years before Louis's death." ], [ "Personal reign (1235–1266)", "===Seventh Crusade===Battle of Fariskur, during the Seventh Crusade (Gustave Doré).Louis and his followers landed in Egypt on 4 or 5 June 1249 and began their campaign with the capture of the port of Damietta.", "This attack caused some disruption in the Muslim Ayyubid empire, especially as the current sultan, Al-Malik as-Salih Najm al-Din Ayyub, was on his deathbed.", "However, the march of Europeans from Damietta toward Cairo through the Nile River Delta went slowly.", "The seasonal rising of the Nile and the summer heat made it impossible for them to advance.", "During this time, the Ayyubid sultan died, and the sultan's wife Shajar al-Durr set in motion a shift in power that would make her Queen and eventually result in the rule of the Egyptian army of the Mamluks.On 8 February 1250, Louis lost his army at the Battle of Fariskur and was captured by the Egyptians.", "His release was eventually negotiated in return for a ransom of 400,000 ''livres tournois'' (roughly 80 million USD today) and the surrender of the city of Damietta.===Four years in the Kingdom of Jerusalem===Upon his liberation from captivity in Egypt, Louis IX devoted four years to fortifying the Kingdom of Jerusalem, focusing his efforts in Acre, Caesarea, and Jaffa.", "He generously utilized his resources to aid the Crusaders in reconstructing their defenses and actively engaged in diplomatic endeavors with the Islamic powers of Syria and Egypt.", "In spring 1254, Louis and his remaining forces made their return to France.Louis maintained regular correspondence and envoy exchanges with the Mongol rulers of his era.", "During his first crusade in 1248, he received envoys from Eljigidei, the Mongol military leader stationed in Armenia and Persia.", "Eljigidei proposed that Louis should launch an offensive in Egypt while he targeted Baghdad to prevent the unification of the Muslim forces in Egypt and Syria.", "In response, Louis sent André de Longjumeau, a Dominican priest, as a delegate to the Khangan Güyük Khan () in Mongolia.", "However, Güyük's death preceded the arrival of the emissary, and his widow and acting regent, Oghul Qaimish, rejected the diplomatic proposition.Louis sent another representative, the Franciscan missionary and explorer William of Rubruck, to the Mongol court.", "Rubruck visited the Khagan Möngke () in Mongolia and spent several years there.", "In 1259, Berke, the leader of the Golden Horde, demanded Louis's submission.", "In contrast, Mongol emperors Möngke and Khubilai's brother, the Ilkhan Hulegu, sent a letter to the French king, soliciting his military aid; this letter, however, never reached France." ], [ "Later reign (1267–1270)", "===Eighth Crusade and death===Death of Saint Louis: On 25 August 1270, Saint Louis dies in his tent, ornamented with royal symbols, near Tunis.", "Illuminated by Jean Fouquet, ''Grandes Chroniques de France'' (1455–1460)In a parliament held at Paris, 24 March 1267, Louis and his three sons \"took the cross.\"", "On hearing the reports of the missionaries, Louis resolved to land at Tunis, and he ordered his younger brother, Charles of Anjou, to join him there.", "The crusaders, among whom was the English prince Edward Longshanks, landed at Carthage 17 July 1270, but disease broke out in the camp.Louis died at Tunis on 25 August 1270, in an epidemic of dysentery that swept through his army.", "According to European custom, his body was subjected to the process known as ''mos Teutonicus'' prior to his remains being returned to France.", "Louis was succeeded as King of France by his son, Philip III.Louis's younger brother, Charles I of Naples, preserved his heart and intestines, and conveyed them for burial in the Cathedral of Monreale near Palermo.Louis's body returning, from a copy of the crusade treatise ''Directorium ad passagium''Louis's bones were carried overland in a lengthy processional across Sicily, Italy, the Alps, and France, until they were interred in the royal necropolis at Saint-Denis in May 1271 Charles and Philip III later dispersed a number of relics to promote Louis's veneration." ], [ "Children", "#Blanche (12 July/4 December 1240 – 29 April 1244), died in infancy.#Isabella (2 March 1241 – 28 January 1271), married Theobald II of Navarre.#Louis (23 September 1243/24 February 1244 – 11 January/2 February 1260).", "Betrothed to Berengaria of Castile in Paris on 20 August 1255.#Philip III (1 May 1245 – 5 October 1285), married firstly to Isabella of Aragon in 1262 and secondly to Maria of Brabant in 1274.#John (1246/1247 – 10 March 1248), died in infancy.#John Tristan (8 April 1250 – 3 August 1270), Count of Valois, married Yolande II, Countess of Nevers.#Peter (1251 – 6/7 April 1284), Count of Perche and Alençon, married Joanne of Châtillon.#Blanche (early 1253 – 17 June 1320), married Ferdinand de la Cerda, Infante of Castile.#Margaret (early 1255 – July 1271), married John I, Duke of Brabant.#Robert (1256 – 7 February 1317), Count of Clermont, married Beatrice of Burgundy.", "The French crown devolved upon his male-line descendant, Henry IV (the first Bourbon king), when the legitimate male line of Philip III died out in 1589.#Agnes (1260 – 19/20 December 1327), married Robert II, Duke of Burgundy.Louis and Margaret's two children who died in infancy were first buried at the Cistercian abbey of Royaumont.", "In 1820 they were transferred and reinterred to Saint-Denis Basilica." ], [ "Ancestry" ], [ "Veneration as a saint", "Pope Boniface VIII proclaimed the canonization of Louis in 1297; he is the only French king to be declared a saint.", "Louis IX is often considered the model of the ideal Christian monarch.Named in his honour, the Sisters of Charity of St. Louis is a Roman Catholic religious order founded in Vannes, France, in 1803.A similar order, the Sisters of St Louis, was founded in Juilly in 1842.He is honoured as co-patron of the Third Order of St. Francis, which claims him as a member of the Order.", "When he became king, over a hundred poor people were served meals in his house on ordinary days.", "Often the king served these guests himself.", "His acts of charity, coupled with his devout religious practices, gave rise to the legend that he joined the Third Order of St. Francis, though it is unlikely that he ever actually joined the order.The Catholic Church and Episcopal Church honor him with a feast day on 25 August." ], [ "Things named after Saint Louis", "* The French royal Order of Saint Louis (1693–1790 and 1814–1830)===Places===Many countries in which French speakers and Catholicism were prevalent named places after King Louis:San Luis Province in Argentina San Luis Potosí in Mexico Multiple locations in the United StatesSt. Louis, Missouri, named by French colonists San Luis Rey, Oceanside, California, named by the Franciscans who built one of the California missions there.", "Multiple locations in FranceÎle Saint-Louis, an island in the river Seine, ParisSaint-Louis, New CaledoniaMultiple locations in CanadaSaint-Louis, SenegalSão Luís, Maranhão in BrazilThe PhilippinesSan Luis, AuroraSan Luis, Batangas=== Buildings ===* France Hôpital Saint-Louis, hospital in the 10th arrondissement of Paris The Cathédrale Saint-Louis de Versailles in Versailles* United States The Basilica of St. Louis, King of France, completed in 1834 in St. Louis, Missouri The Cathedral Basilica of St. Louis, completed in 1914 in St. Louis, Missouri The St. Louis Cathedral in New Orleans The St. Louis King of France Catholic Church and School, in Metairie, Louisiana Saint Louis Catholic High School, in Lake Charles, Louisiana Saint Louis King of France Catholic Church and School, in Austin, Texas Saint Louis Catholic Church, in Waco, TexasMission San Luis Rey de Francia, Oceanside, California, founded 12 June 1798 San Luis Rey Mission, Chamberino, New Mexico St. Louis Roman Catholic Church in Buffalo, New York (Mother Church of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Buffalo)* The national church of France in Rome: San Luigi dei Francesi in Italian, or Saint Louis of France in English* The Cathedral of St Louis in Plovdiv, Bulgaria* The Cathedral of St Louis in Carthage, Tunisia, so named because Louis IX died at that approximate location in 1270* The Church of St Louis in Moscow, Russia* India Rue Saint Louis of Pondicherry St. Louis Church, Dahisar West, Mumbai* The Convent of Saint Louis and Catholic High School in Carrickmacross, Ireland." ], [ "Notable portraits", "* United States A bas-relief of St. Louis is one of the carved portraits of historic lawmakers that adorn the chamber of the United States House of Representatives.", " Saint Louis is also portrayed on a frieze depicting a timeline of important lawgivers throughout world history, on the North Wall of the Courtroom at the Supreme Court of the United States.", " A statue of St. Louis by the sculptor John Donoghue stands on the roofline of the New York State Appellate Division Court at 27 Madison Avenue in New York City.", " The Apotheosis of St. Louis is an equestrian statue of the saint, by Charles Henry Niehaus, that stands in front of the Saint Louis Art Museum in Forest Park.", "** A heroic portrait by Baron Charles de Steuben hangs in the Basilica of the National Shrine of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary in Baltimore.", "An 1821 gift of King Louis XVIII of France, it depicts St. Louis burying his plague-stricken troops before the siege of Tunis at the beginning of the Eighth Crusade in 1270." ], [ "In fiction", "Davis, William Stearns, ''\"Falaise of the Blessed Voice\"'' aka ''\"The White Queen\"''.", "New York, NY: Macmillan, 1904Peter Berling, ''The Children of the Grail''Jules Verne, \"To the Sun?/Off on a Comet!\"", "A comet takes several bits of the Earth away when it grazes the Earth.", "Some people, taken up at the same time, find the Tomb of Saint Louis is one of the bits, as they explore the comet.", "Adam Gidwitz, ''The Inquisitor's Tale''Dante Alighieri, ''Divina Commedia.''", "It is likely that Dante hides the figure of the Saint King behind the Veltro, the Messo di Dio, the Veglio di Creta and the \"515\", which is a duplicate of the Messo.", "This is a trinitarian representation to oppose to the analogous representation of his nephew Philip IV the Fair, as the Beast from the Sea.", "The idea came to Dante from the transposition of the Revelation of St. John in the history, studied from the abbot and theologian Joachim of Fiore.", "Theodore de Bainville, poem, \"La Ballade des Pendus (Le Verger du Roi Louis)\"; musicalized by Georges Brassens." ], [ "Music", "Arnaud du Prat, Paris canon; Rhymed, chanted office for St. Louis, 1290, Sens Bib.", "Mun.", "MS6, and elsewhere.", "Marc-Antoine Charpentier, ''Motet for Saint Louis,'' H.320, for 1 voice, 2 treble instruments (?)", "and continuo 1675.", "Marc-Antoine Charpentier'','' Motet ''In honorem santi Ludovici Regis Galliae canticum tribus vocibus cum symphonia,'' H.323, for 3 voices, 2 treble instruments and continuo (1678 ?", ")Marc-Antoine Charpentier'','' Motet ''In honorem Sancti Ludovici regis Galliae,'' H.332, for 3 voices, 2 treble instruments and continuo 1683)Marc-Antoine Charpentier, Motet ''In honorem Sancti Ludovici regis Galliae canticum,'' H.365 & H.365 a, for soloists, chorus, woodwinds, strings and continuo (1690)Marc-Antoine Charpentier, Motet ''In honorem Sancti Ludovici regis Galliae,'' H.418, for soloists, chorus, 2 flutes, 2 violins and continuo (1692–93)" ], [ "See also", "* List of royal saints and martyrs" ], [ "References", "===Bibliography===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " John de Joinville.", "Memoirs of Louis IX, King of France.", "Chronicle, 1309.", "* Saint Louis in Medieval History of Navarre* Site about The Saintonge War between Louis IX of France and Henry III of England.", "* Account of the first Crusade of Saint Louis from the perspective of the Arabs..* A letter from Guy, a knight, concerning the capture of Damietta on the sixth Crusade with a speech delivered by Saint Louis to his men.", "* Etext full version of the Memoirs of the Lord of Joinville, a biography of Saint Louis written by one of his knights* \"St. Lewis, King of France\", ''Butler's Lives of the Saints''* \"Man of the Middle Ages, Saint Louis, King of France\", Archdiocese of St. Louis, MO" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Linear B" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Linear B''' is a syllabic script that was used for writing in Mycenaean Greek, the earliest attested form of the Greek language.", "The script predates the Greek alphabet by several centuries, the earliest known examples dating to around 1400 BC.", "It is adapted from the earlier Linear A, an undeciphered script potentially used for writing the Minoan language, as is the later Cypriot syllabary, which also recorded Greek.", "Linear B, found mainly in the palace archives at Knossos, Kydonia, Pylos, Thebes and Mycenae, disappeared with the fall of Mycenaean civilization during the Late Bronze Age collapse.", "The succeeding period, known as the Greek Dark Ages, provides no evidence of the use of writing.Linear B was deciphered in 1952 by English architect and self-taught linguist Michael Ventris based on the research of American classicist Alice Kober.", "It is the only Bronze Age Aegean script to have been deciphered, with Linear A, Cypro-Minoan, and Cretan hieroglyphic remaining unreadable.Linear B consists of around 87 syllabic signs and over 100 ideographic signs.", "These ideograms or \"signifying\" signs symbolize objects or commodities.", "They have no phonetic value and are never used as word signs in writing a sentence.The application of Linear B appears to have been confined to administrative contexts.", "In all the thousands of clay tablets, a relatively small number of different people's handwriting have been detected: 45 in Pylos (west coast of the Peloponnese, in southern Greece) and 66 in Knossos (Crete).", "Once the palaces were destroyed, the script disappeared." ], [ "Script", "Linear B has roughly 200 signs, divided into syllabic signs with phonetic values and ideograms with semantic values.", "The representations and naming of these signs have been standardized by a series of international colloquia starting in Paris in 1956.After the third meeting in 1961 at the Wingspread Conference Center in Racine, Wisconsin, a standard proposed primarily by Emmett L. Bennett, Jr. became known as the Wingspread Convention, which was adopted by a new organization, the Comité International Permanent des Études Mycéniennes (CIPEM: Permanent International Committee of Mycenaean Studies), affiliated in 1970 by the fifth colloquium with UNESCO.", "Colloquia continue: the 13th occurred in 2010 in Paris.Many of the signs are identical or similar to those in Linear A; however, Linear A encodes an as yet unknown language, and it is uncertain whether similar signs had the same phonetic values.===Syllabic signs===The grid developed during decipherment by Michael Ventris and John Chadwick of phonetic values for syllabic signs is shown below.", "(Note that \"q\" represents the labialized velar stops , not the uvular stop of the IPA.", ")Initial consonants are in the leftmost column; vowels are in the top row beneath the title.", "The transcription of the syllable, which may not have been pronounced that way, is listed next to the sign along with Bennett's identifying number for the sign preceded by an asterisk (as was Ventris' and Chadwick's convention).", "If the transcription of the sign remains uncertain, Bennett's number serves to identify the sign.", "The signs on the tablets and sealings often show considerable variation from each other and from the representations below.", "Discovery of the reasons for the variation and possible semantic differences is a topic of ongoing debate in Mycenaean studies.", "Recognised signs of shape V, CV''-a''''-e''''-i''''-o''''-u'' File:Linear B Syllable B008 A.svg''a''''08'' File:Linear B Syllable B038 E.svg''e''''38'' File:Linear B Syllable B028 I.svg''i''''28'' File:Linear B Syllable B061 O.svg''o''''61'' File:Linear B Syllable B010 U.svg''u''''10''''d-'' File:Linear B Syllable B001 DA.svg''da''''01'' File:Linear B Syllable B045 DE.svg''de''''45'' File:Linear B Syllable B007 DI.svg''di''''07'' File:Linear B Syllable B014 DO.svg''do''''14'' File:Linear B Syllable B051 DU.svg''du''''51''''j-'' File:Linear B Syllable B057 JA.svg''ja''''57'' File:Linear B Syllable B046 JE.svg''je''''46'' File:Linear B Syllable B036 JO.svg''jo''''36''''k-'' File:Linear B Syllable B077 KA.svg''ka''''77'' File:Linear B Syllable B044 KE.svg''ke''''44'' File:Linear B Syllable B067 KI.svg''ki''''67'' File:Linear B Syllable B070 KO.svg''ko''''70'' File:Linear B Syllable B081 KU.svg''ku''''81''''m-'' File:Linear B Syllable B080 MA.svg''ma''''80'' File:Linear B Syllable B013 ME.svg''me''''13'' File:Linear B Syllable B073 MI.svg''mi''''73'' File:Linear B Syllable B015 MO.svg''mo''''15'' File:Linear B Syllable B023 MU.svg''mu''''23''''n-'' File:Linear B Syllable B006 NA.svg''na''''06'' File:Linear B Syllable B024 NE.svg''ne''''24'' File:Linear B Syllable B030 NI.svg''ni''''30'' File:Linear B Syllable B052 NO.svg''no''''52'' File:Linear B Syllable B055 NU.svg''nu''''55''''p-'' File:Linear B Syllable B003 PA.svg''pa''''03'' File:Linear B Syllable B072 PE.svg''pe''''72'' File:Linear B Syllable B039 PI.svg''pi''''39'' File:Linear B Syllable B011 PO.svg''po''''11'' File:Linear B Syllable B050 PU.svg''pu''''50''''q-'' File:Linear B Syllable B016 QA.svg''qa''''16'' File:Linear B Syllable B078 QE.svg''qe''''78'' File:Linear B Syllable B021 QI.svg''qi''''21'' File:Linear B Syllable B032 QO.svg''qo''''32''''r-'' File:Linear B Syllable B060 RA.svg''ra''''60'' File:Linear B Syllable B028 RE.svg''re''''27'' File:Linear B Syllable B053 RI.svg''ri''''53'' File:Linear B Syllable B002 RO.svg''ro''''02'' File:Linear B Syllable B026 RU.svg''ru''''26''''s-'' File:Linear B Syllable B031 SA.svg''sa''''31'' File:Linear B Syllable B009 SE.svg''se''''09'' File:Linear B Syllable B041 SI.svg''si''''41'' File:Linear B Syllable B012 SO.svg''so''''12'' File:Linear B Syllable B058 SU.svg''su''''58''''t-'' File:Linear B Syllable B059 TA.svg''ta''''59'' File:Linear B Syllable B004 TE.svg''te''''04'' File:Linear B Syllable B037 TI.svg''ti''''37'' File:Linear B Syllable B005 TO.svg''to''''05'' File:Linear B Syllable B069 TU.svg''tu''''69''''w-'' File:Linear B Syllable B054 WA.svg''wa''''54'' File:Linear B Syllable B075 WE.svg''we''''75'' File:Linear B Syllable B040 WI.svg''wi''''40'' File:Linear B Syllable B042 WO.svg''wo''''42''''z-'' File:Linear B Syllable B017 ZA.svg''za''''17'' File:Linear B Syllable B074 ZE.svg''ze''''74'' File:Linear B Syllable B020 ZO.svg''zo''''20''=== Special and unknown signs ===In addition to the grid, the first edition of ''Documents in Mycenaean Greek'' contained a number of other signs termed \"homophones\" because they appeared at that time to resemble the sounds of other syllables and were transcribed accordingly: ''pa2'' and ''pa3'' were presumed homophonous to ''pa''.", "Many of these were identified by the second edition and are shown in the \"special values\" below.", "The second edition relates: \"It may be taken as axiomatic that there are no true homophones.\"", "The unconfirmed identifications of ''34'' and ''35'' as ''ai2'' and ''ai3'' were removed.", "''pa2'' became ''qa''.", "Special values Character File:Linear B Syllable B025 A2.svg File:Linear B Syllable B043 A3.svg File:Linear B Syllable B085 AU.svg File:Linear B Syllable B071 DWE.svg File:Linear B Syllable B090 DWO.svg File:Linear B Syllable B048 NWA.svg File:Linear B Syllable B062 PTE.svg File:Linear B Syllable B029 PU2.svg File:Linear B Syllable B076 RA2.svg File:Linear B Syllable B033 RA3.svg File:Linear B Syllable B068 RO2.svg File:Linear B Syllable B066 TA2.svg File:Linear B Syllable B087 TWE.svg File:Linear B Syllable B091 TWO.svgTranscription ''a2 (ha)'' ''a3 (ai)'' ''au'' ''dwe'' ''dwo'' ''nwa'' ''pte'' ''pu2 (phu)'' ''ra2 (rya)'' ''ra3 (rai)'' ''ro2 (ryo)'' ''ta2 (tya)'' ''twe'' ''two'' Bennett's number ''25'' ''43'' ''85'' ''71'' ''90'' ''48'' ''62'' ''29'' ''76'' ''33'' ''68'' ''66'' ''87'' ''91''Other values remain unknown, mainly because of scarcity of evidence concerning them.", "Note that 34 and 35 are mirror images of each other, but whether this graphic relationship indicates a phonetic one remains unconfirmed.", "Untranscribed and doubtful values Character File:Linear B Symbol B018.svg File:Linear B Symbol B019.svg File:Linear B Symbol B022.svg File:Linear B Symbol B034.svg File:Linear B Symbol B047.svg File:Linear B Symbol B049.svg File:Linear B Symbol B056.svg File:Linear B Symbol B063.svg File:Linear B Symbol B064.svg File:Linear B Syllable B065 JU.svg File:Linear B Symbol B079.svg File:Linear B Symbol B082.svg File:Linear B Symbol B083.svg File:Linear B Symbol B086.svg File:Linear B Symbol B089.svgTranscription ''18'' ''19'' ''22'' ''34'' ''35'' ''47'' ''49'' ''pa3?''", "''63'' ''swi?''", "''ju?''", "''zu?''", "''swa?''", "''83'' ''86'' ''89'' Bennett's number ''18'' ''19'' ''22'' ''34'' ''35'' ''47'' ''49'' ''56'' ''63'' ''64'' ''65'' ''79'' ''82'' ''83'' ''86'' ''89''In recent times, CIPEM inherited the former authority of Bennett and the Wingspread convention in deciding what signs are \"confirmed\" and how to officially represent the various sign categories.", "In editions of Mycenaean texts, the signs whose values have not been confirmed by CIPEM are always transcribed as numbers preceded by an asterisk (e.g., ''64'').", "CIPEM also allocates the numerical identifiers, and until such allocation, new signs (or obscured or mutilated signs) are transcribed as a bullet-point enclosed in square brackets: •.