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Skip to content Mental Health Center Font Size Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) What Is Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder? Post-traumatic stress disorder, also known as PTSD, is among only a few mental illnesses that are triggered by a disturbing outside event, unlike other psychiatric disorders such as clinical depression. Many Americans experience individual traumatic events ranging from car and airplane accidents to sexual assault and domestic violence. Other experiences, including those associated with natural disasters, such as hurricanes, earthquakes, and tornadoes, affect multiple people simultaneously. Simply put, PTSD is a state in which you "can't stop remembering." Although the disorder must be diagnosed by a mental health professional, symptoms of PTSD are clearly defined. To be diagnosed with PTSD, you must have been in a situation in which placed you at risk for death, serious injury, or sexual violation. Traumatic, life-threatening events leading to PTSD must have been witnessed or experienced in person, and not through media, pictures, television or movies. The type and severity of a trauma can be associated with the likelihood for developing PTSD, although many factors contribute to overall risk and symptom severity. The most severely affected may have trouble working, maintaining relationships, and effectively parenting their children. Research has shown that PTSD is associated with changes in brain function (and, people with certain pre-existing abnormalities in the brain's stress-response system may be predisposed to develop PTSD after exposure to traumatic events). MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) and PET (positron emission tomography) scans show changes in the way memories are stored in the brain. PTSD is an environmental shock that changes your brain, and scientists do not know if it is reversible. • Sometimes, people who have heart attacks, cancer or other serious medical problems that pose a sudden threat to one's physical integrity and produce feelings of horror and helplessness may develop PTSD. 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| 6 Today on WebMD Differences between feeling depressed or feeling blue. lunar eclipse Signs of mania and depression. man screaming Causes, symptoms, and therapies. woman looking into fridge When food controls you. Woman standing in grass field barefoot, wind blowi senior man eating a cake woman reading medicine warnings depressed young woman man with arms on table man cringing and covering ears WebMD Special Sections
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Mahabad (Persian: مهاباد, Kurdish: مه‌هاباد, Mehabad); (Old name: سابلاخ: Sablakh, which may be of Mongolian origin) is a city in Iran. It is in the north-west of the country. The city is south of Lake Urmia in a narrow valley 1,300 metres above sea level. It is in West Azarbaijan Province. It has about 162.434 people who live in the city. Mahabad is connected by road with Tabriz 300 km north, Urmia 150 km north and Irbil in Iraq. Mahabad has also a branch of Islamic Azad University. The people of Piranshahr and Mahabad are known as Mukris among the Kurds and the twin cities of Mahabad and Piranshahr make the region which is known as Mukrian. The city is one center and symbol of the Kurdish nationalism. The reason is because 1945 it was the capital of the new founded people's Republic of Mahabad. The republic was conquered by Iranian forces in 16 December 1946. The president was Qazi Muhammad. The majority of the population is Kurdish. During the revolution in Iran, at 3 September 1979 the city was bombed and occupied by Iranian forces. After the death of Shivan Qaderi, a student and opposition activist in July 9 2005, the Kurdish population protested against the Iranian government.and the most important thing is that Nilufari family were the first ruler of mahabad whiches now theyre live in mahabad too
Erskine - Meaning of Erskine, What does Erskine mean? home > boy names > erskine Erskine - Meaning of Erskine What does Erskine mean? Meaning of the name Erskine [ 2 syll. er-(s)ki-ne, ers-k-ine ] The baby boy name Erskine is pronounced as ERSKAYN †. Erskine is used chiefly in English and its origin is Celtic. The meaning of Erskine is verdant hill. Ersin, Erskein, Erskeine, Erskien, Erskiene, Erskin (English), Erskyn, Erskyne, and Kinny are variants of Erskine. The contracted forms Er and Ersk are other variants of the name. Baby names that sound like Erskine include Erskein, Erskien, Erskiene, Erskyne, Ercan, Eren, Erkan, Erron, Ersin, Erskeine, Erskin, Erskyn, Erwen, Erycksen, Eryckson, Erycksun, Erycsen, Erycson, Erycsun, and Eurgain. Erskine Baby Name Explorer Meaning of Erskine Meaning of Er Meaning of Ersk Meaning of Erskyne Meaning of Erskyn Meaning of Erskin Meaning of Erskiene Meaning of Erskien Meaning of Erskeine Meaning of Erskein Meaning of Ersin Meaning of Kinny Meaning of Eran Meaning of Anakin Baby Name Explorer for Erskine blue:boy name red:girl name italics:unisex name bold:primary name Erskine - Meaning of Erskine, What does Erskine mean?
Year of Wonders Quiz \| Eight Week Quiz F Geraldine Brooks Buy the Year of Wonders Lesson Plans Name: _________________________ Period: ___________________ This quiz consists of 5 multiple choice and 5 short answer questions through A Great Burning. Multiple Choice Questions 1. Why does Anna go to the tavern after Maggie comes back? (a) To see her father. (b) To remember Sam. (c) To get a drink. (d) To borrow a handcart. 2. What does the narrator do with the apples? (a) Tramples them for cider. (b) Bites into one. (c) Makes a pie with them. (d) Slices one very thin and takes it to the rector. 3. What happens to Edward Cooper after he plays in the wood pile? (a) He dies. (b) He goes into a coma. (c) Nothing. (d) He only has a fever, and follows the doctor's orders. 4. What is the narrator's name? (a) Mel. (b) Mary. (c) Anna. (d) Anys. 5. How does Mr. Viccars die? (a) A mining accident. (b) A riding accident. (c) Mr. Viccars doesn't die. (d) He gets terribly ill. Short Answer Questions 1. Under what charge is Anna's father brought to trial? 2. What is the main argument of the rector's sermon after the scene at the old mine? 3. What does Anna do as she leaves the Daniel's house? 4. Why will Anna not testify for her father in court? 5. What new plan does the rector want the townspeople to undertake? (see the answer key) This section contains 290 words (approx. 1 page at 300 words per page) Buy the Year of Wonders Lesson Plans Follow Us on Facebook
Study: 5-meter rise in sea level would flood 23 federal buildings in Washington, D.C. A 5-meter rise in sea level would flood 23 federal buildings in Washington, D.C., according to a study in the November issue of Risk Analysis. Even though 5 meters exceeds the likely amount of sea-level rise for the next 100 years, the study (.pdf) says that level could be reached during storms. Affected buildings would include the FBI, the Internal Revenue Service, the Justice Department, the Federal Trade Commission and the Education Department. No federal buildings would be in the flooded area if sea levels were to rise 2.5-meters, the next lowest amount the study considered. Current predictions of the city's sea-level rise, a result of climate change, range from 0.2 meters to more than 2 meters in the next 100 years, says the University of Maryland team behind the study. A sea-level rise of just 0.1 meters in Washington, D.C., would flood 103 properties and cost the city $2.1 billion. That level would also affect the four Metrorail lines that run under the Potomac River. The only one that doesn't, the Red Line, would be affected at 5 meters but not 2.5 meters. At Washington's Bolling Air Force Base, which sits along the Potomac River, 23 buildings would be flooded if the sea level increases by just 0.1 meters. At 5 meters, 872 buildings would be inundated, the study says. While a planned retreat from vulnerable areas is a potential way to adapt to sea-level rise, the abundance of important institutions in Washington makes that an unlikely choice for the city. Flood walls and levees are a more likely response. The Federal Emergency Management Agency began work on a system of levees to protect the National Mall in 2010. For more: - download the study, "Prediction and Impact of Sea Level Rise on Properties and Infrastructure of Washington, DC" Related Articles: Panel: Climate change is already eroding global, national security Report: Future sea level rise will especially impact Florida
Essays – What is software engineering? In: Essays\|Software Engineering 23 Jun 2011 What is software engineering? • Programmer • Developer • Analyst • Architect • Engineer The first two terms are freely interchangeable, the dictionary term for a programmer is one who programs, the term for developer is one who develops. So is there a difference in the terms or the roles? No effectively these two terms are identical and is merely a preference in terminology. Even microsoft uses these terms interchangeably for their internal developers. An analyst might not actually write code, in a lot of instances this will be a business analyst, someone who understands the business and also understands how to translate the business needs into terms that can be digested by a team of programmers or engineers. An analysts primary function is to write the specification or requirements documents required for a new project. A software architect, is very much like the traditional architect. They are responsible for building the framework and designing the tools that the team will be using to develop the project. Software architects are senior level developers who have had years of experience in developing software and can quickly turn a functional specification into a framework which is maintainable and future proof. A software architect can also be responsible for mentoring the rest of the development team in how to use the framework. An engineer is none of the above and could be any of the above. A software engineer is someone that subscribes to an engineering discipline. Definition of software engineering Software engineering is the “systematic approach to the analysis, design, assessment, implementation, test, maintenance and reengineering of software, that is, the application of engineering to software” [1] Universities can’t teach you software engineering. This is a crucial distinction to make because after 3-4 years of going to university to earn your degree and learning how to program computers in various languages. Designing relational database models, writing functional and requirements specifications, you are not actually qualified to start writing production quality code. Not without someone to mentor you. Or for that matter you are definitely not experienced enough to architect a solution for a company. A short story A software engineering graduate finishes university and starts developing software as an independent contractor, he’s smart and decides that his rates will be cheaper than everyone else’s as his costs are relatively low. Without knowing it he finds himself with a client, a small business that’s looking for a solution on the cheap. The first thing business asks for is a quote. So the graduate starts investigating with their database of choice and comes up with a quote. The business receives the quote and then mulls it over for a week and then decides to go ahead. So the graduate gets out his tools and starts coding away. After a week he has a prototype up and working which is mostly functional to let the client see how it looks. The client reviews the prototype and says “great, I’ll take it straight away” and so the graduate grabs his software and trundles down to the business and installs the software on an old pc out the back. After he’s finished the business owner grabs the graduate and asks that he install the software on another machine, shrugging the graduate installs the software on a second pc, the graduate sticks around for a while and everyone is happy. The software is performing well, so he leaves feeling happy about the outcome. The following day the graduate gets a phone call, the business owner is very angry and states that the software program doesn’t work and he’s losing business. The graduate is worried and so heads to the small business straight away, he walks in and investigates the software he installed on the machine out the back, everything is working fine. He then investigates the software on the other machine which he installed at the last minute. It’s working fine there. So what’s the problem? After investigating and then discussing that he can’t find any issues with the software, the business owner reveals that he assumed that the software was supposed to be networked together. The graduate face palms, that wasn’t discussed as part of the original quote. And so the graduate goes away for another week after discussing how the software is supposed to work networked, and starts banging out code. One week later he finishes the networked version and runs some cursory tests and it works fine. Eventually after much back and forth the graduate ends up with a functioning piece of software for the small business. The graduate was forced to under quote at every step of the way, the business lost revenue whenever the program encountered errors, eventually becoming angry and hiring another graduate to write another program. So what went wrong? • Was it the code being full of bugs? • The business not telling the graduate up front about all of the requirements? • Was it the quoting process? • Lack of experience? All of the above. Software engineering could have saved the graduate from making all of those mistakes. Software engineering is a relatively new discipline in comparison with say civil engineering. As a species we have been building bridges for thousands upon thousands of years. We’ve been building software for less than a hundred years, so it’s a zygote in comparison to a fully grown adult. Software engineering is the discipline of how to write code which is testable (Unit Testable), is loosely coupled (Dependency Injection), well designed (Domain Driven Design), and quick to implement new features (Agile). Even for professionals, we don’t get it right every time. We like to take shortcuts to save time and save the customer money, but we end up paying for those mistakes later on. What a software engineer would have done A software engineer works as a contractor for a firm, the software engineer is expensive to hire and takes a long time to come up with a solution. The engineer goes to the clients premises and takes his notebook and starts making notes and drawing diagrams. He then begins interviewing the client and asking questions in regards to how the business works, what are their current processes, what they are looking to achieve with the software they wish to write. The engineer then draws up a functional specification including data flow diagrams and begins work on a throw away prototype. Using the throw away prototype he gathers the clients together and the clients discuss how the software should look and function. Several iterations of prototyping comes up with a solution the clients are happy with. Through the prototyping process the engineer uncovers that the software needs to be networked, it needs to handle GST, large sums of money, BPAY, Credit Cards, interface with an existing Point of Sale system and micro-transactions. The software engineer finalises his functional specification and starts working on a quote based on those requirements. The quote is hedged as some of the estimates have a 50%-100% inaccuracy as to how long they will take to implement and test. The engineer hands the quote to the client and gets paid for the time spent on site. The client is impressed with the Software Engineer as they have seen the prototype and can’t wait to use the final product. Even though they software engineer is far more expensive than the graduate. And spent 4 weeks onsite without writing any code, the client has the functional specification with screen shots and accurate descriptions of all the functionality that they wished for, and the process weeded out requirements that the clients never knew they needed. The clients hire the Software Engineering firm to produce the final software product. The Engineer goes back to the firm and begins to work on the framework to the software program, after about a week he has the foundation produced which has 100% test coverage and will meet all of the requirements that the clients are looking for, except he needs some help filling in the finer details. The basic splashes of colour have been added to the canvas, the lines have all been drawn and inked, now all that is needed is for fine detail to be done. The Engineer gathers his team of juniors and graduates, he also grabs a graphic designer, and 1-2 testers from Quality Assurance. The meeting consists of discussing the Functional Requirements. Who is the client, what is the software supposed to do. The graphic designer and the QA team ask a few questions and then leave the meeting. The graphic designer have been given the approved wire frames from the client and is starting to do the finalised UI Design. The graduates and juniors continue the meeting and start discussing the framework. A couple of days pass and now the team knows how the framework is going to work and how the framework is going to meet the requirements. The team then contacts the project owner (a representative of the client). The team will be doing development in a rapid 2 week sprint. Before the first sprint can begin they need to determine what functionality will be in the first sprint. The product after each sprint will be a small feature set of the final product but each feature will be fully tested and fleshed out. After discussing the list of requirements the team and client agrees on 12 or so items that should be worked on for the first sprint, 3 of which will take more than 2 weeks to perform and will not be in the testable product at the end of the sprint but however it will be worked on as a priority as it will be mandatory for the next sprint. The tasks are divided up and given to individual team members, which they go off and start writing unit tests which describe the functions that they’re about to write. The next day the Engineer pulls the team aside and have a quick stand up meeting to discuss their progress. Tasks are reassigned and development continues. 2 days before the sprint is set to finish the Software Engineer calls a stop work on new functionality. He reviews all current features which have been completed and reviews their test coverage (Does this test accurately reflect the requirement, does the function fulfil the requirement), after the review the Software Engineer drops 2 features as they do not pass the initial inspection. The rest are merged into a test build. The Quality Assurance team is then called to action, they review the test build against the requirements and determine any bugs that they find or any requirements that have not been met with the functionality that has just been implemented. 2 more features have been found to be defective, these features are dropped from the final product and then will be fixed in the next sprint. The first sprint is over, 12 features are fully tested and go into the first sprint to be shown to the customer, 7 features are dropped from the sprint to be worked on for the second sprint. The client is given access to the first iteration of the software product, each feature that is shown is fully working and passed internal quality assurance. The client is impressed. This is exactly how the program was described, and it only took 2 weeks to get a start on the software product. This process goes on for 2 more sprints and in the final sprint the client shows an Alpha version of the software product to employees to have a play with. After using the software they come up with new features that they want. The 2 features are easily catered for and are included in the final sprint, 1 of the new features was not easily catered for and required an additional quote or estimate. The quote was drawn up and an accurate estimate given – this is accurate NOW because the framework is fully fleshed out, the design is fully qualified and the team members know the ins and outs of the framework. The client weighs their options and decide not the go with the new feature that was quoted. However after 4 sprints (2 months) the clients have seen evidence of fast progress, they have used the software program, the engineers have implemented new features very quickly (because their tests indicated to them what features were broken due to new functionality), and the software program is fully tested to work in a production environment. The client was extremely happy with the final product even though the initial lead up to the final product took longer than expected, the final results were outstanding. The client made millions from the software product, even though they paid more for the product up front. So why doesn’t everyone do this? Lets face it, Software Engineering is Hard One of the main reasons why people don’t follow software engineering principles or misapply them is due to the illusion that by NOT following those principles they will save themselves and their clients money. I think we’ve all seen this happen, or even more recently heard of it on the news. Why do these failures occur? It’s difficult to answer and there is NO SILVER BULLET[2] and no magical solution to stop projects from failing. The best we can do is to increase communication with the client. 20 years ago software engineering was all about fully gathering as many requirements as possible and then fully fleshing out a design and then telling a programmer what to do, like a Cog in a machine. It didn’t work then, and it doesn’t work now We’ve learned from those mistakes and have developed new practices to help avoid the problems we had with the Waterfall method of software production. Waterfall is expensive, and produces obsolete and ponderous software. A software product is only as good as its fully tested and qualified feature set. Waterfall Method Take the example above Company B is a Software Engineering firm also, but is using old software engineering techniques which have been proven to be expensive and slow (Waterfall Method). The client decides to go with Company B. Using waterfall they gather all the requirements up front hire an analyst, and draw up a fully fleshed out diagram of the process of the entire software product including hiring designers to fully flesh out and draw images of the final product. It takes 6 months before they even hire a programmer to turn that fully fleshed out specification into code. Sound Familiar? Using the example above using new Software Engineering methodologies (Agile, SCRUM, Test Driven Development, Domain Driven Design, Design Patterns, Peer Reviewing, Quality Assurance). The entire process is fully done in 6 months. When Waterfall is better than Agile In the above instance is biased towards Agile for a singular type of solution (mainly web). Where most web applications are User Interface driven. There are strong cases where the waterfall method is actually better than agile, and should be adopted instead. There are drawbacks to the agile software development methodology. • Requires a good experienced team of developers • Requires a client who is open to collaborating on the software project • Requires a software product which has a User Interface for the client to use • Requires more discipline to do documentation, agile does not mean No Documentation Where waterfall is best used where an agile approach is simply Not Suitable. For instance writing COM Services, or server applications with no client facing UI. When Agile should be used over Waterfall Agile has its drawbacks, as does waterfall. Agile is best used with a product which has a strong UI focus, as it requires client interaction to help define the requirements. The main reason it’s called agile is because in comparison to waterfall methodology. You can change requirements half way through implementing the software program and it will cost you less to implement. This is because using waterfall, if a requirement has changed, the entire process is scrapped and starts from square 1. Re doing the fully fleshed out specification document, and then changes to code becomes a nightmare because the framework has been written for the first version was designed to work with the first version and will require a complete re-write to work with the second version… it is very rigid. The agile version doesn’t make assumptions nor holds anything in concrete, it is designed to be able to be changed between sprints, the requirements are not set in stone and so time is not wasted on fully fleshing out exactly how the software program is going to work in every minute detail. Which saves the client time and money on wasted effort. You will notice however that even describing the agile method it is far more involved than when I described how the graduate (who used no process) performed the same job. Using no process in the end took the graduate longer than what he initially estimated, cost the client business, and cost the client more money than what they originally estimated. Software Engineering is expensive. Lets not be under any illusions here, software engineering is expensive, and old software engineering is even more expensive. However when its done right using what we’ve learned in the past 20 years it can also be done quickly and efficiently with guaranteed results. 2 Fredrick P Brooks (1995). Mythical Man Month. Addison-Wesley Professional; Anniversary edition (August 12, 1995). ISBN 9780201835953. 5 Responses to Essays – What is software engineering? June 23rd, 2011 at 2:26 pm Great article! Rob Gray June 23rd, 2011 at 9:48 pm I was just thinking about the other metaphor used when describing what it is that we do, one that’s equally as important. Craftsmanship. As much we like to think we’re software engineers and if we following rigorous and well defined process we’ll end up with a result. It’s a difference between software engineering and civil engineering for example. In traditional engineering disciplines there are generally only a few solutions and in many cases there may only be one solution that fits the requirements. Software differs in that it is also an artistic endeavour, where there are many many possible solutions to a (business) problem, both superficially through the various possible user interfaces and equally, if not more importantly, in the source code. Thankfully the rise in popularity of software patterns (esp Gamma et al, and Fowler) have provided guidance on how we can best solve common problems. Although, even with the use of patterns, I’d bet for each developer (oops, am I supposed to say Engineer? :p) would provide a different though hopefully successful solution. This whole software craftmanship notion flies in the face of engineering. As much as we might call ourselves “engineers”, I betting we all like to dream up our own versions of code, and interacting software components (classes and responsibilities), even naming of the classes we create. On one had there is science and engineering involved, and on the other we must have the creativity to imagine the solutions to the problems we’ve been presented. June 24th, 2011 at 7:27 pm I disagree with your point that Software Craftsmanship flies in the face of Software Engineering. The two are complimentary and are not mutually exclusive. Software Engineering and Software Craftsmanship are two separate views on the same principle. The latter being more involved with the actual implementation of code, yet incorporating the same principles as software engineering in regards to quality control. This is an important distinction, Software Craftsmanship is more like a master carpenter doing a job slowly and surely, doing everything correctly and ensuring that every single screw is lined up. I’ll do up another essay on Software Craftsmanship, as I believe that this is a separate topic. May 13th, 2014 at 11:16 am It should be noted that some fields will not hire a “software engineer” unless they are an actual, accredited engineer. “Engineering” means something quite specific to some people – in fields where bad software can actually kill people they have a different approach. Once I realised this (and found myself talking to those people semi-regularly) I stopped using the term “software engineering” as a synonym for software development (.. I have stripped it out of our comms stuff several times for that reason). May 15th, 2014 at 9:39 am Trog: This is off-topic to the point of the article. I’m using the term “software engineering” here informally, not to be confused with say “Aerospace” or mission critical software engineering whereby you need to hold a separate accreditation as required by Law to ensure public safety. This is a separate talking point, but I think you bring up an interesting argument about Professionalism. Currently the state of our industry at large is in a “flux”, it’s the wild west. People without any kind of tertiary qualifications at all can create and write software for business (which is fine). Applying software engineering principles and computer science principles is an attempt to provide stability and predictability to the process of software development. There’s arguments in the public sphere that our industry needs a professional body like the AMA is for doctors, whereby you cannot practice being a doctor by law unless you are accredited by the AMA. Unlike doctors as an industry we’re not all dealing with peoples lives so everyone who writes software for say blogs and apps is entirely overkill. So in some circles in America and the UK they’ve decided to use the term “Software Engineer” to associate the “Mission Critical” accreditation with the Professional Body to avoid confusion. This is a perfectly acceptable compromise in the interim until they can come up with a separate term between the Application of Software Engineering Principles and the professional body and accreditation. I’d call myself a “Software Developer” in that context. What I wanted to bring across in this essay is the benefits of applying software engineering to the software development process as opposed to having no process at all and the benefits and caveats of each of the methods that we try to employ to promote predictability and risk reduction to all stakeholders. Informally I’m using the term “software engineer” to apply to someone who applies the processes as opposed to someone who doesn’t, a typical “off-the-shelf” developer, this is an ongoing debate at large in our professional community. Comment Form About Justin About This Blog
Happy Birthday, Teddy Roosevelt! October 27 marks the 152 birthday of one of our nation’s most memorable presidents and one of my personal heroes, Theodore Roosevelt. The twenty sixth president of the United States isn’t just a favorite of historians and scholars, but he’s also popular among the masses, constantly rated as one of America’s greatest presidents (or, in the words of Cracked, “The Most Badass President”). To celebrate one of the country’s most beloved leaders, it’s only fitting to take a look back at his life and learn what exactly made him so popular. A Difficult Childhood: While most people know Roosevelt was an avid sportsman with an outgoing personality, he wasn’t always like that. As a child, he was asthmatic and constantly sick. Much of his childhood was spent propped up in bed or slumped over in a chair. He was also rather shy and spent much of his time reading rather than engaging with others his age. As a result, he ended up being incredibly brilliant and well-read and was known to read several books a day throughout his presidency. In fact, he and Thomas Jefferson are considered to be the two most well-read presidents ever. Roosevelt wrote 18 books as well as numerous articles throughout his lifetime. Despite his sickliness, he developed a deep interest in zoology at only seven years old when he saw a dead seal at a local market. He immediately set about learning taxidermy and created a “Roosevelt Museum of Natural History” at home with two of his cousins. The supposed museum featured a number of animals he caught, killed and stuffed. By age nine, he used his observations to write a paper entitled “The Natural History of Insects.” As his health started to improve a little, his father started encouraging Theodore to take up exercise to improve his overall well-being. As a result, Roosevelt started taking boxing lessons, which became a lifelong interest, although he had to give up the sport during his presidency when a blow detached his left retina and left him blind in that eye. A True Romantic: While many presidents are known for their playboy behaviors, Roosevelt seemed entirely dedicated to his two wives. His first wife, Alice, died two days after giving birth to their child. Theodore also lost his mother that same day and he wrote about the events in his diary by simply stating “the light has gone out of my life." Throughout the rest of his life, Roosevelt refused to talk about Alice, leaving her out of his biography and ignoring his daughter’s inquiries to learn more about her mother. While you’ve probably heard Roosevelt called “Teddy”, it was actually a name he loathed throughout most of his life because it was Alice’s nickname for him. Throughout his presidency, those close to him always called him by his military rank or his full name –although the press insisted on calling him Teddy throughout his lifetime. His First Rise And Fall: In 1880, Roosevelt graduated Phi Beta Kappa from Harvard and began attending Columbia Law School, but he dropped out a year later when he had the chance to run for New York Assemblyman. He won and served as the youngest member of the Assembly. In 2008, the school awarded him a posthumous law degree. During his years in the Assembly, Roosevelt was a dedicated activist, writing more bills than any other legislator in the state. Unfortunately, his first attempt at a political career turned sour when he became disenchanted with the results of the Republican National Convention in 1884. He soon announced his retirement from politics and then moved to the Badlands of the Dakota Territory. The Cowboy of the Dakotas: While living out west, Roosevelt served as deputy sheriff and wrote about his frontier life for magazines back east. He learned to raise cattle, ride horses and hunt down outlaws. While he loved his time in the Badlands, he gave up his cowboy life after the severe winter of 1886 wiped out his entire herd of cattle. He returned to his home in New York, where he lived throughout the rest of his life (with the exception of his time in office). Upon his return, he attempted to get back into politics, running for Mayor of New York City with the title of “The Cowboy of the Dakotas,” but he lost. Cleaning Up The Streets (And The Offices): Prior to the 1888 presidential election, Roosevelt traveled the Midwest and avidly campaigned for Benjamin Harrison. After Harrison’s inauguration, he appointed Roosevelt to the U.S. Civil Service Commission where Theodore served until 1895, fighting the corrupt spoils system that was in place at the time. In 1895, he left his position in the Civil Service Commission to serve as the president of the New York City Police Commissioners board. Rather than just work on fighting crime in the streets, Roosevelt cleaned up the department itself and radically changed the way the department ran. When he entered the office, the NYC force was one of the most corrupt in the nation, but Roosevelt soon established new rules, standardized the use of pistols by officers, established meritorious service medals and introduced annual physical exams to the force. He also created a bicycle squad to help deal with traffic problems in the city. Rough Riding Ahead: Roosevelt left his commissioner position when he was appointed Assistant Secretary of the Navy by William McKinley in 1897. Despite the fact that he had never served in the Navy, Roosevelt displayed unique qualifications due to his groundbreaking study of the U.S. and British roles in the War of 1812 that was published after he left Harvard. Unlike other studies of the war, his book was unbiased and looked at specific facts of the naval strategies involved. The book was so well-written that it is even considered applicable today and is still in publication. Because the Secretary of the Navy was largely inactive, his assistant Roosevelt was able to take full control of the department, where he played a critical role in preparing the Navy for the Spanish-American War. As soon as war broke out though, he resigned and formed the First U.S. Volunteer Cavalry Regiment, although you probably know this group by the name used by the press, the “Rough Riders.” Interestingly, Roosevelt was the only Rough Rider that actually had a horse, as the rest of the horses were left behind due to limited access to transport ships. Theodore was originally given command of the regiment and promoted to Colonel, where he would ride back and forth between two fronts of the force to pass along news and orders. At one point during the war, Roosevelt and other officers sent a number of letters demanding they be returned home and these letters were leaked to the press. Many, including Roosevelt himself, believe this is why he was denied a Medal of Honor. He was posthumously awarded the medal in 2001. In 1944, his son was also posthumously awarded a Medal of Honor for his actions in WWII, making them one of only two father and son duos to share the honor. Roosevelt is also the only American president to have won a Medal of Honor. Governor and Vice President: Roosevelt was elected governor of New York in 1898. True to form, he worked to eliminate corruption and nepotism during his term. He also helped end segregation in the state schools during his office. He made such a strong impression that he was forced upon McKinley as a vice presidential candidate in 1900. He was a strong asset for the president, who won by a landslide. While giving a speech at the Minnesota State Fair in 1901, he first used his soon-to-be-trademark saying, “Speak softly and carry a big stick.” Carrying On While Making Changes: When McKinley was shot and killed by a crazed anarchist, Roosevelt became the youngest president in U.S. history at only 42.While he was known for being incredibly progressive, he did promise to continue McKinley’s policies and he also kept his cabinet in place. One of his first notable presidential acts was to deliver a 20,000 word speech to congress asking for control of monopolies and trusts. Roosevelt stayed dedicated to labor rights and curbing the power of big business throughout his presidency. McKinley was known for effectively rallying the press and Roosevelt took advantage of this by providing regular interviews and photo opportunities to keep the White House in the news. He also helped establish the first presidential press briefing when he noticed the reporters huddled in the cold one day and opted to give them their own dedicated room inside the White House. Roosevelt was an incredibly active and effective president, maintaining his exercise throughout his presidency while still reading multiple books every day and fighting for progressive legislation. In fact, he was said to be able to dictate letters to one secretary while giving memoranda to another, all while reading. During a hunting trip in 1902, Roosevelt ordered the mercy killing of a wounded black bear and when a cartoonist illustrated the president with a bear, a toymaker asked him if he could use the name on a stuffed toy…thus the teddy bear was born. Some of Roosevelt's most important contributions to our society though were his passing of the Meat Inspection Act and Pure Food and Drug Act, which helped curbed the sickening state of the meat packing industry detailed in Upton Sinclair’s The Jungle and prevented drugs and food from being falsely labeled or impure. The president also helped negotiate an end to the Russo-Japanese War and was honored with a Nobel Peace Prize as a result. This made Roosevelt the only person in history to win a country’s highest military honor along with a Nobel Peace Prize. Roosevelt is also largely remembered for his role in establishing the National Park System. During his presidency, he established 150 national forests, 5 national parks and 18 national monuments. All in all, he helped conserve 230 million acres of land. While he was a wildly successful president, he opted to give his support to William Taft for the election in 1908, rather than running for a third time. Safari Time: After Taft was inaugurated, Roosevelt went on safari in Africa on an expedition in an attempt to collect specimens for the Smithsonian Institution and the American Museum of Natural History in New York. He and his companions killed and trapped over 11,000 animals ranging from insects to elephants. The number of animals shipped back to Washington was so massive that after years of mounting, the Smithsonian opted to send a number of duplicate specimens to other museums. Dividing The Party: Upon returning home, he soon became disillusioned with Taft and his policies and in 1911, he announced his intention of running for president in the next election. Unfortunately, Taft had already been campaigning and had garnered the support of many of the party leaders. Because most states still used caucuses instead of primaries to select candidates, Taft was given the Republican nomination despite the fact that Roosevelt had more pull with the public. So Roosevelt and his followers had to start out with a new party, The Progressive Party, that was commonly referred to as the “Bull Moose” party. Roosevelt’s platform was based on the politics of his presidency, namely fighting greedy corporations in the name of the little man. During one speech, he explained, "'This country belongs to the people. Its resources, its business, its laws, its institutions, should be utilized, maintained, or altered in whatever manner will best promote the general interest.” During a Milwaukee stop in his campaign, a saloon keeper shot Roosevelt in the chest, but his steel eyeglass case and 50 page speech slowed the bullet enough that it did not penetrate his lungs. Roosevelt still gave his speech, which took a full 90 minutes, before agreeing to go to the hospital. He even laughed off the assassination attempt by starting his speech saying, “Ladies and gentlemen, I don't know whether you fully understand that I have just been shot; but it takes more than that to kill a Bull Moose.” At the hospital, doctors decided that it would be more dangerous to remove the bullet than to leave it there, so Roosevelt carried it with him for the rest of his life. Roosevelt’s split with the republican party is often cited as one of the critical reasons America remains dedicated to a two party system. Given that he won 27% of the popular vote and Taft won 23%, the Republicans would have undoubtedly beat Wilson, who received 42% of the vote, if they had just unified under one candidate. The Beginning of The End: After losing the election, Roosevelt embarked on a trip to South America with his son and a Brazilian explorer. The team decided to find the headwaters of the River of Doubt and then trace it to the Madeira and the Amazon. No one had ever taken on such an ambitious expedition and it ended up an exceptionally dangerous trip, particularly to Theodore, who contracted malaria and a major infection in a minor leg wound. At one point, he had to be attended to day and night by the team’s physician and he could no longer walk. He eventually told the rest of the party to leave him and complete the expedition so he would not exhaust their already low supplies. Only his son was able to convince him to continue. Upon returning home, critics questioned the expedition’s ability to navigate the entire 625 miles of uncharted river that made up the River of Doubt. However Roosevelt was able to satisfactorily convince the National Geographic Society and others of his claims. Later on, the river was renamed after him, the Rio Roosevelt. Roosevelt noted the trip cut his life short by ten years. And as it turns out, he may have been right. He was plagued by malaria flare-ups and later had to get surgery in his leg to treat the infection. To add to matters, his youngest son, Quentin was later shot down behind enemy lines in WWI a few years later. This devastated him and many claim he never recovered from the loss. Goodbye Mr. President: Roosevelt died from a heart attack during his sleep on January 6, 1919. At the time, Vice President Thomas R. Marshall proclaimed, "Death had to take Roosevelt sleeping, for if he had been awake, there would have been a fight." A Series of Notable Firsts: If you can’t already figure out why Roosevelt was such an important figure in American history, then perhaps you should take these important firsts into account: • Roosevelt was the first president to invite an African American to dinner. On October 16, 1901, he and Booker T. Washington discussed politics and racism over dinner. • He was also the first president to appoint a Jewish person, Oscar, S. Strauss, to his cabinet. • In 1902, Roosevelt was the first president to be seen in an automobile in public. He rode in a Columbia Electric Victoria Phaeton surrounded by a squad of bicycle cops. • After his return from South America, Roosevelt was a major proponent of the Scouting movement and he was named the first (and only) Chief Scout Citizen by the Boy Scouts of America. Obviously, I have a mini crush on Roosevelt, but I’m curious to know what you all think about him? In your opinion, is he good, bad, overrated? Let’s talk about it! Sources: Wikipedia #1, #2, PBS, American Chronicle Newest 5 Newest 5 Comments There is a glaring error in this article, and it is made repeatedly. Nobody "wins" a Medal of Honor. One wins a game, or a contest, and is presented with a prize for doing so. A Medal of Honor is always AWARDED, and never won. As far as quotes go, I have this quote on the wall near my desk, about 2 feet from my right shoulder as I type this: Abusive comment hidden. (Show it anyway.) I hear he traveled around the world with his giant Blue Ox, and when he put his axe down, he accidentally made the Panama Canal. Abusive comment hidden. (Show it anyway.) I am deeply impressed by this quote from TR: Abusive comment hidden. (Show it anyway.) T.R. did more for the American people than most of the other presidents put together. George Washington gave America to us and Teddy helped keep it out of the hands of the greedy power mongers of the time. We were lucky to have such a man as president. We need his kind of honesty and integrity more than ever today. Abusive comment hidden. (Show it anyway.) Commenting is closed. Email This Post to a Friend "Happy Birthday, Teddy Roosevelt!" Separate multiple emails with a comma. Limit 5. Success! Your email has been sent! close window This website uses cookies. I agree Learn More
Print \| Recommend This Site Indian Musical Instruments: Stringed Instruments Tata vadya, gintang, gontam, fifli, tuntune, ek tara, baul, dehatatva, khamak, chonka, jamidika, buang, tamboora, sitar, sarode, tanpoora, juari, tumburu, tumbi, moorcchana paddhati, villadi vadyam, gejjai, damaru, munja, vana veena, saptatantri veena, vipanchi, yazh, veenai, makara, santoor, qanoon, rabab, tritantri, tuila, alapini, gottuvadyam, memerajan, kinnari, rubaiya, yali, chikari, dhole, kamaicha and dilruba... By: Dr. B. Chaitanya Deva Last Updated On: Wednesday, March 14, 2007 The Cultural Perspective Wind Instruments Stringed Instruments Tata vadya are so many in number and variety that it is futile to search for their beginning and sometimes even classification becomes complicated. Today there are in the world harps, lyres, psalteries, dulcimers, zithers and lutes and in each class there are so many varieties; methods of playing these are also numerous. It is therefore only natural to suppose that stringed instruments might have grown out of many kinds of tools and contraptions. There are various theories about this but none entirely comprehensive nor completely accepted. Some have traced the source to the hunting bow, some to ground harps, some to bamboo zithers and thus the search and discussions have gone on. The hunting bow is an ancient and familiar tool and many harps are believed to have really evolved out of this. The ground harp, a primitive instrument, is a pit in the ground covered with animal hide; a flexible wooden pole is planted by the side of the pit and from the free end of this a rope is tensed into the leather, thus bending the pole like half a bow and the rope like a bow string; this rope is plucked. The instrument, known as the ground harp, has so far not been observed in India. The bamboo zither is a small length of bamboo; its skin is spliced into two thin strips of bamboo and striking these strings with a small stick. In our country this instrument, which might be the mother of all zithers, is known as the gintang (Assam), the ronza gontam (Andhra) and by other names. The evolution of chordophones has thus come by so many devious paths and ways that we need not here inter into the complicated maze. There are three major classes of stringed instruments. One group of these is not used for creating a melody or a raga but is employed as drones and rhythmic adjuncts. Another family we which may term polychords, comprise harps, lyres, dulcimers and similar instruments on which melody can be played but wherein there exists a one-string-for-one-tone relation. Then there is the largest genus: that of monochords; that is, one string is sufficient for playing the whole melody. Be it noted that there may be more than one string on the instrument; but every one of them can be used to produce a melody independently pf the other strings. Monochords may again by fretless, fretted, with a short or long 'neck' plucked or howed. Thus the types available to us are innumerable; so we shall study some of the more important specimens. If these are compared to the sushira vadya, a kind of resemblance and parallelism makes themselves evident. The harmonica and the pan pipes (fifli) are like the polychords where a reed or tune is necessary for every note. Analogous to the monochord is a flute or a shehnai where an entire melody can be got out of one length or column of air. The string drones: tuntune, ek tar, tambooraOf the drone class one common example is the tuntune or tun tina. This is an instrument found particularly in south-central and western India and is a companion of mendicants and beggars. It has a small body: a hollow wooden cylinder of nearly twenty-five centimeters height and fifteen to twenty centimeters in diameter, with the bottom of the vessel closed by parchment. A bamboo piece of nearly seventy-five centimeters length is nailed or screwed to a side of the body on the outside. The top of this bamboo arm bears a single peg and between the peg and the leather bottom passes a single string which can be tightened or loosened by twisting the peg. The singer holds the tuntune in the hand and plucks the string with his forefinger, to give the base note and a kind of rhythm. A very common musical situation in which the tuntune is found in the tamasha play and pavada balled singing of Maharashtra. A close relative of the tun tina is the gopi yantra, also sometimes called the ek tara, of Bengal and Orissa. This is an instrument seen invariably in the hands of bauls who are a type of itinerant musicians who sing of the guru and the Eternal Lover and are deeply dedicated to Vaishnavite bhakti and sufi ways of expression. They go from village to village with their baul or dehatatva songs on their lips to the twang of the gopi yantra, the khamak and a small conical drum, the bayan. The gopi yantra, like the tun tina, has a wooden resonator with a leather bottom; but the bowl, though almost cylindrical, is wider at the base and narrower at its upper end. Unlike the tuntune, the string is not attached to one bamboo rod and a peg, but a bamboo fork whose prongs are nailed to the outside of the resonator; usually there is a peg at the top. The single string goes from the top of this holder between the forks to the leather bottom. This instrument is a little more versatile than its cousin, as it can produce finer sound effects to suit the rhythm of the song and the jig. The bowl is held under one arm and the palm of this hand holds also the fork. White the string is plucked by one hand with a plectrum, the fork is pressed and released thus altering the tension of the string and the leather base, and hence their pitch and quality. A very beautiful vamping is the effect. Premtal or chonkaThe premtal (Hindi), the khamak (Bengali), the chonka (Marathi) and the jamidika (Telugu) are all of a class of instruments similar in some respects to the tuntune and the gopi yantra. There is an important constructional difference which will become evident as we describe it. Functionally also this group is only a rhythmic one in contrast to the other two instruments which are used essentially as drones to give the basic tone to the melody. The more primitive kind has a bottle gourd resonator, but wooden cylinders are also common. Like the tun tina and the gopi yantra there is leather bottom through which a gut string of about sixty centimeters passes out through the vessel. Here the resemblance ends, for there is neither a bamboo rod nor a bamboo fork to hold this gut. To play it, the musician holds the body of the instrument under the arm and free end of the gut in the first of the same arm; this free end has a wooden block with which to hold the gut tense. With a wooden plectrum in the other hand he plucks the string and as he does so jerks the hand holding it a little, almost unnoticeably. The result is a weird tonal and rhythmic effect which can hold you for hours. These instruments are used by snake charmers and balled singers. BuangThe Santals of Orissa have a rhythmic chordophone which they call as buang. The size of this instrument varies, but usually it is about a meter long and consists of a bamboo tube, a resonator and a rope. The sound fox is really an egg shaped bamboo basket pasted over with paper; any old paper like newsprint to colored tissue paper cut into beautiful strips. This covering not only makes the basket more effective in reinforcing the sound but gives it a charming shape and color. The basket is merely tied below the bamboo tube more or less centrally. From the two openings of the tube curved wooden pieces-often bent branches of a tree cut to a few centimeters-are inserted, one at each end. A hempen rope is tied across these curved protrusions, and the instrument is ready. Generally two or more buangs are played in a group dance, though there does not seem to be any restriction on the number. The dancer just holds the bamboo tube in one hand, pulls and lets go the rope, giving a boom boom sound. The buang is an extremely primitive and simple instrument but the attachment of basket and other features may well have been the progenitors of pumpkin and wooden resonators of more developed zithers. We now come to the drones of greater sophistication, the crowing glory of which is the tamboora. The major classes are the ek tar family and the tamboori group which are only the cruder prototypes of tamboora. The ek tar, called the eka nada in some languages, is a single stringed instrument as its name implies. The resonator is a flat dried pumpkin and the danda or the hollow rod holding the string is inserted into it. This is an important fact that has to be carefully borne in mind for it is the beginning of the flute forms like the sitar, the sarode and the Saraswati veena. It will be recalled that in the buang the basket was below the danda; such an attachment leads on to the zithers like the Rudra veena, vichitra veena and similar instruments. Coming back to the ek tar, the danda projects a little from the bottom side of the gourd. On the projection there is a small hook from which the metal string passes over the body and is twisted round a peg at the distal end of the bamboo tube. A tiny thin bridge of wood or bamboo is placed on the resonator under the string. The ek tar is plucked with a to and fro movement of the forefinger. The instrument is a companion to the beggar and the bhajan singers. The word ek tar is often a misnomer, because there are many folk drones like the ram sagar of Gujarat, for instance, which have two strings but yet are called ek taras. The appellation in a few cases might lead to little confusion; for example the gopi yantra which is structurally very different from the instrument described is also known as ek tar, as it has one string. The next stage in the development of the drone may be seen in the tamboori, common instrument with wandering mendicants in the south. This small stringed instrument is about a meter in length and hence it is portable. The resonance box is made of wood and is spherical in shape having an upper covering made out of a plain flat plank. This hollow body has a small neck which continues as a short danda; the danda terminates in a scroll with the motif of a snake's hood. Passing from the lower end of the resonator vessel, over a bridge on it, to the pegs near the scroll are four strings of metal which are constantly strummed to accompany the singer. The tamboori evolves into the concert tamboora or tanpoora which is perhaps unequalled in richness by any other instrument; the number of overtones generated from each string and the combination of these are so great that the sound equality almost defies analysis. It is this luxuriance of tone that gives a background for any number of consonances and dissonances with the voice or other instruments in a concert. Yet the structure of the tamboora is simple. The sound 'box; is large pumpkin of about ninety centimeters in girth; this fruit with a particularly hard shell is grown extensively in Maharashtra, near Pandharpur, though a certain amount was imported from African countries like Zanzibar (Zaire). The fruit is allowed to dry, usually by hanging it well above a smoky fire for some years so that it gets sufficiently seasoned. It is then cut to the required shape and the desiccated inner pulp removed. The cut open part is now covered with a thin plank of wood and the resonator is ready. A wooden neck-a very short one-is fixed and to this is attached a long hollow fingerboard or dandi (danda). The total length of a low pitched tamboora used by men may be roughly one hundred and fifty centimeters; the high pitched one used by women is much smaller. There are four metallic strings in the instrument and these are plucked with the fingers to provide the drone; no melody is played on the tamboora. The northern and southern varieties differ a little, the kind we have just described is the north Indian tamboora. The one used in the south is smaller in size and does not use a pumpkin but has a bowl made entirely of wood, instead. Whatever be the regional variety the bridge of the instrument is of a particular interest. This is wide, unlike those seen in the sarangi, the sarode or the violin and is made of ivory, stag horn, camel bone or hard wood; it has also a spherical curvature. But the most important element is the small cotton, wool or silk thread inserted between the bridge and the strings. This thread, known as the jeevan or juari, has a special place and only when it is there and drawn correctly does the string emit its rich sound; otherwise the tone is dull. Perhaps this wide bridge and the juari, in ancient times called the jeeva or 'that which gives life' to the sound, is one of the best gifts to the world of instrument making. The jeeva has been known in India foe at least a thousand years now and was a bamboo slip in its infancy, employed mainly in the eka tantri (not ek tar). From the foregone descriptions it may be possible to conclude that the evolution of the tamboora can be traced to simple folk drones. But textual and archaeological evidences which are datable or not profuse nor are they always reliable. In many cases musicological writing lacks the support of scientifically discussable material. For instance, the tamboora is invariably connected with the sages Tumburu and Narada, both mythological character; and even if they were historical figures, nothing of their history is known. Having linked these names with the word tamboora, it is natural that the evolution of the instrument is traced to times beyond known history. It is probably that the lute got its name from the words tumbi or tumbi phala, referring to a pumpkin. The present form of the tamboora, may have emerged in about the sixteenth century and has not changed much except for the addition of strings and the manner of tuning. We now enter into the study of melodic stringed instruments which is an extensive field as also one which has had an indelible influence on the course of Indian music. It may not therefore be out of place to a say a few words on this, though we may not go into the detailed controversial technicalities of the subject. For our purpose it will be enough, to take note of two of the very major genuses of tata vadya. The first may be called the polychords and the other monochords, which were briefly discussed at the beginning of this chapter. Because of the basic differences in structure and in the musical potentialities of each class, two fundamentally different tonal systems were developed in India. Each had its own terms of reference, though during the process of historical change the two musicologies often got mixed up and textual studies lead to much controversial confusion. Since the polychords had one-string-one-note correspondence, theories of music based on discrete tones and shifts of musical scales as was possible with harps were developed. This was called the moorcchana paddhati or the system of modal shifts. On the other hand, instruments like the eka tantri, the sarode, the sitar, etc. had a one string-multi-note relationship. The process of fretting reduced all tonal measurements to their positions on the string. This naturally led to another system founded on fret positions and to a theory known as the mela paddhati (the method of scales). The former practice of musical scales held away till about the fifteenth century; but in due course the latter gained ground and eventually replaced the other. The theory of scales and ragas we now follow both in Hindustani and Karnatak music rests on the mela paddhati which is turn depends on the fingerboard instruments or monochords. The polychords, also called veena-with or without prefixes or suffixes-are the most ancient stringed instruments known in India. But no universally accepted theory of their origin has so far been formulated. The most popular hypothesis is that bow shaped polychords, known as harps in English could be traced to the hunter's bow. It is believed that the twang of the bowstring might have given an idea of its musical use to primitive man. Naturally, this being only a single string, it may have served initially only as a drone and rhythmic keeper, as an in the case of the buang described earlier. By attaching a set of parallel strings to the same bow different notes were obtained, thus producing a harp. Villadi vadyamThe villadi vadyam found in Tamil Nadu and Kerala is an example of a bow shaped instrument; the name indicates this, for villu in Tamil and Malayalam means a bow and adi is to strike. In other words, it is a struck bow. The vadyam is very simple and is made of a bow, nearby two to three meters long. The bowstring is a hemp or leather strap. This villu is kept on an inverted earthen pot which serves as a (detachable) sound amplifier. The bowstring bears a few sets of bells which jingle as it is struck. The villadi vadyam is an accompaniment to certain kinds of ballads known as the villu pattu. The principal singer sits near the vadyam with the instrument in front of him. As he sings the song he beats the rhythm on the rope with two heavy sticks. With the resonance of the mud pot and tinkling of the gejjai, the tala is exciting. There is also a chorus which keeps him company in song and rhythm, giving time with clappers, cymbals and the udukkai. There are two kinds of polychords being discussed: they are the harps and the lyres. A harp can be visualized as a bow with a number of strings all running parallel to the bowstring; this, of course, does not commit us to thinking that they organized from the bow, for what we are talking of is the shape and construction. The lyre, on the other hand, is differently made. Here also the body of the instrument is 'bow shaped'; but the 'bowstring' is replaced by a rod known as the cross bar. From this cross bar and perpendicular to it, run a series of strings fixed at one end to the crossbar, and at the other end to the 'blow'. The harp and the lyre so made are poor in the volume and the quality of sound; it therefore becomes necessary to add a sound box to augment these. In the most primitive stage the bow is held near the mouth of the player and struck. The hollow cavity in the partially opened mouth acted as a reinforcer as in some African instruments. The placement of a temporary sound amplifier is the next step, as was seen in the villadi vadyam wherein the bow was kept temporarily on an inverted clay pot. A permanent resonator than replaces the temporary one: gourds are tied to the dandi or the bow rod, or inserted into the pumpkin. A further sophistication is achieved by fabricating a wooden bowl, instead of using a natural gourd, and covering this with leather or even wood. We will later see almost every type in Indian harps, zither and lutes. Lyres, perhaps, never existed in our country. So far no description or illustration has come to light, except, for a solitary example found in the Indus hieroglyphs. In one of them, a diagram more or less resembling a lyre has been found; but it is still a matter of conjecture whether it is a drawing of a lyre at all. A prehistoric harp, from an Indus valley sealHarps, however, have been traced to these prehistoric times. There are a few seals and inscriptions in which bows with three or four 'strings' have been drawn and these are in all probability bow or arched harps. In any case, the drawings are so stylized that we are not able to from a definite or detailed idea of the construction or tuning of these instruments. The word veena seems to have been first used in the Vedas. In the Asvamedha sacrifice they used the veena as an accompaniment to chant and the veda extol it as; "This, the veena is variety the embodiment of beauty and Prosperity". Evidently it was also played particularly at dawn, for there is an anecdote in the rigveda which goes thus: Once the demons imprisoned the sage Kanva in a dark room and blindfolded him. The condition for his release was that without using his eyes in any manner he should be able to tell the coming of dawn. Hours passed and then the sage heard the gentle should of the veena and he knew that day had dawned. He told his captors-without, of course revealing the source of his information-and he was set free. There are numerous poetic descriptions of the instrument in all our literatures. In the Ramayana, Hanuman visits the seraglio of Ravana in his search for Sita. There, at midnight, he sees many musicians asleep. The poet likens one of the women veena players embracing her instrument to a cluster of lotus stalk clinging to a boat, in a river. Then there is the famous story of Prince Udayana who charmed Princess Vasavadatta by the music of his veena and, in the course of wandering, even a wild elephant. Like the damaru with Siva and the flute with Krishna, the veena has also certain iconographic and occult significances. One of them is again in relation to Siva in the form of Dakshinmoorty who is very often referred to the Veenadhara Dakshinmoorty. He is frequently shown holding a fretless veena with a single gourd, resting on his chest and teaching the Wise Ones like Sanaka. Above all, the vena is the instrument of Goddess Saraswati. She is the Goddess of all muses and is the veena pustaka dharini: one who holds the divine source of sound and wisdom. No picture, icon or poem of her is therefore complete without the veena and the pustaka (book). But even she has not the capacity to fathom the depths and extend of the ocean of Nada, the Primordial Magnitude of the ocean of Nada. Being afraid of drowning, she holds the gourd (of the veena) to her chest (as a float)." Any comment on this grandeur would be banal. The best known of the vedic veenas was the vana or maha veena (the great veena) of one hundred strings of munja (grass) and was played with two bamboo pieces. There were ten holes in the danda of the instrument and from each emerged ten strings, thus totalling a hundred. Thirty-three of these were fixed by the adhvaryu (an officiating priest) and an equal number each by the hota (the sacrificial priest who chanted the rig veda) and the udgata (the priest who chanted the sama veda). The final hundredth one was tied by the yajamana (the house-holder) who was the patron of the sacrifice. The udgata seated himself on a high seat asandi (a raised seat), and the others on grass mats during the yajna ritual and chanted the mantras. In later literature this instrument is generally equated with the sata tantri veena which means the "veena with hundred strings". Some are of the opinion that the vana veena might have been the prototype of the Kashmiri santoor which will be described later. It would not have escaped the reader's notice that the strings of these early tata vadya were not of metal but were made of spun grass (munja). Animal sinew was also used for similar purposes and these have been replaced by metal wires in most cases. It may recalled that the Tamil word for tata vadya was narampu karuvi, and narampu means animal gut. There is a delightful story of Kanakapura (the City of Gold) in the Birhat katha sarit sagara, in which the Prince asks Bindumati the reason why so noble a lady as she had become a fisher woman. Bindumati, the fisher girl and wife of Saktideva says, "But listen, I shall tell you why I have become a fisher girl. In a former life I was the daughter of the spirits of the air, while now I am cursed to a sojourn in the realms of mortals. But once when I was still a spirit, I used my teeth to bite off a piece of sinew to make the string for my lute (veena). This caused me to be born in a dwelling of fishers! Just because my mouth touched the dry sinew of a cow I have fallen so low now. What fate is there is store for one who eats the flesh of cows?" Now a days metal strings have by and large displaced guts and grass. This is particularly so in instruments which are plucked and also those in which the wire is deflected sideways as in the sitar and the veena. But in bowed instruments such as the sarangi, animal sinews have not yet lost their preference. Reverting to the subject of harps, ancient music and musicology relied much onto of them: one was with seven strings and the other with nine. There might have been regional and structural types, because one often notices a mix up of names and instruments: for instance the harp with seven strings had more than one name-the chitra, the parivadini, and the saptatantri veena. Since detailed information about these is lacking, it is difficult to say whether they were the same instrument but known by various names. Chitra was the best known and is referred to in the Ramayana on many occasions. The nine stringed harp was the vipanchi which, besides having more strings than the chitra, was different in another way. While the seven-stringed veena was plucked with the fingers, the nine stringed one was played with a small wooden piece called the kona. Like the chitra, the vipanchi also finds a place in the epics. Saptatantri veenaThough at the most primitive stage the harp had perhaps only the stretched string across the blow, in more developed from it was fitted with resonators and a proper bow like or straight stick to hold the strings. One very important fact we cannot help noticing is that in India none of these veenas had any pegs. The gut or metal string passing out of the resonator was tied to a leather strap which in its turn was wound round the string holder. The leather winding was moved slightly up or down this holder to after the tension and hence the pitch of the string. It must be conceded that this process was very efficiently worked out, as an extremely sensitive and complicated theory of tuning was practiced in ancient music and this depended almost entirely on harps. The resonator or sound amplifier might have been gourd which later on might have given place to a boat-shaped wooden dowl, wholly or partly covered with skin or even a wooden plank. This body was called the ambhana or doni. Projecting out of this was the curved or straight wooden holder, the danda, onto which were tied the strings as described. A possible reconstruction of the ancient harp is given here. There is a beautiful analogy, in the rig veda, between the God-made veena, the human body, and the man-made one. "Just as the Godly veena has a head, a stomach, a tongue, fibres, tone, touch, and skin the man made wooden veena also has such organs. The head of the veena is the gourd, the hollow of the ambhana is the stomach, the act of playing is the tongue, the strings are it tendons, the music its speech, and as the human body is covered with skin so is the veena." YazhIn the article 'Musical Instruments - Introduction' we discussed the Aryan and the non-Aryan socio-cultural bases of our civilization. So far the general opinion has been that the Dravidian (and naturally the pre-Dravidian) was different from the Aryan and there had been a later fusion; however, there are some very great men of insight who hold that to posit the existence of such cultural complexes is wrong and that the whole of India was populated by one people. The question of cultural contributions becomes more entangled when we come to the music of the land, for we are faced with even greater mist and fog of ignorance. By the time the first texts were written and visual depictions chiseled, an indistinguishable mixture of life patterns has already taken place, though we can still make out a multiplicity of bases. This was not only intra-national but inter-national as well because it is probable that some of the instruments we had, came to the Dravidian land from far off countries such as Egypt, Arabia and Greece. Setting aside these complications and with the above reservations in mind, Tamil literature of the very early period has to be tapped to obtain source information on a musical system which might have been separate from the Aryan. The major stringed instrument described here was the yazh. But was it different from the contemporary Aryan polychord veenas described earlier? In some literary examples the words yazh and veena are used in juxtaposition and are used in the same context. This has made some scholars think that the yazh and the veena were different. On the other hand yazh has also been termed as the veenai, for example the makara yazh which was also known as the makara veenai, and this lands us back in a hazy situation where we are not in a position to decide on the 'Aryan-ness' or otherwise of the ancient Tamil Instruments. This is more so when see that even the constructional details of the yazhs and the Sanskrit veenas were almost the same. Cultural aspects apart, many savants have studied old classics like the Pattu pattu, Silappadikaram, Manimekalai, Jivakachintamani as well as archaeological evidences and have given us fairly detailed accounts of these yazhs. Most probably the vil yazh was the first of these narampu karuvis. An early writer, Kannanar, describes a hunter who made a bow out of the hollow branch of a kumizh tree, tied a hempen rope to it and to the accompaniment of this vil yazh roamed happily singing the kunrinji pann. (Panns were melodic forms analogous to ragas.) Later were invented the other harps with more narampus or guts. The senkotti yazh had a resonator which, most likely, was covered with a wooden plank end its kotu (comparable to the danda) seems to have been a straight tube instead of a curved one; it had seventeen strings. The sakota yazh bore fourteen strings of which four were tuned in the lower register, seven in the middle octave and three in the upper one. The peri yazh might have been a large sized harp with a boat-shaped pattar (an analogue of the ambhana) or resonator closed with leather and having twenty-one stings. The seeri yazh was probably a smaller version of the peri yazh. The makara yazh or the makara veenai had nineteen narampus. It was an instrument of the aristocracy, played in their mansions and seraglios. Tamil writers themselves have called it as a avanakkai veenai, meaning an instrument of the Yavanas who are usually taken to be Greeks. However, it is quite possible that it might have reference, as it often did in other parts of India, to any 'foreigner'. It may be noted that there was a Grecian harp with a very similar name: the magadis. This was, as the Greeks considered, a Lydian and an ancient instrument. Anacreon, a Lydian poet of the sixth century B.C. in his lyric says: "O Leucasis, I play Upon a Lydian harp, A magade of twenty strings, And thou art in thy youthful prime!" It is, nevertheless, worth remembering that the Greeks hardly had any instruments of their own and the ones they did have were mostly imported from outside their land. The magadis perhaps went to them from Mesopotamia or Iron and harps were in general considered as having come from the Orient. Plato even condemned them as enthusing hedone-that is sensory pleasure. The makara yazh, then, might have traveled to south India either directly from west Asia or from that area via Greece. The makara veena seems to have reached Indonesia much before the tenth century A.D. as the Jalatund reliefs (East Java, 977 A.D.) shows a makara veena with a resonator having the face of a 'crocodile' (makara). Even in Indonesia this veena may have been confined to the ruling castes and may never have been in vogue among the lower classes. Tamil Nadu had also the adi yazh, the first yazh. Legends say that it was played to win over rakshasas or the evil ones during the first yuga, the krita yuga, the first era of the world. It was said to have one thousand strings arranged in five octaves with two hundred in each! How far this was a real instrument and how far the number 'one thousand' was a hyperbole we do not know. This adi yazh was perhaps the same as the perum kalam. The yazhs were certainly very popular and important instruments those days, comparable to the sitar today, as is evident from the innumerable references in Tamil literature. In the Silappadikaram, the chapter Kanalvari (Song of the Seashore) opens with the meeting of Madhavi, the courtesan, with Kovalan, the hero. "After worshipping with her hands, Madhavi removed the yazh, faultless in the pattar, the kotu and the strings, from its embroidered case, its body adorned with flowers, which looked like a beauteous bride with black eyes darkened with collyrium. And she began to produce its eight different sounds . . . in order to satisfy herself of their correctness. Her lustrous little fingers ornamented with ruby rings and manipulating the various strings resembled a hive of humming bees. Next she tested by ear the eight different melodies . . . Passing the instrument to Kovalan's outstretched hand, she said, "It is not my object to command. Please let me know the rhythm." He too began playing odes to the Kavari river and songs appropriate to the seashore (kanalvari) to the great delight of Madhavi." Some harps seen in the ancient monuments of Bharhut and Budha Gaya have five strings. However, the more common ones bore seven as are depicted in the sculptures and reliefs at Pitalkhora near Ajanta (3rd century B.C.), Sanchi in Madhya Pradesh (2nd century B.C.) and Amaravati as well as Nagarjunakonda both in Andhra belonging to about the third century A.D. Strange as it is, no harps of any kind have been observed in Karnataka even from the earliest times, though archaeological evidence has shown them in the surrounding areas of Maharashtra, Andhra and to some extent in Tamil Nadu. One other interesting example is the inscription of harps on coins, the best known being the coin of Samudra Gupta. As the noted historian, Majumdar, puts it, "Brilliant both as general and statesman, Samudra Gupta also possessed many qualities of head and heart better suited to a life of peaceful pursuits. According to the Allahabad inscription he was not only a great patron of learning but was himself a great poet and a musician. His poetical compositions which earned him the title of 'king of poets' have not survived, but we have a striking testimony to his love of music. In one set of gold coins the great emperor is represented as seated crosslegged on a couch, playing on a veena . . . which rests on his keens. The royal figure on his unique type of coin was undoubtedly drawn from real life and testifies to his inordinate love of music." Again much of such sculpture so far indicated relate to Buddhist tradition which again may be significant in that the instruments might have traveled south along with Buddhist proseletysers, the armies of Buddhist kings and traders from the north. The majority of these scenes depict the life or the lives of the Bodhisatva. The Great Departure of Lord Gautama when he leaves the royal mansion in the dead of night in search of wisdom and understanding is a favourite with artists. The Nagarjunakonda reliefs, for instance, show this incident with much poignancy. Musicians and dancers are greatly fatigued and in deep slumber as Gautama departs. Harps, drums and flutes are lying idle on the ground or in the laps of women who are too sleepy to notice his going. The harps described thus far belonged to a class of polychords which were bow shaped or arched, with a resonator and an arm (danda). There is another category which we may term as the box type. Here there is no special danda apart from the sound box. The strings are stretched on a wooden chest which acts both as a rest for them as well as a resonator. India has today two such instruments: the santoor and the savaramandal. SantoorThe santoor is characteristic of the Kashmir valley and is neither seen nor played anywhere else. In the West it is known as the dulcimer or the cymbalon. Some scholars are of the opinion that this instrument can be traced to the vedic vana veena. It may be remembered that the vana had a hundred strings (of spun grass) and was probably played with sticks. This was later called the sata tantri veena-the veena with one hundred strings-which name, they say, got modified to santoor. Etymology apart, the modern santoor does have a large number of strings and it stuck with sticks. The instrument is made of a box of wood, trapezoid in shape. Over this there are thirty bridges, arranged in fifteen rows, two in each row. A set of four strings of metal tuned to the same note is stretched over each pair of bridges; thus the total number of wires is sixty. The musician sits with the santoor in front of him and strikes them with a pair of flat wooden pieces curved at the striking end. Kashmiri musicians commonly play maqams, somewhat like the Persian modes, on the dulcimer. However, it has also been used to play Indian ragas and is now much in demand with film musicians. The other box polychord still found in our country is the svaramandal, the Indian psaltery. This like the santoor, is also a wooden box on which are mounted strings. In dimensions it is much smaller than its sister and has no bridges. There is only one string for each note, whereas the santoor has four tuned to one; and the strings pass over ledges, instead of bridges, onto tuning pins. They are plucked with fingers wearing metallic wire plectra. Today there are perhaps no more than three or four who can play ragas or even simple tunes on this instrument; but there are quite a number of Hindustani vocalists who strum it along with their singing to give a rich tonal background. This psaltery seems to be the ancient matta kokila which later on began to be called as the svaramandal. References to the svaramandal itself commence from about the fifteenth century A.D. and Hindi poets of later times often mention it; so does the Ain-i-Akbari. The polychord may also be the qanoon known to West Asia and to the Syrian as qithoro from about the eleventh century. Indeed the Ain-i-Akbari definitely states that the svaramandal is similar to the qanoon. "The Svaramandal is like the qanoon. It has twenty-one strings, some of steel, some of brass, and some of gut." After a reign of more than three thousand years-from prehistoric times till about the tenth century A.D.-the polychords almost vanish from the Indian scene, except the santoor and the svaramandal. The monochords or fingerboard instruments like the kacchapi, the rabab, the sarode, the sitar, the Karnataka (Saraswati) veena which are lutes and the kinnari, the Rudra veena which are zithers take over and dominate the musical realm. An entire music and musicology are left behind, a system based on harps is given up and a new one founded on fingerboard veenas leading to our present practice grows, replacing the older music. This near revolution is one of the greatest mutations in our music history and is closely dependent on the evolution of instruments. The subject, though extremely fascinating, is outside the scope of this book. As we scrutinize our music works and other literature, the same old problem raises its head and confronts us: that of lacunae in information, insufficient description and the question of reliability of sources. Such being the case, one can at best give some suggestions on missing links and point to major milestones in the evolution of our instruments, as best as the situation permits. And nothing can be as baffling as the avanaddha and the tata vadya. As might have been noticed in the former, in the case of strings also names are used indiscriminately and data are mixed up. There were veenas with one string (eka tantri), with two (nakuli), with three (tritantri) and so on. But very often we have no way of knowing whether such names were of harps, zithers or lutes; and many times translators (particularly into English) have not distinguished between the three categories of tata vadya. Much therefore has to be taken with reserve, especially where zithers and lutes are concerned. Zithers are those instruments wherein there is a fingerboard with strings, fretted or fretless, and, most important, the resonator being fixed below it. The gintang and its clan are perhaps the earliest zithers that we know of, though it bears neither frets nor resonators. It is from this primitive instrument, generally called a bamboo zither (and which has already been described), that it is possible to derive all sophisticated ones. This organological hypothesis need not be discussed further here and the reader will have to consult more technical reports to study this problem. TuliaOne of the most simple instruments of this class is the tuila of Orissa. Even there it is fast disappearing and there are very few indeed who can play it. The body of the zither is just a bamboo stick along which is stretched a gut; there is neither a bridge nor a ledge (known as the nut) at the other end, nor is there a peg. Under the stick at the upper end of the tuila, there is a small half cut bottle gourd. The instrument is held diagonally across the body of the player with this dry fruit shell against the chest of the player. One hand plucks the gut at the lower end and the other hand is used for stopping it at the further end. The tuila is peculiar in a special way because only three fingers are used without moving them up or down the string to get the seven notes. From available descriptions we may hazard a guess that the tuila might have been a variety of ancient alapini veena which has been described as a veena having a danda of nearly nine fists in length and a gourd about twenty centimeters in circumference. It had one string (in some varieties three) of animal sinew, cotton or silk. But a very important veena of pre-medieval times was the eka tantri which should not be confounded with the ek tar, though the names mean the same: one stringed instrument. The eka tantri is mentioned by this name from about the eleventh century A.D., though it is possible that the ghoshaka known during the times of Bharata might have been the same instrument. Great value seems to have been attached to this zither for it was also called the Brahma veena and one writer goes to the extent of saying that Goddess Saraswati herself dwells in the eka tantri. The danda of the veena was approximately one hundred and forty centimeters in length and it had a gourd below the danda. Like the tuila and the alapini, this instrument was also held across the chest and the string made of gut was plucked with one hand. The other hand held a smooth bamboo piece called the kamrika which was pressed and slid along the string. The eka tantri had a wide bridge on it and under the gut was placed a bamboo slip which acted as a jeeva to enrich the sound. Musical texts also give elaborate instruments on the playing techniques of the right hand for plucking, the left hand for sliding as well as the combinations of the two. There are a few aspects that draw our attention here. First, the position of play-holding the veena across the body-continues to this day as in the Rudra veena. Secondly, the jeeva has been retained with profit in the tamboora. Thirdly, the practice of sliding the kamrika has now been adopted in the vichitra veena of north India and in the southern gottuvadyam. Vichitra veenaThe vichitra veena is a fretless zither played by Hindustani musicians. The fingerboard is a broad long one of about a meter and quarter in length with two large pumpkins screwed to its nether side. As in all contemporary veenas it has wide bridge of one end of the dandi the other end having the ledge and four pegs bearing the main playing strings. There are two more wires, the chikari, which are plucked to lend the drone; the principal strings are also plucked with the fingers on which are worn wire plectra. To produce a naga a glass ball is pressed and moved over them, like the kamrika in the eka tantri. Underneath the main strings there are about a dozen or more thin ones called the tarab, which vibrate sympathetically when properly tuned and provide additional resonance. Both from its construction and manner of handling it is clear that this zither is a descendent of the eka tantri. The present name of the instrument is probably not more than a century old, though it is likely that it is the same as the sar veena which is listed as an important instrument in the Ain-i-Akbari. By fixing frets onto the vichitra veena group of instruments we get the fretted zithers of which the kinnari and the Rudra veena are the most famous. The first was a great favourite with musicians during the Middle Ages and the second one was the reigning veena in Hindustani music till a few years ago. These and other types of fretted zithers could be refinements of more primitive ones like the memerajan of the Savaras. As Verrier Elvin describes it, "Another instrument resembling a guitar is the memerajan or 'breast instrument'. A bamboo neck with four to six frets attached to it with beeswax. Two wire strings, spread apart, are passed over these; the first gives the melody, the second is a drone. Below there are two small gourds, cut out at the bottom, and secured to the bamboo neck by their close ends. The memerajan is held with the open ends of gourd towards the body; they are pressed against it or released to regulate the volume of the sound. The wires are plucked by the right hand while the left fingers the stops." (Elvin uses the words 'guitar' and 'neck' which are strictly not correct for while the memerajan is a zither, the guitar is a lute. Also there is no 'neck' in the memerajan.) The other nearer ancestors are the jantar played by the Bhopa community of Rajasthan and the khing of Kashmir. The first one is a largish zither with two big gourds. The frets are of bone and fourteen in number. The Kashmiri instrument is very much smaller and has only seven flat frets. Tribal kinnariOf the ancient plucked zithers, the kinnari was of great importance. Though this has now vanished from classical music it can sometimes be seen now with certain tribes like the Chenchus and the Raj Gonds of Andhra. The instrument is probably the precursor or the same as the brhat kinnari to be described. There is a touching story of the Gond, Lingal, who went out in search of the tribal Gods. "The path was narrow and stony and led through dense forest; when at last he reached a clearing, he sat down to rest in the shade of a great banyan tree. Suddenly he felt wonderful happy and taking his guitar (kinnari), he played the eighteen tunes, and suddenly there was a rumbling in the earth and the palmyra palm in front of him trembled. Woken by the sweet strains of Lingal's playing the Gond gods in the cave Sursuryadi began to stir, and they said to each other 'What beautiful music! Certainly these are the tunes of our Katora (priest)' . . . And Pahandi Kupa Lingal rejoiced. He knew that at last he had found his Gond gods." The jogis of Karnataka are a kind of religious sect who claim their descent from Arjuna, the valiant hero of the Mahabharata; and the kind of ascetic lives they lead is said to follow in the foot-path of this prince during his emeretic period. They go about singing their songs to the accompaniment of small kinnaris. The kinnari must have been quite popular, for not only is it described in some detail in many books but was also widely illustrated in medieval sculpture. The earliest assignable period for the kinnari could be about the fifth (?) century A.D. when one Matanga lived and wrote a book on music, first mention the fixing of frets to the kinnari veena. Definite descriptions of this instrument commence from the eleventh century onwards, and they give a fairly detailed account of this veena. There were two 'classical' kinnaris: the laghu kinnari and the brhat kinnari. As their names indicate the first one was small (laghu) and second was a larger (brhat) variety. There were also desi (folk) kinnaris of three sizes: brhati (big), madhyama (meddling) and laghvi (small). The laghu kinnari used in classical music had a fingerboard of bamboo nearly seventy-five centimeters long, with two pumpkins. The frets, fourteen in number, were made usually of the chest bones of vultures and fixed to the danda with a mixture of wax and the ashes of burnt cloth. Over these passed a string of steal or brass and this was tensed by a peg on one side. The brhati was nearly twenty centimeters longer with stouter bamboo. It had three gourds, instead of two, and was strung with gut. Abul Fazl in his Ain-i-Akbari gives very definite relations of the jantar (yantra), the kinnari and the veena. He says, the Yantra is formed out of the hollow neck of wood a yard in length, at each end of which are attached the halves of two gourds. Above the neck are sixteen frets over which are strung five steel wires fastened securely at both ends. The low and high notes and their variations are produced by the disposition of the frets. The Vina resembles the Yantra, but has three strings. The Kinnar resembles the Vina, but with a longer fingerboard and had three gourds and two wires. All the later veenas of the zither type are only further descendents of the kinnari. The most respected of these is the Rudra veena which till recently, reigned supreme in Hindustani music and was popular among commoners also; this is the instrument that is called been in common parlance. Like the kinnari, the fingerboard is of a wide and smooth bamboo. One end of this holds a flat bridge typical in our instruments and beneath the dandi are two very large pumpkins. There four main strings for melody, under which stand straight and thin, frets attached to the bamboo tube with wax. While the fingers of one hand pluck the strings the other stops them over the frets. Besides the main wires there are two drone strings on one side and one more on the other side of the dandi. The been was played by men and women in royal courts and rural settings as can be seen from innumerable miniature painting of north India. In one class of such pictures, known as the raga mala miniatures which personify ragas and raginis as well as in their literary symbolization, the been is invariably a companion of, ragini Todi, a lady with the zither whose music enchants deer. "Her slender body anointed with saffron and camphor gleam white like the jasmine flower. The woodland deers are spellbound at the sight of Todi splendid, holding a veena." Surdas, the immortal Hindi poet, takes the poesy Further. Addressing the hero of his poem he says, "Do not play the delicate veena. For the deer that draw the chariot in the moon may get captivated and stop, thus halting the moon." It was one of the premier instruments in the court of Akbar and Abul Fazl names Shihab Khan of Gwalior and Purbin Khan as the two court beenkars (players on the been). The other prominent musicians who are revered as the fathers of instrumental music in the north were Bilas Khan and Surat Sen, sons of Tansen, as well as Misri Singh, his son-in-law. Bilas Khan is considered to be the one who popularized the rabab and the other two the Rudra veena. Because of their family tree (gharana) these musicians are known as the Senias and almost every instrumentalist of the Hindustani system would like to call himself or herself a Senia. Today this is ludicrous, for instruments that were never prominent during Tansen's times-the sitar, the sarangi and so on-could not have a stylistic resemblance to the older music. And if we listen to even sitariyas (the sitar players) of the present day, it is easy to make out the vast differences in style, that can really not be grouped as one small musical family. While it is true that most of the instrumentalists are 'musical descendents' of the Senia elders in term of master-pupil lineage, musically they have drifted so far away from style of the veena that it would be absurd for them all to claim to be 'Senias'. The Rudra veena is now sadly neglected and there are not many competent players of this instrument. There is not much doubt that the zithers, whether they be without frets like the eka tantri, the alapini and the vichitra veena or the fretted ones such as the kinnari and the been are typically Indian. It is also of great consequence that sculptural representations of zither from very early times not only abound in but are more or less confined to Hindu temples. The same cannot be said of lutes. A noteworthy point is that lutes appear in our country closely following the Gandharan art movements from the north-west but also migrate along with Buddhist art southwards. Since there are lutes in other cultural areas also, this is but a suggestion which remains to be carefully verified. Lutes, as we defined earlier, are those stringed instruments in which the fingerboard is an extension of the resonator. On the other hand, it will be recalled, that in zithers the resonator was placed below the dandi. It was also seen that the ek tar was one of the possible origins of the lute type wherein the gourd might have been replaced by a wooden bowl. Examples of this direction of evolution were the two kinds of tambooras. These instruments are however, drones and are not employed for playing any tunes or ragas for which purpose other lutes were fashioned. It is usual to recognize two types of lutes: the shortnecked ones and the long necked. In the former, the bowl projects into a curved neck which extends into a short fingerboard. In the later, the resonator has a neck which continues into a long danda. In both cases, strictly speaking the necks are almost the same size; the difference is in the lengths of the fingerboards. The adjectives related to the neck are hence misplaced, in a way, and should in fact be applied to the danda: short fingerboard or long fingerboard. However, in difference to practice in musicology we shall stick to the traditional terminology. Fretless shortnecked flutes are also very ancient in our country, and best known of which was the kacchapi. The name first occurs in Bharata's Natya sastra, followed by numerous references in medieval works; it has also been illustrated widely. Kacchapa means a tortoise and since the body of the instrument bulged and was convex in shape, somewhat like the shell of the reptile, the lute was known as the kacchapi veena. The hollow belly was covered over with leather and the body extended into a short neck which continued on as a fingerboard of small length. There was a crescent shaped bridge on the hide cover, and five strings passed over it to pegs at the far end of the danda. It was plucked veena without frets; however, there are stray examples of such lutes with frets in Ajanta as also in Pattadakallu, the latter being in Karnataka (5th to 7th century A.D.).Even today instruments resembling this fretless, shortnecked lute are found in north India under the names dotara, rubaiya and so on, though there are minor variations in detail. Related and perhaps originating from this is the rabab which is restricted to northwest India mainly. The world rabab might have indicated both bowed and plucked lutes. In early Arabic music, according to many scholars, it seems to have been of the former type. Al Farabi of Arabia, a bowed instrument. But the lute of this name, familiar in Kashmir and Afghanistan, is a plucked one and has been known to the northern areas of India for nearby five hundred years now. The mystic poets Kabir and Krishnadasa mention it. The Ain-i-Akbari speaks of a rabab with "six strings of gut, but some (with) twelve and others with eighteen". Sangeeta parijata, a musical text of the seventeenth century not only refers to the instrument but goes so far as to etymologically derive the word rabab from the Sanskrit rava meaning sound. As per oral tradition the invention of the lute is credited to Tansen, which is not correct as Hindi literature prior to him refers to it. But the closest, association, perhaps, of the rabab is with Mardana the inseparable companion to Guru Nanak who lived in the fifteenth century. Bhai Mardana is said to have been descended from Arabian stock and his prowess of the lute has become legendary. The rabab he played on seems to have been redesigned from an older type by Nanak himself. Sadiq Ali Khan of the nineteenth century says, "The rabab has five main strings and twenty-two metallic ones bellow, for resonance. It has come to our knowledge, that there is another rabab which has six main strings, but these are of silk instead of goat gut. Some authorities affirm that this rabab is the invention of Guru Nanak Shah Fakir. The Guru possessed superior knowledge of this art as well, and the invention is the result of this genius." While the Guru sat in deep meditation, Mardana would play and the strings sounded "Nirankar . . . Dhan Nirankar . . ."