=== Spelling and pronunciation ===The signs are approximations since each may be used to represent a variety of about 70 distinct combinations of sounds within rules and conventions.", "The grid presents a system of monosyllabic signs of the type V/CV.", "Clarification of the 14 or so special values tested the limits of the grid model, but Chadwick eventually concluded that even with the ramifications, the syllabic signs can unexceptionally be considered monosyllabic.Possible exceptions, Chadwick goes on to explain, include the two diphthongs, (''ai'') and (''au''), as in , ''ai-ku-pi-ti-jo'', for ''Aiguptios'' (, \"Egyptian\") and , ''au-ke-wa'', for ''Augewās'' ( \"Augeas\").", "However, a diphthong is by definition two vowels united into a single sound and therefore might be typed as just V. Thus (''rai''), as in , ''e-rai-wo'', for ''elaiwon'' (), is of the type CV.", "Diphthongs are otherwise treated as two monosyllables: , ''a-ro-u-ra'', for ''arourans'' (accusative plural of , \"tamarisk trees\"), of the types CV and V. Lengths of vowels and accents are not marked.", "(''Twe''), (''two''), (''dwe''), (''dwo''), (''nwa'') and the more doubtful (''swi'') and (''swa'') may be regarded as beginning with labialized consonants, rather than two consonants, even though they may alternate with a two-sign form: ''o-da-twe-ta'' and ''o-da-tu-we-ta'' for ''Odatwenta''; ''a-si-wi-jo'' and ''a-swi-jo'' for ''Aswios'' ().", "Similarly, (''rya''), (''ryo'') and (''tya'') begin with palatalized consonants rather than two consonants: ''-ti-ri-ja'' for ''-trja'' (-).The one sign Chadwick tags as the exception to the monosyllabic rule is (''pte''), but this he attributes to a development ''pte''uoloi'' (); ''qo-u-ko-ro'' for ''guoukoloi'' (, \"cowherders\"); ''qa-si-re-u'' for ''guasileus'' (, \"basileus\", meaning in this period \"court official or local chieftain\"), ''-qo-i-ta'' for -.The ''j''-series represents the semivowel equivalent to English \"y\", and is used word-initially and as an intervocalic glide after a syllable ending in ''i'': ''-a-jo'' for (''-aios''); ''a-te-mi-ti-jo'' for (''Artemitios'').", "The ''w''-series similarly are semivowels used word-initially and intervocalically after a syllable ending in ''u'': ''ku-wa-no'' for ''kuanos'' (, \"blue\").The ''r''-series includes both the /r/ and /l/ phonemes: ''ti-ri-po'' for ''tripos'' (, i.e. )", "and ''tu-ri-so'' for ''Tulisos'' ().Some consonants in some contexts are not written (but are understood to be present), such as word-initial ''s-'' and ''-w'' before a consonant, as in ''pe-ma'' for ''sperma'' (, \"seed\").", "The ''pe-'', which was primarily used as its value ''pe'' of grid class CV, is here being used for ''sper-''.", "This was not an innovative or exceptional use, but followed the stated rules.", "Syllable-final ''-l'', ''-m'', ''-n'', ''-r'' and ''-s'' are also not written out, and only word-final velars are notated by plene writing: ''a-to-ro-qo'' for ''anthrōquos'' (, \"human being, person\").", "Here ''a'', being primarily of grid class V, is being used as ''an-'' and could be used for ''al'', ''am'', ''ar'', and so on.In the case of clusters of two or three consonants that do not follow the initial ''s-'' and ''-w'' rule or the double consonants: (''ks'' or ''x''), (''ps'') and ''qus'' (which later did not exist in classical Greek), each consonant in the cluster is represented by a type CV sign that shares its consonant value: ''ko-no-so'' for ''Knōsos'', or ''ku-ru-so'' for ''khrusos'' (, \"gold\").", "The vowels of these signs have been called \"empty\", \"null\", \"extra\", \"dead\" and other terms by various writers as they represent no sound.", "There were rules though, that governed the selection of the \"empty\" vowel and therefore determined which sign was to be used.", "The vowel had to be the same as the one of the first syllable following the cluster or, if at the end of the word, preceding: ''ti-ri-po'' with ''ti-'' (instead of ''ta-'', ''te-'' and so on) to match ''-ri-''.", "A rare exception occurs in words formed from ''wa-na-ka'', ''wanax'' (ϝάναξ, Homeric and Classical ἄναξ): ''wa-na-ka-te'' for ''wanaktei'' (dative), and ''wa-na-ka-te-ro'' for ''wanakteros'', the adjectival form.", "This exception may not have applied to all contexts, as an example of ''wa-na-ka'' that follows standard rules has emerged in Ayios Vasileios in Laconia.", "The text reads ''wa-na-ko-to'' (genitive) and is written on a sealing nodule dating to the late 14th or early 13th century, slightly earlier than other Linear B texts found on mainland Greece.=== Ideograms ===Linear B also uses a large number of ideograms.", "They express: the type of object concerned (e.g.", "a cow, wool, a spear),* a unit of measure.They have no phonetic value and are never used as word signs in writing a sentence, unlike Japanese kanji or Hittite cuneiform.", "Ideograms are typically at the end of a line before a number and appear to signify to which object the number applies.", "Many of the values remain unknown or disputed.", "Some commodities such as cloth and containers are divided into many different categories represented by distinct ideograms.", "Livestock may be marked with respect to sex.The numerical references for the ideograms were originally devised by Ventris and Bennett and divided into functional groups corresponding to the breakdown of Bennett's index.", "The groups are numbered beginning 100, 110, 120 etc., with some provision of spare numbers for future additions; the official CIPEM numberings used today are based on Ventris and Bennett's numbering, with the provision that three or four letter codes (written in small capitals), based on Latin words that seemed relevant at the time, are used where the meanings are known and agreed.", "Unicode (as of version 5.0) encodes 123 Linear B ideograms.The ideograms are symbols, not pictures of the objects in question; for example, one tablet records a tripod with missing legs, but the ideogram used is of a tripod with three legs.", "In modern transcriptions of Linear B tablets, it is typically convenient to represent an ideogram by its Latin or English name or by an abbreviation of the Latin name.", "Ventris and Chadwick generally used English; Bennett, Latin.", "Neither the English nor the Latin can be relied upon as an accurate name of the object; in fact, the identification of some of the more obscure objects is a matter of exegesis.+ Ideograms Glyph Code point Bennett CIPEM English '''People and animals''' U+10080 100 A- '''VIR'''''vir'' MAN U+10081 102 A- '''MUL'''''mulier'' WOMAN U+10082 104 Cn '''CERV'''''cervus'' DEER U+10083 105 Ca S- '''EQU'''''equus'' HORSE U+10084 105 Ca '''EQU'''f mareFile:Linear B Ideogram B105M Stallion.svg U+10085 105 Ca '''EQU'''m stallion U+10025 106''QI''21 '''OVIS'''''ovis'' SHEEP ''WE''75 '''we-ka-ta'''''Bous ergatēs'' \"Adjunct to ox\" (1973)File:Linear B Ideogram B106F Ewe.svg U+10086 106b C- D- '''OVIS'''f EWEFile:Linear B Ideogram B106M Ram.svg U+10087 106a C- D- '''OVIS'''m RAM U+10052 107''RA''22 '''CAP'''''capra'' GOAT U+10088 107b C- Mc '''CAP'''f SHE-GOAT U+10089 107a C- '''CAP'''m HE-GOAT U+10042 108''AU''85 C- '''SUS'''''sūs'' PIG U+1008A 108b C- '''SUS'''f SOW U+1008B 108a C- '''SUS'''m BOAR U+10018 109''MU''23 C- '''BOS'''''bōs'' OX U+1008C 109b C- '''BOS'''f COW U+1008D 109a C- '''BOS'''m OX/BULL '''Units of measurement''' 110'''Z'''''kotylai'' Volume''Cup'' 111'''V'''''khoinikes'' Volume 112 '''T''' Dry 113 '''S''' Liquid 114 Weight21Weight2Weight 115 '''P''' Weight 116 '''N''' Weight 117 '''M'''''dimnaion'' Weight 118 '''L'''''talanton'' TALENT 72 G- Bunch?", "74 S- Pair 15 S- Single 61 Deficit '''By dry measure''' U+1008E 120 E- F- '''GRA'''''grānum'' WHEAT U+1008F 121 F- '''HORD'''''hordeum'' BARLEY U+10090 122 F- U- '''OLIV'''''olīva'' OLIVES U+1001B ''NI''30 F '''FICUS''' FIGS U+1000E 65 '''FARINA''' FLOUR\"some kind of grain\" U+10091 123 G- Un '''AROM'''''arōma'' CONDIMENT / SPICE ''KO''70 G- Coriander U+1002D ''SA''31 G- Sesame ''KU''81 G- Cumin ''SE''9 G- Celery ''MA''80 G- Fennel 124 G- '''PYC''' cyperus U+10092 125 F- '''CYP''' cyperus?", "126 F- '''CYP'''+'''KU''' cyperus+''ku'' U+10093 127 Un '''KAPO''' fruit?", "U+10094 128 G- '''KANAKO''' safflower '''By liquid measure''' U+10095 130 '''OLE'''ŏlĕum oil U+10096 131 '''VIN'''vinum wine U+10098 133 unguent U+10099 135 honey '''By weight''' '''By weight or in units''' '''Counted in units''' '''Vessels''' U+100DF 200 ''sartāgo'' BOILING PAN U+100E0 201 '''TRI'''''tripūs'' TRIPOD CAULDRON U+100E1 202 ''pōculum'' GOBLET?", "U+100E2 203 ''urceus'' WINE JAR?", "U+100E3 204 Ta ''hirnea'' EWER U+100E4 205 K Tn ''hirnula'' JUG U+100E5 206 '''HYD'''''hydria'' HYDRIA U+100E6 207 TRIPOD AMPHORA U+100E7 208 '''PAT'''''patera'' BOWL U+100E8 209 '''AMPH'''''amphora'' AMPHORA U+100E9 210 STIRRUP JAR U+100EA 211 WATER BOWL?", "U+100EB 212 '''SIT'''''situla'' WATER JAR?", "U+100EC 213 '''LANX'''''lanx'' COOKING BOWL '''Furniture''' U+100C4 220 Ta ''scamnum'' FOOTSTOOL U+100C5 225 '''ALV'''''alveus'' '''Weapons''' U+100C6 230 R '''HAS'''''hasta'' SPEAR U+100C7 231 R '''SAG'''''sagitta'' ARROW U+100C8 232 Ta ''232'' AXE U+100C9 233 Ra DAGGER U+100CA 234 '''GLA'''''gladius'' SWORD '''Chariots''' U+100CC 240 Sc '''BIG'''''biga'' WHEELED CHARIOT U+100CD 241 Sd Se '''CUR'''''currus'' WHEEL-LESS CHARIOT U+100CE 242 Sf Sg '''CAPS'''''capsus'' CHARIOT FRAME U+100CF 243 Sa So '''ROTA'''''rota'' WHEEL" ], [ "Archives", "=== Corpus ===Inscriptions in Linear B have been found on tablets, stirrup jars and other objects; they are catalogued and classified by, inter alia, the location of the excavation they were found in.", "Prefix Location Number of items and/or notes'''ARM''' Armeni 1 stirrup jar.", "'''DIM''' or '''IOL''' Dimini 1 kylix shard and 1 stone (possibly a weight).", "'''EL''' Eleusis 1 stirrup jar.", "'''GL''' Gla 1 stirrup jar bearing either an inscription or a potter's mark.", "'''HV''' Agios Vasileios(Xerocampion, Laconia) 211 inscribed pieces, comprising ca.", "115 tablets, 9 sealing nodules and 3 labels as of 21 September 2021.", "'''IK''' Iklaina 1 tablet.", "'''KH''' Chania ca.", "8 tablets, 42 stirrup jars, 2 cups and a bowl.", "'''KN''' Knossos ca.", "5500 fragments, comprising ca.", "4158 tablets, 31 sealing nodules and 35 labels.", "'''KR''' Kreusis(Livadostra, Boeotia) 1 stirrup jar.", "'''MA''' Malia 4 stirrup jars.", "'''MAM''' Mameloukou Cave(Perivolia, Kissamos) 1 stirrup jar.", "'''MED''' Medeon(Steiri, Boeotia) 1 ivory seal.", "'''MI''' Midea 4 sealing nodules and 4 stirrup jars.", "'''MY''' Mycenae 73 tablets'''OR''' Orchomenos 1 stirrup jar bearing either an inscription or pseudo-script.", "'''PY''' Pylos ca.", "1,026 tablets, 24 sealing nodules, 22 labels and 7 stirrup jars.", "'''TH''' Thebes 99 tablets + 238 published in 2002 (L. Godart and A. Sacconi, 2002).", "'''TI''' Tiryns 27 tablets and fragments, ca.", "51 stirrup jars and a possibly inscribed skyphos.", "'''VOL''' Kastro-Palaia(Volos) Two tablets found in 1950s excavations resurfaced in the early 2010s; a sketch depicts a third tablet.Another 170 inscriptions in Linear B have been found on various vessels, for a total of some 6,058 known inscriptions.For several decades scholars have worked to join tablet fragments together, thus making the tablets and their information more complete while reducing their numbers as a whole.The oldest Linear B tablets are probably those from the Room of Chariot Tablets at Knossos, and date to the latter half of the 15th century BC.", "The Kafkania pebble, though from an earlier context, is not genuine.", "The earliest inscription from the mainland is an inscribed clay tablet found at Iklaina dating to between 1400 and 1350 BC.An amber seal incised with Linear B signs was found in 2000 by amateur archaeologists at Bernstorf near Kranzberg, southern Germany, and is of much debated authenticity.=== Chronology ======= Timeline of Bronze Age eastern Mediterranean scripts ====The Aegean is responsible for many of the early Greek language words that have to do with daily life such as words for tools and items that are seen every day.", "The sequence and the geographical spread of Cretan hieroglyphs, Linear A, and Linear B, the three overlapping, but distinct, writing systems on Bronze Age Crete, the Aegean islands, and mainland Greece are summarized as follows: Writing system Geographical area Time spanCretan hieroglyphsCrete–1700 BCLinear ACrete, Aegean Islands (Kea, Kythira, Milos, Santorini), and Laconia–1450 BCLinear BCrete (Knossos), and mainland (Pylos, Mycenae, Thebes, Tiryns)−1200 BC====Timeline of Linear B====The main archives for Linear B are associated with these stages of Late Minoan and Helladic pottery: Relative date Period dates Location Locale or tablet '''LM II''' 1425–1390 BC Knossos Room of the Chariot Tablets '''LH IIIA1/early LH IIIA2''' 1400–1370 BC Iklaina 1 tablet found in refuse pit '''LM IIIA2'''or'''LM IIIB''' 1370–1340 BCor1340–1190 BC Knossos main archive '''LM IIIB''' 1340–1190 BC Chania tablets Sq 1, 6659, KH 3 (possibly Linear B) '''LH/LM IIIB1 end''' ChaniaMycenaeThebes tablets Ar 3, Gq 5, X 6tablets from Oil Merchant group of housesUg tablets and Wu sealings '''LH IIIB2, end''' MycenaeTirynsThebesPylos tablets from the Citadelall tabletsOf tablets and new Pelopidou Street depositall but five tabletsSixteen tablets found at the Megaron at Pylos are also thought to be dated to LHIIIA.==== Controversy on the date of the Knossos tablets ====The Knossos archive was dated by Arthur Evans to the destruction by conflagration of about 1400 BC, which would have baked and preserved the clay tablets.", "He dated this event to the LM II period.", "This view stood until Carl Blegen excavated the site of ancient Pylos in 1939 and uncovered tablets inscribed in Linear B.", "They were fired in the conflagration that destroyed Pylos about 1200 BC, at the end of LHIIIB.", "With the decipherment of Linear B by Michael Ventris in 1952, serious questions about Evans's date began to be considered.", "Most notably, Blegen said that the inscribed stirrup jars, which are oil flasks with stirrup-shaped handles imported from Crete around 1200, were of the same type as those dated by Evans to the destruction of 1400.Blegen found a number of similarities between 1200 BC Pylos and 1400 BC Knossos and suggested the Knossian evidence be reexamined, as he was sure of the 1200 Pylian date.The examination uncovered a number of difficulties.", "The Knossos tablets had been found at various locations in the palace.", "Evans had not kept exact records.", "Recourse was had to the day books of Evans's assistant, Duncan Mackenzie, who had conducted the day-to-day excavations.", "There were discrepancies between the notes in the day books and Evans's excavation reports.", "Moreover, the two men had disagreed over the location and strata of the tablets.", "The results of the reinvestigation were eventually published by Palmer and Boardman, ''On the Knossos Tablets''.", "It contains two works, Leonard Robert Palmer's ''The Find-Places of the Knossos Tablets'' and John Boardman's ''The Date of the Knossos Tablets,'' representing Blegen's and Evans's views respectively.", "Consequently, the dispute was known for a time as \"the Palmer–Boardman dispute\".", "There has been no generally accepted resolution to it yet.=== Contents ===The major cities and palaces used Linear B for records of disbursements of goods.", "Wool, sheep, and grain were some common items, often given to groups of religious people.", "A number of tablets also deal with military matters.As is often the case with cuneiform tablets, when the buildings they were housed in were destroyed by fire many of the tablets were baked which preserved them." ], [ "Discovery and decipherment", "Tablet KN Fp 13, discovered by Arthur EvansNational Archaeological Museum.Bottom: tracing of the inscription (obverse).Right: Tracing of the reverse side depicting a male figure.=== Ancient Greece ===The Greeks of the historical era were unable to decipher Linear B, but its ideograms are sometimes mentioned by ancient authors.", "For example, Plutarch gives an account of the Spartan king Agesilaus II (r. 400–360 BC) sending a bronze tablet with \"many letters marvellously old, for nothing could be made of them\" to Egyptian priests in the hope they could understand them.=== Arthur J. Evans's classification of scripts ===The British archaeologist Arthur Evans, keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, was presented by Greville Chester in 1886 with a sealstone from Crete engraved with a writing he took to be Mycenaean.", "Heinrich Schliemann had encountered signs similar to these, but had never identified the signs clearly as writing, relating in his major work on Mycenae that \"of combinations of signs resembling inscriptions I have hitherto only found three or four ....\" In 1893 Evans purchased more sealstones in Athens, verifying from the antiquarian dealers that the stones came from Crete.", "During the next year he noticed the script on other artefacts in the Ashmolean.", "In 1894 he embarked for Crete in search of the script.", "Soon after arrival, at Knossos he saw the sign of the double axe on an excavated wall, considering this the source of the script.", "Subsequently, he found more stones from the various ruins being worn by Cretan women as amulets called \"milk-stones\", thought to encourage the production of breast milk.Starting in 1894, Evans published his theories that the signs evidenced various phases in the development of a writing system in ''The Journal of Hellenic Studies'', the first article being \"Primitive Pictographs and a Prae-Phoenician Script from Crete\".", "In these articles Evans distinguished between \"pictographic writing\" and \"a linear system of writing\".", "He did not explicitly define these terms, causing some confusion among subsequent writers concerning what he meant, but in 1898 he wrote \"These linear forms indeed consist of simple geometrical figures which unlike the more complicated pictorial class were little susceptible to modification,\" and \"That the linear or quasi-alphabetic signs ... were in the main ultimately derived from the rudely scratched line pictures belonging to the infancy of art can hardly be doubted.", "\"Meanwhile, Evans began to negotiate for the land purchase of the Knossos site.", "He established the Cretan Exploration Fund, with only his own money at first, and by 1896 the fund had purchased one-fourth of Kephala Hill, on which the ruins were located, with first option to buy the rest.", "However, he could not obtain a firman excavation permit from the Ottoman government.", "He returned to Britain.", "In January 1897, the Christian population of Crete staged its final insurrection against the Ottoman Empire.", "The last Ottoman troops were ferried off the island by the British fleet on 5 December 1898.In that year also, Evans and his friends returned to complete purchase of the site.", "By this time, the Fund had other contributors as well.", "In 1899, the Constitution of a new Cretan Republic went into effect.", "Once Evans had received permission to excavate from the local authorities, excavation on the hill began on 23 March 1900.According to Evans's report to the British School at Athens for that year, on 5 April, the excavators discovered the first large cache ever of Linear B tablets among the remains of a wooden box in a disused terracotta bathtub.", "Subsequently, caches turned up at multiple locations, including the Room of the Chariot Tablets, where over 350 pieces from four boxes were found.", "The tablets were to long by to wide and were scored with horizontal lines over which text was written in about 70 characters.", "Even in this earliest excavation report, Evans could tell that \"a certain number of quasi-pictorial characters also occur which seem to have an ideographic or determinative meaning.", "\"The excavation was over for that year by 2 June.", "Evans reported: \"only a comparatively small proportion of the tablets were preserved in their entirety,\" the causes of destruction being rainfall through the roof of the storage room, crumbling of small pieces, and being thrown away by workmen who failed to identify them.", "A report on 6 September to the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland began to use some of the concepts characteristic of Evans's later thought: \"palace of Knossos\" and \"palace of Minos\".", "''Appletons' Cyclopædia of American Biography'', 1900, notes that Evans took up Stillman's theme that the palace was the labyrinth of mythology in which the half-bovine son of King Minos lurked.", "In the report, the tablets are now called a \"linear script\" as opposed to the \"hieroglyphic or conventionalized pictographic script\".", "The linear script has characters that are \"of a free, upright, European character\" and \"seem to have been for the most part syllabic\".", "Evans reasserts the ideographic idea: \"a certain number are unquestionably ideographic or determinative.", "\"The years after 1900 were consumed by excavations at Knossos and the discovery and study by Evans of tablets, with a projected comprehensive work on Cretan scripts to be called ''Scripta Minoa''.", "A year before the publication of volume I, he began to drop hints that he now believed the linear script was two scripts, to be presented in the forthcoming book.In ''Scripta Minoa I'', which appeared in 1909, he explained that the discovery of the Phaistos Disc in July 1908 had caused him to pull the book from the presses so that he could include the disk by permission, as it had not yet been published.", "On the next page he mentioned that he was also including by permission of Federico Halbherr of the Italian Mission in Crete unpublished tablets from Hagia Triada written in a linear script of \"Class A\".", "To what degree if any Halbherr was responsible for Evans's division of the \"linear script\" into \"Class A\" and \"Class B\" is not stated.", "The Knossos tablets were of Class B, so that Evans could have perceived Class A only in tablets from elsewhere, and so recently that he needed permission to include the examples.Evans summarized the differences between the two scripts as \"type\" or \"form of script;' that is, varieties in the formation and arrangement of the characters.", "For example, he says \"the clay documents belonging to Class A show a certain approximation in their forms to those presenting the hieroglyphic inscriptions ... the system of numerals is also in some respects intermediate between that of the hieroglyphic documents and that of the linear Class B.", "\"The first volume covered \"the Hieroglyphic and Primitive Linear Classes\" in three parts: the \"pre-Phoenician Scripts of Crete\", the \"Pictorial Script\" and \"the Phaistos Disk\".", "One or two more volumes publishing the Linear A and Linear B tablets were planned, but Evans ran out of time; the project required more than one man could bring to it.", "For a good many of the years left to him, he was deeply enmeshed in war and politics in the Balkans.", "When he did return to Knossos, completion and publication of the palace excavations took priority.", "His greatest work, ''Palace of Minos'', came out in 1935.It did include scattered descriptions of tablets.", "He died in 1941, soon after Nazi forces invaded Crete.The Knossos tablets had remained in the museum at Irakleion, Crete, where many of them now were missing.", "The unpublished second volume consisted of notes by Evans and plates and fonts created by Clarendon Press.", "In 1939, Carl Blegen had uncovered the Pylos Tablets; pressure was mounting to finish ''Scripta Minoa II.''", "After Evans's death, Alice Kober, assistant to John Myres and a major transcriber of the Knossos tablets, prompted Myres to come back from retirement and finish the work.", "Emmett L. Bennett, Jr. added more transcriptions.", "The second volume came out in 1952 with Evans cited as author and Myres as editor, just before the discovery that Linear B writes an early form of Greek.", "An impatient Ventris and Chadwick declared: \"Two generations of scholars had been cheated of the opportunity to work constructively on the problem.", "\"===Early attempts===Despite the limited source materials, during this time there were efforts to decipher the newly discovered Cretan script.", "Australian classicist Florence Stawell published an interpretation of the Phaistos Disc in the April 1911 issue of ''The Burlington Magazine''.", "She followed this with the book ''A Clue to the Cretan Scripts'', published in 1931.Stawell declared all three Cretan script forms to represent early Homeric Greek, and offered her attempts at translations.", "Also in 1931, F. G. Gordon's ''Through Basque to Minoan'' was published by the Oxford University Press.", "Gordon attempted to prove a close link between the Basque language and Linear B, without lasting success.In 1949, Bedřich Hrozný published ''Les Inscriptions Crétoises, Essai de déchiffrement'', a proposed decipherment of the Cretan scripts.", "Hrozny was internationally renowned as the translator of Hittite cuneiform decades previously.", "His Minoan translations into academic French, though, proved to be considerably subjective, and incorrect.From the 1930s to 1950s there was correspondence between, and papers published by, various international academic figures.", "These included Johannes Sundwall, K. D. Ktistopoulos, Ernst Sittig and V. I. Georgiev.", "None of them succeeded with decipherment, yet they added to knowledge and debate.=== Alice Kober's triplets ===About the same time, Alice Kober studied Linear B and managed to construct grids, linking similar symbols in groups of threes.", "Kober noticed that a number of Linear B words had common roots and suffixes.", "This led her to believe that Linear B represented an inflected language, with nouns changing their endings depending on their case.", "However, some characters in the middle of the words seemed to correspond with neither a root nor a suffix.", "Because this effect was found in other known languages, Kober surmised that the odd characters were bridging syllables, with the beginning of the syllable belonging to the root and the end belonging to the suffix.", "This was a reasonable assumption, since Linear B had far too many characters to be considered alphabetic and too few to be logographic; therefore, each character should represent a syllable.", "Kober's systematic approach allowed her to demonstrate the existence of three grammatical cases and identify several pairs of signs that shared vowels or consonants with one another.Kober also showed that the two-symbol word for 'total' at the end of livestock and personnel lists, had a different symbol for gender.", "This gender change with one letter, usually a vowel, is most frequent in Indo-European languages.", "Kober had rejected any speculation on the language represented, preferring painstaking cataloguing and analysis of the actual symbols, though she did believe it likely that Linear A and Linear B represented different languages.=== Emmett L. Bennett's transcription conventions ===The convention for numbering the symbols still in use today was first devised by Emmett L. Bennett Jr.", "Working alongside fellow academic Alice Kober, by 1950 Bennett had deciphered the metrical system, based on his intensive study of Linear B tablets unearthed at Pylos.", "He concluded that those tablets contained exactly the same script as the Linear B found at Knossos, and he classified and assigned identification numbers to the Linear B signs as he prepared a publication on the Pylos tablets.", "Like Kober, Bennett was also an early proponent of the idea that Linear A and B represented different languages.", "His book ''The Pylos Tablets'' became a crucial resource for Michael Ventris, who later described it as \"a wonderful piece of work\".=== Michael Ventris' identification as Greek ===In 1935, the British School at Athens was celebrating its fiftieth anniversary with an exhibition at Burlington House, London.", "Among the speakers was Arthur Evans, then eighty-four years old.", "A teenage Michael Ventris was present in the audience.", "In 1940, the 18-year-old Ventris had an article ''Introducing the Minoan Language'' published in the ''American Journal of Archaeology''.After wartime service as a navigator with RAF Bomber Command, and a post-war year in Occupied Germany, he returned to civilian life, and completed qualification as an architect.", "Ventris continued with his interest in Linear B, corresponding with known scholars, who usually but not always replied.Michael Ventris and John Chadwick performed the bulk of the decipherment of Linear B between 1951 and 1953.At first Ventris chose his own numbering method, but later switched to Bennett's system.", "His initial decipherment was achieved using Kober's classification tables, to which he applied his own theories.", "Some Linear B tablets had been discovered on the Greek mainland.", "Noticing that certain symbol combinations appeared only on the tablets found in Crete, he conjectured that these might be names of places on the island.", "This proved to be correct.", "Working with the symbols he could decipher from this, Ventris soon unlocked much text and determined that the underlying language of Linear B was in fact Greek.", "This contradicted general scientific views of the time, and indeed Ventris himself had previously agreed with Evans's hypothesis that Linear B was not Greek.Ventris' discovery was of significance in demonstrating a Greek-speaking Minoan-Mycenaean culture on Crete, and thus presenting Greek in writing centuries earlier than had been previously accepted.Chadwick, a university lecturer in Ancient Greek philology, helped Ventris develop his decipherment of the text and discover the vocabulary and grammar of Mycenaean Greek.", "He noted:That any Linear B tablets are written in a language other than Greek still remains to be demonstrated; but that words and usages not exactly paralleled in later Greek occur is both certain and to be expected.", "But we must not resort to \"non-Greek\" whenever we come up against an insoluble problem.The first edition of their book, ''Documents in Mycenaean Greek'', was published in 1956, shortly after Ventris's death in an automobile accident.The Ventris decipherment did not immediately meet with universal approval.", "Professor A. J. Beattie of Edinburgh published his doubts in the later 1950s.", "Saul Levin of the State University of New York considered that Linear B was partly Greek but with an earlier substrate, in his 1964 book ''The Linear B controversy reexamined''.", "However over time the Ventris discovery has been generally accepted." ], [ "Unicode", "Linear B was added to the Unicode Standard in April, 2003 with the release of version 4.0.The Linear B Syllabary block is U+10000–U+1007F.The Linear B Ideograms block is U+10080–U+100FF.The Unicode block for the related Aegean Numbers is U+10100–U+1013F.A variety of fonts encode Linear B." ], [ "See also", "Aegean civilizationsAegean numeralsCypriot syllabaryCypro-Minoan syllabaryLinear AOld European scriptProto-Greek language* PY Ta 641Trojan script''The Riddle of the Labyrinth'', a 2013 popular book detailing the decipherment of Linear B" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===* Carpenter, Rhys (1957).", "\"Linear B\", ''Phoenix'', Vol.", "11, No.", "2 (Summer, 1957), pp. 47–62.", "* * * has the Enkomi clay tablet, circa 1500 BCE., examples of Linear B tablets, and translated, the basic Linear B ''syllabary'', the Cypriot ''syllabary'' and discussions thereof, and short sections on Linear A, and the Phaistos Disk.", "* * * * * T.G.", "Palaima, \"Contiguities' in the Linear B Tablets from Pylos\", in E. de Miro, L. Godart, A. Sacconi eds., Atti e memorie del secondo congresso interazionale di micenologia (Rome 1996) pp.", "379–396, 1996* Palaima, Thomas G., \"Unlocking the Secrets of Ancient Writing: The Parallel Lives of Michael Ventris and Linda Schele and the Decipherment of Mycenaean and Mayan Writing\", University of Texas at Austin, Eleventh International Mycenological Colloquium, 2000.", "* Chapter 6, Linear B, pp.", "108–119: discusses Arthur Evans, his work, the Cypriot clues, the ''syllabary'', Alice Kober, the \"Grid\", and a sample tablet ''transliterated, and translated into English.", "''* Robinson, Andrew ''The Man Who Deciphered Linear B: the story of Michael Ventris'' (2002) Thames & Hudson * for a general outline of the Linear B deciphering story, from Schliemann to Chadwick.", "* * * Ventris, Michael; Chadwick, John (1953) \"Evidence for Greek Dialect in the Mycenaean Archives\", ''The Journal of Hellenic Studies'', Vol.", "73, (1953), pp.", "84–103." ], [ "Further reading", "* Bakker, Egbert J., ed.", "2010.", "''A companion to the Ancient Greek language.''", "Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.", "* Chadwick, John (1958). ''", "The decipherment of Linear B.''", "Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.", "* Christidis, Anastasios-Phoivos, ed.", "2007.", "''A history of Ancient Greek: From the beginnings to Late Antiquity''.", "Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.", "* Colvin, Stephen C.", "2007.", "''A historical Greek reader: Mycenaean to the koiné''.", "Oxford: Oxford University Press.", "* Fox, Margalit.", "''\"The Riddle of the Labyrinth\"''.", "HarperCollins Publishers Inc. New York, NY.", "* Freo, M. D., Nosch, M.-L., & Rougemont, F. (2010).", "\"The Terminology of Textiles in the Linear B Tablets, including Some Considerations on Linear A Logograms and Abbreviations\".", "In: C. Michel & M.-L. Nosch (Eds.).", "''Textile Terminologies in the Ancient Near East and Mediterranean from the Third to the First Millennnia BC'' (Vol.", "8).", "Oxbow Books.", "pp.", "338–373.http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1cfr985.21* Godart, L., & Andreadaki-Vlazaki, M. (2022).", "A new Linear B tablet from Khania: KH X 8.A new Linear B tablet from Khania: KH X 8., pp.", "37–42* Hooker, J. T.", "1980.", "''Linear B: An introduction''.", "Bristol, UK: Bristol Classical Press.", "* Horrocks, Geoffrey.", "2010.", "''Greek: A history of the language and its speakers''.", "2nd ed.", "Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.", "* Judson, Anna P.", "2020.", "\"The Undeciphered Signs of Linear B: Interpretation and Scribal Practices\".", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.", "* Judson, Anna P., \"Learning to spell in Linear B: orthography and scribal training in Mycenaean Pylos.\"", "The Cambridge Classical Journal, 1–31, 2022* Morpurgo Davies, Anna, and Yves Duhoux, eds.", "1985.", "''Linear B: A 1984 survey''.", "Louvain, Belgium: Peeters.", "* ––––.", "2008.", "''A companion to Linear B: Mycenaean Greek texts and their world''.", "Vol.", "1.Louvain, Belgium: Peeters.", "* OWENS, GARETH.", "\"WAS SE-TO-I-JA AT ARCHANES?\"", ", KADMOS, vol.", "33, no.", "1, 1994, pp.", "22–28* Palaima, Thomas G.", "1988.", "\"The development of the Mycenaean writing system\".", "In ''Texts, tablets and scribes.''", "Edited by J. P. Olivier and T. G. Palaima, 269–342.Suplementos a \"Minos\" 10.Salamanca, Spain: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas.", "* Palmer, Leonard R.", "1980.", "''The Greek language''.", "London: Faber & Faber.", ".", "E.", "Salgarella, \"Aegean Linear Script(s).", "Rethinking the Relationship Between Linear A and Linear\", Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2020.", " Srivatsan, Nikita, et al. \"", "Neural Representation Learning for Scribal Hands of Linear B.\"", "International Conference on Document Analysis and Recognition.", "Springer, Cham, 2021Ventris, Michael, and John Chadwick.", "1973.''", "Documents in Mycenaean Greek''.", "2nd ed.", "Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.", "Young, Douglas, \"Is Linear B Deciphered?", "\", Arion: A Journal of Humanities and the Classics, vol.", "4, no.", "3, pp.", "512–42, 1965" ], [ "External links", "* Minoan Language Linear A Linked to Linear B in Groundbreaking Research – Greek Reporter – April 20, 2022* * * ** * Linear B online transliterator* Linear B Explorer* * Palaeolexicon – * * * The Prehistoric Archaeology of the Aegean – The Foundation of the Hellenic World at Dartmouth College*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Larousse Gastronomique" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''''''' () is an encyclopedia of gastronomy.", "The majority of the book is about French cuisine, and contains recipes for French dishes and cooking techniques.", "The first edition included few non-French dishes and ingredients; later editions include many more.", "The book was originally published by Éditions Larousse in Paris in 1938." ], [ "Background", "The first edition (1938) was edited by Prosper Montagné, with the collaboration of Dr Alfred Gottschalk, with prefaces by each of the author-chefs Georges Auguste Escoffier and Philéas Gilbert (1857–1942).", "Gilbert was a collaborator in the creation of this book as well as ''Le Guide Culinaire'' (1903) with Escoffier, leading to some cross-over with the two books.", "It caused Escoffier to note when he was asked to write the preface that he could \"see with my own eyes\", and \"Montagné cannot hide from me the fact that he has used ''Le Guide'' as a basis for his new book, and certainly used numerous recipes.", "\"The third English edition (2001), which runs to approximately 1,350 pages, has been modernized and includes additional material on other cuisines.", "It is also available in a concise edition (2003).", "A new, updated and revised edition was released in October 2009, published by Hamlyn in the UK." ], [ "Bibliography", "''Larousse Gastronomique'', Prosper Montagné, maître cuisinier, avec la collaboration du docteur Gottschalk, Paris, Editions Larousse, 1938.", "2001 2nd edition, , with assistance from a gastronomic committee chaired by Joël RobuchonJames, Kenneth.", "''Escoffier: The King of Chefs''.", "Hambledon and London: Cambridge University Press, 2002.=== English translations ===Montagné, Prosper.", "''Larousse gastronomique: the encyclopedia of food, wine & cookery'', Ed.", "Charlotte Turgeon and Nina Froud.", "New York, Crown Publishers, 1961.The English translation of the 1938 edition.", "Montagné, Prosper.", "''Larousse Gastronomique: The New American Edition of the World's Greatest Culinary Encyclopedia''.", "Edited by Jenifer Harvey Lang.", "New York: Crown, 1988.Second English edition.", "Montagné, Prosper.", "''Larousse Gastronomique: The New American Edition of the World's Greatest Culinary Encyclopedia'', Ed.", "Jenifer Harvey Lang.", "New York, Crown Publishers, 1998.", "*Montagné, Prosper.", "''Larousse Gastronomique: The World's Greatest Culinary Encyclopedia''.", "Edited by Jenifer Harvey Lang.", "New York: Clarkson Potter, 2001.Third English edition." ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Louis XIV" ], [ "Introduction", "'''LouisXIV''' (Louis-Dieudonné; 5 September 16381 September 1715), also known as '''Louis the Great''' () or the '''Sun King''' (), was King of France from 1643 until his death in 1715.His verified reign of 72 years and 110 days is the longest of any sovereign.", "Although LouisXIV's France was emblematic of the Age of Absolutism in Europe, the King surrounded himself with a variety of significant political, military, and cultural figures, such as Bossuet, Colbert, Louvois, Le Brun, Le Nôtre, Lully, Mazarin, Molière, Racine, Turenne, Condé, and Vauban.Louis began his personal rule of France in 1661, after the death of his chief minister Cardinal Mazarin, when the King famously declared that he would take over the job himself.", "An adherent of the divine right of kings, Louis continued his predecessors' work of creating a centralised state governed from the capital.", "He sought to eliminate the remnants of feudalism persisting in parts of France; by compelling many members of the nobility to reside at his lavish Palace of Versailles, he succeeded in pacifying the aristocracy, many of whom had participated in the Fronde rebellions during his minority.", "He thus became one of the most powerful French monarchs and consolidated a system of absolute monarchy in France that endured until the French Revolution.", "Louis also enforced uniformity of religion under the Catholic Church.", "His revocation of the Edict of Nantes abolished the rights of the Huguenot Protestant minority and subjected them to a wave of dragonnades, effectively forcing Huguenots to emigrate or convert, virtually destroying the French Protestant community.During Louis's long reign, France emerged as the leading European power and regularly asserted its military strength.", "A conflict with Spain marked his entire childhood, while during his personal rule, Louis fought three major continental conflicts, each against powerful foreign alliances: the Franco-Dutch War, the Nine Years' War, and the War of the Spanish Succession.", "In addition, France also contested shorter wars, such as the War of Devolution and the War of the Reunions.", "Warfare defined Louis's foreign policy and his personal ambition shaped his approach.", "Impelled by \"a mix of commerce, revenge, and pique\", he sensed that war was the ideal way to enhance his glory.", "His wars strained France's resources to the utmost, while in peacetime, he concentrated on preparing for the next war.", "He taught his diplomats that their job was to create tactical and strategic advantages for the French military.", "Upon his death in 1715, LouisXIV left his great-grandson and successor, Louis XV, a powerful kingdom, albeit in major debt after the War of the Spanish Succession that had raged on since 1701.Significant achievements during LouisXIV's reign which would go on to have a wide influence on the early modern period, well into the Industrial Revolution and until today, include the construction of the Canal du Midi, the patronage of artists, and the founding of the French Academy of Sciences." ], [ "Early years", "LouisXIV as a young child, unknown painterBaptismal certificate, 1638LouisXIV was born on 5 September 1638 in the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, to Louis XIII and Anne of Austria.", "He was named Louis Dieudonné (Louis the God-given) and bore the traditional title of French heirs apparent: ''Dauphin''.", "At the time of his birth, his parents had been married for 23 years.", "His mother had experienced four stillbirths between 1619 and 1631.Leading contemporaries thus regarded him as a divine gift and his birth a miracle of God.Louis's relationship with his mother was uncommonly affectionate for the time.", "Contemporaries and eyewitnesses claimed that the Queen would spend all her time with Louis.", "Both were greatly interested in food and theatre, and it is highly likely that Louis developed these interests through his close relationship with his mother.", "This long-lasting and loving relationship can be evidenced by excerpts in Louis' journal entries, such as:\"Nature was responsible for the first knots which tied me to my mother.", "But attachments formed later by shared qualities of the spirit are far more difficult to break than those formed merely by blood.", "\"It was his mother who gave Louis his belief in the absolute and divine power of his monarchical rule.During his childhood, he was taken care of by the governesses Françoise de Lansac and Marie-Catherine de Senecey.", "In 1646, Nicolas V de Villeroy became the young king's tutor.", "LouisXIV became friends with Villeroy's young children, particularly François de Villeroy, and divided his time between the Palais-Royal and the nearby Hotel de Villeroy." ], [ "Minority and the ''Fronde''", "===Accession===Louis XIV in 1643, just before becoming king, by Claude DeruetSensing imminent death in the spring of 1643, King LouisXIII decided to put his affairs in order for his four-year-old son LouisXIV.", "Not trusting the judgement of his Spanish wife Queen Anne, who would normally have become the sole regent of France, the king decreed that a regency council would rule on his son's behalf, with Anne at its head.Louis XIII died on 14 May 1643.On 18 May Queen Anne had her husband's will annulled by the ''Parlement de Paris'', a judicial body of nobles and high clergymen, and she became sole regent.", "She exiled her husband's ministers Chavigny and Bouthilier and appointed Brienne as her minister of foreign affairs.", "Anne kept the direction of religious policy strongly in hand until her son's majority in 1661.She appointed Cardinal Mazarin as chief minister, giving him the daily administration of policy.", "She continued the policies of her late husband and Cardinal Richelieu, despite their persecution of her, in order to win absolute authority in France and victory abroad for her son.", "Anne protected Mazarin by exiling her followers the Duke of Beaufort and Marie de Rohan, who conspired against him in 1643.The best example of Anne's loyalty to France was her treatment of one of Richelieu's men, the Chancellor Pierre Séguier.", "Séguier had brusquely interrogated Anne in 1637 (like a \"common criminal\", as she recalled) following the discovery that she was giving military secrets to her father in Spain, and Anne was virtually under house arrest for years.", "By keeping the effective Séguier in his post, Anne sacrificed her own feelings for the interests of France and her son Louis.The Queen sought a lasting peace between Catholic nations, but only after a French victory over her native Spain.", "She also gave a partial Catholic orientation to French foreign policy.", "This was felt by the Netherlands, France's Protestant ally, which negotiated a separate peace with Spain in 1648.In 1648, Anne and Mazarin successfully negotiated the Peace of Westphalia, which ended the Thirty Years' War.", "Its terms ensured Dutch independence from Spain, awarded some autonomy to the various German princes of the Holy Roman Empire, and granted Sweden seats on the Imperial Diet and territories controlling the mouths of the Oder, Elbe, and Weser Rivers.", "France, however, profited most from the settlement.", "Austria, ruled by the Habsburg Emperor Ferdinand III, ceded all Habsburg lands and claims in Alsace to France and acknowledged her ''de facto'' sovereignty over the Three Bishoprics of Metz, Verdun, and Toul.", "Moreover, many petty German states sought French protection, eager to emancipate themselves from Habsburg domination.", "This anticipated the formation of the 1658 League of the Rhine, which further diminished Imperial power.