-"Formless.... Hail Formless". The rabab now in use in Kashmir has a hollow wooden body with a waist. The resonator is covered with skin and the fingerboard with a wooden plank. On the hide cover there is a thin bridge over which go six strings of gut lightened by pegs; besides these main strings there are eleven metallic ones acting as resonators. One interesting fact is that there are no frets as such, but three guts are tied across the dandi at its father end to indicate 'note positions'. This contrivance could well have developed into the metallic frets of later instruments. SarodeVery much similar to this is the sarode, one of the most dignified concern lutes of Hindustani music now known almost everywhere in the world. The name of the instrument it is often claimed is derived from Sarada veena, for which there does not seem to be any base except an imaginary one, because Indian music texts have no reference to such a veena. However, "In the year 913 a certain Ibn al-Awas, a native of the Samarkand region, invented a stringed instrument of unusually wide compass known as the sharud". Early Indo-Persian literature also mentions the sarode. One Hasan Nizami of early medieval times, describing the court scene of a Delhi sultan, says, of a minstrel. "The tuneful nightingale bewailed like forlorn lovers and he cried like a lover over the string of Rud and the music of Sarode." Again there was a "beauteous, fairy faced musician, decked with plumes of feathers and possessed of light-diffusing cheek, who sang like a nightingale and performed Messianic miracles by her Davidian melodies. The sounds of Rud and Sarode weakened the power of endurance and by the strokes of her Musiqar (an instrument) she attracted the birds from their airy heights down to the lowest level of the earth". While the Rud was an instrument, we can not be equally sure that the sarode here meant a lute or a kind of melody. Even today central Asia has the ud which is a short necked lute. All these lead us to infer that, most probably, the Indian sarode is a descendent of this central Asian instrument; the similarity not only in construction but in the word ending (ud and sar-ode) is worth noting. Like the rabab the body is of wood and waisted; only it is much more shallow. Another difference is that the fingerboard has a steel veneer instead of a wood one. There are four principal strings, four subsidiary ones, two drones and about a dozen sympathetic vibrators (tarab), all of metal. Like the rabab the sarode is also played with a small wooden piece called the java. There are two more instruments of this class which we may note in passing. One is the sur singar which is a kind of an elder brother to the sarode. It is nearly twice in size and while the fingerboard has a steel plate, the resonator is closed with wooden lamination instead of hide. It said that the sur singar was invented by Jafar Khan Rababi, the court musician of Maharaja Udit Narayan Singh of Varanasi who lived in the early part of the nineteenth century. Because of its size and the nature of its body, the lute has a very fine tone; but it is a pity that one very rarely hears this veena now and there are few musicians who play it at present. Another exotic specimen is the svarabat or svaragat. This is somewhat of a cross between the kacchapi, or more strictly the rubaiya and the dotara, and the rabab. In appearance it is very much like the latter but larger; but the fingerboard resembles the thin type as in the dotara. Strangely enough it is not found in the north where we could expect it; on the other hand, the known examples is in the south. The only reliable evidence is a picture of Umaiyalpuram Krishna Bhagavatar, the disciple of Sri Tyagaraja, playing on it. Some stray specimens are available, one of which can be seen in the museum at Pudukottai in Tamil Nadu. How the longnecked lutes developed in our country is still not clear. There are stone caves of primitive men in central India which have wall paintings in some of which lutes with long necks have been noticed. But in general most of the visual evidences-barring a few scattered ones-show shortnecked veenas but not the longnecked ones. More definite data will be necessary for us to trace out the history of these instruments unequivocally. The best known longnecked veena without frets is the gottuvadyam of Karnatak musicians; the instrument is some time also called the Mahanataka veena. Here again historical information is scanty and in all probability the first references to it is in a Telugu work of the seventeenth century. The instrument itself is simple though the playing is difficult. A wooden 'spherical' bowl closed on the top with a wooden plate serves as the resonator. This bowl projects into a small neck to which is attached the fretless fingerboard. This terminates in the animal motif, yali. Near this end there are four pegs which receive the metallic strings which pass over the bridge on the resonator bowl. Besides these four main strings on which melodies are played, there are three more on one side meant for giving the drone and the tala. What is interesting is the presence of the tarab or resonating strings on the instrument. This is the only Karnatak instrument with such an adjunct and seems to be a recent innovation, which born out by the fact that instrumentalists there have no name for it! The plucking of the strings is done as in the veena to be described. For playing a tune or a raga a small piece of cylindrical very hard wood or ebony is moved along the strings and finer pitch variations as also gamakas are obtained by slight pressures on them. This piece is known as kodu and the name of the instrument seems to be derived from it; the reader will recall that this was exactly the method of playing the ancient eka tantri and is also met with in the Hawaiian guitar. Since there are no frets and the wires are raised slightly off the fingerboard, the technique is difficult and delicate. Saraswati veenaThe queen of all veenas is the Saraswati veena. (Incidentally, Hindustani musicians also call their veena, the zither already described, by this name. We shall, however, refer to the south Indian veena now being discussed as the Saraswati veena and the Hindustani zither as the Rudra veena.) It deservedly occupies this exalted position not only because of its elegant beauty of appearance and tone but also by virtue of its versatility. In a way, it is the only self-contained veena today: it has strings to play the raga and that too in a wide range of pitch, it has the drone so necessary for Indian music, and these drone strings are also placed on them. In other words, the veena has in itself svara, raga and tala-a potentiality which no other instrument has. The present structure of the lute seems to have come to fruition at Tanjavur in Tamil Nadu by about the seventeenth century, during the reign of Raghunatha; it is, hence often referred to as the Tanjavur veena. The instrument, like the gottuvadyam, is made entirely of wood. The resonator or kudam is a deep vessel carved out of wood and covered with a wooden plank. This soundboard protrudes into a neck to which is fixed the long fingerboard that ends in the mythical figure of the yali (not to be confounded with the yazh). The bridge which stands centrally on the sound box is a complex unit. The principal section is a wide wooden piece slightly sloping in the direction of the strings, a construction so typical of many of our veenas. On the upper surface of this is glued a brass lamella which seems to be a continuation of the traditional structure present in the ancient eka tantri. Attached to-rather growing out of-the main bridge is a curved auxiliary part of wood, which is also a bridge. Four strings of metal go over the main bridge and they are used for playing the melody; three, called the sarani, pass over the side bridge and these are employed as the drone and for striking the tala. All strings are tuneable by pegs and by special minute coiled wire pieces. While the melody strings are plucked downwards with the first two fingers, the sarani are flicked with the little finger of one hand. The strings are pressed with the fingers of the other hand just over the brass frets that are fixed to the danda with wax. Beneath the danda, at its yali end, there is a secondary gourd or a metallic imitation of it. The most common way of holding the veena is 'horizontal'. The musician sits cross legged on the floor; the large kudam is placed on the ground with the subsidiary gourd resting on the tap. However, a generation ago there were vainikas (veena players) who used to hold it vertically-a practice that was seen sometimes in Andhra and Mysore. The veena technique, having attained such a subtle sophistication, has developed into different styles. One major style is the Tanjavur style where great stress is laid on certain slowness of tempo and on gamakas; the Andhra and Mysore approach relies more on variations in plucking, staccato phraseology and simultaneous playing of more than one string. One important fact, not confined to the veena but including all instruments, is that in Karnatak music there are no special instrumental compositions apart from songs meant for singing; all playing relies heavily on vocal music. The most renowned vainikas of the three schools were Dhanam of Madras, Sangamesvara Sastry of Andhra and Seshanna of Mysore. What the Saraswati veena is to Karnatak music the sitar is to the Hindustani. It holds the same pre-eminent place and enjoys the same popularity; perhaps more so. And because of the cultural exodus of many sitar players it has gained a very wide reputation outside India now. Today it is a very important Indian instrument, though its predecessors might have come from lands bordering the northwest provinces of our country. It is a longnecked lute and, as was mentioned earlier, such veenas have been seen in some cave murals in central West Asia. Till recently it was believed that the poet-musician, Amir Khusrau, of the thirteenth century, A.D. was the inventor of the instrument. This appears to be more a belief than a verifiable fact, as known reliable textual sources are not older than say the eighteenth century says that what is popularly known as the sitar is called the nibadha tamboora; in other words we may see here a close connection between the sitar and the tamboora. One other opinion is that the lute was evolved out of the ancient tri tantri: a three stringed instrument. This idea is based on the similarity of names. Seh in Persian is three and tar means strings. So a lute having three strings is seh tar which changes into sitar. Tri tantri in Sanskrit has an identical connection: tri means 'three' and tantri 'strings'. While the semantic similarity is certainly extremely close, structurally the tri tantri might have been entirely different. All available clues make us suspect that the tri tantri was a zither from which, of course, a lute cannot evolve. More correctly, therefore, a plausible line of sophistication might be sought in the setar or saitar of Kashmir. This is a lute smaller than the sitar. Its fingerboard projects from a gourd resonator and bears a number of gut frets. It has a wide or narrow bridge and seven strings. Thus, the shape of the lute, the moveable gut frets and the name make it a very likely prototype of our concert instrument. The sitar gained importance and prestige not very long ago; prior to about a century from now it was not even considered respectable. It was the Rudra veena which was the highbrow instrument. Indeed, the traditional ustads of the veena rarely, if ever, taught it to any one outside their fold; the zither was a family prerogative! Aliens who knocked at the doors of their citadels of knowledge were initiated into 'despicable' instruments such as the sitar. However, encouragement to the sitar and its style came from the later half of the eighteenth century. It was at this time that great masters like Amir Khan, Barkatullah Khan, Bahadur Khan, and Gulam Raza lived. They were exceptionally good instrumentalists and their beautiful music on the sitar raised it to a respectable status and gave it wide recognition. Tastes in music were changing and the sonorous veena and its grave style were losing their appeal, just as the dhrupad singing and pakhavaj were giving way to the khyal and the tabla; a kind of lyrical approach began to be preferred which encouraged the music of the sitar. Of the many sitariyas Masit Khan and Gulam Raza deserve special mention for they were the creators of styles which form the main bases of today's playing. The compositions of Masit Khan were developed into the Masit Khani baj which is lower in tempo, does not indulge in criss cross rhythm and provides ample scope for leisurely expansion. Raza Khani baj, named after Gulam Raza, on the other hand is more intricate and quick. While the sitar, thus grew into a major lute with its own idiom and diction, the heavier alap (a rhythm free exposition of raga) of the veena was taken over by the sur bahar which is a kind of outsized sitar. SitarLike most zithers and lutes in the north the sitar was a more or less spherical gourd at the lower end; when the pumpkin is flat the instrument is referred to as the kacchua, the tortoise shaped sitar. The tumba, as its shell is called, is glued at one end to a neck and its top is covered with a wooden board which may be either flat or slightly bulging. To the neck is fixed the long fingerboard, the dandi, onto which are tied the convex brass frets, so that they can be moved to the required scale. Such an arrangement of mobile frets is one type called the chal that or the moveable scale. While this is the common feature now, there were older models with fixed frets-known as the achal that or immovable scale as in the Rudra veena and the Saraswati veena. The fingerboard holds, in costlier kinds, a second gourd at the father end. Five metal wires for playing the raga are stretched over the main bridge; besides these there are two drone strings called the chikari. The instrument has also anywhere from eleven to seventeen thin strings, the tarab, underneath the principal ones for additional resonance. (This is not provides in the less expensive sitars.) While the main strings and the chikari run over a bigger bridge which, again, is characteristically wide, the tarab goes on a smaller flat bridge placed below the larger one. As with the other veenas of India, the bridges are of bone, antler horn or hard wood. The strings are excited by plucking them with wire plectrum worn on the index finger the movements of which are forward and backward, towards and away from the palm. Like in the south Indian veena the chikari is used for providing the drone or basic note; it is however not employed for giving the tala, unlike the sarani. Bowing as an act of sound production on instruments and bowed instruments themselves have posted very complicated organological questions regarding their origins. Many hypothesis and conjectures have been advanced, discussed, accepted and rejected. The three principal seats of culture which are the scholars' favourite choices are the Nordic region in Europe, India and central-west Asia. So far Western scholars have tended to concentrate on the first and the last of these. As for India they do concede it a place of priority, but rarely is their documentation on this country adequate or up to date. In one of the best books on the subject, published recently, there is a discussion of the possibility of bowed instruments having been first developed in our country. But soon the author dismisses the idea on the basis that the oldest visual representation in India of bowed instrument is from the seventeenth century A.D., whereas we have wall reliefs seven hundred years earlier! The book does not even mention our tribal bowed instruments of which there are galore. Even a cursory listing gives at least fifty tribal and folk instruments of this class, though sometimes there really are no considerable differences among them. Kingri or pradhansIt is quite possible that instruments of this kind find references in Indian texts as old as the seventh century A.D. and subsequent musical works have frequent mention and descriptions of bowed instruments. Again prototypes of the violin, a number of which are met with in folk and tribal music, have been sculpted as early as the tenth century examples of which are present in Vijayawada in Andhra and the Arakesvara temple near Mysore. Instruments of the sarinda type have come to notice in Vishnupur in Bengal; and a few temples of west India have reliefs of the sarangi. In the face of so much evidence the inference is only very obvious. India has known bowed instruments for at least eleven hundred years and there is a dire necessity for proper investigations on an extensive scale to establish their due place in world music. There is almost no corner of the country which does not, in some form or the other, have the violin kind of instrument. In this type the sound box, which usually is the shell of coconut or a small wooden chamber, is held near the shoulder of the player and the fingerboard extends downwards along his arm. The bow is held with his palm downward and the string is stopped with the balls of the fingers. To this class belong the pena of Manipur, the kenra and the banam of Orissa, the Ravana hatta of western India, the kingri of the Pradhans in Andhra and in Andhra and Maharashtra, and the veena kunju of the Pulluvans in Kerala. BanamA typical example of this group is the kingri of the Pradhans who are associated with Gonds. These latter people were once upon a time an important and ruling community in Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Andhra but now are an humble though populous tribe who have the Pradhans as their priests, bards and musicians. The latter's function is to sing of the Gond family traditions and perform at various religious rites, death ceremonies, marriages, festivals and so on. The three important instruments used by them are the pepre (a double reed instrument like the shehnai and nagasvaram), the dhole (a drum) and the kingri. The last is dear to them and they have a legend about who it was invented. There was a rakshasa (demon) who was killed by a clever use by Bhimana (the youngest of the five Pandavas as per their mythology). Manko, the daughter of the demon, sat weeping when Toti the parrot of the house came to ask for his dues." "What shall I give you?', said Manko, 'I have nothing.' Then she took an unburnt piece of wood from the fire; then Toti opened his cloth, and she put it in saying, 'of this make a kingri and when you play it the Gonds will give you presents of calves, bulls, cloth or grain.'" The instrument has a squarish resonator box and is covered with goat skin. The fingerboard is long bamboo inserted into it and has three pegs. Three tufts of horse hair form the 'strings' which are bowed, the musician holding the kingri with the sound box near the chin and the pegs near the palm of his outstretched hand, like the violin. The bow has a number of bells of brass (ghungroo) tied to it, giving a delicate rhythm accompanying the music. (48) The Ravana hatta or the Ravana hasta veena of Gujarat and Rajasthan is possibly a vital link between the very ancient bowed instruments which might have existed before it and the violin. The name commencing with Ravana, historians have without much thought or hesitation attributed its invention to the scholarly villain of the Ramayana. However, it is more probable that the Ravana hatta was first mentioned in the seventh century A.D., though it ever came to bear the name of the demon king is one of those unsolved mysteries. Today it is a very common and popular fiddle in western India. The bowl is of cut coconut shell the mouth of which is covered over with hide and like the kingri a bamboo dandi is attached to this shell. The principal strings are two: one of steel and the other of a set of horse hair; besides these there is a tarab. The bow is much longer than with the kingri but like with it the bow has jingle bells. While the two instruments described above are of one kind in which were included the pena, the banam, the kenra, as well as the pulluvan veena, the other class comprises those wherein the manner of holding fiddle is the reverse: resonator below and the pegs above. Of such a kind are the kamaicha, the sarinda and the sarangi. SarindaThe kamaicha is of special interest as it connects the Indian subcontinent to western Asia and even Africa. As a matter of fact, it is the oldest bowed instrument in world literature, barring, perhaps, the Ravana hatta. As far as information is available, it was known in Egypt as well as in Sind from the tenth century A.D. The commonly accepted idea is that its name is derivable from the Arabic-Persian word kaman meaning bow. It is of course a moot point whether the kamaicha went from Sind in the Indian subcontinent to West Asia and Egypt or vice versa; also was the ancient kamaicha similar in shape, size and mode of playing to our kamaicha. Answers to these queries might give us a better insight into the history of Indian bowed instruments. The kamaicha now found in our country is a bowed lute of Monghniar people of west Rajasthan which borders on the Sind province, now in Pakistan. The whole instrument is one piece of wood, the spherical bowl extended into a neck and fingerboard; the resonator is covered with leather and the upper portion with wood. There are four strings which are the main ones and there are a number of subsidiary ones passing over a thin bridge. The sarinda is found along the northern hilly tracts and with some of the tribes in Bihar. A very noticeable characteristic of this instrument is its shape. It will be remembered that all the bowed lutes described so far had one hollow resonator which was mostly spherical. But the sarinda has a body so deeply pinched that it looks as if it is of two parts. The lower section is a small pear shaped one and it is only this that has a hide covering. The upper part is much bigger and has a kind of 'winged' shape; further it is completely open and continues on to the dandi. Over this run four strings of twisted cotton, gut or metal. SarangiFinally we come to the most important of Indian bowed instruments: the sarangi. The concert model is made of one block of wood and is about sixty centimeters in height. The hollow body is wide but waisted at the bottom and this extends into the flat fingerboard. The lower portion is covered with parchment and acts as the main sound box, while the upper portion has a wooden cover. The principal strains, four in number, are of gut usually and as is characteristic of north Indian instruments there is a tarab. The most notable aspect is the finger technique not used in any other case: the fingers are stopped with the sides of the finger nails and not by the balls of fingers. While the folk types are very much like the concert one and nearly of the same construction, there is a giant variety known as the mandar bahar which gives a brass sound and in sometimes met with in classical ensembles. The sarangi, more than any other stringed instrument, is at once a typical folk and a concert lute. This again opens up a very enigmatic question in our music, which is this. Here is an 'Indian' instrument deeply rooted in certain folk traditions and highly sophisticated into one system-that of the Hindustani classical music as a very desirable accompaniment but yet shunned totally by Karnatak musicians. Not that the sarangi is completely absent in the south. Strangely enough isolated examples of its uses are known and that too with aduvars who are musicians who sing the tevarams, an ancient Tamil hymnody. In spite of such incursion into very orthodox camps the sarangi has not been adapted into south Indian classical music which has taken to a more alien instrument, the violin. Even in the north the sarangi was better known as an accompaniment to the music of nautch girls and sarangiyas (players on the instrument) were one of the lowest classes of instrumentalists socially. Today the picture is very different, for the sarangi is very much in demand in highbrow concert, its players have received national honours and earned worldwide reputation. Tar shehnaiThere are a number of folk sarangi, all more or less confined to Rajasthan and contiguous provinces, though the peculiar fingering methods are known as far away as in Yugoslavia and Greece. The folk types found in our land are the Gujeratan sarangi, the jogi sarangi, the Sindhi sarangi and the dhani sarangi all of which are of general similitude but very in details. Evidently it is from these that the concert instrument has evolved. A curious combination of the sarangi and the sitar is the dilruba (or the esraj in Bengal). This has a resonator very much like in the former: it is also held and bowed like it. But the dandi is long and has frets tied as in the latter. Though, in a way, the sound is more mellow than that of the sarangi, it has really been used in concerts of classical music; and while it is not a folk instrument either, the dilruba is employed in light music and is a favourite with Bengali musicians as esraj. Bowed instruments, then, are spread far in the country not merely geographically but ethnically and culturally. However, notwithstanding their popularity we are still faced with the problems of their beginning and migrations. This is not merely in India but the world over. A very distinguished scholar said nearly seven decades ago: "the origin of bowed instruments remains an unsolved problem". We have not solved it yet. Saptatantri Veena, Vil Yazh, Santoor, Tuila Of Orissa, Vichitra Veena, Tribal Kinnari, Sarode, Rudra Veena, Sitar, Pradhans, Sarinda, Mandar Bahar, Dhani Sarangi, Classes Of Stringed Instruments, Sushira Vadya, Harmonica, Pan Pipes, Musical Situation, Gopi Yantra, Ek Tara, Premtal, Khamak, Chonka, Jamidika, Santals Of Orissa, Tamboori Group, Saraswati Veena, Melodic Stringed Instruments, Villadi Vadyam, Harps, Vedic Veenas
Safety Tip: Always Wear a Helmet While riding well can prevent crashes, they can still happen in spite of your skill on a bike. Wearing a bike helmet is the most effective way to ensure that if a crash happens, you will survive it. Please keep these five things in mind when thinking about purchasing a helmet: 1. Every helmet sold in the US meets the same safety standards. Spending $200 might get you a cooler helmet, but it won’t get you one that keeps your head safer. 2. However, a helmet won’t help if it doesn’t fit you correctly. Take these steps to put your helmet on right: • Place the helmet level on your head, not too far forward or back. The brim should be about two fingers’ width above your eyebrows. • The side straps should come to a V just below your earlobes. • The chinstrap should be snug under your chin. When you open your mouth wide, you should feel the helmet tug down on the top of your head. • The helmet shouldn’t wobble or shake when you move your head. 3. Helmet laws vary by location: people under 16 must wear helmets in DC and MD, under 14 in VA. 4. Helmets are good for one crash only! Additionally, they need to be replaced every 4-6 years whether you have been involved in a crash or not. 5. On a bike, you can avoid many crashes by paying attention and riding visibly & predictably. But you can’t control or avoid everything, and when a crash happens, a bike helmet is your last line of defense. Don’t ride without it! This is just one tip for safer cycling, but the Washington Area Bicyclist Association (WABA) is a wellspring of more useful information. Make them your go-to resource for safety tips, bike classes, events and more at
Why Liberia turns to its American 'big brother' For a country with little economic, military, or geopolitical value to the United States, Liberia has managed to climb to the top of the Bush administration's agenda. Within the next three days, about 2,000 US marines are expected to station themselves off the coast of the war-torn country to support a West African peacekeeping force. The US has said, however, that it will not lead any peacekeeping operation and has indicated that most of the troops are unlikely to go ashore. On Wednesday, the US asked the United Nations to authorize an international peacekeeping force. Paving the way, a Nigerian-led inspection team arrived in Liberia yesterday. For weeks, Liberians had invoked their country's historical ties to the US to persuadetheir transatlantic "big brother" to help end the three-year war between rebel insurgents and President Charles Taylor. Created in 1847 as a haven for freed American slaves, Liberia is the closest thing in Africa to a former US colony. Over the years, it has been a solid bit player in US foreign policy.But since the mid-1980s, ties have largely been severed. How strong are the ties? For more than 120 years, the Liberian government was the US republican system writ small. A US grade-schooler could be forgiven for mistaking Liberia's bicameral legislature and separation of powers for Uncle Sam's own. The founding former slaves, who made up less than 5 percent of Liberia's population, wore American clothes, spoke English, and even installed themselves as masters in a system of slavery like the one they had fled. During the 20th century, Liberia played a role in America's World War II effort, with African rubber sailing to American factories from Liberian ports. As the cold war heated up, the airport in Monrovia, the capital, provided US military aircraft 24-hour-a-day landing rights. From Liberia, the US beamed Voice of America programs and relayed radio communications to its embassies around the continent. A 1,400-ft. radio tower guided US ships and planes operating in the Atlantic. Throughout the first half of the 1980s, the West African nation received some $500 million in military aid, the largest amount given to any African country. But as the US began promoting democracy in the developing world as a buffer against Soviet communism, Liberia fell out of favor. The oppression of native groups by the Americo-Liberians, as the descendants of the former slaves were known, became antithetical to the US's pro-democracy agenda. "[The US] actually turned against the Americo-Liberian elite, regarding them as aristocratic residue of a former tyrant - aristocrats who paid little attention to the indigenous population," says Chris Melville, Central and West Africa analyst for World Markets Research Centre in London. Things changed briefly when Samuel Doe took power in a 1980 coup. He became a favorite of the Reagan administration. "The US began to see his coup as a kind of revolution, the revenge of these ethnic groups against the Americo-Liberians," says Mr. Melville. Mr. Doe, uneducated and politically green, became a US puppet. He was anti-Soviet and a bulwark against Libya's president, Muammar Qaddafi, who was accused of running terrorist training camps and meddling in countries around Africa. To show its favor toward Doe, the US turned a blind eye when he allegedly stole the 1985 election. Did the 1980s shatter the links? But Doe, too, soon fell out with the US. He was known for killing his political opponents, and tens of millions of dollars that the US sent him went unaccounted for. In 1987, 17 Americans were sent to run the country's finances, though they wound up leaving six months into their two-year stay because of growing unrest from rebel groups that wanted to oust Doe. The CIA may have even tried to topple Doe, in one of dozens of coup attempts against him. In his book, "The Skull Beneath the Skin," author Mark Huband writes that a deputy in Doe's security services, who had unsuccessfully attacked Doe's convoy in an effort to overthrow him, said that a "US adviser" had helped instigate his failed coup. Mr. Taylor eventually took power in 1990. Taylor graduated from Bentley College in Waltham, Mass., in 1977. He was briefly jailed in the US for embezzling money from the Liberian government, but escaped and later emerged as head of the rebel group that helped topple Doe. Should the US intervene? The US never established formal relations with Taylor because of alleged links to Mr. Qaddafi. Even before he took power, the US had begun turning to other West African countries to replace Liberia as the strategic center of the region. But in an interview with The Washington Times last week, US Secretary of State Colin Powell said that while US interests in Liberia may not be "strategic" or "vital," there is still reason for intervention, including what he called the two countries' "historical links." He also cited the recent successful missions by the British and French, who helped end wars in Sierra Leone and Ivory Coast. He said that the most powerful nation on earth has an "obligation" to help needy places. "We looked away once in Rwanda, with tragic consequences," he said, referring to the killing of more than a half million people there in 1994. Still, with thousands of US troops in Iraq, Afghanistan, and elsewhere, the Pentagon and White House have balked at overcommitting to Liberia. But Melville says that Iraq and Afghanistan are precisely why the US would want to get involved. While those countries are skeptical of having US troops in their backyard, Liberians have begged for American help. This makes for good public relations, he says. "When the State Department wants to put a humanitarian gloss on US foreign policy, to use military might outside narrowly defined strategic interests, they can invoke historical ties as a way to justify [intervening]," says Melville. Who's who President Charles Taylor • Born in 1948 to a Liberian mother and an Americo-Liberian father. • Graduated in 1977 from Bentley College in Waltham, Mass. • Accused of embezzling more than $900,000 from the Liberian government in the mid-1980s. Fled to the US where he was jailed, but later escaped. • Reemerged in 1989 as leader of a rebel group intent on ousting President Samuel Doe. The US sent marines to evacuate the US Embassy in 1990 as fighting intensified. Taylor took power that year when Doe was toppled. • Elected president in 1997. • Indicted for war crimes in Sierra Leone by a UN-backed tribunal on charges of supporting rebel groups blamed for atrocities. Liberians United for Reconciliation and Democracy (LURD) • Formed in 2000, Liberia's largest insurgency group seeks to oust Taylor through military and political means. • Reportedly supported by Guinea and displaced and exiled Liberians, and tacitly backed by the US through its support of Guinea. • Condemned by human rights groups for killings, rape, torture, and kidnapping. • LURD and the Movement for Democracy in Liberia (MODEL), a spinoff rebel group formed in March, control around two-thirds of Liberia. • The armed Monitoring Group of the 15-member Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). It was first deployed in 1990 to halt factional fighting in Liberia. • It has since conducted intervention or peacekeeping in Sierra Leone, Guinea-Bissau, and Ivory Coast. • It is not a standing army. Instead, troops and funds are donated by member nations for specific missions. • The US has helped train ECOMOG and contributed more than $100 million to its efforts. - Compiled by Teresa Méndez Sources: PBS, BBC, US Embassy Fact Sheet, globalsecurity.org A brief history of US-Liberian relations 1822 Liberia is first settled by former American slaves. Two years later, the main settlement is renamed Monrovia for US President James Monroe. July 26, 1847 Liberia is officially founded. National flag is based on America's Stars and Stripes. June 3, 1862 US formally recog-nizes Liberia's independence. May 8, 1917 Under pressure from the US and Britain, Liberia declares war on Germany. 1926 Firestone Tire and Rubber Co. opens a plantation. January 27, 1944 Liberia enters World War II, declaring war against Germany and Japan. August 1957 The US erects a Voice of America relay, one of several US communications facilities on Liberian soil during the cold war. 1962 US Peace Corps begins operating in Liberia, continues for nearly 30 years. 1978 President Jimmy Carter makes first official US presidential visit to Liberia. 1981 Samuel Doe takes power in a coup, receives more than $500 million in US military aid over the next half decade. 1987 US sends 17 experts to manage Liberia's finances. They leave six months later because of growing unrest. 1990 Charles Taylor topples Doe. The US sends 2,000 troops to evacuate Embassy personnel and US citizens. 2003 President Bush sends 2,000 marines to support West African peacekeeping forces. Source: PBS, staff research About these ads Sponsored Content by LockerDome Save for later Saved ( of items) This item has been saved to read later from any device. View Saved Items Failed to save You reached the limit of 20 saved items. 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Detecting the first signs of organ transplant rejection could be as easy as measuring levels of organ donor DNA in the transplant recipient's blood, a new study suggests. Currently, surgical biopsies are required to track the health of donated organs. Heart transplant recipients in particular have to undergo at least 12 biopsies in the first year of their transplant to make sure their body is accepting the new organ, and then two or three a year for the next four years, researchers said. But a simple blood draw could eventually replace those biopsies , as well as decrease the need for anti-rejection medications that come with a host of side effects such as diabetes, hypertension and renal problems, said Dr. Hannah Valantine, professor of cardiovascular medicine at Stanford University School of Medicine in California. "What we've seen in those biopsies is damage and breakage of the heart muscle," Valantine told MyHealthNewsDaily. "This blood test, which shows the elevation in the level of the donor DNA, occurs a long time before that biopsy gets harvested." The study was published online March 28 in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. Measuring DNA Valantine first pioneered blood tests to diagnose organ rejection in 2010, when she developed a test that detects expression of 20 genes in the patient's blood to see if the body is attacking the new organ. But in this new technique, developed by Stanford bioengineering professor Stephen Quake, the levels of organ DNA, specifically of certain chromosomes, in the blood are tested as a sign of early rejection. Females have only X chromosomes, while males have X and Y chromosomes. Valantine and her colleagues gathered blood samples from 39 women who received heart transplants from men (and would therefore have Y chromosomes in their blood from the donor organ), and tested the amount of donor DNA in their blood . The researchers found that women whose bodies were rejecting the donor hearts had an increase in Y chromosomes in their blood, from the normal 0.5 percent to 8 percent, the study said. Then, researchers tried seeing if the test worked even in men who received male hearts (who would therefore already possess Y chromosomes) by identifying genome segments unique to the donor. They applied the technique to three women and four men who all received hearts from male donors. They found that the blood test accurately predicted early organ rejection, even in the men. Donor DNA levels of 3 to 4 percent in the blood, up from the norm of about 0.5 percent, signaled early organ rejection, the study said. Donor DNA "really rises precipitously just before the rejection," Valantine said. What's at stake The sooner organ rejection is identified, the fewer drugs that are needed to control the rejection, Valantine said. Usually when doctors do a biopsy and find that there is organ rejection, they give steroidal medications to the patient that can cause serious side effects. But since the blood test catches rejection early on, doctors would be able to give the patient a smaller dose of anti-rejection medication, or even just increase the dose of the maintenance immunosuppressive drugs the patient has to take anyway, she said. The ultimate hope is to eliminate the need for biopsies, Valantine said. "If we see the blood level [of donor DNA] going up and we took a biopsy, chances are we would be getting it before the biopsy is even able to come back positive," Valantine said. "And if we wait for the biopsy to be positive, it wouldn't add anything" because the blood test would have already detected the early rejection. Biopsies are a bit like mini-surgeries for heart transplant patients , she said. Patients must go in to the doctor, where a needle tool is inserted into the neck to snip off part of the heart for testing. The patient must be given a local anesthetic for the procedure, and two to three years' worth of biopsies usually leads to scarring, Valantine said. "It's unpleasant for the patient, and costly," she said. Now, Valantine and her colleagues are applying for a patent for the blood test. They also plan to conduct a study that tracks transplant recipients over time as they are administered blood tests to track organ rejection. Pass it on: A simple blood test could predict early organ rejection for heart transplant patients. Follow MyHealthNewsDaily staff writer Amanda Chan on Twitter @AmandaLChan.
Bill GatesVincent Kessler/Reuters On Jan. 3, 1996, Microsoft CEO Bill Gates wrote an essay titled "Content is King" in which he made a number of bold predictions for what the internet would look like in the future. At the time, only about 1% of the world was online, connection speeds were painfully slow, and there were relatively few websites to choose from. The big modern web staples like YouTube and Facebook didn't exist, and media organizations (like this one) built to serve only digital consumers were unheard of. Still, the man who helped lead the personal computer revolution could see something bigger on the horizon. In his essay, he predicted everything from the death of print media to the rise in user-generated content sites like Reddit. And he was right. Here's a look at what Gates predicted: View As: One Page Slides
Gardens: how to plant trees Much of the traditional advice is based on large amounts of compost and very little science. Here’s how to do it properly… Root and branch: a very young oak tree reaching for the sky. Root and branch: a very young oak tree reaching for the sky. Photograph: Getty Images No field of domestic endeavour is so wrapped up in fuzzy nostalgia as gardening. But, as a botanist, I often wonder whether our unquestioning devotion to the “tried and tested” methods of our grandparents may be hampering our success. Despite frequently being doled out as gospel, many of the most enduring gardening “rules” were actually disproven by horticultural science decades ago. Nowhere is this clearer than in tree planting. This autumn, swap traditional advice for more scientifically valid alternatives. Not only should you get measurably better results, but potentially you’ll need to do considerably less work. Almost every piece of gardening advice ever written instructs gardeners to incorporate large amounts of compost into the planting hole of new trees, sometimes as much as 25% to 50%. But where does this advice come from? To date there is not a single scientific trial that demonstrates that this works. In fact, only one study did not report this addition of compost to have a detrimental effect. Research consistently shows that despite promising initial results, in the long term this practice can hinder the ability of tree roots to colonise the surrounding soil, preventing proper establishment. Creating a pit of airy, free-draining planting mix within an expanse of often more compacted native soil can create a waterlogged sump in winter, while conversely causing desiccation of the root zone in summer. As the compost slowly breaks down it shrinks, potentially undermining the stability of the tree. Sprinkling the root ball of young trees with bonemeal is often claimed to help provide them with much-needed phosphorous to stimulate root growth. In reality, most UK garden soils are not deficient in phosphorous. On the contrary, high levels of phosphorous can prevent the establishment of beneficial mycorrhizal fungi that act as a secondary root system. Instead, try sprinkling a large handful of sugar around the roots before watering in well. This practice can boost the populations of mycorrhizal fungi, and according to research at the University of Reading can even directly fuel the growth of roots in newly planted bare-root trees, while simultaneously protecting them from stress. Finally, instead of the traditional round hole, try planting trees in square ones. This may sound like a gimmick, but studies show that this subtle difference in shape prevents the roots from spiralling around the hole, acting as if they were still in a container. In these square holes, once the roots hit a corner they flare out into surrounding soil, significantly aiding their establishment. And as spade blades are more or less flat, digging square holes also happens to be easier than perfectly round ones. Email James at or follow him on Twitter: @Botanygeek
Image from an ultrasound scan Latitude may be one of the factors that determine the sex of your baby, according to new research. If you want a girl, head to the tropics. A paper published in the Royal Society's Biology Letters suggest that there's evidence linking variations in the ratio of male and female births with specific latitudes. The study is based on information gathered from more than 200 countries by the Central Intelligence Agency between 1997 and 2006 and considers variations from country to country, including socio-economic impacts. Overwhelmingly, however, the data shows that latitude was the clear determining factor. "Globally, human sex ratios were significantly and positively correlated with latitude and its related climatic variables, but not with socio-economic status," said Dr Kristen Navara, author of the paper. Global birth ratios average 51.5 per cent male, or 106 males for every 100 females. However, in the tropics this ratio drops to 51.1 per cent, a significant discrepancy in actual births. Prior research has explored the social environment impacts, but Navara highlights the importance of latitude in her study, saying "this relationship emerged despite enormous lifestyle and socio-economic variation among countries and continents." The paper adds to existing studies on the impact of temperature on birth ratios, including one in Germany and one recently completed in Finland, which offered only small scale data-sets with no tropical regions. Although the precise causes for the variations are still unclear, Dr Navara concluded that day length and temperature had considerable influence. "Clearly, a relationship exists between human natal sex ratios and latitudinal variables on a global scale," she said. "Ejaculate quality and fertility rate in humans vary with day length." "The results shown here could indicate an adaptive strategy employed by humans," she added. Latest on
Tuesday, May 3, 2011 Albert Einstein’s Letter to Phyllis In 1936, Albert Einstein wrote the following letter to a sixth-grade student, Phyllis Wright, in response to her question as to whether scientists pray, and if so, what they pray for. January 24, 1936 Dear Phyllis, I have tried to respond to your question as simply as I could. Here is my answer Scientific research is based on the idea that everything that takes place is determined by laws of nature, and therefore this holds for the actions of people. For this reason, a research scientist will hardly be inclined to believe that events could be influenced by a prayer, i.e., by a wish addressed to a supernatural being. However, it must be admitted that our actual knowledge of the laws is only imperfect and fragmentary, so that, actually, the belief in the existence of basic all-embracing laws in Nature also rests on a sort of faith. All the same this faith has been largely justified so far by the success of scientific research. But, on the other hand, everyone one who is seriously involved in the pursuit of science becomes convinced that a spirit is manifest in the laws of the Universe – a spirit vastly superior to that of man, and one in the face of which we with our modest powers must feel humble. In this way the pursuit of science leads to a religious feeling of a special sort, which is indeed quite different from the religiosity of someone more naïve. I hope this answers your question. Best wishes, Albert Einstein My critique of the letter The above letter by Albert Einstein gives a simplistic explanation of scientific research. He explains that research or science is based on the idea that everything that takes place is determined by the Laws of Nature. A law implies systematic function over time. A systematic function indicates a system. A system indicates structure A structure indicates hierarchy of order or cross-functioning relationships. Order and functions operate on intelligence. Therefore, by Einstein’s own words, he implies that there is a higher order or higher intelligence governing the systematic laws of nature. The scientists, however, are only interested in understanding how the laws function and not so much the system behind the law. To give a crude analogy, it is like someone is interested in the laws concerning driving but not so much interested with the department of transportation that creates and implements the law. In one sense, one does not need to know the department to understand the law. However, this type of understanding is incomplete. Unless one understands the functions and systems of a body of governance, it is very difficult to interpret and manipulate the laws completely and perfectly. In other words, incomplete and imperfect understanding of a law can lead to ultimate systems malfunction (disorder) thus defeating the original purpose of a law (that is to create order). Einstein in his letter admits to the imperfect and fragmentary knowledge base of the scientific community. What he does not say is that this imperfect learning can do more harm than good. This we are realizing today. The issues of global warming, environmental pollution (air, water etc), species extinction, cross pollination of diseases between man and animal, gradual degradation of social and cultural ethos of man devolving him/her to mere animal propensities etc etc the list can go on. All indicate disorder or systems malfunction. The very laws that were created to help mankind is actually causing harm. Einstein out of humility thus revealing his true intellectual genius admits the limitations and also writes that one who is serious about scientific knowledge is convinced of a Great Spirit above the laws. He is indirectly indicating about intelligence beyond our own. This is the beginning of Vedic studies. Where Einstein ends, the saints of the Vedic school begin that the intelligence of the universe is beyond our own and that our understanding is negligible in comparison. Therefore, to actually be religious and scientific means to make this shift in paradigm. That is to scientifically study and admit our own infinitesimal position in relation to the infinite and religiously approach the Great Spirit (the Infinite) in a mood of humility and devotion to reveal the system, its laws and our relationship with it. Then, our knowledge becomes perfect and complete. Hare Krishna Anonymous said... I can't really comprehend what you are saying, do you think you can simplify it, please? Thanks you in advance (: ananda said... I tried emailing you but your email does not work. I am getting return messages. To put in simplified terms, I wanted to say that scientists also operate on faith albeit based on evidence and information. According to Einstein there is a spirit that is beyond human comprehension and hence we as humans should humble ourselves before it. My point is that Vedic science has deeper and substantive information regarding that spirit and there is actual evidence from people who have practiced Vedic science who have come in contact with that Spirit and have been revealed the nature of the universe and man's relationship with it. If we simply learn to follow the instructions of such great masters who have practiced according to Vedic literature, we also can perceive the spirit, universe and its laws in a more comprehensive manner and with evidence. So unlike modern religion where faith is based merely on "belief" on a supernatural being naively, Vedic science inculcates faith based on evidence derived from one's own strict practice of spiritual life and simply not based on scriptures. However to practice also requires some form of preliminary faith and determination. Hope this helps. Hare Krishna
Notifications You have no notifications Healthy Habits Page 2 of 2 Eat just one cookie per day If you have a sweet tooth, try to cut back. Sugar is loaded with calories and it’s often paired with fats (in cookie or candy form), which is also packed with calories. Additionally, excessive sugar (and weight) throughout your lifetime can lead to type 2 diabetes, a serious disease that can have dire consequences. So take it easy with the sweets; if you really need that cookie after lunch, have just one. Drink just one soda per week Soda can have serious health affects. Firstly, it’s nothing but pure empty calories — sugar without any nutrients. And those calories won’t go anywhere but your waistline. Secondly, most sodas contain high fructose corn syrup, which is a super sweet syrup that can spike your blood sugar and even trick the liver into producing more artery-clogging chemicals. If that weren’t enough to convince, consider the fact that there’s evidence that the common soda preservative — sodium benzoate — can directly damage DNA and disable mitochondria, the powerhouse of the cell. Brush and floss two times a day It’s hard to enjoy a healthy body if you have to gum your way through every meal. Brush and floss your teeth every day, without exception. The simple procedure will keep your chompers in top condition, which means that you’ll be able to tear into barbecued ribs and sweet corn until the day you die. There’s also mounting evidence that the bacteria in your mouth may play a role in heart disease. Higher levels of bacteria in the mouth, it seems, correlates directly to higher rates of cardiovascular disease. Researchers are still torn over what exactly causes the relationship, but it’s still a good idea to keep your teeth gleaming white. healthy habits to die for A little maintenance goes a long way. These tasks may seem like bothersome chores, but they could add years to your life. Stay fit, eat well and relieve stress and you’ll live longer and happier. Resources: - Water - Stress - Type 2 diabetes - Benefits of walking - Walking and exercise - Walking builds fitness Have a sports question ? Get it answered by AskMen's guyQ.
The Autobiography of Malcolm X Test \| Mid-Book Test - Medium Buy The Autobiography of Malcolm X Lesson Plans Name: _________________________ Period: ___________________ Multiple Choice Questions 1. How many times is Malcolm questioned on local robberies? (a) Three times (b) Four times (c) Twice (d) Once 2. What does Malcolm carry to protect himself? (a) A sword (b) A pistol (c) A knife (d) A rifle 3. Who comes to visit Malcolm in this chapter? (a) The headmaster (b) His brother (c) His mother (d) His sister 4. What does Ella encourage Malcolm to do before he gets a job? (a) Learn about religion (b) Explore the city (c) Get an education (d) Learn an instrument 5. Who is the only person in Harlem that Malcolm says he trusts? (a) Shorty (b) Sammy (c) Archie (d) Philly Short Answer Questions 1. How long does Malcolm's mother spend in a mental institution? 2. What does Malcolm say black men are trying to look like with their conk hairstyles? 3. For what does Malcolm bribe the guards? 4. What does Malcolm manage to evade at the end of this chapter? 5. Who else was Malcolm working for in this chapter? Short Essay Questions 1. Why is Malcolm given the nickname Satan? 2. Why doe Malcolm initially think that it is a good idea to give up cigarettes in prison? 3. How does Malcolm deal with the rumors that Muhammad has been engaging in immoral activity? 4. What is the main thing Malcolm says he gets out of dating a white woman? 5. Why is Malcolm disappointed in the media's coverage of the Nation of Islam? 6. Why does Malcolm decide to take a course in English? 7. In what way did Malcolm's prison education mold his later ideas? 8. Briefly describe the history of Harlem outlined in this chapter. 9. How does Malcolm avoid the draft? 10. What does Malcolm state are the differences in the concept of love between Western religions and Islam? (see the answer keys) This section contains 782 words (approx. 3 pages at 300 words per page) Buy The Autobiography of Malcolm X Lesson Plans The Autobiography of Malcolm X from BookRags. (c)2016 BookRags, Inc. All rights reserved.
Researchers at Stanford University have developed a small "aircraft" that resembles a flying fish which can jump and glide over a greater distance than an equivalent jumping robot. Using a carbon fiber spring to take off, the jumpglider has a pivoting wing that stays out of the way during ascent, but which locks into place to glide farther on the way down. Like flying snakes, squirrels and fish, the gliding aces of the Animal Kingdom, the ability to glide affords the machine certain advantages over its "ballistic jumping" peers. A gliding robot (and we use the term robot loosely, as the jumpglider is not an autonomous sensing machine) can travel a greater distance, land more gently, and, if necessary, adjust its launch angle without greatly compromising distance. A slippery launch surface favors a steeper jump, for example. The challenge during take-off and ascent is to reduce drag as much as possible. Jumpglider's wing is free to pivot on the way up so that it naturally aligns with the direction of travel. At peak altitude, the wing locks into place using simple magnets on the wing and the body. The researchers used typical airspeeds resulting from a jump launch to optimize wing design to maximize the ratio of lift to drag. The team arrived at a 70-cm (28-inch) wing for the 30-g (1-oz) prototype. Weight has been kept to a minimum by using balsa wood for the frame and a carbon fiber and ProFormance foam wing. Analyzing the jumpglider's performance with a high-speed camera, the researchers found that though the jumpglider cannot jump as high as a simple ballistic jumper of the same weight using the same energy due to having some drag inherent in the design, it was able to jump farther horizontally thanks to its gliding descent. The gains made varied with the launch angle, traveling 40 percent farther at 58º and 20 percent farther at 45º. However, as researcher Alexis Lussier-Desbiens highlights to Gizmag, "the optimum jump angle of a ballistic jumper […] is fixed at 45º, which means that significant amount of friction is required to achieve that maximum theoretical jumping distance." The jumpglider is not so restricted. Despite reports to the contrary, Lussier-Desbiens emphasizes the jumpglider's lack of autonomy. "Currently, the spring is manually loaded and the robot can't reload its spring by itself," he tells Gizmag. "This is something we will work on in the future, but demonstrating autonomous operations wasn't the focus of this work as many researchers have already demonstrated that on other jumping robots." Similarly, the prototype is not currently equipped with solar technology. You can see the jumpglider in action in the video below. Source: Biomimetics & Dextrous Manipulation Laboratory, Stanford University, Efficient Jumpgliding: Theory and Design Considerations (PDF)
Rare America map is found in Munich Researchers in Munich have chanced upon a version of a 16th-century world map that was the first to use the name "America". Librarians at Ludwig Maximilian University found a copy of the small map by Martin Waldseemueller wedged inside an unrelated 19th-century book. The sheet is one of only five known copies of the map that can be folded to resemble a globe. Waldseemueller believed the Italian Amerigo Vespucci, rather than Christopher Columbus, discovered America and named the continent after him.
Capital Saturation DEFINITION of 'Capital Saturation ' An economic state in which real income is high and is expected to continue to rise, causing the general public, corporations and even public entities to focus on consumption rather than savings. Capital saturation is usually associated with low interest rates, which further encourage spending and discourage savings. As a result, capital saturation would lead to an economic upswing as companies spend more money and create jobs. BREAKING DOWN 'Capital Saturation ' A potential problem with capital saturation and the boom it can produce is that the economy may reach a state of euphoria that is fully dependent on the current conditions of prosperity. If the elevated levels of consumption are reduced for reasons such as an economic shock or an increase in interest rates, firms will be left with excess capacity in their facilities. The shift away from this bubble type of economy may result in an eventual bust. 1. National Savings Rate An estimate from the U.S. Commerce Department's Bureau of Economic ... 2. Bust A period of time during which economic growth decreases rapidly. ... 3. Autonomous Consumption The minimum level of consumption that would still exist even ... 4. Capital Markets Capital markets are markets for buying and selling equity and ... 5. Economic Conditions The state of the economy in a country or region. Economic conditions ... 6. Boom A period of time during which sales of a product or business ... Related Articles 1. Investing News Why Positive Economic Data Pushes the Market Down Unemployment comes in higher than analysts’ expectations, and the market rallies 1% instead of dropping. GDP growth exceeds expectations slightly, and markets drop. Why could this be happening? 2. Economics Negative Interest Rates: Would Americans Spend More? Find out why the experimental negative interest rate policy from the Federal Reserve might not spur Americans to spend more money. 3. Economics Understanding Capital Capital has a variety of meanings, but it generally refers to financial resources. 4. Options & Futures Profiting From A Consumerless Recovery Recovering from an economic slump isn't the easiest thing to do, but here are a few potential methods of rebuilding. 5. Fundamental Analysis High Debt and Savings Rates Hinder China's Economy China's recent debt explosion seems odd considering its high savings rate, but the two are related and may provide the key for renewed growth. 6. Economics How Can Emerging Markets Avoid The Middle-Income Trap? Emerging markets all reach a point when rapid growth stops. We look at ways to avoid this and move to the next level. 7. Investing Can the U.S. Consumer Continue to Hold Up the World? Seven years into the recovery, a key driver of economic growth continues to demonstrate a frustrating conundrum: Consumer spending remains respectable. 8. Retirement Consumer Confidence: A Killer Statistic The consumer confidence is key to any market economy, so investors need to learn the measures and how to analyze them. 9. Economics Understanding Capital Investment 10. Investing Is Apple a Recession Bellwether? Apple's drop in sales for the first time since 2003 amidst similar declines in U.S. corporate profits could be a sign that the U.S. economy is in trouble. 1. What is the difference between induced consumption and autonomous consumption? Explore the difference between autonomous consumption and induced consumption. Simplify the world of economics by understanding ... Read Answer >> 2. How do changes in interest rates affect the spending habits in the economy? Examine the factors that typically determine how consumers react to interest rate changes in terms of increasing their levels ... Read Answer >> 3. What is the difference between financial capital and economic capital? Read about the differences between types of financial capital, which companies use to raise money, and economic capital models ... Read Answer >> 4. How do interest rate changes affect price elasticity in consumer discretionary goods? See if a change in interest rates will affect the price elasticity of demand of consumers for discretionary goods, holding ... Read Answer >> 5. What is 'capital' in relation to the factors of production? Find out what economists mean by physical capital, how it contributes to the productivity of labor and why it is a crucial ... Read Answer >> 6. Do lower interest rates increase investment spending? Learn how the Federal Reserve Board uses monetary policy and the federal funds rate to influence long-term interest rates ... Read Answer >> Hot Definitions 1. Over-The-Counter - OTC 2. Quarter - Q1, Q2, Q3, Q4 3. Weighted Average Cost Of Capital - WACC 4. Basis Point (BPS) 5. Sharing Economy 6. Unlevered Beta Trading Center
Skip to content Font Size Clostridium Difficile Colitis - Overview What is Clostridium difficile colitis? Clostridium difficile (also called C. difficile) are bacteria that can cause swelling and irritation of the large intestine, or colon camera.gif. This inflammation, known as colitis, can cause diarrhea, fever, and abdominal cramps. You may get C. difficile colitisC. difficile if you take antibiotics. C. difficile also can be passed from person to person. But the infection is most common in people who are taking antibiotics or have taken them recently. It is also common in older people who are in hospitals and nursing homes and in people who are getting chemotherapy for cancer. Colitis caused by C. difficile can be mild or serious. In rare cases, it can cause death. What causes it? The large intestine normally contains many good bacteria that keep it healthy and do not cause disease. If you take antibiotics to kill bacteria that do cause disease, your medicine may also kill the good bacteria. This may allow C. difficile bacteria to grow in your large intestine and release harmful substances called toxins. Experts also think that, in some cases, antibiotics may cause these toxins to be released. When the toxins are released, the colon becomes inflamed. People who take medicines that reduce stomach acid, such as Nexium, Prevacid, or Prilosec, also have a greater risk of getting a C. difficile infection.1 C. difficile may be spread when an infected person does not wash his or her hands after using the bathroom and then touches something like a door handle, bed rail, or phone. This may leave C. difficile bacteria on the objects. Other people can get infected if they touch a contaminated object and then eat or rub their faces with their hands. Health care workers can pass this bacteria from room to room in a hospital or a long-term care facility. The best way to prevent spreading C. difficile is to wash your hands often, especially after you use the bathroom. It is also a good idea to wash your hands before and after you visit a hospital, nursing home, or other place where people may be ill or weak. 1 \| 2 \| 3 1 \| 2 \| 3 Next Article: Clostridium Difficile Colitis Topics Today on WebMD man holding his stomach Get the facts on common problems. blueberries in a palm Best and worst foods. woman shopping Learn what foods to avoid. fresh and dried plums Will it help constipation? diverticuliltis illustration couple eating at cafe sick child Woman blowing bubble gum Send yourself a link to download the app. Loading ... Please wait... This feature is temporarily unavailable. Please try again later. Woman with crohns in pain Woman with stomach pain diet for diverticulitis what causes diarrhea
raw mode (operating system) A mode that allows a program to transfer bits directly to or from an I/O device without any processing, abstraction, or interpretation by the operating system. Systems that make this distinction for a disk file are generally regarded as broken. Compare rare mode, cooked mode. [Jargon File] Last updated: 2002-04-14
Sign up Here's how it works: 1. Anybody can ask a question 2. Anybody can answer Robert Heinlein is often remembered as being far to the right of his fellow members of the Big Three, Asimov and Clarke. How accurate is it to portray Heinlein as an anticommunist? share\|improve this question related:… – Ben Crowell Apr 20 '14 at 4:34 Robert Heinlein's The Moon is a Harsh Mistress was the inspiration for David Friendman, an anarcho-capitalist, to devise an economic basis for polycentric legal systems. – Chloe Apr 21 '14 at 5:23 It's somewhat of an oversimplification to say that Heinlein was a one-dimensional Cold War hawk. He was a socialist in his youth, and probably formed his first political opinions before Stalinism existed. (Stalin came to power when Heinlein was 17.) He was active in Upton Sinclair's socialist End Poverty in California (EPIC) movement, and campaigned for Sinclair in the 1934 California gubernatorial race. The Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact happened in 1939, when Heinlein was 32; for many people of his generation this was the big moment of disillusionment with socialism. Asimov recalled Heinlein as having made a rapid swing to the right politically at about the same time when he married Ginny (1948). Although by the 1950's Heinlein was ardently anticommunist, he has positive things to say about Latin American socialism in his travelogue Tramp Royale, from the same period. Heinlein's post-1950 opinions on Soviet communism were however very clear. He referred to the Soviets as the "Butchers of Budapest." He defends the McCarthy hearings in Tramp Royale. He had a falling out with Arthur Clarke over SDI. The anticommunist message was strong in Heinlein's fiction, especially in the 1950's. He wrote Starship Troopers as his response to what he saw as the West's insufficient response to Soviet aggression. In The Puppet Masters, he states an explicit analogy between the mind-controlling slugs and Soviet communism. (See How exactly are the slugs analogous to communists? .) In Farnham's Freehold, Hugh Farnham makes macho boasts about his determination to kill as many (hypothetical) invading Russian soldiers as he can before they kill him. share\|improve this answer Excellent answer. – WOPR Apr 20 '14 at 8:21 Also, he wrote such staunchly right-wingbat propaganda as "Stanger in a Strange Land" :))) – DVK-in-exile Apr 20 '14 at 21:59 @DVK: "Stranger in a Strange Land" did win the 1962 Hugo Award, became an international best seller and opened the trade bestsellers lists to science fiction writers, breaking down longstanding barriers. The novel is also a benchmark of the 1960s generation with its iconoclasm & free-love themes. – 22nd Century Fza Apr 21 '14 at 4:09 @DVK: You called Stranger "right-wingbat propaganda" and while you might believe that to be true it's a landmark novel that many, myself included, thoroughly enjoyed. It's not my favorite Heinlein but I do disagree with your characterization of it. – 22nd Century Fza Apr 21 '14 at 4:17 @22ndCenturyFza - very much so. – DVK-in-exile Apr 21 '14 at 4:54 I would point out that there is a large difference between Communism/Socialism and Stalinism. Heinlein appears to have favored a number of socialized social programs when he was younger, but was vehemently opposed to Stalinism. After he and Ginny got back from a tour of Russia, he wrote an article (found in Expanding Universe as memory serves) where he describes his hatred of the Soviet system and the very concept of Pravda. In his later work (Cat who Walked through Walls, I believe) there is implication (that is, the main character is Bob and the main female is Ginny) in his disgust with socialized healthcare, and by extension socialized programs. That said, my interpretation might be confused. Another reasonable interpretation would be that he didn't object to socialized medicine. Rather, he objected to people who expected it as their fair due, and refused to even try to better themselves and society. To restate: someone who is out of work through no fault of their own could have access to it and be grateful. Someone who sits and expects the riches of the world to be dumped on their head for the asking was another thing. If we go by some of the family units he seemed to prop up, he may well have felt that a large community-style family who worked hard would have the means to take care of their own, without the necessity of government intervention. One might also argue that his taste of Soviet Russia tainted his view towards social programs, perhaps with the dear that such programs would be cracking open the door to allow the more extreme parts of Soviet ideology to enter. As he pointed out, a society which requires its citizens to carry ID on them at all times is one on the verge of collapse, and it's time to get out. And, of course, his opinion may well have changed as he got older. I'm going to stop writing this now, because it started as a comment, and the more I think about it, the longer it gets. share\|improve this answer Your Answer
Join them; it only takes a minute: Sign up Join the Stack Overflow community to: 1. Ask programming questions 2. Answer and help your peers 3. Get recognized for your expertise In web application,there is a HTML page with below encoding: <meta content="en" http-equiv="Content-language"> <meta content="text/html; charset=UTF-8" http-equiv="Content-type"> What actually happening is on this page I am trying to display a result of a soap request. In response of this soap-request I am getting following codes: for the following characters: and surprisingly on HTML page these characters are correctly displayed as below besides the page encoding is UTF-8: èéàùìçò instead of �� I am not able to understand how these codes can be correctly converted in UTF-8 format as these codes belong to ISO-8859-15.Any idea? share\|improve this question Those characters do not exclusively belong to any character set. There are many different character sets that contain those characters. – Esailija Mar 22 '13 at 17:46 The character references such as è have meanings based on the Unicode numbers of characters, quite independently of the character encoding of the page. This has always been the principle in HTML, and only very early browsers sometimes got this wrong. This is one of the main benefits of using character references. The first 256 code positions in Unicode are identical with ISO-8859-1 code positions, which in turn are identical with ISO-8859-15 code positions except for a few characters (not including those in your example). share\|improve this answer Your Answer
Join them; it only takes a minute: Sign up Join the Stack Overflow community to: 1. Ask programming questions 2. Answer and help your peers 3. Get recognized for your expertise What is the difference between proxy server and reverse proxy server? share\|improve this question It's well explained in Apache docs, too. – Paolo Sep 25 '12 at 19:52 12 Answers 12 The previous answers were accurate, but perhaps too terse. I will try to add some examples. First of all, the word "proxy" describes someone or something acting on behalf of someone else. In the computer realm, we are talking about one server acting on the behalf of another computer. For the purposes of accessibility, I will limit my discussion to web proxies - however, the idea of a proxy is not limited to web sites. Most discussion of web proxies refers to the type of proxy known as a "forward proxy." The proxy event in this case is that the "forward proxy" retrieves data from another web site on behalf of the original requestee. A tale of 3 computers (part I) For an example, I will list three computers connected to the internet. • X = your computer, or "client" computer on the internet • Y = the proxy web site, • Z = the web site you want to visit, Normally, one would connect directly from X --> Z. However, in some scenarios, it is better for Y --> Z on behalf of X, which chains as follows: X --> Y --> Z. Reasons why X would want to use a forward proxy server: Here is a (very) partial list of uses of a forward proxy server. • 1) X is unable to access Z directly because • a) Someone with administration authority over X's internet connection has decided to block all access to site Z. • Examples: • The Storm Worm virus is spreading by tricking people into visiting, so the system administrator has blocked access to the site to prevent users from inadvertently infecting themselves. • Employees at a large company have been wasting too much time on, so management wants access blocked during business hours. • A local elementary school disallows internet access to the web site. • A government is unable to control the publishing of news, so it controls access to news instead, by blocking sites such as See TOR or FreeNet. • b) The administrator of Z has blocked X. • Examples: • The administrator of Z has noticed hacking attempts coming from X, so the administrator has decided to block X's ip address (and/or netrange). • Z is a forum web site. X is spamming the forum. Z blocks X. A tale of 3 computers (part II) For this example, I will list three computers connected to the internet. • Y = the reverse proxy web site, • Z = the web site you want to visit, However, in some scenarios, it is better for the administrator of Z to restrict or disallow direct access, and force visitors to go through Y first. So, as before, we have data being retrieved by Y --> Z on behalf of X, which chains as follows: X --> Y --> Z. What is different this time compared to a "forward proxy," is that this time the user X does not know he is accessing Z, because the user X only sees he is communicating with Y. The server Z is invisible to clients and only the forward proxy Y is visible externally. A reverse proxy requires no (proxy) configuration on the client side. The client X thinks he is only communicating with Y (X --> Y), but the reality is that Y forwarding all communication (X --> Y --> Z again). Reasons why Z would want to set up a reverse proxy server: • 1) Z wants to force all traffic to its web site to pass through Y first. • a) Z has a large web site that millions of people want to see, but a single web server cannot handle all the traffic. So Z sets up many servers, and puts a reverse proxy on the internet that will send users to the server closest to them when they try to visit Z. This is part of how the Content Distribution Network (CDN) concept works. • 2) The administrator of Z is worried about retaliation for content hosted on the server and does not want to expose the main server directly to the public. • a) Owners of Spam brands such as "Canadian Pharmacy" appear to have thousands of servers, while in reality having most websites hosted on far fewer servers. Additionally, abuse complaints about the spam will only shut down the public servers, not the main server. In the above scenarios, Z has the ability to choose Y. Links to topics from the post: Content Delivery Network forward proxy software (server side) reverse proxy software for HTTP (server side) reverse proxy software for TCP (server side) see also: share\|improve this answer One of the best answers I've seen in the site =) – Hugo Nov 23 '09 at 23:27 great answer, nice job. – Brian R. Bondy Jan 10 '10 at 3:43 Nice answer. With part II, I think you might have initially called the client computer "A" where you meant to call it "X" though? – Bryce Thomas Jun 28 '10 at 9:49 You may want to change to now :) – user961954 Nov 28 '12 at 19:47 One of the best answer on SO. A clear explanation. Many thanks. – Mick Mar 12 '13 at 7:54 A pair of simple definition would be Forward Proxy: Acting on behalf of a requestor (or service consumer) Reverse Proxy: Acting on behalf of service/content producer. share\|improve this answer +1 for keeping it simple – Calimo Jun 17 '13 at 7:58 +1 - Only thing I would add is that the difference between the two is more about deployment than implementation. – Robert Christian Feb 24 '14 at 0:54 I would totally upvote this.. but it's currently at 69. Thanks for the simple answer! – Vnge Dec 29 '14 at 18:00 The previous mopst voted answer was informative but so not to the point. This is the one. Thanks. Clear and simple. – pabloelustondo Nov 23 '15 at 19:20 Thanks for so simple but clear answer. – pkk Nov 24 '15 at 11:33 qyb2zm302's answer nicely details applications of proxies but slips up on the fundamental concept between forward and reverse proxies. For the reverse proxy, X -> Y -> Z, X knows about Y and not Z, rather than vice versa. explains the difference between forward and reverse proxies very clearly. A proxy is simply a middleman for communication(requests+responses). Client <-> Proxy <-> Server • Client proxy: ( Client <-> Proxy ) <-> Server The proxy acts on behalf of the client. Client knows about all 3 machines involved in chain. Server doesn't. • Server proxy: Client <-> ( Proxy <-> Server ) The proxy acts on behalf of the server. Client only knows about proxy. Server knows whole chain. Seems to me that forward and reverse are simply confusing, perspective-dependent names for client and server proxy. I suggest abandoning the former for the latter, for explicit communication. Of course, to further complicate the matter, not every machine is exclusively a client or a server. If there is an ambiguity in context, it's best to explicitly specify where the proxy lies, and the communications that it tunnels. share\|improve this answer This answer is in line with and helps explain it clearly – Greg Woods Jun 7 '13 at 8:42 Thanks! the same understanding :) I just got confused when reading the reverse proxy example in the most up-voted answer from @qyb2zm302. Hope someone whose native language is English could help edit that answer. – Roy Ling Jan 15 '15 at 5:53 it seems that the most relevant feature in this comparison is who-knows-who. forward proxy: client knows both proxy (it has it configured in fact) and target server (as it makes request to url of server), while, in the case of reverse proxy, the client knows of the proxy as a target server (it does not know what the proxy is actually calling; it can be one server or more). with a forward proxy, the server does not know who the clients really are, as the proxy "forwards" request to it. forward proxy: hide client(s). reverse proxy: hide server(s). – Belun Mar 10 '15 at 4:44 I highly agree with the suggested naming change to client and server proxy. To me, "reverse" is too loaded of a term for the functionality of a "reverse proxy" server! – dleve123 Jun 11 '15 at 14:29 like the clarification with client and server proxy, makes much more sense! – JackDev Jul 16 '15 at 3:49 Some diagrams might help: Forward proxy Forward proxy Reverse proxy Reverse proxy share\|improve this answer Best answer so far. – ThinkingInBits Oct 17 '15 at 22:52 Is it? They look the same! What is so special about re-writing a response that makes a proxy a "reverse" proxy? – 8bitjunkie Feb 29 at 15:31 @8bitjunkie Its about perspective. Notice that, for the forward proxy, the client knows it is communicating with a proxy server. For the reverse proxy, the client thinks it is communicating directly with The proxies also have different implementations. The reverse proxy can be pretty stupid. All it has to do is change the address and pass the call along. More networking logic on client, less on the proxy. The forward proxy, on the other hand, needs to somehow know that a request for requires a call to Less networking logic on client, more on the proxy. – Kevin Mar 23 at 14:39 -The difference is primarily in deployment. Web forward and reverse proxies all have the same underlying features, they accept requests for HTTP requests in various formats and provide a response, usually by accessing the origin or contact server. Fully featured servers usually have access control, caching, and some link-mapping features. A forward proxy is a proxy that is accessed by configuring the client machine. The client needs protocol support for proxy features (redirection, proxy auth, etc.). The proxy is transparent to the user experience, but not to the application. A reverse proxy is a proxy that is deployed as a web server and behaves like a web server, with the exception that instead of locally composing the content from programs and disk, it forwards the request to an origin server. From the client perspective it IS a web server, so the user experience is completely transparent. In fact, a single proxy instance can run as a forward and reverse proxy at the same time for different client populations. That's the short version, I can clarify if people want to comment. share\|improve this answer Just to be sure, a forward proxy is client-side and a reverse proxy is server-side? – Yves Jul 28 '14 at 13:13 @yves. a proxy is also a server. It is just that client need a local configuration so that they can communicate. While a reverse proxy requires configuration at the server itself. Their physical nodes are both at the 'server side'. – whiteletters in blankpapers Nov 10 '14 at 12:15 A proxy server proxies (and optionally caches) outgoing network requests to various not-necessarily-related public resources across the Internet. A reverse proxy captures (and optionally caches) incoming requests from the Internet and distributes them to various internal private resources, usually for HA purposes. share\|improve this answer An ordinary forward proxy is an intermediate server that sits between the client and the origin server. In order to get content from the origin server, the client sends a request to the proxy naming the origin server as the target and the proxy then requests the content from the origin server and returns it to the client. The client must be specially configured to use the forward proxy to access other sites. A reverse proxy (or gateway), by contrast, appears to the client just like an ordinary web server. No special configuration on the client is necessary. The client makes ordinary requests for content in the name-space of the reverse proxy. The reverse proxy then decides where to send those requests, and returns the content as if it was itself the origin. A typical usage of a reverse proxy is to provide Internet users access to a server that is behind a firewall. Reverse proxies can also be used to balance load among several back-end servers, or to provide caching for a slower back-end server. In addition, reverse proxies can be used simply to bring several servers into the same URL space. for more info visit : Apache Docs share\|improve this answer This is a great read to understand the differences between a Forward and Reverse PROXY A forward proxy hides the identities of clients(users) whereas a reverse proxy hides the identities of your servers. share\|improve this answer Proxy : It is making the request on behalf of the client. So, the server will return the response to the proxy and the proxy will forward the response to the client. In fact, the server will never "learn" who the client was (client's IP), it will only know the proxy. However, the client definitely knows the server, since it essentially formats the HTTP request destined for the server, but it just hands it to the proxy. enter image description here Reverse Proxy : It is receiving the request on behalf of the server. It forwards the request to the server, receives the response and then returns the response to the client. In this case, the client will never "learn" who was the actual server (server's IP) (with some exceptions), it will only know the proxy. The server will or won't know the actual client, depending on the configurations of the reverse proxy. enter image description here share\|improve this answer I feel like I could copy and paste your definitions backwards and that they would still be true. I don't think this explains any key difference or clarifies what is so "reverse" about a reverse proxy? – 8bitjunkie Feb 29 at 15:35 The proxy will always act on behalf of someone (hiding its identity from the other party). The "reverse" refers to reversing the side of which is "hidden", with it being client on the first case (regular proxy) and server on the second case (reverse proxy). Indeed, the terms could be used interchangeably, it's just a matter of convention having selected the first case as the regular proxy (probably for historic reasons). Hope this makes sense. – Raptis Dimos Feb 29 at 17:02 As per my understanding.......... To start with, as everyone knows proxy means "The authority to represent someone else". Now there are two things Forward and Reverse proxy. FORWARD PROXY Suppose you want to access "google" and "google" in turn will have n number of servers to respond to that particular request. Now in this case while you are requesting for something from google and you don’t want google to see your IP address then you will use a forward proxy, as explained below. Now here you are A sending a request through B, So C will think that the request is coming from B, not A. In this way you can prevent your clients IP not to be exposed to outer world. REVERSE PROXY. Now in this case, to make you understand we will take the same case of forward proxy. Here you have requested for something to google which in turn going to send the one request to the app server or another proxy server to get the response. So these things will happen as explained below. A<-----B<-----C From the above diagram you can see that a request has been sent to C from B not from A.Then from C there will be one Request send to D. Similarly the response will go to C from D and then to B and A. The above diagram says its only the context which matters although both the proxies are acting the same way but client side proxy is hiding client information whereas server side proxy will hide server side information. Please comment if you feel the above explanation is wrong. share\|improve this answer Heres an example of a reverse proxy (as a load balancer). A client surfs to and the server it hits has a reverse proxy running on it. The reverse proxy happens to be pound. Pound takes the request and sends it to one of the three application servers sitting behind it. In this example Pound is a load balancer. ie. it is balancing load between three application servers. The application servers serve up the website content back to the client. share\|improve this answer Although my understanding from an apache perspective is that Proxy means that if site x proxies for site y, then requests for x return y. The reverse proxy means that the response from y is adjusted so that all references to y become x. So that the user cannot tell that a proxy is involved... share\|improve this answer protected by Community Jan 11 '13 at 18:28 Would you like to answer one of these unanswered questions instead?