===Early acts===As the Thirty Years' War came to an end, a civil war known as the Fronde erupted in France.", "It effectively checked France's ability to exploit the Peace of Westphalia.", "Anne and Mazarin had largely pursued the policies of Cardinal Richelieu, augmenting the Crown's power at the expense of the nobility and the ''''.", "Anne was more concerned with internal policy than foreign affairs; she was a very proud queen who insisted on the divine rights of the King of France.Europe after the Peace of Westphalia in 1648All this led her to advocate a forceful policy in all matters relating to the King's authority, in a manner that was much more radical than the one proposed by Mazarin.", "The Cardinal depended totally on Anne's support and had to use all his influence on the Queen to temper some of her radical actions.", "Anne imprisoned any aristocrat or member of parliament who challenged her will; her main aim was to transfer to her son an absolute authority in the matters of finance and justice.", "One of the leaders of the Parlement of Paris, whom she had jailed, died in prison.The '''', political heirs of the disaffected feudal aristocracy, sought to protect their traditional feudal privileges from the increasingly centralized royal government.", "Furthermore, they believed their traditional influence and authority was being usurped by the recently ennobled bureaucrats (the '''', or \"nobility of the robe\"), who administered the kingdom and on whom the monarchy increasingly began to rely.", "This belief intensified the nobles' resentment.In 1648, Anne and Mazarin attempted to tax members of the ''''.", "The members refused to comply and ordered all of the king's earlier financial edicts burned.", "Buoyed by the victory of (later known as '''') at the Battle of Lens, Mazarin, on Queen Anne's insistence, arrested certain members in a show of force.", "The most important arrest, from Anne's point of view, concerned Pierre Broussel, one of the most important leaders in the ''''.JupiterPeople in France were complaining about the expansion of royal authority, the high rate of taxation, and the reduction of the authority of the Parlement de Paris and other regional representative entities.", "Paris erupted in rioting as a result, and Anne was forced, under intense pressure, to free Broussel.", "Moreover, on the night of 9–10 February 1651, when Louis was twelve, a mob of angry Parisians broke into the royal palace and demanded to see their king.", "Led into the royal bed-chamber, they gazed upon Louis, who was feigning sleep, were appeased, and then quietly departed.", "The threat to the royal family prompted Anne to flee Paris with the king and his courtiers.Shortly thereafter, the conclusion of the Peace of Westphalia allowed Condé's army to return to aid Louis and his court.", "Condé's family was close to Anne at that time, and he agreed to help her attempt to restore the king's authority.", "The queen's army, headed by Condé, attacked the rebels in Paris; the rebels were under the political control of Anne's old friend Marie de Rohan.", "Beaufort, who had escaped from the prison where Anne had incarcerated him five years before, was the military leader in Paris, under the nominal control of Conti.", "After a few battles, a political compromise was reached; the Peace of Rueil was signed, and the court returned to Paris.Unfortunately for Anne, her partial victory depended on Condé, who wanted to control the queen and destroy Mazarin's influence.", "It was Condé's sister who pushed him to turn against the queen.", "After striking a deal with her old friend Marie de Rohan, who was able to impose the nomination of as minister of justice, Anne arrested Condé, his brother Armand de Bourbon, Prince of Conti, and the husband of their sister Anne Genevieve de Bourbon, duchess of Longueville.", "This situation did not last long, and Mazarin's unpopularity led to the creation of a coalition headed mainly by Marie de Rohan and the duchess of Longueville.", "This aristocratic coalition was strong enough to liberate the princes, exile Mazarin, and impose a condition of virtual house arrest on Queen Anne.Portrait by Justus van Egmont between the years 1649–1652.All these events were witnessed by Louis and largely explained his later distrust of Paris and the higher aristocracy.", "\"In one sense, Louis' childhood came to an end with the outbreak of the Fronde.", "It was not only that life became insecure and unpleasant – a fate meted out to many children in all ages – but that Louis had to be taken into the confidence of his mother and Mazarin on political and military matters of which he could have no deep understanding\".", "\"The family home became at times a near-prison when Paris had to be abandoned, not in carefree outings to other chateaux but in humiliating flights\".", "The royal family was driven out of Paris twice in this manner, and at one point LouisXIV and Anne were held under virtual arrest in the royal palace in Paris.", "The Fronde years planted in Louis a hatred of Paris and a consequent determination to move out of the ancient capital as soon as possible, never to return.Just as the first '''' (the '''' of 1648–1649) ended, a second one (the '''' of 1650–1653) began.", "Unlike that which preceded it, tales of sordid intrigue and half-hearted warfare characterized this second phase of upper-class insurrection.", "To the aristocracy, this rebellion represented a protest for the reversal of their political demotion from vassals to courtiers.", "It was headed by the highest-ranking French nobles, among them Louis' uncle Gaston, Duke of Orléans and first cousin Anne Marie Louise d'Orléans, Duchess of Montpensier, known as ''''; Princes of the Blood such as Condé, his brother Armand de Bourbon, Prince of Conti, and their sister the Duchess of Longueville; dukes of legitimised royal descent, such as Henri, Duke of Longueville, and François, Duke of Beaufort; so-called \"foreign princes\" such as Frédéric Maurice, Duke of Bouillon, his brother Marshal Turenne, and Marie de Rohan, Duchess of Chevreuse; and scions of France's oldest families, such as François de La Rochefoucauld.Queen Anne played the most important role in defeating the Fronde because she wanted to transfer absolute authority to her son.", "In addition, most of the princes refused to deal with Mazarin, who went into exile for a number of years.", "The '''' claimed to act on Louis' behalf, and in his real interest, against his mother and Mazarin.Queen Anne had a very close relationship with the Cardinal, and many observers believed that Mazarin became LouisXIV's stepfather by a secret marriage to Queen Anne.", "However, Louis' coming-of-age and subsequent coronation deprived them of the '''' pretext for revolt.", "The '''' thus gradually lost steam and ended in 1653, when Mazarin returned triumphantly from exile.", "From that time until his death, Mazarin was in charge of foreign and financial policy without the daily supervision of Anne, who was no longer regent.During this period, Louis fell in love with Mazarin's niece Marie Mancini, but Anne and Mazarin ended the king's infatuation by sending Mancini away from court to be married in Italy.", "While Mazarin might have been tempted for a short time to marry his niece to the King of France, Queen Anne was absolutely against this; she wanted to marry her son to the daughter of her brother, Philip IV of Spain, for both dynastic and political reasons.", "Mazarin soon supported the Queen's position because he knew that her support for his power and his foreign policy depended on making peace with Spain from a strong position and on the Spanish marriage.", "Additionally, Mazarin's relations with Marie Mancini were not good, and he did not trust her to support his position.", "All of Louis' tears and his supplications to his mother did not make her change her mind.", "The Spanish marriage would be very important both for its role in ending the war between France and Spain, because many of the claims and objectives of Louis' foreign policy for the next 50 years would be based upon this marriage, and because it was through this marriage that the Spanish throne would ultimately be delivered to the House of Bourbon (which holds it to this day)." ], [ "Personal reign and reforms", "===Coming of age and early reforms===Royal MonogramLouis XIV was declared to have reached the age of majority on the 7th of September 1651.On the death of Mazarin, in March 1661, Louis personally took the reins of government and astonished his court by declaring that he would rule without a chief minister: \"Up to this moment I have been pleased to entrust the government of my affairs to the late Cardinal.", "It is now time that I govern them myself.", "You secretaries and ministers will assist me with your counsels when I ask for them.", "I request and order you to seal no orders except by my command .", ".", ".", "I order you not to sign anything, not even a passport .", ".", ".", "without my command; to render account to me personally each day and to favor no one\".", "Capitalizing on the widespread public yearning for peace and order after decades of foreign and civil strife, the young king consolidated central political authority and at the expense of the feudal aristocracy.", "Praising his ability to choose and encourage men of talent, the historian Chateaubriand noted: \"it is the voice of genius of all kinds which sounds from the tomb of Louis\".Louis began his personal reign with administrative and fiscal reforms.", "In 1661, the treasury verged on bankruptcy.", "To rectify the situation, Louis chose Jean-Baptiste Colbert as Controller-General of Finances in 1665.However, Louis first had to neutralize Nicolas Fouquet, the powerful Superintendent of Finances.", "Although Fouquet's financial indiscretions were not very different from Mazarin's before him or Colbert's after him, his ambition worried Louis.", "He lavishly entertained the king at the opulent château of Vaux-le-Vicomte, flaunting a wealth which could hardly have accumulated except through embezzlement of government funds.Fouquet appeared eager to succeed Mazarin and Richelieu in power, and he indiscreetly purchased and privately fortified the remote island of Belle Île.", "These acts sealed his doom.", "Fouquet was charged with embezzlement; the ''Parlement'' found him guilty and sentenced him to exile; and finally Louis altered the sentence to life imprisonment.Fouquet's downfall gave Colbert a free hand to reduce the national debt through more efficient taxation.", "The principal taxes included the ''aides'' and ''douanes'' (both customs duties), the ''gabelle'' (salt tax), and the ''taille'' (land tax).", "The ''taille'' was reduced at first, and certain tax-collection contracts were auctioned instead of being sold privately to a favoured few.", "Financial officials were required to keep regular accounts, revising inventories and removing unauthorized exemptions: up to 1661 only 10 per cent of income from the royal domain reached the king.", "Reform had to overcome vested interests: the ''taille'' was collected by officers of the Crown who had purchased their post at a high price, and punishment of abuses necessarily lowered the value of the purchase.", "Nevertheless, Colbert achieved excellent results, with the deficit of 1661 turning into a surplus by 1666, with interest on the debt decreasing from 52 million to 24 million livres.", "The ''taille'' was reduced to 42 million in 1661 and 35 million in 1665, while revenue from indirect taxation progressed from 26 million to 55 million.", "The revenues of the royal domain were raised from 80,000 livres in 1661 to 5.5 million in 1671.In 1661, the receipts were equivalent to 26 million British pounds, of which 10 million reached the treasury.", "The expenditure was around 18 million pounds, leaving a deficit of 8 million.", "In 1667, the net receipts had risen to 20 million pounds sterling, while expenditure had fallen to 11 million, leaving a surplus of 9 million pounds.Engraving of LouisXIVMoney was the essential support of the reorganized and enlarged army, the panoply of Versailles, and the growing civil administration.", "Finance had always been the weakness of the French monarchy: tax collection was costly and inefficient; direct taxes dwindled as they passed through the hands of many intermediate officials; and indirect taxes were collected by private contractors called tax farmers who made a handsome profit.", "The state coffers leaked at every joint.The main weakness arose from an old bargain between the French crown and nobility: the king might raise taxes on the nation without consent if only he exempted the nobitlity.", "Only the \"unprivileged\" classes paid direct taxes, which came to mean the peasants only, as most bourgeois finagled exemptions in one way or another.", "The system laid the whole burden of state expenses on the backs of the poor and powerless.", "After 1700, with the support of Louis' pious secret wife Madame de Maintenon, the king was persuaded to change his fiscal policy.", "Though willing enough to tax the nobles, Louis feared the political concessions which they would demand in return.", "Only towards the close of his reign under the extreme exigency of war, was he able, for the first time in French history, to impose direct taxes on the aristocracy.", "This was a step toward equality before the law and toward sound public finance, though it was predictably diminished by concessions and exemptions won by the insistent efforts of nobles and bourgeois.Louis and Colbert also had wide-ranging plans to grow French commerce and trade.", "Colbert's mercantilist administration established new industries and encouraged manufacturers and inventors, such as the Lyon silk manufacturers and the Gobelins tapestry manufactory.", "He invited manufacturers and artisans from all over Europe to France, such as Murano glassmakers, Swedish ironworkers, and Dutch shipbuilders.", "He aimed to decrease imports while increasing French exports, hence reducing the net outflow of precious metals from France.Louis instituted reforms in military administration through Michel le Tellier and his son François-Michel le Tellier, successive Marquis de Louvois.", "They helped to curb the independent spirit of the nobility, imposing order on them at court and in the army.", "Gone were the days when generals protracted war at the frontiers while bickering over precedence and ignoring orders from the capital and the larger strategic picture, with the old military aristocracy (''noblesse d'épée'', nobility of the sword) monopolizing senior military positions and the higher ranks.", "Louvois modernized the army and reorganised it into a professional, disciplined, well-trained force.", "He was devoted to the soldiers' material well-being and morale, and even tried to direct campaigns.===Relations with the major colonies===Louis and his family portrayed as Roman gods in a 1670 painting by Jean Nocret.", "L to R: Louis' aunt, Henriette-Marie; his brother, Philippe, duc d'Orléans; the Duke's daughter, Marie Louise d'Orléans, and wife, Henriette-Anne Stuart; the Queen-mother, Anne of Austria; three daughters of Gaston d'Orléans; LouisXIV; the Dauphin Louis; Queen Marie-Thérèse; ''la Grande Mademoiselle''.Louis' legal reforms were enacted in his numerous Great Ordinances.", "Pre-revolutionary France was a patchwork of legal systems, with as many traditional legal regimes as there were provinces, and two co-existing legal systems—customary law in the north and Roman civil law in the south.", "The ''Grande Ordonnance de Procédure Civile'' of 1667, the ''Code Louis'', was a comprehensive legal code imposing a uniform regulation of civil procedure throughout the kingdom.", "Among other things, it prescribed baptismal, marriage and death records in the state's registers, not the church's, and it strictly regulated the right of the ''Parlements'' to remonstrate.", "The ''Code Louis'' later became the basis for the Napoleonic code, which in turn inspired many modern legal codes.One of Louis' more infamous decrees was the ''Grande Ordonnance sur les Colonies'' of 1685, the ''Code Noir'' (black code).", "Although it sanctioned slavery, it attempted to humanise the practice by prohibiting the separation of families.", "Additionally, in the colonies, only Roman Catholics could own slaves, and these had to be baptised.Louis ruled through a number of councils:* Conseil d'en haut (\"High Council\", concerning the most important matters of state)—composed of the king, the crown prince, the controller-general of finances, and the secretaries of state in charge of various departments.", "The members of that council were called ministers of state.", "* Conseil des dépêches (\"Council of Messages\", concerning notices and administrative reports from the provinces).", "* Conseil de Conscience (\"Council of Conscience\", concerning religious affairs and episcopal appointments).", "* Conseil royal des finances (\"Royal Council of Finances\") headed by the \"chef du conseil des finances\" (an honorary post in most cases)—this was one of the few posts in the council available to the high aristocracy." ], [ "Early wars in the Low Countries", "===Spain===LouisXIV in 1670, engraved portrait by Robert NanteuilThe future PhilipV being introduced as King of Spain by his grandfather, Louis XIVThe death of Louis' maternal uncle King Philip IV of Spain in 1665 precipitated the War of Devolution.", "In 1660, Louis had married PhilipIV's eldest daughter, Maria Theresa, as one of the provisions of the 1659 Treaty of the Pyrenees.", "The marriage treaty specified that Maria Theresa was to renounce all claims to Spanish territory for herself and all her descendants.", "Mazarin and Lionne, however, made the renunciation conditional on the full payment of a Spanish dowry of 500,000 écus.", "The dowry was never paid and would later play a part persuading his maternal first cousin Charles II of Spain to leave his empire to Philip, Duke of Anjou (later Philip V of Spain), the grandson of LouisXIV and Maria Theresa.The War of Devolution did not focus on the payment of the dowry; rather, the lack of payment was what LouisXIV used as a pretext for nullifying Maria Theresa's renunciation of her claims, allowing the land to \"devolve\" to him.", "In Brabant (the location of the land in dispute), children of first marriages traditionally were not disadvantaged by their parents' remarriages and still inherited property.", "Louis' wife was PhilipIV's daughter by his first marriage, while the new king of Spain, CharlesII, was his son by a subsequent marriage.", "Thus, Brabant allegedly \"devolved\" to Maria Theresa, justifying France to attack the Spanish Netherlands.===Relations with the Dutch===The Battle of Tolhuis, LouisXIV crosses the Lower Rhine at Lobith on 12 June 1672; Rijksmuseum AmsterdamDuring the Eighty Years' War with Spain, France supported the Dutch Republic as part of a general policy of opposing Habsburg power.", "Johan de Witt, Dutch Grand Pensionary from 1653 to 1672, viewed this as crucial for Dutch security and a counterweight against his domestic Orangist opponents.", "Louis provided support in the 1665-1667 Second Anglo-Dutch War but used the opportunity to launch the War of Devolution in 1667.This captured Franche-Comté and much of the Spanish Netherlands; French expansion in this area was a direct threat to Dutch economic interests.The Dutch opened talks with Charles II of England on a common diplomatic front against France, leading to the Triple Alliance, between England, the Dutch and Sweden.", "The threat of an escalation and a secret treaty to divide Spanish possessions with Emperor Leopold, the other major claimant to the throne of Spain, led Louis to relinquish many of his gains in the 1668 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle.Louis placed little reliance on his agreement with Leopold and as it was now clear French and Dutch aims were in direct conflict, he decided to first defeat the Republic, then seize the Spanish Netherlands.", "This required breaking up the Triple Alliance; he paid Sweden to remain neutral and signed the 1670 Secret Treaty of Dover with Charles, an Anglo-French alliance against the Dutch Republic.", "In May 1672, France invaded the Republic, supported by Münster and the Electorate of Cologne.LouisXIV, 1670, by Claude LefèbvreRapid French advance led to a coup that toppled De Witt and brought William III to power.", "Leopold viewed French expansion into the Rhineland as an increasing threat, especially after they seized the strategic Duchy of Lorraine in 1670.The prospect of Dutch defeat led Leopold to an alliance with Brandenburg-Prussia on 23 June, followed by another with the Republic on 25th.", "Although Brandenburg was forced out of the war by the June 1673 Treaty of Vossem, in August an anti-French alliance was formed by the Dutch, Spain, Emperor Leopold and the Duke of Lorraine.The French alliance was deeply unpopular in England, and only more so after the disappointing battles against Michiel de Ruyter's fleet.", "CharlesII of England made peace with the Dutch in the February 1674 Treaty of Westminster.", "However, French armies held significant advantages over their opponents; an undivided command, talented generals like Turenne, Condé and Luxembourg and vastly superior logistics.", "Reforms introduced by Louvois, the Secretary of War, helped maintain large field armies that could be mobilised much more quickly, allowing them to mount offensives in early spring before their opponents were ready.The French were nevertheless forced to retreat from most of the Dutch Republic, which deeply shocked Louis; he retreated to St Germain for a time, where no one, except a few intimates, was allowed to disturb him.", "French military advantages allowed them however to hold their ground in Alsace and the Spanish Netherlands while retaking Franche-Comté.", "By 1678, mutual exhaustion led to the Treaty of Nijmegen, which was generally settled in France's favour and allowed Louis to intervene in the Scanian War.", "Despite the military defeat, his ally Sweden regained much of what it had lost under the 1679 treaties of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, Fontainebleau and Lund imposed on Denmark–Norway and Brandenburg.", "Yet Louis' two primary goals, the destruction of the Dutch Republic and the conquest of the Spanish Netherlands, had failed.Louis was at the height of his power, but at the cost of uniting his opponents; this increased as he continued his expansion.", "In 1679, he dismissed his foreign minister Simon Arnauld, marquis de Pomponne, because he was seen as having compromised too much with the allies.", "Louis maintained the strength of his army, but in his next series of territorial claims avoided using military force alone.", "Rather, he combined it with legal pretexts in his efforts to augment the boundaries of his kingdom.", "Contemporary treaties were intentionally phrased ambiguously.", "Louis established the Chambers of Reunion to determine the full extent of his rights and obligations under those treaties.Cities and territories, such as Luxembourg and Casale, were prized for their strategic positions on the frontier and access to important waterways.", "Louis also sought Strasbourg, an important strategic crossing on the left bank of the Rhine and theretofore a Free Imperial City of the Holy Roman Empire, annexing it and other territories in 1681.Although a part of Alsace, Strasbourg was not part of Habsburg-ruled Alsace and was thus not ceded to France in the Peace of Westphalia.Following these annexations, Spain declared war, precipitating the War of the Reunions.", "However, the Spanish were rapidly defeated because the Emperor (distracted by the Great Turkish War) abandoned them, and the Dutch only supported them minimally.", "By the Truce of Ratisbon, in 1684, Spain was forced to acquiesce in the French occupation of most of the conquered territories, for 20 years.Louis' policy of the ''Réunions'' may have raised France to its greatest size and power during his reign, but it alienated much of Europe.", "This poor public opinion was compounded by French actions off the Barbary Coast and at Genoa.", "First, Louis had Algiers and Tripoli, two Barbary pirate strongholds, bombarded to obtain a favourable treaty and the liberation of Christian slaves.", "Next, in 1684, a punitive mission was launched against Genoa in retaliation for its support for Spain in previous wars.", "Although the Genoese submitted, and the Doge led an official mission of apology to Versailles, France gained a reputation for brutality and arrogance.", "European apprehension at growing French might and the realisation of the extent of the dragonnades' effect (discussed below) led many states to abandon their alliances with France.", "Accordingly, by the late 1680s, France became increasingly isolated in Europe.===Non-European relations and the colonies===The Persian embassy to Louis XIV sent by Soltan Hoseyn in 1715.", "''Ambassade de Perse auprès de LouisXIV'', studio of Antoine Coypel.French colonies multiplied in Africa, the Americas, and Asia during Louis' reign, and French explorers made important discoveries in North America.", "In 1673, Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette discovered the Mississippi River.", "In 1682, René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, followed the Mississippi to the Gulf of Mexico and claimed the vast Mississippi basin in Louis' name, calling it ''Louisiane''.", "French trading posts were also established in India, at Chandernagore and Pondicherry, and in the Indian Ocean at Île Bourbon.", "Throughout these regions, Louis and Colbert embarked on an extensive program of architecture and urbanism meant to reflect the styles of Versailles and Paris and the 'gloire' of the realm.Siamese embassy of King Narai to LouisXIV in 1686, led by Kosa Pan.", "Engraving by Nicolas Larmessin.Meanwhile, diplomatic relations were initiated with distant countries.", "In 1669, Suleiman Aga led an Ottoman embassy to revive the old Franco-Ottoman alliance.", "Then, in 1682, after the reception of the Moroccan embassy of Mohammed Tenim in France, Moulay Ismail, Sultan of Morocco, allowed French consular and commercial establishments in his country.", "In 1699, Louis once again received a Moroccan ambassador, Abdallah bin Aisha, and in 1715, he received a Persian embassy led by Mohammad Reza Beg.From farther afield, Siam dispatched an embassy in 1684, reciprocated by the French magnificently the next year under Alexandre, Chevalier de Chaumont.", "This, in turn, was succeeded by another Siamese embassy under Kosa Pan, superbly received at Versailles in 1686.Louis then sent another embassy in 1687, under Simon de la Loubère, and French influence grew at the Siamese court, which granted Mergui as a naval base to France.", "However, the death of Narai, King of Ayutthaya, the execution of his pro-French minister Constantine Phaulkon, and the siege of Bangkok in 1688 ended this era of French influence.France also attempted to participate actively in Jesuit missions to China.", "To break the Portuguese dominance there, Louis sent Jesuit missionaries to the court of the Kangxi Emperor in 1685: Jean de Fontaney, Joachim Bouvet, Jean-François Gerbillon, Louis Le Comte, and Claude de Visdelou.", "Louis also received a Chinese Jesuit, Michael Shen Fu-Tsung, at Versailles in 1684.Furthermore, Louis' librarian and translator Arcadio Huang was Chinese." ], [ "Height of power", "===Centralisation of power===By the early 1680s, Louis had greatly augmented French influence in the world.", "Domestically, he successfully increased the influence of the crown and its authority over the church and aristocracy, thus consolidating absolute monarchy in France.Louis initially supported traditional Gallicanism, which limited papal authority in France, and convened an Assembly of the French clergy in November 1681.Before its dissolution eight months later, the Assembly had accepted the Declaration of the Clergy of France, which increased royal authority at the expense of papal power.", "Without royal approval, bishops could not leave France, and appeals could not be made to the pope.", "Additionally, government officials could not be excommunicated for acts committed in pursuance of their duties.", "Although the king could not make ecclesiastical law, all papal regulations without royal assent were invalid in France.", "Unsurprisingly, the Pope repudiated the Declaration.Louis receiving the Doge of Genoa at Versailles on 15 May 1685, following the Bombardment of Genoa.", "(''Reparation faite à LouisXIV par le Doge de Gênes.", "15 mai 1685'' by Claude Guy Halle, Versailles.", ")By attaching nobles to his court at Versailles, Louis achieved increased control over the French aristocracy.", "According to historian Philip Mansel, the king turned the palace into::an irresistible combination of marriage market, employment agency and entertainment capital of aristocratic Europe, boasting the best theatre, opera, music, gambling, sex and (most important) hunting.Apartments were built to house those willing to pay court to the king.", "However, the pensions and privileges necessary to live in a style appropriate to their rank were only possible by waiting constantly on Louis.", "For this purpose, an elaborate court ritual was created wherein the king became the centre of attention and was observed throughout the day by the public.", "With his excellent memory, Louis could then see who attended him at court and who was absent, facilitating the subsequent distribution of favours and positions.", "Another tool Louis used to control his nobility was censorship, which often involved the opening of letters to discern their author's opinion of the government and king.", "Moreover, by entertaining, impressing, and domesticating them with extravagant luxury and other distractions, Louis not only cultivated public opinion of him, but he also ensured the aristocracy remained under his scrutiny.Louis's extravagance at Versailles extended far beyond the scope of elaborate court rituals.", "He took delivery of an African elephant as a gift from the king of Portugal.", "He encouraged leading nobles to live at Versailles.", "This, along with the prohibition of private armies, prevented them from passing time on their own estates and in their regional power bases, from which they historically waged local wars and plotted resistance to royal authority.", "Louis thus compelled and seduced the old military aristocracy (the \"nobility of the sword\") into becoming his ceremonial courtiers, further weakening their power.", "In their place, he raised commoners or the more recently ennobled bureaucratic aristocracy (the \"nobility of the robe\").", "He judged that royal authority thrived more surely by filling high executive and administrative positions with these men because they could be more easily dismissed than nobles of ancient lineage and entrenched influence.", "It is believed that Louis's policies were rooted in his experiences during the ''Fronde'', when men of high birth readily took up the rebel cause against their king, who was actually the kinsman of some.", "This victory over the nobility may thus have ensured the end of major civil wars in France until the French Revolution about a century later.===France as the pivot of warfare===LouisXIVUnder Louis, France was the leading European power, and most wars pivoted around its aggressiveness.", "No European state exceeded it in population, and no one could match its wealth, central location, and very strong professional army.", "It had largely avoided the devastation of the Thirty Years' War.", "Its weaknesses included an inefficient financial system that was hard-pressed to pay for its military adventures, and the tendency of most other powers to gang up against it.During Louis's reign, France fought three major wars: the Franco-Dutch War, the War of the League of Augsburg, and the War of the Spanish Succession.", "There were also two lesser conflicts: the War of Devolution and the War of the Reunions.", "The wars were very expensive but defined LouisXIV's foreign policy, and his personality shaped his approach.", "Impelled \"by a mix of commerce, revenge, and pique\", Louis sensed that war was the ideal way to enhance his glory.", "In peacetime, he concentrated on preparing for the next war.", "He taught his diplomats that their job was to create tactical and strategic advantages for the French military.", "By 1695, France retained much of its dominance but had lost control of the seas to England and Holland, and most countries, both Protestant and Catholic, were in alliance against it.", "Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban, France's leading military strategist, warned Louis in 1689 that a hostile \"Alliance\" was too powerful at sea.", "He recommended that France fight back by licensing French merchant ships to privateer and seize enemy merchant ships while avoiding its navies::France has its declared enemies Germany and all the states that it embraces; Spain with all its dependencies in Europe, Asia, Africa and America; the Duke of Savoy in Italy, England, Scotland, Ireland, and all their colonies in the East and West Indies; and Holland with all its possessions in the four corners of the world where it has great establishments.", "France has ... undeclared enemies, indirectly hostile, hostile, and envious of its greatness, Denmark, Sweden, Poland, Portugal, Venice, Genoa, and part of the Swiss Confederation, all of which states secretly aid France's enemies by the troops that they hire to them, the money they lend them and by protecting and covering their trade.Vauban was pessimistic about France's so-called friends and allies::For lukewarm, useless, or impotent friends, France has the Pope, who is indifferent; the King of England JamesII expelled from his country; the Grand Duke of Tuscany; the Dukes of Mantua, Modena, and Parma all in Italy; and the other faction of the Swiss.", "Some of these are sunk in the softness that comes of years of peace, the others are cool in their affections....The English and Dutch are the main pillars of the Alliance; they support it by making war against us in concert with the other powers, and they keep it going by means of the money that they pay every year to...", "Allies.... We must therefore fall back on privateering as the method of conducting war which is most feasible, simple, cheap, and safe, and which will cost least to the state, the more so since any losses will not be felt by the King, who risks virtually nothing....It will enrich the country, train many good officers for the King, and in a short time force his enemies to sue for peace." ], [ "Edict of Fontainebleau", "Louis XIV in 1685, the year he revoked the Edict of NantesLouis decided to persecute Protestants and revoke the 1598 Edict of Nantes, which awarded Huguenots political and religious freedom.", "He saw the persistence of Protestantism as a disgraceful reminder of royal powerlessness.", "After all, the Edict was the pragmatic concession of his grandfather Henry IV to end the longstanding French Wars of Religion.", "An additional factor in Louis' thinking was the prevailing contemporary European principle to assure socio-political stability, ''cuius regio, eius religio'' (\"whose realm, his religion\"), the idea that the religion of the ruler should be the religion of the realm (as originally confirmed in central Europe in the Peace of Augsburg of 1555).Responding to petitions, Louis initially excluded Protestants from office, constrained the meeting of synods, closed churches outside of Edict-stipulated areas, banned Protestant outdoor preachers, and prohibited domestic Protestant migration.", "He also disallowed Protestant-Catholic intermarriages to which third parties objected, encouraged missions to the Protestants, and rewarded converts to Catholicism.", "This discrimination did not encounter much Protestant resistance, and a steady conversion of Protestants occurred, especially among the noble elites.In 1681, Louis dramatically increased his persecution of Protestants.", "The principle of ''cuius regio, eius religio'' generally also meant that subjects who refused to convert could emigrate, but Louis banned emigration and effectively insisted that all Protestants must be converted.", "Secondly, following the proposal of René de Marillac and the Marquis of Louvois, he began quartering dragoons in Protestant homes.", "Although this was within his legal rights, the ''dragonnades'' inflicted severe financial strain on Protestants and atrocious abuse.", "Between 300,000 and 400,000 Huguenots converted, as this entailed financial rewards and exemption from the ''dragonnades''.Protestant peasants rebelled against the officially sanctioned ''dragonnades'' (conversions enforced by dragoons, labeled \"missionaries in boots\") that followed the Edict of Fontainebleau.On 15 October 1685, Louis issued the Edict of Fontainebleau, which cited the redundancy of privileges for Protestants given their scarcity after the extensive conversions.", "The Edict of Fontainebleau revoked the Edict of Nantes and repealed all the privileges that arose therefrom.", "By his edict, Louis no longer tolerated the existence of Protestant groups, pastors, or churches in France.", "No further churches were to be constructed, and those already existing were to be demolished.", "Pastors could choose either exile or secular life.", "Those Protestants who had resisted conversion were now to be baptised forcibly into the established church.Historians have debated Louis' reasons for issuing the Edict of Fontainebleau.", "He may have been seeking to placate Pope Innocent XI, with whom relations were tense and whose aid was necessary to determine the outcome of a succession crisis in the Electorate of Cologne.", "He may also have acted to upstage Emperor Leopold I and regain international prestige after the latter defeated the Turks without Louis' help.", "Otherwise, he may simply have desired to end the remaining divisions in French society dating to the Wars of Religion by fulfilling his coronation oath to eradicate heresy.Many historians have condemned the Edict of Fontainebleau as gravely harmful to France.", "In support, they cite the emigration of about 200,000 highly skilled Huguenots (roughly one quarter of the Protestant population, or 1% of the French population) who defied royal decrees and fled France for various Protestant states, weakening the French economy and enriching that of Protestant states.", "On the other hand, some historians view this as an exaggeration.", "They argue that most of France's preeminent Protestant businessmen and industrialists converted to Catholicism and remained.What is certain is that the reaction to the Edict was mixed.", "Even while French Catholic leaders exulted, Pope InnocentXI still argued with Louis over Gallicanism and criticized the use of violence.", "Protestants across Europe were horrified at the treatment of their co-religionists, but most Catholics in France applauded the move.", "Nonetheless, it is indisputable that Louis' public image in most of Europe, especially in Protestant regions, was dealt a severe blow.In the end, however, despite renewed tensions with the Camisards of south-central France at the end of his reign, Louis may have helped ensure that his successor would experience fewer instances of the religion-based disturbances that had plagued his forebears.", "French society would sufficiently change by the time of his descendant, Louis XVI, to welcome tolerance in the form of the 1787 Edict of Versailles, also known as the Edict of Tolerance.", "This restored to non-Catholics their civil rights and the freedom to worship openly.", "With the advent of the French Revolution in 1789, Protestants were granted equal rights with their Roman Catholic counterparts." ], [ "Nine Years' War", "===Causes and conduct of the war===Battle of Fleurus, 1690Louis in 1690The Nine Years' War, which lasted from 1688 to 1697, initiated a period of decline in Louis's political and diplomatic fortunes.", "It arose from two events in the Rhineland.", "First, in 1685, the Elector Palatine Charles II died.", "All that remained of his immediate family was Louis's sister-in-law, Elizabeth Charlotte.", "German law ostensibly barred her from succeeding to her brother's lands and electoral dignity, but it was unclear enough for arguments in favour of Elizabeth Charlotte to have a chance of success.", "Conversely, the princess was clearly entitled to a division of the family's personal property.", "Louis pressed her claims to land and chattels, hoping the latter, at least, would be given to her.", "Then, in 1688, Maximilian Henry of Bavaria, Archbishop of Cologne, an ally of France, died.", "The archbishopric had traditionally been held by the Wittelsbachs of Bavaria, but the Bavarian claimant to replace Maximilian Henry, Prince Joseph Clemens of Bavaria, was at that time not more than 17 years old and not even ordained.", "Louis sought instead to install his own candidate, Wilhelm Egon von Fürstenberg, to ensure the key Rhenish state remained an ally.In light of his foreign and domestic policies during the early 1680s, which were perceived as aggressive, Louis's actions, fostered by the succession crises of the late 1680s, created concern and alarm in much of Europe.", "This led to the formation of the 1686 League of Augsburg by the Holy Roman Emperor, Spain, Sweden, Saxony, and Bavaria.", "Their stated intention was to return France to at least the borders agreed to in the Treaty of Nijmegen.", "Emperor LeopoldI's persistent refusal to convert the Truce of Ratisbon into a permanent treaty fed Louis's fears that the Emperor would turn on France and attack the Reunions after settling his affairs in the Balkans.Another event Louis found threatening was England's Glorious Revolution of 1688.Although King James II was Catholic, his two Anglican daughters, Mary and Anne, ensured the English people a Protestant succession.", "But when JamesII's son James Francis Edward Stuart was born, he took precedence in succession over his sisters.", "This seemed to herald an era of Catholic monarchs in England.", "Protestant lords called on the Dutch Prince William III of Orange, grandson of Charles I of England, to come to their aid.", "He sailed for England with troops despite Louis's warning that France would regard it as a provocation.", "Witnessing numerous desertions and defections, even among those closest to him, JamesII fled England.", "Parliament declared the throne vacant, and offered it to James's daughter MaryII and his son-in-law and nephew William.", "Vehemently anti-French, William (now WilliamIII of England) pushed his new kingdoms into war, thus transforming the League of Augsburg into the Grand Alliance.", "Before this happened, Louis expected William's expedition to England to absorb his energies and those of his allies, so he dispatched troops to the Rhineland after the expiry of his ultimatum to the German princes requiring confirmation of the Truce of Ratisbon and acceptance of his demands about the succession crises.", "This military manoeuvre was also intended to protect his eastern provinces from Imperial invasion by depriving the enemy army of sustenance, thus explaining the preemptive scorched earth policy pursued in much of southwestern Germany (the \"Devastation of the Palatinate\").siege of Namur (1692)French armies were generally victorious throughout the war because of Imperial commitments in the Balkans, French logistical superiority, and the quality of French generals such as Condé's famous pupil, François Henri de Montmorency-Bouteville, duc de Luxembourg.", "He triumphed at the Battles of Fleurus in 1690, Steenkerque in 1692, and Landen in 1693, although, the battles proved to be of little of strategic consequence, mostly due to the nature of late 17th-century warfare.Marshal de LuxembourgAlthough an attempt to restore James II failed at the Battle of the Boyne in 1690, France accumulated a string of victories from Flanders in the north, Germany in the east, and Italy and Spain in the south, to the high seas and the colonies.", "Louis personally supervised the captures of Mons in 1691 and Namur in 1692.Luxembourg gave France the defensive line of the Sambre by capturing Charleroi in 1693.France also overran most of the Duchy of Savoy after the battles of Marsaglia and Staffarde in 1693.While naval stalemate ensued after the French victory at the Battle of Beachy Head in 1690 and the Allied victory at Barfleur-La Hougue in 1692, the Battle of Torroella in 1694 exposed Catalonia to French invasion, culminating in the capture of Barcelona.", "The Dutch captured Pondichéry in 1693, but a 1697 French raid on the Spanish treasure port of Cartagena, Spain, yielded a fortune of 10,000,000 livres.In July 1695, the city of Namur, occupied for three years by the French, was besieged by an allied army led by WilliamIII.", "LouisXIV ordered the surprise destruction of a Flemish city to divert the attention of these troops.", "This led to the bombardment of Brussels, in which more than 4,000 buildings were destroyed, including the entire city centre.", "The strategy failed, as Namur fell three weeks later, but harmed LouisXIV's reputation: a century later, Napoleon deemed the bombardment \"as barbarous as it was useless\".Peace was broached by Sweden in 1690.By 1692, both sides evidently wanted peace, and secret bilateral talks began, but to no avail.", "Louis tried to break up the alliance against him by dealing with individual opponents but did not achieve his aim until 1696 when the Savoyards agreed to the Treaty of Turin and switched sides.", "Thereafter, members of the League of Augsburg rushed to the peace table, and negotiations for a general peace began in earnest, culminating in the Peace of Ryswick of 1697.===Peace of Ryswick===The Peace of Ryswick ended the War of the League of Augsburg and disbanded the Grand Alliance.", "By manipulating their rivalries and suspicions, Louis divided his enemies and broke their power.The treaty yielded many benefits for France.", "Louis secured permanent French sovereignty over all of Alsace, including Strasbourg, and established the Rhine as the Franco-German border (as it is to this day).", "Pondichéry and Acadia were returned to France, and Louis's ''de facto'' possession of Saint-Domingue was recognised as lawful.", "However, he returned Catalonia and most of the Reunions.French military superiority might have allowed him to press for more advantageous terms.", "Thus, his generosity to Spain with regard to Catalonia has been read as a concession to foster pro-French sentiment and may ultimately have induced King Charles II to name Louis's grandson Philip, Duke of Anjou, heir to the Spanish throne.", "In exchange for financial compensation, France renounced its interests in the Electorate of Cologne and the Palatinate.", "Lorraine, which had been occupied by the French since 1670, was returned to its rightful Duke Leopold, albeit with a right of way to the French military.", "William and Mary were recognised as joint sovereigns of the British Isles, and Louis withdrew support for JamesII.", "The Dutch were given the right to garrison forts in the Spanish Netherlands that acted as a protective barrier against possible French aggression.", "Though in some respects the Treaty of Ryswick may appear a diplomatic defeat for Louis since he failed to place client rulers in control of the Palatinate or the Electorate of Cologne, he did fulfil many of the aims laid down in his 1688 ultimatum.", "In any case, peace in 1697 was desirable to Louis, since France was exhausted from the costs of the war." ], [ "War of the Spanish Succession", "===Causes and build-up to the war===Philip V of SpainBy the time of the Peace of Ryswick, the Spanish succession had been a source of concern to European leaders for well over forty years.", "King Charles II ruled a vast empire comprising Spain, Naples, Sicily, Milan, the Spanish Netherlands, and numerous Spanish colonies.", "He produced no children, however, and consequently had no direct heirs.The principal claimants to the throne of Spain belonged to the ruling families of France and Austria.", "The French claim derived from LouisXIV's mother Anne of Austria (the older sister of Philip IV of Spain) and his wife Maria Theresa (PhilipIV's eldest daughter).", "Based on the laws of primogeniture, France had the better claim as it originated from the eldest daughters in two generations.", "However, their renunciation of succession rights complicated matters.", "In the case of Maria Theresa, nonetheless, the renunciation was considered null and void owing to Spain's breach of her marriage contract with Louis.", "In contrast, no renunciations tainted the claims of Emperor LeopoldI's son Charles, Archduke of Austria, who was a grandson of Philip III's youngest daughter Maria Anna.", "The English and Dutch feared that a French or Austrian-born Spanish king would threaten the balance of power and thus preferred the Bavarian Prince Joseph Ferdinand, a grandson of LeopoldI through his first wife Margaret Theresa of Spain (the younger daughter of PhilipIV).In an attempt to avoid war, Louis signed the Treaty of the Hague with WilliamIII of England in 1698.This agreement divided Spain's Italian territories between Louis's son ''le Grand Dauphin'' and Archduke Charles, with the rest of the empire awarded to Joseph Ferdinand.", "WilliamIII consented to permitting the Dauphin's new territories to become part of France when the latter succeeded to his father's throne.", "The signatories, however, omitted to consult the ruler of these lands, and CharlesII was passionately opposed to the dismemberment of his empire.", "In 1699, he re-confirmed his 1693 will that named Joseph Ferdinand as his sole successor.Six months later, Joseph Ferdinand died.", "Therefore, in 1700, Louis and WilliamIII concluded a fresh partitioning agreement, the Treaty of London.", "This allocated Spain, the Low Countries, and the Spanish colonies to the Archduke.", "The Dauphin would receive all of Spain's Italian territories.", "CharlesII acknowledged that his empire could only remain undivided by bequeathing it entirely to a Frenchman or an Austrian.", "Under pressure from his German wife, Maria Anna of Neuburg, CharlesII named Archduke Charles as his sole heir.