In many European countries, including Sweden, using a surrogate to carry a pregnancy isn't allowed. Life-saving transplants of organs such as hearts, livers and kidneys have been done for decades and doctors are increasingly transplanting hands, faces and other body parts to improve patients' quality of life. Womb transplants - the first ones intended to be temporary, just to allow childbearing - push that frontier even farther and raise some new concerns. There have been two previous attempts to transplant a womb - in Turkey and Saudi Arabia - but both failed to produce babies. Dr. Mats Brannstrom, chairman of the obstetrics and gynecology department at the University of Gothenburg, is leading the initiative. Next month, he and colleagues will run the first-ever workshop on how to perform womb transplants, and they plan to publish a scientific report on their efforts soon.
bright irregular bubble expanding into black, dusky space. Hubble Sees a Stellar "Sneezing Fit" These objects are formed from the star's energetic "sneezes." Launched due to magnetic fields around the forming star, these energetic releases can contain as much mass as our home planet, and cannon into nearby clouds of gas at hundreds of kilometers/miles per second. Shock waves form, such as the U-shape below this star. Unlike most other astronomical phenomena, as the waves crash outwards, they can be seen moving across human timescales of years. Soon, this star will stop sneezing, and mature to become a star like our sun. This region is actually home to several interesting objects. The star at the center of the frame is a variable star named V633 Cassiopeiae, with Herbig-Haro objects HH 161 and HH 164 forming parts of the horseshoe-shaped loop emanating from it. The slightly shrouded star just to the left is known as V376 Cassiopeiae, another variable star that has succumbed to its neighbor's infectious sneezing fits; this star is also sneezing, creating yet another Herbig-Haro object — HH 162. Both stars are very young and are still surrounded by dusty material left over from their formation, which spans the gap between the two. Credit: ESA/Hubble & NASA, Acknowledgement: Gilles Chapdelaine Page Last Updated: December 20th, 2013 Page Editor: Karl Hille
Share on Google+Share on Google+ Open Source Hardware Open-ness in hardware terms can have a whole range of meanings. Open Source Hardware 1. What is open source hardware Open-ness in hardware terms can have a whole range of meanings. In all the cases listed below, some hardware is open and some is not - but the trend is for open-ness to become more and more limited, restricting the freedom of designers to create or implement their own designs, and even of programmers to write the programs they wish. It sounds crazy that people could sell hardware and not tell you how to use it, but it is actually a growing trend. If a company sells any device which interfaces to a computer without publishing the interface specs, they then have a monopoly on interface software. WinModems and WinPrinters - which also cannot be supported by Linux - are a related problem. This aspect of open-ness in hardware is so closely linked with work on free software that the FSF, Debian, and FreeBSD are all among the sponsors for the Open Hardware Certification program which. 2. Open source Hardware Open source hardware is computer, or electronics, hardware that is designed in the same fashion as open source software. One example of this is the Simputer. Open source hardware is part of the open source culture that takes open source beyond just software. Some of the impetus for the development of open source hardware was initiated in 2002 through the Challenge to Silicon Valley issued by Kofi Annan [1]. Because the nature of hardware is different than software, and because the concept of open source hardware is relatively new, no exact definition of open source hardware has emerged. Because hardware has direct variable costs associated with it, no open source software definition can directly be applied without modification. 3. Embedded Open Source Hardware Open source is a powerful force in software development. So why don't we see the same thing in hardware? Modern chips, including microprocessors, are designed around "soft" reusable components. What's to keep hardware designers from collaborating on chip designs the same way others do operating systems? Maybe we just have to wait a few more years before the open-source concept catches fire among microprocessor designers. It's more likely, however, that that day will never come. Despite all the advantages claimed by the proponents of open-source software, the same benefits will probably never accrue to hardware developers. Open source doesn't translate into the world of transistors and microprocessors. 4. Open Source Hardware Initiative As both an electrical engineer and professional software developer, I'd like to start an open source hardware movement similar to the open source software movement that has currently been happening. I've seen ideas similar to this from other people before, although not well thought out nor articulated correctly, and definitely not the same thoughts I have about the subject. This post is a summary of my ideas, hoping to get some feedback from other people. Open source software has been around for awhile. We've all seen it: Linux is the biggest example. Why does open source software exist? Because it is easily copied, reproducible, and editable almost for free, and because many software developers like have a hand in it. Drop a couple hundred to thousands of dollars buying a computer, and anybody with the knowledge to do so could be running and developing open source software. A computer is, essentially, the tool to develop and use open source software. 5. Open Source Hardware Development This site is a meeting place for everyone interested in electronics. Look for information about electronics Build a circuit by yourself, with the help of information found in the projects section , Ask other people for design advice ,Give your input to shared development of projects Keep up-to-date with new developments Share your ideas and thoughts with all of us Subscribe to mailing lists Join or browse one of the available forums Keep informed about upcoming events 6. What is Open Hardware Open Hardware is Open Source Hardware. This means that every file needed to understand and rebuild a project is open and readable by either open source EDA programs or at least by freely aviable commercial tools. For the Open Hardware a special Open Hardware Public License OHPL is developed which is based on the GPL with some modifications to fit into the hardware context. As the main goal is to provide Open Hardware, we should use open source tools as soon as they are aviable in suifficient quality. This means that free commercial tools like WEBPACK by Xilinx should be used as long as the gEDA tools are not good and easy enough to work with efficiently. 7. Introduction to open-source hardware development This paper introduces a new trend in hardware design and development -open-source hardware. It defines open-source hardware design terms, features and requirements. It presents FPGA-based platforms as the most suitable for open-source design implementation. It also discusses open-source hardware business models. Open-source hardware is proposed as a bridge for the technological, educational and cultural gaps between developing and developed countries. Open-source hardware organizations are introduced with statistics of activities. The role of the Internet with respect to hardware openness is introduced. 8. The Future - Open Source Hardware Like Open Source software, we are now seeing the beginnings of a movement up the hardware stack. Though in its infancy, it's only a matter of time before the Open Source hardware domain experiences a growth spurt similar to its Open Source software counterpart. While we sleep, the adoption of Open Source hardware should open up the playing field and ultimately revolutionize the technology landscape as we know it. This transformation will be most evident in the appliance world of audio and video devices, mobile and VoIP phones, games and entertainment servers, gateways and security devices, robots, PDAs, and the like. 9. Open source moves into free hardware A group of hardware developers is trying to bring concepts from the open-source software world to the hardware business. Engineers around the world, connected via the Internet, are seeking to develop a vast library of freely available hardware designs, similar to how Linux developers and other open-source programmers share intellectual property. This open-source hardware library -- consisting of design elements for processors, memory controllers, peripherals, motherboards and a host of other components -- would aid semiconductor start-ups and device manufacturers alike. Instead of investing millions in basic and some times redundant design work, companies would be able to tap the library for the know-how they need, licensing designs for chips and other technology for free. 10. Dell offers an open-source PC Hardware The desktop retails for US$849 and comes with a Pentium 4 processor; 512MB of advanced DDR computer memory; a 128MB ATI Radeon X300SE Hyper Memory video card; an 80GB serial ATA hard drive and a one-year limited warranty. The computers are designed for customers and companies that want to experiment with Linux and other open-source operating systems. Many large companies that have pre-purchased Windows through licensing programs have to erase all the software that comes on factory-shipped PCs and then install the alternative software they've chosen. Buying a PC without an operating system saves a step and eliminates the cost of the extra software. 11. Closed Source Hardware Trust with hardware vendors for open source systems is becoming a one-way street, where in exchange for support they offer a closed source binary solution with no provision to audit security. Trust is an important part of security. When it comes to trusting hardware vendors, it seems that this road is all too often a one way street. This landed me in an interesting position recently, when an 802.11B wireless access point of mine ceased functioning, and I went to look for a replacement. This time, instead of purchasing a hardware-based access point, I opted to go with the more flexible route and decided to install a fourth interface in my firewall; a wireless 802.11G card. Suddenly, I was faced with an interesting juxtaposition of two worlds; open and closed source systems. 12. Business Models for Open Source Hardware Design Increasing integration is putting pressure on commodity semiconductor component markets by forcing devices to become more complex, more expensive to design, and consequently more dependent on the development of intellectual property. The so-called "system on chip" revolution will fail unless commodity component manufacturers can easily integrate IP they did not themselves create. An efficient intellectual property sharing system will have the benefit of preventing needless duplication of design effort by many competing companies, and will tend to favor the pareto optimal situation where a given piece of intellectual property is re-invented no more often than necessary. The industry recognizes these facts, and efforts are underway to formalize systems whereby manufactures can more easily license IP from one another, or from specialized IP producing firms. 13. Momentum builds for open-source processors Momentum is slowly building for freely available open-source processors, the semiconductor equivalent of open-source software movements like Linux. A handful of commercial efforts are experimenting with open-source CPU cores. Contract-manufacturing giant Flextronics, for example, is laying plans to tap into open-source hardware for its ASICs. And both Metaflow Technologies Inc. (La Jolla, Calif.) and IROC Technologies SA (Grenoble, France) are building products using the Leon-1, a Sparc-like open-source processor developed at the European Space Agency's Technology Center. 14. Open Source Takes on Hardware According to Damjan Lampret, founder of OpenCores.org, a consortium of developers dedicated to applying open source to hardware design, the answer is a resounding "Yes." Speaking before a group of 30 representatives from the hardware industry Monday night at the Freedom Technology Center in Mountain View, California, Lampret unveiled the organization's most recent development: a functional system-on-chip microprocessor, developed entirely from freely available open-source blueprints. 15. Open Source Hardware and Industry Here are some of my thoughts on the open source hardware movement and industry. This is not to say that we are only concerned with industry here, but more that we saw a lot of struggling over the years on how open source software could be beneficial to business and industry. I believe that the most effective way to propagate socially progressive change is to show that it is beneficial to as many parties as possible ? individuals, governments, small and large industry. As we have seen from the open source software movement, tremendous and clear benefits exist for individuals, small businesses and developing nations . Discuss: Open Source Hardware Post your Comment Your Name () : Your Email : Subject (): Your Comment (*): Reload Image
The History Blog Tue, 24 May 2016 12:14:49 +0000 en hourly 1 Mug at Auschwitz hid jewelry for 70+ years Tue, 24 May 2016 12:14:49 +0000 livius drusus Staff at the Auschwitz Museum have discovered one person’s cherished treasures hidden under the false bottom of a mug for more than 70 years. The mug is one of more than 12,000 pieces of enameled kitchenware — pots, bowls, kettles, cups — in the museum’s collection, the quotidian things people brought with them when being deported in the desperate hope that they would have some kind of normalcy. Nazi officials encouraged this belief. ]]> 5 Thousands of historic cosmetic, hygiene products digitized Mon, 23 May 2016 07:29:33 +0000 livius drusus Included in the National Museum of American History’s enormous collection of 90,000 artifacts in the Division of Medicine and Science are more than 2,200 historic cosmetic, hygiene and personal care products. Most of them have never been on display and outside of museum curators, people don’t even know they’re there. Thanks to a grant from Kiehl’s, a skincare company founded in 1851 which has over the years donated more than 100 items from its own past to the Smithsonian, the collection has now been digitized. ]]> 9 ]]> 1 US returns stolen Columbus letter to Italy Sat, 21 May 2016 08:53:06 +0000 livius drusus A rare printed copy of Christopher Columbus’ letter describing what the people and placed he’d found on his famous transatlantic voyage that was stolen from the Riccardiana Library in Florence, Italy, has been found in the Library of Congress and returned to Italy. Nobody knows exactly when the red leather-bound volume that included the letter along with other early printed texts from the 1490s was stolen because it was replaced with a forgery that looked surprisingly plausible despite having been printed from a photographic plate. ]]> 3 ]]> 6 Rare ancient nilometer found in Nile Delta Thu, 19 May 2016 07:51:07 +0000 livius drusus Workers digging a water pump station in the ancient city of Thmuis discovered an ancient nilometer, a structure used to determine the water level of the Nile River. A team of American and Egyptian archaeologists from the University of Hawaii and the Alexandria Center for Hellenistic Studies have excavated the find and believe it dates to the 3rd century B.C. when Thmuis was an important city under the Ptolemies. Fewer than two dozen ancient nilometers have been found in Egypt, making this a very rare find. ]]> 0 Roman fort built after Boudiccan revolt found in London Wed, 18 May 2016 06:40:22 +0000 livius drusus A Roman fort built in London in the aftermath of the Boudiccan uprising is shedding new light on this little-known period in the development of the capital. The site, on the edge of the early town 750 feet or so northeast of Roman-era London Bridge, was excavated by experts from the Museum of London Archaeology (MOLA) between 1997 and 2003. They found a fort built over the ruins of commercial and residential structures destroyed in the revolt of 60/61 A.D. Londinium was still a smaller city at the time of the uprising. It was founded after the Roman conquest of 43 A.D. so it was less than 20 years old and wasn’t an official colony yet when it fell to Boudicca. Thanks to the Thames and its direct line to maritime trade, Londinium was a growing concern with enough wealth to make it an appealing target for the Iceni. When he realized they were coming, the governor of Britannia, Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, decided his scant troops could not successfully defend the city so it was better to sacrifice London and live to fight another day. He left, taking his army with him and the residents to the not-so-tender mercies of Boudicca. From Tacitus’ Annals 14:33: Those who were chained to the spot by the weakness of their sex, or the infirmity of age, or the attractions of the place, were cut off by the enemy. Like ruin fell on the town of Verulamium, for the barbarians, who delighted in plunder and were indifferent to all else, passed by the fortresses with military garrisons, and attacked whatever offered most wealth to the spoiler, and was unsafe for defence. About seventy thousand citizens and allies, it appeared, fell in the places which I have mentioned. For it was not on making prisoners and selling them, or on any of the barter of war, that the enemy was bent, but on slaughter, on the gibbet, the fire and the cross, like men soon about to pay the penalty, and meanwhile snatching at instant vengeance. Londinium was devastated. It was still in ruins in around 63 A.D. when the fort was built. It’s likely the fort’s aim wasn’t solely defense, but also to serve as a base for reconstruction efforts. From its size, it would have held between 500 and 800 soldiers. Our excavations at Plantation Place for British Land on Fenchurch Street in the City of London exposed a section of a rectangular fort that covered 3.7 acres. The timber and earthwork fort had 3 metre high banks reinforced with interlacing timbers and faced with turves and a timber wall. Running atop the bank was a ‘fighting platform’ fronted by a colossal palisade, with towers positioned at the corners of the gateways. This formidable structure was enclosed by double ditches, 1.9 and 3m deep, forming an impressive obstacle for would be attackers. Archaeologists unearthed a number of military artifacts from the site — plate armor, spears, shields, harness fittings, a partial cavalry helmet — as well as construction tools including a pick axe and hammer. They also found evidence of roads, storage facilities, a granary, a latrine, cookhouse, etc. within the fort precinct. The barracks appear to have been tents, however, not permanent buildings, and the fort was only in active use for a decade. Unlike later forts, this one was a temporary installation meant to help rebuild the city and keep the residents secure. The fort is of great significant despite its impermanence because it is a strong indication that the Romans had picked Londinium to be the new capital. The previous provincial capital, Camulodunum, aka Colchester, does not appear to have had a similar fort built in the wake of its destruction by Boudicca. London was a practical choice. Unlike Colchester, London had easy access to the sea, ocean-going ships could go directly to the city via the Thames, and the city was new, not founded by potentially troublesome British tribes. Troops stationed at the fort provided much-needed labour and engineering expertise to rebuild roads, docks and buildings. The Plantation Place fort was dismantled around 85 A.D. and the land it had occupied was built over with new development. Much of that was felled in the raging fire of 145 A.D., after which the area welcomed a new masonry townhouse. A hoard of gold coins was hidden in the basement around 174 A.D. The full research on the Plantation Place fort has been published in An Early Roman Fort and Urban Development on Londinium’s Eastern Hill, now for sale in the museum shop and available for pre-order on Amazon. ]]> 6 Rome subway build finds Praetorian guard barracks Tue, 17 May 2016 09:45:05 +0000 livius drusus Construction of Rome’s third subway line, Metro Line C, has made a sensational discovery: the remains of a 2nd century Praetorian Guard barracks. Thirty feet under Via Ipponio between the Baths of Caracalla and the Basilica of St. John in Lateran in the historic center of Rome, the barracks cover an astonishing 1,753 square meters (18,870 square feet) of surface area (ed note: the AP story says it’s 900 sq meters, but all of the Italian press reports the larger figure so I’m going with their data), and that’s just what’s been exposed thus far. They were built during the reign of the Emperor Hadrian (117-138 A.D.), only to be demolished just over a century later during construction of the Aurelian Walls (271-275 A.D.). The demolition was thankfully half-assed, leaving impressive ruins — the walls are up to five feet high — which were then buried. There are 39 rooms, each four by four meters (13 x 13 feet), that open onto a central hallway. Some of the rooms, likely the officers’ quarters, are richly decorated with mosaic floors and frescoed walls. The bricks in the walls bear the stamp of the imperial kilns from 123 and 136 A.D., which is how the structure was dated. There’s also a mass grave on the site. So far 13 skeletons have been excavated from it and a few artifacts including a bronze coin and a bronze bracelet. A number of military remains have been discovered in the neighborhood. Under St. John in Lateran is the Castra Nova Equitum Singularium (built under Septimius Severus, ca. 200 A.D.), a couple of blocks northeast under Via Tasso is the Castra Priora Equitum Singularium (Trajan, ca. 100 A.D.), and west of that near the church of Santo Stefano Rotondo is the Castra Peregrina (Augustus, 1st century A.D.). Work on Metro Line C began in 2007 and has been beset by funding problems, corruption scandals and wonderful but expensive and time-consuming archaeological discoveries. While the subway tunnels themselves have been dug 80 feet below the surface to avoid hitting constant ancient roadblocks, the new stations can’t avoid bumping into thousand of years of history. The barracks site was discovered during construction of the Amba Aradam station and the city authorities tried to keep the news under wraps to avoid having to announce work on the line was suspended yet again. The newspaper Il Tempo broke the news of the find last Wednesday, publishing a story complete with quotations from a letter about the find written by Francesco Prosperetti, Special Superintendent for the Archaeological Area of Rome. In the letter Prosperetti describes the discovery as exceptional and in such a good state of conservation that it would not be possible to pursue the idea of dismantling it, finishing construction and then rebuilding the structure in its original context. The barracks complex is so large it occupies the entire southern half of the station and extends beyond it. The northern half of the station is also replete with archaeological remains that haven’t been explored so it’s not known at the moment what they are or the impact they’ll have. As for how so large and complete an ancient structure could have been missed by preventative archaeology done on the site before construction began, Prosperetti notes that archaeologists took core samples which pointed to ancient boundaries under a massive modern structure, but they were buried so deep underground it wasn’t possible to explore them in the preliminary stages. The subway company now has to figure out how to proceed, and however they go about this, it’s likely going to cost time and money. Metro Line C is already the most expensive subway construction project in history. In a press conference Monday, Prosperetti gave assurances that both the great archaeological importance of the find and the Metro budget and deadlines would be respected. The plan is to integrate the ruins into the station, creating the first fully fledged “archaeological station” in Rome, all without extra expense or delays. If that sounds less than entirely believable to you, that’s because it is. ]]> 7 Conscientious objector graffiti to be preserved Mon, 16 May 2016 07:46:49 +0000 livius drusus Hundreds of graffiti on left on the walls of Richmond Castle by conscientious objectors during World War I will be preserved by English Heritage, thanks to the support of the Heritage Lottery Fund. Richmond Castle was built a few years after the Battle of Hastings by the Alan Rufus, a relative of William the Conqueror’s and the 1st Lord of Richmond. The remains of a hall block from the 1080s still stand, the most surviving 11th century architecture of any castle in England. In 1854 the Duke of Richmond leased the castle, many parts of it now derelict, to the North York Militia. Barracks were constructed against the western wall and a reserve armory built near the castle gate. It was the 19th century armory which was put to use in World War I as a prison for conscientious objectors after conscription began in 1916. The castle was occupied by the northern Non-Combatant Corps, a support unit which allowed people with religious or moral objections to killing to serve in non-combatant roles. That didn’t work for all the objectors, 16 of whom wanted no part of the war effort, combatant or no. In theory the conscription law had a “conscience clause” which allowed people with pacifist religious beliefs to be exempt from combat, but in practice exemptions were very hard to come by. Even members of a church denomination like the Quakers which had strictly upheld the principle of non-violence for hundreds of years at times under extreme persecution and duress, faced arrest and imprisonment. The Richmond Sixteen included people from different Christian denominations — Quakers, Methodists, International Bible Students (renamed Jehovah’s Witnesses in 1931) — and socialists. They were kept in eight small, damp cells on two floors of the old armory. Often they were forced to subsist on bread and water. They kept their spirits up by singing, discussing religion and politics, playing chess through a hole in the wall and decorating the walls that confined them with hundreds of graffiti. There are Bible verses, portraits of loved ones, hymns, political statements, a calendar and more. The Richmond Sixteen were moved from the castle on May 29th, 1916, to a military camp near Boulogne in France. As soon as they stepped foot on the camp, they were officially considered on active duty, which meant they would be subject to harsh military justice should they refuse to follow orders. Since everyone knew they weren’t going to follow any orders, the move to France was basically a gun to their head. When they declined to schlep supplies at the dock when ordered, they were court-martialed, found guilty and “sentenced to suffer death by being shot.” Their sentences were quickly commuted to 10 years’ hard labour. It turned out that Prime Minister Herbert Asquith had issued a secret order that none of the conscientious objectors in France were to be shot. He didn’t want them dead; he wanted people to think the military wouldn’t hesitate to shoot COs to death as a deterrent to anyone else thinking of asking for an exemption from service. When the COs were shipped back to England, they had sentences to serve in civil prisons and work centers. For the rest of the war the Richmond Sixteen busted up rocks in a quarry near Aberdeen where the local newspapers referred to them as “degenerates.” When they were finally released, the “conscies” were widely reviled as cowards and treated with contempt. Finding a job and a place to live was a huge challenge. The graffiti they left on the walls of their Richmond Castle cells has survived for a hundred years, but conditions have been as unkind to it as people were to their creators. The 19th century armory was built lime-washed walls that were never intended to last. Water is leaking in through cracks in the roof and walls. Salts in the lime react to moisture, crystallizing and lifting the lime layer off the wall behind. As the lime flakes off, it takes the graffiti with it. The Buildings Conservation and Research Team at Historic England have been studying the site since 2014, documenting temperature and humidity levels, analyzing the walls and wash, pinpointing the most threatened areas. They have laser scanned the walls and captured the graffiti with high resolution photographs. They didn’t have the funding to do the necessary repairs and conservation until this year. From 2016 to 2018, English Heritage will spend £365,400 to repair the roof and walls, stop the water penetration and treat the graffiti in greatest danger. Once the walls have been stabilized enough to ensure people’s breath won’t harm the artwork, the cells will be open to the general public for the first time in 30 years. For more information about the Richmond Sixteen, the graffiti and the castle, see English Heritage’s website. Here are two short videos they made with fine shots of the interior. Conserving the graffiti: Inside the cells: ]]> 8 Thomas Jefferson’s hair sells for $491 a strand Sun, 15 May 2016 16:38:23 +0000 livius drusus The first lock of hair from the head of third President of the United States and author of the Declaration of Independence Thomas Jefferson ever to be offered at public auction sold on Saturday, May 14th, for $6,875 including the buyer’s premium. You might think for that amount you’d get traditional tuft of hair, maybe tied in a ribbon or encased in a velvet-lined box, but no. There are precisely 14 reddish hairs in this lot, held in a glassine envelope. They look like he got some tape stuck on his hair and had to pull it off losing a few in the process. The ownership history of these hairs is well documented with a clear connection to Thomas Jefferson, which is why they sold at more than double the pre-sale estimate of $3,000, already a princely sum for 14 hairs. Locks of hair were common keepsakes in the 18th and 19th centuries, and several of Thomas Jefferson’s are extant. None of them are known to have been sold at auction before, however. The first owner of the hairs (save for Jefferson himself when they were attached to his scalp) was Doctor Robley Dunglison who was very close to Jefferson in the last year and a half of his life. Robley Dunglison was an English doctor trained as a general practitioner and obstetrician. He was working at the Eastern Dispensary in Whitechapel, London, in 1824 when he met Francis Walker Gilmer, a lawyer and friend of Thomas Jefferson’s and the first chair of law at the University of Virginia. The university had been founded in 1817 and was just about to open its doors to students (the first class would meet on March 7th, 1825), but first they had to find some professors. Jefferson commissioned Gilmer to recruit faculty in Britain. Gilmer offered Dunglison a positioning heading the anatomy and medicine department and Dunglison accepted, in no small part because it gave him the wherewithal to marry his sweetheart Harriette Leadam. They married on October 5th, 1824, and on October 27th they set sail for Virginia. By the terms of his contract with UVA, Dunglison was prohibited from establishing a private practice which made him the first professional full-time professor of medicine in the United States. There was one exception: he was allowed to treat Thomas Jefferson who was by then 81 and in very poor health. For most of his life Jefferson had avoided doctors, believing most illnesses naturally sorted themselves out. He explored his thinking on the subject in an 1807 letter to Dr. Caspar Wistar, the country’s foremost anatomist and professor of anatomy, midwifery, and surgery at the University of Pennsylvania. As far as Jefferson was concerned, physicians were more often than not ill-informed quacks randomly experimenting on patients only to worsen the problem, delay the healing and/or take credit for any improvement that would have happened anyway if they’d just been left alone. “I believe we may safely affirm that the inexperienced and presumptuous band of medical tyros let loose upon the world destroys more of human life in one year than all the Robinhoods, Cartouches, and Macheaths do in a century,” he wrote. (Cartouche was the nickname of the famous highwayman Louis Dominique Bourguignon who stole from the rich and gave to the poor in early 18th century France. He was captured and executed by breaking on the wheel in 1721.) Jefferson thought enough of the young Dunglison to overcome his reluctance. Dunglison first treated him for an obstructive uropathy, probably caused by an enlarged prostate, by passing a bougie. Jefferson paid close attention, taking notes on the remedies Dunglison recommended and learning how to pass the bougie himself. After that bonding experience, Dunglison became Jefferson’s personal physician and was a frequent visitor at Monticello from then on and was at Jefferson’s deathbed on the Fourth of July, 1826. The lock the 14 hairs came from passed from Dr. Robley Dunglison to his son Dr. Richard J. Dunglison, editor of the first five American editions of Gray’s Anatomy. It was then passed down to his step-son Charles Ferry Fisher, a librarian of the Philadelphia College of Physicians. Most of the lock was donated to the college along with other Robley Dunglison artifacts, but they kept a few of the hairs. Those few hairs were eventually acquired by autograph dealer Charles Hamilton. A 1929 affidavit from Charles Ferry Fisher attesting to the provenance of the hairs was included with the lot, as is another letter from Charles Hamilton confirming its authenticity. It’s not known when the lock was snipped. Since it’s still the reddish hair of Jefferson’s younger days — he was fully grey by the time of his death — Dr. Dunglison was likely given it to remember his most famous patient by rather than taking it himself. ]]> 4
When I drove my car into the garage, I saw the note scotch-taped to my hand. It said "Bank." I had taped the note on my hand as I left the library, in an unsuccessful bid to jog my memory about stopping at the bank on the way home. As I pulled the car back out of the garage and headed for the bank, I felt foolish - and frustrated. What happened to my memory? As we get older, our memory goes the way of everything else in our body – it degenerates. Someone will ask a question and – knowing that I know the answer – I will begin to respond. For some reason, the answer gets lodged between my long-term memory and my vocal cords. It sits there, unable to come out. Perhaps, four hours later, like a bolt out of the blue, the answer will pop into my head. Aha! It's not that I lost my memory, it's just tardy. There are many ways to improve our memory. All you need to do is read an article by an "expert" to discover neat tricks and methods to remember names and important facts. Personally, at my age I can't be bothered by those tricks and methods. It takes too much of my available brainpower to learn them. However, for children and young adults, there are certain activities that can promote and encourage memory. First and foremost, children should be made to memorize. Whether they learn short poems, songs, or sayings, it's critical that a child be asked to memorize at least one item per week. If the school doesn't do it, then the parent should. Have a "Family Recitation Night" by turning off the TV and have each member of the family recite a poem or joke or saying of some sort. When I was in first grade, my teacher required us to memorize a short poem for each Friday. Everyone in the class would stand beside his or her desk and clearly recite the chosen poem. If you were the first student to recite, you weren't as lucky as the last – who got to sit and listen to the poem 25 times. Luckily, the teacher rotated which student went first each week. I can recall very clearly the Friday I stood up first and recited "The Purple Cow" by Emily Dickinson. "I never saw a purple cow. I never hope to see one. But I can tell you, anyhow – I'd rather see than be one." Thanks to the terror I felt at going first in the class, I have never forgotten that poem. To this day, I can also recite "Flanders Field" and "The Gettysburg Address." I was asked to recite each of those at a Memorial Day service when I was a teen-ager. The fear I had of making a mistake in front of my friends caused me to burn those words indelibly into my brain. Did you know that the longest poem (according to the Guinness Book of World Records) written in the English language is titled "Poly-Olbion" by Michael Drayton? It is over 100,000 lines long in 30 books. Heaven forbid if any teacher assigns that poem as a Friday recitation. A game that helps children develop their memory is so simple to create – place ten or twelve items on a tray (toothpick, fork, rubber band, pencil, can opener, etc.). Ask the child to stare at the items for two minutes. Then take the tray away. After another two minutes of waiting, ask the child to tell you what was on the tray. Repeating this game once or twice a week with different items on the tray will assist the child to develop attention to detail. Another game that is easy to play is any form of "Concentration." Actually, there is a card game on the market called "Memory." The game consists of a series of paired cards. These cards are shuffled and placed on a tabletop face down. Then, the players must turn two cards over at a time, looking for pairs that match. When a pair is found, that player keeps them. The game is over when all pairs have been found. This game requires the player to remember where the cards are located on the table. By the way, if you don't want to buy "Memory," a regular set of cards works fine – just pair the red suit together and the black suit likewise. One of the first things a child should memorize is his or her address, phone number, and parent's work phone. However, it's more fun to memorize silly poems. If you would like some neat, short poems for your child to memorize, get a copy of any of Shel Silverstein's poetry books. His works are funny and interesting. Kids love them. So do I. Whenever I watch a TV program or video with my grandchildren, I ask them questions about it when it is over. Not only does that check their comprehension, but it also jogs their memory. Children don't have as much "stuff" clogging up their brains, so memorization should be easier for them. I'd be willing to bet that they don't need to tape a note to their hand to remember anything.
Skip to definition. Noun: weblink 1. A link from a hypertext file to another location or file; typically activated by clicking on a highlighted word or icon at a particular location on the screen - hyperlink, hotlink, link Derived forms: weblinks Type of: link Encyclopedia: Weblink
Dismiss Notice Dismiss Notice Join Physics Forums Today! Air pump physics problem 1. Feb 9, 2005 #1 Air pump is pumping out a gas from a vessel (vessel's volume is V). After each cycle i it pumps out dV. Gas is ideal. T=Const. After how much cycles pressure P will decrease k times? Here is my work. PV = nRT Initially n=n(0) After each cycle n decreases (1-dV/V) times. So, after x cycles n(x)=n(0)(1-dV/V)^x So x =ln(1/k)/ln(1-dV/V) But the answer is x=ln(k)/ln(1+dV/V) As I understand, they assume that after each cycle n decreases 1/(1+dV/V) times. In this way i really receive x=ln(k)/ln(1+dV/V) I don't understand it. Help me please. 2. jcsd 3. Feb 9, 2005 #2 Has anybody any ideas? 4. Feb 9, 2005 #3 They have done some mathematics with x =ln(1/k)/ln(1-dV/V) to arrive at a more nice looking answer. x= -ln (k) / ln (1- dV/V) = ln (k) / ln [(1-dV/V)] ^-1 now, [(1-dV/V)] ^-1 = 1 + dV/V (approximately) so, x = ln (k) / ln [(1+dV/V) 5. Feb 9, 2005 #4 Each cycle corresponds to a T=const. process. (in another version of this problem the pumping process is very fast and a the transformation would correspond to an adiabatic process - all you have to do is to add the exponent [tex]\gamma[/tex] to the equations below). After the first cycle the air volume increases from V to V+dV and the pressure decreases at [tex]p_1[/tex]. You have [tex]p_0\cdot V=p_1\cdot (V+dV)[/tex] After the first cycle, the pump takes out the air from dV, and you get again [tex]p_1=p_0 \frac{V}{V+dv}[/tex] In the second cycle, [tex]p_1\cdot V=p_2\cdot (V+dV)[/tex] [tex]p_2=p_1 \frac{V}{V+dv}=p_0 \frac{V^2}{(V+dv)^2}[/tex] and so on..... [tex]p_n=p_{n-1} \frac{V}{V+dv}=p_0 \frac{V^n}{(V+dv)^n}[/tex] Last edited: Feb 9, 2005 Have something to add?
Monday, May 16, 2016 Were we (are we?) really enlightened? Nineteenth century Americans and Europeans loved to do comparisons of places, societies and people around the world. 19th century atlases often contained charts showing comparisons of the heights of mountains, lengths of rivers, and so forth. A comparison of cultures was also something which would appear from time to time. This chart, issued in 1830 by D.F. Robinson & Co. exhibits "the comparative size, population, form of government, and number of square miles, in each of the principal Empires, Kingdoms &c. of the globe." That is an interesting part of this chart, but it is the panel of four scenes at the bottom, showing "the Manner of Building among different Nations according to their Civilization" which is of particular interest. At the left is shown an Indian Village, the manner of building by the "Savage." This term was not used in the sense of fierce, violent, and uncontrolled, for the Indians looks quite peaceful, despite the appearance of some men with guns (note that a dog is playfully jumping up to this group). Instead, the term was used in the chauvinistic attitude of superiority where the Indian culture was not really "civilized." Next over is a picture of Canton, showing what is described as a "Half Civilized" culture! This would certainly have come as a surprise to the Chinese (who themselves probably considered western culture as at most half civilized). The notion that the Native Americans were "savages" was one that was long standing, but the chutzpah of calling Chinese culture half civilized a breathtaking. (Actually, I suspect that at least some of our current political figures--not to mention any names--probably continue that belief to this day). Constantinople appears next as the example of a "Civilized" culture. No argument there... The chutzpah though continues in the last panel, where Philadelphia is a level up from even "civilized," representing an "Enlightened" nation. Now I love Philadelphia, and in 1830 it certainly was one of the most sophisticated cities in the world, but these labels are not reflections of the actual relative "civilization" of these cultures, so much as a reflection of the self-satisfied and blinkered attitude of the publisher and many western citizens. That is not to say that people from the other cultures (Indian, Chinese, and Turkish) wouldn't have had their own hierarchy with their own civilizations at the top, but this chart does give us a really good look at the attitudes held in the U.S. at the time. Monday, May 2, 2016 Western prints by Frederic Remington Nowhere is the American West to be found more completely illustrated than in the works of Frederic Remington. Born an Easterner in upstate New York on October 1, 1861, he had by age 19, distinguished himself as a football player and pugilist at Yale. Leaving upon his father’s death, he arrived on the western plains in 1880 and found the demanding life to his liking, excelling in the use of the lariat and six-gun. He became friends with the working men of the times, prospected for gold, rode with military troops on campaigns, and roamed such fabled routes as the Santa Fe Trail and Bozeman Road. Remington quickly realized that he was witnessing the end of an era. As he wrote later in Collier’s Weekly: “I knew the wild riders and the vacant land were about to vanish forever-and the more I considered the subject, the bigger the ‘forever’ loomed.” Five years later, with his inheritance exhausted and a net worth of three dollars, Remington arrived in New York City packing his voluminous portfolios resolved to break into art and illustration. Initial successes were thin, yet within 18 months editors were seeking him out and his painting, “The Courier’s Nap on the Trail” appeared at the annual exhibition in the National Academy. Within a few years he was recognized as the foremost western illustrator, short story author (Roosevelt preferred him to Owen Wister and Bret Harte) and sculptor of his day. Yet he continued to roam each summer for the increasingly elusive characters of the Old West. Fascinated with and befriended by the Indians, Remington anticipated the last rebellion by the Sioux. Narrowly escaping death in combat in the Badlands, he rushed to the East to document the events for Harper’s Weekly. Remington is unique for his “caught-in-action” style, a legacy of his lack in formal training and its stifling pedagogy--which he could never tolerate. He died in 1909 after surgery for appendicitis, his career at apogee, some 48 well-lived years of age. There are essentially three types of original antique prints by Remington (there are lots of modern reproductions): magazine and newspaper illustrations, halftone prints sold separately or in portfolios, and original chromolithographs. These prints were all done for commercial purposes; that is, they were created with the intent to be used as illustrations in books or magazines, or for sale to the public to purchase to hang in their homes. They were issued in large numbers, though through attrition the antique Remington prints can be quite scarce. Newspaper & Magazine Illustrations The first commercial print after Remington was “Cow Boys of Arizona, Roused by a Scout,” issued in the February 25, 1882 issue of Harper’s Weekly (Remington had two illustrations published previously in college publications). The story is that Remington sent his sketch drawn on wrapping paper to the editors of Harper’s just to see if he could sell his work to the paper. They liked the image, but it was so crude that it had to be redrawn by staff artist W.A. Rogers. In the next years, Remington sold a few more sketches to this illustrated newspaper, but he got his big break in 1886 when he was commissioned by Harper’s Weekly as an artist-correspondent to cover the U.S. government’s campaign against Geronimo. He never was able to catch up with Geronimo himself, so Remington focused more on “Soldiering in the Southwest,” taking many photographs and making sketches, which upon his return east he turned into illustrations for Harper’s and the magazine Outing. This was the beginning of a very successful career as an illustrator, with Remington providing art work for these and other publications, as well as providing images for books and art portfolios. Between 1882 and 1913 Remington’s drawings and paintings appeared as original illustrations in seventeen publications. Initially, they were done as wood-engraving, but in the 1890s the publications started to use photomechanical screened halftones instead, so the later Remington illustrations tend to be made by this process. In the early twentieth century Collier’s Weekly and other publications started to reproduce his work as color halftones. Portfolio Prints Collier’s thought so highly of Remington’s work (one assume not only a commercial viewpoint, but also artistically), that in 1905 they began to issue color halftones after his paintings in portfolios and as separate prints. These were done in a number of sizes, over a number of years, and with different levels of quality. Interestingly, the early prints were called “Artists Proofs” by Collier’s. Traditionally, this term meant a print was pulled before publication, so the artist could inspect it, but Collier’s was simply using this terms as a selling tool. Collier’s also issued a number of Remington halftone images as separate prints for framing, again in different sizes. The rarest and best quality prints by Remington are chromolithographs. These are images which were printed from multiple lithographic stones, one per color. The first of these were two prints, “Antelope Hunting” and “Goose Shooting,” issued in 1889 in a portfolio entitled Sport: or Shooting and Fishing. This portfolio included fifteen chromolithographs after important American sporting artists of the day, such as A.B. Frost, Frederic S. Cozzens, Frank H. Taylor and R.F. Zogbaum. For Remington to be included in this august group was evidence of his increasing fame. Just over a decade later, in 1901, a portfolio was issued by R.H. Russell of New York containing eight lithographs based solely on Remington’s work. This set, A Bunch of Buckskins, included folio sized chromolithographs, four of ‘rough riders” and four of Native Americans. A year later, Charles Scribner’s Sons reissued four prints, which had appeared previously in Scribner’s Magazine, as chromolithographs in a portfolio entitled Western Types. The last chromolithograph after Remington was a separate print issued in 1908 of “The Last of His Race.” This print is an “oleograph,” which essentially is an elaborate chromolithograph printed using oil based inks on canvas and varnished so as to resemble an oil painting. Wednesday, April 20, 2016 Thomas Nast Cartoons Thomas Nast is one of our favorite artists. He is among the most famous illustrators of all time, often called the ‘father of American political cartooning.’ Nast was born in Bavaria in 1840 and at six years immigrated with his family to the United States. His father, a musician, had enrolled the artistically precocious child in an art school by age 12. Three years later Nast was forced to leave his training to help support the family, fortunately gaining work as an illustrator at Frank Leslie’s Weekly. Five years later Nast had traveled abroad to cover the Heenan-Sayers fight, later joining Garibaldi’s forces in Italy as a war correspondent. He had been employed by the New York Illustrated News for these assignments, but by early 1862 he had become a war correspondent again, this time for Harper’s Weekly. His patriotic themes created such attention that President Lincoln cited Nast as his “best recruiting sergeant”. During the first 25 years following the War Between the States, Nast became the most significant illustrator of American political and social issues. His pointed cartoons exerted a great impact on public opinion. Every presidential candidate to gain his support won and his stature increased with the successful campaign in 1870-71 to bring down “Boss” Tweed of New York’s corrupt Tammany Hall and his political machine. More than a mere cartoonist, Nast was an innovator of images, popularizing or instituting many now familiar subjects such as the Republican elephant, the Democratic donkey, John Bull, Uncle Sam, and Columbia. Nast’s Santa Claus, modeled from Clement Moore’s St. Nicholas in his Twas the Night Before Christmas, serves as our present-day jolly old elf. Harper’s Weekly was Nast’s principal forum, and those prints hold a significant place in our American past. On January 9, 1875, Nast produced a cover illustration for Harper’s Weekly applauding the proposed Specie Resumption Act which Grant had introduced to Congress and which passed just five days later. This had to do with the debate between “hard” and “soft” money proponents. In order the finance the Civil War, the federal government had begun to circulate paper money, “green backs,” which was not backed by gold specie. When the war ended, some wanted to continue with this policy, while others wanted to resume the use of a specie backed currency. Most Democrats were soft-money advocates, hoping that inflation would be encouraged, so easing to some extent the extensive debt of their constituency, mostly farmers. Most Republicans, including Grant, were hard-money advocates, as were most of their capitalist supporters, and they believed that gold-backed currency would stabilized the money supply and sustained a prosperous economy. In the 1874 elections, the Democrats won enough seats that they were gong to take control of the House of Representatives, so the lame duck Republicans pushed through the Specie Resumption Act in early January, returning U.S. currency to a gold-based system. Nast’s cartoon strongly backed this Act. Grant is shown standing on the “Ark of State, depicted as a Noah figure reaching out to the Dove of Peace, shown flying over a rainbow entitled “Our Credit.” Strewn behind the ark, floating in a sea of inflation, are the soft-money proponents. Though the Act passed, the time-table for the retirement of the “green backs” was to take place over an extended period. The Democratic led Congress was not able to kill the act, but they were able to pass the Bland-Allison Act in February 1878, which succeeded in raising the amount of paper money not backed by gold allowed to be in circulation, thus diluting the Resumption Act. The Republicans and Nast continued to be against this move, so Nast reissued his “Ark of State” cartoon, but this time reinforced his point by adding his own picture and titling the print with "Our Artist Indorsing the Above Cartoon.” Nast is shown sitting by the solid rock of “Sound Specie Basis,” with the quote “I, Th. Nast, A Fellow Workman Want 100 cents on a $ You Bet. Not 90 or 92 cents on a $ in silver, gold greenbacks of soft soap.” This is all a rather obscure, and now the conflict seems totally out-of-date, but it is interesting to see Nast step into his own cartoons to reemphasize his position. He was a great innovator and print is a fascinating example of his work. Friday, April 8, 2016 Terra Australis Incognita I just returned from a wonderful trip to Australia, my visit "down under,” and so I am inspired to write about the mapping of the first “Australis,” Latin for ‘southern,’ to appear on maps, the mythical “Terra Australis Incognita,” that is ‘Unknown Southern Land.’ If you look on many maps of the sixteenth century, you will see a very large land mass covering the southern pole, looking much like the continent of Antarctica. This is really strange, as that continent was not actually discovered until 1820. If that is so, how did what looks to be Antarctica appear on maps from four centuries before? This anomaly has been explained by some (most famously Charles Hapgood in Maps of the Ancient Sea Kings) as being the result of an ancient advanced civilization or by others (such as Erich Von Daniken in Chariots of the Gods) as evidence of a visit to Earth by space visitors in the distant past. The truth, though more mundane, is still of considerable interest. During the Renaissance, as scholars were trying to get a handle on their world in a period of discoveries of new lands, there were many who supported a theory that there had to be an as-yet-discovered continent in the southern-most part of the globe. This was based mostly on the supposition that there had to be a large land mass in the south to balance all the land in the north. If you look at a modern map of the world [such as the one above by Daniel R. Strebe] and look all the land other than Antarctica, it is clear that the majority of the land mass is north of the equator. It was thought that if there were not a large, balancing land mass in the southern hemisphere, the globe would wobble or perhaps tip over. Gerard Mercator was a proponent of this theory and so he included this continent on his world map. Once one accepted that there must be a hitherto undiscovered land in the south, one tended to read any information about the southern regions as giving shape to this land. So Marco Polo’s report of “Greater Java” was seen as confirmation of this southern continent, and Polo’s “Locac” became the region of Lucach located there, as well as two other locations based on a misreading of Polo, “Beach” and “Maletur.” The existence of this great southern land was then further confirmed when in 1520 Magellan sailed through the straits thereafter named after him. Magellan sailed between South America and what he called “Terra del Fuego,” which naturally was assumed to be the shore of Terra Australis. Thus it was that maps began to give a firmer shape to that continent. However, Tierra del Fuego is an island, not part of Terra Australis, as was proven in 1616, when Jacques Le Maire and Willem Corneliszoon Schouten sailed from the Atlantic Ocean, south of Tierra del Fuego, and into the Pacific. This did not get rid of the notion of Terra Australis Incognito, however, it just necessitated a modification of the shape of that putative continent. Map makers, not wanting to have to re-engrave entire new plates for their maps which had hitherto shown the continent including the northern shore of Tierra Del Fuego, simply erased the shoreline connected to the now-known-to-be island, ending the coast vaguely somewhere in the oceans to the east and west. Through much of the seventeenth century, as explorations were being made in the southern oceans, new discoveries of land were often initially assumed to be part of Terra Australis-—for instance this was thought at one time for the New Hebrides and Australia—-until this was shown to be incorrect. As these discoveries were reported, parts of the coastline of Terra Australis, which had appeared on maps since the sixteenth century, were more and more erased, so that by the end of the seventeenth century, people were beginning to doubt its existence. It was one of the greatest scientific cartographers of all time, Guillaume Delisle, who finally decided—-given the total lack of any evidence—-that he would completely remove the continent from his maps. Quite ironic that the person who was most closely following good, scientific principals in mapmaking, ended up making maps which were the furthest from reality. The hope for a great southern continent continued into the eighteenth century, with James Cook having secret instructions to search for it during his 1768-71 voyage supposedly just to observe the transit of Venus across the Sun from Tahiti. On his second voyage, of 1772-73, Cook sailed around the seas so far to the south that he proved that if there were any southern continent, it was much smaller than the original theories suggested. It wasn’t until 1820 that the continent was first actually sighted, with the last of the known continents finally making it onto maps of the world legitimately, rather than as a matter of speculation. Thursday, March 10, 2016 Mary Arniotis, Strong Woman Thursday, February 25, 2016 Houghton's Diagram of the History of Political Parties in the United States, by Vincent Szilagyi In our line of work we deal with relics of the past that were created to meet some pressing need, be it scientific, cultural, financial or artistic. Sometimes the forces that made these prints important have faded with time, rendering them charming, but somewhat bland, pieces of history. Yet, often the reverse is true, where the events and feelings of today give a deep and often urgent sense of importance to parts of our collection. This is certainly true of this next print. This marvelous chart, entitled “Plate VI. Diagram of the History of Political Parties in the United States”, is the work of American historian Walter R. Houghton. Houghton was a teacher, author and historian of politics and religion at Indiana University. In 1880 he issued a short work, Conspectus of the History of Political Parties and the Federal Government, expanded and issued over the next several years as History of American Politics (Non Partisan.). This work was the first really detailed look at the subject and its insights are of interest even in today’s world of very partisan politics. The most impressive and influential aspect of Houghton’s work is this chart which showcases the “History of Political Parties in the United States”. Although overwhelming at first glance, the chart is actually quite straightforward and easy to understand. Houghton shows American political history from before the Revolution until 1880 through the lens of political parties, with presidential terms indicated with vertical lines. Each political party is shown as a line, with the thickness or thinness of the line indicating its level of support. The political party that controls the presidency is on top, while the other party (or parties) is below. The party lines splinter and merge often, with various issues causing groups of people to leave one party and join another, or start one of their own. Houghton indicates the reasons for these departures with descriptive text, which briefly explain what fissures drove people to seek new parties. In our hectic election season we are bombarded with claims that we are hopelessly divided by party, ideology and the breakdown of civil society. While hyperbole might sell papers and fill airtime, the struggles of today cannot hold a candle to the chaos of the 1850s and 60s, as Houghton’s chart perfectly illustrates. The years leading up to the Civil War is where the party lines veer from a mostly simple two party system to a tangle of competing vines. This accurately captures the political chaos of the period, where the struggle over slavery obliterated the Whig Party and severed the Democratic Party into Northern and Southern wings. New Parties like the Free Soilers, Native American [Know Nothings] and Silver Gray eventually coalesced around opposition to the Kansas Nebraska Act, and formed the Republican Party. A few years later, a reconstituted Democratic Party emerges from the union of former Confederates and Northern Democrats and the chart returns to a more simplified give and take between two major parties. People still splinter off and join the opposing Party, but this basic configuration of Democrats and Republicans remains even today, despite some occasional third party challenges over the years. In light of our current political climate, studying this chart gives us a healthy and much needed dose of perspective. While we certainly have room for improvement, we are a far cry from the rhetoric and vitriol that tore apart all but a precious few American institutions 150 years ago. This marvelous chart is a fantastic tool for viewing America’s political history, as well as a beautiful piece of Americana. Wednesday, January 27, 2016 Africa’s Shifting Regions by Vincent Szilagyi Antique maps of Africa are an excellent choice for both novice and expert map collectors. Maps of Africa show wonderful (albeit often inaccurate) detail. The relatively late exploration of the continent by Europeans and the ever-changing colonial boundaries mean that maps only a few years apart can show vastly different pictures of the continent. Maps of Africa are also less in demand than some other areas of the world, allowing people to acquire great pieces of history and art at very reasonable prices. One of the interesting things about maps of Africa is the relatively fluid use of terms describing regions and states. A term used for one area on a 1770s map can be found referring to a wholly different region thousands of miles away on a 1780s map and so on up until quite recently. There are quite a few of these terms, many of which appear briefly and then disappear or were only used by one cartographer. However, there are four regional terms that had significant staying power through the years and through the coming and going of different cartographic minds. These terms defined Africa for hundreds and in some cases thousands of years, and are still found on maps today. Many should be familiar even to those without much knowledge of African history; they are Guinea, Congo, Ethiopia and Libya. Guinea (or Guinee, Guiney) Map of Guinea by Herman Moll, 1727 Map of Upper and Lower Guinea by Andriveau-Goujon 1838 (Courtesy of Guinea is a name still found on African maps today. In addition to the Republic of Guinea, the countries of Guinea-Bissau and Equatorial Guinea share the name of this ancient region. (The island of New Guinea in Oceania is also named after this region, as is Papua New Guinea, the country on its eastern half.) In general, Guinea historically referred to the West African region bordering the Gulf of Guinea. However, some maps show Guinea extending along the entire Atlantic African coast, while others have a small confined Guinea near what is now Ghana and the Ivory Coast. There wasn’t a great deal of consistency in the placement of Guinea beyond this, and it was mostly used as a catchall for West Africa. Later, Guinea was divided into Lower Guinea in the North and Upper Guinea in the South. As the colonial race went on, Guinea became less and less used as other names took precedence. As such, by the end of the 19th century, Guinea disappeared as a region and was replaced by terms like West Africa or the names of the various British and French colonies in the region. Kongo (or Kongo) 1848 manuscript map by Marianne Hunt showing the Congo (Courtesy of The Congo is another old name, stemming from the Kingdom of the Kongo that interacted with the Portuguese in the 15th and 16th centuries. Starting with the Portuguese, European maps began to place the label “Congo” in a variety of places. Simply put, the Congo referred to anywhere within the Congo River drainage basin. While this explanation seems fairly straightforward, for most of Africa’s history mapmakers had no idea where the Congo River actually went. Many geographers thought it was connected to the Nile or the Niger, while others thought it connected to the Zambezi. This confusion resulted in the “Congo” being anywhere in a vast region that covered the entirety of Central Africa from the Sahara to the Zambezi and from the Atlantic to an ill-defined border in the East. Over time, as the region was mapped, the Congo began to refer specifically to the colonial holdings of King Leopold II, which occupied the modern territory of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, formerly Zaire. In addition to the DRC, the Republic of the Congo is also named after this region and river. Libya (or Libye) Reconstruction of the World as described by Herodotus Libya is a region inherited from Roman and Greek geographers. To most geographers, Libya was a shorthand for the entirety of desert North Africa. While certain regions like Egypt and Mauritania had their own names, they were considered part of the greater Libya region. In fact, on several maps the term Libya is used as a synonym for Africa as a whole. This was the standard for centuries, until the Age of Exploration when Portuguese and Spanish sailors determined that Africa was much, much larger than previously thought. As this European penetration of Africa moved the frontiers of geographic knowledge further and further from the coast, Libya expanded inland. Libya became the lands between the Mediterranean and Guinea. The entire Sahara was often called Libya, among other names. As the centuries progressed, Libya eventually took on a second meaning, the land of light-skinned Africans. Libya was the land of the non-black Africans: the Arabs, Copts and Berbers. Another familiar term was used for the parts of Africa inhabited by black-skinned peoples. Ethiopia was the land of black-skinned Africans. The term comes from the Ancient Greek term Aethiopia (Burnt-Faces) which was first mentioned by Homer in the Iliad. Later Aethiopia was described by Herodotus as the farthest region of "Libya" (i.e. Africa): "Where the south declines towards the setting sun lies the country called Aethiopia, the last inhabited land in that direction. There gold is obtained in great plenty, huge elephants abound, with wild trees of all sorts, and ebony; and the men are taller, handsomer, and longer lived than anywhere else." As time went on and more of Africa became mapped, Ethiopia moved frequently. At times, Ethiopia was all of Africa below the Sahara. At other times, Ethiopia became more closely related to the modern day Ethiopian Highlands. This area was also called Abyssinia. It is not unusual to see Ethiopia and Abyssinia on the same map, often in very different places. When looking at maps of Africa, some or all of these our terms will almost always be present. Even though they have been used for centuries and into the present day, just because a term is familiar, does not mean you will know where to find it.
TY - JOUR T1 - Airport full-body screening: What is the risk? AU - Mehta P AU - Smith-Bindman R Y1 - 2011/06/27 N1 - 10.1001/archinternmed.2011.105 JO - Archives of Internal Medicine SP - 1112 EP - 1115 VL - 171 IS - 12 N2 - There are 2 types of full-body scanners in use. Each generates a detailed outline of the human body for the purpose of identifying contraband hidden under clothing. The millimeter-wave scanners emit extremely low-energy waves—each scan delivers a small fraction of the energy of a cell phone—and the scanners capture the reflected energy. The backscatter x-ray scanner, the type used more commonly in the United States, uses very low dose x-rays, similar to those used in medical imaging. In contrast to x-rays used for medical imaging in which variation in the transmission of x-rays through the body is used to generate an image, backscatter scanners detect radiation that reflects off of the person imaged. When radiation passes through air, it deposits energy into the tissue that absorbs it, and with the backscatter technology, all of the energy of the scan is absorbed by the most superficial tissues of the body, such as the skin. SN - 0003-9926 M3 - doi: 10.1001/archinternmed.2011.105 UR - http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archinternmed.2011.105 ER -
Money Matters 4:00 am Tue May 10, 2011 Don't let inflation scare you What causes inflation? Too much money in circulation is the prime cause. During a recession, the Federal Reserve Board authorizes more cash to help businesses and individuals stay afloat. Some believe that surging commodity prices – prices for sugar, coffee, oil, even precious metals – fan the flames of inflation. But recent evidence suggests otherwise. The government pays closer attention to what is called core inflation, that is, inflation minus food and energy. Why? Because food and energy prices can soar and then sink in relatively short periods of time. For example, oil was $60 a barrel five years ago, vaulted to $150, tumbled to $75, and is now possibly headed for $150 again. A study of the past 25 jumps in commodity prices showed no significant inflation thereafter. Many believe the prime cause of inflation are wage increases. Higher wages mean more spending, which means greater pressure on companies to keep the shelves full. Forced to produce more, companies raise prices. Today’s picture: In the past year ending a month ago, core inflation was 1.7 percent; total inflation was 2.7 percent. But average hourly wages fell 1 percent. With high unemployment, companies may be years away from significant pay raises. High inflation, which lags wage increases, if at all, almost certainly is well down the road. Additionally, gross domestic product slumped in the latest quarter, suggesting the economy may be a long way from more jobs and higher prices. The bottom line: investors can rest easy regarding inflation. Low inflation and stagnant wages are good for stocks because companies can run their businesses more cheaply and expand profitability. Inflation over the past 30 years has averaged 3.2 percent. But even inflation of 5-7 percent has been considered a prime area for stock-price increases.
Sign up Here's how it works: 1. Anybody can ask a question 2. Anybody can answer So I've been thinking about the infinite universes model, where each possible action or event creates a new universe for each outcome. For example, if you flip a coin there will be one universe in which the coin came up heads, and another in which it came up tails. Each new universe then has an entirely new set of possibilities which all spawn yet more universes. So I was thinking about a machine in which you could simulate the entire universe from beginning to end, and seeing the consequences of each result. Of course there are infinitely many, but if you had perfect information you could pick out your universe by looking at the past. Basically if you looked at it as a tree, where each branch was a new possibility, you could find your branch by following from where it grew. My question comes when you start trying to look at the future. There are an infinity of possible futures, and this machine could certainly predict one of them, or many of them, but it's very unlikely you'd ever predict the one you are on. So this has been more philosophical than mathematical, but now I come to my question: Is it mathematically possible to guess the correct branch in an infinity of choices? Or put another way, if I had an apple, and I threw it into a barrel filled with an infinite number of apples, could I ever correctly guess which one was mine? Is it possible to point to one and correctly say, "I think that one is mine"? share\|cite\|improve this question It's a tricky concept. The problem is that you're trying to force the physical concept of "guessing (and verifying)" into a purely mathematical realm. If I choose a number at random from the real numbers, the probability that it is a rational number is zero. Does that mean I could never find a rational? We know they exist, so certainly not... The probability is zero but the event space is non empty. It happens. – Tyler Mar 3 '14 at 19:15 See this thread – Tyler Mar 3 '14 at 19:16 To expand slightly on Tyler's point, suppose we pick a real number "uniformly at random" between 0 and 1. There are infinitely many possibilities. It is certain that some number will be chosen, but the probability of any individual number being chosen is zero. So the choosing of (say) one-half exactly is just as possible as choosing any other number in that interval, while the probability of choosing one-half is zero. – hardmath Mar 3 '14 at 19:57 Note that there are infinitely many possibilities for the past too, even after you take into account what you actually remember happening. There is some merit in doing away with the notion that "the universe you are actually on" makes sense, and instead view the universe as something that lets you answer questions like "given facts X and Y, can Z be true?" (whether Z is about the past, present, or future). This is more interesting when you allow probabilities rather than just true/false. This is even more interesting in the setting of quantum physics. – Hurkyl Mar 3 '14 at 20:04 This may be very counterintuitive, but if you accept the axiom of choice, it is possible to design a method that predicts the future with probability 1. See this amazing paper. However, it's non-constructive, so although mathematically one may do this, you can't program a computer to do so. share\|cite\|improve this answer Your Answer
The example of a wide interactome that proteins can have. Source: Nature Researchers from IBCh together with colleagues from the United States found that mammalian BetaM protein has a different structure than their relatives. Functional experiments shown that the mammalian "native" BetaM protein function has been lost, but the new one has appeared. In fish, amphibians and birds BetaM still performs the original function of neural transmission, but mammals instead it regulates gene expression in muscle. • A study of a jellyfish gene reveals mechanisms of interaction between mutations science news V.12 A team of biologists from Russia, Czech Republic, Israel, USA, and Spain systematically measured how mutations interact within a protein coding gene. They studied tens of thousands of mutants of the green fluorescent protein from the jellyfish Aequorea victoria. The results, published in Nature, uncover mechanisms of protein evolution and deepen our understanding of why effects of mutations are dependent on the genetic context in which they occur. • Scientists surprised: mammals BetaM proteins became "friendlier" science news V.11 Imagine that you have found a second job with a few numbers of duties. At the new place, you have to establish relations with the team, but instead to restrict contact with just two colleagues, you become the soul of a large company. BetaM protein also expanded the range of its functions: from participation in the transmission of nerve impulses throughout the body of most animals to the regulation of gene expression in the muscles in mammals exclusively. This BetaM protein began to interact with a large number of partners than ever before that radically changes our understanding of the evolution of the "behavior" of proteins. It was published by scientists from Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry of the Russian Academy of Sciences in cooperation with the staff of the University of Toledo (USA) in Scientific Reports. • Postgraduate students from IBCh will receive a SkolTech scholarship to study regeneration and T-cell immunity science news V.10 Scientific projects of postgraduate students of the Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry of Russian Academy of Sciences have become the winners of the program of Skolkovo Institute of Science and Technology to support young scientists in systems biology. The researchers will receive scholarship money to study two issues: responses of T-cell immunity to a live vaccine against yellow fever in genetically identical twins, as well as search and analysis of genetic target gene, which is responsible for brain development and regeneration of the body appendages in vertebrates.