===Acceptance of the will of Charles II and consequences===Louis in 1701On his deathbed in 1700, CharlesII of Spain unexpectedly changed his will.", "The clear demonstration of French military superiority for many decades before this time, the pro-French faction at the court of Spain, and even Pope Innocent XII convinced him that France was more likely to preserve his empire intact.", "He thus offered the entire empire to the Dauphin's second son Philip, Duke of Anjou, provided it remained undivided.", "Anjou was not in the direct line of French succession, thus his accession would not cause a Franco-Spanish union.", "If Anjou refused, the throne would be offered to his younger brother Charles, Duke of Berry.", "If the Duke of Berry declined it, it would go to Archduke Charles, then to the distantly related House of Savoy if Charles declined it.Louis was confronted with a difficult choice.", "He could agree to a partition of the Spanish possessions and avoid a general war, or accept CharlesII's will and alienate much of Europe.", "He may initially have been inclined to abide by the partition treaties, but the Dauphin's insistence persuaded him otherwise.", "Moreover, Louis's foreign minister, Jean-Baptiste Colbert, marquis de Torcy, pointed out that war with the Emperor would almost certainly ensue whether Louis accepted the partition treaties or CharlesII's will.", "He emphasised that, should it come to war, WilliamIII was unlikely to stand by France since he \"made a treaty to avoid war and did not intend to go to war to implement the treaty\".", "Indeed, in the event of war, it might be preferable to be already in control of the disputed lands.", "Eventually, therefore, Louis decided to accept CharlesII's will.", "Philip, Duke of Anjou, thus became PhilipV, King of Spain.Most European rulers accepted Philip as king, some reluctantly.", "Depending on one's views of the war's inevitability, Louis acted reasonably or arrogantly.", "He confirmed that PhilipV retained his French rights despite his new Spanish position.", "Admittedly, he may only have been hypothesising a theoretical eventuality and not attempting a Franco-Spanish union.", "But his actions were certainly not read as disinterested.", "Moreover, Louis sent troops to the Spanish Netherlands to evict Dutch garrisons and secure Dutch recognition of PhilipV.", "In 1701, Philip transferred the ''asiento'' (the right to supply slaves to Spanish colonies) to France, as a sign of the two nations' growing connections.", "As tensions mounted, Louis decided to acknowledge James Stuart, the son of JamesII, as King of England, Scotland and Ireland on the latter's death, infuriating WilliamIII.", "These actions enraged Britain and the Dutch Republic.", "With the Holy Roman Emperor and the petty German states, they formed another Grand Alliance and declared war on France in 1702.French diplomacy secured Bavaria, Portugal, and Savoy as Franco-Spanish allies.===Commencement of fighting===Duke of Berwick defeated decisively the Alliance forces of Portugal, England, and the Dutch Republic at the Battle of Almansa.The Battle of Ramillies where the French fought the Dutch and British, 23 May 1706Even before war was officially declared, hostilities began with Imperial aggression in Italy.", "Once finally declared, the War of the Spanish Succession lasted almost until Louis's death, at great cost to him and France.The war began with French successes, but the talents of John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough, and Eugene of Savoy checked these victories and broke the myth of French invincibility.", "The duo allowed the Palatinate and Austria to occupy Bavaria after their victory at the Battle of Blenheim.", "Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria, had to flee to the Spanish Netherlands.", "The impact of this victory won the support of Portugal and Savoy.", "Later, the Battle of Ramillies delivered the Low Countries to the Allies, and the Battle of Turin forced Louis to evacuate Italy, leaving it open to Allied forces.", "Marlborough and Eugene met again at the Battle of Oudenarde, which enabled them to invade France.France established contact with Francis II Rákóczi and promised support if he took up the cause of Hungarian independence.Defeats, famine, and mounting debt greatly weakened France.", "Between 1693 and 1710, over two million people died in two famines, made worse as foraging armies seized food supplies from the villages.", "In desperation, Louis ordered a disastrous invasion of the English island of Guernsey in the autumn of 1704 with the aim of raiding their successful harvest.", "By the winter of 1708–09, he was willing to accept peace at nearly any cost.", "He agreed that the entire Spanish empire should be surrendered to Archduke Charles, and also consented to return to the frontiers of the Peace of Westphalia, giving up all the territories he had acquired over 60 years.", "But he could not promise that PhilipV would accept these terms, so the Allies demanded that Louis single-handedly attack his grandson to force these terms on him.", "If he could not achieve this within the year, the war would resume.", "Louis could not accept these terms.===Turning point===The final phases of the War of the Spanish Succession demonstrated that the Allies could not maintain Archduke Charles in Spain just as surely as France could not retain the entire Spanish inheritance for PhilipV.", "The Allies were definitively expelled from central Spain by the Franco-Spanish victories at the Battles of Villaviciosa and Brihuega in 1710.French forces elsewhere remained obdurate despite their defeats.", "The Allies suffered a Pyrrhic victory at the Battle of Malplaquet with 21,000 casualties, twice that of the French.", "Eventually, France recovered its military pride with the decisive victory at Denain in 1712.French military successes near the end of the war took place against the background of a changed political situation in Austria.", "In 1705, Emperor LeopoldI died.", "His elder son and successor, Joseph I, followed him in 1711.His heir was none other than Archduke Charles, who secured control of all of his brother's Austrian landholdings.", "If the Spanish empire then fell to him, it would have resurrected a domain as vast as Holy Roman Emperor Charles V's in the 16th century.", "To the maritime powers of Great Britain and the Dutch Republic, this would have been as undesirable as a Franco-Spanish union.===Conclusion of peace===Map of France after the death of LouisXIVAs a result of the fresh British perspective on the European balance of power, Anglo-French talks began, culminating in the 1713 Peace of Utrecht between Louis, Philip V of Spain, Anne of Great Britain, and the Dutch Republic.", "In 1714, after losing Landau and Freiburg, the Holy Roman Emperor also made peace with France in the Treaties of Rastatt and Baden.In the general settlement, PhilipV retained Spain and its colonies, while Austria received the Spanish Netherlands and divided Spanish Italy with Savoy.", "Britain kept Gibraltar and Menorca.", "Louis agreed to withdraw his support for James Stuart, son of JamesII and pretender to the thrones of Great Britain and Ireland, and ceded Newfoundland, Rupert's Land, and Acadia in the Americas to Anne.", "Britain gained the most from the treaty, but the final terms were much more favourable to France than those being discussed in peace negotiations in 1709 and 1710.France retained Île-Saint-Jean and Île Royale, and Louis acquired a few minor European territories, such as the Principality of Orange and the Ubaye Valley, which covered transalpine passes into Italy.", "Thanks to Louis, his allies the Electors of Bavaria and Cologne were restored to their prewar status and returned their lands." ], [ "Personal life", "===Marriages and children===Queen Marie ThérèseLouis and his wife Maria Theresa of Spain had six children from the marriage contracted for them in 1660.However, only one child, the eldest, survived to adulthood: Louis, ''le Grand Dauphin'', known as ''Monseigneur''.", "Maria Theresa died in 1683, whereupon Louis remarked that she had never caused him unease on any other occasion.Despite evidence of affection early on in their marriage, Louis was never faithful to Maria Theresa.", "He took a series of mistresses, both official and unofficial.", "Among the better documented are Louise de La Vallière (with whom he had five children; 1661–1667), Bonne de Pons d'Heudicourt (1665), Catherine Charlotte de Gramont (1665), Françoise-Athénaïs, Marquise de Montespan (with whom he had seven children; 1667–1680), Anne de Rohan-Chabot (1669–1675), Claude de Vin des Œillets (one child born in 1676), Isabelle de Ludres (1675–1678), and Marie Angélique de Scorailles (1679–1681), who died at age 19 in childbirth.", "Through these liaisons, he produced numerous illegitimate children, most of whom he married to members of cadet branches of the royal family.Louis proved relatively more faithful to his second wife, Françoise d'Aubigné, Marquise de Maintenon.", "He first met her through her work caring for his children by Madame de Montespan, noting the care she gave to his favourite, Louis Auguste, Duke of Maine.", "The king was, at first, put off by her strict religious practice, but he warmed to her through her care for his children.When he legitimized his children by Madame de Montespan on 20 December 1673, Françoise d'Aubigné became the royal governess at Saint-Germain.", "As governess, she was one of very few people permitted to speak to him as an equal, without limits.", "It is believed that they were married secretly at Versailles on or around 10 October 1683 or January 1684.This marriage, though never announced or publicly discussed, was an open secret and lasted until his death.===Piety and religion===Louis XIV encouraged Catholic missions through the creation of the Paris Foreign Missions SocietyLouis was a pious and devout king who saw himself as the head and protector of the Catholic Church in France.", "He made his devotions daily regardless of where he was, following the liturgical calendar regularly.", "Under the influence of his very religious second wife, he became much stronger in the practice of his Catholic faith.", "This included banning opera and comedy performances during Lent.Towards the middle and the end of his reign, the centre for the King's religious observances was usually the Chapelle Royale at Versailles.", "Ostentation was a distinguishing feature of daily Mass, annual celebrations, such as those of Holy Week, and special ceremonies.", "Louis established the Paris Foreign Missions Society, but his informal alliance with the Ottoman Empire was criticised for undermining Christendom.===Patronage of the arts===Painting from 1667 depicting Louis as patron of the fine artsThe ''Cour royale'' and the ''Cour de marbre'' at VersaillesLouis generously supported the royal court of France and those who worked under him.", "He brought the under his patronage and became its \"Protector\".", "He allowed Classical French literature to flourish by protecting such writers as Molière, Racine, and La Fontaine, whose works remain influential to this day.", "Louis also patronised the visual arts by funding and commissioning artists such as Charles Le Brun, Pierre Mignard, Antoine Coysevox, and Hyacinthe Rigaud, whose works became famous throughout Europe.", "Composers and musicians such as Jean-Baptiste Lully, Jacques Champion de Chambonnières, and François Couperin thrived.", "In 1661, Louis founded the Académie Royale de Danse, and in 1669, the Académie d'Opéra, important driving events in the evolution of ballet.", "He also attracted, supported and patronized such artists as André Charles Boulle, who revolutionised marquetry with his art of inlay, today known as \"Boulle work\".", "Always on the lookout for new talent, the king launched music competitions: in 1683, Michel-Richard de Lalande thus became deputy master of the Royal Chapel, composing his ''Symphonies for the Soupers du Roy'' along with 77 large scale ''Grand Motets''.Over the course of four building campaigns, Louis converted a hunting lodge built by LouisXIII into the spectacular Palace of Versailles.", "Except for the current Royal Chapel (built near the end of his reign), the palace achieved much of its current appearance after the third building campaign, which was followed by an official move of the royal court to Versailles on 6 May 1682.Versailles became a dazzling, awe-inspiring setting for state affairs and the reception of foreign dignitaries.", "At Versailles, the king alone commanded attention.Bust of LouisXIV by Gianlorenzo BerniniSeveral reasons have been suggested for the creation of the extravagant and stately palace, as well as the relocation of the monarchy's seat.", "The memoirist Saint-Simon speculated that Louis viewed Versailles as an isolated power centre where treasonous cabals could be more readily discovered and foiled.", "There has also been speculation that the revolt of the ''Fronde'' caused Louis to hate Paris, which he abandoned for a country retreat, but his sponsorship of many public works in Paris, such as the establishment of a police force and of street-lighting, lend little credence to this theory.", "As a further example of his continued care for the capital, Louis constructed the ''Hôtel des Invalides'', a military complex and home to this day for officers and soldiers rendered infirm either by injury or old age.", "While pharmacology was still quite rudimentary in his day, the ''Invalides'' pioneered new treatments and set new standards for hospice treatment.", "The conclusion of the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1668 also induced Louis to demolish Paris's northern walls in 1670 and replace them with wide tree-lined boulevards.Louis also renovated and improved the Louvre and other royal residences.", "Gian Lorenzo Bernini was originally to plan additions to the Louvre; however, his plans would have meant the destruction of much of the existing structure, replacing it with an Italian summer villa in the centre of Paris.", "Bernini's plans were eventually shelved in favour of the elegant Louvre Colonnade designed by three Frenchmen: Louis Le Vau, Charles Le Brun, and Claude Perrault.", "With the relocation of the court to Versailles, the Louvre was given over to the arts and the public.During his visit from Rome, Bernini also executed a renowned portrait bust of the king." ], [ "Image and depiction", "Bronze bust of LouisXIV.", "Circa 1660, by an unknown artist.", "From Paris, France.", "The Victoria and Albert Museum, London.Few rulers in world history have commemorated themselves in as grand a manner as Louis.", "He cultivated his image as the Sun King (''le Roi Soleil''), the centre of the universe \"without equal\".", "Louis used court ritual and the arts to validate and augment his control over France.", "With his support, Colbert established from the beginning of Louis' personal reign a centralised and institutionalised system for creating and perpetuating the royal image.", "The King was thus portrayed largely in majesty or at war, notably against Spain.", "This portrayal of the monarch was to be found in numerous media of artistic expression, such as painting, sculpture, theatre, dance, music, and the almanacs that diffused royal propaganda to the population at large.===Evolution of royal portraiture===''Le roi gouverne par lui-même'', ''modello'' for the central panel of the ceiling of the Hall of Mirrors by Le Brun, (1619–1690)Over his lifetime, Louis commissioned numerous works of art to portray himself, among them over 300 formal portraits.", "The earliest portrayals of Louis already followed the pictorial conventions of the day in depicting the child king as the majestically royal incarnation of France.", "This idealisation of the monarch continued in later works, which avoided depictions of the effect of smallpox that Louis contracted in 1647.In the 1660s, Louis began to be shown as a Roman emperor, the god Apollo, or Alexander the Great, as can be seen in many works of Charles Le Brun, such as sculpture, paintings, and the decor of major monuments.The depiction of the king in this manner focused on allegorical or mythological attributes, instead of attempting to produce a true likeness.", "As Louis aged, so too did the manner in which he was depicted.", "Nonetheless, there was still a disparity between realistic representation and the demands of royal propaganda.", "There is no better illustration of this than in Hyacinthe Rigaud's frequently-reproduced ''Portrait of LouisXIV of 1701'', in which a 63-year-old Louis appears to stand on a set of unnaturally young legs.Rigaud's portrait exemplified the height of royal portraiture during Louis' reign.", "Although Rigaud crafted a credible likeness of Louis, the portrait was neither meant as an exercise in realism nor to explore Louis' character.", "Certainly, Rigaud was concerned with detail and depicted the king's costume with great precision, down to his shoe buckle.However, Rigaud intended to glorify the monarchy.", "Rigaud's original, now housed in the Louvre, was originally meant as a gift to Louis' grandson, Philip V of Spain.", "However, Louis was so pleased with the work that he kept the original and commissioned a copy to be sent to his grandson.", "That became the first of many copies, both in full and half-length formats, to be made by Rigaud, often with the help of his assistants.", "The portrait also became a model for French royal and imperial portraiture down to the time of Charles X over a century later.", "In his work, Rigaud proclaims Louis' exalted royal status through his elegant stance and haughty expression, the royal regalia and throne, rich ceremonial fleur-de-lys robes, as well as the upright column in the background, which, together with the draperies, serves to frame this image of majesty.===Other works of art===In addition to portraits, Louis commissioned at least 20 statues of himself in the 1680s, to stand in Paris and provincial towns as physical manifestations of his rule.", "He also commissioned \"war artists\" to follow him on campaigns to document his military triumphs.", "To remind the people of these triumphs, Louis erected permanent triumphal arches in Paris and the provinces for the first time since the decline of the Roman Empire.Louis' reign marked the birth and infancy of the art of medallions.", "Sixteenth-century rulers had often issued medals in small numbers to commemorate the major events of their reigns.", "Louis, however, struck more than 300 to celebrate the story of the king in bronze, that were enshrined in thousands of households throughout France.He also used tapestries as a medium of exalting the monarchy.", "Tapestries could be allegorical, depicting the elements or seasons, or realist, portraying royal residences or historical events.", "They were among the most significant means to spread royal propaganda prior to the construction of the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles.===Ballet===Louis XIV as Apollo in the ''Ballet Royal de la Nuit'' (1653)Hall of Mirrors, Palace of VersaillesLouis loved ballet and frequently danced in court ballets during the early half of his reign.", "In general, Louis was an eager dancer who performed 80 roles in 40 major ballets.", "This approaches the career of a professional ballet dancer.His choices were strategic and varied.", "He danced four parts in three of Molière's comédies-ballets, which are plays accompanied by music and dance.", "Louis played an Egyptian in ''Le Mariage forcé'' in 1664, a Moorish gentleman in ''Le Sicilien'' in 1667, and both Neptune and Apollo in ''Les Amants magnifiques'' in 1670.He sometimes danced leading roles that were suitably royal or godlike (such as Neptune, Apollo, or the Sun).", "At other times, he would adopt mundane roles before appearing at the end in the lead role.", "It is considered that, at all times, he provided his roles with sufficient majesty and drew the limelight with his flair for dancing.", "For Louis, ballet may not have merely been a tool for manipulation in his propaganda machinery.", "The sheer number of performances he gave as well as the diversity of roles he played may serve to indicate a deeper understanding and interest in the art form.Ballet dancing was used by Louis as a political tool to hold power over his state.", "He integrated ballet deeply into court social functions and fixated his nobles' attention on upholding standards in ballet dancing, effectively distracting them from political activities.", "In 1661, the Royal Academy of Dance was founded by Louis to further his ambition.", "Pierre Beauchamp, his private dance instructor, was ordered by Louis to come up with a notation system to record ballet performances, which he did with great success.", "His work was adopted and published by Feuillet in 1700 as ''Choregraphie''.", "This major development in ballet played an important role in promoting French culture and ballet throughout Europe during Louis' time.Louis greatly emphasized etiquettes in ballet dancing, evidently seen in \"La belle danse\" (the French noble style).", "More challenging skills were required to perform this dance with movements very much resembling court behaviours, as a way to remind the nobles of the king's absolute power and their own status.", "All the details and rules were compressed in five positions of the bodies codified by Beauchamp.===Unofficial image===Besides the official depiction and image of Louis, his subjects also followed a non-official discourse consisting mainly of clandestine publications, popular songs, and rumours that provided an alternative interpretation of Louis and his government.", "They often focused on the miseries arising from poor government, but also carried the hope for a better future when Louis escaped the malignant influence of his ministers and mistresses, and took the government into his own hands.", "On the other hand, petitions addressed either directly to Louis or to his ministers exploited the traditional imagery and language of monarchy.", "These varying interpretations of Louis abounded in self-contradictions that reflected the people's amalgamation of their everyday experiences with the idea of monarchy.