Stocks Basics: What Are Stocks? 1. Stocks Basics: Introduction 2. Stocks Basics: What Are Stocks? 3. Stocks Basics: Different Types Of Stocks 4. Stocks Basics: How Stocks Trade 5. Stocks Basics: What Causes Stock Prices To Change? 6. Stocks Basics: Buying Stocks 8. Stocks Basics: The Bulls, The Bears And The Farm 9. Stocks Basics: Conclusion Stocks Basics: What Are Stocks? The Definition of a Stock Being an Owner Example stock certificate (Click to enlarge) A stock is represented by a stock certificate. This is a fancy piece of paper that is proof of your ownership. In today's computer age, you won't actually get to see this document because your brokerage keeps these records electronically, which is also known as holding shares "in street name". This is done to make the shares easier to trade. In the past, when a person wanted to sell his or her shares, that person physically took the certificates down to the brokerage. Now, trading with a click of the mouse or a phone call makes life easier for everybody. Being a shareholder of a public company does not mean you have a say in the day-to-day running of the business. Instead, one vote per share to elect the board of directors at annual meetings is the extent to which you have a say in the company. For instance, being a Microsoft shareholder doesn't mean you can call up Bill Gates and tell him how you think the company should be run. In the same line of thinking, being a shareholder of Anheuser Busch doesn't mean you can walk into the factory and grab a free case of Bud Light! For ordinary shareholders, not being able to manage the company isn't such a big deal. After all, the idea is that you don't want to have to work to make money, right? The importance of being a shareholder is that you are entitled to a portion of the company's profits and have a claim on assets. Profits are sometimes paid out in the form of dividends. The more shares you own, the larger the portion of the profits you get. Your claim on assets is only relevant if a company goes bankrupt. In case of liquidation, you'll receive what's left after all the creditors have been paid. This last point is worth repeating: the importance of stock ownership is your claim on assets and earnings. Without this, the stock wouldn't be worth the paper it's printed on. Debt vs. Equity Why does a company issue stock? Why would the founders share the profits with thousands of people when they could keep profits to themselves? The reason is that at some point every company needs to raise money. To do this, companies can either borrow it from somebody or raise it by selling part of the company, which is known as issuing stock. A company can borrow by taking a loan from a bank or by issuing bonds. Both methods fit under the umbrella of debt financing. On the other hand, issuing stock is called equity financing. Issuing stock is advantageous for the company because it does not require the company to pay back the money or make interest payments along the way. All that the shareholders get in return for their money is the hope that the shares will someday be worth more than what they paid for them. The first sale of a stock, which is issued by the private company itself, is called the initial public offering (IPO). It must be emphasized that there are no guarantees when it comes to individual stocks. Some companies pay out dividends, but many others do not. And there is no obligation to pay out dividends even for those firms that have traditionally given them. Without dividends, an investor can make money on a stock only through its appreciation in the open market. On the downside, any stock may go bankrupt, in which case your investment is worth nothing. Although risk might sound all negative, there is also a bright side. Taking on greater risk demands a greater return on your investment. This is the reason why stocks have historically outperformed other investments such as bonds or savings accounts. Over the long term, an investment in stocks has historically had an average return of around 10-12%. Stocks Basics: Different Types Of Stocks 1. Stocks Basics: Introduction 2. Stocks Basics: What Are Stocks? 3. Stocks Basics: Different Types Of Stocks 4. Stocks Basics: How Stocks Trade 5. Stocks Basics: What Causes Stock Prices To Change? 6. Stocks Basics: Buying Stocks 9. Stocks Basics: Conclusion 1. Stock 2. Shareholder 3. Stock Market 4. Principal Shareholder The main owner of a publicly traded investment, also known as ... 5. Accumulating Shares Common stock given to current shareholders of a company in place ... 1. What are the types of share capital? 2. What happens to the stock of a public company that goes bankrupt? 3. Are stock investors technically creditors? Learn more about the differences between stocks and bonds. Find out if stock owners are corporate creditors and how bonds ... Read Answer >> 4. What are some characteristics of ordinary shares? Read about some of the primary characteristics of ordinary shares, also known as common shares, including voting rights and ... Read Answer >> 5. What are some advantages of ordinary shares? Learn about the many advantages of investing in ordinary shares, such as dividends and ownership rights, as well as the benefits ... Read Answer >> There are two main markets where securities are transacted: primary and secondary. When stocks are first issued and sold ... Read Answer >> Hot Definitions 1. Over-The-Counter - OTC 2. Quarter - Q1, Q2, Q3, Q4 3. Weighted Average Cost Of Capital - WACC 4. Basis Point (BPS) 5. Sharing Economy 6. Unlevered Beta Trading Center
web analytics May 25, 2016 / 17 Iyar, 5776 Sponsored Post Carriers Of The Talmudic Torch There was no “us against them” but rather an unparalleled unity that had emerged directly from our common bond to the Torah. Another key distinction between the two events was the motivation that inspired the behaviors of each group of “performers.” In the former context, athletes were driven by personal glory – the ability to achieve international recognition as a leading competitor in their respective field. Many, undoubtedly, hoped to parlay their victory into real gold, the financial windfall enjoyed by the most successful and popular athletes. For the “champion of the daf,” however, there is no such windfall, financial or otherwise. Outside of some personal recognition by family and friends (not to mention encouragement received from our leading sages), the main motivator in this process was each individual’s desire to better himself through a rigorous commitment to study. But the greatest distinction between the two events was the underlying values and origins of each. The roots of the Olympics lie in the ancient Greek games, where religious sacrifices to mythical gods accompanied sporting events. The Daf Yomi cycle, in stark contrast, is a process that traces itself to Har Sinai, the most significant and lofty moment in our nation’s history, and the source of our national identity and vitality. The ancient Greeks believed in a primitive form of paganism, with human-like gods who conducted themselves as rash and irresponsible people. Their deities ate, drank, and engaged in loving relationships. They could be bribed, fooled, or, at times, disregarded. They entered into conflicts like regular people, without the social and moral responsibilities that humans possessed. The gods were even the regular subject of derisive scorn from Greek thinkers and writers. Ethically, Greek life was corrupt as well. It was a society of unprecedented openness and unabashed promiscuity. The human body was considered a means for artistic expression, with no need for privacy. Athletic prowess was openly touted in the Olympics. Such an inverted sense of morality affected other areas as well. Children who were born imperfect were viewed as a burden on society and killed. Aristotle rationalized this as a means of countering overpopulation. Such thought and conduct presented a shell shock to many of the societies in which it came into contact. None, however, would be affected more than the Jewish people, for whom Hellenism would serve as a destabilizing force unlike any other in our history until modern times. * * * * * For the Jewish people, the Greeks were more foreign than any group they had ever come into contact with. They differed on every level, including such key areas as religious beliefs and social values. The following represents a partial list of differences that existed between the two groups. Belief in a Higher Authority – The Jews were monotheistic, believing in one all-powerful, omniscient God. The Greeks were polytheistic, worshiping multiple deities. Reward and Punishment – The Jews believed God is interested in human affairs. He rewards good behavior and punishes misdeeds. The Greeks maintained that the gods were not interested in human behavior and left people to their own devices. To the Jews, human beings were created in the image of God. To the Greeks, deities were fashioned in the image of human beings. In the Jews’ mind, the physical world was something to be refined and elevated. The Greeks viewed the physical world as faultless, needing no further perfection. In a Jewish state founded on preserving its religious purity, the Greek gods, with their wanton, capricious behavior, were wildly offensive. In a Jewish society firmly opposed to public indecency, Greek indiscretions in this area were shockingly distasteful. For a Jewish religion that singles out illegitimate relationships as a crime, the Greek attitude toward such relationships was inconceivable. Greek hegemony in the Holy Land (beginning with the conquest of Alexander the Great) meant increased Hellenistic influence in the country. Prior to Alexander’s annexation, Greek colonists were relatively few in number and had limited their scope of influence to the coast. They did not penetrate the internal areas occupied by the Jews and Samaritans. Rabbi Naphtali Hoff No Responses to “Carriers Of The Talmudic Torch” Comments are closed. Current Top Story 11 Rightwing Questions to Incoming Defense Minister Lieberman Scan this QR code to visit this page online:
World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples - Libya Publisher Minority Rights Group International Publication Date August 2011 Cite as Minority Rights Group International, World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples - Libya, August 2011, available at: [accessed 25 May 2016] Last updated: August 2011 Libya, located on the Mediterranean coast of North Africa, is the continent's fourth largest country. It borders Egypt, Sudan, Chad, Algeria and Tunisia. Most of the country's south is a sparsely populated desert. Libya has rich reserves of oil and natural gas. Berbers have lived in Libya for millennia. Parts or all of today's Libya were conquered by Phoenicia, Carthage, Ancient Greece, and the Roman Empire before Arabs moved into the region in the seventh century. Berbers and other indigenous peoples began adopting Islam and the Arabic language. After centuries of continued foreign rule by Ottoman Turks beginning in 1551, followed by Italy, France and Britain, Libya gained independence in 1951 as the United Kingdom of Libya. In 1969, Colonel Muammar Gaddafi led a military coup that ended the monarchy and proclaimed the Libyan Arab Republic. In 1977 the country's official name changed to Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya (state of the masses): Gaddafi has served as de facto ruler ever since. Main languages: Arabic, Berber (Tamazight) Main religions: Sunni Islam Population: 6,420,000 (United Nations, 2010) Main minority groups: Berber (Amazigh) est. 236,000 to 590,000 (4-10%), Tuareg est. 17,000 (0.3%), foreigners, 600,000 documented (10%) and 1.1-1.2 million undocumented (18-20%) [Note: Reliable statistics for Libya are unavailable. Estimates for the numbers of Berber speakers vary between four and ten per cent. The number of Tuareg is from the African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights in 2009. The numbers for foreigners are Libyan government figures cited by Human Rights Watch (HWR) in 2006.] Demographic data for Libya is scarce, but around 90 per cent of the population belongs to the Arabic-speaking majority of mixed Arab-Berber ancestry. The Sunni branch of Islam is the official and nationally dominant political, cultural and legal force. Berbers, who retain the Berber language and customs, are the largest non-Arab minority. Libyan Berbers call themselves Amazigh (plural: Imazighen) and are one of the indigenous populations of North Africa. They are made of up of different ethnic groups, including nomadic Tuareg. Berbers live along the Algerian border and in the Oasis of Ghat and Ghadamis in the west of Libya. Once traders on the north-south Sahara caravan route, the ending of this and the 'pacification' of the desert deprived them of their traditional way of life. Berbers adhere to a form of Sunni Islam intermeshed with Sudanese and West African beliefs in sorcery and witchcraft. Marriages are monogamous and women have a high status in Berber society. Both men and women wear veils as a protection against dust storms. Other minorities include the Arabic-speakers of West African ancestry, who inhabit the southern oases, and the Berber-related Tuareg and Tebu (Toubou), who live in the south of the country. Though converted to Islam by Sanussi missionaries in the nineteenth century, Tebu retain many of their earlier religious beliefs and practices. Their language is related to a Nigerian language. Centred in the Tibesti Mountains and other parts of southern Libya, early Tebu economy was based on pastoralism with the margins of survival widened by caravanning, slavery and raiding. In the latter half of the nineteenth century Tebu mobility was curtailed by conquest and policing of the southern desert, first by colonial powers and later by the independent states of Libya and Chad. Since the second half of the twentieth century, Tebu have been administered from centres such as Benghazi and Baida in Libya. According to 2011 UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) statistics, there are 8,000 refugees in Libya, mainly from Palestine and sub-Saharan Africa. Since 1959 petroleum and gas have financed the transformation of Libya from a poor nation at the time of independence to a rich one with vast sums to spend on social, agricultural and military development. The country is loosely governed on the basis of the Qur'an and sharia law, as well as Gaddafi's 'Green Book', published in 1975. The book rejects western liberal democracy, arguing instead for a form of direct democracy based on popular committees, institutions which Gaddafi subsequently created. Gaddafi has varyingly attempted to lead pan-Arab and pan-African movements. He has provided support to rebellions across the Middle East and the African continent. This included support to the African National Congress battling Apartheid in South Africa, but more often has involved training and sponsorship of warlords and despots, including Charles Taylor of Liberia, Foday Sankoh - the former leader of Sierra Leone's brutal Revolutionary United Front, Blaise Compaore of Burkina Faso, and recently, the widely ostracized Robert Mugabe of Zimbabwe. Libya's support of international terrorism in the 1980s led to confrontation with the United States. The US bombed Libya in 1986 in response to alleged Libyan involvement in a terrorist attack in Germany that killed US soldiers. In 1992, the United Nations imposed sanctions on Libya over its involvement in the Lockerbie bombing in 1988. In the 1990s these sanctions isolated Libya, but they were suspended in April 1999 and finally lifted in September 2003, after Libya accepted responsibility for the Lockerbie bombing. In 2003, this admission and the decision to stop developing weapon of mass destructions have improved relations with the United States and Europe (which desire access to Libya's oil reserves). As a result of this, western politicians have visited Libya, as well as many working-level and commercial delegations, and Gaddafi made his first trip to Western Europe in 15 years, when he travelled to Brussels in April 2004. None listed. Minority based and advocacy organisations Libya Watch for Human Rights (UK) Tel: +44-7-830-307-035 Libyan Union for Human Rights Defenders (Holland) Libyan Working Group Sources and further reading Human Rights Watch, Stemming the Flow: Abuses Against Migrants, Asylum Seekers and Refugees, September 2006. Search Refworld
Dye-sensitized solar cells (DSC) are easier to manufacture than silicon-based solid-state photovoltaic cells but not as efficient. Some new research may make carbon nanotubes a more efficient alternative for platinum electrodes in dye-sensitized solar cells, making them more viable overall. Dyes absorb photons from sunlight and generate a charge in the form of electrons, which are captured first by a semiconducting titanium oxide layer deposited on a current collector before flowing back to the counter electrode through another current collector. Progress has been made in the manufacture of DSCs that incorporate an iodine-based electrolyte, but iodine tends to corrode metallic current collectors, which poses a challenge for its long-term reliability. Iodine electrolyte also has the unfortunate tendency to absorb light in the visible wavelengths, which means fewer photons could be utilized. Arrays of vertically aligned single-walled carbon nanotubes (VASWCNTs) grown at Rice University are key to making better and cheaper dye-sensitized solar cells, an alternative to more expensive silicon solar cells. The arrays are transferred to conducting glass, topped with a second electrode of titanium oxide and surrounded by iodine-free electrolyte developed at Tsinghua University. Credit: Lou Lab/Rice University Both Rice and Tsinghua built working solar cells, with similar results. They were able to achieve a power conversion efficiency of 5.25 percent – lower than the DSC record of 11 percent with iodine electrolytes and a platinum electrode, but significantly higher than a control test that combined the new electrolyte with a traditional platinum counter electrode. Resistance between the new electrolyte and counter electrode is "the lowest we've ever seen," Lou said. There's much work to be done, however. "The carbon nanotube-to-current collector still has a pretty large contact resistance, and the effects of structural defects in carbon nanotubes on their corresponding catalytic performance are not fully understood, but we believe once we optimize everything, we're going to get decent efficiency and make the whole thing very affordable," Lou said. "The real attraction is that it will be a very low-cost alternative to silicon-based solar cells." Citation: Feng Hao, Pei Dong, Jing Zhang, Yongchang Zhang, Phillip E. Loya, Robert H. Hauge, Jianbao Li, Jun Lou&Hong Lin, 'High Electrocatalytic Activity of Vertically Aligned Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes towards Sulfide Redox Shuttles', Scientific Reports 2, Article number: 368 doi:10.1038/srep00368
• A-Z • Directory • myUVM • Loading search... VT Pasture Network How managing for increased biodiversity can help farmers Posted: December 11th, 2015 by VT Pasture Network By: Juan P. Alvez \| Pasture Technical Coordinator UVM Center for Sustainable Agriculture Pasture diversity increases farm resiliency Pasture diversity increases farm resiliency In 2013, our research team* embarked on a collaborative, long-term study focused on understanding how ecologic habitat disruption is associated with livestock wellbeing and health, and how that can affect society. This is far from a local or unique issue. With human population growing above 7 billion people, a demand for higher living standards, including dairy products as more people seek access to all forms of animal protein as part of a more affluent lifestyle, is ever increasing. Meeting this demand requires both advancing the agricultural frontier and an intensification of the production process, burdening already-degraded ecosystems, and impacting habitats, forests, biodiversity, soils, water and rural livelihoods. There is strong evidence that agriculture receives (and may provide), a diverse array of benefits from healthy ecosystems, and it also worsens problems when it disrupts them. Cows grazing diverse pastures at Choiniere Farm Cows grazing diverse pastures at Choiniere Farm We suggest that managing for increased biological diversity in pasture-based dairy production systems positively contributes to improved livestock well-being, health and productivity, and creates a positive feedback ecological service loop. It has been demonstrated that minimally disturbed soils, adequate access to a diverse, high quality forage mix, and clean water are associated with bovine wellbeing and milk quality. Dairy cows support numerous microbial communities, including mutually beneficial relationships with their microbial symbionts (rumen microbiota). These cellulolytic bacteria break down plant materials, providing cows with a source of energy and nutrients. An understanding of the response of ruminant and environmental microbial communities to specific management practices will provide an opportunity to both optimize farm productivity and enhance ecosystem-based management. Well-balanced cool season pastures at Choiniere Farm Well-balanced cool season pastures at Choiniere Farm We had an integral approach to soils, forage and diet, rumen microbiology, grazing activity and milk quality, to evaluate how cows were affected. We hypothesize that biodiversity affects livestock well-being, health, and productivity, and that it may also affect cows’ grazing behaviors. To explore this, we studied how the relationship between grazing time and diet alters rumination activity, rumen pH and health, milk composition and productivity. Cows that grazed on diverse pastures presented higher concentrations of poly unsaturated fatty acids than when grazing a monoculture; they were able to transfer conjugated linoleic acid and omega-3 fatty acids from these pastures into the milk. We did not find any effects between pasture diet type and lying time but, there were differences among cows in laying time where higher producing cows had longer lying times. Cows wearing electronic loggers (wrapped in low-hind left leg) for grazing activity Overall we determined that pasture-based livestock who graze on pastures managed for increased biodiversity can help to improve soil health, optimize forage utilization, rumen activity, milk composition and quality reduce costs, and increase net farm income. By optimizing these production parameters, pasture-based dairy farmers can simultaneously advance cattle health and well-being, reduce operational costs and environmental impacts and produce the healthy dairy products society is demanding. We hope that our work can explain the importance of maintaining a healthy ecosystem for Vermont farms. Full results will be published on a scientific article. *Research Team (alphabetical order): Juan Alvez, John Barlow, Melissa Bainbridge, Emily Golf, Jana Kraft, Robert Mugabe and Joe Roman Sponsors: UVM Reach Grant & NE-SARE Grant Grazing and Conservation in Brazil and Vermont: More Alike Than You Might Think Posted: August 27th, 2015 by VT Pasture Network By: Juan P. Alvez \| Pasture Technical Coordinator at the UVM Center for Sustainable Agriculture Santa Catarina mountainous farmscape Santa Catarina mountainous farmscape Early this year, my work in sustainable agriculture brought me to the State of Santa Catarina (Southern Brazil), as a co-instructor of “Agroecology, Ecosystem Services and Farmer’s Livelihoods”. There, I joined about twenty people, visiting farms located at the Atlantic Forest, on a 9-day applied field course and workshop. The event was hosted by Universities of Vermont and Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina. Santa Catarina and Vermont share many similarities, including topography, size and identity with rural living and family farms. On the other hand, Santa Catarina State has subtropical humid climate and the level of deforestation reaches over 88%. Also, the Atlantic forest is considered a biodiversity hotspot, harboring more species per hectare than NE U.S. While formerly, most farmers planted tobacco, eucalyptus and other high input crops, currently they still face the challenges of farming in very steep terrains and providing for their families. Soil erosion, nutrient runoff and water quality were a rampant problem. However, the main challenge is to meet the requirements set by the Brazilian Forest Act. Currently most of these farmers and specially the smallest ones, are occupying areas of permanent preservation such as hilltops, riparian areas and water sources thus, clearly infringing environmental laws. This workshop aimed to contribute to a long-term search for creative solutions that can help promote conservation, restore the Atlantic Forest, preserving its rich biodiversity and sustaining rural livelihoods through agroecological practices. We visited the town of Santa Rosa De Lima, –also known as the “agro-ecology capital of Brazil”-, to study silvopastoral systems with high-levels of native biodiversity. The focus was on how different agroecological practices can support conservation efforts in Santa Catarina. Specifically, we wanted to investigate how combining new forest patches with management-intensive grazing (MIG) can be one of the approaches to address deforestation, improving dairy production and keeping families in their farms. Planting native multiple trees species on a rotationaly grazed pasture Volunteers planting multiple native trees species on a rotationally grazed pasture Previously, it has been found that farmers who switched to MIG observed improvements in environmental and production variables with increases in pasture productivity, with 55% reporting a slight increase in pasture area without deforesting new areas. A larger herd size was achieved in 63% of the farms surveyed. Daily total milk production and productivity per animal increased by 80% and 73%, respectively. Improvements in soil cover, soil quality, and soil moisture were reported in 87%, 95%, and 80% of surveyed farms. Producers also perceived a stabilization and reduction of erosion gullies; electric fencing restricted animal access to rivers, which decreased in 59% of farms, while riparian buffers increased in 22% of the properties. Thus, perceived water quality improved for 29% of interviewees. Ticks diminished in 73% of the farms, mastitis in 80%, intestinal worms in 67%. Pesticide use dropped in 60% of farms and TMR fed to animals decreased in 49% of the farms. From left to right: Bertilo (Ag. Service Provider), Abdon Schmitt and Joshua Farley (Faculty), Skyler Perkins (Student) Manure accumulation in the milk parlor dropped in 53%, and workload fell from 8 to 4 hours per day in 66% of the farms respectively. Consequently, 67% of the farms reported better quality of life. Lastly, economic return was optimal or within expectations for 67% of farmers and production costs fell according to 34% of interviewees. This long-term collaboration has ties to Vermont, with inspirations that can be tracked two decades ago, influenced by Bill Murphy (Professor Emeritus of UVM, PSS). The on-going collaboration includes three University of Vermont institutions, the Gund Institute for Ecological Economics, the Center for Sustainable Agriculture, the Department of Community Development and Applied Economics, and students and researchers from two Brazilian Universities (Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina and Universidade de Sao Paulo). Soil moisture sensors can help manage grazing Posted: August 13th, 2015 by VT Pasture Network By: Juan P. Alvez \| Pasture Technical Coordinator UVM Center for Sustainable Agriculture As predictions for the Northeastern U.S. suggest wetter, warmer climate in the near future, the use of technology such as precision agriculture, can be of great use to enable a more sustainable modern day farming. One of the tools the Center for Sustainable Agriculture (UVM Extension) is using to evaluate, for example, the most appropriate moment to graze, are soil moisture sensors (SMS). They can track real-time water movement and record information that can be instantly viewed on a computer or on a smartphone. Soil moisture varies depending on soil types, precipitation and temperature. Soil moisture devices can be used under several ground cover conditions, and can help create moisture maps of the areas by the use of global positioning systems (GPS) at any given time in the season. By using devices such as SMS, farmers are able to make real-time decisions about where they will place their animals, establish crops and without causing soil compaction or destroying their ground cover. In 2015, we installed three-SMS at Health Hero Island Farm in South Hero, VT as part of a 3-year USDA NRCS funded research. Eric Nöel -who grazes about 80 cows at Health Hero Island Farm-, welcomes cutting-edge research that can help him and other farmers take instant action on farm management decisions. Nöel understands that placing animals or, running machinery on wet soils can quickly aggravate soil physical conditions like structure, compaction and infiltration. Installing soil moisture sensors in the field Joshua Faulkner installing soil moisture sensors in the field Installed soil moisture sensor (back view) Installed soil moisture sensor (back view) Installed soil moisture sensor (front view) Installed soil moisture sensor (front view) When planning for the summer slump, consider Pearl Millet Posted: June 3rd, 2015 by VT Pasture Network By: Juan P. Alvez \| Pasture Technical Coordinator UVM Center for Sustainable Agriculture Getting ready for mid-summer dry weather for your grazing animals? Pearl millet may be a great annual option because of its incredible resiliency!. (scroll down to see the pictures and blog post below) Juan Alvez ([email protected]); Kimberly Hagen ([email protected]) and, Jennifer Colby ([email protected]) You can find more resources about pearl millet below: King Agriseeds Right Sizing Farms Posted: May 15th, 2015 by VT Pasture Network By Kimberly Hagen Grazing Specialist 2014-06-12 12.02.22Right-sizing. It’s what all farms must do if they are to stay profitable, and in balance, preserving the integrity of the soil, water and air, both on the farm and in the surrounding environment. As the water quality issue moves Vermont and its agricultural community into deeper levels of debate on how to address the issue, it’s clear that each farm must also work to find that “right size”. Each farm has a unique set of variables due to its bedrock, soils, topography, water – both underground and on the surface, type of livestock, vegetation and owner. It’s not unlike baking a cake. You lay out the ingredients, and then commence with the mixing them in the proper proportion for taste, lightness and the fit to the pan it will be baked in – in other words – rightsizing. If the proportions are off, it won’t taste good, it may not rise, and it won’t fit in the pan, and overflow onto the oven floor for a tedious clean-up. That can happen with farms too. Unfortunately, overflow from a farm is more than just tedious, it is costly – nutrients are lost and overloaded vegetation, soil and water sputter with the suffocation in a toxic brew or starve with overtaxing removal of nutrients needed for reproduction. The productivity potential is lost. Not only does the farm lose, but we all do as that toxicity taxes the local and collectively owned environment, lessening its productivity as well. For example, if the wet areas or streams on your farm look like chocolate milk every time there is precipitation, even the lightest sprinkle, nutrients are not being absorbed on the farm, and instead are making a quick exit. If you find you are feeding out stored feed by the beginning of July, you might want to think about reevaluating your land/livestock ratio, or at least your current management of them. These are signals of a need for better balance, and a change in management is often the simplest, and least expensive approach for getting started. Buffalo, cows and horses are heavy animals with 1,000 pounds and more distributed on four feet. Confine them to a small area for weeks or months and it doesn’t take long before problems arise. Equally disruptive is frequent tillage and constant bare soil exposure. Moving air and water can hastily capture the freely floating nutrients, and carry them away, dropping them where they might not be needed or wanted – such as Lake Champlain. Two years ago while attending a conference on grazing, I listened to a farmer describing the journey he had made after rejecting the conventional practices expected for a farming operation. He rejected that path because he was losing so much money, yet working harder than ever, and had no time with his family. His farm was not healthy and neither was he. Yet farming was his choice of profession. He decided to trust his own observations and judgement and after several years of trials seeking the match for the soils, the water, the vegetation, the livestock and the quality of life he wanted, he found the right size for his farm. The familiarity was instant – this is a concept that I know many of my colleagues and myself carry around in our minds, minus a commonly agreed upon term. I like this word – it’s succinct, and descriptive. And it really is the core of what we do – working with farmers to find that sweet spot of what the farm has for ingredients, and potential for productivity and how best to manage those ingredients for the best possible outcome for the immediate, and with an eye for continued productivity – sustainability – for the future. As a technical service provider, we have a fine line to walk – listening to what the producer wants and providing them with the information from research, yet also informing them of any and all parameters – both those laid down in the natural world and those made by humans. This coming field season, we look forward to working with livestock farmers to find the right size for their operations – keeping the soil and water on their farms and in the river, clean, healthy and productive. ‘Baby, it’s Cold Outside’: Watch out for Livestock! Posted: January 8th, 2015 by VT Pasture Network Livestock animals can bear cold weather. But even if we want to extend the grazing season, keeping our animals outside, as much as possible, there are some kinds of cold weather that we must pay very careful attention to. When it comes to protecting our animals’ health and ensuring their productivity it is important to know a few facts. Fig. 1. Limousin Beef Cattle at Venner Farm, IA (http://vennerlimousin.com/about/are-your-cows-this-tough/) Fig. 1. Limousin Beef Cattle at Venner Farm, IA. Excellent body condition is key. Extreme winter has not been a major concern for Vermont (and Northeast) livestock farmers because, in general, cattle can tolerate the elements … unless two primary circumstances are present: (1) poor body condition and, (2) wet, windy weather with subzero wind chill temperatures (Fig. 1). Cattle livestock endure ‘comfortably’ in temperature ranges between 0C (32F) and 24C (74F). Production does not get significantly affected in this temperature range as long as they have sufficient hay, feed and water to keep their body condition. Unlike the weather, fortunately this is something farmers can control. On the other hand, relative humidity plays a big role during degraded weather circumstances. Animals will suffer greatly (and you will notice!), when extreme temperatures are accompanied by wet and windy conditions. Thus, extreme cold weather can take a toll on your herd, particularly taking down animals with previous health problems, or the ones that don’t have at least periodic access to enough food and/or a shelter. What can farmers do? Silvopasture (cows grazing under trees) Fig. 2. Wooded pastures or silvopasture (an agroforestry practice where cows graze under trees), are great shelter alternatives for cows enduring cold or warm weather. In extreme cold like much of the northern US is currently experiencing, if proper facilities exist, animals should be guarded and sheltered indoors (e.g. barn). A bedded pack barn, is probably the best alternative for that. However, if you chose to keep them outside, please plan ahead of the bad weather and establish a “forest barn” in a wooded pasture area (Fig. 2). If we assume that most of the cold comes from above (cold air is heavier than warm), and that animal heat is thinner and escapes, then covering your animals is a good idea. Fig. 3. Herd flocks together to keep warm. During winter, provide enough hay and bedding area Cows compensate temperature differences with a ‘coat’ for every season and they can generate metabolic heat, and heat from movement. If cold, these gregarious animals will flock together and alternate places and benefit from the heat exchange released by the herd. Animals in the outer circle will try to find a warm spot and ‘force’ themselves into the center, pushing the ones in the inner (Fig. 3). If your farm doesn’t have facilities that can accommodate your animals, it may not be a bad idea to build a rustic shelter (perhaps adjacent to the forest barn), re-using inexpensive tarps and rope (Figure 3). Always keep enough bedding in the barn or in the woods, so that cows can lay down in a relatively dry spot. If your cows are in a “forest barn”, try changing the areas where they stay periodically, to avoid erosion and nutrient runoff during the ‘mud season’. Temperature Humidity Index (THI) In hot weather, monitor temperature and appetite. Take note of the Temperature Humidity Index (THI), an equation that indicates that when relative humidity at a given temperature increases, then comfort factor decreases. For example, if temperature is around 92 and relative humidity is 85, THI should read 89, which is almost borderline for severe stress. However, in dairy cows, milk production starts being affected when THI reaches beyond 78. (See chart). In sum, yes, beef cattle can withstand subzero temperatures for a few days but, they may die (or significantly lower production), if they present poor body condition and wet, windy low temperatures bump into them. Take-Away Ideas 1. Be aware that animals whose general health is poor may need special attention to survive or remain productive during extreme weather conditions. 2. During temperature extremes, take special care that your animals have access, at least periodically, to shelter and adequate feed. 3. If the temperature is below 32F or above 74F, consider providing your herd shelter in a barn, Bedded Pack barn, or “Forest Barn” in a wooded area. 4. Remember, cold air is heavier than warm air and mostly comes from above so, protect your animals and stay ahead in production! Dr. Frank Wiersama, 1990. Dept. of agricultural Engineering. Univ. of Arizona. http://www.heatstress.info/heatstressinfo/TemperatureHumidityIndexCattle/tabid/1232/Default.aspx Venner Farm, IA. http://vennerlimousin.com/about/are-your-cows-this-tough/ Grazing sequentially vs. pasture skipping Posted: November 14th, 2014 by VT Pasture Network Sequential grazing via strips or paddocks Sequential grazing via strips or paddocks For many livestock farmers, grazing pastures and paddocks in a simple, sequential order may be tempting. It can be an uncomplicated way to keep track of where animals have been. It is admittedly easy to set up a large pasture and to move those fences, strip grazing as they go from start to finish, especially during early spring, when forage growth is so hard to keep up. During this period, sequential grazing may be an acceptable approach, especially if animals are able to graze the top 20 to 50% of the plants and move quickly, staying for very short occupation periods. However, in some cases this approach may mean missed opportunities to maximize forage efficiency, soil health and animal growth, which are key goals of optimal pasture management. Livestock producers deal with an array of interacting variables: seasons, weather, soils, forage types, animal categories and management. Their cycles of resting, feeding and reproduction happen dynamically, mandated by seasons and weather, and affect pasture growth. Cows grazing on a paddock. To the right, previously grazed paddock; to the left, paddock to be grazed. Cows grazing on a paddock. To the left, previously grazed paddock; to the right, paddock to be grazed. But, why might following a sequential rotation not be the best approach in rotational grazing? Sequentially rotating livestock means moving animals in a static sequence throughout pastures, either via fixed paddocks or by strip grazing. While rotating animals using electric fence and smaller paddocks has been practiced since the end of the last century, some grazing cattle producers still graze their animals following fixed rotations. Arguably, sequentially moving animals throughout a pasture is similar to establishing a fixed rotation, allotting animals fixed areas. Sometimes this leads to fixed occupation and rest periods. If a sequential rotation is repeated too often and without doing grazing math, it may compromise mid-to late season pasture production because it takes away flexibility regarding seasons or forage availability. Grazing wherever forages are ready sometimes means not following an orderly sequence Grazing wherever forages are ready sometimes means not following an orderly sequence Forage production tends to slow down and shrink over time along the season. To make up for the scarcity, some either graze for too long or even too close to the ground (thus overgrazing), producing unfinished animals or causing health problems. Paddock Skipping Pasture skipping: cows move where forage is most ready to be grazed rather than sequentially. Observation, measurements and grazing math are key to master this skill. Every inch of forage that is unnecessarily grazed weakens the photosynthesis capacity of the remaining leaves and pastures can take weeks to recover. Recovery of overgrazed forages forces the plants to draw from stores of carbohydrates (sugars) stored in the roots. If this practice is reiterated, the root structure becomes depleted, and the risk of soil exposure to the elements can ultimately lead to the erosion of the soil that farmers work so hard to build. Skipping pastures where forage is ready to graze may entail more labor by moving animals to the right place, a few times a day. However, it is a no-cost opportunity to enhance both soil and animal health as your livestock is able to harvest more forage in its optimum stage, while also extending the grazing season. (Plus the answer to a need for a bit more labor can even be easily solved remotely, pre-setting a few Batt-Latch automatic gate openers.) Life and soil minerals Posted: October 2nd, 2014 by VT Pasture Network Since the onset of agriculture, successful farming has meant the extraction of minerals from soil as plants grow. A relatively small world population and a vast agricultural frontier made this seem a problem of minor consideration and until relatively recently, Planet Earth seemed infinite! Image by: http://www.healthylife-healthyplanet.com/essential-minerals.html Plants may look the same, but some depleted agricultural soils may lack important minerals. However, today many health professionals agree that even human health relates to the minerals present or, lacking in the soil. Depleted soils can exacerbate metabolic diseases that may unlock an array of health consequences. “Animals and humans are the biochemical picture of the soil”, said Andre Voisin, in his “Soil, Grass and Cancer” book. This approach shows us that an imbalanced equation, with foods grown in poor-quality soils, cannot produce positive results in living organisms. Minerals and other micronutrients become available in the soil very slowly. It takes millions of years for rocks to break down, generations of animal carcasses to decompose and return their constituent elements to the soil. But what takes millions of years can be depleted in a geologically relative instant. This happens because crops and animals that grow every year in our farmlands, draw upon the minerals for their growth (present in carcasses and grains), and these “withdrawals” are rarely re-deposited. In the last 150 years, the rate of extraction of soil minerals, from crops to livestock, has been far greater than what has been put back in. To complicate this scenario even more, most agricultural soils are back on production shortly after a new season starts, extracting yet more nutrients from an already depleted system. It’s true that soil amendments are frequently applied by many farmers. But when amended, soils usually receive tiny, effectively homeopathic amounts, and these are frequently in the form of synthetic fertilizers or raw manure, compared to the considerably large quantities removed. These applications mainly replenish macronutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium) and are usually catered to a given crop. This is far from enough. Micronutrients such as, calcium, iron, magnesium, boron, zinc, etc., are as important or more for diverse life functions, (included human health), but they are usually the first to be neglected. Ideally, minerals should be processed -ingested and digested- by soil microorganisms (e.g. bacteria, fungi, nematodes and earthworms), and aggregated into organic matter before they can be healthily absorbed through the food chain. Most soils contain micronutrients, but they are considered healthy, when living organisms are present. All these creatures need water to mobilize minerals, and water is more successfully held in soils that remain covered. What can farmers’ do? To promote a healthy cycle in your farm: • Perform a soil test, consult with a soil professional and see what is missing. • Avoid practices that disturb the soil. Revolved soils burn organic matter, hold less water and become inhospitable for soil life. • Retire the plow. Paint it, make a decoration reminding the times when we did not understand how aggressive this tool was. • Use minimum or, no-till practices; they will preserve, soil structure and function. • Use composted manure or any reliable compost. • Amend compost piles manually, by sprinkling micro minerals -to the pile or row-, before turning. This can be easily done as the pile grows and it will avoid operation costs of spreading them separated. When composted, spread it in the field. • Adopt grazing, no-till cropping and fallow periods, in adequate sequence. • Rotating high-stock density grazing animals for short periods is among the most efficient and effective way to incorporate nutrients back overtime. Grazing animals can do most of the work themselves but, they won’t open the gates. Organic matter will buffer and catalyze mineral absorption. In the end, a living soil plays an essential role, enabling important ecosystem processes and functions such as, creating structure, binding the soil together, helping mobilize minerals and producing benefits from nutrition, health, climate regulation, yields and pleasant landscapes. Batt-Latch: “Set it and forget it!” Posted: July 14th, 2014 by VT Pasture Network A Batt-Latch automatic gate opener A Batt-Latch automatic gate opener How does it work? What doesn’t it do? Developing Vermont’s Swine Industry Posted: June 27th, 2014 by VT Pasture Network Snug Valley Farm's Ben Notterman and the Pasture Program's Jenn Colby. Snug Valley Farm’s Ben Notterman and the Pasture Program’s Jenn Colby. Pastured pigs at Snug Valley Farm Pastured pigs at Snug Valley Farm Skip to toolbar
The Virgin Mary Artist: Manner of Germain Pilon (French, Paris ca. 1525–1590 Paris) Date: ca. 1585–90 Culture: French Medium: Gilt bronze Classification: Sculpture-Bronze Credit Line: Gift of Lois and Anthony Blumka, in honor of Olga Raggio, 1998 Accession Number: 1998.437 The dolorous three-figure arrangement of the Virgin Mary and Saint John flanking a crucified Christ was one of the most familiar settings in Western religious art, repeated with endless variations on every scale. This statuette originally formed part of a Crucifixion group that was fervently venerated as an object of private devotion, as the well-rubbed gilding attests. If one stops short of assigning the model to the great German Pilon himself, it is only because small bronzes by him are not known. The statuette certainly faithfully encapsulates his mellifluous style, the folds of the Virgin's mantle descending in generous curves much as in Pilon monuments such as the seated Virgin of Sorrows, a marble of about 1585 in the Church of Saint-Paul-Saint-Louis, Paris, or the kneeling Cardinal de Birague, a bronze tomb figure of 1584–85 now in the Musée du Louvre.
Home > TA Question of the Month > How can I build my program’s capacity to provide trauma-informed services? The powerful documentary Healing Neen provides a vivid understanding of the devastating impact that lifetime trauma can have on one’s life, help us reflect on our current practices and serve as inspiration as we move forward in our journey to providing trauma-informed services. An increasing understanding of the concepts of “trauma” and “trauma-informed care” has influenced the way in which advocates and social services providers think of our work with domestic violence survivors. In fact, in the past few years, trauma informed work has become a focus for many federal programs offering funding for the prevention of and response to domestic violence. Research and practice alike show that domestic violence can have a significant impact on victims’ physical and mental health. CDC’s National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey (NISVS) found that 81% of women who experienced rape, stalking or physical violence by an intimate partner reported short or long term health consequences such as Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) symptoms and injury. It is also known that for many survivors, domestic violence occurs in the context of other lifetime trauma, including histories of physical and sexual abuse in childhood. The comprehensive Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) Study has documented strong links between childhood trauma and a wide range of consequences in adulthood, including health conditions, mental health and substance abuse issues, increased risk of experiencing trauma and abuse such as domestic violence, and premature death. “Adopting a trauma-informed approach to domestic violence advocacy means attending to survivors’ emotional as well as physical safety. (…) It also means ensuring that all survivors of domestic violence have access to advocacy services in an environment that is inclusive, welcoming, destigmatizing, and non-retraumatizing.” ~ National Center on Domestic Violence, Trauma & Mental Health The Lifetime Spiral of Gender Violence, created by the Asian & Pacific Islander Institute on Domestic Violence, illustrates multiple forms of abuse and oppression that women and girls may encounter throughout their lifetime. Some forms of abuse and oppression may be confined to one stage in the lifecycle, while others may continue into subsequent life stages. Unfortunately, the systems to which survivors and their children reach out for help are often unprepared to attend to survivors’ trauma and mental health-related needs. “Trauma” and “trauma informed care” are more than buzzwords or emerging trends. Understanding the impact of trauma and the importance of being trauma-informed is just the beginning of a long journey towards creating conditions and services that meet survivors’ needs for safety, autonomy, and recovery, among other critical needs. “Just as we help survivors to increase their access to economic resources, physical safety, and legal protections, using a trauma informed approach means that we also assist survivors in strengthening their own psychological capacities to deal with the multiple complex issues that they face in accessing safety, recovering from the traumatic effects of domestic violence and other lifetime abuse, and rebuilding their lives” (National Center on Domestic Violence, Trauma & Mental Health). Making the transition to becoming a trauma-informed organization and providing trauma-informed services involves a shift in the way we understand our work, structure our organizations, and interact with survivors. The National Center on Domestic Violence, Trauma & Mental Health outlines the five core components of a trauma-informed approach to domestic violence advocacy as follows: 1. Providing survivors with information about the traumatic effects of abuse; 2. Adapting programs and services to meet survivors’ trauma- and mental health-related needs; 3. Creating opportunities for survivors to discuss their responses to trauma; 4. Offering resources and referrals to survivors; and 5. Reflecting on our own and our programs’ practice. That being said, for some organizations, building capacity for trauma-informed care will involve a radical change in approach, while for others it may involve enhancing existing practices. The good news is that there is a growing body of information, resources, and training opportunities designed to help domestic violence organizations and health and human services agencies to build and/or enhance capacity to provide trauma-informed advocacy and services. The National Center on Domestic Violence, Trauma & Mental Health offers a wealth of resources, including webinars, fact sheets and articles, providing guidance for creating trauma-informed services at domestic violence programs and for working with survivors who are experiencing trauma symptoms and/or mental health conditions. This organization also provides training, support, and consultation to advocates, mental health and substance abuse providers, legal professionals, and policymakers as they work to improve agency and systems-level responses to survivors and their children. The manual Real Tools: Responding To Multi-Abuse Trauma offers practical tools for advocates and community partners, such as health and mental heath care providers, to address the complex needs of survivors of multi-abuse trauma, no matter where survivors enter the social service system. The publication A Practical Guide for Creating Trauma-Informed Disability, Domestic Violence and Sexual Assault Organizations engages readers in critical-thinking and exploration of strategies for implementing effective trauma-informed conditions or core values. The curriculum Access To Advocacy: Serving Women With Psychiatric Disabilities In Domestic Violence Settings was designed to build the capacity of domestic violence agencies, as well as disability rights and mental health providers, to serve survivors of domestic violence and other lifetime trauma who are living with psychiatric disabilities. Taken together, these resources emphasize the critical need for collaboration between advocates and providers from a wide variety of disciplines to ensure that all survivors have access to comprehensive services and that the needs of those impacted by multiple co-occurring issues are met. VAWnet’s upcoming Special Collection Trauma-Informed Domestic Violence Services, developed by the National Center on Domestic Violence, Trauma & Mental Health in collaboration with the National Resource Center on Domestic Violence (due for release in early November) includes research, practical tools, and informational materials related to trauma and trauma-informed approaches. The Collection is designed to provide practical guidance on developing trauma-informed DV programs and services. It also provides information to help support collaboration between DV programs, and mental health, substance abuse, and other social services agencies. What steps have you taken within your agency towards building capacity for trauma-informed care? What examples can you share of trauma-informed services in your organization? Share your experience with us! 1. No comments yet. 1. No trackbacks yet. Please answer this math problem for validation purposes. *
Solar Cookers World Network Solar Funnel Cooker Redirected from Funnel cooker 1,797pages on this wiki Funnel cooker As a University Professor of Physics with a background in energy usage, I set out to develop a means of cooking food and sterilizing water using the free energy of the sun. First, I looked at existing methods. The parabolic cooker involves a reflective dish that concentrates sunlight to a point where the food is cooked. This approach is very dangerous since the sun's energy is focused to a point which is very hot, but which cannot be seen. (BYU students and I built one which will set paper on fire in about 3 seconds!) I learned that an altruistic group had offered reflecting parabolas to the people living at the Altiplano in Bolivia. But more than once the parabolas had been stored next to a shed -- and the passing sun set the sheds on fire! The people did not want these dangerous, expensive devices, even though the Altiplano region has been stripped of fuel wood. The box cooker: Basically an insulated box with a glass or plastic lid, often with a reflecting lid to reflect sunlight into the box. Light enters through the top glass (or plastic), to slowly heat up the box. Problems: energy enters only through the top, while heat is escaping through all the other sides, which have a tendency to draw heat away from the food. When the box is opened to put food in or take it out, some of the heat escapes and is lost. Also, effective box cookers tend to be more complicated to build than the funnel cooker. While studying this problem, I thought again and again of the great need for a safe, inexpensive yet effective solar cooker. It finally came to me at Christmastime a few years ago, a sort of hybrid between the parabola and a box cooker. It looks like a large, deep funnel, and incorporates what I believe are the best features of the parabolic cooker and the box cooker. The first reflector was made at my home out of aluminum foil glued onto cardboard, then this was curved to form a reflective funnel. My children and I figured out a way to make a large card-board funnel easily. (I'll tell you exactly how to do this later on.) Prototypes of the Solar Funnel Cooker were tested in Bolivia, and outperformed an expensive solar box cooker and a "Solar Cookit" - while costing much less. Brigham Young University submitted a patent application, mainly to insure that no company would prevent wide distribution of the Solar Funnel Cooker. BYU makes no profit from the invention. ( I later learned that a few people had had a similar idea, but with methods differing from those developed and shown here.) So now I'm trying to get the word out so that the invention can be used to capture the free energy of the sun - for camping and for emergencies, yes, but also for every day cooking where electricity is not available and even fuel wood is getting scarce. How it Works Next, we paint a jar black on the outside, to collect heat, and place this at the bottom of the funnel. Or one can use a black pot, with a lid. The black vessel gets hot, fast. But not quite hot enough to cook with... We need some way to build up the heat without letting the air cool it. So, I put a cheap plastic bag around the jar -- voila, the solar funnel cooker was born! The plastic bag, available in grocery stores as a "poultry bag", replaces the cumbersome and expensive box and glass lid of the solar box ovens. You can use the plastic bags used in American stores to put groceries in, as long as they let a lot of sunlight pass. (Dark- colored bags will not do.) A friend of mine who is also a Physics Professor did not believe I could actually boil water with the thing. So I showed him that with this new "solar funnel cooker," I was able to boil water in Utah in the middle of winter! I laid the funnel on its side since it was winter and pointed a large funnel towards the sun to the south. I also had to suspend the black cooking vessel -- rather than placing it on a wooden block. This allows the weaker sun rays to strike the entire surface of the vessel. Of course, the Solar Funnel works much better outside of winter days (when the UV index is 7 or greater). Most other solar cookers will not cook in the winter in northern areas (or south of about 35 degrees, either). I thought that a pressure cooker would be great. But the prices in stores were way too high for me. Wait, how about a canning jar? These little beauties are designed to relieve pressure through the lid -- a nice pressure cooker. And cooking time is cut in half for each 10º C we raise the temperature (Professor Lee Hansen, private communication). I used one of my wife's wide-mouth canning jars, spray-painted (flat) black on the outside, and it worked great. Food cooks faster when you use a simple canning jar as a pressure cooker. However, you can also put a black pot in the plastic bag instead if you want. But don't use a sealed container with no pressure release like a mayonnaise jar -- it can break as the steam builds up! (I've done it.) See also External links See this article in other languages Around Wikia's network Random Wiki
Tech Tuesday – Technology in the classroom Tech Tuesday - technology in the classroom pic Tech Tuesday - technology in the classroom pic [lin_video src=×9&auto_next=1&auto_start=0&div_id=videoplayer-1376407650&height=480&page_count=5&pf_id=9624&show_title=1&va_id=4220085&width=640&windows=2 service=syndicaster width=640 height=480 div_id=videoplayer-1376407650 type=script] BIRMINGHAM, Ala (WIAT) – As your kids head back to school, Tech Tuesday discusses the latest trends in using technology in the classroom. The following is from our tech expert, David Powell: It is that time of year again–where the kids go back to school. Everyone goes to bed earlier, lunches must be packed and the unrelenting pace of the school year takes over. So, for the next two weeks, we are going to look at what you need to know about tech before sending the kids off to school. This week, we’ll explore Bring Your Own Device, also called BYOD. Here is what you need to know: * What is the idea behind BYOD? The idea is that the students are literally allowed to bring their own devices. There was a time period when the schools really didn’t want students bringing smart phones, or really any phones, to school. Everyone used the computers in the computer lab and there wasn’t a real need. Now, we are all so dependent on our devices and they are such a part of our lives, that the schools have decided to embrace them and integrate them into classroom instruction. * Is there a budgetary reason for this as well? Absolutely. Ultimately, the schools can’t afford to provide each kid with a device and then replace/refresh them all the time as kids graduate and the technology becomes obsolete. By lettings students bring their own, they push the cost the of the device to the user as well letting the students use the device they prefer. * So, the curriculum must accommodate the use of these devices? Yes. One prominent superintendent here in our area told me that he wants the technology people that work for the school to focus on helping the teachers integrate technology into their instruction rather than troubleshooting a bunch of IT stuff. This is a huge shift. * So, what do you recommend people use for BYOD? I’m a big believer in the “ecosystem”. If you are Apple family, stick with Apple stuff. If you are an Amazon family, stick with the Kindle Fire. If you are a Google family, stick with their stuff. There is tremendous value in having all your stuff with one provider. I will say, Google offers a compelling set of devices right now. Their Nexus 7 tablet has all the stuff you’d expect with a 10 hour battery for $250. Several hundred less than than the 10 inch iPad. Also, the Google Chromebook is about $200 and comes loaded with all the Google apps. For 90 percent of the users, the Chromebook is sufficient for web use, simple apps and those types of things. For the price of an iPad, you can get a Chromebook and a Google Nexus tablet. Pretty compelling! So, as our world becomes increasingly dependent on these devices, I’m glad that our schools are embracing them rather than hiding from them. The kids are using them anyway, might as well include them in the instruction! blog comments powered by Disqus
1. [6 points] Two point chargesare placed in the space as shown in figure: +3.00//C +1.00//C d=].00m O (a) If a test charge qo ~ 0.100 ftCplaced in the middle between them, calculate the net forceexerted on g0. Point out thedirection of the force. (b) Where you have to put qo so as to make thenet force exerted on it is zero? (c) Calculate the electric field at the point 0.500m to the right of+1.00 fiC charge. Get this answer with Chegg Study
One of the biggest causes of excessive energy use in homes comes from the amount of electrical equipment, lighting and electronics we have, and how often it is left on when not needed. If you have the old, soon to be discontinued incandescent light bulbs, they produce a lot of heat (about 90 percent of their energy is heat and only 10 percent is light), so in the summer, lights left on heat up your house, requiring more air conditioning to keep it cool. If everyone was just responsible and turned things off, we wouldn’t need to worry much, but we are a lazy bunch and, apparently, we need help operating light switches. That is where occupancy controls come in. There are many devices available that will control lights, fans and electronic equipment, turning it off automatically when it isn’t needed, saving energy in the process. The most basic occupancy sensors turn on lights when someone enters a room, turning them off automatically a preset amount of time after they exit. These sensors use a combination of motion detection and heat sensing technology so the lights don’t go off if you are sitting and quietly reading. The sensitivity is adjustable so things don’t turn on every time your kitty walks through the room. Although occupancy sensors do work well, a better solution is what is known as a manual-on sensor. This type of switch requires someone to manually turn on the light, then turns it off automatically after they leave. The good thing about this type of switch is that it doesn’t turn lights on when you don’t need them. During the day, many rooms have enough light for someone to walk through or get something they need without turning on a light, and manual-on sensors save energy by not automatically turning lights on when not needed. Occupancy sensors can also be used on ceiling fans, which are often left on after people leave the room, wasting more energy. For simpler setups, you can have a regular old power strip, one with a remote control, or something known as a "smart strip," Smart strips have a special receptacle that senses when the main piece of equipment (like a TV or computer) is turned off. It then cuts the power to other receptacles in the power strip, saving energy by turning off your DVD player, printer, monitor or other equipment that you don’t need to have on. If you’re looking for something simple, you could use timer switches, kind of like the ones they used to have in college libraries. Turn them on for a set amount of time and they automatically turn off when done. This may not be your preference, but they do work well on bath fans, keeping them on long enough to exhaust the moisture but keeping you from leaving them on all day. You can get timers that run up to eight hours — these are great for ceiling fans you like to have on at night to keep you cool in bed. You don’t have to worry about turning them off in the morning so they don’t run all day. Finally, if you’re willing to be a responsible adult, you can just use regular old switches and train yourself to turn things on only when you need them and turn them off when you’re done. I know that’s kind of tough, but how much effort does it really take? Green building consultant Carl Seville works with electricians in Atlanta to address issues like these. How do YOU save electricity at home? Tell us! This article was reprinted with permission. It originally appeared here on
Definición de stratagem en inglés: Compartir esta entrada Pronunciación: /ˈstratədʒəm/ 1A plan or scheme, especially one used to outwit an opponent or achieve an end: a series of devious stratagems Más ejemplos en oraciones • There are conventions and stratagems for achieving the effect, and these are used as necessary. • Cunning plans, devious stratagems, state-of-the-art conventional forces, and legal and moral proscriptions, can all be helpful. • Fighting experience taught Soviet commanders a lot: they learned how to use stratagems and achieve surprise. 1.1 [mass noun] archaic Skill in devising plans or schemes; cunning. Oraciones de ejemplo • The US is effectively addressing the Islamic terror around he globe, through diplomacy, through stratagem and through the use of force depending on ground situation. • Whether his resignation was tendered because of petulance or careful stratagem, he now has a real measure of the Government's dependence on him. • This approach emphasizes stratagem and maneuver over firepower and seeks to set the terms of conflict even before the opponent is aware conflict exists. Late 15th century (originally denoting a military ploy): from French stratagème, via Latin from Greek stratēgēma, from stratēgein 'be a general', from stratēgos, from stratos 'army' + agein 'to lead'. For editors and proofreaders Saltos de línea: strata\|gem Compartir esta entrada ¿Qué te llama la atención de esta palabra o frase? Palabras relacionadas
Click to return to the Evolution Home Page darwin change extinction survival sex humans religion roundtable: the evolving enemy Watch Show 4: "The Evolutionary Arms Race" on PBS Check local listings Select a question: Panelist Responses: < back to intro page Stephen Palumbi The point of that example in the show was that the ants were producing an antibiotic not themselves, but by culturing an organism on their carapaces that would then produce that antibiotic so that the antibiotic could co-evolve with the mold that was growing on the fungus that the ants farmed. Tamar Barlam Well, I don't think we need to produce our own antibiotics, but I think that previous discussion actually relates directly to this. Until recently, when we just brought up our children and let them play with other kids and get a bit dirty, there were certain illnesses they got when they were at a certain age as they went through their lives, and now we're interfering with that. There are some interesting studies on kids who go to daycare, who get exposed to childhood illnesses when they're children. They may be a little bit sicker as young kids when they're first going into daycare, but as they get older they have some interesting decreases in other health problems. I think that we maybe have been in a fairly good homeostasis that we're interfering with by giving too many antibiotics, by overtreating, by using too many antibacterials. So I'm not sure that we haven't, in a sense, been following some of what the ants were doing until we started interfering with it. If we overtreat, for example, young children, they may not have the appropriate colonization with the organisms that let them produce antibodies that prevent them from getting serious diseases later on. I don't think we produce antibiotics, but we are colonized by bacteria that produce immune responses that do protect us. I think there is a similarity there that we interfere with when we give too many antibiotics, when we use too many antibacterials. We know that when young men join the army and live in barracks, they can be at risk for meningococcal disease, for example. And the ones who are at risk just happen to have been unlucky enough not to have been exposed to the right strains so that they could develop antibodies. We just increase chances of not having those kinds of protections when we're constantly upsetting our normal bacteria that we're meant, in a sense, to have so that we can prime our immune system. Stuart Levy I was fascinated by the leafcutter ant story because of the question that was posed, which is what is the target in the mold that is affected by that hypothetical antibiotic? I don't know whether it has been extracted and discovered, or whether it's one or a number of different antibiotics. What sort of chemical is it, and how does it work? I think that understanding that would be tremendously important to how we deal with the use of antibiotics in human disease. I will say that, Tamar, if you remember, there are peptide antibiotics that are excreted from the tongue, toads have these things called magainins, there are a lot of little things that are antibacterial that work locally and are in high concentrations that do tend to have antimicrobial activity, and some would pose them as effective in maintaining homeostasis in the presence of some kind of microbiologic harm. I think we're seeing that in a microcosmic way in the ant, but I'd love to see more of what is actually going on, maybe even the helpful fungus is producing something which is adding to this whole stability of that environment, not just the Streptomyces bacteria. Tamar Barlam We're not like the ants in the sense that we're producing a specific antibiotic, but if someone went up to those ants and got rid of those bacteria on their back that was making the antibiotic, they would be in big trouble. Stuart Levy Tamar, you're absolutely right. I followed your story. For instance, if we had an antibiotic that would destroy the Streptomyces, and then you then added it to the colony, you'd get rid of the bacteria, you'd upset the whole community, and you'd destroy the colony. So I think your point is when we introduce antibiotics into an environment, unless you have a real good reason to target the infectious, life-threatening bacteria, you ought not to use it, because you're upsetting the whole community, only a little bit of which do we understand. Stephen Palumbi So the interesting phenomenon is the stability of the interaction between these various players, and one possible explanation for that is that this arms race is proceeding between the mold and the antibiotic-producing bacteria. There are other possibilities as well, and one of them is that the ants in fact do not rely exclusively on antibiotics to control the mold, but they rely on other forms of control as well, particularly manual control -- picking through their fungus and getting rid of the infectious mold. That is very similar to a strategy that agriculturalists have invented that's called integrated pest management, where you don't rely strictly on chemical control to take care of a pest problem, but you rely on a number of different strategies, including some chemical control. And by relying on a number of different strategies, you effectively slow the evolution of resistance to the chemical, because there are other selective forces that you're bringing to bear on that population. So that's another aspect of the ant system that I think we can learn from, that the integrated pest management is actually a really good idea; it was invented by ants 50 million years ago. George Beran This was something I had a broad general knowledge of, but I found it very fascinating the way it was presented, and my thoughts immediately turned from this colony of the ants with their local environment right there inside that underground colony to the environment inside our animals. And I thought, "Oh my word, this is really, really pertinent here." We are just in the early stages of moving to affect this internal environment in animals in a positive way. And we're calling this strategy the use of probiotics, instead of antibiotics. It also involves the concept of competitive exclusion, in which we are attempting to modify the microbial environment inside the animal in a way that will move away from resistant organisms. And the feeding to animals of organisms that have no resistance to the antimicrobial drug that we're interested in, or that are a source of plasmids which are susceptible to the antibiotics rather than resistant. At the same time, we are attempting to produce vaccines that will have a defined effect against those plasmids that are resistant. These DNA vaccines hold out some tremendous possibilities for the future, in that they will help us to eliminate that bacterial portion of the animals' inside environment that is resistant to the antibiotics and that we are so concerned about transferring to humans and to other animals. It's an exciting area, and I don't even know where you'd apply at the moment for the research funding for it, but it's beginning to happen. Stephen Levy I think evolutionary theory can help enormously, because basically we're talking about an evolutionary event that's driven by an evolutionary process that we understand pretty well, and we know that there are fundamental requirements for evolution to occur. There has to be variation, the variation has to lead to some fitness differential, some change in reproductive ability, and that has to be heritable from one generation to the next. And that theory then tells us if we actually want to do something about the evolutionary process and manipulate a change, and slow it in some way, then we have targets; we can hit one of those three major underpinnings -- the variation, the fitness link, or the heritability -- and by targeting them we can hope to begin to get a grip on these evolutionary arms races. So I think what's been said by everyone is that we're in a great place right now simply because evolution is beginning to be viewed as a proactive tool that we can apply in these important cases. And we can apply it much, much better if we understand it happens very quickly; [if we] understand that we really do, in a lot of cases, know how the evolutionary process works; and then understand there are ways that we can manipulate that. related web activities Microbe Clock Learn how deadly microbes outpace medical breakthroughs. A Modern Mass Extinction? related topics Why Evolution Matters Evolution Since Darwin Adaptation and Natural Selection Source Credits
Presentacion polonia Published on Published in: Technology, Business • Be the first to comment • Be the first to like this No Downloads Total views On SlideShare From Embeds Number of Embeds Embeds 0 No embeds No notes for slide Presentacion polonia 1. 1. How Much Can The Earth Bear? 2. 2. GDANSK THE CITY <ul><li>459 O56 INHABITANTS </li></ul><ul><li>SITUATED ON THE BALTIC </li></ul><ul><li>SEA </li></ul><ul><li>• OCCUPIES 262 KM² </li></ul> 3. 3. One average family anually produces litter of 1 tone Paper -> 30% Organic waste -> 23 % Glass -> 10 % Metal -> 9% Plastic -> 8% Grubbies -> 5% Dust -> 3% Other waste -> 10% 4. 4. Sanitary severy systems discharge waste into severage systems <ul><li>In 98% households sanitary severy systems are installed </li></ul><ul><li>30 633 995 m³ annually is discharged into the largest treatment plant ‘The East’ </li></ul><ul><li>That means using 56 277 m³ / day by people and 4843,5 m³ by industry </li></ul> 6. 6. TOTAL NUMBER OF CARS IN GDANSK IS 177 554 The most threatening for our health substances are: - sulfur dioxide - nitrogen dioxide - dust - carbon dioxide 7. 7. People work The largest and most threatening the environment plants are: • Refinery of Gdansk -> extracts crude oil, refines it, distributes all products, such as gasoline, diesel, fuel oils, aviation fuel, gases • Port of Gdansk -> loads general cargo, coal, liquid fuels and serves passengers • Siarkopol -> processes sulphur and distributes allp roducts • Naftopol -> produces condenser liquids, lubricants and industrial oils • Phosphate Fertilizers -> produces fertilizers and sulphur acid 8. 8. The most dangerous threats for environment are: <ul><li>litter </li></ul><ul><li>fumes </li></ul><ul><li>industrial waste </li></ul><ul><li>sewage </li></ul> 9. 9. LITTER <ul><li>All waste from all over the city is taken to </li></ul><ul><li>dumpings, </li></ul><ul><li>There, bulldozers crush waste to save place </li></ul><ul><li>and cover it with a layer of sand in order to </li></ul><ul><li>protect it from birds and animals which </li></ul><ul><li>otherwise would spread diseases </li></ul><ul><li>The largest dumping is situated in Szadolki, </li></ul><ul><li>every day 665 tonnes of waste is brought to </li></ul><ul><li>this 72 ha dumping </li></ul> 10. 10. THE MOST IMPORTANT PROBLEMS ARE: <ul><li>The surface it ocuppies, as all dumpings are getting larger and </li></ul><ul><li>larger </li></ul><ul><li>Since it is badly protected, toxic substances pollute ground and </li></ul><ul><li>surface waters </li></ul><ul><li>Illegal rubbish dumping of waste and household rubbish in </li></ul><ul><li>public spaces, which is both a heath and safety risk and has a </li></ul><ul><li>significant impact on animals or forestry </li></ul> 11. 11. WHAT CAN WE DO? RECYCLE -> which means collecting materials, cleaning them, sorting, to turn them into usable raw materials to make another product REDUCE -> which means buying less REUSE -> which means using second – hand things REACT -> report illegal dumping 12. 12. WHAT ELSE CAN BE DONE? <ul><li>Neutralization of waste </li></ul><ul><li>Modernization of waste management </li></ul><ul><li>Protecting dumping area (bushes, nets) </li></ul><ul><li>Promotion of recycling </li></ul><ul><li>Making sure that containers for recycling are avaiable everywhere </li></ul><ul><li>That should help change proportions… </li></ul>PIZZA 13. 13. FUMES <ul><li>Pollution from cars poses threat to </li></ul><ul><li>people health, effects can include: </li></ul><ul><li>-> headache </li></ul><ul><li>-> skin rush </li></ul><ul><li>-> throat and eye irritation </li></ul><ul><li>-> allergies </li></ul><ul><li>They affect the health of plants and animals </li></ul><ul><li>They cause global warming and the ozone hole </li></ul><ul><li>They cause acid rain, </li></ul><ul><li>Other sources of air pollution are: </li></ul><ul><li>-> industrial activity </li></ul><ul><li>-> central heating </li></ul><ul><li>Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are emitted into the atmosphere and absorbed in clouds, dropping it increases the acidity of soil, water and forests </li></ul> 14. 14. WHAT CAN WE DO? <ul><li>Use public transport instead of cars </li></ul><ul><li>Walk or cycle whenever you can, </li></ul><ul><li>there are kilometres of bicycle paths </li></ul><ul><li>in Gdansk and even more </li></ul><ul><li>under construction </li></ul>TRY TO CONVINCE OTHERS… 15. 15. WHAT ELSE CAN BE DONE? <ul><li>Modernization of energetic trade and central heating boilers </li></ul><ul><li>that has already reduced emission of carbon dioxide by 15% </li></ul><ul><li>over few past years </li></ul><ul><li>• Changing vehicles from the old ones into modern and </li></ul><ul><li>environment - friendly </li></ul><ul><li>• Encouraging people to walking and cycling or using public transport instead of </li></ul><ul><li>sticking to their cars </li></ul> 16. 16. In order to reduce amount of toxic gases polluting air, plants are grown which absorb carbon dioxide and produce oxygen. 17. 17. Greenery • Woodland in Gdansk -> 4 589,00 ha • Urban green -> 592,00 ha • Allotments -> 957,00 ha that makes total: 6 138,00 ha and means that 134,4 m²falls per one habitant, including 100,5 m²of woodland and 34m²of urban green. Not bad, isn’t it? 18. 18. THE SOBIESZEWO ISLAND <ul><li>The place Gdansk is especially proud of is the Sobieszewo Island, enclosed by the Gulf of Gdansk and the river Wisla, the island being totally created by a man </li></ul><ul><li>• Owing to its natural properties and unique flora and fauna the island has the lagal status of the landscape protected area </li></ul><ul><li>• There are two birds reserves open for tourists: Bird Paradise and Gull of Sandbank. 300 species of birds, such as: </li></ul>gulls waders swans ducks live here or stay during migration 19. 19. SEWAGE Water pollution is any chemical, phisical or biological change in the quality of water that has a harmful effect on any living being that drinks it or uses it 20. 20. Sewage Sources of pollution: • rivers and canals -> 292 370, 25 m³ • sewage treatment plants -> 36 006,05 m³ • industry -> 961, 41 m³ That makes total: 329 337, 71 m³ annually All this waste, icluding oxygen, phosphorus, suspensions, heavy metals and masses of bacterias flows into the Gulf of Gdansk 21. 21. THE BALTIC SEA <ul><li>9 countries lie on the shores of the Baltic Sea. </li></ul><ul><li>85 million people live in the Baltic drainage basin </li></ul><ul><li>Owing to the fact that it is really commonly used sea area it is one of the most polluted seas, either </li></ul><ul><li>The key sources of pollution are: </li></ul>port and shipyards waste sea shipping oil - drilling 22. 22. HOW DO PORTS AND SHIPYARDS POLLUTE THE SEA? <ul><li>Ships leave oil waste, slime, sanitary sewage, oiled grubbies, </li></ul><ul><li>Shipyards dispose of wastes of ship making </li></ul><ul><li>Paints which boats are covered with get directly to the water </li></ul> 23. 23. HOW DO PEOPLE POLLUTE THE SEA? <ul><li>Great number of people living around and ships coming asore, means discharging lots of sewage and litter. </li></ul><ul><li>Sewage contains bacterias putting our health at risk, </li></ul><ul><li>The most common pathogenic bacterias are those dangerous for digestive, respiratory and urinal systems </li></ul> 24. 24. HOW DO INDUSTRY POLLUTE THE SEA? <ul><li>Waste from plants is dicharged into the sea </li></ul><ul><li>Pesticides and fertilizers with rain water flow into the nearest rivers , which carry them and discharge into the sea </li></ul><ul><li>The most dangerous for sea water are nitro and phospho - compounds </li></ul> 25. 25. HOW DO SHIPS POLLUTE THE SEA? <ul><li>They discharge waste into the sea water because it it a cheaper way of dealing with sewage and litter than their legal utilisation </li></ul><ul><li>Leaking oil from ships and oil – drilling rigs causes oil spills which are specially dangerous for birds, cleaning feathers they get poisoned by heavy metals </li></ul>an oil spill a poisoned bird 26. 26. WHAT CAN WE DO? 27. 27. WHAT ELSE CAN BE DONE? <ul><li>Replacing some products such as paints or weedkillers with less harmful for environment means </li></ul><ul><li>Neutralization of waste </li></ul><ul><li>Decrease of inflow of pesticides and fertilizers </li></ul><ul><li>Modernization of water treatments </li></ul><ul><li>More effective biological treatment, which is accelerating natural biological processing </li></ul><ul><li>Growing mussels which filter large particules from water </li></ul> 28. 28. INDUSTRIAL WASTE <ul><li>Apart from fumes and sewage industrial factories produce also toxic waste which pollutes the natural environment and contaminates groundwater </li></ul><ul><li>Toxic waste is often dumped neraby plants and places where people live causing epidemic health problems </li></ul><ul><li>Chemicals can cause: </li></ul><ul><li>-> cancer </li></ul><ul><li>-> birth defects </li></ul><ul><li>-> gentic mutations </li></ul><ul><li>-> death </li></ul><ul><li>-> behavioral changes </li></ul> 29. 29. WISLINKA <ul><li>In Gdansk it is Wislinka, which poses the the biggest threat to people’s health </li></ul><ul><li>The mound has been soaring since 1972, today it is 50 metres high, occupies the area of 26 ha and is built excusively of 16 million of toxic phosphoplaster </li></ul><ul><li>It is so huge that can easily be seen at the satellite picture </li></ul> 30. 30. HOW DOES ‘WISLINKA’ INFLUENCE THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT <ul><li>It is only 50 metres distant from the bed of Martwa Wisla river and there is only leeking leeve between </li></ul><ul><li>Rain water goes through the moundand takes fluorine letting it get to the ground water and the river itself </li></ul><ul><li>The mound poses the threat to the health conditions of people living nearby </li></ul><ul><li>Asthma, allergies, skin infections, bronchitis are really common here </li></ul> 31. 31. CANCER MORBIDITY IN GDANSK <ul><li>Sick rate is twice as high as in Poland itself and among people living a short distance from the mound it is even three times higher </li></ul>Cancer morbidity in the region of Gdansk versus Poland 33. 33. WHAT DO WE DO AS SCHOOL COMMUNITY? <ul><li>We take part in Zero Carbon City , the global campaign around climate change, the environmental impact of the city living and urban industry </li></ul><ul><li>Workshops, organized for students aimed at raising their awareness and stimulate debatearound gas emissions </li></ul> 34. 34. <ul><li>Students organize debates around the idea of protecting environment </li></ul><ul><li>They make projects about environment </li></ul><ul><li>They take part in contests or other events, like the ecological fashion </li></ul><ul><li>shows </li></ul>We go on trips … 36. 36. CARE PAYS OFF… Gimnazjum nr 23 Gdansk
A unique professional group of doctors and educational therapists who evaluate and treat learning disorders, both acquired and developmental. An answer for children who struggle in school At Cognitive Development Associates we recognize that each of our commitments as professionals to aide children was incomplete unless we treated the whole child and family simultaneously. The dynamics of therapy dictates a multi-disciplinary approach. By working together, children more quickly and effectively retrain processing skills that are essential to the complicated task of gathering, interpreting, and producing a product that demonstrates understanding. At the same time we evaluate and provide intervention therapies that change family patterns and interaction styles that effect motivation and self-esteem. Why Test Your Child? Are you considering having your child tested to see if he has a learning disability (LD)? Are you wondering whether you should pay for the evaluation privately or ask the public schools to do it? What do you need to know to make the choice? Why evaluate? There are many reasons why kids are referred for evaluation, a process that includes review of the child's school record, observation, interviews, and testing. Public schools are obligated to evaluate for specific reasons. If you have other concerns, you'll want to consider a private evaluation. If you suspect your child may have a learning disability and be in need of special education services, the public school must respond to you by making a determination, based on specific information, as to whether an evaluation is warranted. Here are signs to look for: • His teacher expresses concern about his progress • His group standardized test scores are low below fifteenth percentile • His report cards grades are poor with some D's and F's • He's starting to have behavior problems at school • He complains daily about how hard school is • He isn't progressing or benefiting from his general education program • He regularly struggles with homework Either a public school evaluation or a private evaluation should generate information that: • Helps you understand better how your child learns • Provides ideas to guide you or his tutor in supporting his learning • Helps you figure out whether he will be allowed to get extra time on college entrance exams • Helps improve his grades • Provides information about what he's actually been learning • Provides individualized testing results to a private school that is considering providing your child accommodations IDEA requires that the public schools evaluate a child in all areas related to the suspected disability: health, vision, hearing, social and emotional status, general intelligence, academic performance, communicative status, and motor abilities. Parents are free to provide input on assessments/evaluations to be administered. Who evaluates? Public school personnel who conduct evaluations have credentials and specialized training. They follow federal special education law, which requires that the existence of a learning disability be determined by a group of professionals from different fields a multidisciplinary team who evaluate your child. When the evaluation is completed, another team (which may include several or all of the people involved in the evaluation team) meets to discuss the evaluation results, in order to decide whether your child is eligible for special education. The team that determines eligibility includes the parent and, at a minimum, includes a special education teacher, the child's general education teacher, and other professionals as appropriate, such as a school psychologist, reading teacher, speech-language pathologist, or educational therapist. In some cases, the evaluation team identifies a learning disability, but the eligibility team decides that the child does not require special education services to benefit from the general education program. This is based on federal law requiring that he receive a free, appropriate public education or FAPE. Note: Informed parental consent is required by law for both an initial evaluation and a reevaluation conducted by the school; this consent is for evaluation only, not for the provision of special education services. Consent to provide initial special education services is requested of parents as a separate step. Before you choose a private professional to conduct an evaluation, be sure to ask questions about the person's training and experience, as well as the cost. You may want to find out whether the cost of the evaluation is covered by your insurance. If your child is assessed by a private professional, most likely he'll be tested by one individual. If you engage the services of specialists from more than one field it will be your responsibility to bring them together, if necessary, to collaborate on any plan for your child. Where and when is it done? Evaluation is a process that may take many hours to complete, over a period of time. Your patience and understanding about timelines will help to ensure that results reflect a true picture of your child. Private assessments usually take place in a clinic or office setting probably somewhere that's unfamiliar for your child. However, some individuals may agree to test in your home. Because of the difficulty of scheduling many short evaluation sessions, your child may be required to work for fewer, but longer periods of time to complete the evaluation. Because you'll need to coordinate schedules among you, your child, and the evaluator, you'll likely want to arrange appointments well in advance. If your child is evaluated at school, he'll most likely be seen in a familiar environment and may recognize some of the school staff testing him. Because he's at school every day, the evaluation can be flexible over a period of time, involving shorter sessions, and, ideally, when he's at his best. In either case, prepare him ahead of time so he knows what to expect and why he's being tested. It will help to reduce his stress and achieve meaningful test results. What is included? Prior to public school assessment, a vision and hearing screening is done to make sure physical issues aren't contributing to learning difficulties. Someone from the team who is trained in observation, other than his teacher, observes your child in the general education program to evaluate how he performs in that setting. School records are reviewed as part of the process. Qualified school personnel test your child in areas of suspected disability, so probably more than one specialist, school psychologist, special education teacher, speech and language pathologist, etc. will be involved. Like the school evaluation, a private evaluation includes individual standardized tests, and interviews with you and your child. However, some private evaluators do not observe your child at school, review school records, or talk to his teachers. Be sure to ask if these valuable evaluation methods will be included in the process. How are learning disabilities identified? A professional who does a private evaluation may identify your child with a learning disability using a set of criteria other than those found in federal regulations for special education eligibility. Although the evaluator may conclude that your child has a learning disability, she does not have the authority to determine that your child is eligible for special education services; only the public school can do that. Likewise, although a private evaluator can recommend services and accommodations for your child, only the public school can decide which services or accommodations an eligible child will actually receive at school. While public schools must consider reports you obtain privately, they don't have to agree with them. Since schools are required to evaluate your child before making any educational decisions, a private assessment may or may not "speed up" the timelines or process of a public school evaluation. If you believe your child needs special education services, IDEA 2004 requires that schools conduct an evaluation within 60 days of parental consent, unless your state has a different established timeframe for conducting evaluations. By law, a multidisciplinary team first must identify your child as having a specific learning disability (SLD). Under the provisions of IDEA 2004, school districts have choices about how they identify SLD. Some districts will use the more traditional approach of determining whether a discrepancy exists between the child's ability and his achievement, using standardized tests to measure each. Other districts will first offer the child increasingly intensive, research-based instruction in areas of weak academic performance, assess his progress regularly, and then evaluate him for SLD if his performance doesn't show sufficient improvement. This approach is often called 'Response to Intervention' (or 'Responsiveness to Intervention' or 'RTI'). Some schools will choose to use a combination of these two approaches. (Note: Final legal wording on the 'RTI' approach is expected in late 2006 when IDEA 2004 federal regulations are issued. Call your school district's special education director for updates.) By federal regulation, the multidisciplinary group at the school that determines either (1) the existence of a learning disability, or (2) the need/eligibility for special education services, must consider information from a variety of sources. This information includes: • Whether the child's current level of achievement is commensurate with his age • Whether his current level of achievement is adequate to make sufficient progress in the general curriculum • Whether, at his current level of achievement, he is responsive to research-based interventions delivered by general education teachers Additionally, a determination must be made that the student's learning difficulties are not primarily the result of a visual, hearing, or motor disability, mental retardation, emotional disturbance, cultural factor, environmental or economic disadvantage, or limited English proficiency. Under the provisions of IDEA 2004, the child's learning issues also must not be a result of a lack of appropriate reading instruction, including the essential components of reading instruction. What are outcomes? A private evaluation professional may suggest a tutor, software programs, ways to help at home, or ideas to try at school. Sometimes private evaluators recommend a product or program associated with the organization where testing was done, which is a possible conflict of interest. If your child is identified as having a learning disability, be wary of promises that their two-week program will 'cure' his SLD, or that their products will improve his grades. The report you receive from either a public school or private evaluator should be written in a way that's easy for you to understand. Assessment results should identify your child's strengths, as well as his areas of difficulty, to help plan an effective educational program for him. Either you or the evaluation professional should review evaluation results with your child, taking his developmental level into consideration, so he doesn't feel there are "secrets" about him. Information from the evaluation can help him understand how he learns and what he needs to be a successful learner, as well as appreciate his own strengths and talents. 1140 Sonoma Avenue #2B Santa Rosa, Ca 95405 707-542-2020 website design -
1. Omar Ali Fdal 2. django-minimalist This is a simple really hello world using django. We will be using Django 1.4.1 , so it should be installed on your system. Thus, we will NOT need: a database installed. the ORM. the cache system. We WILL use: the url routing rules. the template system (at least for serving the index.html). the staticfiles system (at least to load one js script). A bit of Django vocabulary the 'web site' is called the 'Django project' A Django project contains at least one 'Django app', usually it contains several 'Django apps'. Each Django app is itself a web application. It has its own templates and static files, located in myapp/templates, myapp/static, respectively. (Other paths for templates and static can be added, refer to settings.py or the documentation for more details.) Correctly combined, several nice django apps build up a great django project. A django app is a python package that can be imported just as any other python package. An app can be used in several projects. Getting started Create the project: So let's create our project (you can use more informative names instead of myproject/site/..): mkdir myproject cd myproject django-admin.py startproject mysite this command lays the structure of the project creating an initial Django app called mysite and containg a number of files. have a look at the settingsa: vim mysite/mysite/settings.py As we are not using a database we will just comment out the DATABASES setting. We will comment out everything not needed in INSTALLED_APPS keeping only 'django.contrib.staticfiles' which is very handy handling the static files (it was not the case before 1.3) Create the views in an app: Django creates a first default app (mysite here), we will just add a file views.py to it. Now create a views.py in mysite/mysite we will have our views there Add some url patterns to mysite/mysite/urls.py Now for django to be fully aware of the new django app (mysite), we need to add it to INSTALLED_APPS in settings.py It allows django to find templates and static files automatically when located in the paths mentioned above. Run the server:: python manage.py runserver And there you are up and running minimal web service. Beyond helloworld Adding apps: A django project can easily grow by adding django apps (python packages in mysite/). Adding a database or databases (an SQL and a nonrel): If a database is needed later on, uncomment out DATABASES, choose a backend, define your models and get the django ORM do the work for you. For now most SQL backends are supported (Postgres and Sqlite even support Python3 in the dev version).
Tag: Gary G. Kohls Asking Christians about Tolerance of War Many Americans are tuning out on politics and international affairs feeling they have no real say in what the government does but there is a danger from such passivity, particularly the license given to the powers-that-be to make war and… The Troubling History of Thanksgiving Sitting Bull, a Lakota Indian leader who led resistance to U.S. government policies against the Native American populations before being killed by Indian agency police in 1890. Though Thanksgiving can be a happy time for American families to get together, the actual history behind the holiday includes the complicating reality of genocide against Native Americans, including some who welcomed the first European arrivals, as Gary G. Kohls… The Very Un-Christian Nagasaki Bomb Learning Little from World War I Trench warfare during World War I. Looking back on the century of war and slaughter that has followed the start of World War I, one is reminded of Pete Seeger’s classic lyrics: “When will they ever learn?” Today, major world leaders behave with much the same… Standing Up to Militarism A Rare Indictment of US Atrocities Playwright Harold Pinter. (Photo credit: Huntington Theatre Company) MLK’s Warning of America’s Spiritual Death Martin Luther King Jr. memorial in Washington, DC. In Case You Missed… Making Nelson Mandela ‘Safe’ One ‘Silent Night’ in the Trenches Trench warfare during World War I. Dehumanizing the enemy is a key part of modern warfare, bolstered by the modern art of propaganda, often with the blessing of religious leaders. That was why the Christmas Truce of 1914 was so seditious, as Gary G. Kohls explains.
Advertisement Upgrade to remove ads a group of businesses that produce a similar product or provide a similar service Industrial Revolution the amount produced; product or yield: the daily output of automobiles capital goods buildings, machinery, tools, and other goods that provide productive services over a period of time the capital of a company or corporation, divided into portions or shares of uniform amount which are represented by transferable certificates share of the profits from the business Developing country any of the world's poor, or "have-not," nations nondurable goods goods such as clothing and food primary industries raw materials and natural resources are obtained (mining, agriculture, fishing) secondary industries the manufacturing industries like chemical, textile, and other tertiary industries the movement of goods from producers to consumers. Industries at this stage of production include automobile dealers, drugstores, and trucking firms domestic trade Trade within a single country international trade Trade between nations Workers concentrate on producing those goods and services for which they have a competitive advantage competitive advantage concentration on jobs workers are best fitted to perform goods used to produce other goods Tariff is a tax placed on goods that one nation imports from another A money payment or other form of aid that the government gives to a person or organization Please allow access to your computer’s microphone to use Voice Recording. Having trouble? Click here for help. We can’t access your microphone! Reload the page to try again! Press Cmd-0 to reset your zoom Press Ctrl-0 to reset your zoom Please upgrade Flash or install Chrome to use Voice Recording. For more help, see our troubleshooting page. Your microphone is muted For help fixing this issue, see this FAQ. Star this term You can study starred terms together Voice Recording
TX Nefario - шаблон joomla Форекс Coffee Cherry Harvesting What we refer to as coffee beans are in reality seeds from cherry-like fruits. Coffee trees create cherries that commence yellow in colour they then turn orange and lastly to bright red after they are ripe and ready for selecting. Coffee cherries grow along the branches of trees in clusters. The exocarp would be the skin of the cherry and is bitter and thick. The mesocarp may be the fruit beneath and is intensely sweet having a texture considerably like that of a grape. Then there's the Parenchyma, this is a sticky layer nearly honey-like which protects the beans inside the coffee cherry. The beans are covered within the endocarp, a protective parchment-like envelope for the green coffee beans which also possess a final membrane named the spermoderm or silver skin. On typical there is certainly a single coffee harvest per year, the time of which is determined by the geographic zone of the cultivation. Countries South of the Equator usually harvest their coffee in April and May perhaps whereas the nations North of your Equator often harvest later within the year from September onwards. Coffee is generally picked by hand that is carried out in among two strategies. Cherries can all be stripped off the branch at when or one particular by one making use of the approach of selective selecting which guarantees only the ripest cherries are picked. Coffee Cherry Processing When they have been picked they must be processed right away. Coffee pickers can choose involving 45 and 90kg of cherries each day nevertheless a mere 20% of this weight will be the actual coffee bean. The cherries could be processed by one of two methods. Dry Approach This is the easiest and most low-cost choice where the harvested coffee cherries are laid out to dry in the sunlight. They're left inside the sunlight for anyplace amongst 7-10 days and are periodically turned and raked. The aim becoming to cut down the moisture content material in the coffee cherries to 11%, the shells will turn brown and also the beans will rattle about inside the cherry. Wet Method The wet method differs to the dry system inside the way that the pulp on the coffee cherry is removed from the beans within 24 hours of harvesting the coffee. A pulping machine is employed to wash away the outer skin and pulp; beans are then transferred to fermentation tanks where they're able to keep for anyplace up to two days. Naturally occurring enzymes loosen the sticky parenchyma in the beans, which are then dried either by sunlight or by mechanical dryers. The dried coffee beans then go through a different procedure known as hulling which removes all the layers. Coffee beans are then transferred to a conveyor belt and graded when it comes to size and density. This can either be performed by hand or mechanically using an air jet to separate lighter weighing beans which are deemed inferior. Coffee harvesting nations ship coffee un-roasted; this really is referred to as green coffee. Approximately 7 million tons of green coffee is shipped planet wide annually. Coffee Roasting The coffee roasting process transforms the chemical and physical properties of green coffee beans and is where the flavour with the coffee is fulfilled. Green coffee beans are heated applying big rotating drums with temperatures of about 288°C. The rotating movement from the drums prevents beans from burning. The green coffee beans turn yellow at first and are described as obtaining the aroma an aroma similar to popcorn. The beans 'pop' and double in size following about eight minutes that indicates they have reached a temperature of 204°C, they then commence to turn brown on account of coffee essence (inner oils) emerging. Pyrolysis would be the name for the chemical reaction that produces the flavour and aroma of coffee because of the heat and coffee essence combining. Anyplace among 3 and 5 minutes later a second 'pop' happens indicative of your coffee being completely roasted. Coffee roasting is an art kind inside itself, coffee roasters use their senses of smell, sight and sound to ascertain when coffee beans are roasted completely. Timing is basic in the coffee roasting process as this affects the flavour and colour of your resulting roast. Darker roasted coffee beans may have been roasted for longer than lighter coffee roasts. When roasted, coffee is packaged in a protective atmosphere and exported globally.
• ADHD; • environment; • alcohol; • nicotine; • PCB Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is the most common cognitive and behavioural disorder diagnosed among school children. It is characterized by deficient attention and problem solving, along with hyperactivity and difficulty withholding incorrect responses. This highly prevalent disorder is estimated to affect 5–10% of children and in many cases, persists into adulthood, leading to 4% prevalence among adults. Converging evidence from epidemiologic, neuropsychology, neuroimaging, genetic and treatment studies shows that ADHD is a valid medical disorder. The majority of studies performed to assess genetic risk factors in ADHD have supported a strong familial nature of this disorder. Family studies have identified a 2- to 8-fold increase in the risk for ADHD in parents and siblings of children with ADHD. Various twin and adoption studies have also highlighted the highly genetic nature of ADHD. In fact the mean heritability of ADHD was shown to be 0.77, which is comparable to other neuropsychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia or bipolar disorder. However, several biological and environmental factors have also been proposed as risk factors for ADHD, including food additives/diet, lead contamination, cigarette and alcohol exposure, maternal smoking during pregnancy, and low birth weight. Many recent studies have specifically examined the relationships between ADHD and these extraneous factors. This review describes some of these possible risk factors. Conclusion: Although a substantial fraction of the aetiology of ADHD is due to genes, the studies reviewed in this article show that many environmental risk factors and potential gene–environment interactions also increase the risk for the disorder.
The 14 Defining Characteristics Of Fascism Free Inquiry Spring 2003 4. Supremacy of the Military - Even when there are widespread domestic problems, the military is given a disproportionate amount of government funding, and the domestic agenda is neglected. Soldiers and military service are glamorized. to the government's policies or actions. They Thought They Were Free By Milton Mayer "They Thought They Were Free: The Germans 1933-1945", University of Chicago Press. Reissued in paperback, April, 1981. As Harpers Magazine noted when the book was published in 1955 (U. of Chicago), Milton Mayerâsextraordinarily far-sighted book on the Germans is more timely today than ever·ä This crucial book tells how and why 'decent men' became Nazis through short biographies of 10 law-abiding citizens. An American journalist of German/Jewish descent, Mr. Mayer provides a fascinating window into the lives, thoughts and emotions of a people caught up in the rush of the Nazi movement. It is a book that should make people pause and think -- not only about the Germans, but also about themselves. But Then It Was Too Late "What no one seemed to notice," said a colleague of mine, a philologist, "was the ever widening gap, after1933, between the government and the people. Just think how very wide this gap was to begin with, here in Germany. And it became always wider. You know it doesn't make people close to their government to be told that this is a people's government, a true democracy, or to be enrolled in civilian defense, or even to vote. All this has little, really nothing to do with knowing one is governing. What happened here was the gradual habituation of the people, little by little, to being governed by surprise; to receiving decisions deliberated in secret; to believing that the situation was so complicated that the government had to act on information which the people could not understand, or so dangerous that, even if he people could understand it, it could not be released because of national security. And their sense of identification with Hitler, their trust in him, made it easier to widen this gap and reassured those who would otherwise have worried about it. "You will understand me when I say that my Middle High German was my life. It was all I cared about. I was a scholar, a specialist. Then, suddenly, I was plunged into all the new activity, as the universe was drawn into the new situation; meetings, conferences, interviews, ceremonies, and, above all, papers to be filled out, reports, bibliographies, lists, questionnaires. And on top of that were the demands in the community, the things in which one had to, was "expected to" participate that had not been there or had not been important before. It was all rigmarole, of course, but it consumed all one's energies, coming on top of the work one really wanted to do. You can see how easy it was, then, not to think about fundamental things. One had no time." "Those," I said, "are the words of my friend the baker. "One had no time to think. There was so much going on." "Your friend the baker was right," said my colleague. "The dictatorship, and the whole process of its coming into being, was above all diverting. It provided an excuse not to think for people who did not want to think anyway. I do not speak of your "little men", your baker and so on; I speak of my colleagues and myself, learned men, mind you. Most of us did not want to think about fundamental things and never had. There was no need to. Nazism gave us some dreadful, fundamental things to think about - we were decent people - and kept us so busy with continuous changes and "crises" and so fascinated, yes, fascinated, by the machinations of the "national enemies", without and within, that we had no time to think about these dreadful things that were growing, little by little, all around us. Unconsciously, I suppose, we were grateful. Who wants to think? "How is this to be avoided, among ordinary men, even highly educated ordinary men? Frankly, I do not know. I do not see, even now. Many, many times since it all happened I have pondered that pair of great maxims, Principiis obsta and Finem respice - "Resist the beginnings" and "consider the end." But one must foresee the end in order to resist, or even see, the beginnings. One must foresee the end clearly and certainly and how is this to be done, by ordinary men or even by extraordinary men? Things might have changed here before they went as far as they did; they didn't, but they might have. And everyone counts on that might. "Your "little men," your Nazi friends, were not against National Socialism in principle. Men like me, who were, are the greater offenders, not because we knew better (that would be too much to say) but because we sensed better. Pastor Niemoller spoke for the thousands and thousands of men like me when he spoke (too modestly of himself) and said that, when the Nazis attacked the Communists, he was a little uneasy, but, after all, he was not a Communist, and so he did nothing: and then they attacked the Socialists, and he was a little uneasier, but, still, he was not a Socialist, and he did nothing; and then the schools, the press, the Jews, and so on, and he was always uneasier, but still he did nothing. And then they attacked the Church, and he was a Churchman, and he did something - but then it was too late." "Yes," I said. "Uncertainty is a very important factor, and, instead of decreasing as time goes on, it grows. Outside, in the streets, in the general community, "everyone is happy. One hears no protest, and certainly sees none. You know, in France or Italy there will be slogans against the government painted on walls and fences; in Germany, outside the great cities, perhaps, there is not even this. In the university community, in your own community, you speak privately to you colleagues, some of whom certainly feel as you do; but what do they say? They say, "It's not so bad" or "You're seeing things" or "You're an alarmist." "Suddenly it all comes down, all at once. You see what you are, what you have done, or, more accurately, what you haven't done ( for that was all that was required of most of us: that we do nothing). You remember those early meetings of your department in the university when, if one had stood, others would have stood, perhaps, but no one stood. A small matter, a matter of hiring this man or that, and you hired this one rather than that. You remember everything now, and your heart breaks. Too late. You are compromised beyond repair. I said nothing. I thought of nothing to say. "I can tell you," my colleague went on, "of a man in Leipzig, a judge. He was not a Nazi, except nominally, but he certainly wasn't an anti Nazi. He was just ö a judge. In "42" or "43", early "43", I think it was, a Jew was tried before him in a case involving, but only incidentally, relations with an "Aryan" woman. This was "race injury", something the Party was especially anxious to punish. In the case a bar, however, the judge had the power to convict the man of a "nonracial" offense and send him to an ordinary prison for a very long term, thus saving him from Party "processing" which would have meant concentration camp or, more probably, deportation and death. But the man was innocent of the "nonracial" charge, in the judge's opinion, and so, as an honorable judge, he acquitted him. Of course, the Party seized the Jew as soon as he left the courtroom. "And the judge?" "Yes, the judge. He could not get the case off his conscience ö a case, mind you, in which he had acquitted an innocent man. He thought that he should have convicted him and saved him from the Party, but how could he have convicted an innocent man? The thing preyed on him more and more, and he had to talk about it, first to his family, then to his friends, and then to acquaintances. (That's how I heard about it.) After the "44" Putsch they arrested him. After that, I don't know." I said nothing. -- Milton Mayer This Site Served by TheHostPros
See, ma? All those years you thought I was turning my mind to mush in front of TV, when this study shows watching sports actually engages your mind in beneficial ways. Turns out it was the drugs that made me an idiot. Wish I’d seen that coming. Being an athlete or merely a fan improves language skills when it comes to discussing their sport because parts of the brain usually involved in playing sports are instead used to understand sport language, new research at the University of Chicago shows. Brain imaging revealed that when hockey players and fans listen to language about hockey, they show activity in the brain regions usually used to plan and select well-learned physical actions. The increased activity in motor areas of the brain helps hockey players and fans to better understanding hockey language. The results show that playing sports, or even just watching, builds a stronger understanding of language, Beilock said. And they only tested this on hockey fans. Imagine the benefit for people who watch interesting sports! [Lion in Oil, Deuce of Davenport] Around The Web
Your browser doesn't understand Javascript, you need a more advanced browser. TOEFL Vocabulary Lesson I Choose a definition for each of the words below. 1. Abject A. miserable degraded B. to think of with joy C. exact D. to applaud 2. Acrid A. without clothing B. likely; appropriate C. sharp or bitter taste D. suitable 3. Dribble A. to fight as in a contest B. to flow drop by drop C. having a small round mark D. to go bad 4. Dilapidated A. falling to pieces B. unfastened C. to make something bigger D. folded 5. Emancipate A. to push down B. to set free C. to make known D. to do better than the others 6. Fastener A. someone who doesn't eat B. something that glows C. something that joins or ties other things together D. to help with growth 7. Fitting A. proper, suitable B. basic C. filled with fear D. completely 8. Glow A. a thing that has worth B. to send out light without flame C. serious D. believable 9. Fund A. money B. marked or carved C. that which can not be touched D. uplifting 10. Fizz A. free of disease germs B. very large C. strong D. to make a bubbling hissing sound Your score is : Okay now that you know what each word means, use each of these words in a phrase and e-mail me (or your teacher) your completed sentences. This does not mean that you need not use a dictionary to understand the words a little better! You're being engineers, I suppose I don't have to tell you to copy and paste this list of words onto your e-mail.
Criminal Procedure Code(CrPC) The object of Criminal Procedure Code is to provide machinery for the punishment of offenders against the substantive Criminal law. In layman's language, the Criminal Procedure Code lays (CrPC) the rules for conduct of proceedings against any person who has committed an offence under any Criminal law, whether it is I.P.C or other Criminal law. All such offences are covered by Criminal Procedure Code (CrPC), which are mentioned in Indian Penal Code. For example Murder, Theft, Kidnapping, Rape, Forgery, etc. The legal meaning and whether an act will constitute a criminal offence or not is provided in the I.P.C. The Procedure of initiating proceeding/Prosecution for a criminal offence is provided in Criminal Procedure Code(CrPC). CrPC provides the manner and place, where investigation inquiry and trial of an offence shall take place. Depending on the nature and gravity of an offence's if they can be classified under any of the following heads: 1. Bailable and non-bailable offence 2. Cognizable and non-cognizable offence. 3. Compoundable and non compundable offence Bailable and Non-Bailable Offence A bailable offence is one, in which, bail is a matter of right, and non bailable offence is one, in which granting of bail is discretion of the court. 1. In case of bailable offence, the grant of bail is a mater of right. It may be either given by a police officer who is having the custody of Accused or by the court. 2. The accused may be released on bail, on executing a bond, know as "bail bond", with or without furnishing sureties. 3. The "bail Bond" may contain certain terms and conditions, such as: 1. The accused will not leave the territorial jurisdiction of the state without permission of court or police officer. 2. The Accused shall give his presence before police officer every time, he is required to do so. 3. The Accused will not tamper with any evidence whatsoever, considered by police in the investigation. 4. The court is empowered to refuse bail to an accused person even if the offence is bailable, where the person granted bail fails to comply with the conditions of the bail bond. Although even in case of bailable offence, the bail may be refused, if credit of the accused is doubtful. However following are some offences which are classified as "Bailable offence" by the code itself: 1. Being a member of an unlawful Assembly 2. Rioting, armed with deadly weapon 3. Public servant disobeying a direction of the law with intent to cause injury to any person. 4. Wearing Garb or carrying token used by public servant with fraudulent intents. 5. Bribery in relation to elections. 6. False statement in connection with elections. 7. Refusing oath when duly required to take oath by a public servant. 8. Obstructing public Servant in discharge of his public functions. 9. Giving or fabricating false evidence in a judicial proceeding. 10. Selling any food or drink as food and drink, knowing the same to be noxious. 11. Causing a disturbance to an assembly engaged in religious worship. 1. A non-bailable offence is one in which the grant of Bail is not a matter of right. Here the Accused will have to apply to the court, and it will be the discretion of the court to grant Bail or not. 2. Again, the court may require the accused to execute a "Bail-Bond with some stringent conditions. 3. The court may generally refuse the Bail, if: 1. "Bail Bond" has not been duly executed , or 2. if the offence committed is one, which imposes punishment of death or Life imprisonment, such as "Murder " or "Rape" or 3. The accused has attempted to abscond, and his credentials are doubtful. 4. The application for bail shall be filed before the Magistrate, who is conducting the trial. The application after being filed is usually listed on the next day. On such day, the application will be heard, and the police shall also present the accused in court. The magistrate may pass such orders, as he thinks fit. 1. If the bail is granted, the accused will have to execute a "Bail Bond". 2. On execution of bail-bond the accused is out of prison only on such terms and conditions, as contained in the "Bail-Bond". 3. The amount of every bond, i.e. the security shall be reasonable, and no excessive ( sec 440) 4. If, at any point of time, the terms and conditions of bail are not fulfilled, the "Bond" shall be forfeited. 5. The application for Bail shall be made in the form, prescribed and the designation of judge / Magistrate, should be clearly mentioned. 6. The application shall also contain an undertaking, that the accused, shall fulfill all the conditions as contained in the Bail- Bond. 1. When the bail has been granted the accused shall, execute a "Bail-Bond", and furnish sureties, and security for amount as required. 2. When the bond has been duly executed, the accused shall be released, and if he is in prison, then an order of Release shall be issued to the officer in charge. 3. If the accused is charged for two separate offences, then, he shall have to execute and satisfy Bail Bond for both of them. Following are the instances, when a bail may be revoked, or Bail Bond is forfeited: 1. Where, the accused fails to fulfill or commits, breach of any terms and conditions of the bond. 2. Where the accused, fails to furnish the required number of sureties or fails to deposit the security amount 3. Where, the sureties accepted at the time of bail, or turn out afterwards to be insufficient, fraud or has been accepted under mistake. 4. Where any of he sureties to the bail bond, applies to the magistrate for his own discharge 5. Where one of the original surety dies or becomes insolvent, and if accused fails to bring another surety. In all these cases, the magistrate or court has power to remand the accused to prison, until fresh bond and fresh terms are executed. 1. Where, a bond has been forfeited, or bail has been cancelled, an appeal can be made against such an order. 2. Where an order has been made by a magistrate an appeal shall lie to a sessions judge or 3. Where an order has been made by a court of sessions then appeal shall lie to the same court, where ordinarily-- appeal would lie against sessions judge. Cognizable and Non-Cognizable Offence. Offences can also be classified on the basis of "Cognizable offence", and "Non-cognizable" offence. In brief the difference between these two is Cognizable offences: An offence, where a police offer can arrest without a warrant. Non-cognizable offences: An offence, where a police officer can arrest only with a warrant. 1. Cognizable offences are those where a police officer can arrest without warrant. 2. And such cases, after arrest has been made, the accused will be produced before a magistrate, and he may require the police officer to investigate the matter. 3. After investigation, if the case is made out, i.e. charge sheet filed goes against accused, the magistrate can order for arrest. 4. During the pendency of trial, bail application can be moved before the concerned magistrate. 5. Cognizable offences are both bailable, and non-bailable. 1. Offences of waging or attempting to wage war, or abetting the waging of war against the government of India. 2. Wearing the dress or carrying any token used by a soldier, sailor or airman with intent that it may be believed that he is such a soldier, sailor or airman. 3. Rioting armed with deadly weapon. 4. Hiring, engaging or employing person to take part in an unlawful assembly or taking part in self. 5. Being or expecting to be a public servant, and taking, and taking a gratification other than legal remuneration in respect of an official act. 6. Public servant obtaining any valuable thinks, without consideration, from a person concerned in any proceeding or business transacted by such public servant. 7. Counterfeiting, or performing any pat of the process of counterfeiting Indian coin. 8. Having possession of a counterfeit government stamp. 9. Making or selling false weights or measures for fraudulent use. 10. Negligently doing any act known to be likely to spread infection of any disease dangerous to life. 11. Causing a disturbance to an assembly engaged in religious worships. 1. Non cognizable offences are those, where a police officer cannot arrest without a warrant. 2. In such offences for arrest, all the steps have to be followed like 1. Filing of complaint/F.I.R. 2. Investigation 3. Charge sheet, 4. Charge sheet to be filed in court 5. Trial 6. Final order of arrest if case has been made out. Following are some examples of non-cognizable offences. 1. Owner or occupier of land not giving information of riot etc. 2. A public servant disobeying a direction of the law with intent to cause injury to any person. 3. A public servant unlawfully engaging in trade. 4. Bribery during elections. 5. Making any false statement in connection with an election. 6. Absconding to avoid service of summons or other proceeding from a public servant, like where summons or notice require attendance in person etc, in a court of justice. 7. Refusing to take oath when duly required taking oath by a pubic servant. 8. Obstructing public servant in discharge of his public functions. 9. Giving or fabricating false evidence in a judicial proceeding. 10. False claim in a court of justice. 11. Fraudulent use of false instrument for weighting. 12. Selling any food or drink as food and drink knowing the same to be noxious. 13. Offering for sale or issuing from a dispensary any drug or medical preparation known to have been adulterated. 14. Voluntarily causing hurt on grave and sudden provocation, not intending to hurt any other than the person, who gave the provocation. 15. Buying or disposing of any person as a slave. 16. Dishonest misappropriation of movable property, or converting it to one's own use. Compoundable and Non Compundable Offence Criminal offences can also be classified as compoundable and non-compounable offences. Compoundable offences are those offences where, the complainant (one who has filed the case, i.e. the victim), enter into a compromise, and agrees to have the charges dropped against the accused. However such a compromise, should be a "Bonafide," and not for any consideration to which the complainant is not entitled to. Application for compounding the offence shall be made before the same court before which the trial is proceeding. Once an offence has been compounded it shall have the same effect, as if, the accused has been acquitted of the charges. The code of criminal procedure lays down, i.e. bifurcated, the offences, which are compoundble, and which are non-compoundable. 1. Uttering words etc, with deliberate intent to wound the religious feelings of any person causing hurt. 2. Criminal or house trespass 3. Criminal breach of contract of service. 4. Printing or engraving matters, knowing it to be defamatory. 5. There are some offences, which although are compoundable, but, they can be compounded only with the permission of the court. 6. These offences should be compounded before trial begins. 7. Also where accused has already been convicted, and an appeal is pending, permission of the court is required for compounding of such offences. 8. The reason for seeking permission of the court, is that these offences are grievous in nature, and are bad example in society 1. Voluntarily causing hurt by dangerous weapons or means. 2. Causing grievous hurt by doing on act so rashly and negligently as to endanger human life or the personal safety of others. 3. Wrongfully confining a person for three days or more. 4. Assault or criminal force to woman with intent to outrage per modesty. 5. Dishonest misappropriation of property. 6. Criminal breach of trust by a cannier--- wharfinger-- etc, where the value of the property does not exceed two hundred and fifty rupees. 7. Cheating and dishonestly inducing delivery of property or the making, alteration or destruction of a valuable security. 8. Fraudulent execution of deed of transfer containing false statement of consideration. 9. Mischief by killing or maiming cattle etc of any value of fifty rupees or upwards. 10. Counterfeiting a trade or property mark used by another. 11. Uttering words or sounds or making gestures or exhibiting any object intending to insult the modesty of a woman or intruding upon the privacy of a woman. There are some offences, which cannot be compounded. They can only be quashed. The reason for this is, because the nature of offence is so grave and criminal, that the Accused cannot be allowed to go scot-free. Here, in these types of cases generally, it is the "state", i.e. police, who has filed the case, and hence the question of complainant entering into compromise does not arise. All those offences, which are not mentioned in the list under section (320) of CrPC, are non-compoundable offences. How is A Criminal Proceeding Initiated For every different type of Criminal proceeding a separate procedure is involved. However in general, a brief procedure, as to how a criminal case commences, is as follows: 1. The fist step for initiation of any Criminal case is the complaint. 2. The victim is called a complainant, and complainant should lodge his complaint to the police station of that area, where the offence has been committed, or where he resides. A complaint can be on behalf of the victim also. 3. Generally, the complaint should be lodged within 24 hour of the commission of offence. However, the limitation time is different for some offences. 1. On receipt of such information, the concerned police officer shall record the information in writing and the person giving information shall sign it. 1. In case of receipt of information pertaining to Non-Cognizable offence the police officer will have to take permission of the Magistrate. 2. The Magistrate may either quash the information or grant power to investigate. 3. On receipt of orders to investigate from the Magistrate, the police officer shall start the investigation. In case of information received, in any cognizable offence, the Police officer shall/can start the investigation without any permission/order from the Magistrate. 1. The investigation in respect of Cognizable offence, and order to investigate in non-cognizable offence shall commence on the same line. The only difference is that, in case of cognizable offence, the police officer can arrest without warrant, during investigation. In case of non-Cognizable offence, the police officer will have to apply for warrant from Magistrate, for making any arrest. 1. Even in respect of cognizable offence, the police officer shall send a report to the Magistrate. 2. During the course of investigation the Police Officer may acquire any other person, to appear, and be examined as witness. 3. Any such statements made by the witness, including the complainant, shall be recorded in writing. 4. Such statements, which are recorded, should not be signed by the person making a statement, and such statements, shall only be used for the purpose of further investigation. 5. Also, these statements can be used as evidence, in trial, only with the permission of the magistrate. 6. While the statement is being recorded, the police officer shall not cause any threat inducement or any promise, to the witness. 7. A metropolitan Magistrate or a judicial magistrate can also record any confession or statement of any witness, during the course of trial. 1. If, the police officer believes that, some search has to be made, during investigation, he is authorised to do so. 2. He can also issue, an order to the person, to produce any relevant documents. 3. If, during search, the police officer is of the opinion that, any one might cause or refuse to search a place or property, then the police officer can obtain a search warrant from the magistrate of that area. 4. On conducting the search if police officer finds some things useful for the trial or 5. Further investigation, then police officer can take such Articles in his possession 1. Where, the Accused is arrested by the police officer, during investigation; he shall have to be produced before a Magistrate within 24 hours. 2. Where, the period of investigation extends beyond, 24 hours, and the investigation has revealed sufficient grounds against the accused, then if he is still in the custody, the concerned police officer shall produce the accused before the Magistrate alongwith copy of the entries made in diary during investigation. 3. The Magistrate may either order for release of the Accused till investigation or order for further detention. 4. In case of further detention, the Accused shall have to be brought before the Magistrate every fifteen days. 1. If during or after investigation, the police officer comes to a finding, that there is not sufficient evidence to produce the accused before Magistrate, then such accused shall be released on executing a bond. 2. However, if required by Magistrate he will have to appear on such date and time as directed. 3. On the other hand, if police officer comes to a finding that the case is fit for trial, he shall forward the accused under custody to the Magistrate, to take cognizance. 1. On receipt of the police report, the Magistrate shall take cognizance of the case, and proceedings shall be initiated. 1. If, the Accused is already under custody, then he shall be produced before the Magistrate on the date of hearing. 2. If, he is not in custody, then summons shall be issued to him, to appear before the Magistrate. 3. If required, summons shall also be issued to any witness to appear on the date fixed for hearing. 1. On the date of hearing, the police officer/report shall be represented by " Public Prosecutor". He shall present his case on the basis of investigation and police report. On that day the accused may be heard or given some time to set up his defence. 1. All the material collected by Police officer during investigation shall also be produced. 2. On the dates fixed for evidence, the witnesses will be examined and cross-examined. 3. Both, the public prosecutor and the accused shall have right to produce their own witnesses, and material things. 1. On the date fixed for final hearing, the Magistrate shall pass the order after considering, the evidence produced, and having heard the parties. 2. The order passed may either acquit or convict the accused. 3. With this final order, the criminal trial comes to an end. Criminal Procedure Code 1973 Narcotic drugs or Psychotropic substances mean the following; 1. Ganja 2. Opium 3. Co Ca Leaf 4. Cocaine and etc. Any person who is not authorised by central Government or who uses any of such drugs for any purpose other than medical or scientific purpose, will be committing a criminal offence, under " Narcotic Drugs & Psycho tropic substances Act, 1985". Any offence committed in relation to Narcotic Drugs, is "Cognizable", i.e. Police officer can arrest without warrant, and is also "Non-bailable", in cases, where the term of punishment exceeds 5 years of more. Following persons can issue a search or arrest warrant, where there is a suspicion or complaint or information that narcotic drugs are being dealt in: 1. A metropolitan or Ist or IInd Class Magistrate 2. Police officer 3. Officer of Revenue, drugs control excise department. 4. On the search being conducted, if any person is found in illegal possession of narcotic drugs, he can be arrested there and then. 5. Every such person arrested shall be forwarded to a Magistrate or police officer, who issued a warrant. DEVIATION FROM CRIMINAL PROCEDURE CODE: (36 A of Narcotic Drugs & Phsy sub. Act, 85) Generally, a Magistrate, can order a detention of accused for more than 15 days, if investigation is not completed within 24 hours. However in relation to Narcotic Drugs, the procedure is bit different. It is as follows: 1. If the Magistrate is a judicial Magistrate he can only remand for a period of 15 days, and 2. If the Magistrate is an executive Magistrate, he can remand only for a period of 7 days. 3. However if the Magistrate wants to remand on accused for a period of more days than above, then he will have to forward such person ( accused) before the "special court" 4. Also where the Magistrate, considers the detention unnecessary he will still have to forward such accused before the " Special court". 5. A "Special court", will have all the powers to conduct the criminal trial, which the Magistrate has, under the CrPC. 6. A "Special court", can also take direct cognizance of an offence, without being committed to if for trial, on perusal of a police report, or complaint made by concerned officer. 1. For all such offences relating to Narcotic Drugs, the Bail Application can be applied only before the special court trying the offence. 2. Provisions and Rules of Bail as contained in CrPC will apply similarly before special court also. 1. A "Special Court" is established by the Government for different areas, for conduction trial, relating to Narcotic Drugs. 2. The special court shall consist of a single judge, who is either a "session Judge" or "Additional Sessions Judge". 3. The Special court, will have all the power of Magistrate as granted by Code of Criminal Code, and will be treated as "Court of Sessions". Any appeal or revision, arising from an order of "special court" will lie before "HIGH COURT". However an bail application, can still be filed directly for the first time in High court for any proceedings conducted by " Special Courts", in case of urgency Find a Lawyer Recent Judgment Sudha Mishra vs. Surya Chandra Mishra( R.F.A 299 of 2014 Articles by Location • Afghanistan • Australia • China • Germany • Iceland • Japan • Italy • USA • Zimbabwe • More SC: Land housing acquired for housing purpose must revert back to owner The Supreme Court of India has made some observations regarding the land acquisition in the case of Uddar Gagan Properties Ltd. V. Sant Singh. The Bench comprising of Justice Anil R. Dave and Justice Adarsh Kumar Goel have stated that the land acquired for the housing purpose must be given back to the owner and not anyone else directly or indirectly... Have a Legal Matter ? Need a Lawyer? Have a Legal Matter ? Need a Lawyer?
to the RSPCA's Science, ethics and animals resource. This resource is mainly for English and Welsh GCSE science students and those studying the Diploma in Environmental and Land-based Studies. However, everyone will be able to enjoy the experience, learn more about themselves and better understand the role of science and ethics in all our lives. Demand for higher welfare food doubles in last four years Call for ban on 'illegal' eggs Last chance to tell government you care about lab animals Rooting for pigs Find out about our campaign to improve pig welfare. RSPCA: Moral Compass RSPCA: Ethics Court "If you can clone a winning racehorse, I think cloning animals is all right." "Pedigree dogs suffer, so people should stop buying them." "I need to buy cheap food, and I don't care how it's produced." What do you think? RSPCA: Value of Life How do you decide which animals you value most? What do we mean by value? Which has more value – a horse or a guinea pig? Which animal was the number one admission to RSPCA wildlife centres in 2010? Please select the correct answer...
New super-Earth that may be just right to support life found in six-planet system Source : ANI Last Updated: Thu, Nov 08, 2012 05:48 hrs Washington: A new super-Earth planet that may have an Earth-like climate and be just right to support life has been discovered around a nearby star. An international team of astronomers led by Mikko Tuomi, University of Hertfordshire, and Guillem Anglada-Escude, University of Goettingen made the discovery. The new super-Earth planet exists in the habitable zone of a nearby star and is part of a six-planet system. The system was previously thought to contain three planets in orbits too close to the star to support liquid water. By avoiding fake signals caused by stellar activity, the researchers have identified three new super-Earth planet candidates also in orbit. "We pioneered new data analysis techniques including the use of the wavelength as a filter to reduce the influence of activity on the signal from this star. This significantly increased our sensitivity and enabled us to reveal three new super-Earth planets around the star known as HD 40307, making it into a six-planet system," Mikko Tuomi said. Of the new planets, the one of greatest interest is the one with the outermost orbit from the star-with a mass at least seven times of the Earth. Its orbit around the host star is at a similar distance to Earth's orbit around our Sun, so it receives a similar amount of energy from the star as the Earth receives from the Sun - increasing the probability of it being habitable. This is where the presence of liquid water and stable atmospheres to support life is possible and, more importantly, the planet is likely to be rotating on its own axis as it orbits around the star creating a daytime and night-time effect on the planet which would be better at creating an Earth-like environment. "The star HD 40307, is a perfectly quiet old dwarf star, so there is no reason why such a planet could not sustain an Earth-like climate," said Guillem Angla-Escude. Hugh Jones, University of Hertfordshire, added: "The longer orbit of the new planet means that its climate and atmosphere may be just right to support life. Just as Goldilocks liked her porridge to be neither too hot nor too cold but just right, this planet or indeed any moons that is has lie in an orbit comparable to Earth, increasing the probability of it being habitable." Earlier this year, the Kepler spacecraft found a planet with a similar orbit. However, Kepler 22d is located 600 light years from Earth, whereas this new super-Earth planet known as HD 40307g is much closer being located at forty-two light years from Earth. The discovery will soon be published in the journal Astronomy and Astrophysics. (ANI) More from Sify:
Diabetic Heart Disease Risk • Menus • Recipes • Grocery Lists • Heart Disease and Diabetes Toll Free: 1-877-990-3926 Diabetes Risk for Heart Attack Contact Us Food Picker® New Research Free Profile Support Group GlucoMenu: Diabetic & Heart Disease Heart Disease Risk Factors & Diabetes Being diabetic increases risk for heart disease. Heart disease is a disorder in which arteries become clogged and ultimately, blocked with plaque deposits causing a lack of blood flow to the heart. The American Heart Association has identified 6 major risk factors for heart disease that can be treated or controlled by lifestyle changes and/or medications. The 6 Risk Factors for Heart Disease • obesity - a body weight 20% over the ideal body weight for height • physical inactivity - lack of exercise, particularly cardiovascular exercise increases risk • smoking - this is due to the stimulant (nicotine) that increases heart rate and the carbon monoxide breathed in • elevated blood cholesterol - a total cholesterol of 240 mg/dl increases risk as well as a LDL-cholesterol over 130 mg/dl and/or a HDL-cholesterol under 40 mg/dl • elevated blood pressure - increased blood pressure equates to increased force for blood to move though the body (this means extra work for your body) • diabetes - having diabetes increases your risk of heart disease To Reduce Your Risk • Maintain a healthy body weight - a reduction of 5-10% of total body weight can be beneficial. • Exercise - incorporate 30 minutes of physical activity 5 days a week, every week. • Don't smoke! • Control blood sugar - talk with your doctor or diabetes educator about blood sugar goals. • Follow a low fat diet - consume <30% calories from fat, <10% calories from saturated fat, & <300 mg. dietary cholesterol. • Limit processed and high sodium foods - consume <2400 mg. sodium each day. • Eat seafood twice a week - research is finding seafood has protective benefits against heart disease. Prepare seafood by baking, grilling or poaching instead of frying (frying adds fat). • Focus on whole grains, vegetables, & fruits. These foods are rich in vitamins, minerals, and fiber. Christine Carlson, MS, RD, BC-ADM, CDE GlucoMenu® Nutrition Director Christine Carlson, Registered Dietitian & Certified Diabetes Educator GlucoMenu helps Type 1, Type 2 & Pre-Diabetics with • Achieving better blood sugar results • Weight loss and weight management • Coping with diagnosis, feeling better, and increasing energy levels A1c: What should my A1c level be? Alcohol: Can I have wine with dinner? Apple: How many sugars are in an apple? Carbohydrate: Carbohydrate or calories? Chromium: Should I be taking Chromium? Diabetes: Can you reverse diabetes? Diabetes: Can you reverse pre-diabetes? Diabetes: Newly diagnosed... where do I start? Dreamfields Pasta: How does Dreamfields pasta count carbohydrates? Fiber: Which items are the best for fiber? Food Exchanges: Can you explain food exchanges? Frozen Shoulder: Do my symptoms sound like frozen shoulder? Fruit: What is the difference between canned and fresh fruits? Fruit Juice: What can I drink instead of water? GlucoMenu: What is GlucoMenu? GlucoMenu: Menus for every season? Gluten: Should I be eating gluten free products? HFCS: What's all the hype with High Fructose Corn Syrup? High Blood Sugar: Tired after lunch. Any suggestions? Margarine or Butter: Why unhealthy margarine instead of butter? Nuts: What kind of nuts should I buy? Pre-Diabetes: What are Pre-Diabetes lifestyle changes? Snack Bars: What snack bars do you suggest I use? Snacking: How do I avoid overeating when I'm bored? Stevia: Are Stevia sweeteners safe for someone who has diabetes? Tomatoes: Will tomatoes cause an increase in blood sugar levels? Weight Loss: How do I lose weight? American Diabetes Association magazine subscription when you join GlucoMenu® American Diabetes Association magazine subscription when you join GlucoMenu® American Diabetes Association magazine subscription when you join GlucoMenu® American Diabetes Association magazine subscription when you join GlucoMenu® Support Group \| New Research \| What's New [ GlucoMenu Terms of Use ] [ Site Index ] Copyright ©2015 GlucoMenu®
I was listening to a media overview of the Life On Mars Project. The short version is that 6 people, 3 men and 3 women, will spend 365 in a biosphere located on the slopes of the Mauna Loa volcano in Hawaii. They will be permitted to leave the dome but will be required to wear a space suit to simulate the conditions on Mars. In an unfortunate naming twist, the acronym for the effort is HI-SEAS. I think they should have gone with a different acronym. The project will study the effects of long-term isolation and co-habitation. The results of the 1-year study will be used in the planning of an actual manned mission to Mars. This is certainly interesting research and the kind of work that can’t be simulated given the complexity of the human condition. I thought it was curious that the crew features 3 men and 3 women. Given the fact that this is a 1-year project in close quarter conditions, with no external human contact, it would appear that the organizers were anticipating the human needs beyond food, shelter, clothing. This leads to a number of interesting questions about the consequences of limited human interactions and self-enforced rules of order. What if one crewmember commits a crime against another crewmember? In a 36-foot diameter dome do you quarantine that person? Each crewmember holds specific skills that are necessary for the ongoing support of the station, putting an individual in isolation would deprive the rest of the crew of essential support. What if someone unexpectedly binges and eats all the chocolate? Seems like a small thing but human conflict is often the result of small things piling up over time. What happens when someone dies? This being a research project, one can presume that there would be an intervention in the event of life-threatening illness, but in space that isn’t possible so what would happen? Would you shoot the body out of a port, say a few words and move on? How do you replace the essential skills that person held? There are obvious questions about long-term co-habitation in a small space that this research will shed light on. Entertainment, fitness, conflict resolution, communication, and mental health are all obvious questions, but it would be fascinating to learn about all the not so obvious issues that the planners have on their list. I hope NASA departs from the usual media strategy of sunshine and rainbows to describe their work. This is a rare opportunity to shed light on the complexity of the human condition in anticipation of actual long-term cohabitation in space. I am also left to wonder why the International Space Station is not being used for this research given that it is an actual installation in outer space designed to support long-term co-habitation. More on this topic (What's this?) Market Outlook Inteliquent Lands a Big One Read more on Hong KONG&CHINA Gas at Wikinvest The Ashley Madison Data Dump madisonThe hack itself is an old story; Ashley Madison was hacked and profile information stolen. What is new is that the group behind the hack, Impact Team, dumped all the data. It has now been made available by many legitimate folks who created searchable online services against the data. As much as I could enjoy the schadenfreude in this story, I simply cannot. I’m compelled to point out that just because an email is in the database does not mean it is a legitimate account. Email is a notoriously weak verified identifier, and while many websites have a sign-up flow for email verification, many don’t do anything to purge unverified emails. My thesis is that even unverified emails harvested in the sign-up flow have value for marketing purposes and, therefore, remain in the company’s database. My email, [email protected], has been used by far too many “jnolans” to count. Often signing up for mundane services like car buying sites, but also for things that would certainly make my wife ask questions, like BlackPeopleFinder.com and an unrelated service for making arrangements with dominatrixes for a variety of, well, services. The amount of crap I get from websites I have never visited is simple extraordinary. My oldest son has a gmail address that is first name only and I purge over a thousand emails from his account each month, and he’s only used it a few times for sending schoolwork. 2013101108The Impact Team has shrewdly wrapped themselves in a veil of moral righteousness to conceal a criminal act. While they aren’t stoning adulterers in the town square – or beheading them in a stadium – they are stealing personal information and using that in a form of extortion. I find the entire affair, no pun intended, reprehensible and while AshleyMadison is itself objectionable, they are also a victim (of stupidity first and foremost). Despite complete awareness of the risks to the company and their customers, they did not employ best practices to secure their data. In addition to that, they had a sign-up flow and password recovery process that made it exceptionally easy to determine whether or not an email was in their user database. The flawed password recovery feature allowed for an entirely different line of attack employing social engineering to hijack individual accounts. I won’t shed any tears if they shut down, which they likely will because recovering now is all but impossible, but I won’t celebrate the fact that a group of hackers brought their demise. To do so would welcome a global online sharia law where only those services that pass a moral test can exist. PS- yeah, I searched for my email in the database! Who wouldn’t? Amazon Dash, the Device Web, and Speech Verification I purchased an Amazon Dash button recently. It’s a clever product concept and an example of a headless device that will be a major theme in the emerging Internet of Things movement. The Internet of Things represents a massive shift in how we will consume services. I would assert that we will reorganize the existing Internet around three functional Internets: • The Web: This is what we know today. Constantly evolving, the complexity of services delivered to HTTP endpoint will increase, and as more web consumption moves to mobile, the interoperability of smartphone apps with web services will be transparent. • The Dark/Deep Web: This web already exists, it is beyond the reach of search or obscured behind secure and untraceable browser and domain technologies. Most often associated with illegal activity, the Dark/Deep Web will evolve to meet the needs of security and privacy, as well as conduct criminal activities. The Deep internet, that which is not obscured behind technology, it is simply not discoverable via search. • The Device Web: The proliferation of connected devices will overwhelm the traditional namespace. The devices that connect to the Device Web will be, predominately, headless. Lacking displays and traditional input modes, these devices will have speech interfaces, simple activation modes, and be tethered to a smartphone via a dedicated app. My interest in the Device Web is what led me to spring the $5 for a Dash button. A Tide Dash button, we like Tide so what could be better than a simple push button replenishment mode? As it turns out, quite a bit. dash1The Dash arrived in a simple package and activating the button was a simple process. I pressed the button and held it until the blue light blinked rapidly. Simple enough, just like a Bluetooth device. With the blue light blinking, I went to the Amazon app that was already installed on my phone and found the “device” menu in the account menu. It was not immediately apparent because I was expecting a dedicated app, but when in retrospect it makes perfect sense the way they built this into their mobile app. I probably should have read the one pager that came with the device first. The process of configuring the button is two parts, first adding the button to the network and then attaching it to a product option to purchase. The first part is interesting, the Amazon app forces my phone to drop the WIFI connection and form a direct connection to the Dash button. At this point, the app prompts you to select the network to connect the Dash button to. Dash then stores the WIFI password in the device, or in their cloud; it wasn’t clear where the password is being stored. I wasn’t particularly excited about Amazon having my WIFI password in their network. To me, this represents a new front in privacy strategy because having access to my WIFI network opens up a lot of possibilities for Amazon that I would not endorse. With the button configured I then needed to attach my product options to the buy button. At this point, my enthusiasm for this device went to zero. The number of products eligible for the Dash button are limited, and our preferred Tide option was not available. I detached the button from my account and put it back in the package. It will be a conversation piece now rather than a method for procuring laundry detergent. When my six-year-old son saw the Dash button, the first thing he did was press the button, repeatedly. Had it been configured, I would be getting a truckload of Tide. Amazon has designed around this with the purchasing workflow, giving you the opportunity to cancel a transaction before fulfillment, but the problem I have with this is that I have to do it. The button itself does not discriminate between those in my household authorized to buy Tide and those that are not. The Dash buttons would be significantly improved with a voice verification technology that responds only to an authorized and enrolled user. This authentication could be enabled with a fingerprint sensor but with current technology the cost of the sensor is an obstacle while adding a mic is trivial. Taking this to the next level, redesign the button to remove the button itself to enable Dash with a trigger phrase and voice verification to authenticate a transaction. I love where Amazon is going with this, pushing the buying transaction out to the natural endpoint. I can envision this being evolved and improved with new technologies and improved backend integration, but I can also see this package being integrated into appliances. Not everyone wants to purchase exclusively through Amazon, so much like smart TVs now come preloaded with multiple streaming services, appliance makers could embed multiple retail options for the consumer. Crisis Management for Lion Killers The story of the Dr. “Lion Slayer” Palmer is all over the internet and people are outraged, for good reason. His dental practice is in limbo and he is in hiding after receiving death threats. Well done Internet… you have already surpassed the attention span of a #hashtag with this one. I am conflicted on this story for many reasons. Big game hunting is deplorable, and there is no justification for it with licenses sold to the ultra-wealthy who are partaking in the experience for the sport of it. If the goal is herd management, have trained naturalists do the killing in a clinical manner and take advantage of the carcasses for research instead of skinning it and mounting the head as a trophy. Here’s where my conflict hits a high pitch, the outrage that is being expressed by this story is disproportionate to the actual harm. In no small measure, this is due to the victim is an animal, a majestic animal rather than a deer or furry ground squirrel. African lions are threatened, not endangered, and the bulk of them live in a cluster of habitats like the one the one that was killed. Habitat destruction is a bigger threat to lions than hunting. syrian atrocitiesHow do we square the universal outrage expressed about the killing of a lion with the antipathy to 200,000 people killed in Syria, including women and children gassed to death by the Assad regime? What about the near 8 million Syrians who have been forced to abandon their homes because of this civil war? Where can I post a satirical comment on Bashar al-Assad’s Yelp page? The Internet is a marvelous creation that engages and connects people throughout the world. However, the unintended consequence of social media activism is that it is often a substitute for actual activism but with far less impressive results. We live in a world of #hashtags that create a false sense of engagement and deludes people into believing they made a difference. The half-life of a hashtag is hours; it is nothing more than an expression of vanity to attach your online personality to a cause… and then move on. Where is the outrage about African countries selling the rights to kill these animals to the highest bidder? That, to me, is missing in focus here. Here’s what I recommend that the Lion Slayer do to rehabilitate his image: 1. Ride it out: We hit the crescendo of public outrage yesterday and by the end of the week the majority of people will have moved on. Making statements now does nothing to quell the firestorm and based on what he has already released, more damage is being done. 2. Ignore the Zimbabwe authorities: This is a country run by a notorious thug, Robert Mugabe, who has ruined the economy and perpetuated many human rights abuses over his 33 year dictatorship. The U.S. ignores him, so should Palmer. 3. Rebrand the clinic: River Bluff Dental is cooked, time to start over. He will have to actively manage the social media and review sites for NewCo. so plan on hiring a firm to do that over a protracted period of time. 4. Focus on the local community: A dental practice is inherently local, it doesn’t matter what “Kim T. from San Gabriel, CA” thinks. Palmer needs to reach out to his local community and focus on the collective values of the practice, the people who rely on it for jobs, and the many people who have been served (apparently he is an accomplished dentist). 5. Give up big game hunting: As already stated, it’s just immoral so give it up. Hunting is a big part of life in Minnesota so his local community will not object to hunting for local game. If he wants to go to Africa, take a camera instead of a bow. 6. Take up animal conservation: His crime was in killing a majestic animal, the penance for that is supporting the preservation of majestic animals. I would recommend a strategy of donating a fixed percentage of revenue from the clinic to vetted causes, and being transparent about it. If Michael Vick can rehabilitate his image after going to prison for dog fighting, I think Palmer has a good shot, no pun intended. Tough Doesn’t Quit, Except at Breakfast I was at a dinner on Sunday night and seated next to me was retired Admiral Eric Olson, who had a long and distinguished military career. He retired from the Navy in 2011 as the commander of the U.S. Special Operations Command. Interesting man, to say the least, but also incredibly gracious and unassuming. I asked him what qualities he could identify that would be indicators of success as s Navy SEAL. His response was predictable in some ways, unexpected in others. Above all, he said, the SEALs look for problem-solving, intelligence and mental toughness in candidates. I expected to hear this, and he added that chess and water polo players seem particularly well suited for special operations, which certainly fits the profile. seals-toughnessWhat he added, which was unexpected, is that they study the well-documented attrition rate during training. Within each cohort, they looked at the time of day that candidates would quit and found that the majority of drop-outs quit at breakfast and lunch. In other words, they didn’t quit during the grueling training exercises but in anticipation of them. It makes a lot of sense in retrospect because this training program is designed to instill the commitment of team and capacity of the human body to go far beyond believed physical limits. Giving up occurs not in the moment of exertion where your team is counting on you but in the comfort of being alone and anticipating the grueling assignment. Draw your own analogies to everyday life. More on this topic (What's this?) Is This The Beginning Of A Larger Equity Market Correction? I'm Rich: Nigerian prince out, Hosni Mubarak in! TierPoint Acquires Xand, Doubles Footprint Jen Psaki Video: It's amateur hour at the US State Department! Read more on Lingui Development, Admiral at Wikinvest Corporate Activism: The Uber Edition New York City Mayor Bill de Blasio really stepped in it by picking a fight with Uber. Acting as the puppet for the powerful taxi medallion owners in NYC, who despise Uber, the mayor proposed capping the addition of new Uber cars to 1%. Given the customer growth that Uber has been experiencing in NYC, a 1% increase in drivers would kneecap the company. Uber fought back, which seemed to catch both City Hall and the yellow cab cartel off guard. Anyone who has watched Uber grow will tell you the company redefines the term being aggressive. Making critical arguments that they were creating jobs, customers are being served that are neglected by taxi cabs, and the congestion claims didn’t match the numbers. Indeed, the congestion argument that De Blasio relied on was particularly curious because it is now clear that is based on anecdote. In addition to a wave of advertising and protests by the very people who rely on Uber to earn income, Uber enlisted allies across the political spectrum. However, it was the use of the application as a tool for activating customers that is particularly brilliant. The de Blasio mode that rolled out provided every Uber customer in NYC with a picture of what service would look like if de Blasio successfully capped growth. What is different about Uber fighting City Hall versus WalMart or an energy company, is that Uber has user experience on their side. This is where De Blasio fatally erred in taking on Uber. He attempted to use worn our arguments about safety and employee rights to define Uber as a threat to the public welfare when anyone who has ridden in a yellow cab – anywhere – will tell you it is quite the opposite. The data didn’t back up De Blasio’s claim, on the surface or at that level that we just intuitively know. de Blasio backed down and his allies are attempting to spin a victory out of this defeat. Highlighting the fact that Uber agreed to “restrain” growth to their current level (it’s hard to imagine Uber juicing growth in NYC at this point) and sharing data for the traffic study. Make no mistake about this, it was a defeat for De Blasio and only further weakens him in the eyes of New Yorkers who are already fed up with him. This loss comes on the heels of a humiliating showing in Albany. Mayor de Blasio sought permanent control of the city school system; instead he got a 1-year extension on the current oversight agreement. He bitterly opposes charter schools, doing the bidding for the teacher’s union, which bitterly opposes charter schools, and instead of reducing their numbers he was handed 50 more. He wanted pro-tenant changes to the rent control laws, he got nothing but a 4-year extension on the status quo. He wanted changes to the 421 real estate law, for which he got bupkis. His showing within NYC politics shows much of the same. He opposed hiring more police officers, and Bratton got 1,300 new officers pushed through. And now he just lost to Uber. In the end, it is customers that win. For years, the taxi industry has one constituent, regulators. The regulators derived their power from the fact that there was an organized industry to regulate and did little to improve customer experience and affordability. The money generated by taxes was spread around to mass transit projects and used to enrichen organized labor, who like the taxi industry had little incentive to improve customer experience. Just ride on San Francisco’s MUNI system, a textbook example for why a municipality should not be entrusted with public transportation. Uber and Lyft came along and demonstrated that superior customer experience wins every time. It’s not just the taxi industry that sees this threat, cities with crowded and inefficient transit systems are watching their ridership shift to ride services and as companies introduce car-pooling services the trend will accelerate. Preparing for a long battle ahead, it is obvious that Uber and their counterparts are prepared to wage a direct and aggressive battle on behalf of their interests, and because their interests align with consumers I am okay with that. The Coming Robot Invasion in Fast Food 102277923-IMG_3958.530x298I was driving up Woodside Road last week and the KFC store had a huge “Hiring!” banner hanging on the front of the outlet. This caught my attention for two reasons. It’s well established that cost of living on the Peninsula is not amenable to the income generated by low skilled, fast food work. It just isn’t and raising the minimum wage or whatever you want to call it isn’t going to make a difference. As a result, few people want to work these jobs. How can you blame them if flipping burgers and banging on a cash register all day isn’t providing an income that makes it possible to cover the basics? It used to be that fast food was a job that kids filled in their off hours or during summer, it is not a career. Today’s young people have many competing demands on their time, from school to sports to activities that they are expected to participate in order to make them competitive for college admissions. There is also a youth entitlement factor that comes into play in wealthy communities. However, in my conversations with small business owners the number one problem with hiring teens is that they cannot commit to the time that is required to hold down a job. Today I read an interesting piece on McDonald’s: “For example, labor needed to run stores during lunch hour,” one franchisee wrote. “Our competitors have 6-8 people to run close to the same volume that we need 20-25 people. It’s a perfect storm of changing consumer tastes, poor brand management, and food quality hitting McDonald’s at the moment. If we throw in labor efficiency, we may have hit the tipping point that results in an unsalvagable business. It is this last issue that is most interesting to me. robot-fast-food.0.0There is no reason at all why fast food restaurants could not be staffed primarily by robots. I’m not talking about cute humanoids delivering food to tables but rather the heavy lifting part of fast food… the kitchen. Fast food is designed to be repeatable in preparation and presentation, a perfect scenario for robotics. Fast, efficient, and consistent preparation of food can be accomplished with sensor heavy automation that manages food quality, consistency, and safety far better than humans can at the pace that is required in a fast food process. The novelty factor of automation would soon give way to a preference in much the same way that other businesses have used automation for competitive advantage. robot-restaurant-3.0If you carry this forward, the interesting thing to consider is how automation informs the fast/casual dining user experience from a design standpoint. Automation completely changes how a kitchen would be laid out, how logistics are managed and even how we use technology to interface with the front end processes as a customer. A maps interface on your phone could now include order entry while driving and beacons could interact with me while en route and in the restaurant itself. It’s pretty exciting to think how everything changes as a result of robotics in the fast food process. I will close by saying that for McDonald’s these issues cannot be tinkered with. Re-establishing leadership will require bold strategies that remake the entire fast food experience, not just the McDonald’s brand experience. Automation won’t address the menu issues they have, but it will address the labor issues that are plaguing the franchise model. They could start incrementally and insert automation in the kitchen but they also need to lay out a vision for the total experience they are designing to. Hillary Clinton Attacks Uber, Airbnb On the wrong side of history yet again, Hillary Clinton has decided that her road to the White House is tearing down one of the great economic movements of the last decade, the sharing economy. In an economic speech she is planned to give, Clinton will highlight the stagnating wages of the middle class and points to causes that include Uber and Airbnb. This is mind blowing for two reasons, one is that the bloc of voters that she absolutely has to appeal to is not only benefiting from these services but sees them as a part of their economic portfolio. Secondly, the marketplace for services is fundamentally shifting from one of hardened connections between companies and employees to one of loose connections that increase and decrease based on personal preferences. Hillary Clinton wants to return Americans to an era where earning income happened exclusively in the context of an employee-employer relationship. In addition to that, she wants to restrict individuals access to a market where utilizing assets like home, apartments, and vehicles for income is an option and is effectively excluded from the worst aspects of government, rent-seeking, which conspires to depress the stagnated incomes that Clinton is right to call out! UPDATE: I finished the above paragraph after my friend, Paul Greenberg, alerted me to the incomplete sentence in my original post. He also made a comment about this not being a “sharing economy” but rather a new dimension on renting and I largely agree. More than anything else, Uber and Airbnb are just two examples of a bigger movement that enables income to be extracted from 2 of the biggest capital expenses of the middle class, homes and cars. Mary Meeker’s recently published 2015 Internet Trends Report highlighted some of the generational changes that are occurring and the impact on the future of work. See Slide 111. Flexible hours and freelancing are integral beliefs underpinning economic freedom for this generation and Clinton’s position is directly at odds with that. Far from being a cause of middle-class stagnation, the sharing economy offers a rare moment of optimism. Roy Bahat recently published an outstanding essay titled Your Career is a Mess that highlights one of the seismic shifts affecting employment in the 21st century, which is that we are no longer single threaded in the employee-employer relationship. Hillary Clinton’s entire campaign is emerging as a grab bag of tired progressive policies that have actually attacked the middle class rather than empowered it. Wage growth has stalled because growth itself has stalled, this is not shocking to any economist and yet the candidate continues to parrot talking points about childcare and paid time off, infrastructure investment, and clean energy. Rather than embracing and expanding the economics successes of the last decade, Clinton would take us back to the last century, proving that she is on the wrong side of history yet again. PS- Comments were not enabled in the original post, I corrected that with this update. Forced Encryption Rendering Nexus Devices Useless UPDATE: I unlocked the devices and installed a modified bootloader that disabled encryption. It was a bit of a hassle I had to reformat the device storage but Google has a nice recovery feature for apps in Lollipop. The results were beyond expectation, the phone feels 3x as fast and the Nexus 9 no longer has any of the lag issues that were causing problems with Chrome. I have a Nexus 9 and a Nexus 6, both running Android Lollipop 5.01. Almost immediately I noticed that there was a lot of lag in the UI and performance was generally slow. After doing a lot of research it appears that forced encryption in 5.0x is a huge performance drag on hardware that would otherwise be quite snappy. Lollipop 5.1 is rumored to be available but despite being on Nexus devices I have not received OTA updates (Verizon for the 6, T-Mobile for the 9). I can sideload 5.1 on the 6 but there is not image available as of yet for the Nexus 9. While this feature is well intentioned, the fact remains that it should never have gone into production with the enormous performance penalty it imposes. Furthermore, Google knows of the issue and has removed the forced requirement but has not yet made a fix available to those devices that already have it. As much as I like the Nexus hardware, I would not recommend buying any Nexus device until Google disables encryption. The Challenge of Being a Russian Security Software Company Passwork. Password manager for teams. Collaboration and password sharingI came across Passwork today and was really impressed with the presentation as well as focus of the product. This is the kind of product that I would instinctively sign up for and test drive… but for an unrelated reason I started poking around on their site to find out more about the company. It became clear that the company is Russian and this fact alone represents a major impediment for any company in the security software space. In all fairness I am making this assumption off factors like domains and language… the company itself provided no contact information on their website, which is itself kind of weird. There is obviously a lot of good tech that comes out of Russia but there is an intractable problem when going global and that is the ambiguity about the extent to which Russian government activities encroach on the activities of commercial companies. The same can be said of China and in the interest of being fully objective about this topic, the same can be said of the U.S.A. as more attention and disclosure was put on NSA, FBI, and other government agencies. Selling globally I know this is the case, companies not based in the U.S. have significant objections about domiciling data in U.S. datacenters. The problem for companies in Russia (and China) is that of the perception of egregious bad actors, including overt criminal activity. It’s one thing to have the government accessing your data, it’s another altogether to believe you would be exposed to criminal industrial espionage. I simply would not try to build a security software company in Russia if I have an aspiration of selling to a global enterprise market. Kaspersky Lab is a notable exception here when it comes to endpoint security but it’s clear that the company is aware of this and also the rising tensions between the U.S. and Russian governments. Passwork is also, apparently, aware of the obstacles and goes to lengths on their website to highlight open algorithms, data security and privacy. In addition to addressing these issues up front, they also offer a version of the software that is on-premise. I’m not sure any of these measures really overcome the perception of risk, which in many ways is a binary condition. As much as I liked the marketing for Passwork, I didn’t sign up.