===In fiction=======Literature====* Alexandre Dumas portrayed Louis in his two sequels to his 1844 novel ''The Three Musketeers'': first as a child in ''Twenty Years After'' (1845), then as a young man in ''The Vicomte de Bragelonne'' (1847–1850), in which he is a central character.", "The final part of the latter novel recounts the legend that a mysterious prisoner in an iron mask was actually Louis' twin brother and has spawned numerous film adaptations generally titled ''The Man in the Iron Mask''.", "* In 1910, the American historical novelist Charles Major wrote ''\"The Little King: A Story of the Childhood of King LouisXIV\"''.", "* Louis is a major character in the 1959 historical novel ''Angélique et le Roy'' (\"Angélique and the King\"), part of the ''Angélique'' series.", "The protagonist, a strong-willed lady at Versailles, rejects the King's advances and refuses to become his mistress.", "A later book, the 1961 ''Angélique se révolte'' (\"Angélique in Revolt\"), details the dire consequences of her defying this powerful monarch.", "* A character based on Louis plays an important role in ''The Age of Unreason'', a series of four alternate history novels written by American science fiction and fantasy author Gregory Keyes.", "* Louis features significantly in Neal Stephenson's Baroque Cycle, specifically in the 2003 novel ''The Confusion'', the greater part of which takes place at Versailles.", "* In the ''39 Clues'' series universe, it has been noted that Louis was part of the Cahill branch, Tomas.", "* He is called the son of Apollo in Rick Riordan's ''Trials of Apollo'' series.", "* Louis XIV is portrayed in Vonda N. McIntyre's 1997 novel ''The Moon and the Sun''.====Films====* The film, ''The Taking of Power by Louis XIV'' (1966), directed by Roberto Rossellini, shows Louis' rise to power after the death of Cardinal Mazarin.", "* The film ''Man in the Iron Mask'' (1998), directed by Randall Wallace, focused on the identity of an anonymous masked prisoner who spent decades in the Bastille and other French prisons, and his true identity remains somewhat a mystery till date.", "The monarch was played by Leonardo DiCaprio.", "* The film, ''Le Roi Danse'' (2000; translated: ''The King Dances''), directed by Gérard Corbiau, reveals Louis through the eyes of Jean-Baptiste Lully, his court musician.", "* Julian Sands portrayed Louis in Roland Jaffe's ''Vatel'' (2000).", "* Alan Rickman directed, co-wrote, and stars as LouisXIV in the film, ''A Little Chaos'', which centres on construction in the gardens of Versaille, at the time immediately before and after the death of Queen Maria Theresa.", "* The 2016 film ''The Death of Louis XIV'', directed by Albert Serra, is set during the last two weeks of LouisXIV's life before dying of gangrene, with the monarch played by Jean-Pierre Léaud.====Television====* Louis XIV is portrayed by Thierry Perkins-Lyautey in the British television film ''Charles II: The Power and the Passion.", "''* The 15-year-old LouisXIV, as played by the Irish actor Robert Sheehan, is a major character of the short-lived historical fantasy series ''Young Blades'' from January to June 2005.", "* George Blagden portrays LouisXIV in the Canal+ series ''Versailles'' which aired for three seasons from 2015.====Musicals====* Emmanuel Moire portrayed LouisXIV in the 2005-07 Kamel Ouali musical Le Roi Soleil." ], [ "Health and death", "le Grand Dauphin'' (to the left), his grandson Louis, Duke of Burgundy (to the right), his great-grandson Louis Duke of Anjou, and Madame de Ventadour, Anjou's governess, who commissioned this painting; busts of Henry IV and Louis XIII are in the background.Despite the image of a healthy and virile king that Louis sought to project, evidence exists to suggest that his health was not very good.", "He had many ailments: for example, symptoms of diabetes, as confirmed in reports of suppurating periostitis in 1678, dental abscesses in 1696, along with recurring boils, fainting spells, gout, dizziness, hot flushes, and headaches.From 1647 to 1711, the three chief physicians to the king (Antoine Vallot, Antoine d'Aquin, and Guy-Crescent Fagon) recorded all of his health problems in the ''Journal de Santé du Roi'' (''Journal of the King's Health''), a daily report of his health.", "On 18 November 1686, Louis underwent a painful operation for an anal fistula that was performed by the surgeon Charles Felix de Tassy, who prepared a specially shaped curved scalpel for the occasion.", "The wound took more than two months to heal.Louis died of gangrene at Versailles on 1 September 1715, four days before his 77th birthday, after 72 years on the throne.", "Enduring much pain in his last days, he finally \"yielded up his soul without any effort, like a candle going out\", while reciting the psalm ''Deus, in adjutorium me festina'' (''O Lord, make haste to help me'').", "His body was laid to rest in Saint-Denis Basilica outside Paris.", "It remained there undisturbed for about 80 years until revolutionaries exhumed and destroyed all of the remains found in the Basilica.Cardinal Armand Gaston Maximilien de Rohan gave Last Rites (confession, viaticum, and unction) to king LouisXIV.===Succession===Louis outlived most of his immediate legitimate family.", "His last surviving legitimate son, the Dauphin, died in 1711.Barely a year later, the Duke of Burgundy, the eldest of the Dauphin's three sons and then heir-apparent to Louis, followed his father.", "Burgundy's elder son, Louis, Duke of Brittany, joined them a few weeks later.", "Thus, on his deathbed, Louis' heir-apparent was his five-year-old great-grandson, Louis, Duke of Anjou, Burgundy's younger son.Louis foresaw an underaged successor and sought to restrict the power of his nephew Philip II, Duke of Orléans, who, as his closest surviving legitimate relative in France, would probably become regent to the prospective Louis XV.", "Accordingly, the king created a regency council as LouisXIII had in anticipation of LouisXIV's own minority, with some power vested in his illegitimate son Louis-Auguste de Bourbon, Duke of Maine.", "Orléans, however, had Louis' will annulled by the ''Parlement of Paris'' after his death and made himself sole regent.", "He stripped Maine and his brother, Louis-Alexandre, Count of Toulouse, of the rank of Prince of the Blood, which Louis had granted them, and significantly reduced Maine's power and privileges.====Line of succession in 1715====Line of succession to the French throne upon the death of LouisXIV in 1715.LouisXIV's only surviving legitimate grandson, PhilipV, was not included in the line of succession due to having renounced the French throne after the war of the Spanish Succession, which lasted for 13 years after the death of Charles II of Spain in 1700.", "* 15px ''Louis XIII (1601–1643)'' 15px '''Louis XIV''' ''(1638–1715)''* ''Louis, Grand Dauphin (1661–1711)''** ''Louis, Duke of Burgundy (1682–1712)''* ''Louis, Duke of Brittany (1707–1712)''* '''(1)''' Louis, Duke of Anjou (1710–1774) Philip V of Spain (1683–1746) ''Charles, Duke of Berry (1686–1714)'' ''Philippe I, Duke of Orléans (1640–1701)''* '''(2)''' Philippe II, Duke of Orléans (1674–1723)** '''(3)''' Louis, Duke of Chartres (1703–1752)Further down the French line of succession in 1715 was the House of Conde, followed by the House of Conti (a cadet branch of the House of Conde).", "Both of these royal houses were descended in the male line from Henri II, Prince of Conde, a second cousin of French King LouisXIII (the father of LouisXIV) in the male line." ], [ "Legacy", "===Reputation===According to Philippe de Courcillon's ''Journal'', Louis on his deathbed advised his heir with these words: Do not follow the bad example which I have set you; I have often undertaken war too lightly and have sustained it for vanity.", "Do not imitate me, but be a peaceful prince, and may you apply yourself principally to the alleviation of the burdens of your subjects.Territorial expansion of France under LouisXIV (1643–1715) is depicted in orange.Some historians point out that it was a customary demonstration of piety in those days to exaggerate one's sins.", "Thus they do not place much emphasis on Louis' deathbed declarations in assessing his accomplishments.", "Rather, they focus on military and diplomatic successes, such as how he placed a French prince on the Spanish throne.", "This, they contend, ended the threat of an aggressive Spain that historically interfered in domestic French politics.", "These historians also emphasise the effect of Louis' wars in expanding France's boundaries and creating more defensible frontiers that preserved France from invasion until the Revolution.Arguably, Louis also applied himself indirectly to \"the alleviation of the burdens of his subjects.\"", "For example, he patronised the arts, encouraged industry, fostered trade and commerce, and sponsored the founding of an overseas empire.", "Moreover, the significant reduction in civil wars and aristocratic rebellions during his reign are seen by these historians as the result of Louis' consolidation of royal authority over feudal elites.", "In their analysis, his early reforms centralised France and marked the birth of the modern French state.", "They regard the political and military victories as well as numerous cultural achievements as how Louis helped raise France to a preeminent position in Europe.", "Europe came to admire France for its military and cultural successes, power, and sophistication.", "Europeans generally began to emulate French manners, values, goods, and deportment.", "French became the universal language of the European elite.Louis' detractors have argued that his considerable foreign, military and domestic expenditure impoverished and bankrupted France.", "His supporters, however, distinguish the state, which was impoverished, from France, which was not.", "As supporting evidence, they cite the literature of the time, such as the social commentary in Montesquieu's ''Persian Letters''.Alternatively, Louis' critics attribute the social upheaval culminating in the French Revolution to his failure to reform French institutions while the monarchy was still secure.", "Other scholars counter that there was little reason to reform institutions that largely worked well under Louis.", "They also maintain that events occurring almost 80 years after his death were not reasonably foreseeable to Louis and that in any case, his successors had sufficient time to initiate reforms of their own.Royal procession passing the Pont-Neuf under Louis XIVLouis has often been criticised for his vanity.", "The memoirist Saint-Simon, who claimed that Louis slighted him, criticised him thus: There was nothing he liked so much as flattery, or, to put it more plainly, adulation; the coarser and clumsier it was, the more he relished it.", "For his part, Voltaire saw Louis' vanity as the cause for his bellicosity:It is certain that he passionately wanted glory, rather than the conquests themselves.", "In the acquisition of Alsace and half of Flanders, and of all of Franche-Comté, what he really liked was the name he made for himself.Nonetheless, Louis has also received praise.", "The anti-Bourbon Napoleon described him not only as \"a great king\", but also as \"the only King of France worthy of the name\".", "Leibniz, the German Protestant philosopher, commended him as \"one of the greatest kings that ever was\".", "And Lord Acton admired him as \"by far the ablest man who was born in modern times on the steps of a throne\".", "The historian and philosopher Voltaire wrote: \"His name can never be pronounced without respect and without summoning the image of an eternally memorable age\".", "Voltaire's history, ''The Age of Louis XIV'', named Louis' reign as not only one of the four great ages in which reason and culture flourished, but the greatest ever.In 1848, at Nuneham House, a piece of Louis' mummified heart, taken from his tomb and kept in a silver locket by Lord Harcourt, Archbishop of York, was shown to the Dean of Westminster, William Buckland, who ate it.===Quotes===Numerous quotes have been attributed to LouisXIV by legend.The well-known \"I am the state\" (''\"L'État, c'est moi.\"'')", "was reported from at least the late 18th century.", "It was widely repeated but also denounced as apocryphal by the early 19th century.He did say, \"Every time I appoint someone to a vacant position, I make a hundred unhappy and one ungrateful.\"", "Louis is recorded by numerous eyewitnesses as having said on his deathbed: \"\" (\"I depart, but the State shall always remain.\")" ], [ "Arms" ], [ "Order of Saint Louis", "On 5 April 1693, Louis also founded the Royal and Military Order of Saint Louis (), a military order of chivalry.", "He named it after Louis IX and intended it as a reward for outstanding officers.", "It is notable as the first decoration that could be granted to non-nobles and is roughly the forerunner of the ''Légion d'honneur'', with which it shares the red ribbon (though the ''Légion d'honneur'' is awarded to military personnel and civilians alike)." ], [ "Family", "=== Ancestry ======= Patrilineal descent ====Louis' patriline is the line from which he is descended from father to son.Patrilineal descent is the principle behind membership in royal houses, as it can be traced back through the generations - which means that if King Louis were to choose a historically accurate house name it would be Robertian, as all his male-line ancestors have been of that house.Louis is a member of the House of Bourbon, a branch of the Capetian dynasty and of the Robertians.Louis' patriline is the line from which he is descended from father to son.", "It follows the Bourbon kings of France, and the Counts of Paris and Worms.", "This line can be traced back more than 1,200 years from Robert of Hesbaye to the present day, through Kings of France & Navarre, Spain and Two-Sicilies, Dukes of Parma and Grand-Dukes of Luxembourg, Princes of Orléans and Emperors of Brazil.", "It is one of the oldest in Europe.# Robert II of Worms and Rheingau (Robert of Hesbaye), 770–807# Robert III of Worms and Rheingau, 808–834# Robert IV the Strong, 820–866# Robert I of France, 866–923# Hugh the Great, 895–956# Hugh Capet, 941–996# Robert II of France, 972–1031# Henry I of France, 1008–1060# Philip I of France, 1053–1108# Louis VI of France, 1081–1137# Louis VII of France, 1120–1180# Philip II of France, 1165–1223# Louis VIII of France, 1187–1226# Louis IX of France, 1214–1270# Robert, Count of Clermont, 1256–1317# Louis I, Duke of Bourbon, 1279–1342# James I, Count of La Marche, 1319–1362# John I, Count of La Marche, 1344–1393# Louis, Count of Vendôme, 1376–1446# Jean VIII, Count of Vendôme, 1428–1478# François, Count of Vendôme, 1470–1495# Charles de Bourbon, Duke of Vendôme, 1489–1537# Antoine, King of Navarre, Duke of Vendôme, 1518–1562# Henry IV, King of France and of Navarre, 1553–1610# Louis XIII, King of France and Navarre, 1601–1643# Louis XIV, King of France and Navarre, 1638–1715=== Issue === Name Birth Death Notes '''''By Maria Theresa, Infanta of Spain, Archduchess of Austria, Queen of France and of Navarre (20 September 1638 – 30 July 1683)''''' Louis, ''le Grand Dauphin'' 1 November 1661 14 April 1711 Fils de France.", "Dauphin of France (1661–1711).", "Had issue.", "Father of Louis, Dauphin of France, Philip V of Spain and Charles, Duke of Berry.", "Grandfather of Louis XV of France Anne Élisabeth 18 November 1662 30 December 1662 Fille de France.", "Died in infancy.", "Marie Anne Fille de France.", "Died in infancy.", "Marie Thérèse 2 January 1667 1 March 1672 Fille de France.", "Known as Madame Royale and ''la Petite Madame''.", "Died in childhood.", "5 August 1668 10 July 1671 Fils de France.", "Died in childhood.", "Louis François, Duke of Anjou 14 June 1672 4 November 1672 Fils de France.", "Died in infancy.This is an incomplete list of LouisXIV's illegitimate children.", "He reputedly had more, but the difficulty in fully documenting all such births restricts the list only to the better-known and/or legitimised.", "Name Birth Death Notes '''''By NN, a gardener'''''Daughter 1660 unknown She married N de la Queue, a sentry.", "'''''By Louise de La Vallière (6 August 1644 – 6 June 1710)'''''Charles de La Baume Le Blanc 19 December 1663 15 July 1665 (aged 1) Not legitimised.Philippe de La Baume Le Blanc 7 January 1665 1666 (aged 1) Not legitimised.Louis de La Baume Le Blanc 27 December 1665 1666 (aged 1) Not legitimised.", "Marie Anne de Bourbon 2 October 1666 3 May 1739 (aged 73) Legitimised on 14 May 1667.Married Louis Armand I, Prince of Conti.", "Louis, Count of Vermandois 3 October 1667 18 November 1683 (aged 16) Legitimised on 20 February 1669.Held the office of Admiral of France.", "'''''By Françoise-Athénaïs, marquise de Montespan (5 October 1641 – 27 May 1707)''''' Louise Françoise de Bourbon at the end of March 1669 23 February 1672 (aged 2) Louis Auguste, Duke of Maine 31 March 1670 14 May 1736 (aged 66) Legitimised on 20 December 1673.Held numerous offices, of which: Colonel General of the Suisses et Grisons, Governor of Languedoc, General of the Galleys, and Grand Master of Artillery.", "Also Duke of Aumale, Count of Eu and Prince of Dombes.", "Had issue.", "Founder of the Maine Line.", "Heir presumptive for several days.", "Louis César, Count of Vexin 20 June 1672 10 January 1683 (aged 10) Legitimised on 20 December 1673.Louise Françoise de Bourbon 1 June 1673 16 June 1743 (aged 70) Legitimised on 20 December 1673.Married Louis III, Prince of Condé.", "Had issue.", "Louise Marie Anne de Bourbon 12 November 1674 15 September 1681 (aged 6) Legitimised in January 1676.Françoise Marie de Bourbon 9 February 1677 1 February 1749 (aged 72) Legitimised in November 1681.Married Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, the Regent of France under Louis XV.", "Had issue.", "Louis Alexandre, Count of Toulouse 6 June 1678 1 December 1737 (aged 59) Legitimised on 22 November 1681.Held numerous offices, of which: Admiral of France, Governor of Guyenne, Governor of Brittany, and Grand Huntsman of France.", "Also Duke of Damville, of Rambouillet and of Penthièvre.", "Had issue.", "'''''by Claude de Vin, Mademoiselle des Œillets (1637 – 18 May 1687)''''' Louise de Maisonblanche ''c''.", "17 June 1676 12 September 1718 (aged 42) In 1696 she married Bernard de Prez, Baron de La Queue.", "'''''by Angélique de Fontanges (1661 – 28 June 1681)'''''Son January 1680 January 1680 (stillborn) Daughter March 1681 March 1681 (stillborn) Her existence is doubtful." ], [ "See also", "* Charles de Lorme, personal medical doctor to LouisXIV* Fundamental laws of the Kingdom of France* House of France* Levée (ceremony)* List of French monarchs* Outline of France* Louis XIV style* Nicolas Fouquet* French forestry Ordinance of 1669* Potager du Roi* Éléphante de Louis XIV" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Works cited ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Mansel, Philip.", "''King of the World: The Life of Louis XIV'' (University of Chicago Press, 2020) scholarly biography; online review* * * * * * * Norton, Lucy (1982).", "''The Sun King and His Loves''.", "The Folio Society.", "* * * * * * * * * * * * Roosen, William J.", "''The Age of Louis XIV: The Rise of Modern Diplomacy'' (1976) online.", "* * * * * * * * : a standard scholarly biography;* " ], [ "Further reading", " ''Cambridge Modern History: Vol.", "5 The Age of Louis XIV'' (1908), old, solid articles by scholars; complete text online* Lynn, John A.", "\"Food, funds, and fortresses: resource mobilization and positional warfare in the campaigns of Louis XIV.\"", "in ''Feeding Mars: Logistics in Western Warfare from the Middle Ages to the Present'' (Taylor and Francis, 2019) pp.", "150-172.", "* Ashley, Maurice P. ''Louis XIV and the Greatness of France'' (1965) * Beik, William.", "''Louis XIV and Absolutism: A Brief Study with Documents'' (2000) * Beik, William.", "\"The Absolutism of Louis XIV as Social Collaboration.\"", "''Past & Present'' 2005 (188): 195–224.online at Project MUSE* Campbell, Peter Robert.", "''Louis XIV, 1661–1715'' (London, 1993)* Church, William F., ed.", "''The Greatness of Louis XIV''.", "(1972).", "* Cowart, Georgia J.", "''The Triumph of Pleasure: Louis XIV and the Politics of Spectacle'' University of Chicago Press, 2008.", "* Cronin, Vincent.", "''Louis XIV''.", "London: HarperCollins, 1996.", "* Félix, Joël.", "\"'The most difficult financial matter that has ever presented itself': paper money and the financing of warfare under Louis XIV.\"", "''Financial History Review'' 25.1 (2018): 43-70 online.", "* * Jones, Colin.", "''The Great Nation: France from Louis XIV to Napoleon (1715–1799)'' (2002)* Klaits, Joseph.", "''Printed propaganda under Louis XIV: absolute monarchy and public opinion'' (Princeton University Press, 2015).", "* Le Roy Ladurie, Emmanuel.", "''The Ancien Régime: A History of France 1610–1774'' (1999), survey by leader of the Annales School * Lewis, W. H. ''The Splendid Century: Life in the France of Louis XIV'' (1953) * * Prest, Julia, and Guy Rowlands, eds.", "''The Third Reign of Louis XIV, C. 1682-1715'' (Taylor & Francis, 2016).", "* Rothkrug, Lionel.", "''Opposition to Louis XIV: The Political and Social Origins of French Enlightenment'' (Princeton University Press, 2015).", "* Rowlands, Guy.", "''The Dynastic State and the Army under Louis XIV: Royal Service and Private Interest, 1661–1701'' (2002)* Rubin, David Lee, ed.", "''Sun King: The Ascendancy of French Culture during the Reign of Louis XIV''.", "Washington: Folger Books and Cranbury: Associated University Presses, 1992.", "* Rule, John C., ''Louis XIV and the craft of kingship'' 1969.", "* Shennan, J. H. ''Louis XIV'' (1993)* Thompson, Ian.", "''The Sun King's Garden: Louis XIV, André Le Nôtre And the Creation of the Gardens of Versailles''.", "London: Bloomsbury Publishing, 2006 * Treasure, Geoffrey.", "''The Making of Modern Europe, 1648–1780'' (3rd ed.", "2003).", "pp 230–296.", "* Wilkinson, Rich.", "''Louis XIV'' (Routledge, 2007).", "* Cénat, Jean-Philippe.", "''Le roi stratège: Louis XIV et la direction de la guerre, 1661-1715'' (Presses universitaires de Rennes, 2019).", "* Croix, Alain.", "\"Vingt millions de Français et Louis XIV.\"", "''Revue dhistoire moderne contemporaine'' 2 (2020): 27-46.", "* Engerand, Fernand, editor (1899).", "''Inventaire des tableaux du Roy rédigé en 1709 et 1710 par Nicolas Bailly''.", "Paris: Ernest Leroux.", "Copy at Gallica." ], [ "External links", "* * * * Louis XIV at ''History.com''* Full text of marriage contract, France National Archives transcription * ''Le Siècle de Louis XIV'' by Voltaire, 1751, hosted by French Wikisource" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Ludwig Ritter von Köchel" ], [ "Introduction", "Köchel's arms as Ritter, 1842.", "'''Ludwig Alois Friedrich Ritter von Köchel''' (; 14 January 1800 – 3 June 1877) was an Austrian musicologist, writer, composer, botanist, and publisher.", "He is best known for cataloguing the works of Mozart and originating the 'KV-numbers' by which they are known (''KV'' for ''Köchel-Verzeichnis'')." ], [ "Life", "Born in the town of Stein, Lower Austria, he studied law in Vienna and graduated with a PhD in 1827.For fifteen years, he was tutor to the four sons of Archduke Charles of Austria.", "Köchel was rewarded with a knighthood and a generous financial settlement, permitting him to spend the rest of his life as a private scholar.", "Contemporary scientists were greatly impressed by his botanical researches in North Africa, the Iberian Peninsula, the United Kingdom, the North Cape, and Russia.", "In addition to botany, he was interested in geology and mineralogy, but also loved music, and was a member of the Mozarteum Salzburg.", "He died of cancer at age 77 in Vienna." ], [ "Köchel catalogue", "In 1862 he published the Köchel catalogue, a chronological and thematic register of the works of Mozart.", "This catalogue was the first on such a scale and with such a level of scholarship behind it; it has since undergone revisions.", "Mozart's works are often referred to by their KV-numbers (''cf.''", "opus number); for example, the \"Jupiter\" symphony, ''Symphony No.", "41'', KV.", "551.At the same time that Köchel was writing his catalogue Otto Jahn was making a comprehensive collection of Mozart works and writing a scholarly biography of Mozart.", "When Jahn learned of Köchel's work he turned over his collection to him.", "Köchel dedicated his catalogue to Jahn." ], [ "Other works", "Moreover, Köchel arranged Mozart's works into twenty-four categories, which were used by Breitkopf & Härtel when they published the first complete edition of Mozart's works from 1877 to 1910, a venture partly funded by Köchel.He also catalogued the works of Johann Fux." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * * * * * Ludwig Ritter von Köchel Society" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "LEO (computer)" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''LEO''' ('''Lyons Electronic Office''') was a series of early computer systems created by J. Lyons and Co.", "The first in the series, the LEO I, was the first computer used for commercial business applications.The prototype LEO I was modelled closely on the Cambridge EDSAC.", "Its construction was overseen by Oliver Standingford, Raymond Thompson and David Caminer of J. Lyons and Co. LEO I ran its first business application in 1951.In 1954 Lyons formed LEO Computers Ltd to market LEO I and its successors LEO II and LEO III to other companies.", "LEO Computers eventually became part of English Electric Company (EEL), (EELM), then English Electric Computers (EEC), where the same team developed the faster LEO 360 and even faster LEO 326 models.", "It then passed to International Computers Limited (ICL) and ultimately Fujitsu.LEO series computers were still in use until 1981." ], [ "Origins and initial design", "J. Lyons and Co. was one of the UK's leading catering and food manufacturing companies in the first half of the 20th century.", "In 1947, two of its senior managers, Oliver Standingford and Raymond Thompson, were sent to the United States to look at new business methods developed during World War II.", "During the visit, they met Herman Goldstine who was one of the original developers of ENIAC, the first general-purpose electronic computer.", "Standingford and Thompson saw the potential of computers to help solve the problem of administering a major business enterprise.", "They also learned from Goldstine that, back in the UK, Douglas Hartree and Maurice Wilkes were actually building another such machine, the pioneering EDSAC computer, at the University of Cambridge.On their return to the UK, Standingford and Thompson visited Hartree and Wilkes in Cambridge and were favourably impressed with their technical expertise and vision.", "Hartree and Wilkes estimated that EDSAC was 12–18 months from completion, but said that this interval could be shortened by additional funding.", "Standingford and Thompson wrote a report to the Lyons' board recommending that Lyons should acquire or build a computer to meet their business needs.", "The board agreed that, as a first step, Lyons would provide Hartree and Wilkes with £2,500 for the EDSAC project, and would also provide them with the services of a Lyons electrical engineer, Ernest Lenaerts.", "EDSAC was completed and ran its first program in May 1949.Following the successful completion of EDSAC, the Lyons board agreed to start the construction of their own machine, expanding on the EDSAC design.", "The LEO computer room, which took up around 2,500 square feet of floor space, was at Cadby Hall in Hammersmith.The Lyons machine was christened Lyons Electronic Office, or LEO.", "On the recommendation of Wilkes, Lyons recruited John Pinkerton, a radar engineer and research student at Cambridge, as team leader for the project.", "Lenaerts returned to Lyons to work on the project, and Wilkes provided training for Lyons' engineer Derek Hemy, who would be responsible for writing LEO's programs.", "On 15 February 1951 the computer, carrying out a simple test program, was shown to HRH Princess Elizabeth.", "The first business application to be run on LEO was Bakery Valuations, which computed the costs of ingredients used in bread and cakes.", "This was successfully run on 5 September 1951, and LEO took over Bakery Valuations calculations completely on 29–30 November 1951.Mary Coombs was employed in 1952 as the first female programmer to work on LEO, and as such she is recognized as the first female commercial programmer.Five files of archive material on the LEO Computer patent are held at the British Library and can be accessed through the British Library Archives catalogue." ], [ "Design", "LEO I's clock speed was 500 kHz, with most instructions taking about 1.5 ms to execute.", "To be useful for business applications, the computer had to be able to handle a number of data streams, input and output, simultaneously.", "Therefore, its chief designer, John Pinkerton, designed the machine to have multiple input/output buffers.", "In the first instance, these were linked to fast paper tape readers and punches, fast punched card readers and punches, and a 100 line a minute tabulator.", "Later, other devices, including magnetic tape, were added.", "Its ultrasonic delay-line memory based on tanks of mercury, with 2K (2048) 35-bit words (i.e., 8 kilobytes), was four times as large as that of EDSAC.", "The systems analysis was carried out by David Caminer." ], [ "Applications and successors", "A circuit board from a LEO III computerLyons used LEO I initially for valuation jobs, but its role was extended to include payroll, inventory, and so on.", "One of its early tasks was the elaboration of daily orders which were phoned in every afternoon by the shops and used to calculate the overnight production requirements, assembly instructions, delivery schedules, invoices, costings, and management reports.", "This was the first instance of an integrated management information system.", "The LEO project was also a pioneer in outsourcing: in 1956, Lyons started doing the payroll calculations for Ford UK and others on the LEO I machine.", "The success of this led to the company dedicating one of its LEO II machines to bureau services.", "Later, the system was used for scientific computations as well.", "Met Office staff used a LEO I before the Met Office bought its own computer, a Ferranti Mercury, in 1959.In 1954, with the decision to proceed with LEO II and interest from other commercial companies, Lyons formed LEO Computers Ltd.The first LEO III was completed in 1961; it was a solid-state machine with a 13.2 μs cycle time ferrite core memory.", "It was microprogrammed and was controlled by a multitasking \"Master program\" operating system, which allowed concurrent running of as many as 12 application programs.Users of LEO computers programmed in two coding languages: Intercode, a low-level assembler type language; and CLEO (acronym: Clear Language for Expressing Orders), the COBOL equivalent.One of the features that LEO III shared with many computers of the day was a loudspeaker connected to the central processor via a divide by 100 circuit and an amplifier which enabled operators to tell whether a program was looping by the distinctive sound it made.", "Another quirk was that many intermittent faults were due to faulty connectors and could be temporarily fixed by briskly strumming the card handles.Some LEO III machines purchased in the mid-to-late 1960s remained in commercial use at GPO Telephones, the forerunner of British Telecom, until 1981, primarily producing telephone bills.", "They were kept running using parts from redundant LEOs purchased by the GPO." ], [ "Fate and legacy", "In 1963, LEO Computers Ltd was merged into English Electric Company and this led to the breaking up of the team that had inspired LEO computers.", "The company continued to build the LEO III, and went on to build the faster LEO 360 and even faster LEO 326 models, which had been designed by the LEO team before the takeover.English Electric LEO Computers (EEL) (1963), then English Electric Leo Marconi (EELM) (1964), later English Electric Computers (EEC) (1967), eventually merged with International Computers and Tabulators (ICT) and others to form International Computers Limited (ICL) in 1968.In the 1980s, there were still ICL 2900 mainframes running LEO programs, using an emulator written in ICL 2960 microcode at the Dalkeith development centre.", "At least one modern emulator has been developed which can run some original LEO III software on a modern server.", "ICL was bought by Fujitsu in 1990.Whether its investment in LEO actually benefited J. Lyons is unclear.", "Nick Pelling notes that before LEO I the company already had a proven, industry-leading system using clerks that gave it \"near-real-time management information on more or less all aspects of its business\", and that no jobs were lost when the system was computerized.", "In addition, LEO Computers lost money on many of its sales because of unrealistically low prices.In 2018, The Centre for Computing History along with LEO Computers Society were awarded funding from the Heritage Lottery Fund for their project aiming to bring together, preserve, archive and digitise a range of LEO Computers artefacts, and documents.", "The Centre's museum gallery has an area dedicated to LEO, and they are also working on a LEO virtual reality project.", "In November 2021, to coincide with the 70th anniversary of the first successful full program run on LEO I, the project released a film about the history of LEO, which went on to win Video of the Year in the Association of British Science Writers Awards in July 2022." ], [ "See also", "* List of vacuum-tube computers" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Bird, P. J.", "(1994).", "''LEO: The First Business Computer''.", "Wokingham: Hasler Publishing Co.", ".", "* * Campbell-Kelly, M., (1989).", "''ICL: A Business and Technical History''.", "Oxford: Clarendon Press.", "* Caminer, D. T., Aris, J.", "B.", "B., Hermon, P. M. R., Land, F. F. (1996). ''", "User-Driven Innovation: The World’s First Business Computer''.", "London: McGraw-Hill.", ".", "* Carmichael, H., editor (1996).", "An ICL Anthology, Chapter 6: ''LEO'', Laidlaw Hicks, Surbiton, UK.", "* * Hally, M. (2005).", "''Electronic Brains: stories from the dawn of the computer age''.", "Washington:Joseph Henry Press.", "Chapter 5: LEO the Lyons Computer.", ".", "* Land, F. F., (1997).", "LEO, the First Business Computer: A Personal Experience.", "In Glass, R. L., editor.", "''In the Beginning: Recollections of Software Pioneers'', pages 134–153.IEEE Computer Society, Los Alamitos, CA.", "* PEP, (1957).", "''Three Case Studies in Automation'', PEP, London.", "* Simmons, J. R. M., (1962).", "''LEO and the Managers'', MacDonald, London.", "* Aris, J.", "B.", "B.", "(1996).", "\"Systems Design – Then and Now\".", "''Resurrection'', Summer issue 1996.", "* Land, F. F. (1996).", "\"Systems Analysis for Business Applications\".", "''Resurrection'', Summer issue 1996.", "* Aris, J.", "B.", "B.", "(2000).", "\"Inventing Systems Engineering\".", "''IEEE Annals of the History of Computing'', Vol.", "22, No.", "3, July–September, pp.", "4–15* Land, F. F. (2000).", "\"The First Business Computer: A Case Study in User-Driven Automation\".", "''IEEE Annals of the History of Computing'', Vol.", "22, No.", "3, July–September, pp. 16–26.", "* Caminer, D. T. (1958), \"...And How to Avoid Them\".", "''The Computer Journal'', Vol.", "1, No.", "1.", "* Caminer, D. T. (1997).", "\"LEO and its Applications: The Beginning of Business Computing\".", "''The Computer Journal'', Vol.", "40, No.", "10.", "* Caminer, D. T. (2003).", "\"Behind the Curtain at LEO: A Personal Reminiscence\".", "''IEEE Annals of the History of Computing'', Vol.", "25, No.", "2, April–June, pp3–13.", "* Hendry, J.", "(1988).", "\"The Teashop Computer Manufacturer: J. Lyons\".", "''Business History'', Vol.", "29, No.", "8, pp. 73–102.", "* Land, Frank (1999).", "\"A Historical Analysis of Implementing IS at J.", "Lyons.\"", "In Currie, W. G.; Galliers, R. D., editors.", "''Rethinking Management Information Systems'', pp.", "310–325.Oxford University Press.", "* (Has information on the LEO III character set.)" ], [ "External links", "* LEO Computers Society.", "Includes '' LEOPEDIA'' which is intended to be a comprehensive reference to archive, museum and media holdings and references to LEO computers, and individuals associated with them, updated periodically by Frank Land.", "* LEO Magnetic Data Tape Collection at The ICL Computer Museum* LEO Artefacts at The ICL Computer Museum* LEO Paperwork at The ICL Computer Museum* LEO Artefacts at the Centre for Computing History* LEO Computers Collection, National Archive for the History of Computing, University of Manchester Library.", "* How a cake company pioneered the first office computer BBC video interview with Mary Coombs, who worked on the first LEO computer and was the first woman to become a commercial computer programmer* Oral history interview with John M. M. Pinkerton, Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota.", "Pinkerton describes his work on LEO computers.", "In this context he discusses the British computer firms J. Lyons and Company, English Electric, and International Computers Ltd.* About LEO – From ''Business Computing: the Second 50 Years'', The Guildhall conference for business leaders, London, 2001.Archived in February 2012.", "* J. Lyons & Co. LEO Computers.", "Extract from Peter Bird's ''LEO – The First Business Computer'' (2002); at David Lawrence's Lyons website* BBC Science: Electronic Brains BBC Radio 4 series about early computers, 2002; programme 1 is about LEO* ''Hidden Histories of the Information Age'' BBC Radio 4 series, 2016; programme about LEO* \"Developing LEO: The world's first business computer\", documents from the papers of John Simmons, Modern Records Centre, University of Warwick* * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Laurence of Canterbury" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Laurence''' (died 2 February 619) was the second Archbishop of Canterbury, serving from about 604 to 619.He was a member of the Gregorian mission sent from Italy to England to Christianise the Anglo-Saxons from their native Anglo-Saxon paganism, although the date of his arrival is disputed.", "He was consecrated archbishop by his predecessor, Augustine of Canterbury, during Augustine's lifetime, to ensure continuity in the office.", "While archbishop, he attempted unsuccessfully to resolve differences with the native British bishops by corresponding with them about points of dispute.", "Laurence faced a crisis following the death of King Æthelberht of Kent, when the king's successor abandoned Christianity; he eventually reconverted.", "Laurence was revered as a saint after his death in 619." ], [ "Early life", "Laurence was part of the Gregorian mission originally dispatched from Rome in 595 to convert the Anglo-Saxons from their native paganism to Christianity; he landed at Thanet, Kent, with Augustine in 597, or, as some sources state, first arrived in 601 and was not a part of the first group of missionaries.", "He had been a monk in Rome before his travels to England, but nothing else is known of his history or background.", "The medieval chronicler Bede says that Augustine sent Laurence back to Pope Gregory I to report on the success of converting King Æthelberht of Kent and to carry a letter with questions for the pope.", "Accompanied by Peter of Canterbury, another missionary, he set off sometime after July 598, and returned by June 601.He brought back with him Gregory's replies to Augustine's questions, a document commonly known as the ''Libellus responsionum'', that Bede incorporated in his ''Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum''.", "Laurence is probably the Laurence referred to in the letter from Gregory to Bertha, queen of Kent.", "In that letter, Gregory praises Bertha for her part in the conversion of her husband, details of which Gregory says he received from Laurence the priest.", "It is known that Laurence returned to England with Mellitus and others of the second group of missionaries in the summer of 601, but there is no record of Peter being with them." ], [ "Archbishop", "alt=Map showing the kingdoms of Dyfed, Powys, and Gwynedd in the west-central part of the island of Great Britain.", "Dumnonia is below those kingdoms.", "Mercia, Middle Anglia, and East Anglia run across the middle of the island from west to east.", "Below those kingdoms are Wessex, Sussex, and Kent, also from west to east.", "The northern kingdoms are Elmet, Deira, and Bernicia.Laurence succeeded Augustine to the see of Canterbury in about 604, and ruled until his death on 2 February 619.To secure the succession, Augustine had consecrated Laurence before he died, even though that was prohibited by canon law.", "Augustine was afraid though that if someone did not step into the office immediately, it would damage the missionary efforts in Britain.", "However, Laurence never received a pallium from Rome, so he may have been considered uncanonical by the papacy.", "Bede makes a point of comparing Augustine's action in consecrating Laurence to Saint Peter's action of consecrating Clement as Bishop of Rome during Peter's lifetime, which the theologian J. Robert Wright believes may be Bede's way of criticising the practices of the church in his day.In 610 Laurence received letters from Pope Boniface IV, addressed to him as archbishop and Augustine's successor.", "The correspondence was in response to Laurence having sent Mellitus to Rome earlier in 610, to solicit advice from the papacy on matters concerning the English Church.", "While in Rome Mellitus attended a synod and brought the synodical decrees back with him to Laurence.In 613 Laurence consecrated the monastery church built by Augustine in Canterbury, and dedicated it to saints Peter and Paul; it was later re-consecrated as St Augustine's Abbey, Canterbury.", "Laurence also wrote to the bishops in the lands held by the Scots and by the Britons, urging them to hold Easter on the day that the Roman church celebrated it, instead of their traditional date, as part of the Easter controversy.", "The letter is also preserved in Bede's history.", "Laurence in 609 stated that Dagan, a native bishop, would not eat with Laurence or share a roof with the archbishop, due to the differences between the two Churches." ], [ "Pagan reaction", "The evangelist portrait of Luke, from the St. Augustine Gospels (c. 6th century), which were probably used by Laurence.\|alt=An illuminated manuscript illustration of a central seated figure holding an open book.", "He is flanked by two colonnades, which are filled with small scenes.", "Over the central figure is an arch that surmounts a winged bull.Æthelberht died in 616, during Laurence's tenure; his son Eadbald abandoned Christianity in favour of Anglo-Saxon paganism, forcing many of the Gregorian missionaries to flee the pagan backlash that followed Æthelberht's death.", "Among them in Gaul were Mellitus, who was Bishop of London, and Justus, who was Bishop of Rochester.", "Remaining in Britain, Laurence succeeded in reconverting Eadbald to Christianity.", "Bede relates the story that Laurence had been prepared to give up when he was visited by St Peter in a dream or vision.", "St Peter chastised Laurence and whipped him, and the marks of the whipping remained after the vision or dream ended.", "Laurence then displayed them to Eadbald, and the king was converted on the spot.", "Bede, however, hints that it was the death of some of the leaders of the pagan party in battle that really persuaded Laurence to stay.", "According to Benedicta Ward, a historian of Christianity, Bede uses the story of the whipping as an example of how suffering was a reminder of Christ's suffering for humans, and how that example could lead to conversion.", "Wright argues that another point Bede is making is that it is because of the intercession of St Peter himself that the mission continued.", "David Farmer, in the ''Oxford Dictionary of Saints'', suggests that the whipping story may have been a blending of the ''Quo vadis'' story with some information given by Jerome in a letter.Modern historians have seen political overtones in the pagan reaction.", "The historian D. P. Kirby sees Eadbald's actions as a repudiation of his father's pro-Frankish policies.", "Alcuin, a later medieval writer, wrote that Laurence was \"censured by apostolic authority\".", "This may have been a letter from Pope Adeodatus I, commanding Laurence to stay in Kent.", "Kirby goes on to argue that it was Justus, not Laurence, who converted Eadbald, and this while Justus was archbishop, sometime around 624.Not all historians agree with this argument, however.", "Nicholas Brooks states that the king was converted during Laurence's archiepiscopate, within a year of him succeeding his father.", "The historian Barbara Yorke argues that there were two co-rulers of Kent after Æthelberht's death, Eadbald and a Æthelwald, and that Eadbald was converted by Laurence while Æthelwald was converted by Justus after his return to Rochester.", "Another factor in the pagan reaction was Laurence's objection to Eadbald's marriage to his father's widow, something that Christians considered to be unlawful.All efforts to extend the church beyond Kent encountered difficulties due to the attitude of King Rædwald of East Anglia, who had become the leading king in the south after Æthelberht's death.", "Rædwald was converted before the death of Æthelberht, perhaps at the urging of Æthelberht, but his kingdom was not, and Rædwald seems to have converted only to the extent of placing a Christian altar in his pagan temple.", "It proved impossible for Mellitus to return to London as bishop, although Justus did resume his duties at Rochester." ], [ "Death and legacy", "Laurence died on 2 February 619, and was buried in the abbey of St Peter and Paul in Canterbury, later renamed St Augustine's; his relics, or remains, were moved, or translated, to the new church of St Augustine's in 1091.His shrine was in the axial chapel of the abbey church, flanking the shrine of Augustine, his predecessor.", "Laurence came to be regarded as a saint, and was given the feast day of 3 February.", "The ninth century Stowe Missal commemorates his feast day, along with Mellitus and Justus.", "A ''Vita'' (or ''Life'') was written about the time of his translation, by Goscelin, but it is mainly based on information in Bede.", "His tomb was opened in 1915.Besides his feast day, the date of his translation, 13 September, was also celebrated after his death.", "Laurence's tenure as archbishop is mainly remembered for his failure to secure a settlement with the Celtic church and for his reconversion of Eadbald following Æthelbert's death.", "He was succeeded as archbishop by Mellitus, the Bishop of London." ], [ "See also", "* List of members of the Gregorian mission" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "References", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", "" ], [ "External links", "* – listing of most contemporary and close to contemporary mentions of Laurence in the primary sources.", "Includes some spurious charter listings.", "* – who travelled back to Rome, and is probably the same person" ] ]	wikipedia

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