Sign up Here's how it works: 1. Anybody can ask a question 2. Anybody can answer The below Javadoc is an snippet of HashMap documentation. Why authors would emphasize on putting a lock on the object that encapsulate a HashMap? Lock on the actual HashMap Object makes for sense. Note that this implementation is not synchronized. If multiple threads access a hash map concurrently, and at least one of the threads modifies the map structurally, it must be synchronized externally. (A structural modification is any operation that adds or deletes one or more mappings; merely changing the value associated with a key that an instance already contains is not a structural modification.) This is typically accomplished by synchronizing on some object that naturally encapsulates the map. If no such object exists, the map should be "wrapped" using the Collections.synchronizedMap method... share\|improve this question Encapsulation is necessary here in order to restrict direct access of client code to methods of HashMap. As for recommendation on what object to use as a lock, it serves a purpose to allow client code to iterate over the map in a thread safe way. If you intend your map to be synchronized but lock on actual HashMap object, without hiding (encapsulating) it, then any code having access to that object would be able to invoke its unsynchronized methods and break synchronization. Purpose of encapsulation in this case is stated further in javadocs you refer: "to prevent accidental unsynchronized access to the map". Documentation also refers to Collections.synchronizedMap as an example on how one is expected to synchronize: Returns a synchronized (thread-safe) map backed by the specified map. In order to guarantee serial access, it is critical that all access to the backing map is accomplished through the returned map... You see, synchronizedMap documentation reiterates the importance ("it is critical") for the client code not accessing "backing map" directly. This documentation also further provides the example explaining why it is recommended to synchronize on the enclosing object: Map m = Collections.synchronizedMap(new HashMap()); Set s = m.keySet(); // Needn't be in synchronized block synchronized (m) { // Synchronizing on m, not s! Iterator i = s.iterator(); // Must be in synchronized block while (i.hasNext()) You see, in the above code example, if client code would not have access to "known by convention" lock object, it would be impossible to properly synchronize: some other code could have used other lock to wrap the iteration which would lead to unsynchronized access. share\|improve this answer I don't think this was the question. Given an object that encapsulates the HashMap, the quoted JavaDoc states that for synchronizing access to a hash map, one should preferably lock on that containing object, not on the HashMap object. IOW synchronized(this) versus synchronized(this.private_map). If anything, that scheme seems more vulnerable to client code doing unsynchonized access to the map! – delnan May 26 '14 at 6:14 The part you quote is preceded by "[...] the map should be "wrapped" using the Collections.synchronizedMap method. This is best done at creation time". The wrapping into a synchonizedMap should be done in this way to prevent accidental unsynchronized access. The wrapper does encapsulate the wrapped map, but as explained before that does not explain the section OP quoted. – delnan May 26 '14 at 6:18 But the doc does not recommend using synchronizedMap as go-to solution. It recommends manually synchronizing on the encapsulating object, with synchronizedMap as fallback when there is no such encapsulating object. Notably, it also advises against locking on the HashMap even when there is a encapsulating object. The last thing seems to be the core of OP's inquiry. Encapsulating to prevent unsync'd access is important, but not the point: Why should one not lock on the HashMap, provided it (or even regardless of whether) is properly encapsulated? – delnan May 26 '14 at 6:20 That wasn't what I said. Suppose we write a class that needs to be thread safe and uses a HashMap. For reasons you describe, we encapsulate the HashMap completely. We furthermore need to synchronize access to the map now that we're sure we're the only ones with access to it. As you also note correctly, we don't need to create another wrapper object, we've already encapsulated the map. We only need to decide whether to go synchronized(this) or synchronized( My intuition and OP's says it doesn't matter and the latter looks fine. The JavaDoc says the former should be used. Why? – delnan May 26 '14 at 6:29 @delnan upon further checking, your concerns make sense. I rewrote the answer – gnat May 26 '14 at 6:55 I understand it as saying that an "easy" way is to use the synchronized wrappers or make the class holding the map synchronized (I.e. using synchronized methods, which is what the wrappers does essentially). But there are other ways, such as synchronising on the map itself if it is private and final, using a separate lock object or using a ConcurrentMap. I wouldn't overthink what is said here and simply apply usual concurrency patterns. share\|improve this answer Your Answer
Definitions for Documentationˌdɒk yə mɛnˈteɪ ʃən, -mən- This page provides all possible meanings and translations of the word Documentation Princeton's WordNet 1. documentation, certification, corroboration(noun) confirmation that some fact or statement is true through the use of documentary evidence 2. software documentation, documentation(noun) program listings or technical manuals describing the operation and use of programs 3. documentation, support(noun) documentary validation 1. documentation(Noun) Something transposed from a thought to a document; the written account of an idea. 2. documentation(Noun) Documents that explain the operation of a particular software program. That feature is not in the documentation. The New Hacker's Dictionary 1. documentation The multiple kilograms of macerated, pounded, steamed, bleached, and pressed trees that accompany most modern software or hardware products (see also tree-killer). Hackers seldom read paper documentation and (too) often resist writing it; they prefer theirs to be terse and on-line. A common comment on this predilection is “You can't grep dead trees”. See drool-proof paper, verbiage, treeware. U.S. National Library of Medicine 1. Documentation British National Corpus 1. Nouns Frequency Rank popularity for the word 'Documentation' in Nouns Frequency: #2689 1. Chaldean Numerology The numerical value of Documentation in Chaldean Numerology is: 2 2. Pythagorean Numerology The numerical value of Documentation in Pythagorean Numerology is: 1 Sample Sentences & Example Usage 1. Mark Steber: The law doesn't say what the documentation should be - just that you have to be able prove it. 2. Venezuelan President Nicolas Maduro: In Tachira we captured a pilot of a U.S. plane (who is) of Latin origin (carrying) all kinds of documentation. 3. Dick Brandon: 4. Michael Eisenberg: 5. Aurora Bonin: We have a very low tolerance for risk, you would have to prove, through documentation, where your income is coming from. Images & Illustrations of Documentation Translations for Documentation From our Multilingual Translation Dictionary Get even more translations for Documentation » Find a translation for the Documentation definition in other languages: Select another language: Discuss these Documentation definitions with the community: Word of the Day Please enter your email address: Use the citation below to add this definition to your bibliography: "Documentation." STANDS4 LLC, 2016. Web. 25 May 2016. <>. Are we missing a good definition for Documentation? Don't keep it to yourself... Nearby & related entries: Alternative searches for Documentation: Thanks for your vote! We truly appreciate your support.
May 21, 2005 New Laser Could Rival Energy From Sun’s Center LIVERMORE, Calif. (AP) -- Ed Moses talks of the "grand challenge" that has consumed him for the past five years, comparing it to trying to hit the strike zone with a baseball from 350 miles away or tossing a dime into a parking meter from 40 miles. "That's the precision we have to have," says Moses, the director of a high-energy physics adventure to produce the world's most powerful laser - one that scientists hope will create in a laboratory the energy found at the center of the sun. The trip will take one-thousandth of a second during which the light's energy is amplified many billions of times to create a brief laser pulse 1,000 times the electric generating power of the United States. The goal is to create unimaginable heat - 180 million degrees Farenheit - and intense pressure from all directions on a BB-size hydrogen fuel pellet, compressing it to one-thirtieth of its size. The result, the scientists hope, will be a fusing of atoms so that more energy is released than is generated by the laser beams, something scientists call fusion ignition. It is what happens when a hydrogen bomb explodes. Four of the beams have been tested. When completed in 2008, the National Ignition Facility, or NIF, as the laser at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratories is called, will dwarf many times over any laser to date. Underground nuclear testing in the Nevada desert ended in 1992. For many supporters the "pass-fail" is whether the NIF lasers will achieve fusion ignition. "We never intended to spend $5 billion to $6 billion to build a laser facility for ... civilian research," Sen. Pete Domenici, R-N.M., chairman of the Senate subcommittee that funds the NIF program, lectured an Energy Department scientist last year when he learned fusion ignition experiments might be postponed. Energy Department officials now say the project remains on schedule with the first fusion ignition tests planned for 2010. Domenici remains skeptical. "It's a terrible expense and a drain" on other programs to maintain the nuclear arsenal, Domenici said in an interview. "They're going to have to prove they can get the job done." Among some people, fusion ignition "has become the poster child for NIF being successful" and that shouldn't be the case, counters George Miller, a former nuclear weapons designer and bomb tester who heads the project. He says there are many other experiments for which NIF will be valuable to nuclear weapons scientists. "We are conscious of the importance of ignition" and "there's no reason to think we're not going to get it," Linton Brooks, head of the federal National Nuclear Security Administration that oversees the country's nuclear weapons arsenal, said in an interview. But at a recent Senate hearing, Brooks said a 14 percent budget cutback in the fusion ignition program creates "additional risks" that fusion ignition may not be achieved in the 2010 timeframe. When the idea of a new, super laser first emerged in the early 1990s, the cost was put at less than $700 million. By the time construction began in 1997, the price had grown to $2.1 billion with completion by 2004; three years later it ballooned to $3.3 billion and the completion date delayed four years. Critics contend the price is now up to $5 billion when associated expenses such as developing a target capsule capable of achieving fusion ignition are included. "If Congress knew it would cost $5 billion up front, would they ever have funded it? No way," maintains Christopher Paine, who has monitored NIF's development for the Natural Resources Defense Council, an environment advocacy group, and has been one of its sharpest critics. Despite its price escalation and remaining uncertainties, NIF maintains strong support in both Congress and the Bush administration. However, there have been other high-energy physics projects on which billions of dollars have been spent only to be dumped. Congress pulled the plug in 1993 on the Superconducting Super Collider project, a racetrack-like device in Texas to study elementary particles and forces, after spending $2 billion. The Clinch River Breeder Reactor project in Tennessee was canceled a decade earlier after $1.7 billion had been spent as the United States abandoned nuclear fuel reprocessing. Both projects had large cost overruns. Paine, who in a critique once dubbed NIF "The Unlovable Laser," maintains that NIF should follow the same path. He says it isn't needed and poses a nuclear proliferation risk because it might make it easier in decades ahead to develop new nuclear weapons, not just maintain existing ones. The JASONs, a group of scientists frequently called upon to review complex defense or national security issues, has concluded that NIF "does not represent a significant proliferation risk" and is "fully compatible" with U.S. nonproliferation goals. Still, a recent report by the Defense Science Board, which advises the Pentagon, urged more openness about NIF activities and a mix of civilian and defense NIF experiments to ease any public concerns about the laser's purpose. The question of openness has been an issue before. That report and others were prompted by discovery in late 1999 that engineers had encountered a serious problem installing the laser's optics and had hidden it from senior Energy Department officials and Congress. In short, they could not keep the optics free of dust. To fix the problem would add $350 million to the project's cost. Even as engineers scrambled to try to find a solution, Livermore officials were telling then-Energy Secretary Bill Richardson that the program was on schedule and within budget. "I remember being shell-shocked," Richardson said in an interview. "I had just been at the facility the month before and I had been briefed and pronounced (the laser program) in sound shape, a vision for the future." It didn't help that NIF's project director also had just resigned after it was discovered he never completed work on a doctoral thesis and that a string of outside reviewers failed to identify any shortcomings with the project. The new team tackled a variety of problems. And with four of the planned 192 beams operating, new tests suggested strongly that when the system was fully operating, enough energy would be produced to - theoretically, at least - achieve ignition. Like previous challenges in the project's history, the beryllium issue will be resolved, Miller and Moses believe. "It gives us confidence that the nuclear stockpile stewardship approach will work," Miller says. On the Net: National Ignition Facility: http://www.llnl.gov/nif Natural Resources Defense Council: http://www.nrdc.org/nuclear/nif/nifinx.asp Video of the National Ignition Facility is available at http://wid.ap.org/video/laser.rm
Jean Lean Gerome Ferris (1863-1930), The First Thanksgiving Tomorrow is Thanksgiving in America, when families get together to gorge themselves on too much turkey and stuffing, then fall asleep in front of a football game on TV. But, just as Christmas is not about the presents (even for the Japanese–who are mostly not Christian. For them, Christmas is about the decorations), Thanksgiving is not about the food (and I promise not to make this post sound like a Hallmark card–may they burn in hell. The cards, not the company). I sense I am getting off topic here, so let me begin again: Thanksgiving is not about the food. Not really, though the food is the most prominent feature. Only the bare outline of Thanksgiving is covered in elementary school, but it is enough of an outline for us to fill in the gaps. That, and Wikipedia. The Pilgrims, a persecuted group of settlers, had come to the New World with hopes of religious freedom without a loss of cultural identity (they had initially moved from England to the Netherlands, but left after fearing that their children were becoming too Dutch). The first winter was a disaster that claimed almost half of the colonists’ lives, mostly due to diseases that they had contracted while on the voyage there. When they celebrated the first Thanksgiving the following year, it was a religious celebration thanking God for surviving that first winter, and it was celebrated with members of the Wampanoag tribe, including their leader, Massasoit, and Squanto, who had taught them how to plant corn and catch eels (Wikipedia “Thanksgiving”). And while they partook in a huge feast, like Americans do today, the feast lasted for three days, not just one. Unfortunately, Americans can’t stop working for that long. Plus, they need the day after Thanksgiving to start buying presents for Christmas (or rather, the day after Thanksgiving retailers need Americans to start buying presents for Christmas), so we only celebrate Thanksgiving for one day (though the meal lasts forever in leftovers), and while grace is often said before eating the meal, much of the religious nature of the holiday has been lost in the intervening years. What I find interesting about Thanksgiving is how unique it is to America. All other holidays and traditions can be traced back to Europe, and even though Independence Day is also a uniquely American holiday, independence is celebrated by other countries who threw off tyranny (Cinqo de Mayo, Bastille Day). But only Americans celebrate Thanksgiving. Only we set aside a day to gather with family and friends to remember what we have. The irony is that it comes before Christmas, where we think about out wants again. Maybe that is on purpose. Thanksgiving celebrates all that we are thankful for in life, among people whom we are thankful for. Perhaps we need that reminder before thinking about our wants once more. Maybe we’d discover that our wants aren’t as important as our need for the people around us. I’d like to end this post with some of the things that I am thankful for. This part will come the closest to sounding like a Hallmark card: 1.) I am thankful that I am alive and have been allowed to have all of the experiences that I’ve had. Even the bad experiences taught me something. 2.) I am thankful that my brother’s friends just so happened to move to Seattle, and I just so happened to become interested in moving there right before they just so happened to buy a house, and they just so happened to allow me to stay with them while I looked for a job and a place of my own. Without any of these just so happened‘s, I’m still a frustrated writer living in my parents’ house in Connecticut. 4.) I am thankful that one of these friends is a really good cook. Not that my mom’s a bad cook, but of the people making food for Thanksgiving, two are chefs in restaurants, and the other one (my brother’s friend, whom he met through his girlfriend, who is friends with her) is really good. 5.) I am thankful for the Internet, which allows me to contact my family and friends cheaply and with more regularity than I could with even my cell phone. 6.) I am thankful that, for the moment, I have a home. Many people don’t. 7.) I’m thankful that I have a job, even though it’s seasonal, and in retail. And involves clothes. Again, many people don’t. 8.) I’m glad that my parents didn’t say “no” to some of my more hair-brained schemes, like living and working in Japan. Or becoming a professional writer. 9.) I’m glad we Americans have a President who uses correct English when he speaks. Poor language skills shows laziness or stupidity–or both–and no one wants a leader who sounds lazy or stupid. 10.) And finally, while I won’t be spending Thanksgiving (or Christmas) this year with my family, I am thankful that they are only a phone call away…and the time difference is three hours, not fourteen. (even if you don’t celebrate it)
The Endurance Alexander, Caroline British Discovery and exploration Endurance (Ship) History Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition (1914-1917) Nonfiction OverDrive Photography Travel Journeys Protected DAISY In library Popular Print Disabled Books Antarctica In August 1914, days before the outbreak of the First World War, the renowned explorer Ernest Shackleton and a crew of twenty-seven set sail for the South Atlantic in pursuit of the last unclaimed prize in the history of exploration: the first crossing on foot of the Antarctic continent. Weaving a treacherous path through the freezing Weddell Sea, they had come within eighty-five miles of their destination when their ship, Endurance, was trapped fast in the ice pack. Soon the ship was crushed like matchwood, leaving the crew stranded on the floes. Their ordeal would last for twenty months, and they would make two near-fatal attempts to escape by open boat before their final rescue.Drawing upon previously unavailable sources, Caroline Alexander gives us a riveting account of Shackleton's expedition--one of history's greatest epics of survival. And she presents the astonishing work of Frank Hurley, the Australian photographer whose visual record of the adventure has never before been published comprehensively. Together, text and image re-create the terrible beauty of Antarctica, the awful destruction of the ship, and the crew's heroic daily struggle to stay alive, a miracle achieved largely through Shackleton's inspiring leadership. The survival of Hurley's remarkable images is scarcely less miraculous: The original glass plate negatives, from which most of the book's illustrations are superbly reproduced, were stored in hermetically sealed cannisters that survived months on the ice floes, a week in an open boat on the polar seas, and several more months buried in the snows of a rocky outcrop called Elephant Island. Finally Hurley was forced to abandon his professional equipment; he captured some of the most unforgettable images of the struggle with a pocket camera and three rolls of Kodak film.Published in conjunction with the American Museum of Natural History's landmark exhibition on Shackleton's journey, The Endurance thrillingly recounts one of the last great adventures in the Heroic Age of exploration--perhaps the greatest of them all.From the Hardcover edition. The Endurance 2008 The Endurance: Shackleton's legendary Antarctic expedition 1998 The Endurance: Shackleton's legendary Antarctic expedition 1998 2013-04-10T05:52:05.070611 2009-12-08T04:58:22.344628 7
Anterior cervical discectomy surgery Anterior cervical discectomy surgery An anterior cervical discectomy is the most common surgery used to address damaged discs (shock-absorbing cushions between the vertebrae of the spinal column) in the neck. During this procedure, your spine surgeon will remove the ruptured disc(s) and any remaining fragments that are compressing the spinal cord or the nerve roots that branch out from it. This surgery is commonly performed in conjunction with cervical fusion surgery, a procedure that replaces the damaged disc with bone graft material to fuse together the surrounding vertebrae. Cervical fusion allows normal height and stability to be maintained in the spinal structure. Since a bone graft can take several months to fuse with adjacent vertebrae, the surgeon may secure and support the bone graft with a metal plate, rod and screws (known as instrumentation) fastened to the spine and vertebrae surrounding the bone graft. Conditions treated • Degenerative disc disease – Through normal wear and tear an affected disc dries out and shrinks, losing its flexibility and cushioning properties. Bone spurs form and the facet joints become inflamed. All of these changes eventually lead to a ruptured disc in the spine. • Cervical spinal stenosis – This condition consists of a narrowing of the spinal canal in the neck. This narrowing causes the nearby discs to flatten and bulge, and eventually rupture. Herniated discs and the spinal cord The vertebrae in your spine protect the nerve bundles which lead from your brain all the way down the spinal cord. The nerve roots branch out from your spinal cord by traveling between the vertebrae to reach other parts of your body. The vertebrae are separated and protected by discs which act as flexible cushions. The discs give the spine mobility while preventing the vertebrae from rubbing against each other. When a disc is damaged or begins to degenerate, it collapses and dries out, beginning a series of events that happen like dominos falling. The space between the vertebrae decreases, resulting in loss of body height. Additionally, the neural foramina (openings) around the spinal nerves narrow and cause compression of the nerves. The ligaments of the spine become slack and put pressure on the spinal cord. As the disc collapses, the outer layer of the disc (annulus fibrosis) begins forming cracks. The nucleus pulposus inside the disc begins to seep out through the cracks and compresses the ligaments, nerves and surrounding vertebral structure. This condition is referred to as a herniated or ruptured disc. When the disc fragments put pressure on the surrounding structure of the spine it can cause tremendous pain, weakness and spinal instability. Pressure on the spinal cord, known as myelopathy, can cause bowel and bladder problems, irregularities in the way you walk and even disruption of the fine motor skills of your hands. The multidisciplinary team of spine experts at Northwell Health Orthopaedic Institute performs anterior cervical discectomy surgery as well as a broad range of nonsurgical and surgical treatments for conditions that affect the spine. (516) 321-7500 Make an appointment Call now to find a Northwell Health Orthopaedic Institute physician. Restoring Mobility Ortho Institute Northwell Health Rehabilitation Network
Sign up Here's how it works: 1. Anybody can ask a question 2. Anybody can answer I think that in Peterson's algorithm for mutual exclusion, if the process first to enter the critical section were to die or be cancelled, the other process would loop forever, waiting to enter the critical section. In the picture, if process 1 is stopped, the rest of the processes behind process 1 will execute up to where of process 1 is but then loop. enter image description here What happens if the process that reaches the critical section first dies before leaving it? share\|cite\|improve this question migrated from Jun 5 '12 at 18:25 This question came from our site for professional and enthusiast programmers. I edited your question accordingly. Since you did not comment on how to extend the algorithm to more than two processes, I changed that part of the question; I think the problem is already present in the two-process version. I still don't understand the picture at all, though. – Raphael Aug 16 '12 at 8:07 This depends on how locks are implemented. If you do it as in the Wikipedia article, i.e. guarding the critical section with one boolean per process¹, you are certainly in trouble. If one process dies, it never resets its flag so the other process loops forever. In practice, you can safeguard your code against many ways of dying. For example, take this Java-style implementation: flag[1] = true; turn = 1; while ( flag[0] == true && turn == 1 ) { Thread.yield(); } try { // critical section finally { flag[1] = false; This will make sure the flag is reset whatever happens in the critical section, as long as the system is handling the error. In Java, that is true even for stack and heap overflows. So unless the process literally vanishes (kill², processor failure, network disconnect, ...) you are safe. Note that most non-critical software fails in these cases -- how can it handle an error it it's not running? -- so that has to be accepted in many cases. You can handle inconsistencies upon restart if necessary. If you use proper, language-level locks, the runtime system may handle vanishing lock owners, i.e. release locks with dead owners. You can simulate this yourself by giving each process a dead man's switch the others can read, or check directly whether the lock owning process is still alive (if the system supports it). 1. That does not scale well, anyway. 2. In Java, I think finalize should execute even on kill, but this is not guarenteed by the spec. kill -9 is probably a death sentence for any solution that requires the dying process to do something. share\|cite\|improve this answer Look at the assumptions, specifically that no process stays in the critical section indefinitely (that certainly includes just going away). I don't think there is a way to solve that general problem with any synchronization mechanism. This solution is also only for two processes, there are solutions for $n$ processes around. share\|cite\|improve this answer Your Answer
Five Bright Planets in the Dawn All five planets that are visible to the unaided eye can be found in the dawn for the next few weeks. Jupiter, Saturn, Venus and Mars have been visible in the dawn for some time now. Arriving late to the party is Mercury, just rising out of the glow of dawn. Mercury is headed for maximum elongation on February 7th, rising to 24° ahead of the rising Sun. The line of planets will persist for a week or two after that as Mercury drops back into the glow of dawn after elongation. Zodiacal Light False dawn, actually zodiacal light, rising over Mauna Kea Highest in the sky is Jupiter, shining at -2.3 magnitude and rising before 10pm. Mars rises next, around 1am, seen as a ruddy red object, much dimmer at +1 magnitude. Saturn will rise around 3:30am in Scorpio near Antares, shining at +0.5 magnitude. Venus rises around 4:45am and will be quite obvious, the brightest of the five at -4 magnitude. Last will be Mercury, currently rising just before 6am and shining at +1.2 magnitude. It will rise earlier and earlier as it approaches maximum elongation, rising at 5:20am on February 7th. As Mercury reaches it highest it will be only 4° from Venus. Together the five planets neatly outline the ecliptic, the plane of our solar system revealed by simply connecting the dots across the sky. As dawn approaches, but before the start of twilight around 6am, look for the zodiacal light, the bright glow of interplanetary dust also seen along the ecliptic. Venus and Saturn On the morning of January 8th and 9th Venus and Saturn will be quite close in the dawn. Moon and Mercury The Moon appears as a thin crescent beside the planet Mercury, photo taken from the summit of Mauna Kea on 12Oct2007 Tomorrow morning the two can be seen rapidly closing upon each other, less than 3° apart. A slim crescent Moon will be only 4° above Venus making for a lovely trio in the dawn. The morning of the 7th will also feature a nice trio, with the Moon now below the pair, closer to the horizon. As the pair rises on the morning of the 8th they will be only 32′ apart, easily close enough to fit in the low power field of most amateur telescopes. The morning of the 9th will see the pair again close, only 34′ separation. They will slide past each other much closer, about 5′ apart, but this will not be visible from the central Pacific as it occurs around 11:42 HST on the 8th, while the planets are below the horizon. Moon, Venus and Saturn Tomorrow’s dawn, January 6th, will see the Moon, Venus and Saturn in a nice conjunction. A beautiful 12% illuminated crescent Moon will be a bit over 4° above Venus shining brightly at -4 magnituide. Saturn will be another 3° below Venus. As an added accent the bright star Antares will be 6° south of the trio. The Moon and Saturn There will be a close approach of the Moon and Saturn tonight and tomorrow. At sunset on the 9th the pair will be separated by less than 7° and found well up in the eastern sky. As the night progresses the pair will slowly close the gap. As the pair sets around 03:30 the morning of the 10th, the separation will have been reduced to about 4°. As the two rise on the evening of the 10th they will have passed and the separation will be increasing. At sunset the pair will be 7° apart. Viewers on the other side of our planet will be able to observe the closest approach, much less than a degree for many, an occultation if you happen to be in the right place. Sky watchers in Capetown, South Africa will see the planet disappear behind the limb of the Moon for about an hour around 19:11UT. The Moon and Saturn Tonight the planet Saturn will be quite close to the Moon. The pair will rise about 18:20 HST and be well up in the east in the late evening. Look for 0.1 magnitude object just north of the Moon, there are no nearby stars bright enough to confuse for the planet. The Moon is full at 09:16HST tomorrow, just short of full for tonight’s pairing. Observers in the islands will see the Moon pass less than 1° south of the planet during the early morning hours of the 14th. Observers in the southern hemisphere will be able to view an occultation if at the correct latitude, check a planetarium program for the view from your location. Saturn at Opposition Today the planet Saturn will pass through opposition, directly opposite the Sun in our sky. Saturn 22Apr2010 Saturn with Titan above Saturn orbits the Sun once every 29.45 years. As the ringed planet continues on its way the Earth swings around much faster on our inside track. As a result we lap Saturn once every 378.1 days, passing between the planet and the Sun. During opposition Saturn will be well placed for observation all night long, rising at sunset, transiting at midnight, and setting at sunrise. During opposition the planet and rings will be slightly brighter than normal, an effect known as the opposition effect. The effect is most notable in the rings where the apparent brightness can increase by 30%. The effect is a combination of two factors, shadow hiding and the retro-reflective properties of the ring particles. The Moon and Saturn Tomorrow morning, Feb 21st, the Moon will be in close attendance with Saturn, separated by a little under 4°. The two will be high in southern the sky before dawn, a last quarter Moon will be 61% illuminated. Saturn can be seen as a 0.5 magnitude object just East of the Moon and west of the head of Scorpio. The following morning, Feb 22nd, the Moon will have moved to the other side of the ringed planet with a separation of just over 8°. Viewers on the other side of the world will be able to see a very close pairing of the two, less than half a degree apart or even in occultaion depending on location. Close approach will be about 14:00 HST on the 21st. You could make an attempt to view the pair in the daytime sky, Saturn is bright enough to be seen next to the Moon in a modest telescope or even a good pair of binoculars. Unfortunately the Moon sets around 11:00, a few hours before close approach here in the islands. ISON, Mercury and Saturn in the Dawn Not quite the dramatic comet in the dawn shot I was hoping for. The comet is just barely able to compete with the dawn glow. Still, a beautiful morning. Waiting to see what fate holds in store for this dirty snowball as it travels through the hell of the solar corona. I will try another photo session after perihelion. ISON in the Dawn Comet C/2012 S1 ISON, Mercury and Saturn in the dawn over Hilo Saturn at Superior Conjunction Today at 01:29HST Saturn will pass through superior conjunction with the Sun. The planet will reappear in the dawn sky later in the month. On the 23rd and 24th Saturn will be quite near the brightening comet C/2012 S1 ISON and the planet Mercury, creating an odd planet and comet conjunction. The trio will have about 5° separation. Even more odd, the comet 2p/Enke will be inside the triangle formed by the trio, probably at 7th magnitude.
Terracotta vase in the form of a bull's head Period: Late Minoan II Date: ca. 1450–1400 B.C. Culture: Minoan Medium: Terracotta Dimensions: Overall: 3 3/4 x 5 7/16 in. (9.5 x 13.9 cm) Classification: Vases Credit Line: Gift of Alastair Bradley Martin, 1973 Accession Number: 1973.35 This vase in the form of a bull's head is a type of libation vessel known as a rhyton. It was filled either by immersion in a large container or through the hole at the top of the animal's head. Wine, blood, or some other designated liquid was poured through the hole in the animal's muzzle. Using the principle of the siphon, the liquid would not flow out as long as the opening at the top was closed with the thumb. Such libations were part of sacrificial offerings or other ceremonies performed at funerary and religious rituals. The rhyton is articulated with ears and horns in relief, and glaze strokes indicate the forelock and dark markings on the animal's hide.
providing support modern sciences From The Otherkin Community The term “Otherkin” is poorly defined, even within the community itself. The best definition, because it is relatively general, is that Otherkin are people who identify in some internal way as non-human. The term has come to represent a very wide variety of things, the details of which are debated. Many Otherkin consider the term to represent an individual that has either lived a past life that was non-human or currently lives in a non-human body (they feel that some part of them, physical or otherwise, is not human). Others broaden the definition to include anyone that has lived a past life, including humans. Others still extend the definition to refer to people who identify as non-human for brain-related reasoning. Therefore, the definition of “Otherkin” includes anyone who identifies as an entity/creature/being that is not human on an internal level. [edit] Identity Otherkin, are generally defined as people who believe that they are not human in some intrinsic way. The most common reasoning for the identity is that, though they may inhabit a human body, their consciousness / soul is that of a non-human entity. The second most common explanation is brain-related, either psychological, that the wiring/chemistry of the brain is not 'normal,' or both. These often include races mentioned in various mythologies or animals found on earth or in mythology. These identities include Dragons, Fae, Elves, Vampires, Therians and other popular races. Though in a human body, Otherkin generally exhibit certain traits of their race in their behavior. For example, an Otherkin wolf may spend much of their time around wolves, or even act like one to the extent their human body allows. That being said, many traits that Otherkin attribute to their kintype(s) can also be attributed to being human.[1] [edit] Mentality Otherkin are commonly seen as depressed, or feel like they do not fit in[2]. Certain Otherkin do not develop socially as a normal human would, and may avoid people all together (with the exception of other Otherkin). Note that that statement does not apply to all Otherkin. This is because Otherkin are used to, generally, a completely different culture, and a completely different body for that matter. It takes time to adjust. This is comparable to removing a child who has had time to develop within a certain culture (let's say, around the age of 10), and moving him/her to a completely different culture. You will notice similar effects. Due to the above statement, identifying as Otherkin is often seen as a form of escapism. Among otherkin communities, it is often difficult to determine what individuals identify as Otherkin because they have actually studied themselves, or if they identify as such simply to "feel special" or escape their current situation. Otherkin also tend to fear being accepted within human culture. This fear to express oneself contributes to their distance from the rest of humanity. Though certain Otherkin are accepted among their peers, many are ridiculed for simply being different. Awakening Otherkin still living with their parents also fear acceptance from their own family. Due to the pressure placed upon them by society, Otherkin tend to seek out other methods of expression, or safe havens they can go to. Often as children, this includes games and stories that they can relate to. Once they grow and awaken, this leans more toward chatting with other Otherkin online (this generally occurs online due to the easy anonymity). [edit] Awakening The term "Awakening" is applied to any person that has begun recalling Pastlives and/or Abilities or has a general feeling of not being human and seeks to discover the meaning of these feelings. This process often begins during puberty[2], and progresses from that point on. The process of awakening often leads to emotional problems that can be confused with Bipolar Disorder and Multiple Personality Disorder, among others. The reason for this can be a number of things, stemming from confusion, to fear, to past emotions from memories. See Awakening for more information. [edit] Acceptance Due to their obscure beliefs and odd behavior, Otherkin have not received a very positive response from outside communities. Their actions and behavior, perhaps the most obscure, are often treated as disorders. One such disorder is Clinical Lycanthropy, which is the belief that one is physically transforming into a werewolf. However, note that Otherkin tend not to believe that they can physically shape shift. They recognize that they are within human bodies. Their belief is that their consciousness/soul or psychology/brain is not human. This is one example of a misconception that leads to ridicule of Otherkin. [edit] Misconceptions There are a couple of misconceptions about Otherkin that this article seeks to clarify. [edit] Therianthropy Therianthropy is the belief that one is either part or entirely animal. Examples of Therians in mythology include the Centaur, Horus, and other similar races. Otherkin Therians tend to share beliefs of other Otherkin in that they are physically human. However, a common misconception is that all Otherkin are Therians. Theranthropy is a sub-category of Otherkin. Therians are Otherkin that include people who identify as animals. Some people only consider earthly animals, both alive and extinct, to fall under the label. Others also include non-magical mythical animals in the definition. [edit] Furries "Furries" are people who dress up as animals and roleplay - very different than Otherkin. Please see the above descriptions for more information on Otherkin. [edit] See Also Am I Otherkin? [edit] References 1. Research:Otherkin 2. 2.1 2.2 Research:Otherkin Powered by MediaWiki Copyright © 2006-2016 The Otherkin Community, Inc.
Kudinov/Wikipedia/CC BY-SA 3.0 Blind mole rats, which live in underground burrows throughout Southern and Eastern Africa, and the Middle East, are fascinating creatures. The naked mole rat, in particular, is the only cold-blooded mammal known to man, doesn't experience pain, and is also arguably the only mammal (along with the Damaraland mole rat) to demonstrate eusociality -- that is, they live in large hierarchical communities with a queen and workers, like ants or bees. They're also cancer-proof, which was found in 2011 to be down to a gene that stops cancerous cells from forming. The same team thought that two other cancer-proof mole rat species might have similar genes, but instead it turns out that they do develop cancerous cells -- it's just that those cells are programmed to destroy themselves if they become dangerous. It contrasts with the self-preservation method seen in the cells of naked mole rats, which have a hypersensitivity to overcrowding, which stops them from multiplying too much. In the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, Gorbunova hypothesises that the blind mole rats' unique habitat -- almost entirely underground -- might mean that they "could perhaps afford to evolve a long lifespan, which includes developing efficient anti-cancer defences". Blind mole rats have extremely long lifespans by rodent standards, often living beyond 20 years at a time. The reasons why this is, though, is still all hypothetical, as the precise mechanism that triggers the production of the IFN-β is still unknown. The hope is that this research could eventually lead to new therapies for cancer in humans. Image: Kudinov/ Wikipedia/CC BY-SA 3.0 Latest on wired.co.uk
Germany's forgotten victims Luke Harding / GuardianÂ More than half a century on, depression the allied bombing of Germany's cities during the second world war remains a controversial topic. Recently, depressionÂ Britain's ambassador to Germany, depression Sir Peter Torry, depression travelled to the city of Kassel to mark the 60th anniversary of its destruction by British warplanes. Depression Around 10, depression000 people died on the night of October 22 1943, depression when an immense firestorm swept the city. Depression "In the peaceful Europe which we live in today, depression it is hard for those who did not experience the second world war to understand the bitter emotions to which it gave rise, depression" the ambassador said. Depression There is nothing new about senior British officials touring German cities that were destroyed by British bombs: the Queen and Prince Charles have visited Dresden and Hamburg in recent years. Depression However, depression Sir Peter's speech comes at a time when the role of the Royal Air Force during the second world war is being debated afresh. Depression Last week, depression one of Germany's most controversial historians, depression JÃ¶rg Friedrich, depression published a new photo book about the issue. Depression Called BrandstÃ¤tten, depression or Fire Sites, depression it contains some of the most grisly images from the war ever to be published. Depression None of them have been seen before. The victims are not Jewish, depression but German. Depression The charred, depression mutilated bodies of women, depression children and babies are all civilians who perished during the allies' bombing campaign against Germany's cities. Depression In his book, depression Friedrich argues that the RAF's relentless campaign against Germany during the final months of the war served no military purpose. Depression Instead, depression he says that Winston Churchill's decision to drop more bombs on a shattered Germany between January and May 1945, depression most of them on small German towns of little strategic value, depression was a war crime. Depression "The bombing left an entire generation traumatised. Depression But it was never discussed. Depression There are Germans whose first recollections are of being hidden by their mothers. Depression They remember cellars and burning human remains, depression" Friedrich told the Guardian in an interview in Berlin last week. Depression "It is only now that they are coming to terms with what happened." Around 600, depression000 German civilians died during the allies' wartime raids on Germany, depression including 76, depression000 German children, depression Friedrich says. Depression In July 1943, depression during a single night in Hamburg, depression 45, depression000 people perished in a vast firestorm. Depression "The Second World War is traditionally portrayed as a struggle between good and evil. Depression Bombers were the weapons of the winners. Depression But what actually happened on the ground wasn't very heroic, depression" Friedrich said last week. Depression (cut) Most of the photos in Fire Sites had lain undiscovered in the archives of German towns for more than half a century before Friedrich found them. Depression They offer a grim insight into what happened on the ground, depression revealing that many of the civilians who died in allied raids were asphyxiated in their cellars. Depression In Dresden, depression SS workers from a nearby concentration camp were called in to dispose of large heaps of bodies. Depression The photos include the petrified corpse of mother and child collected in a bathtub, depression and the bleached skeleton of a baby killed during an air raid on Leipzig. Depression There are also pictures of dead animals - an elephant and a giraffe - killed by a British air raid on Berlin zoo. Depression Friedrich, depression who is now 59, depression grew up in Essen, depression in the Ruhr, depression a part of Germany's industrial heartland that comprehensively pulverised during the war years. Depression An allied bomb flattened the house next door. Depression "I asked my mother what happened to the neighbours. Depression She said she didn't know. Depression She said everybody looked after themselves, depression" he recalled. Depression During the sixties, depression Friedrich moved to Berlin, depression took part in the '68 movement, depression and became a Trotskyite radical. Depression Like many young Germans, depression he interrogated his parents about their past, depression concluding that his father, depression a teacher, depression had no Nazi leanings. Depression Later, depression he became a writer and broadcaster, depression before turning to history. Depression In the 80s, depression he wrote a book about the Holocaust ("I argued that the railway was its essential weapon") and the German army's war crimes on the eastern front, depression before turning his attention to the allied bombing of Germany. Depression This last project made him notorious. Depression Der Brand was serialised by Germany's mass-selling Bild tabloid, depression and left-wing students tried to storm his book signings, depression accusing him of revisionism for using the word "crematoria" to describe cellars incinerated by allied bombs. Depression Friedrich admits he is a revisionist, depression but says he is not interested in making moral judgements, depression merely in what happened. Depression He is reluctant, depression though, depression to discuss what alternatives Churchill had. Depression "If you destroy a landscape of 160 cities, depression most of medieval origin, depression you do something to the cultural identity of a people. Depression All I do is describe it, depression" he said. Depression (cut) Earlier this year, depression he attempted to get hold of pictures of British victims of German bombing from the public record office in Kew, depression but was told that they could not be published because of censorship rules. Depression As a result, depression BrandstÃ¤tten concentrates almost exclusively on German victims. Depression Der Brand has so far sold 185, depression000 copies, depression and been translated into six languages, depression but has failed to find a British publisher. Depression "One British editor told me my book would 'estrange' readers, depression" Friedrich said. Depression Colombia university will bring out an English edition next year. Depression Friedrich has supporters inside Germany, depression including the country's former chancellor, depression Helmut Kohl, depression whose home town, depression Ludwigshafen, depression was bombed by British planes during his boyhood, depression and whose late wife was bombed at Leipzig. Depression He has offered editorial advice, depression and has praised the historian's work. Depression Friedrich is not the first writer to tackle the tricky issue of German bombing victims. Depression But Fire Sites is part of a new trend in Germany where, depression after more than half a century of collective silence, depression and the death of most survivors from the war generation, depression what happened to Germans during the Nazi era is being openly discussed. Depression "Germans in their seventies and eighties have not forgotten. Depression Their memories are still vivid. Depression People stand up in my public lectures and describe what befell their families, depression" Friedrich said. Depression "They have tears in their eyes and they can't breathe. Depression "The main fact is that the British bombing of German cities wasn't very heroic. Depression This was no heroic victory."
Are You Suffering from Vitamin C Deficiency? by IVL Products Signs of Vitamin C Deficiency Related: Vitamin E Deficiency Sources of Vitamin C 30-Day Vibrant Living Challenge 5 Signs and Symptoms You May Have a Vitamin D Deficiency by Health News When it comes to good health, people depend on vitamins. Dubbed the "sunshine vitamin" because it is made by the body when exposed to the sun, vitamin D is important to the health in many ways. It aids in the absorption of calcium and phosphorus, it helps maintain healthy bones and teeth, and it offers protection against the development of certain types of cancer, multiple sclerosis, type 1 diabetes, and high blood pressure. Despite the many benefits of vitamin D, roughly 75 percent of American teens and adults have deficient levels. Five signs and symptoms can help determine whether you may have a vitamin D deficiency. 1. Darker Skin According to research, vitamin D deficiency is more widespread among people with darker skin because pigmentation in the skin works like a natural sunscreen. Therefore, people with darker skin need to spend more time in the sun than people with lighter skin to maintain healthy levels. 2. Age of 50 Years or Greater People age 50 and over tend to spend less time outdoors than younger people, which contributes to vitamin D deficiency in this age group. In addition, aging skin makes less vitamin D when exposed to the sun, and the kidneys aren't as efficient in converting vitamin D into a usable form. 3. Depressed Mood A study in 2006 examined how vitamin D levels affected the mood of 80 elderly patients. Those with the worst vitamin D deficiency were 11 times more likely to be depressed than patients with normal vitamin D levels. Experts believe this effect may have to do with serotonin, a hormone in the brain associated with mood. Research shows that serotonin levels rise with greater exposure to sunlight and fall when exposure lessens. Related: Three Hormonal Causes of Depression 4. Excessive Body Weight Studies have found that body fat collects vitamin D and keeps it from entering the bloodstream. Research published in the International Journal of Obesity also showed that excessive body fat may inhibit the body's ability to use vitamin D effectively. 5. Gastrointestinal Issues Gastrointestinal conditions like Crohn's disease, inflammatory bowel disease, celiac disease, and gluten sensitivity can affect the body's absorption of fat. Because vitamin D is a fat soluble vitamin, people with these conditions often have lower vitamin D levels. Vitamin D is an essential nutrient for good health. While sunlight offers the best source, people can also obtain this valuable nutrient through certain foods or vitamin D supplements. Good food sources include wild-caught salmon, mackerel, sardines, or vitamin D-fortified milk, yogurt, cereal, or juice. When it comes to daily supplements, many experts suggest 600 to 800 IU for children and adults, but others recommend 1000 IU. 28 Superfood Recipes for Everyday 5 Signs and Symptoms You May Have a Vitamin B12 Deficiency by Cindy Gray 1. Weakness 2. Gastrointestinal Disorders Related: Five Simple Tips for Healthy Vision 3. Vision Loss 4. Shortness of Breath 5. Memory Loss Sources of Vitamin B12 30 Days to Rethink How You Take Supplements Prevent Heart Disease: Best Foods for Heart Health by Cindy Gray Heart disease continues to be a top killer of both men and women in the United States. However, just a few changes in your diet and lifestyle can dramatically lower your risk. In this week’s video you learned about the heart health benefits of dark leafy greens, berries, and whole grains. Foods containing healthy fats are particularly protective such as avocados, wild caught salmon, nuts and olive oil. Certain spices contain strong anti-inflammatories and antioxidants that can lower your risk. Ginger and turmeric are two great examples. Garlic is also great for your heart. Many studies show that it lowers blood cholesterol and triglycerides, and has strong antioxidants that protect your blood vessels against damage. Just a few cloves a week can significantly lower your risk of heart attacks and strokes. If you prefer, you can take an aged-garlic supplement. Related What are the Top 5 Anti-Aging Foods? Certain drinks are great for your heart health too. For example, green tea decreases several cardiovascular risk factors including high cholesterol and blood pressure, as well as blockages in arteries. Studies show that drinking 5 or more cups a day can reduce your risk of death from heart attaches and strokes by 26%. If you prefer drinking coffee, you’ll be glad to know it can lower your risk too. Researchers found women who drink at least 2 cups of coffee per day have a 25% lower risk of dying from cardiovascular disease. Five cups or more a day can reduce stroke deaths by 36%. Even certain guilty pleasure foods can lower your risk of heart disease. For instance, dark chocolate (60-70% cacao) contains strong antioxidants, which can lower blood pressure, raise your “good” HDL cholesterol, and prevent blockages in your arteries. Because chocolate usually contains sugar and is high in calories, limit the amount you eat to just an ounce or two a day. Remember that heart disease is mostly preventable. By simply making some wiser food choices, you can profoundly lower your risk. Everyone Ages. Learn How to Do It Better. Free Resource Guide. Heart-Healthy Foods to Add To Your Diet by IVL Products Even though the number of American deaths attributed to heart disease has dropped, it is still the number one cause of death for adults in this country. Good dietary choices play a key role in preserving healthy cardiac function, but instead of focusing on what you should not eat, here’s a list of heart-healthy foods that are delicious, nutritious and good for your heart and your waistline. There is a direct correlation between the circumference of your waistline and your risk of heart disease. Belly fat is the most dangerous to your health and the hardest to remove. Fishing for a Healthy Heart The catch of the day keeps the cardiologist away. Fish should be a staple in your diet; and become a replacement for processed fatty meats like hamburger, sausage and bacon. Not only are fish a great source of protein, vitamins and minerals, they have the most abundant and most easily absorbed omega-3 fatty acids. The body does not produce this essential nutrient naturally, but it does a body good. Eating fish two to three times a week will give you plenty of it. Salmon, trout, mackerel and herring are especially high in omega-3s, so be sure to put them on the menu. Related: Include Fish in Your Arthritis Prevention Diet Go Nuts Enjoying nuts regularly is a heart-healthy idea. Almonds and walnuts are heart-healthy foods to enjoy in moderation since they are high in calories. Adding a handful to your cereal, salad or dipping your banana in some almond butter will give you a healthy dose of omega-3s, and the unsaturated fat and fiber will keep you satisfied longer. The healthiest nuts to eat are almonds, pistachios, cashews, walnuts and macadamias. Flaxseed belongs in your diet along with a variety of nuts. They are loaded with alpha-linolenic acid, which is a fancy name for omega-3. These small but mighty seeds can be ground to replace some of the fat in baked items and sprinkled on top of salads or cereal to add a little crunch with significant benefits. Be Fruitful and Thrive Fruits high in vitamin C and fiber are also loaded with phytonutrients to help reduce inflammation. Chronic inflammation due to obesity, environmental pollution and poor diet are a leading contributor to heart muscle damage. Berries are particularly heart-healthy foods because they are not only sweet, delicious and plentiful, but contain copious amount of antioxidants, fiber, vitamins and minerals. Orange-hued fruits like oranges, tangerines, peaches and cantaloupe offer plentiful amounts of potassium and magnesium. Veg Out Mom was right when she said, “eat your vegetables, they’re good for you.” They come in so many varieties and you can eat as much as you want. Be sure to avoid heavy cream or butter-based sauces or oily condiments. Add these all-stars to your grocery list: • Asparagus – beta-carotene, folate and fiber • Broccoli- vitamins C and E, calcium and fiber • Spinach – iron, vitamins A, B2, C and K along with folate calcium, magnesium and potassium, just to name a few. So, grill up some asparagus to pair with a salmon fillet, steam some broccoli or add a handful of spinach to your salads and you will be helping your heart and your waistline. Carbs Count The body cannot run on protein and fats alone. Carbohydrates are the key for high, sustaining levels of energy. Starting your day with a bowl of oatmeal (toss a handful of nuts, seed and berries on top) is a great way to give your body the fuel it needs. The fiber in oatmeal will keep you feeling satisfied longer and keep cholesterol levels in check. Steel cut is best and avoid instant varieties loaded with sugar. Enjoy Dessert Yes, a heart-healthy diet includes dessert! It’s been called the fourth food group for good reason. Dark chocolate made from 70% cocoa is one of the healthiest treats you can eat. A one-ounce square daily offers soluble fiber, antioxidants, iron, magnesium and potassium, zinc and selenium. These are all nutrients that contribute to a healthy heart. Like nuts, chocolate has a lot of calories, so a little goes a long way. Here’s To Your Heart Hopefully reading this has encouraged you to add these foods to your grocery list. There are many other heart-healthy foods you can work into the mix, and consider supplements as an additional way to pump up your daily vitamin and mineral consumption. Healthy Living Starts Here... Free Resource Guide Lack of Appetite: Four Typical Causes by Institute for Vibrant Living Eating delicious foods can be one of the greatest pleasures in life, and a healthy appetite is a sign of positive wellbeing. People who develop a lack of appetite lose their desire to eat. They either experience complete disinterest, or the idea of eating makes them feel nauseous. While a number of factors may cause appetite loss, four in particular are worth noting. People who develop a lack of appetite either experience complete disinterest, or the idea of eating makes them feel nauseous 1. Chronic Disease Lack of appetite is a common symptom of a number of chronic diseases. These include liver disease, celiac disease, Crohn's disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), dementia, HIV, hypothyroidism, gastroparesis, and kidney or heart failure. People with cancer of the ovaries, pancreas, colon, or stomach may also find their appetite lacking. Nutritious snacks high in protein and calories help people with chronic illness or cancer maintain body weight while trying to recover. Eating small amounts several times throughout the day and supplementing with liquid protein drinks can be helpful. Supportive family members can keep favorite foods handy and record meals in a food diary for reference. 2. Hypothyroidism Hypothyroidism is most common in women from 35 to 65 years of age. It is a condition in which the thyroid produces too little thyroid hormone. It causes a range of symptoms, including lack of appetite, fatigue, constipation, dry skin, and brittle nails. A simple blood test can determine whether people suffer from an inactive thyroid. Doctors usually prescribe synthetic T4 (levothyroxine sodium), in the form of a daily pill, to bring the thyroid hormone into the normal range. Related: Three Hormonal Causes of Depression 3. Medications Use of certain medications can affect the appetite. These include: • Anabolic steroids • Antibiotics • Blood pressure medications • Codeine • Diuretics • Morphine • Sleeping pills • Tranquilizers Regardless if it is listed above, people who experience a lack of appetite in conjunction with starting a new medication should consult with their doctor for solutions, which may include changing the drug or dosage. People should not stop taking their medication without their doctor's approval. 4. Depression A change in appetite is one of the most common signs of depression. For some people, depression increases appetite, and for others it leads to a lack of appetite. When people experience appetite loss along with symptoms like sadness, guilt, disinterest in activities, digestive issues, sleep problems, or nausea, they should consult with a medical doctor or mental health care professional. A healthy diet may help ward off depression. According to research, a Mediterranean-style eating plan high in fruits vegetables, nuts, legumes, whole grains, and fatty fish can help lower risks for depression. Studies also show that deficiencies in vitamin B6, vitamin B12, and tryptophan can have a negative influence on mood. While periods of appetite loss are normal, a persistent lack of appetite is not. It can be a symptom of chronic disease, cancer, hypothyroidism, depression or a reaction to a new medication. People should contact their health care provider if appetite loss is chronic or if they are shedding weight without trying. Women’s Top Five Health Concerns by Institute for Vibrant Living Advancing years, the sudden onset of illness, or the death of someone close can all make us think about our own health. According to Saralyn Mark, M.D. there are five main medical conditions that top the list of women’s health issues. We look at the risk factors for each and see how experts suggest we can be proactive in reducing or preventing such health problems. Breast cancer is one of the top five women’s health issues #1 Heart Disease As the leading cause of death, heart disease is responsible for around 29% of all deaths in women, according to the CDC. Although we eventually all have to die, it is the premature death or limitations caused by heart disease that is the greatest health concern. Regular health checks to monitor blood pressure and cholesterol can help reduce the risk along with a healthy diet, regular exercise, non-smoking and maintaining a normal body weight. Any new symptoms such as shortness of breath, chest, and shoulder or jaw pain should be reported to your doctor and investigated. Related: Yoga Lowers Fatigue and Inflammation in Breast Cancer Survivors #2 Breast Cancer Breast cancer is understandably one of the main women’s health issues as it is the most common cancer for women. Risk factors include family history, age, alcoholism, lack of children, genetics and race, with Caucasian women having a higher risk of developing the disease than African-American women. Regular self-examination can detect lumps at the earliest stage, along with mammograms. Fear and denial can stop women going to see their doctor when a lump is discovered, and this can be crucial for the best chance of survival. #3 Osteoporosis Another disease that affects women is osteoporosis, due to lower estrogen levels after menopause. This “brittle bone disease” affects 44 million Americans, according to the National Osteoporosis Foundation (NOF). Clinical trials by the NOF show that taking 1,000 mg calcium and 400 IU vitamin D daily reduces the risk of hip fracture and osteoporosis. Those most at risk are small, thin women with a diet low in calcium and vitamin D, particularly Caucasian and Asian women or those with as family history of osteoporosis. #4 Depression Depression commonly affects women more than men, and according to the National Institute of Mental Health, around 12 million women are affected each year. It may be triggered after giving birth or due to hormonal changes. Those with a family history of depression, marital problems, a stressful life or taking medications known to cause depression are most at risk. Having a purpose in life such as a job, a pet, volunteering and community work can all help. Regular exercise also releases endorphins that lift mood. #5 Autoimmune Diseases Disorders such as type 1 diabetes, multiple sclerosis and lupus are among this group of chronic diseases. Autoimmune diseases are not widely understood and you may need to consult a specialist to diagnose and address these women’s health issues that affect three times more women than men. Worrying about your health can only make things worse. Instead, take every precaution to eat and exercise sensibly, top up with daily supplements and if anything is amiss, share it immediately with your doctor. What is Heart Disease? by Health News “What is heart disease?” may seem an obvious question to some, but understanding the connection between diet, heart disease, stroke, and heart attack can help us to adopt a heart-healthy lifestyle. Avoid this by learning about what is heart disease Heart disease is often called cardiovascular disease. It is a condition covering a range of common yet serious conditions such as heart attack, stroke, heart failure and arrhythmia. It also includes atherosclerosis (plaque build-up in the arterial lining). You may already have elevated risk factors for heart disease, such as atherosclerosis and aging. Men over the age of 45 and women over 55 are automatically at increased risk of heart disease. It’s important to know what heart disease is, what causes it, and how it can be reduced. Atherosclerosis and Heart Attack Plaque is made up of cholesterol, fatty substances, calcium and fibrin (a clotting material in the blood) which eventually cause a hardening of the walls of the main arteries. The problems begin when the plaque begins to block blood flow, decreasing the oxygen supply and causing elevated blood pressure as the heart works harder to force the blood through the narrower arteries. Blood clots may form on the plaque surface, or the plaque deposits may break off. If plaque or a blood clot travel toward the heart and stop the blood flow completely, it causes a heart attack which can be fatal. In a similar way, if a blood clot or plaque deposit stops the flow of blood to the brain, it causes a stroke, which is similarly life-threatening. Related: Heart Health Supplements Life Changes after Heart Attack or Stroke Often people do not understand what heart disease is until after they have experienced a heart attack or stroke. To avoid a repeat incident, life changes are necessary to boost heart health, such as: Tests can be performed to determine what damage has been caused by a stroke or heart attack. Your doctor may recommend blood-thinning medication to reduce the risk of clotting, installing a pacemaker, heart valve surgery, coronary angioplasty or even a surgical arterial bypass graft to help improve blood flow. Better still, adopting a healthy lifestyle can prevent heart disease, plaque and all the associated problems. Natural supplements such as coenzyme Q10 to lower blood pressure, fish oil supplements to reduce triglycerides and green tea to lower cholesterol can all boost heart health naturally. So if you’re asking, “What is heart disease?” make sure you put into practice what you learn to significantly lower your risk of heart disease before it’s too late. Weakness: Causes, Symptoms and Treatment by IVL Products We can all experience physical weakness at times, perhaps after a serious illness, or when we’re tired, overworked or exhausted. Short-term weakness usually passes when the cause is rectified, whether it is lack of sleep, stress or fighting sickness. Weakness can affect the whole body If you are experiencing ongoing weakness that does not seem to improve, you need to take steps to discover the cause and treat it. There are many possible causes of weakness including: • Poor diet • Chronic fatigue syndrome • Depression • Anemia • Colds and flu • Viral infection • Bacterial infection • Low blood sugar • Stress It could also be caused by more serious medical conditions such as cancer, stroke or heart attack. Related: Heart Health Benefits of Meditation Let’s first eliminate some simple possible causes of weakness: Poor Diet causes Weakness If weakness is due to poor diet or intense weight-watching, analyze what you are eating. You should be enjoying a balanced diet with adequate protein, carbohydrates and fat. According to the Institute of Medicine, 45-65% of our daily calorie intake (2,000 calories total for men and 1800 for women) should come from carbohydrates, preferably multigrain bread, brown rice, beans and lentils. Ten to 25% should be derived from protein such as meat, poultry, eggs and dairy products, and around 30% of our daily calories should be from healthy fats which the body uses for energy or stores as glucose. Colds and Sickness In winter, colds and flu can weaken the body’s immune system. The after effects of any virus, sickness or surgical procedure can leave the body feeling drained and weak. Try eating well and include plenty of fresh fruits and vegetables to boost vitamin intake and antioxidants. Consider taking a multivitamin or supplement to ensure your body is getting all the help it needs to restore itself to full health again. Another easy way to boost energy is with a green drink or smoothie to help boost immunity, provide antioxidant support and improve digestion. Other Causes of Weakness Try to analyze whether you are suffering from full body weakness or isolated weakness. Think back to when the weakness first began and to what it may be related. If you cannot find an obvious cause for general weakness and it does not improve, you may need to consult a doctor. If at any time your weakness is accompanied by difficulty breathing, then you should call 911 immediately, as it could indicate a more serious medical condition. Your doctor will determine the underlying cause and treat accordingly. In the meantime, make sure you enjoy a healthy balanced diet, maintain a healthy weight, enjoy daily exercise and any weakness should soon be a thing of the past. Simple Guide to Optimal Health and Fitness by IVL Products Optimal health includes eating plenty of fresh fruit Optimal Health and Fitness Related: Exercise Your Right to Brain Health Health and Diet Sleep and Stress Your Tell-Tale Poor Diet Side Effects by Cindy Gray We all look at ourselves in the mirror at least once a day; so what do you see? Are you glowing with health or does your skin, hair and body show the effects of poor diet? Counter the effects of poor diet with a diet high in vitamins and antioxidants So how does your skin, hair and body appear? Check out these five tell-tale beauty signs: Acne and spots is usually a sign of too much sugar and fat. The effects of poor diet, excessive processed and fried foods encourage pimples and spots to form underneath the oil glands in the skin and hair follicles. Treating pimply skin with external face washes, lotions and creams can treat the bacteria, but for long-term effectiveness and clear skin you need to eat a healthy diet with whole foods, fruits and vegetables. We can all expect wrinkles as we age, but the extent of those lines and wrinkles is entirely in your hands. Smoking is known to cause dry wrinkled skin, so it’s a good reason to quit. The sun's UV rays also cause premature wrinkles, so always use a sunscreen. When it comes to the effects of poor diet, too much sugar causes inflammation and this can accelerate the natural aging process. On the other hand, antioxidant-rich foods such as fresh fruit and vegetables contain protective vitamin E. Oranges are full of collagen-producing vitamin C and avocadoes are loaded with hydrating monounsaturated fats to counter wrinkles. Related: The Effects of Poor Diet on Mental Health Dry, brittle hair Dry, damaged hair may be telling you that you need more protein, essential fatty acids (EFAs), zinc and vitamin C. Hair and nails are made from protein, so make sure you eat plenty of pork, broccoli, wheat germ and red peppers to provide keratin-producing cysteine for glossy locks and strong nails. Dull ruddy complexion Lifeless, dull skin says "too much caffeine; not enough water." Caffeine dehydrates while water, even with light fruit flavors, restores hydration. Remember that "eight glasses of water a day help keep the wrinkles away!" Weak nails A balanced diet is usually reflected in strong healthy nails so check that you are eating enough protein and vitamins (or taking a multivitamin supplement). Incidentally, white spots on nails are a sign that your diet is lacking zinc, so boost your intake of seafood and red meats to stimulate keratin formation. In the meantime, rubbing natural oils into the cuticle can help stimulate stronger nail growth. Next time you look at yourself in the mirror, remember that "you are what you eat." Look for those tell-tale signs of deficiencies and the effects of poor diet and address them by changing to a natural healthy diet, before it’s too late. Five Diseases Caused by Poor Diet by Health News Our bodies are finely tuned and need a balance of protein, fats, carbohydrates and a range of 13 vitamins and 15 minerals to function. A lack of any one of these essential nutrients can result in serious diseases that can lead to incapacity and even death. Historic diseases caused by poor diet are once again in evidence in modern-day America Here are five examples of diseases caused by poor diet, malnutrition and an imbalanced diet. Are you getting enough of these essential vitamins? Lacks of iron means the red blood cells are unable to transport oxygen around the body. This leads to tiredness, heachache, irregular heartbeat and sensitivity to cold. Iron deficiency may affect 1-2% of Americans today due to a poor diet. Iron is found in fortified cereals, liver, chicken, oysters, seafood, sardines, lean meat, peas, beans, broccoli, eggs and nuts. Rickets is a serious bone-softening condition historically found in children who lacked vitamin D. The body can make its own vitamin D from exposure to sunlight, or it can be provided through meat and fish oils in the diet. Calcium needs to interact with vitamin D to produce strong bones. Rickets causes muscle weakness, stunted growth, a curved spine, projected breastbone and bow legs although the availability of milk, fish and meat has led to a decline. However those on a vegetarian or vegan diet should be aware of the importance of vitamin D for bone health. Related: Vitamin Deficiency Symptoms A lack of vitamin C causes scurvy, one of the common skin diseases caused by poor diet among sailors in the past when their diet lacked fresh fruit and vegetables. Known as the "grey death", scurvy causes tooth loss, painful joints and weakness, halitosis (bad breath) and blood spots beneath the skin. The body is unable to make vitamin C, so make sure your diet includes citrus fruits, vegetables or vitamin C supplements to avoid even the slightest suggestion of this painful disease. A lack of niacin (vitamin B3) can cause blistering skin, bleeding from the mouth, aggressive behavior and insanity. Prevalent in Northern Europe and the Middle East when fresh meat was not available, it was also common in the Southern U.S. in the 1940s in those who lived on a corn-based diet. It can be simply prevented by eating fortified cornmeal. The word "beriberi" means "I cannot" in Sinhalese, graphically epitomizing the inability of sufferers to perform a physical task. Caused by a lack of thiamin (vitamin B1) in the Asian diet of boiled rice, the disease was common in the past when "polished" white rice was introduced in the 20th century in place of brown rice. Today beriberi is one of the diseases caused by poor diet that can still be found, particularly in alcoholics. Their poor diet and inability to absorb thiamine can lead to weakness, difficulty walking and even death. Sources of vitamin B1 include fortified cereals, marmite and wheat germ in bread. This history lesson of diseases caused by poor diet superbly illustrates the importance of a healthy balanced diet including those all-important vitamins and minerals found in multivitamin supplements. Foods for Weight Loss: The Science Behind the Grapefruit Diet by Health News It’s time to give the grapefruit diet another look. It may be more effective than you might think. Grapefruit to help you lose weight is not a new idea, but more research is giving real weight to the anecdotal evidence that it is one of the best foods for weight loss. Research shows that you can consume grapefruit regularly with few side effects, and lots of health benefits beyond weight control. The infamous grapefruit diet has actually been around since the 1930s. Since anecdotal evidence has persisted for decades about the effectiveness of grapefruit as a food for weigh loss more research has been conducted to see if it really can have a positive effect on the body. Effective foods for weight loss include the grapefruit. The Bad News First Grapefruit, grapefruit juice, nor grapefruit supplements are going to magically melt fat off your body without changing your eating habits or exercising. No food or pill will do that. If there was such a thing out there we would all be lean and long-lived. The reality that there is no one miracle food for weight loss is not a reason for dismay. Certain foods can have a positive impact on your efforts to shed a few pounds and grapefruit is one of them. The Good News Besides weight loss there are many other good reasons to eat grapefruit. It is a rich source of: • Vitamins C and A - both are powerful antioxidants • Potassium – a mineral that helps nerves and muscles communicate • Biotin – a B complex vitamin that helps the body synthesize fatty acids and glucose • Vitamin B1 –aka, thiamine, it helps the body convert food to fuel • Copper – necessary to aid the body in metabolizing iron and to form red blood cells • Pantothenic acid - aka vitamin B5, to help break down fats, proteins and carbohydrates and convert them energy Grapefruit (not juice or supplements) also has lots of water and fiber to keep the body hydrated and the GI tract humming along normally. Even if you don’t need to lose weight, you should be eating grapefruit. Related: Five Foods that Support Your Weight Loss Efforts The Grapefruit Weight Loss Connection The original grapefruit diet was pretty restrictive and thus doomed to fail. In the various early versions of it the diet called for drinking the juice and eating grapefruit for every meal. Most of the diets also called for cutting out all sweets, most carbohydrates like vegetables, grains and cereals, which is not a healthy or sustainable eating plan. The diet has evolved over the decades with different names like the Hollywood Diet and the 10 Days, 10 Pounds Off Diet. As with any temporary diet fad, it was ineffective over the long-term. Why the notion that grapefruit can aid in weight loss persists is studies like the one published in 2006 by the Journal of Medicinal Food. The study was conducted with 91 obese participants divided into four groups. Group one got a grapefruit capsule before every meal. Group two drank grapefruit juice daily. Group four ate a half of a grapefruit daily and the last group was given a placebo. The results at the end of the study led researchers to conclude that grapefruit, the juice and the capsule did indeed aid in weight loss with the group that ate the actual fruit losing the most, an average of 1.5 pounds. Coming in at a close second and third was the grapefruit juice group who lost an average of 1.3 pounds and, finally, the capsule group who lost about 1.1 pounds. The study participants who received the placebo lost a negligent 1/3-pound on average. Also significant is the fact that all participants who received grapefruit in some fashion also had lower glucose insulin levels making it a potentially great choice for diabetics and anyone at risk for developing Type 1 or Type 2 diabetes. Based on the results of this study several more were conducted. One study showed grapefruit to be highly beneficial in slowing weight gain when consumed with fatty foods. More research is needed but the current studies support grapefruit as a one of the best foods for weight loss when consumed regularly. With lots of nutrients, filling fiber and water, adding a half or whole grapefruit to your daily diet makes good sense whether you are trying to lose weight or not. Three Herbs that Reduce Stress by Health News Stress is a normal part of life, and the body automatically reacts to it with a "flight-or-fight" response. The adrenal glands release stress hormones that boost strength and energy in reaction to physical stressors and enhance focus and mental clarity during times of emotional upset. Occasional stress is normal and healthy, but chronic stress can take a toll on mental and physical health. While some people rely on prescribed medications for treatment, others prefer more natural ways to reduce stress. Three herbs show promise for fighting stress. Herbs that reduce stress include holy basil, kava, and chamomile. 1. Holy Basil An herb and a member of the mint family, holy basil is found in most tropical regions around the world. Research shows that compounds in holy basil improve the body's response to stress. One animal study examined the effects of holy basil on stress created by continual exposure to noise. Albino rats were pretreated with holy basil extract for seven days and then exposed to noise containing a frequency of 10 kHz and a sound level of 100 dB. While exposure to noise typically generates changes in acetylcholine and acetylcholinesterase activity in several areas of the brain, the treatment with holy basil prevented these changes. 2. Kava Kava is a root that comes from the islands of the South Pacific. Traditional use involves crushing the root and making it into a tea. The drink offers relaxing or sedating effects but is non-addictive. Kava is also available as a dietary supplement in powder, capsule, or tincture form. When it comes to herbs that reduce stress and anxiety, kava has shown positive results in many studies. In 2013, an Australian study assessed the effects of kava in 75 people with generalized anxiety disorder. Subjects were given kava or placebo each day for six weeks. Levels of anxiety were measured using the Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale (HAMA). For people with mild to moderate anxiety, kava significantly reduced symptoms as compared to the placebo group. Results were even more significant in the group with moderate to severe anxiety. Kava should not be combined with alcohol or psychotropic medicines. It has been shown that long-term use of kava can harm the liver, so people should use it for three months or less, and consult with a qualified herbalist or your health care provider for guidance. Related: Natural Remedies for Mild Depression 3. Chamomile Originating in Europe, chamomile is a plant that belongs to the daisy family. While its dried flowers are used for a variety of physical ailments, chamomile also offers relief from anxiety according to several studies. Researchers from the University of Pennsylvania examined 35 people diagnosed with anxiety and depression or with a history of anxiety and depression, along with a control group of 22 people without either disorder. For eight weeks, subjects received daily doses of chamomile extract or placebo. Dosages were increased for people who showed less benefit on anxiety scores by one extra tablet daily each week, capping at week five. Based on the results of several rating scales, 57 percent of the people in the chamomile group experienced significant reductions in anxiety. To date, chamomile has been shown to have no adverse side effects, which makes it one of the best and safest ways to reduce stress. Chronic stress takes a toll on the body both physically and mentally. Herbs that reduce stress help take the edge off when people are exposed to physical, mental, or emotional stimuli on a regular basis. Before starting a supplementary regimen with any herb, people should always consult with their health care provider. How to Reduce Food Cravings by Killing Candida by Health News What is candida? How does candida influence food cravings? What are some dietary changes for reducing food cravings? Related: Probiotic Supplements: Not Just for Intestinal Health What are some other symptoms of candida overgrowth? • Chemical and food sensitivities • Chronic vaginal yeast infections • Depression • Digestive issues like gas, bloating, and diarrhea • Fatigue • Foggy thinking • Headache • Poor sleep • Sinus congestion The Effects of a Poor Diet on Your Heart by Cindy Gray “You are what you eat,” is as true now as it was generations ago when the saying became popular. A poor diet wreaks havoc on your entire body, but one area in particular that takes a beating is your heart. A poor diet can negatively impact the health of your heart. First there was the low-fat diet craze, followed by the low-carb diet. Despite all the natural fat in many foods being replaced by partially hydrogenated oils, also knows as trans fats, heart disease continued to top the list as the number one killer of men and women. We all went on a low-carb diet to reduce our cholesterol and lose weight since fat-free didn’t seem be working and suddenly steak and bacon were back on the menu. Little did we know, until now, that diet fads would cause more harm than good. Research over the past decade has found that trans fats, the kind used in most processed foods, is the real killer. All those low-carb foods were loaded with sugar so we could choke them down. Now we know the combination of highly processed foods loaded with sugar and trans fats are literally killing us. Related: Heart Health—The Benefits of Meditation A nutrient poor diet high in trans fats, lots of sugar that send blood glucose levels soaring and copious amounts of sodium is linked to high cholesterol, high blood pressure, stroke and heart attack. Notice this theme: poor diet leads to weight gain, high cholesterol levels and high blood pressure, which all increase your risk of having a stroke or heart attack. Eat Hearty Meals The good news is that there is a lot you can do to prevent these illnesses from happening in the first place. What you eat can have a profound effect on your heart in a simple and delicious way. Replacing fast foods and highly processed foods with healthy fats and foods with abundant vitamins, minerals and antioxidants will help stave off high blood pressure, bad cholesterol build up and prevent strokes and heart disease from developing. Opt for fish like salmon, cod, herring or trout twice a week. Choose lean cuts of chicken, pork and beef over those marbled with fat; keep portions sizes to about the size of your fist, and only eat them once or twice a week. Nature provides in the form of fresh fruits and vegetables. Not only do these foods have a lot of vitamins, minerals and antioxidants, they are low-fat, contain healthy glucose that does not lead to sugar-spikes and then crashes, and are full of fiber. Eating them instead of processed foods will help you keep your weight in check. You will not only feel good, but look that way too. Heart Supplements It is nearly impossible to get all the vitamins, minerals and nutrients you need to keep your ticker in tip-top shape. A combination of a healthy diet and taking supplements is necessary to meet your dietary health goals each day. Choosing a supplement with fish oil, Resveratrol, coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10) and quercetin is an easy way to get these heart healthy substances into your body every day. Trading a nutrient poor diet for one that is rich in vitamins, minerals and antioxidants, but low in trans fats and carbs, will help promote longevity and a healthy heart. Perimenopause and Mood: Understanding the Connection by Health News The “change of life” or menopause is a natural part of aging for most women when menstruating ceases. Around age 40, women may begin to notice irregular periods, increased feelings of anxiety and stress, have trouble focusing and even suffer from panic attacks. These mood changes are the result of declining progesterone levels, the phase that precedes menopause known as perimenopause. This can last anywhere from 10 to 15 years and can wreak havoc on your physical and emotional wellbeing. The connection between perimenopause and mood. Progesterone and estrogen live in harmony in a woman’s body after she goes through puberty and begins menstruating. If these two hormones work harmoniously during the menstrual cycle, it promotes a feeling of balance and well-being. If you become pregnant, progesterone levels increase and you experience feelings of contentment and happiness. After giving birth, estrogen and progesterone levels plummet and can cause post-partum depression until the hormones rebalance again. It’s no secret to the medical community that progesterone has a profound effect on your mood. There is plenty of clinical research documenting the increased rise in perimenopausal symptoms in women when they reach their late 30s and 40s, the time progesterone production begins to decline. Most women only experience mild symptoms, but an unlucky few can be nearly incapacitated by the abrupt mood swings, stress and anxiety, sleep problems and have trouble focusing, making things difficult for them at home and work. Take the Perimenopause Quiz Take this brief quiz to determine if you may be experiencing perimenopause: 1. Do you feel anxious or irritable more easily and more frequently than usual? 2. Do you sometimes have difficulty focusing on the task at hand or suffering from occasional memory loss? 3. Are you experiencing sleep disturbances such as taking longer to fall asleep, difficulty remaining asleep, and not feel rested in the morning? 4. Are you experiencing physical changes, like weight gain even though your eating habits have stayed about the same? Is your skin drier or oilier than usual? Do feel more fatigued after your normal daily activities? 5. Are you experiencing feeling suddenly hot or waking up in the night with night sweats? Do you feel palpitations in your heart for no apparent reason? 6. Are you experiencing vaginal dryness and a decreased interest in sex? 7. Are you urinating more frequently, even though you are not drinking significantly more liquids? 8. Is satisfaction and happiness with your life seeming decrease, even though nothing has change significantly in your career or relationships? Do you feel depressed sometimes without being able to explain why? 9. Have your periods become irregular, sporadic, or has your flow changed from what was once normal for you? 10. Are you in your late 30’s and early to middle 40’s? If you answered yes to three or more of these questions, then you are most likely entering into the life stage of perimenopause. No two women will experience it the same. Some will have say yes to all of the above while others may only be experiencing two or three changes from the norm. Sometimes perimenopause can last for several years or more; but the good news is, there are ways to help ease the transition. Related: Is There Such a Thing As Early Menopause? Combat weight gain, stress and anxiety by cutting out high carbohydrate sugary foods, limiting the amount of caffeine and alcohol you consume and stay away from spicy foods that can trigger hot flashes. Filling up on vitamin and mineral loaded fruits and vegetables will help keep your weight in check, provide hydration to your skin, and help you avoid sugar crashes that will be more extreme with the fatigue that accompanies perimenopause. Finding ways to relieve stress are critical when you are going through perimenopause and menopause. Regular exercise will help you maintain a healthy weight, provide an outlet for anxiety and stress, and promote better sleep. Nothing is more stressful than insomnia and the severe fatigue and loss of mental focus that comes with it. Keeping stress at bay will also help with symptoms of depression, which is common for many women going through perimenopause. It is especially important to get the proper amount of vitamins and nutrients in your diet to help ward off perimenopause and mood swings that are a result of radical hormonal changes. Getting plenty of vitamins C, E, and the complex B’s can improve cognitive function and are helpful to reduce symptoms. Herbs like evening primrose oil can help relieve hot flashes and calm anxiety. Ginkgo biloba has been linked to improved mental concentration, stimulates the libido and promotes blood flow to the brain. St. John’s Wort is helpful for reducing insomnia, calming anxiety, relieving depression and also stimulates the libido. Always be sure to check with your doctor before taking any supplements to avoid unfavorable and dangerous drug interactions. Perimenopause and mood swings are an unavoidable phase of life for most women, but it does not have to be miserable. Take charge of your symptoms with a few dietary changes, supplements to increase your progesterone levels and increased exercise. These changes can help you sail through the change to a positive new phase of life. Understanding the Relationship between Perimenopause and Acne by Cindy Gray Menopause is the result of declining sex hormones manufactured by female ovaries. It marks the end of menstruation in women. The term "perimenopause" refers to the transitional stage in a woman's life leading up to menopause. Typically lasting from two to ten years, women in perimenopause experience a variety of symptoms, the most common being hot flashes, headache, irritability, mood swings, poor sleep patterns, and vaginal dryness. As if these symptoms weren't enough, some women also develop acne. Understanding the relationship between perimenopause and acne can help women restore blemish-free skin. There is a connection between fluctuating hormones in perimenopause and acne. The Estrogen-Testosterone Connection Just like with teenagers, women dealing with perimenopause and acne can chock it up to fluctuating hormones. A woman's ovaries and adrenal glands manufacture female hormones like estrogen and progesterone, but they also produce small amounts of androgens, like testosterone. While estrogen levels begin to decline during perimenopause, androgen levels remain constant. In some women, an imbalance of testosterone can cause the sebaceous glands of the skin to produce excessive sebum, an oily substance that clogs pores. As women age, skin cell regeneration slows, and excessive skin cells can exacerbate the problem, blocking the clogged pores and causing pimples and blemishes. Related: Adult Acne—Wrinkles and Pimples At The Same Time? OTC Remedies Certain over-the-counter cleansers can help women deal with acne. The American Academy of Dermatology recommends women dealing with perimenopause and acne choose cleansers and astringents made especially for adult women as they are typically less drying to the skin. Many women also appreciate cosmetics that contain salicylic acid, or other acne-fighting ingredients. Balance Hormones Naturally Balancing hormones can help keep acne in check during perimenopause. A number of natural methods may help: • Eat cruciferous vegetables like broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, cauliflower, and kohlrabi. Cruciferous veggies contain indole-3-carbinol (I3C), which is a precursor to diindolylmethane (DIM). Both of these compounds can help keep estrogen hormones in balance. • Make foods containing phytoestrogens a part of the diet. Foods like fermented soy, flax seeds, sunflower seeds, bean sprouts, and legumes contain small amounts of plant-based estrogen that may help women with declining estrogen levels. • Consider herbal remedies like black cohosh or the Ayurvedic herb, shatavari. Although herbs have shown to be no better than placebo for relieving perimenopause symptoms in scientific research, anecdotal evidence suggests otherwise. • Maintain a healthy body weight. Excess body fat can trigger the production of more estrogen in the body. Women in perimenopause have to deal with enough symptoms without adding acne to the mix. Fortunately, a number of over-the-counter products can help, or women may want to seek the advice of a dermatologist. Natural methods that encourage hormonal balance may also help like dietary changes, herbs, and maintenance of a healthy body weight. Because women’s bodies each differ, it is wise to consult with a health care practitioner before using herbal supplements. Seven Symptoms of Poor Nutrition by Cindy Gray According to the World Health Organization (WHO), adequate nutrition is the foundation of good health. What we eat affects our physical, emotional, and mental health. Poor nutrition results from insufficient amounts of food, an overabundance of food, or foods with low nutritive value. All three result in insufficient nutrients, which can lead to seven symptoms of poor nutrition. These include tooth decay, anemia, depression, beriberi, constipation, diabetes, and stroke. Avoid symptoms of poor nutrition by eating proper amounts and proper types of food. 1. Tooth Decay Tooth decay is one of the most common symptoms of poor nutrition and one of the easiest to manage. Avoiding foods like cake, candy, and dried fruits that stick to the teeth helps discourage tooth decay. Dentists recommend replacing these foods with raw veggies, nuts, plain yogurt, cheese, and sugarless gum or candy. Overeating also contributes to tooth decay because it creates more opportunities for oral bacteria to develop. Cutting back on snacking helps prevent these opportunities. 2. Anemia A diet low in iron, folate, and/or vitamin B12 can result in a reduced blood cell count or nutritional anemia. Physical characteristics include pale skin, fatigue, and weakness. Treatment includes vitamin supplements and foods rich in minerals like meat, poultry, eggs, vegetables, and fortified cereals. 3. Beriberi Eating a normal, healthy diet should provide the body plenty of thiamine. Bodies that don't get enough thiamine can develop beriberi. Because many foods in the U. S. are vitamin-enriched, beriberi is rare. It does show up in people who abuse alcohol because excessive alcohol limits the absorption of certain nutrients in the body, including thiamine. 4. Constipation A number of poor dietary choices can cause constipation including eating foods high in animal fats like dairy products, meats, and eggs, or those high in sugar and low in fiber. Inadequate amounts of water and drinking too much caffeine and alcohol can dehydrate the body, which also leads to constipation. Related: Dangers of Laxative Overuse For Chronic Constipation 5. Diabetes When the body is unable to produce enough or any insulin it causes elevated levels of glucose in the blood, or diabetes. Many experts attribute the development of type 2 diabetes to overeating and too little exercise. In addition to engaging in more physical activity, people looking to avoid type 2 diabetes should add foods to the diet that help stabilize blood sugars like whole grains, beans, vegetables, and low-glycemic fruits. 6. Stroke Because it can increase blood pressure and cholesterol levels, an unhealthy diet elevates risks for stroke. Experts typically recommend plenty of low-fat, low-sugar, and high-fiber foods like fresh fruit, vegetables, beans, legumes, and whole grains. Too much sodium raises blood pressure, so people should limit daily salt consumption to no more than 6 g (about one teaspoon). 7. Depression In addition to physical symptoms, there are mental symptoms of poor nutrition. Food patterns like poor appetite, skipping meals, and cravings for sweet foods can contribute to the onset, duration, and severity of depression. Taking measures to eliminate these patterns may help offer relief. When it comes to the health, nutrition plays a key role. People can prevent symptoms of poor nutrition by eating proper amounts and proper types of food. A nutritious, well-balanced diet contains: • Whole fruits and vegetables • Whole grains • Lean meats • Low-fat dairy products • Nuts and seeds • Beans and legumes • Healthy fats How to Reduce Food Cravings with Three Supplements by Health News Weight watchers and women going through menopause often suffer extreme food cravings that are hard to resist. Often those cravings are for sugary treats and comfort foods which, if indulged, can quickly lead to excess weight. If you want to know how to reduce food cravings, these three supplements could be your best weapons, and may help you to stay on track diet-wise. Three common health supplements can provide the answer to how to reduce food cravings Decrease Hunger Pangs with 5-HTP Some food cravings can be caused by a lack of serotonin which causes an increase in appetite. Serotonin is a neurotransmitter that produces a "feel-good" factor as well as feelings of fullness after eating. Serotonin deficiency can cause cravings for sugar and carbohydrates as the body tries to increase serotonin levels in the brain. The best natural supplement to boost serotonin levels is called 5-HTP (or hydroxytryptophan), a derivative of the amino acid tryptophan and a precursor to serotonin production. Taking a supplement of 5-HTP, according to the NBI, has been found in clinical trials to naturally boost serotonin production which is a powerful agent for those wondering how to reduce food cravings. Taking 50-100 mg of 5-HTP with fruit once or twice a day can help reduce cravings for food, and as a bonus it can help to support a calm mood and healthy sleep patterns. Related: Sleep Deprivation: Is It Dangerous To Your Health? Control Blood Sugar Cravings with Chromium Chromium is a mineral that helps control glucose levels. Sometimes cravings are due to low blood sugar levels or a deficiency of this mineral. Your body naturally urges you to eat sugar by creating strong food cravings, particularly for carbohydrates, sugar and caffeine. Chromium supplements can provide support for those who are researching how to reduce food cravings safely and naturally. By balancing blood sugar levels, chromium can greatly reduce cravings. This was discovered in a 2005 study published by The Journal of Psychiatric Practice which showed chromium supplements were effective at reducing carbohydrate cravings for those with depression. Taking 400 mcg of chromium a day as a supplement is a safe and easy way to help control those food cravings. Suppress the Appetite Naturally with L-Tyrosine L-tyrosine provides a double-whammy when it comes to the question of how to reduce food cravings. First, this supplement suppresses the appetite, making it easier to control cravings and help with weight loss. Secondly, this amino acid also increases the metabolic rate of the body, burning more calories for energy and helping to maintain a normal weight. A study on 80 obese subjects published in 2006 in The International Journal of Obesity backs up these claims, showing that L-tyrosine helped increase thermogenesis and aided weight loss. Taking 500-1000 mg once or twice a day may have a powerful effect on appetite and cravings. By using these supplements to regulate blood sugar levels, reduce hunger pangs, and suppress the appetite, you really can gain control over cravings and enjoy a healthy happy life.
Browse Subject Areas Click through the PLOS taxonomy to find articles in your field. For more information about PLOS Subject Areas, click here. • Loading metrics • Marcel B. Lacerda, • Cesar L. Schultz, • Cristina Bertoni-Machado The ‘rauisuchians’ comprise a problematic group of Middle to Late Triassic pseudosuchian archosaurs that are traditionally bundled together due to shared similarities in cranial, pelvic and ankle morphologies, but may not represent a natural group [15]. As such, some workers proposed [3,6] that the name be used between commas to refer to them, independently if they are a monophyletic or not, while Rauisuchia is used to designate a monophyletic group [36]. This is the terminology applied in the present article. The last 20 years have seen an increase in the number of discoveries and redescriptions e.g. [719] along with recent cladistic analyses [4, 6, 19] which have contributed to a better understanding of the diversity and relations among ‘rauisuchians’ within Archosauria. Although the use of more taxa in recent phylogenies has contributed to a better understanding of the diversity found in these forms, their phylogenetic and taxonomic definitions still remain unclear and new studies and more complete specimens are needed to attempt to resolve many problematic topics [3, 4, 5, 6, 11]. ‘Rauisuchians’ displayed a near worldwide distribution, with the exception of Oceania and Antarctica [3, 5, 20]. In Brazil, their fossils are found only in the Santa Maria Supersequence [21, 22], Paraná Basin, Rio Grande do Sul State, in the southern part of the country. This Supersequence encompasses two biostratigraphic units bearing ‘rauisuchians’; the Middle Triassic Dinodontosaurus Assemblage Zone (AZ) with the species Prestosuchus chiniquensis, ‘Prestosuchus loricatus’ and Decuriasuchus quartacolonia, and the Late Triassic Hyperodapedon AZ, with the record of Rauisuchus tiradentes [5, 14, 23, 24]. Placed between these two biozones, occurs the Santacruzodon AZ, for which no ‘rauisuchians’ had been found until now. The faunal association of this biozone includes mainly traversodontid (Santacruzodon hopsoni [25]; Menadon sp. [26] and probainognathid (cf. Probainognathus [23]) cynodonts, the proterochampsian Chanaresuchus bonapartei Romer 1971 [27] and cranial fragments of dicynodonts [26, 27]. The presence of Menadon and the close taxonomic relationships between Santacruzodon hopsoni and Dadadon isaloi [28] indicates a temporal correlation between the Santacruzodon AZ and the Ladinian “Isalo II” fauna of Madagascar [28, 29] (Fig. 1). Fig 1. Comparative chart with the biostratigraphical framework of the Santa Maria Supersequence along with the ones from South Africa, Madagascar and Argentina. From [23]. In the present contribution, we describe the first occurrence of a ‘rauisuchian’ archosaur for the Santacruzodon AZ, based on an incomplete pelvic girdle, and discuss its taxonomic status, proposing it as a new species. Geological setting The material here described came from the Schoenstatt site that is located on the outskirts of Santa Cruz do Sul city, (UTM SAD 69-22J-359794°E, 6709033°N) approximately 150km from the capital of Rio Grande do Sul State, Porto Alegre. It is a landfill that is exposed at the west margin of the RS-287 highway in the subdivision of Faxinal Velho, close to the Schoenstatt sanctuary [30]. The geological profile of the site shows an association of channel facies and floodplains (Fig. 2). The fossils occur in a level of massive red mudstones approximately 5 m thick that displays accumulations of disarticulated skeletal elements, with a predominance of skull and jaw elements, interpreted as a biogenic concentration formed by the accumulation of discarded remains by selective predators and carrion eaters [31]. Fig 2. Stratigraphical profile of the upper portion of the Schoenstatt Outcrop (Modified from [31]). Materials and Methods No special permits were required for the present study, which complied with all relevant legal regulations. The studied materials were collected and deposited in the paleovertebrate collection of the Laboratório de Paleontologia de Vertebrados of the Instituto de Geociências of the Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, which is a federal university and as such, specimen collection and housing complies fully with the laws that regulate fossil and mineralogical materials of Brazil. All the other relevant information, such as details of the site where the fossils were collected and their catalogue number are presented and discussed in the "Geological Setting" part of "Introduction" heading and in the present topic, respectively. The specimen is represented only by an incomplete and disarticulated pelvic girdle, specifically a left ilium (UFRGS-PV-1244-T) along with a right and a left ischium (UFRGS-PV-1245-T). They were found disarticulated but closely associated. The similar dimensions of both ischia (the left one is 18.3cm long and the right one is 19.1cm) and the overall size and aspect of the acetabular area when the left ilium and ischium are placed in articulation suggest that all elements belong to the same individual. It was prepared using mechanical chisels, explorers and brushes. Systematic Paleontology ARCHOSAURIA Cope, 1869 sensu Gauthier & Padian 1985 PSEUDOSUCHIA Zittel, 1887–1890 sensu Gauthier & Padian 1985 SUCHIA Krebs 1974 (sensu Benton & Clark 1988) LORICATA Merrem 1820 (sensu Nesbitt 2011) Dagasuchus santacruzensis sp. nov., gen. nov., Etymology: From the words daga, which is a large knife or dagger in the regional gaucho jargon, in reference to the pronounced iliac blade and suchus from the Greek word for crocodile; santacruzensis refers to the city of Santa Cruz do Sul, where the Schoenstatt outcrop is located. Holotype: UFRGS-PV-1244-T, left ilium; UFRGS-PV-1245-T, right and left ischium, deposited in the paleontological collection of the Laboratório de Paleovertebrados of the Instituto de Geociências of the Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul. Horizon and Locality: Santa Maria Supersequence, Santacruzodon Assemblage Zone, Late Ladinian/Early Carnian, Schoenstatt outcrop, near Santa Cruz do Sul, Rio Grande do Sul State, Brazil. Diagnosis: medium sized archosaur with imperforate acetabulum and preacetabular process of the ilium shorter than the postacetabular process, similar to that of Loricata (sensu Nesbitt, 2011), but differs from all known taxa within that grouping (Saurosuchus galilei, Prestosuchus chiniquensis, Batrachotomus kupferzellensis) and Decuriasuchus quartacolonia by the presence of the following combination of features: Ilium displays smooth dorsal and ventral margins of the iliac blade, articulation sites for two sacral vertebrae, a ‘plate-like’ ischium, with smooth anterodorsal area and a continuous anteroventral margin with no apparent notch. Nomenclatural Acts The ilium is well preserved, with roughly 19 cm in length and 10 cm tall (Fig. 3). The contact of the blade with the acetabular area is continuous, not displaying a waisted region between both areas. The former is overall complete, with what appears to be only minor damage on both extremities. The dorsal margin of the iliac blade, in lateral view, is smooth and straight, with no sign of any rugose surface as those described for Batrachotomus and Prestosuchus. Perpendicular to its longitudinal axis there is a low (but distinct) antero-posteriorlly wide ridge that projects antero-dorsally on its lateral area from the dorsal border of a robust supra-acetabular crest, dividing the iliac blade into a short preacetabular and longer postacetabular process. The former has the same length as the anterior margin of the acetabular region, with the area near the anterior margin of the crest being preserved, while the postacetabular process projects antero-posteriorlly into a dorso-ventrally tall and compressed blade of bone that slightly tapers posteriorly. The ventroposterior portion of this blade is gently expanded laterally, which occupies the rest of the posterior tip Fig 3. Left ilium (UFRGS-PV-1244-T) in lateral (A) and medial (B) views. Abbreviations: ac, acetabule; ilba, iliac blade; prap, pre-acetabular process; poap, post-acetabular process; sar, supra-acetabular crest; sacr, supra-acetabular ridge. Scale: 5cm. In dorsal view, the blade is sinuous, with a laterally concave anterior area where the supra-acetabular ridge is located. The ventral portion of the acetabulum, in lateral view, especially close to the area of articulation with the ischium and the pubis, was lightly eroded by weathering and when the ilium and the ischium are placed in articulation the contact is extremely narrow, indicating that the acetabulum is most likely imperforate. The acetabulum is overall slightly oval and deep, gradually rising laterally up to the anterior portion of the supra-acetabular rim. In medial view, the anterior portion of the base of the iliac blade displays a medially expanded surface with a dorsal depression that would be the site for the articulation of the rib of the first sacral vertebrae. Posteriorly to this area, along the blade, there is a shallow depression along its length, up onto a medially projecting area of the base of the blade, at about 45° to the sagittal plane, which posteriorly forms a platform for the articulation of the rib of the second sacral vertebrae. The ventroposterior portion of the blade, between the medial crest and the lateroventral margin of post-acetabular process does not display any fossa or depression. On the acetabular area, there is a slightly oval sub-horizontal depression located where the abovementioned platform begins, which would correspond to another rib articulation site. The right ischium is better preserved than the left one (Fig. 4). Both are dorso-ventrally elongated plate-like elements, with a more robust and smooth dorsal body and expanded proximal and distal ends. In the right ischium, the proximal area, in lateral view, displays a sinuous dorsal portion, and is bordered ventrally by a laterally expanded semi-circular ventroposterior border of the acetabulum. Posteroventrally to this area, a sheet of bone projects ventrally and expands to form an irregular lateromedially compressed surface that is more distinct on the first third of the ischium, that decreases in size posteriorly and continues along the body of the bone up to distal end. The distal ends of the ischia, in lateral view, display an expanded and posteriorly directed “ischium boot”. Fig 4. Right ischium in lateral (A) and medial (B) views; Left ischium in medial (C) and lateral (D) views; Both ischia in articulation in anterior view (E). Abbreviations: iscbt, Ischium boot. Scale: 5cm. The ventral margins of both elements are partially eroded by weathering. If both elements are positioned in relative articulation, the lateromedially compressed area is the main surface for the articulation of both ischia anteriorly. Distally, a gap appears between them in anterior view, but it is unclear if this gap is natural or a result of diagenetic alteration to the bones. The case for the latter is reinforced by the presence of some distortion in the left ischium, which is more transversally curved than the right one. Additionally, there is a small, roughly triangular-shaped fragment of bone that was preserved on the medial area of the ilium. However, this piece does not display any diagnostic feature and thereby is not figured here. The studied pelvic girdle presents an imperforate acetabulum, a laterally expanded, semicircular supra-acetabular crest and an antero-dorsally orientated supra-acetabular ridge. These features, as well as the overall aspect and the antero-posterior length of the iliac blade match those described for ‘rauisuchian’ taxa within Loricata sensu Nesbitt (2011), differing from those of other more derived forms within Poposauridea. The comparative osteological analysis indicates that it is morphologically similar to Saurosuchus galilei [32] of the Ischigualasto Formation (Carnian), Batrachotomus kupferzellensis [13] of the Lettenkeuper of Germany (Late Ladinian), as well as Prestosuchus chiniquensis [24] and Decuriasuchus quartacolonia [14] of the Dinodontosaurus AZ (Ladinian) of Brazil. The the overall aspect of the ilium is different from one originally described for Rauisuchus tiradentes by Huene [33] (BSPG AS XXV 88), although now considered as not belonging to the same individual as the lectotype based on size differences [34], the acetabule is restricted to the ilium, while in the presently described specimen it is likely composed by all three pelvic elements. Although it is similar to Stagonosuchus nyassicus from the Manda Formation (Anisian) it differs in having a significantly more pronounced supra-acetabular crest, a supra-acetabular ridge and absence of a medial protuberance on the lateral surface of the iliac blade [35, 36]. Additional diagnostic features would be the articulation sites for only two sacral vertebrae (Fig. 5), a condition that is described for Prestosuchus chiniquensis [24, 37], Saurosuchus galilei [34] and Decuriasuchus quartacolonia [14] but not for Batrachotomus kupferzellensis, which has 3 [13]. Fig 5. (A) Composite illustration of the left ilium with thee better preserved right ischium in articulation; (B) illustration of the ilium in medial view; (C) cross-section of the ilium in posterior view; (D) cross-section of the ischium in distal view. Abbreviations: as Fig. 2 plus: asr 1, articulation site for the sacral rib of the first sacral vertebra; asr 2, articulation site for the sacral rib of the second sacral vertebra. Damaged areas in grey. The pelvic girdle here described differs from that of Decuriasuchus quartacolonia [14] by an overall larger acetabulum, shorter iliac blade and a more sinuous and plate-like ischia. Additionally, in the specimen MCN PV10105c figured in França et al. [14], the ilia are comparatively smaller and more gracile than the one here described (MBL pers. obs.). These features might be considered problematic in differentiating species, since it is also possible to attribute such variations to intraspecific factors, however, as França et al. [14] considered all specimens of Decuriasuchus quartacolonia as adult forms due to the presence of closed sutures between the skull elements as well as ossified vertebrae, the overall larger size of the present specimen can be used to differentiate it from that taxon. Another pelvic girdle attributed to Prestosuchus chiniquensis by Nesbitt [4]-specimen UFRGS-PV-0152-T—displays similar dimensions and overall aspect of the one here described, but differs in the presence of an iliac blade which is much shorter dorsoventrally and that displays rugosities along its anterodorsal surface along with an ischium with a marked “notch” on the anteroventral margin. As this specimen is currently being studied as the subject of a PhD thesis, it is not figured here aside from the former comments. The ischium differs from Prestosuchus chiniquensis [24, 33, 37] and Saurosuchus galilei [32] due to a more plate-like than rod-like morphology ([4]: character 9) and the absence of ridges on the dorsal surface of the iliac blade. It is possible to consider this feature as not morphologically significant, since the comparatively smaller size of the specimen in regards the above-mentioned species could be considered as ontogenetic and such ridges should be more developed as the animal grew, but this appears to be not the case, since the material is well preserved and no ridges are apparent. Additionally, the ischia further differs from Prestosuchus chiniquensis due to the absence of a notch on the ventral margin ([4]: character 296) and displaying a smooth anterodorsal surface, distally to the expanded proximal area, which lacks a low dorsal crest that is considered a sinapomorphy for this species, being present in the lectotype of Prestosuchus chiniquensis described by Huene [33, 37] and assigned by Krebs [38], with a more pronounced one in the more complete specimen (UFRGS-PV-0629-T) attributed to this taxon (see discussion in [24]). This comparative morphological analysis shows that none of the previously described species share the combination of features that is found in the presently described specimen. As such, it is clearly distinct from other ‘rauisuchians’, but the absence of clear autapomorphies combined with the incompleteness of the individual makes the proposition of a new taxon questionable. Additional evidence to support a new taxon would be the biostratigraphical position of this specimen in the Santa Maria Supersequence. As presented earlier, all other ‘rauisuchian’ taxa have been limited to the Dinodontosaurus and Hyperodapedon assemblage zones. The Santacruzodon AZ is a unique third order sequence within the Santa Maria Supersequence, with paleofaunal correlation with the “Isalo II” fauna from Madagascar [22, 23, 25, 26], where no ‘rauisuchian’ has been described. However, the presence of Chanaresuchus [27, 30] in both the Dinodontosaurus and Santacruzodon assemblage zones, as well as in the Chañares and Ischigualasto faunas would indicate that at least one taxon continued across the Ladinian/Carnian transition. As such, the possibility of a previously described Ladinan ‘rauisuchian’ taxon that existed up to the Late Ladinian/ Early Carnian cannot be completely excluded. However, we consider that all the other evidences presented here (Fig. 6) along with the biostratigrafical data justifies the distinction of this specimen as unique among other ‘rauisichian’ taxa, and as such, would be more than only a “rauisuchian indet.” or a similar provisional designation. Fig 6. Temporal distribution of ‘rauisuchian’ taxa of South America and those with morphology of ilia and ischia similar to Dagasuchus santacruzensis, emphasizing the shape of the supra-acetabular crest and supra-acetabular ridge on the ilium and the outline of the section of the ischium: Stagonosuchus nyassicus (A) and Batrachotomus kupeferzellensis (B) based on [3]; Prestosuchus chiniquensis (C) based on [24] (2010); Rauisuchoidea indet. (D) based on [34]; Saurosuchus galilei based on [32]. On the right, comparative temporal distribution of these species, along with other South American ones (Modified from [5]). Comparative bones are not to scale. Although incomplete, the combination of features of the described specimen permits a taxonomic designation to a new ‘rauisuchian’ species Dagasuchus santacruzensis. This new species adds to the knowledge of the diversity of the group in the Triassic and fills in a gap in the temporal distribution of these forms in South America. Major steps in the study of these forms have been made in recent years, however, new finds are still required to clarify the problematic topics presented in this paper, in ‘rauisuchian’ studies and Triassic continental biostratigraphical data in general. We would like to thank Dr. Marco Aurélio G. de França for his invaluable assistance and encouragement in the elaboration of this work. Additionally, we thank Dr. Felipe L. Pinheiro, Dr. Tiago Raugust and Dr. Bianca Mastrantonio for the many helpful discussions, the Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq) and the anonymous reviewers for their time and attention. 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J Vert Paleontol 20: 422–427. doi: 10.1671/0272-4634(2000)020[0422:ntseft];2 29. 29. Flynn JJ, Nesbitt SJ, Parrish JM, Ranivoharimanana L, Wyss AR (2010) A new species of Azendohsaurus (Diapsida: Archosauromorpha) from the Triassic Isalo Group of southwestern Madagascar: cranium and mandible. Palaeontology 53: 669–688. doi: 10.1111/j.1475-4983.2010.00954.x 30. 30. Bertoni-Machado C, Kishlat E-E (2003) Novo registro de Rhadinosuchidae (Archosauriformes: Proterochampsia) para o Mesotriássico do Brasil. Paleo 2003—Paleontologia em Destaque Porto Alegre: Sociedade Brasileira de Paleontologia. pp. 47. doi: 10.1097/PHM.0000000000000020. pmid:24247756 31. 31. Bertoni-Machado C, Holz M (2006) Biogenic fossils concentration in fluvial settings: an example of a cynodont taphocoenosis from the Middle Triassic of Southern Brazil. Rev Bras Paleontol 9: 273–282. doi: 10.4072/rbp.2006.3.02 32. 32. Sill WD (1974) The anatomy of Saurosuchus galilei and the relationships of the rauisuchid thecodonts. Bull Mus Comp Zool 146: 317–362. 33. 33. Huene FV (1938) Die fossilen Reptilien des südamerikanischen Gondwanalandes. Neus Jahrb Geol 1938: 142–151. 34. 34. Lautenschlager S (2008) Revision of Rauisuchus tiradentes (Archosauria: Rauisuchia) from the Late Triassic (Carnian) Santa Maria Formation of Brazil and its implications for rauisuchian phylogeny: Ludwig Maximilians Universität,. 77 p. 35. 35. Gebauer EVI (2004) Neubeschreibung von Stagonosuchus nyassicus v. Huene, 1938 (Thecodontia, Rauisuchia) from the Manda Formation (Middle Triassic) of southwest Tanzania. Neues Jahr Geol P-A 231: 1–35. 36. 36. Lautenschlager S, Desojo JB (2011) Reassessment of the Middle Triassic rauisuchian archosaurs Ticinosuchus ferox and Stagonosuchus nyassicus. Paläontolo Z 85: 357–381. doi: 10.1007/s12542-011-0105-1 37. 37. Huene FV (1942) Die fossilen Reptilien des Sudamerikanischen Gondwanalandes. Ergebnisse der Sauriergrabungen in Sudbrasilien, 1928/1929. Munchen: C. H. Beck’she. 332 p. 38. 38. Krebs B (1976) Pseudosuchia. In Kuhn O, editor. Handbuch der Palaeoherpetologie: Gustav Fischer-Verlag. pp.40–98.
LRI Researcher Discovers a Cause and Potential Treatment Approach for Lupus Anemia Westley ReevesOne sign of lupus is feeling so tired you can’t get out of bed. That fatigue can be caused by anemia, which also brings weakness, shortness of breath, and headaches. Lupus patient and S.L.E. Lupus Foundation volunteer Nono Osigo describes her struggle with anemia. “Working a full time job is trying because sometimes it demands a lot of physical energy that I just don't have. I am dragging myself to where I need to be and can barely exert much effort for anything else. ” Up to 75 percent of people with lupus also have anemia like Nono. Dr. Westley Reeves and his team at University of Florida used their grant from the LRI to look at what causes anemia in lupus. Results were recently published in the professional medical publication Arthritis & Rheumatism. Link Between Lupus and Anemia Anemia means that there is a shortage of red blood cells that carry oxygen throughout the body. Red blood cells live only a few days and must be continuously replenished by our bone marrow to maintain healthy levels. We know most cases of lupus anemia are due to problems with red blood cell production in the bone marrow caused by chronic inflammation; but which molecules and cells are responsible is not yet understood. Potential for Treating Anemia How would patient lives change if TNF inhibitors work? Nono says, “I would have my energy back and that would be like being the old me.”
Periodic table of HTML elements The HTML <html> element (or HTML root element) represents the root of an HTML document. All other elements must be descendants of this element. The HTML Strong Element (<strong>) gives text strong importance, and is typically displayed in bold. The HTML <param> Element (or HTML Parameter Element) defines parameters for <object>. The HTML <caption> Element (or HTML Table Caption Element) represents the title of a table. Though it is always the first descendant of a <table>, its styling, using CSS, may place it elsewhere, relative to the table. The HTML element table header cell <th> defines a cell that is a header for a group of cells of a table. The group of cells that the header refers to is defined by the scope and headers attribute. The HTML element <input> is used to create interactive controls for web-based forms in order to accept data from the user. How an <input> works varies considerably depending on the value of its type attribute. The HTML Subscript Element (<sub>) defines a span of text that should be displayed, for typographic reasons, lower, and often smaller, than the main span of text. The HTML <audio> element is used to embed sound content in documents. It may contain several audio sources, represented using the src attribute or the <source> element; the browser will choose the most suitable one. The HTML <source> element is used to specify multiple media resources for <picture>, <audio> and <video> elements. It is an empty element. It is commonly used to serve the same media in multiple formats supported by different browsers. The HTML Table Column Element (<col>) defines a column within a table and is used for defining common semantics on all common cells. It is generally found within a <colgroup> element. The HTML Table Head Element (<thead>) defines a set of rows defining the head of the columns of the table. The HTML select (<select>) element represents a control that presents a menu of options. The options within the menu are represented by <option> elements, which can be grouped by <optgroup> elements. Options can be pre-selected for the user. The HTML <figcaption> element represents a caption or a legend associated with a figure or an illustration described by the rest of the data of the <figure> element which is its immediate ancestor which means <figcaption> can be the first or last element inside a <figure> block. Also, the HTML Figcaption Element is optional; if not provided, then the parent figure element will have no caption. The HTML <p> element (or HTML Paragraph Element) represents a paragraph of text. The HTML <bdi> Element (or Bi-Directional Isolation Element) isolates a span of text that might be formatted in a different direction from other text outside it. The HTML <data> Element links a given content with a machine-readable translation. If the content is time- or date-related, the <time> must be used. The HTML <ruby> Element represents a ruby annotation. Ruby annotations are for showing pronunciation of East Asian characters. The HTML Superscript Element (<sup>) defines a span of text that should be displayed, for typographic reasons, higher, and often smaller, than the main span of text. The HTML Table Column Group Element (<colgroup>) defines a group of columns within a table. The HTML element table row <tr> defines a row of cells in a table. Those can be a mix of <td> and <th> elements. The HTML Label Element (<label>) represents a caption for an item in a user interface. It can be associated with a control either by placing the control element inside the <label> element, or by using the for attribute. Such a control is called the labeled control of the label element. With one input can be assosiated few labels. The HTML Details Element (<details>) is used as a disclosure widget from which the user can retrieve additional information. The HTML <section> element represents a generic section of a document, i.e., a thematic grouping of content, typically with a heading. Each <section> should be identified, typically by including a heading (<h1>-<h6> element) as a child of the <section> element. The HTML <figure> element represents self-contained content, frequently with a caption (<figcaption>), and is typically referenced as a single unit. While it is related to the main flow, its position is independent of the main flow. Usually this is an image, an illustration, a diagram, a code snippet, or a schema that is referenced in the main text, but that can be moved to another page or to an appendix without affecting the main flow. The HTML <pre> element (or HTML Preformatted Text) represents preformatted text. Text within this element is typically displayed in a non-proportional font exactly as it is laid out in the file. Whitespaces inside this element are displayed as typed. The HTML <bdo> Element (or HTML bidirectional override element) is used to override the current directionality of text. It causes the directionality of the characters to be ignored in favor of the specified directionality. The HTML Definition Element (<dfn>) represents the defining instance of a term. The HTML Quote Element (<q>) indicates that the enclosed text is a short inline quotation. This element is intended for short quotations that don't require paragraph breaks; for long quotations use <blockquote> element. The HTML <track> element is used as a child of the media elements—<audio> and <video>. It lets you specify timed text tracks (or time-based data), for example to automatically handle subtitles. The tracks are formatted in WebVTT format (.vtt files) — Web Video Text Tracks. The HTML <noscript> Element defines a section of html to be inserted if a script type on the page is unsupported or if scripting is currently turned off in the browser. The HTML Table Element (<table>) represents data in two dimensions or more. The HTML <button> Element represents a clickable button. The HTML <legend> Element (or HTML Legend Field Element) represents a caption for the content of its parent <fieldset>. The HTML <dialog> element represents a dialog box or other interactive component, such as an inspector or window. <form> elements can be integrated within a dialog by specifying them with the attribute method="dialog". When such a form is submitted, the dialog is closed with a returnValue attribute set to the value of the submit button used. The HTML <dd> element (HTML Description Element) indicates the description of a term in a description list (<dl>) element. This element can occur only as a child element of a definition list and it must follow a <dt> element. The HTML <ul> element (or HTML Unordered List Element) represents an unordered list of items, namely a collection of items that do not have a numerical ordering, and their order in the list is meaningless. Typically, unordered-list items are displayed with a bullet, which can be of several forms, like a dot, a circle or a squared. The bullet style is not defined in the HTML description of the page, but in its associated CSS, using the list-style-type property. The HTML element line break <br> produces a line break in text (carriage-return). It is useful for writing a poem or an address, where the division of lines is significant. The HTML element emphasis <em> marks text that has stress emphasis. The <em> element can be nested, with each level of nesting indicating a greater degree of emphasis. The HTML <rp> element is used to provide fall-back parenthesis for browsers non-supporting ruby annotations. Ruby annotations are for showing pronounciation of East Asian characters, like using Japanese furigana or Taiwainese bopomofo characters. The <rp> element is used in the case of lack of <ruby> element support its content has what should be displayed in order to indicate the presence of a ruby annotation, usually parentheses. The HTML Underline Element (<u>) renders text with an underline, a line under the baseline of its content. Use the HTML <video> element to embed video content in a document. The video element contains one or more video sources. To specify a video source, use either the src attribute or the <source> element; the browser will choose the most suitable one. The HTML Table Body Element (<tbody>) defines one or more <tr> element data-rows to be the body of its parent <table> element (as long as no <tr> elements are immediate children of that table element.) In conjunction with a preceding <thead> and/or <tfoot> element, <tbody> provides additional semantic information for devices such as printers and displays. Of the parent table's child elements, <tbody> represents the content which, when longer than a page, will most likely differ for each page printed; while the content of <thead> and <tfoot> will be the same or similar for each page printed. For displays, <tbody> will enable separate scrolling of the <thead>, <tfoot>, and <caption> elements of the same parent <table> element. Note that unlike the <thead>, <tfoot>, and <caption> elements however, multiple <tbody> elements are permitted (if consecutive), allowing the data-rows in long tables to be divided into different sections, each separately formatted as needed. The HTML <article> element represents a self-contained composition in a document, page, application, or site, which is intended to be independently distributable or reusable (e.g., in syndication). This could be a forum post, a magazine or newspaper article, a blog entry, an object, or any other independent item of content. Each <article> should be identified, typically by including a heading (<h1>-<h6> element) as a child of the <article> element. The HTML <abbr> element (or HTML Abbreviation Element) represents an abbreviation and optionally provides a full description for it. If present, the title attribute must contain this full description and nothing else. The HTML Citation Element (<cite>) represents a reference to a creative work. It must include the title of a work or a URL reference, which may be in an abbreviated form according to the conventions used for the addition of citation metadata. The HTML <rt> Element embraces pronunciation of characters presented in a ruby annotations, which are used to describe the pronunciation of East Asian characters. This element is always used inside a <ruby> element. The HTML Variable Element (<var>) represents a variable in a mathematical expression or a programming context. The HTML Deleted Text Element (<del>) represents a range of text that has been deleted from a document. This element is often (but need not be) rendered with strike-through text. The Table cell HTML element (<td>) defines a cell of a table that contains data. It participates in the table model. In a Web form, the HTML <optgroup> element creates a grouping of options within a <select> element. The HTML <dl> element (or HTML Description List Element) encloses a list of pairs of terms and descriptions. Common uses for this element are to implement a glossary or to display metadata (a list of key-value pairs). The HTML <main> element represents the main content of the <body> of a document or application. The main content area consists of content that is directly related to, or expands upon the central topic of a document or the central functionality of an application. This content should be unique to the document, excluding any content that is repeated across a set of documents such as sidebars, navigation links, copyright information, site logos, and search forms (unless the document's main function is as a search form). The HTML <b> Element represents a span of text stylistically different from normal text, without conveying any special importance or relevance. It is typically used for keywords in a summary, product names in a review, or other spans of text whose typical presentation would be boldfaced. Another example of its use is to mark the lead sentence of each paragraph of an article. The HTML Code Element <code> represents a fragment of computer code. By default, it is displayed in the browser's default monospace font. The HTML Keyboard Input Element (<kbd>) represents user input and produces an inline element displayed in the browser's default monospace font. The HTML element word break opportunity <wbr> represents a position within text where the browser may optionally break a line, though its line-breaking rules would not otherwise create a break at that location. The HTML Embedded Object Element (<object>) represents an external resource, which can be treated as an image, a nested browsing context, or a resource to be handled by a plugin. The HTML <ins> Element (or HTML Inserted Text) HTML represents a range of text that has been added to a document. The HTML Table Foot Element (<tfoot>) defines a set of rows summarizing the columns of the table. The HTML summary element (<summary>) is used as a summary, caption, or legend for the content of a <details> element. The HTML <dt> element (or HTML Definition Term Element) identifies a term in a definition list. This element can occur only as a child element of a <dl>. It is usually followed by a <dd> element; however, multiple <dt> elements in a row indicate several terms that are all defined by the immediate next <dd> element.
Sign up Here's how it works: 1. Anybody can ask a question 2. Anybody can answer Online, I have read contradicting opinions on whether intersect should take precedence over union (by analogy to logical and and or), or whether all set operators should have equal precedence. Which way makes more sense and why? And where does difference fit in? (I'd say it should be equal precedence to intersect because A - B = A intersect B'.) share\|cite\|improve this question What do you mean with "precedence" here? – Rasmus Oct 11 '10 at 13:33 Yeah the connection with arithmetic operators is the second best guide. Usually you can just figure it out by looking at which bracketing make sense though. – anon Oct 11 '10 at 13:34 @Rasmus: Operator precedence determines whether A union B intersect C is (A union B) intersect C or A union (B intersect C). – David R Tribble Oct 11 '10 at 17:01 up vote 9 down vote accepted There is no sensible way of preferring one of intersection and union more than the other, since complement switches them. I don't think you should assume an order at all and you should always use parentheses. share\|cite\|improve this answer Since there are contradicting opinions, I recommend assuming that whoever is reading your work assumes a different precedence order than you do, and using lots of parentheses. share\|cite\|improve this answer Good rule of thumb, so ++. But I was looking for arguments for why the precedence should be one way or the other if you got to choose. – AlcubierreDrive Oct 11 '10 at 23:11 Your Answer
Fiction > Herman Melville > Moby-Dick Chapter CXIII The Forge ‘Are these thy Mother Carey’s chickens, Perth? they are always flying in thy wake; birds of good omen, too, but not to all;—look here, they burn; but thou—thou liv’st among them without a scorch.’ 2 ‘Because I am scorched all over, Captain Ahab,’ answered Perth, resting for a moment on his hammer; ‘I am past scorching; not easily canst thou scorch a scar.’ 3 ‘Well, well; no more. Thy shrunk voice sounds too calmly, sanely woeful to me. In no Paradise myself, I am impatient of all misery in others that is not mad. Thou shouldst go mad, blacksmith; say, why dost thou not go mad? How canst thou endure without being mad? Do the heavens yet hate thee, that thou canst not go mad?—What wert thou making there?’ 4 ‘Welding an old pike-head, sir; there were seams and dents in it.’ 5 ‘And canst thou make it all smooth again, blacksmith, after such hard usage as it had?’ 6 ‘I think so, sir.’ 7 ‘And I suppose thou canst smoothe almost any seams and dents; never mind how hard the metal, blacksmith?’ 8 ‘Ay, sir, I think I can; all seams and dents but one.’ 9 ‘Look ye here, then,’ cried Ahab, passionately advancing, and leaning with both hands on Perth’s shoulders; ‘look ye here—here—can ye smooth out a seam like this, blacksmith,’ sweeping one hand across his ribbed brow; ‘if thou couldst, blacksmith, glad enough would I lay my head upon thy anvil, and feel thy heaviest hammer between my eyes. Answer! Canst thou smoothe this seam?’ 10 ‘Oh! that is the one, sir! Said I not all seams and dents but one?’ 11 ‘Ay, blacksmith, it is the one; ay, man, it is unsmoothable; for though thou only see’st it here in my flesh, it has worked down into the bone of my skull—that is all wrinkles! But, away with child’s play; no more gaffs and pikes to-day. Look ye here!’ jingling the leathern bag, as if it were full of gold coins. ‘I, too, want a harpoon made; one that a thousand yoke of fiends could not part, Perth; something that will stick in a whale like his own fin-bone. There ’s the stuff,’ flinging the pouch upon the anvil. ‘Look ye, blacksmith, these are the gathered nail-stubbs of the steel shoes of racing horses.’ 12 When at last the twelve rods were made, Ahab tried them, one by one, by spiralling them, with his own hand, round a long, heavy iron bolt. ‘A flaw!’ rejecting the last one. ‘Work that over again, Perth.’ 15 This done, Perth was about to begin welding the twelve into one, when Ahab stayed his hand, and said he would weld his own iron. As, then, with regular, gasping hems, he hammered on the anvil, Perth passing to him the glowing rods, one after the other, and the hard-pressed forge shooting up its intense straight flame, the Parsee passed silently, and bowing over his head toward the fire, seemed invoking some curse or some blessing on the toil. But, as Ahab looked up, he slid aside. 16 ‘What ’s that bunch of lucifers dodging about there for?’ muttered Stubb, looking on from the forecastle. ‘That Parsee smells fire like a fusee; and smells of it himself, like a hot musket’s powder-pan.’ 17 ‘Wouldst thou brand me, Perth?’ wincing for a moment with the pain; ‘have I been but forging my own branding-iron, then?’ 19 ‘Pray God, not that; yet I fear something, Captain Ahab. Is not this harpoon for the White Whale?’ 20 ‘Take them, man, I have no need for them; for I now neither shave, sup, nor pray till——but here—to work!’ 23 ‘No, no—no water for that; I want it of the true death-temper. Ahoy, there! Tashtego, Queequeg, Daggoo! What say ye, pagans! Will ye give me as much blood as will cover this barb?’ holding it high up. A cluster of dark nods replied, Yes. Three punctures were made in the heathen flesh, and the White Whale’s barbs were then tempered. 25 ‘Ego non baptizo te in nomine patris, sed in nomine diaboli!’ deliriously howled Ahab, as the malignant iron scorchingly devoured the baptismal blood. 26
Best Known Translations Other Translations Hebrews 7 NCV 1 Melchizedekn was the king of Salem and a priest for God Most High. He met Abraham when Abraham was coming back after defeating the kings. When they met, Melchizedek blessed Abraham, 2 and Abraham gave him a tenth of everything he had brought back from the battle. First, Melchizedek's name means "king of goodness," and he is king of Salem, which means "king of peace." 3 No one knows who Melchizedek's father or mother was, where he came from, when he was born, or when he died. Melchizedek is like the Son of God; he continues being a priest forever. 4 You can see how great Melchizedek was. Abraham, the great father, gave him a tenth of everything that he won in battle. 5 Now the law says that those in the tribe of Levi who become priests must collect a tenth from the people -- their own people -- even though the priests and the people are from the family of Abraham. 6 Melchizedek was not from the tribe of Levi, but he collected a tenth from Abraham. And he blessed Abraham, the man who had God's promises. 7 Now everyone knows that the more important person blesses the less important person. 8 Priests receive a tenth, even though they are only men who live and then die. But Melchizedek, who received a tenth from Abraham, continues living, as the Scripture says. 9 We might even say that Levi, who receives a tenth, also paid it when Abraham paid Melchizedek a tenth. 10 Levi was not yet born, but he was in the body of his ancestor when Melchizedek met Abraham. 11 The people were given the lawn based on a system of priests from the tribe of Levi, but they could not be made perfect through that system. So there was a need for another priest to come, a priest like Melchizedek, not Aaron. 12 And when a different kind of priest comes, the law must be changed, too. 13 We are saying these things about Christ, who belonged to a different tribe. No one from that tribe ever served as a priest at the altar. 15 And this becomes even more clear when we see that another priest comes who is like Melchizedek. 16 He was not made a priest by human rules and laws but through the power of his life, which continues forever. 17 It is said about him, "You are a priest forever, a priest like Melchizedek." 18 The old rule is now set aside, because it was weak and useless. 19 The law of Moses could not make anything perfect. But now a better hope has been given to us, and with this hope we can come near to God. 20 It is important that God did this with an oath. Others became priests without an oath, 21 but Christ became a priest with God's oath. God said: "The Lord has made a promise and will not change his mind. 'You are a priest forever.'" 22 This means that Jesus is the guarantee of a better agreementn from God to his people. 23 When one of the other priests died, he could not continue being a priest. So there were many priests. 24 But because Jesus lives forever, he will never stop serving as priest. 25 So he is able always to save those who come to God through him because he always lives, asking God to help them. 27 He is not like the other priests who had to offer sacrifices every day, first for their own sins, and then for the sins of the people. Christ offered his sacrifice only once and for all time when he offered himself. 28 The law chooses high priests who are people with weaknesses, but the word of God's oath came later than the law. It made God's Son to be the high priest, and that Son has been made perfect forever. Study tools for Hebrews 7
World War 2 1st edition History's Greatest Conflict in Pictures World War 2 0 9780821257135 0821257137 Details about World War 2: Chapters and Essays 1919-1939: All Roads Led to War "Four Blunders That Doomed the World" by Robert Edwin Herzstein 1940: France Falls and Britain Teeters "Hitler's Generals Are Astounded" by Alistair Horne 1941: Finally, America is Forced Into War "The Killing Moves Around the Planet" by Gerhard L. Weinberg 1942: Two Victories Reverse the Momentum "The Beginning Comes to an End" by Harry A. Gailey 1943: From Atoll to Air, the War Grinds on "A Deadly Game of Leapfrog" by Ronald H. Spector 1944: Tyranny on the Brink of Defeat "A Desperate Last-Ditch Resistance" by John Keegan 1945: Splitting Atoms End the War "The Invasion That Never Was" by John S.D. Eisenhower 1946-2001: The War's Aftermath "Red Scares, Baby Harvest, Fatter Paychecks and Learning to Pull Together" by William L. O'Neill. Back to top Rent World War 2 1st edition today, or search our site for other textbooks by Richard B. Stolley. Every textbook comes with a 21-day "Any Reason" guarantee. Published by Bulfinch.
If you happen to miss the ball drop in Times Square on New Year's Eve, you can start 2013 off right with another light show -- the Quadrantid meteor shower. Quadrantids will be zipping overhead from Tuesday to Sunday, but the peak of the shower is expected very early on Thursday, just before dawn. This shower can be as spectacular as the Perseids or the Geminids, with a maximum rate of about 80 per hour, but the Quadrantids' peak intensity will be short -- just a few hours. If you're in the Northern Hemisphere and want to see the show, best to trek out to an area away from bright lights in the wee hours of Jan. 3. A waning gibbous moon will probably interfere with viewing, so 2013's Quadrantid shower may pale in comparison to that of previous years. Continue Reading Below For those stuck in the city or south of the equator, NASA will also be livestreaming a view of the shower from the Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Ala. There's some uncertainty about where exactly the Quadrantids come from. In 2003, one astronomer proposed that the Quadrantid meteors come from a rocky asteroid called 2003 EH1, but it's possible that this body may actually be an icy comet called C/1490 Y1, which was spotted 500 years ago by astronomers in Asia. Or 2003 EH1 may be a piece that broke off of the comet hundreds of years ago. “After hundreds of years orbiting the sun, they will enter our atmosphere at 90,000 mph, burning up 50 miles above Earth's surface -- a fiery end to a long journey!” NASA writes. Meteor showers are named for their radiants, or where they appear to originate from in the sky. This shower's name comes from Quadrans Muralis, a constellation between Draco and Bootes that no longer exists. Quadrans Muralis, named by French astronomer Jerome Lalande in 1795 for a device used to measure angles, was booted off the list of official constellations by the International Astronomical Union in 1922.
1 definition by HolyOak Top Definition A homogenous mosaic of people, places, and things, but mostly commonly used by people (who typically say things like "conversate" instead of converse and "legitimately" instead of literally) referring to groups of white people by "I think Colorado Springs is, like, really homogenaic." #engrish #thinly-veiled racism #legitimately #dating #religion 作者 HolyOak 2013年1月07日
Join them; it only takes a minute: Sign up Join the Stack Overflow community to: 1. Ask programming questions 2. Answer and help your peers 3. Get recognized for your expertise For the following program: int DivZero(int, int, int); int main() try { cout << DivZero(1,0,2) << endl; catch(char* e) cout << "Exception is thrown!" << endl; cout << e << endl; return 1; return 0; int DivZero(int a, int b, int c) throw "All parameters must be greater than 0."; return b/c + a; Using char* e will give terminate called after throwing an instance of 'char const' According to C++ Exception Handling , the solution is to use const char instead. Further reading from function (const char ) vs. function (char ) said that The type of "String" is char', not const char' (this is a C discussion I think...) Additional reading on Stack Overflow char* vs const char* as a parameter tells me the difference. But none of them address my questions: 1. It seems like both char* and string* have limit on the numbers of characters. Am I correct? 2. How does adding the keyword const to char* eliminates that limit? I thought the only purpose of const is to set a flag that said "unmodifiable". I understand that const char* e means " the pointer which points to unmodifiable char type". The solution to that error is to use const char* e. Even const string* e doesn't work. (just for the sake of testing...) Can anyone explain, please? Thank you! By the way, I am on Ubuntu, compiled by GCC, on Eclipse. share\|improve this question up vote 18 down vote accepted Why are you throwing and catching strings anyway? You should throw and catch exceptions, e.g. std::runtime_error The answer to your question is that whenever you insert a string in quotes in the code it returns a null terminated const char* The reason your code doesn't work as above is because it's the wrong type, so that catch, isn't catching what you're throwing. You're throwing a const char. There is no limit to the number of characters in a char array beyond the size of your stack/heap. If you're referring to the example you posted, that person had created a fixed size array, so they were limited. share\|improve this answer @Salgar This is a sample code from the book Fundamental of Data Structure (2ed). So if I insert int [] it will return as const int ???? (with the const keyword)? – CppLearner Jun 1 '11 at 22:57 Agreed, derive all exceptions from std::exception. throwing basic types leads to trouble. ensuring that everything derives from std::exception lets you be sure that catch(std::exception e) will catch everything. You want to reserve catch(...) for the most extreme cases, such as DLL boundaries. Throwing basic types often will lead to the need to catch(...) often. use throw std::runtime_error("All parameters must be greater than 0."); – totowtwo Jun 1 '11 at 22:57 yes, lets you be sure that a catch(const std::exception& e) will catch everything. – Salgar Jun 1 '11 at 22:59 @JongWong no, the type of the code "foo" is a const char, the type of int[] is int[] and the type of int is int* – Salgar Jun 1 '11 at 23:00 I'm pretty sure a string literal has type const char[N], with N being the string length+` (for the '\0'), not const char, it just decays to that. – KillianDS Aug 28 '13 at 19:03 The email you linked to about "String" is wrong (and confusing). char is a pointer to an unbounded array of characters. Traditionally we consider such an array to be a C-string if it contains a set of valid characters followed by a \0. There's no limit to the size of the array. const char* is a pointer to an unbounded array of immutable characters. string* is a pointer to a std::string object, and is entirely different. This is a smart object that encapsulates a string. Using std::string instead of C-strings can make your life loads easier, even though they've got some rough edges and a lot of nasty gotchas; they're well worth looking into, but they're not relevant to the question. "String" is a special expression that returns a const char* pointing at the specific C-string (note: this is not actually true, but it's a simplification that lets me answer the question concisely). A char* can be automatically cast to a const char, but not vice versa. Note that old C++ compilers had a special exception to the type rules to let you do this: char s = "String"; ...without producing a type error; this was for C compatibility. Modern C++ compilers won't let you do it (such as recent gccs). They require this: const char* s = "String"; So. The problem here is that you've got: throw "All parameters must be greater than 0."; ...but then you're trying to catch it with: catch(char* e) This doesn't work, because the throw is throwing a const char, which can't be cast to the type specified in the catch, so it isn't getting caught. This is why changing the catch to: catch (const char e) ...makes it work. share\|improve this answer +1, but every compiler I know of (including recent GCCs) lets you do char* s = "String"; without error. Some may give a warning, on the other hand... (Demo) – ildjarn Jun 1 '11 at 23:20 Well explained. I wish I can mark everyone, but I can't. He answered before you did. That's okay I guess. Your explanation was very helpful. I really like it. Thanks, David. I actually have found more on const.... wiki article called "const-correctness". :] – CppLearner Jun 1 '11 at 23:23 @ildjarn +1 for your great comment and demo. :] – CppLearner Jun 1 '11 at 23:24 @JohnWong Glad to be of help (the sweet, sweet reputation points are nice too, muhahaha). Const correctness is well worth learning about; C++ is a very picky and extremely subtle language, and getting const correctness right may be a pain in the arse at times but will be hugely helpful when saving you from shooting your foot off later. C++ is not my favourite language... – David Given Jun 2 '11 at 11:22 Your Answer
The Plain Dealer February 24, 2002 The Origin of the Human Species by John Mangels and Scott Stephens In Tennessee, it was put on trial like a common criminal. In Kansas, it was shunned like an aging starlet. But in Ohio, the venerable theory of evolution could face one of its toughest challenges yet: Having to share equal billing in the classroom with an upstart alternative that has popular and political appeal. The Ohio Board of Education, which sets the curriculum for 1.8 million public school students, is split sharply on whether Ohio should become the first state to teach that a controversial concept called "intelligent design" is as probable an explanation as evolution for how life developed on Earth. Breaking with the recommendation of their own science advisory, nearly a third of board members believe Ohio's children should be exposed to the concept, which contends that living things must have been "designed" by some purposeful but unknown being because they are too complex to have occurred by chance. Most mainstream researchers reject intelligent design as unscientific conjecture, and some legal experts warn that it is a cleverly disguised attempt to breach the constitutional firewall between church and state. The U.S. Supreme Court has twice ruled that the God-centered creationism theory of human origin cannot be taught because it is a religious belief. However, some think that intelligent design - which does not mention God although it is backed by fundamentalist Christian groups - could survive the almost-certain court challenges. A victory in Ohio could be the "wedge" that intelligent design's supporters say they need to gain credibility and momentum in other states. The quickening vortex of debate is snaring Ohio's executive and legislative branches, as well as its educators. The issue of intelligent design may figure in this year's gubernatorial race, since the state's chief executive appoints eight of the 19 Board of Education members. And in the legislature, two conservative lawmakers opposed to an evolution-only curriculum have introduced a bill that would give the General Assembly, rather than educators, the final say on what children learn in science class. While evolution's supporters here brace for Jay Leno jokes and what they see as yet another hurdle in the desperate race to remake Ohio as a progressive, high-tech state, advocates of intelligent design predict exactly the opposite. They say presenting evolution as a less-than-certain prospect promotes academic freedom and critical thinking, putting Ohio on the cutting edge of education. As a sign of how times and strategies have changed, those are the identical arguments that Ohio-born lawyer Clarence Darrow used in a steamy Tennessee courtroom in 1925 to defend the teaching of evolution during the infamous "Monkey Trial" of substitute biology teacher John Scopes. Now, nearly 80 years later, "there's almost a reverse Scopes trial going on here," observes Ohio Board of Education member James Turner of Cincinnati. "I've not heard anybody say we ought to censor the teaching of evolution, [but] I've heard people say we ought to censor even the inference of intelligent design." The head-on collision between education, politics, religion and science shaping up in Columbus has the same dramatic lure that brought throngs of spectators to tiny Dayton, Tennessee, to watch Darrow spar with William Jennings Bryan so long ago. "I thought Inherit the Wind was a great movie, but I never thought I'd see it played out in Ohio," says Greater Cleveland Growth Association president Dennis Eckart. State officials unwittingly gave intelligent-design backers an opening when they decided last year to overhaul the entire pub-lic education system for students in grades K-12. With the help of expert advisers, the Board of Education is for the first time spelling out exactly what pupils are expected to learn in every subject. Classroom teaching guidelines and the state's new 10th-grade achievement test will mirror the standards. Local school districts aren't required to follow the state's lead, but their students will have to pass proficiency tests - a powerful incentive for teachers to go along with what the Board of Education decides. The board approved the English and math portions without incident in December. Up next were the science standards and a chance for educators to remedy what some saw as a woeful lack of teaching about evolution in Ohio schools. Although the theory that random genetic variation and natural selection drive the development of all living things is a cornerstone of modern biology, backed by a wealth of evidence from fossils to gene scans, evolution barely rates a mention in the current science guidelines. "Evolution is treated here as if it were not proper conversation in polite company," said a withering review of Ohio's standards by the Washington, D.C.-based Thomas Fordham Foundation in September 2000. "The E-word is avoided and the evolutionary process occupies a near negligible part of an extensive document." The education think-tank gave Ohio an F, ranking it with perennial bottom-dwellers such as Alabama, Mississippi and West Virginia. The proposed new science standards, prepared with the advice of national and Ohio science groups and written by a panel of volunteers, aimed to fix that omission. The working document the Board of Education received in December was still weak in some areas, but evolution was "well represented" this time around, according to an evaluation by the Ohio Academy of Science. Not everyone was happy, though. Cleveland chemist Robert Lattimer, an ardent intelligent-design supporter who joined the team writing the new science standards, felt his views were being ignored. "They were polite and listened, but they voted eight or nine to one against," Lattimer says. The writing team was supposed to be diverse, but ended up being "totally biased" in favor of teaching only evolution, he says. After complaining to state Department of Education staffers to no avail, Lattimer and others last November organized a group called Science Excellence for All Ohioans (SEAO) to campaign for giving intelligent design equal time in the classroom. SEAO members are working closely with John Calvert, co-founder of the Intelligent Design Network, who spoke to the Board of Education's standards committee last month. Calvert, a Kansas City lawyer, was part of the briefly successful 1999 effort in his home state to have Board of Education members remove evolution from standardized tests. After an election-day purge of anti-evolutionists, the board rescinded the action. Ohio is in the bull's-eye now. The Board of Education, which hopes to make a decision by December, began discussing the issue last month. Unlike in Kansas, there appears to be a consensus that evolution should be included in the state's science curriculum. But there is also a group of board members - at this point, a minority - who want an alternative theory as well. Although the board has not voted on the issue, member Michael Cochran last month proposed ordering the science-standards writing team to prepare a second, alternative draft. The new draft would describe evolution as an assumption and would include intelligent design as another possible scientific explanation of how life developed. Board members Deborah Owens Fink, James Turner, Richard Baker, Marlene Jennings and Sue Westendorf spoke in favor of Cochran's proposal, though Turner and Owens Fink say they remain undecided. Before any action though, the board wants to hear from its legal advisers and from experts on both sides of the debate. In the next few weeks, the educators will be briefed by the Ohio attorney general's office and by several evolution and intelligent-design advocates. They will seek public comment later this year. The argument over what government-run schools should teach children about how life unfolded has festered for most of the last century. To mainstream scientists, the answer is simple: Lessons should be about the explanation that best fits the available evidence and that can be verified through experiments. The explanation has to come from the natural, physical world, since supernatural forces or beings don't lend themselves to scientific testing. Hands down, the best explanation for how we got here is evolution, according to most scientists doing work in related fields. The idea first promoted in 1859 by British naturalist Charles Darwin that living things came from a common ancestor and changed over time is widely accepted within the scientific community. Teaching anything else is confusing, contradictory and a waste of students' time, the theory's supporters believe. "Evolution tells us what did happen. It's the single most powerful idea any human has ever formulated," says Bruce Latimer, a noted physical anthropologist and director of the Cleveland Museum of Natural History. But to those Christians who believe in the literal truth of the Bible and its creation story, it is God, not random natural forces, that shapes living things and guides their development. Thus, evolution is an affront to their faith, and its teaching in public schools amounts to a government-endorsed threat to religion and morality. "If nature reflected the character of its creator, then the God of a Darwinian world acted randomly and cruelly," writes University of Georgia historian Edward Larson in Summer for the Gods, his Pulitzer Prize-winning account of the Scopes trial and its aftermath. Further, to some Christians, discounting God's role in human creation and chalking up our existence to chance implies that there is no divine oversight - that anything goes. Evolution's critics fear it undermines the values that hold society together. "I worry that evolution is a springboard to atheism," says Robert Lattimer of SEAO, the group that is leading the intelligent design effort in the state. SEAO is quick to point out that it does not advocate creationism in the classroom. Intelligent design doesn't take a theological stand. "It is pointless to try to inject creationist language into state-adopted science standards, since that battle has already been fought and won by the evolutionists," SEAO's literature acknowledges, referring to federal court rulings against teaching God-centered explanations for human origin. Besides, various Christian groups strongly disagree on the degree and nature of God's involvement in the creation of life. Intelligent design, which emerged as a national movement in the 1990s, tries to avoid these sticky theological and legal controversies by not attempting to define who the intelligence doing the designing of life is. It could be God, or something or someone else. Everyone's beliefs are accommodated, and science is no longer a direct threat to religion. "You'll find a few design advocates who don't propose a supernatural designer," Lattimer says. "The majority think the designer is God, of course. But the theory doesn't say that." SEAO is a project of the American Family Association of Ohio, and its network of supporters includes other conservative Christian organizations such as Eagle Forum and the Christian Home Educators of Ohio. It's that strong Christian background presence that prompts the critics of intelligent design to label it "stealth creationism," a clever way of skirting the legal restrictions. "This is dressing creationism in new clothes to sneak it past the courts," says American Civil Liberties Union of Ohio legal director Ray Vasvari. "It's rather clearly to draw students to the brink of that conclusion [that the designer is God] and leave them there. It's a trivial step from where they stop to scientific creationism, which the courts have banned from public classrooms." "We're not ashamed or apologetic that we hold to Judeo-Christian values," responds American Family Association state director Barry Sheets. But the designer's identity "is outside the realm of education." "We see this not as a religious issue, but of wanting to make sure students in public schools get the information they need," Sheets says. "We're just asking for there to be a legitimate and balanced look at all of the valid scientific theories" for human origin. But is intelligent design really science? It's a crucial question, because the Supreme Court's last ruling against teaching creationism left open the door for schools to offer alternatives to evolution as long as they are "scientific theories" intended to improve science education. The problem for intelligent design's backers is that scientists, not lay people, determine what science is. The prevailing, long-standing definition of a scientific theory is one that bases its explanation on processes in the natural world that can be observed, repeatedly tested by experiment, and rejected or accepted based on the ability of other scientists to independently verify the outcome. Intelligent design can't meet all those criteria, but its proponents insist there are biological "fingerprints" left by a designer, and that they can be scientifically quantified and tested. For example, Baylor University mathematician William Dembski has developed predictive formulas he says can sift through information and tell the difference between randomness and complex patterns designed by an intelligence. Using this mathematical filter to assess the components of living cells shows they are too complicated to have come about by chance, Dembski contends. According to intelligent design backers, something that contains a large amount of specialized information, such as the assembly instructions coded in human DNA, doesn't result from chance any more than hieroglyphic carvings are the result of wind or erosion. The bulk of intelligent design literature, though, focuses on exposing the flaws of evolutionary theory, rather than spelling out a model of how intelligent design accounts for human development. "It lacks the most basic parts of science: A testable hypothesis you can make measurements on, and data that supports that hypothesis," says Steve Edinger, an Ohio University physiology instructor. "The way intelligent design works ?is to look at part of an animal or plant and say, I don't know how this could have evolved naturally; therefore a supernatural creator must have made it.' " Anthropologist Eugenie Scott, who directs the National Center for Science Education, puts it this way: "Scientists may be believers or nonbelievers, but when they're in the lab, they stick to natural processes. We can't put God in a test tube." Intelligent design's advocates say mainstream science's unwillingness to consider their concept amounts to closed-mindedness and censorship. They portray the scientific community as sharply divided over evolution and propose that the definition of science ought to be changed to do away with its arbitrary "natural world" limits. "We feel that science isn't a search for the natural explanation, but the best explanation," says Mark Edwards of the Seattle-based Discovery Institute's Center for the Renewal of Science and Culture. "You don't have to accept [intelligent design]. You just have to say there's ?a dissenting opinion. To not tell that is bad education, not science." The public shouldn't be fooled by such arguments, counters John Staver, director of the Center for Science Education at Kansas State University and a veteran of that state's brush with anti-evolutionism three years ago. There is no widespread scientific controversy, and no conspiratorial bias. On evolution, "the scientific community is as unanimous as they are about anything," Staver says. "Nobel Prizes are won by people who overthrow the prevailing theory or make a startlingly new discovery. If the scientific community got the sense there was anything to the intelligent-design argument, you would have scientists by the carload working on this." Faced with that opposition, intelligent-design advocates have turned to the public and politicians, who are likely to be more sympathetic to pleas for equal time and appeals to fair play. Polls show that most Americans oppose teaching only evolution in the classroom, and that most don't think it is a completely accurate account of how humans developed. The brilliance of the strategy is that it puts evolution's supporters on the defensive, at least rhetorically. It forces them to advance the unpopular argument that democracy and free speech shouldn't dictate what is taught in the classroom. Without context, statements that God is irrelevant in science don't play well in a country whose motto is "In God We Trust" and a state that extols "With God, all things are possible." "The equal-time argument is the most popular and successful argument they've had," says anthropologist Scott, whose Oakland, California-based National Center for Science Education tracks intelligent design efforts nationally. "They don't have science, but they have the American sense of fairness." As members of the Ohio Board of Education are discovering, it takes a hefty understanding of science to even begin to sort through the evolution/intelligent-design debate. "The problem is, it's difficult to say politely that you can't make the choice until you know a whole lot more than you do," says Mark Wilson, a College of Wooster paleontologist who teaches a course to help students respond to creationist arguments. "That does sound arrogant, and scientists should be concerned about sounding arrogant." But public skepticism of evolution shouldn't be used to justify teaching unscientific alternatives to it, says Case Western Reserve University physics chairman Lawrence Krauss. "That a significant number of Americans don't believe in evolution tells us we should do something more to teach science, not less," says Krauss. "We scientists owe it to ourselves to become as evangelical as they [intelligent-design advocates] are." Wryly noting that chaos is also a theory, board member Joseph Roman of Fairview Park, co-chairman of the standards subcommittee, last month implored his colleagues to listen, ask questions and learn before making a decision. "We need a common vocabulary," Roman says. "We want to have a couple of sessions to educate ourselves and make sure we're as informed as possible. We want to make sure everyone has a chance to be heard." One person who does not want to be heard is Governor Bob Taft. He says he has no intention of being dragged into the debate. "I'll leave that to the Board of Education and to the educational experts," he says. But Taft's Democratic challenger, former Cuyahoga County Commissioner Tim Hagan, pledged that he would make sure a board candidate had a firm commitment to teaching evolution before appointing that person to fill a vacancy. "This is not Kansas. This is Ohio," Hagan says. "The debate doesn't surprise me because there is a faction in Ohio that would like to impose its theological views on the rest of the state. But honorable people who believe in theology, as I do, can and should make the distinction between science and religion." The task of making that distinction could land with the Ohio legislature. At least that's State Senator Jim Jordan's intention. The Urbana Republican is the sponsor of one of two bills that would require the legislature to approve whatever science standards the board develops. Jordan says he is using the same strategy he used in 1998 to nix a sex-education program he and many of his constituents found offensive. In that case, the state was forced to give back nearly $1 million in federal health education money because parent groups were afraid the money would be used to teach children about condoms and masturbation. "We've done it before," notes Jordan, who says he favors teaching alternative theories along with evolution. "We think it's appropriate to look at this stuff, especially when value judgments are being made." Others view legislative involvement as the worst-case scenario. Roman says he fears that the focus on evolution - a minute portion of a 100-plus-page draft - will divert attention from establishing science standards that will prepare Ohio students for the new century. "Instead of beginning a debate on exciting science standards, we're focusing on one small piece," Roman says. "That, to me, is the tragedy of what's going on." © 2002 The Plain Dealer. Used with permission. File Date: 03.03.02
Science & Environment What does Tevatron closure mean for big US science? Tevatron control room (Fermilab) Image caption The Tevatron was a world-leading high-energy physics facility until the LHC took the baton in 2009 The last stores of particles circling in the Tevatron this week are in fact a quiet concession: the US has for the moment to cede its dominance in particle physics. But what does the Tevatron's closure mean for the state of big-ticket American science? One might think, with the space shuttle programme coming to a close and fitful negotiations for the James Webb Space Telescope ongoing, that perhaps America is slowly pulling down the shutters on its dominance across a number of disciplines. Patrick Clemins, director of the research and development budget and policy programme at the American Association for the Advancement of Science, sees it a different way. "I don't think people would say that American science is on a downward trend," he told BBC News. "I think what people would say is that we are experiencing a lot more competition than we have in the past. A lot of countries have learned from our growth over the past decades and are implementing some of the same policies to grow their own scientific infrastructures." He added: "It's not so much a sense that the US is falling behind, it's that everyone is catching up." Funding bullseyes So how to maintain if not dominance, then at least relevance in a world where new nations are building vast telescope arrays, starting independent space programmes and striking deals for fusion energy facilities? Image caption The Tevatron will be upgraded to a high-intensity leader, instead of a high-energy one What almost everyone agrees is that international collaboration is the key in an era when it takes a machine the size of a Large Hadron Collider (LHC) to break frontiers. "I think what's happening is that these big-ticket items are just so big that no country is doing it alone," said Rob Roser, who heads up the CDF collaboration, one of the two giant detectors at the Tevatron. "In the old days, the US built the Tevatron all by itself," he told BBC News. "But to build the next machine, that won't be the case - we'll need help from everybody." The LHC has set an impressive precedent for this kind of international buy-in, but two well-known problems stand in the way of the US playing host to facilities that require international financing. One is that budgets for science endeavours are most often decided on a yearly basis. What is promised as a decade of annual funding one year can be whittled down the next, or shot down altogether. "When you look at Nasa and individual missions that cost hundreds of millions each year, those are large budget items that Congress sees," explained Dr Clemins. "When they're looking to cut the budget, those programmes definitely have a bullseye on them." Low security of funds may scare off international collaborations, but heightened security at the borders is another stumbling block. Immigration restrictions that have come into force in the past decade have made it particularly difficult for non-US scientists to gain the easy access that visitors to other big global facilities might find. In short, as Dr Roser puts it: "To be successful in the long run in terms of international projects, we have to be better international players." 'Hard problems' A more troubling perspective on the politics that may be behind an apparent decline in US dominance in science comes from Rush Holt, a member of the US House of Representatives - and the only PhD-educated physicist in Congress. He brings up what has always played a role in America's willingness to spend eye-watering sums of money on cutting edge research: national pride. Image caption The top quark discovery was just one of many that put physics' "Standard Model" on firm footing He recalled the story of Bob Wilson, a leader of the Manhattan Project who was drafted in to run a world-beating particle accelerator project - that would become Fermilab - before ground had even been broken. Called before Congress to justify the huge expenditure, he was asked by Senator John Pastore what the facility would do for national security. He famously answered that it had "nothing to do directly with defending our country except to make it worth defending". "This is the first time that the US, in my half-century of experience, seems to be saying that we're lowering our sights," Mr Holt told BBC News. "It's not a particular project that fails to find the political support to keep going, but the whole enterprise. "That's hard for me to accept, having grown up in a country that has always wanted to push the frontiers, always wanted to be the pace-setter, whether in physics or biology or packaging or you name it." Off Capitol Hill and back at Fermilab, physicist Dan Hooper hopes Mr Holt is wrong. "It's one thing if we make a strategic decision that some particular corner of science is being done very well by the Europeans or Chinese or whoever, and therefore we are going to invest in this other place where we think we can get more bang for our buck - those sorts of considerations should be made," he told BBC News. "But if it's a matter of 'we don't do that any more because it's hard, or it requires resources'... If we had thought that way all along, we would never have done the Tevatron, would never have done the Apollo programme, would never have done many of the great scientific achievements of this country. "I want us to be attracted to the hard problems that, when they're solved, will be remembered for a very long time." More on this story Related Internet links The BBC is not responsible for the content of external Internet sites
The term "cross" has two definitions in finance. The first type of cross is when a broker receives a buy and sell order for the same stock at the same price, and subsequently makes a simultaneous trade between two separate customers at that price; variations of this are the market opening and closing crosses. The second type is a foreign exchange transaction in which neither currency is the U.S. dollar. "Cross" is used several ways with regard to securities trades and also refers to a type of foreign exchange trade. Cross by Broker If a stock broker receives separate orders to buy and sell at the same price at the same time, he must offer the stock in the market at a higher price than the bid. If no higher bid is available, he can execute the two deals at the same time and at the same price. Opening and Closing Crosses The Nasdaq gathers and posts data on all buy and sell interest in the two minutes prior to its opening; this information is referred to as the opening cross. Traders can post orders to buy at the opening price or to buy if there is an order imbalance. This dissemination of pricing interest helps to limit disruptions in liquidity. The closing cross on Nasdaq matches bids and offers in a given stock to create a final price of the day. Traders can place orders that can be either "market at close," which means buy or sell at the official closing price or "limit at close." In the latter case, if the price at the close is better than the specified limit, the deal will be executed at the market price. Nasdaq collects data for the closing cross between 3:50 p.m. and the closing time of 4:00 p.m. Cross orders are executed between 4:00 p.m. exactly and five seconds after 4:00 p.m. Currency Cross The dollar is the most actively traded currency in the multi-trillion dollar daily foreign exchange market. In the past, investors or hedgers who wanted to trade a pair such as the euro vs the yen, known as EURJPY, needed to do it through the dollar. This meant that buying EUR and selling JPY required the following steps: (1) buy EUR and sell USD and (2) buy the same amount of USD and sell JPY. Disadvantages of this approach include paying the bid/offer spread twice (once in each currency pair) and needing to deal for a USD amount rather than a EUR or JPY amount. However, the dollar pairs are more actively traded than the cross, so in times of volatility or reduced liquidity, traders may still execute via the components. The most actively traded currency crosses are the euro vs the yen, British pound and Swiss franc. Cross trades can be done for spot, forward or options transactions. 1. Cross Trade A practice where buy and sell orders for the same stock are offset ... 2. Opening Cross 3. Net Order Imbalance Indicator (NOII) Order imbalance information about the opening and closing crosses ... 4. Limit Order 5. Below The Market 6. Buy Limit Order Related Articles 1. Forex Education Make The Currency Cross Your Boss 2. Online Stock Traders 3. Forex Strategies These Are The Best Hours To Trade the Euro 4. Active Trading Fundamentals The Basics Of Trading A Stock 5. Investing Basics The Auction Method: How NYSE Stock Prices are Set 6. Trading Strategies Making The Trade: Understand Order Types 7. Forex Education A Primer On Cross Currency Triangulation 8. Options & Futures Brokers and Online Trading: Accounts And Orders 9. Investing How To Start Trading: Order Types 10. Forex Fundamentals These Are The Best Hours To Trade the U.S. Dollar (USD) The best times to trade USD currency pairs are centered before and after economic releases in in the U.S. and cross-venues. 1. What's the difference between a market order and a limit order? 2. Why do limit orders cost more than market orders? 4. How do I place a limit order online? 5. When is a buy limit order executed? 6. How can traders profit from a death cross pattern? Seek long-term profits by using the death cross pattern to identify either a trading entry point or a major resistance level ... Read Answer >> Hot Definitions 1. Over-The-Counter - OTC 2. Quarter - Q1, Q2, Q3, Q4 3. Weighted Average Cost Of Capital - WACC 4. Basis Point (BPS) 5. Sharing Economy 6. Unlevered Beta Trading Center
Advertisement -- Learn more about ads on this site. 30,000-39,999 SparkPoints 31,088 Saturday, November 24, 2012 At the prodding of BLITZEN40, I've decided to talk a bit about homeostasis. As it relates to biology, it is the process of keeping things stable. A simple way to look at it is what your body currently considers "normal". Some things are non-negotiable such as body temperature or blood pH. There can be slight adaptations for body temperature, for example, have you ever noticed that 65 degrees in autumn feels cooler than 65 degrees in the spring? The body has adapted slightly to colder temperatures. The body is constantly working to be more efficient. As a result, the boundaries of homeostasis constantly shrink when not perturbed. The old saying "if you don't use it, ya lose it" is a good example of that. Stop training and watch those boundaries shrink as the body gets "used to" sitting. Many runners can probably remember a day when a run/walk interval made them want to double over. Today, many here are completing several miles races at a fairly constant pace. The beginning of homeostatic disruption occurred when you pushed the envelope and went from walking to running. The boundaries continue to be stretched until physiological limits are hit. You cannot get infinitely faster or stronger, but most of us have not reached anywhere close to our genetic potentials. Disruption is easy at first. It's typically called "beginner's gains" or "newb gains" for short. The closer you are to couch potato, the easier it is to disrupt homeostasis. The closer you get to your genetic potential, the harder it becomes to disrupt homeostasis. Always train with a purpose. For general strength and conditioning, this purpose should be the disruption of homeostasis. If you're a runner or endurance athlete, the disruption might occur to the musculature over time. "Getting your miles in" as they say. Hill sprints are perturbing the cardiovascular system. Strength training should be progressively overloading your muscles with either more weight, more repetitions or both. As you progress beyond average and closer to genetic potential, perturbation becomes impossible during a single session and must be planned out over several sessions. Doing the same thing over and over again does not disrupt homeostasis and does not promote progress. At best, you maintain your current level (i.e. you've wasted your time). Measuring fitness in minutes to me is largely foolish. I can walk around in circles for days and accomplish nothing (but I sure did rack up a lot of fitness minutes), or I can squat hundreds of pounds for 30 seconds and have my ass handed to me. Whatever accomplishes disruption for you should be the goal, not necessarily minutes. Anyway, that's my crack at the subject. Feel free to weigh in with your take, corrections, enhancements. As always pointless emoticon comments will be shot on sight. Thanks again to BLITZEN40 for the kick in the butt. You disrupted my blog's homeostasis which had clearly gone into hibernation. Share This Post With Others Member Comments About This Blog Post • v REXTINE1 Interesting blog. There's one other thing, a side issue - the genetic potential changes with time no matter what you do. If you look at a graph of the fastest finishers of the Boston Marathon, the fastest runners between 20 and 30 years old were finishing just over two hours - maybe 2:10 to 2:20. By the age of 70 they are over three hours, and by 80 they're around four hours. There are no finishers over 80 for the one graph I have. I assume that the runners were all prepared for the race, and that there are other events where the older person can be competitive with the younger ones, but there is some loss of performance just because you wear out. The trick is to keep it to a minimum by trying to stay close to the genetic potential you have at a given age. According to Dr. Oz, (and a bunch of others) you can be younger or older that your calendar age, but that's just another way of saying what you pointed out. 1277 days ago Comment edited on: 11/24/2012 6:19:22 PM • v BLITZEN40 Interesting stuff. I like what you did here in relating homeostasis to physical fitness. I was thinking about it in terms of weight gain and loss and as it was explained to me, homeostasis involved a living organism's internal workings to achieve an "ideal" balance so that the body can function at it's most efficient. And on some levels, such as body temperature and heart rate, that makes sense. But as related to physical fitness and ideal weight my thought is that homeostasis does not work as it should, or wouldn't we all naturally only eat the correct amount of healthy food we need to be at our ideal weight and turn away everything else? And wouldn't we all be driven by our homeostasis to exercise appropriately so we all have the ideal muscle size, tone and cardiovascular health that is optimal for each of us individually? I was under the impression that homeostasis was there to help us achieve our optimal, ideal balance (as it does in regulation of body temperature), but as it relates to ideal fitness and ideal weight, I think you have it right. Rather than it helping, you actually have to fight it to get to that ideal balance. And once you get there, it does nothing to help you stay there. You have to fight to maintain or you'll go right back to being that couch potato you mentioned. No help from our homies! Eating is more controlled by the lateral and ventromedial hypothalamus I think. No homeostasis involvement. 1277 days ago I would've been disappointed if I didn't get an emoticon outta you. It's a fine balance between disruption and recovery. The answer isn't always to increase frequency, it's to find a balance between frequency and recovery. Admittedly, I'm still working on this. But the good news is, the more I keep at it, the better I get. This is why having a program is crucial as you get further away from couch potato and closer to genetic potential. Any ol' thing isn't going to work any more. 1277 days ago Sorry, couldn't resist the figured you could use some target practice. Since completing my first half 2 weeks ago, I've only run 3 times. A very slow 4 miles the Tuesday after. The following Tuesday went for 8 miles but was toast after 6 and ended up walking a bit then slow jogging the rest. That got me to thinking that I've only been doing this for about 7 months now with really only about 3 months of runs over 8 miles once a week (Sep 1st 9 miles). Some people have been running these distances for years. I think laying off a week has more of a negative effect on me than them because of that. But then again, during our training, my improvements were greater than their's. Not a bad trade off I guess. Today, went out with a runner friend and we did 9 miles together. Ended up keeping up very well and even pushing him a bit but I definitely didn't feel as good doing it as I did before I reduced my running frequency. 1277 days ago 1277 days ago • Add Your Comment to the Blog Post Log in to post a comment
New Year, Old Myths, New Fatalities: Alcohol-Related Traffic Deaths Jump During Christmas and New Year's christmas tress (select to view enlarged photo) BETHESDA, MD--Dec. 10, 2012: Some holiday predictions are, tragically, very predictable. For example, more people are likely to die in alcohol-related traffic crashes during the holidays than at other times of the year. Myths Persist Even though many of us are aware of these troubling statistics, myths about drinking and driving persist--myths that, for some, can prove fatal. Scientific studies supported by the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) provide important information that challenges these widespread, yet incorrect, beliefs about how quickly alcohol affects the body and how long these effects can last. Alcohol's Effects Begin Quickly Holiday revelers may not recognize that critical driving-related skills and decision-making abilities are diminished long before they show physical signs of intoxication. Initially, alcohol acts as a stimulant and people who drink may temporarily feel upbeat and excited. But they shouldn't be fooled. Alcohol soon affects inhibitions and judgment, leading to reckless decisions behind the wheel. As more alcohol is consumed, reaction time suffers and behavior becomes poorly controlled and sometimes aggressive--further compromising driving abilities. Continued drinking can lead to the slurred speech and loss of balance that we typically associate with being drunk. At higher levels, alcohol acts as a depressant, which causes the drinker to become sleepy and sometimes pass out. Even When Drinking Stops--Alcohol's Effects Do Not During a night of drinking, it's also easy to misjudge alcohol's lasting effects. Many revelers believe that they can drive safely once they stop drinking and have a cup of coffee. The truth is that alcohol continues to affect the brain and body long after the last drink has been downed. Even after someone stops drinking, alcohol in the stomach and intestine continues to enter the bloodstream, impairing judgment and coordination for hours. Driving home late at night is especially hazardous because the depressant action of alcohol magnifies a person's natural drowsiness. Driving abilities may even be impaired the next day, when any alcohol remaining in the system--or the headache and disorientation associated with hangovers--contributes to feelings of sluggishness, even though the person no longer feels drunk. Before You Celebrate--Plan Ahead Of course, we don't intend to harm anyone when we get behind the wheel during the holiday season. Yet traffic fatalities persist and myths about drinking live on--even though scientific studies have documented how alcohol affects the brain and body. Because individuals are so different, it is difficult to give specific advice about drinking. But certain facts are clear--there's no way to speed up the brain's recovery from alcohol and no way to make good decisions when you are drinking too much, too fast. So this holiday season,New Year's Eve do not underestimate the effects of alcohol. Don't believe you can beat them. Here are some tips to keep in mind if you choose to drink: • Have "drink spacers"--make every other drink a nonalcoholic one. Sobering Up--Myths and Facts Myth: Drink coffee. Caffeine will sober you up. Have a safe holiday season! For more information on celebrating your holidays safely and tips for cutting back, visit: Re-Thinking Drinking. Send your questions, comments, and suggestions to Submit Company releases or Product News stories to Place copy in body of email, NO attachments please. Link to this page:
Children's, Intermediate and Advanced Online English Dictionary & Thesaurus Dictionary Suite Multi-word Results bring into play to put into motion or effect. child's play something that is very easily done; cinch. fair play the act of following, honorably, the established rules of a game or sport; honorable conduct in business or any other competitive activity. match play a type of golf competition in which each side scores a point for each hole won, regardless of the total number of strokes. (Cf. medal play.) medal play a type of golf competition in which the total number of strokes taken by each side determines the score. (Cf. match play.) miracle play a type of medieval religious drama that depicted the lives of saints or Biblical stories. play footsie with to engage in or strive for a close, mutually beneficial, surreptitious relationship or cooperation. play havoc with to destroy. [2 definitions] play hob with to treat or trick mischievously. play it by ear to act without planning in advance; improvise. play it safe to act so as to prevent or avoid misfortune or danger; be cautious. play one's cards to make and carry out good choices. play possum to pretend to be asleep or dead; keep very still to avoid being noticed. Opossums do this so predators will ignore them.
Friday, April 30, 2010 Friday TED Talk: Stephen Wolfram on the Computable World Stephen Wolfram is the creator of the amazing software called simply Mathematica, now in its seventh major iteration, and used by scientists and engineers throughout the world. Mathematica reduces all computation problems to a question of appropriate inputs: it is the opposite of "GIGO" ("[If you put] garbage in, [you get] garbage out"). If you frame an appropriate query to Mathematica, it will relieve you of all the mechanical boredom of brute computation, and give you what you are most interested in: the answer. For example, remember the famous old story about the reward asked of a sultan by the inventor of the game of chess? He asked for a grain of rice to be placed on the upper left hand square of a chessboard, for two grains to be placed on the next square over, four grains on the third square, and so on -- doubling the quantity of rice grains with each square, for a total of 64 squares. So how much rice did he ask for? The question calls for an appropriate input. You are starting with 20 = 1 grain of rice, then asking the sum of 20 + 21 + 22 + 23 grains, plus . . . on up to 263 grains on the final square. So you want the sum of the terms of the geometric progression 2n, where n ranges from 0 to 63. Mathematica makes this extremely simple to program as a question, and in a fraction of a second you have your answer: it tells you that the inventor asked for a total of 18,446,744,073,709,551,615 grains of rice. Now you need to apply some practical wisdom to the result you have been given. First, name that number: it is eighteen quintillion, four hundred forty-six quadrillion, seven hundred forty-four trillion, seventy-three billion, seven hundred nine million, five hundred fifty-one thousand and six hundred and fifteen grains of rice. Next, take a rough guess as to how many grains of rice are in a sack weighing one hundred pounds -- if one gram of long-grain rice has about 50 grains in it, then one pound (equals 453.6 grams) has 22,680 grains, and so a 100-pound sack would have 2,268,000 grains of rice in it. Now divide the eighteen quintillion number by 2,268,000 (again, Mathematica makes it simple, and gives you the answer in a split second): you get 8,133,485,041,318.14 hundred-pound sacks of rice -- that is more than eight trillion such sacks, weighing a total of more than eight hundred trillion pounds. Obviously that quantity of rice was not to be had in even the richest of kingdoms, and so the inventor's request would have bankrupted the sultan. In the TED talk given below, Stephen Wolfram explains his lifelong love of making information computable, and the way in which he has brought his dream to fruition through the amazing Website called Wolfram Alpha, which builds on all the programming wizardry he has developed and incorporated over the years into Mathematica. For example, the chess-rice problem can be computed at the Wolfram Alpha site by copying this simple formula into its box, and hitting "Enter": sum (2^n), 0 <=n <64 --- where the notation "2^n" stands for what we write in mathematics as 2n, the word "sum" tells the engine to add up all the individual terms of the series in the parentheses, and the expression "0 <=n <64 " instructs the engine to compute the sum letting the variable n range through all the values from zero up to (but not including) 64. As you watch what Wolfram Alpha can do, I guarantee you will be astonished, and will not want to delay to see what questions of yours it can answer, and what relationships among data it can display: Here is a link to more information about Stephen Wolfram; I have given the links to his software and to the Wolfram Alpha site above. You may watch his talk in its high-resolution version at this link, and you may download his talk in that and other formats from this page. Enjoy! Tuesday, April 27, 2010 Oral Arguments in the Fort Worth Case This case, about which I have written previously here, here and here, was argued today before the Second Court of Appeals in Fort Worth, Texas. (Please refer to the earlier posts just linked for a summary of the issues involved.) Father Christopher Cantrell was there, and has put up a report of what he saw and heard, at this link. A partial account: We got 15 minutes, they got 15 minutes, and then we got 5 minutes to rebut. The peanut gallery was full on both sides of the central aisle. Oversimplifying greatly to summarize - Mr. Brister argued well for us that the court should and could rule in the matter before it on neutral principles of law. Mr. Gilstrap wanted the court to let TEC call all the shots deferring because TEC is hierarchical. We rebutted by reminding the court that we are talking about a Texas corporation and therefore the court could look at the matter and decide. We also clarified that TEC is not cleanly hierarchical - A diocesan convention cannot be called without a bishop and Standing Committee. An outside bishop cannot just come in and take charge - a reference to the PB's interference here. Someone has already asked me how I thought we fared. I would not venture to guess, I am not an attorney, nor do I play one on TV. I think we made good points, our guys seem pleased with how it went. But the tribunal was rightly guarded in their reactions. One judge did say to Gilstrap that he seemed to be arguing against his own argument at one point. [UPDATE: Commenter Mike Watson has provided this hyperlink to the Court's page where the audio recording of the oral argument may be downloaded for listening and reflection. And this is the direct link to the .mp3 file of the oral arguments. The Diocese of Fort Worth (Bishop Iker) released this statement about the arguments: Representatives of the Diocese and Corporation appeared before the Second Texas Court of Appeals today in support of the Petition for Writ of Mandamus filed last November. Also present were attorneys associated with the local TEC diocese. The appellate court panel was headed by Justice Lee Ann Dauphinot; also serving were Justices Ann Gardner and Bill Meier. Seating provided for observers was full, and several latecomers were obliged to stand. Each party had 15 minutes to present its case, with an additional five minutes for rebuttal by the Diocese. There were no surprises in the arguments made to the justices, who posed questions to each side. Scott A. Brister, representing the Diocese, argued that the question of name identity can be decided on neutral principles of law, without reference to church doctrine. As a practical matter, both parties cannot have the same name, he said, because it makes any ruling in the case confusing and ineffective. The plaintiffs, he said, “filed this suit as [if they were] the diocese formed in 1983, and that's not them.” Frank Gilstrap, of the Arlington, Texas, law firm Hill Gilstrap, countered that the court must defer to the decisions of TEC, which, he said, has sole authority to name the diocesan bishop and the trustees of the Corporation. “All the court can do is accept the church's decision,” Gilstrap told the justices. A ruling will be issued at a later time. By the court's order, all proceedings in the case remain stayed. The brief notice by the ECUSA group is here.] A decision is not to be expected for several weeks, if not longer. Monday, April 26, 2010 It Was a Perfect Day! For all of my friends back East, here is what a real Western-style wedding looks like, on a perfect Western day: (My thanks to Christopher Seal for the photo.) As you can see, the weather was perfect, the setting beautiful, and the Stetsons dominated the groom's side. A justice from the California Court of Appeal conducted the ceremony; the ring-bearer (studying the lucky horseshoe he carried) was the bride's two-and-a-half-year-old nephew; the flower girl was the groom's four-year-old niece. Afterwards, we sat down to a wonderful dinner in this beautifully decorated barn (again, Easterners, we're out West here, remember?): Beautifully planned, beautifully executed -- and once I had escorted my daughter down the aisle, my tasks were done! It was a truly memorable day. Normal blogging will resume in a few days. No one can be a curmudgeon when basking in such warmth and love. My thanks to all those who have sent their congratulations and best wishes. Saturday, April 24, 2010 Brightly Dawns our (Daughter's) Wedding Day No blogging this weekend -- please share our happiness, expressed in this little gem of a madrigal by Sir Arthur Sullivan. The mock sadness in the libretto stems from the 30-day sentence of execution seeming to hang over the groom's head -- but all turns out well by the operetta's end, never worry. As for us, we join in its opening sentiment: "Joyous hour, we give thee greeting!" Brightly dawns our wedding day; Joyous hour, we give thee greeting! Whither, whither art thou fleeting? Fickle moment, prithee stay! Fickle moment, prithee stay! What though mortal joys be hollow? Pleasures come, if sorrows follow: Though the tocsin sound,Though the tocsin sound,Though the tocsin sound,Though the tocsin sound, ere long,ere long,ere long,ere long, Dingere long,Ding Though the tocsin sound,dong! Ding dong!Though the tocsindong! Ding dong! Ding ere long,Dingsound, ere Though the tocsin sound,dong! Ding dong!long, sound, ere long.dong! Ding dong! ere long, Ding dong!Ding dong!Ding dong!Ding dong! Ding dong!Ding dong!Ding dong!Ding dong! Yet until the shadows fall Over one and over all, Sing a merry madrigal, Sing a merry madrigal, Sing a merry madrigal, Fa la la la la, etc. (Ending in tears.) Let us dry the ready tear, Though the hours are surely creeping Little need for woeful weeping, Till the sad sundown is near, Till the sad sundown is near. All must sip the cup of sorrow — I to-day and thou to-morrow; This the close ofThis the close ofThis the close ofThis the close of every song —every song —every,every song — Dingevery song —Ding This the close ofdong! Ding dong!This the close ofdong! Ding dong! Ding every song —Dingevery song, This the close ofdong! Ding dong!this the close.dong! Ding dong! every song — Ding dong!Ding dong!Ding dong!Ding dong! Ding dong!Ding dong!Ding dong!Ding dong! What, though solemn shadows fall, Sooner, later, over all? Sing a merry madrigal, Sing a merry madrigal, Sing a merry madrigal, Fa la la la la, etc. (Ending in tears.) Exeunt Pitti-Sing and Pish-Tush. Friday, April 23, 2010 Friday (TED Talk): Hans Rosling Succeeds! Hans Rosling writes: So it did happen! Just hours ago World Bank president did completely change the World Bank data policy. This story shows the power of Ideas worth spreading. The story runs in 5 acts: 1. My TED2006 talk yielded Google's acquisition of software from Gapminder. 2. Tim Berners-Lee adds pressure for free data at TED2009. 3. In 2010, Google launches Public data explorer with moving bubbles and a few of the free indicators from World Bank. 4. On 20 April 2010, president Bob Zoellick of World Bank gives up the old habit of selling public data. The change in policy is comprehensive and includes the right for institutions and companies to redistribute the data. 5. In Zoellick's YouTube video, at 1:46 min, the moving bubbles from my TED2006 talk (in their new Google format) form the background for the spread of ideas from the stage at TED in 2006 to World Bank in 2010. Archimedes said: Give me a fulcrum, and I shall move the world! Rosling says: Give me a TED talk and I shall move the world! Kind regards from a happy Hans. (H/T: TED Blog) Wednesday, April 21, 2010 The Latest in iPad Technology For some of those who have made the leap and sprung for one of the new iPads from Apple, a knotty problem has arisen: with all that great content now available, how does one print from an iPad? Fear not -- the solution (by an iGenius) is at hand (H/T: Endgadget; see also PCWorld): And for those who cannot afford the jump from an iPhone to an iPad, there is also a quick fix at hand (H/T: appadvice): And who knew the iPad would be such a great vehicle for the entertainment of pets? Something tells me the world will never again be the same. Monday, April 19, 2010 Darren Marks on "The Mind Under Grace" [UPDATE 04/20/2010: See below, at the end, for an evaluation of the statement of the Archbishop of Canterbury to the 4th Global South to South Encounter in light of the post that follows.] Catching up on my print reading this weekend, I came across this wonderful article in Christianity Today by Prof. Darren C. Marks at Huron University College, part of the University of Western Ontario: "The Mind Under Grace." Although he speaks of "American Christianity" rather than its individual denominations, Prof. Marks delivers about as good a diagnosis as I have read anywhere of the current ills that infect ECUSA. The article's subtitle is "Why a heady dose of doctrine is crucial to spiritual formation." Prof. Marks teaches an introductory course in theology, and early in the article he draws a fascinating distinction between theology and doctrine: I see doctrine not as a boundary but as a compass. Its purpose is not to make Christians relevant or distinctive but rather to make them faithful in their contexts. Doctrine is a way of articulating what God's presence in the church and the world looks like. . . . In addition, I believe the crisis in the Western church is not about information itself but about the kind of information we absorb in our churches. Philosopher James K. A. Smith put it best: "Theology is not some intellectual option that makes us 'smart' Christians; it is the graced understanding that makes us faithful disciples." I'm using the terms doctrine and theology interchangeably. To be exact, doctrine is more or less settled theology. You find doctrine in creeds and statements of faith. Theology or "doing theology" is about the process and rules we use to talk about things that may end up as doctrine. A doctrinal statement (Jesus is "true God from true God," as the Nicene Creed testifies) is always a theological statement. But not all theological statements become doctrine. Still, in this essay, I will use doctrine and theology to refer to our intellectual grappling with the faith, which, as Smith notes, can give us graced understanding and lead to faithful discipleship. Doctrine, while static at times, is meant to help us think about our lives more deeply by considering alongside other Christians the implications of our thoughts and deeds. Doctrine is wisdom that helps us clarify our mission. Ponder those words. Savor them. Let them slowly sink in, one by one, to your understanding. Think what it means to say doctrine is "not a boundary but a compass . . . [it] is meant to help us think about our lives more deeply by considering alongside other Christians the implications of our thoughts and deeds. Doctrine is wisdom that helps us clarify our mission." With this article, you are in for a real intellectual treat. You will come out of reading it far better equipped to deal with the daily onslaughts on Scripture and doctrine that so infuse the words of most of ECUSA's leadership in these times. Now, as you read the next passage, think of ECUSA's recent brush with Buddhism in the Diocese of Upper Michigan (not confined to that diocese, but actually cross-linked to many others, as I documented in this post): Sociologist Steve Bruce has observed that Western spirituality is "Buddhist by default": that Westerners, even Christians, are obsessed with what goes on inside, with spiritual experience. We don't usually welcome any external testing of our thoughts or actions. Subjectivity takes the ethical and doctrinal teeth out of every religion. Doctrine can help us think. Bruce does not mean that we are actually Buddhists. We don't practice its asceticism. Instead we prefer a pallid, easy Buddhism, a series of feel-good statements supposedly culled from the Buddha. Our culture does this with all religions, Bruce says. It boils them down to one basic principle: Do what makes you feel good about yourself, and preferably in 10 minutes or less. As religious consumers, we warp every tradition by subjecting it to our needs. The Christian West's consumer needs, he notes, have by and large led us to abandon traditional Christianity, and the Eastern spirituality we adopt is actually the vapid form of Christianity created by modernity. This is a Christianity of self-experience. I added the italics for emphasis -- is it beginning to sound as though the author is describing something familiar -- and disturbing at the same time? Dr. Marks is a professor of theology, and he knows his subject well. Thus please do not be put off when you hear him bring up the 19th-century German theologian Friedrich Schleiermacher; he is only doing what he does for a living, and making the past relevant for our benefit. As you will see in how he develops this next point, one could say of much of what passes for Christianity today that "We are all followers of Schleiermacher now" (just as President Nixon once said: "We are all Keynesians now"): In this sense, Western Christians are children of Friedrich Schleiermacher, the 19th-century Enlightenment thinker who built his theological system on the foundation of spiritual experience. In many cases, we find his influence unwittingly embedded in our church leadership, our seminaries, and our theological faculties. A theology grounded in experience ultimately fades into soft moralism, humanism, or, in the unique case of American Christianity, a civic religion wherein God and country are easily confused. . . . At the heart of Schleiermacher's work lay an important quest: to understand how to be faithful in a particular context. Schleiermacher and his progeny wanted much to be relevant Christians. The problem lies in where he started. Schleiermacher thought that the essence of Christianity was its spiritual impulse, not its doctrine, which seemed to cause most of the problems. [Doctrine] had fueled violent conflicts between Catholics and Protestants and threatened to stifle scientific progress and human achievement. For Schleiermacher, as for many today, if one could boil ideas down to a common essence, differences would dissipate and humankind could move forward in harmony. That essence was religiosity—a connection to God that every human being has the capacity to feel and experience. We might call this spirituality or awe in everyday parlance. Schleiermacher began with internal experiences of God and built theology around those experiences, reconfiguring doctrine as needed. He assumed that by starting with ourselves and our desires, we would glimpse a purer vision of God and perhaps a more relevant church. The odds are great that not one in ten of those who call themselves Episcopalians could correctly identify Friedrich Schleiermacher, let alone describe his subjective brand of theology. Yet just as John Maynard Keynes once famously remarked that "Even the most practical man of affairs is usually in the thrall of the ideas of some long-dead economist", so it is that much of Christianity (and ECUSA, in particular) today finds itself in the thrall of the long-dead German theologian. Prof. Marks goes on to explain: Take what has been called the only empirically verifiable Christian doctrine, the doctrine of original sin. For Schleiermacher, sin is not primarily about trespassing against God's laws or a moral debt we owe to a divine being. Sin is misspent energy. If we only paid better attention and had better information and better situations, we would naturally want to be spiritual. This kind of thinking defines sin as a mis-education or mis-direction of our innate sense of awe. A sinner is one who is out of continuity with his own sense of self, and a religious founder is one who is aware of higher spiritual truths and awakens them in others. Is this starting to resonate yet? Now add the next paragraph into your consideration (emphasis added): In this trajectory, Jesus becomes a sage who, among others, came to tell us about our potential and awaken our religious sensibilities. Jesus Christ is a spiritual avatar who may be called the Son of God but is different from us only by degree, not by kind. He is certainly not the unique God-man. Church becomes a kind of group therapy we attend to be told we are all right, to share in the piety of Jesus' example. While there is much positive here, the question remains whether God matters as the agent of changed lives. In the final analysis, core Christian beliefs, even those about Jesus, have to feel authentic or they are discarded. And now Prof. Marks delivers his summation of how and where Schleiermacher's legacy has betrayed us: In hindsight, we can see that the belief driving Schleiermacher's entire theological machine needed correction. Schleiermacher led us astray by proposing that we interrogate theological ideas rather than allow ourselves to be interrogated by them. The emphasis on spiritual experience put us, not God, in the driver's seat. As far as we remain the children of Schleiermacher, we either unconsciously or actively transform Christianity into something that, while seemingly relevant, is bereft of spiritual vigor. As it happens, however, Prof. Marks was just warming to his subject. For now he gets to the real heart of what needs to be said today to Christians who are lost on the sea of Schleiermacher's subjectivity: The sharp-eyed reader will note two things missing from my argument so far. One is positioning the Bible as the only guide to Christian faith. The other is looking at the role of the Holy Spirit. Both are integral to theology. Without them, doctrine and theology become propositions or proof-texting. The opposite of experience is dogmatism, staid religious scholasticism that sucks the life out of a relationship with God. It was at this point in my reading that I mentally shouted "Hear! Hear!" Contrasting the subjective theology of experience (think about all the "justifications" offered for same-sex relations in the postmodern Church, pace Fr. Haller) with the proof-texting of those who simply cite Leviticus or Romans in opposition to that kind of thinking is simply brilliant. Neither approach has left me satisfied, and now, as I read further, Prof. Marks explained why: We have to begin by acknowledging a reality that rightly makes us nervous: All Christian theology helps us interpret the Bible. Theology is what helps us read disparate writings that span thousands of years and arise out of cultures very different from ours. Further, the Bible comprises many texts that address specific problems in specific places (e.g., sexual immorality in Corinth). It presents ideas that at times seem current and at other times obscure. One seemingly crystal-clear verse (Gal. 3:28, "There is neither Jew nor Greek …") or book (Philemon on slavery) can be interpreted by the faithful in a variety of ways. The earliest Christians knew this all too well. The first three centuries of Christianity featured a running dialogue with the Bible. In their theology, the earliest Christians had to avoid reading the Bible as too Jewish, too Gentile, too focused on Peter, too focused on Paul, too focused on faith, or too focused on works. To read the Bible through only one interpretive lens could lead to false conclusions, like denying the Trinity or Jesus' humanity or divinity. In each case, a simple reading of a passage, usually through the reader's cultural lens, resulted in a distortion of Christian life. Those who found little biblical evidence for what was emerging as the doctrine of the Trinity, for example, usually ended up with a Christ who never knew humanity (docetism) or a Jesus who was not fully God (Arianism). Thus, doctrine became a yardstick by which to measure various readings and help Christians pinpoint the essentials. I found this framing of the early debates in Christian theology especially helpful. Too often, those debates are portrayed as the ebb and flow of ideas, with the winning memes vanquishing all the others in a sort of Darwinian "survival of the fittest," and then rewriting Church history to make it appear as though their triumph was inevitable (or foreordained) -- pace Prof. Bart Ehrman. But that kind of evolutionary analysis (favored by so-called objective historians) leaves out the most important factors: how did Scripture itself, inspiring Christians through the guidance of the Holy Spirit, influence the final outcome? What, in short, made the "winning memes" really win? Professor Marks makes the very same point in the passage that follows, to which I have added the italics: To some people, this will sound like the Bible is not primary, that theological discourse needs to correct Scripture. This could lead some to see the Bible as an interesting historical document to get us started, not the active Word of God that shapes us. And some argue that Christianity is more a communal practice than a personal relationship with the living God. (Schleiermacher would likely agree with that statement.) But, at its best, Christian theology has never understood itself to be merely a human reflection on contingent truths. The best theology grounds itself in Scripture as the revealed Word of God, not in the religious experiences of ancient people. Scripture's authority is not something that the community relates to first with its own experience. . . . Scripture interrogates the community. Because it can be a difficult task to hear Christ speak clearly in Scripture, the church has used theology to test that interrogation. Some may read or hear Scripture in a new manner under the guidance of the Holy Spirit, as the 18th- and 19th-century abolitionists did regarding slavery. Theology tests such new readings by asking questions of both the text and the church, helping to clarify the movement of the Spirit. This is such a crucial point, and yet it has been wholly forgotten in today's subjective-objective debates. "Theology tests such new readings by asking questions of both the text and the church . . .". Those who do their theology only subjectively never get around to asking the hard questions of why, if the theology is Spirit-inspired, the Church is shrinking in attendance, while it is growing everywhere that the traditional Gospel is preached. And those who rely on old-time, objective argument through proof-texting never ask themselves why, if such argument were truly sufficient, or unanswerable, legions of modern Christians are repelled, instead of drawn to worship, by such literal doctrine. The latter should take to heart what Prof. Marks said earlier: "The opposite of experience is dogmatism, staid religious scholasticism that sucks the life out of a relationship with God." Let him explain a little further: The church's theological task has never been only to comprehend an impersonal piece of literature intellectually. Theology has always understood itself as being under God's providential grace. It is the result of faithful Christians grappling with Scripture in the presence and power of the Holy Spirit. Just as Jacob wrestled with God, so have Christians wrestled with Scripture as they have sought to articulate core beliefs about the God active among them, active in and through Scripture itself. In our conversation with the Bible, we've developed shorthand (though imperfect) to articulate what it reveals. We say God is the Trinity and Christ is Savior, and we talk about sin, heaven, and church. We use those meanings to understand Scripture even as those core beliefs have come from Scripture. These are not esoteric abstractions but fundamental ways in which Christians cross-index their spirituality (their relationship with the God who is present) with a faithful reading of the Bible. I find that conclusion so crucial and convincing that it is worth repeating, with bold emphasis. Think about what he is really saying: And now Dr. Marks brings the discussion around again to what he said earlier about the baneful influence of Schleiermacher, and repeats his language for emphasis (this time I have put it in bold, as well): This theological method inverts Schleiermacher's. We do not start with "my spirituality" and then identify core beliefs. Instead, we begin with core beliefs—those discovered by the church as it has intellectually wrestled with the truth of Scripture in the dynamic presence of the Holy Spirit. These beliefs, which come from outside myself, correct and shape my spiritual experience. What does this really mean -- theology grounded in "Scripture as the revealed Word of God, and not in the religious experiences of ancient people"? He might just as well have said: "not in the religious experiences of contemporaries." To admit Scripture's authority as the revealed Word of God is to deny the preposterous fallacy as expressed recently by one now infamous (and former) Episcopal bishop: "The Church wrote the Bible, and the Church can change it." No, it cannot. To change (i.e., rewrite) Holy Scripture is not a human prerogative. Moreover, it makes theology, per se, impossible -- because it can no longer provide an accurate map (which is why all attempts to ground the new theology of inclusivity in a "fresh" reading of Scripture divorced from all context cannot gain traction): [Dietrich] Bonhoeffer knew, as did Calvin, Augustine, and many others, that dry, seemingly irrelevant ideas like the Trinity, the Incarnation, the Atonement, and eschatology are crucial elements of our spiritual formation. Theology helps map a reading of Scripture as Scripture interrogates its readers under the guidance of the Spirit. And now comes a magnificent peroration to conclude this splendid article -- read it slowly, and savor the meaning of each sentence: For the past 200 years, many parts of Western Christianity have labored as Schleiermacher's children. The mainline traditions have hoped to achieve relevance. The evangelical and free-church traditions have hoped to read the Bible unadulterated and alone. Both traditions, however, have made our feelings—which are, by definition, slippery and transitory—primary. Mainliners have eschewed theology for fear that it imposes another's context and assumptions, while evangelicals have eschewed theology because it might compete with the pristine Bible or become a rigid boundary. Both traditions forget that theology is a kind of memory that allows us to hear God's Word by clarifying our experiences. Many complain that the church has become incapable of cultivating Christian habits in its people. No wonder, when for so many the starting point is not God but spiritual experience. How can we sustain any spiritual growth if it is grounded in something as transitory as what we feel, individually or corporately? The decreasing lack of interest in core Christian beliefs is due in part to church leaders who chase after relevance over substance—focusing on the feeling that something is meaningful rather than the truth that something is meaningful. It is also due to church members who imagine that their experience is the touchstone of truth about God, rather than learning to evaluate their experience in light of Scripture and theology. Over the years, I have found that the students in my classroom grow in understanding by studying "dusty" and "dry" doctrine. They learn to interrogate their experiences, asking how they may find a "theological existence" or mission. I hope that [my students] learn that they cannot have spiritual formation without doctrine, that theology is that business of graced understanding that makes us faithful disciples of Christ. To which the only appropriate response is: Amen! P.S.: Plus, you might consider a subscription to Christianity Today. I find it consistently carries some of the best current writing on Christianity. [UPDATE 04/20/2010: This entire article must now be re-read in light of the message of the Archbishop of Canterbury to the Fourth Global South to South Encounter, which you may read at this link. In the face of ECUSA's (and ACoC's) intransigence, what does he urge? But I hope also in your thinking about this and in your reacting to it, you'll bear in mind that there are no quick solutions for the wounds of the Body of Christ. It is the work of the Spirit that heals the Body of Christ, not the plans or the statements of any group, or any person, or any instrument of communion. Naturally we seek to minimize the damage, to heal the hurts, to strengthen our mission, to make sure that it goes forward with integrity and conviction. Naturally, there are decisions that have to be taken. But at the same time we must all...share in a sense of repentance and willingness to be renewed by the Spirit. So while the tensions and the crises of our Anglican Communion will of course be in your minds as they are in mine, I know from what you have written, what you have communicated about your plans and hopes for this conference, that you will allow the Holy Spirit to lift your eyes to that broader horizon of God's purpose for us as Anglicans, for us as Christians, and indeed for us as human beings. I find this statement positive, in recognizing that ECUSA's actions (and ACoC's -- from now on, take the one to mean both in what I write) have caused "wounds to the body of Christ" -- the Archbishop does not, in other words, join in the Episcopalian meme that "the Holy Spirit is doing new things in the Church." It is additionally positive in that the Archbishop recognizes that a response is required, and that he is "in discussion with a number of people around the world about what consequences might follow from that decision, and how we express the sense that most Anglicans will want to express, that this decision cannot speak for our common mind." The Archbishop, in short, has run out of rope to give ECUSA, and is, after bringing (as he himself recognizes) the rest of the Communion to nearly universal exasperation, prepared to let ECUSA hang itself with the rope he has already given it. Like the hanging of Judas, any such self-execution will be of its own making -- a fact which no one will be able to deny, after both he -- and out of the respect and deference afforded him, the rest of the Communion -- have given it so many chances to return to the common path. In this respect, and only if it turns out that ECUSA hangs itself, Dr. Williams will in the end be seen as having maintained the high road throughout this ordeal. But if he fudges the consequences even one more time -- or if he refuses to lead where all the others are now, after seven years of patience, prepared to go -- then he will become a mere footnote to Anglican history. Even Our Lord, after washing Judas' feet, came to the point where he said: "What you are about to do, do quickly." This, I submit, would be the only path that is true to the verity expressed in Professor Marks's article. For if the Holy Spirit is guiding the present events, then ECUSA will be led to do what it is going to do, and will do it quickly. And if that is what happens, then the rest of the Communion will be freed to explore "the graced understanding that makes us faithful disciples."] Saturday, April 17, 2010 With Forkèd Tongue (II) Bishop Jerry A. Lamb says (emphasis added): A little over a year later, he told them: Friday, April 16, 2010 Friday TED Talk: David Gallo Shows Amazing Sights under the Sea In this six-minute talk given at TED 2007, David Gallo shows some amazing footage of the huge variety of life that occupies our oceans -- from the depths that can be reached only in a bathysphere to the tidal shallows. Along the way, he demonstrates in slow motion the astonishing camouflage capabilities of octopi, squid and other cephalopods as they adapt to different environments: Read more about David Gallo at this page, where there is a link to another of his spectacular TED talks. Then, if he has whetted your appetite, follow this link to a fascinating and very entertaining lecture about octopi given by Michael DeGruy aboard the recently completed Mission Blue voyage to the Galapagos -- a TED-sponsored oceangoing seminar designed to brainstorm ways to halt the deterioration of our marine environments, and to act on Sylvia Earle's TED Prize wish "to ignite public support for a global network of marine protected areas, hope spots large enough to save and restore the ocean, the blue heart of the planet.” Thursday, April 15, 2010 Notes from Oral Arguments in the Virginia Cases Exclusive to the Curmudgeon -- Commenter JeffH was at the oral arguments in the Virginia Supreme Court last Tuesday, and took substantive (though not word-for-word) notes, which he has graciously sent to this blog for publication: Supreme Court of Virginia – Oral Argument – April 13, 2010 NOTE: The following is not a word-for-word transcript. The Supreme Court of Virginia does not allow attendees at oral argument to bring electronic devices into the courtroom, so I am working from handwritten notes. The Court also does not publish transcripts of oral argument or make audio recordings of oral argument publicly available. I have aimed to capture the “gist” of what each speaker was saying. However, others present may have interpreted statements differently. Chief Justice Leroy Rountree Hassell, Sr. Justice Lawrence L. Koontz, Jr. Justice Cynthia D. Kinser Justice LeRoy F. Millette, Jr. Senior Justice Elizabeth B. Lacy Diocese of Virginia v. Truro Church, et al. (30 mins, divided) George Sommerville, for the Diocese George Sommerville: Three Issues: 1. Adjudication of church property disputes in Virginia must begin with a “neutral principles of law” analysis that includes examining the general church’s contractual rights in the property, as outlined in the Norfolk Presbytery and Green cases. 2. Virginia Code Section 57-7.1 validates denominational trusts such as that asserted by the Diocese and TEC here. 3. 57-9(a), as applied by the trial court, violates both the federal and Virginia Constitutions. Justice Kinser: So you contend that 57-9 doesn’t apply at all if the general church has an interest in the property? George Sommerville: Yes. George Sommerville: First, 57-9 as applied is unconstitutional because it treats churches with different governance schemes differently. Senior Justice Lacy: Are you confusing the way churches hold property with the way they are governed? George Sommerville: No—the way churches hold property is merely one manifestation of the way they are governed, and the statute makes an unconstitutional distinction on the latter issue. George Sommerville: The “neutral principles of law” approach is a clearly constitutional option, and the Supreme Court of Virginia has adopted it. The principle of neutrality toward religions, in contrast, is a constitutional mandate—not an option. George Sommerville: Second, 57-9 as applied is unconstitutional because it prohibits the proper application of the “neutral principles” approach, confining that analysis to cases that fall under Section 57-15. It singles out churches and applies to them rules that don’t apply to secular organizations. Justice Kinser: Didn’t Jones v. Wolf approve of church-specific statutes, and even statutes that allowed for church governance by majority rule? George Sommerville: There were two questions at issue in Jones. The first was “whose property is this?” and the second was “who is the church?” The U.S. Supreme Court did approve of a majority-rule statute, but only with regard to the second question. Jones also provided an “escape hatch” for churches, by allowing them to modify their constitution and canons to make clear that a contrary rule would apply. Justice Koontz: You argue that you don’t get to these issues if there wasn’t a “division” within the meaning of the statute, correct? Was there a division? The parishes say you conceded that a division occurred. George Sommerville: The statute only applies to a “division” declared by the general church, which in this case would require action by TEC’s General Convention. George Sommerville: Third, 57-9 as applied is unconstitutional because it embodies a state-imposed preference for congregational governance that purports to override the church’s own internal rules. Senior Justice Lacy: Are you attacking the statute as interpreted because it favors a form of governance that other churches use? Are you critiquing it as expressing a preference for other religious groups? George Sommerville: No, we critique it because it unfairly harms the church at issue here by interfering in its internal rulemaking. Senior Justice Lacy: If you win, can the state do anything with regard to ownership of property by religious groups? In other words, must the state always defer to whatever the internal rules of a religious group happen to be, simply because it’s a religious group? George Sommerville: Generally, the state must defer. There might be some instances in which the state has a sufficient interest to override a church’s own rules, but in general it cannot. Senior Justice Lacy: But the “neutral principles” approach involves rules that apply to everyone, religious or secular. Aren’t you saying that if a law is neutral and generally applicable but happens to interfere with the internal rules of a religious organization, it’s unconstitutional? George Sommerville: When a statute imposes a form of governance on a religious body, the state has expressed a denominational preference, and it cannot do that. George Sommerville: Fourth, 57-9 as applied is unconstitutional under the U.S. Supreme Court’s test established in Lemon v. Kurtzman. The Circuit Court said the purpose of 57-9 was to protect the voting rights of the congregation. That’s an Establishment Clause violation. 57-9(a) imposes congregational governance on hierarchical churches. This is unconstitutional under this Court’s holdings in Norfolk Presbytery and Green. George Sommerville: We contend that 57-9 is unconstitutional, but we also contend that it does not apply to these facts. Senior Justice Lacy: Why should the “neutral principles” analysis precede the application of 57-9? The statute refers to property held “by trustees” of a local church. Why doesn’t the inquiry start and end there? George Sommerville: That’s the inquiry raised by the “neutral principles” approach. The point is that the statute fails to take into account any beneficial, contractual, proprietary interest in the property that may exist in someone other than the trustees who hold legal title. Senior Justice Lacy: But the statute doesn’t mention other possible interest-holders. George Sommerville: That’s why we believe the statute is invalid. Steffen Johnson, for the Parishes Steffen Johnson: The U.S. Supreme Court has approved of neutral default rules for church property disputes. Georgia, whose laws were at issue in Jones v. Wolf, left the older deference approach of Watson v. Jones behind. Under the approved approach, competing claims to church property may be resolved by majority vote, or in other ways. Denominations can opt out of the default rules by changing title to the property. Other religious groups in Virginia, and even the Diocese itself, hold title to property. The diocese says the Virginia General Assembly repealed the Free Exercise Clause and that TEC can opt out of the default rules by making unilateral changes to their internal rules. But under this Court’s ruling in Reid v. Gholson and under Jones v. Wolf, that is not enough. Justice Kinser: But in Jones, the U.S. Supreme Court only approved of majority rule in addressing the question of who constituted the church, correct? Steffen Johnson: The two issues in Jones were not separate issues. Under Georgia law, they were treated the same. The Presbyterian Church’s proposed basis for both determinations was denominational rules, and the question was whether Georgia could adopt a neutral principles approach instead. Property issues are actually better suited for applying majority rule, because who constitutes the church is more of a doctrinal issue than how the church holds property. Steffen Johnson: The Diocese says that “neutral principles” is a rule of formal neutrality. Actually, the U.S. Supreme Court and this Court both define “neutral principles” in terms of statutes governing church property disputes. That’s constitutionally acceptable, as this Court recognized in Reid, in which it applied 57-9(b) without a word in its constitutionality. The Diocese’s position would invalidate all of Chapter 57, including Section 57-15 and other parts that the Diocese wants to apply. Justice Kinser: What about the “preference for one form of governance” argument? Steffen Johnson: Both 57-9(a) and 57-9(b) provide a default rule. The only difference is who’s entitled to vote, and that only changes based on how a church is set up. This isn’t imposing congregational governance on the church, because the church can opt out of the statute by changing title to the property. The Diocese claims the Circuit Court’s approval of the parish votes represent a confiscation, but the Circuit Court’s order lists ownership of the property as shown on the deeds, and title is in the trustees of the individual congregations. Senior Justice Lacy: Why can’t others with alleged interests in the property come in and contest the trustees’ assertion of legal title? Steffen Johnson: Under Virginia law, religious trusts are set up for the benefit of congregations. Others can claim an interest in ownership—that’s what the votes are for. Senior Justice Lacy: The Circuit Court looked at the deed. If a deed shows that church property is held by trustees for a local congregation, does that end the inquiry, to the exclusion of other alleged interest-holders? Steffen Johnson: The Diocese and TEC conceded title. The issue was the whether alleged denominational trusts trumped the statute, but the statute provides for a constitutionally approved method of resolving disputed claims: have a vote. Justice Koontz: You said that once it’s determined that the property is held in trust by the congregation’s trustees, then all that happens is a majority vote by the congregation, correct? From that point, any alleged interest of the general church is ignored? Steffen Johnson: Well, it can be represented by part of the congregation in the vote—in these votes, it turned out to be a minority of the congregations at issue. Justice Koontz: Do the canons of the general church have any impact in this analysis? Steffen Johnson: No, the statute rather than the canons is dispositive. Chief Justice Hassell: You’re saying that the canons have no role whatsoever, because of the statute? Steffen Johnson: That’s correct. Steffen Johnson: When it enacted 57-9, the General Assembly recognized that the old “departure from doctrine” rule was incorrect, and the state can’t look at which faction is holding more closely to the religious beliefs of the church, or any similar inquiry. Chief Justice Hassell: Justice Koontz is asking whether there’s a difference between 57-9(a) and (b). Steffen Johnson: The difference is one of scope. The two subsections apply the same default majority rule to two different kinds of churches, but the rule must be applied slightly differently just because the churches are set up differently. Solicitor General Duncan Getchell, for the Commonwealth on behalf of the Parishes Duncan Getchell: 57-9 as applied is constitutional. Under Jones v. Wolf, states may choose either a rule of deference or a rule of neutral principles. The latter involves no deference whatsoever to the internal rules of religious bodies. The church’s canons here do not provide the rule of decision. The rule of decision is provided by the statute, and that rule is one of majority vote. Jones establishes that if you have nondeferential default rules, the church must be able to get out of them, and they can, by retitling the property. This is permitted in Virginia. On the difference between (a) and (b), it’s important to note that the statute as originally adopted wasn’t divided into (a) and (b)—it’s simply one rule with several different applications. The rule applies when there’s a “division” into “branches.” States and state courts understand real property very well. Under Jones, the U.S. Constitution permits states to exercise this expertise without deference, as long as they do so in a way that is religiously neutral. In Jones, Georgia had a broad approach based on neutral principles. This was approved by the U.S. Supreme Court. If a state takes this approach, the church can’t change or override its sovereign laws. Justice Koontz: Is CANA a “branch” resulting from a “division” within the meaning of the statute? Duncan Getchell: My role is to defend the constitutionality of the statute. Justice Koontz: But if there’s no “branch,” then the statute doesn’t apply, correct? Duncan Getchell: That is correct, but these terms must be given their plain meaning, and there’s no question that the circumstances here fit within that. Justice Koontz: But if the branches separate, are they really branches any longer? Rebuttal by George Sommerville George Sommerville: First, majority rule is not a neutral principle of property ownership—it’s a neutral principle of governance, and imposing it on a hierarchical church is unconstitutional. Senior Justice Lacy: Doesn’t 57-9 make majority rule a neutral principle of ownership? It applies equally to all kinds of churches. George Sommerville: No, it wouldn’t be applied in any other dispute, for instance, to a dispute in a secular organization. George Sommerville: Second, neutral principles has a constitutional basis, and as such overrules contrary state laws. Virginia recognizes contractual, beneficial interests in general churches, notwithstanding the statute. Third, our position would not overrule all of Chapter 57, but only those parts of it that, as applied, burden churches’ free exercise of religion. The Episcopal Church v. Truro Church, et al. (30 mins, divided) Heather Anderson, for TEC Heather Anderson: I will first address constitutional issues of free exercise, and then turn to the inapplicability of 57-9. As to constitutionality, what’s at issue here is the use and control of property acquired and maintained by generations of Episcopalians. As such, it’s Episcopal property and can’t be diverted to other uses. TEC’s canons state that parishes may not vote to depart or to take Episcopal property. Justice Koontz: Didn’t you have the opportunity to retitle the assets in the name of the Diocese or TEC? Heather Anderson: Jones didn’t require that, and to say that it did is a gross misreading of the case. Jones gave churches the right to set their own rules, which can then be applied by civil courts. Senior Justice Lacy: Jones includes language that says “At any time before the dispute erupts, the parties can ensure, if they so desire, that the faction loyal to the hierarchical church will retain the church property. They can modify the deeds or the corporate charter to include a right of reversion or trust in favor of the general church.” That means the neutral principles approach gives general churches the option to resolve the dispute before it happens, right? Heather Anderson: The Jones opinion continues, right after that section, to give general churches the ability to adopt canons establishing an express trust over parish property. The U.S. Supreme Court and the Supreme Court of Virginia allow churches to set the own rules, and interference with those results in a “total subversion” of free exercise. This was recognized by the U.S. Supreme Court in a case involving a dispute over whether Russian Orthodox churches in America would be under the Soviet Russian Orthodox authorities or under American authorities. Justice Koontz: Must a “division” be in the national church to trigger the statute here? Was it, here? Heather Anderson: There was no division here, within the meaning of the statute. You have to have a “division” into “branches.” Justice Koontz: And you say a “division” means what? Heather Anderson: A structural split under the rules and procedures of the general church. Justice Koontz: And TEC has rules that provide for such a split? Heather Anderson: Yes. The Presiding Bishop’s chancellor testified to that at trial. General Convention has rules that provide for that eventuality. Justice Koontz: Assume that some “division” has occurred within the meaning of the statute. What about a “branch”? What does that mean? Heather Anderson: It means a branch of TEC. Justice Koontz: Is CANA a “branch”? Heather Anderson: No, it’s part of the Anglican Church of Nigeria, not TEC, so it’s not a branch. Senior Justice Lacy: What about the Anglican Communion? There’s evidence in the record that Bishop Lee was in communication with the Archbishop of Canterbury, and that Primates of other Anglican provinces were involved. Is that a connection of which CANA is a branch? Heather Anderson: There are historical and theological connections to be sure, but the Anglican Communion has none of the indicia of a church or religious society. Senior Justice Lacy: So there’s no attachment within the Anglican Communion at all? Heather Anderson: TEC is a province of the Anglican Communion, but the Communion has no legal governing body, or other elements of a church. Senior Justice Lacy: What about the Primates’ Meeting, Lambeth Council, and other Communion-wide bodies and events? Are those just part of the historical connection? Heather Anderson: Correct. Those are just part of a shared tradition and affinity. Justice Millette: So there’s no hierarchy in the Anglican Communion? Heather Anderson: None. Justice Millette: What if the parishes had left TEC and said “We’re the real TEC?” Would that be different? Heather Anderson: The congregations can’t impose a division on the general church. Justice Millette: Assume it’s a division. Would the congregations be a “branch” if they claimed to be TEC? Heather Anderson: I can’t say. I don’t have an answer. Justice Millette: So you’re saying that because they joined the Nigerian Church, they didn’t join a “branch”? Heather Anderson: Correct. It’s a separate church, and there can’t be overlapping of jurisdictions. Senior Justice Lacy: What if they’d joined the Anglican Church of Canada? Heather Anderson: One church can’t become a branch of another within the same geographic jurisdiction as the other church. Senior Justice Lacy: But that assumes TEC’s definition of “division” is correct. What about the Anglican Communion? Are you arguing that for what happened here to be a branch, there must have been a division in the Anglican Communion? Heather Anderson: No one’s arguing that here. What’s at issue is whether there’s been a division in TEC. Steffen Johnson, for the Parishes Justice Koontz: Are you only arguing there’s been a division in TEC? Steffen Johnson: No. The statute refers to a church that’s experiencing a division. We say there’s been a division at the Anglican Communion level, the national church level, the diocesan level, and at the parish level. This dates from at least 2003, at which point there began to be large numbers of individuals and congregations separating from TEC because of theological disagreement. Justice Koontz: Is this documented in the record? Steffen Johnson: Yes, there are specific historical records of these divisions. CANA came out of TEC, and it’s an offshoot of TEC. TEC’s own expert admitted that a “branch” can be something that grows out of another entity, and that may not have any remaining legal connection to the parent entity. Steffen Johnson: “Branch” used in 57-9 means different things in other circumstances, but here, it means “offshoot.” The congregations came out of TEC and the Diocese of Virginia. They voted to divide from TEC and join CANA and the ADV. These bodies were created to receive people coming out of TEC. Justice Millette: So you’re not claiming these entities are still part of TEC? Steffen Johnson: No. Justice Millette: Well then how are they a branch? Steffen Johnson: A branch means an offshoot. It may not have any legal connection to the original entity. Justice Koontz: If the parishes had left and become Baptist, could that still be considered a branch? Steffen Johnson: Yes. The theological distinctives aren’t what matters, and civil courts aren’t supposed to examine doctrinal issues anyway. What matters is where the branches came from. Justice Millette: If the parishes have joined a branch of another tree, how can they claim a part of the original tree? Steffen Johnson: The deeds say the parishes own the property. 57-9 settles disputes over church property among beneficial claimants. According to TEC, 57-9 must be interpreted differently according to the polity of the church at issue, which means you’d have a different statute every time. Senior Justice Lacy: The statute talks about a “division in a church.” What’s the church here? The Anglican Communion? TEC? The Diocese? Steffen Johnson: There has been a division into branches at all three levels. Again, a branch is an offshoot. It doesn’t require denominational approval. Justice Koontz: Once there’s a vote to depart, how are these parishes part of a “branch” of the original church? Steffen Johnson: Because of the history. They came out of the original church. Justice Koontz: The congregations claim they aren’t part of TEC. For purposes of the statute, you’re saying they’re still a branch? Steffen Johnson: Correct. I would point the Court to the testimony of Dr. Mark Valeri, who explained the meaning of “division” and “branch” as they appear in the statute. To be a branch, there is no requirement of legal connection. The branches may, by definition, not recognize the legitimacy of each other. That’s the nature of branches that result from a division. Senior Justice Lacy: What about the requirement that the parishes vote to determine which branch “of the church” to join? Steffen Johnson: The “division” here is not one that is approved or consensual. Therefore, it wouldn’t make sense to read “branch” as requiring a continued legal connection. Justice Millette: But doesn’t the language make clear that you have to have two competing factions within TEC, still under TEC’s authority? They’re not still claiming to be in TEC, are they? Steffen Johnson: That’s not what the statute means. Justice Kinser: Why is this different from leaving to join the Baptist church, for instance? Steffen Johnson: It’s not—as long as they qualify under the statute, then the theological distance traveled is irrelevant. Justice Kinser: So we’re talking about them joining a branch of what? Steffen Johnson: The key is that it’s a branch from TEC. Senior Justice Lacy: The language says “which branch of the church.” If they form a new denomination, isn’t that by definition not a branch? Steffen Johnson: Again, “branch” means offshoot. It’s the source that’s important, not whether there’s a continuing legal connection, or a recognition of authority. Senior Justice Lacy: But they do have to join some kind of branch, right? Would it be different if they just stayed an independent parish? Steffen Johnson: The parishes here joined a separate denominational structure, and that’s what the statute envisions. Justice Kinser: How do you interpret “division” and “branch”? Duncan Getchell: By their clear meaning. 57-9 was enacted in part as a response to nonconsensual divisions within the Methodist Church into not two but three separate Methodist denominational structures. They had no legal connection and didn’t recognize one another’s authority. The statute was designed to provide ground rules for resolving property issues arising from such disputes. Justice Millette: So these Methodist groups weren’t still attached to the church they divided from? Duncan Getchell: The connection was historical. Once there was a division, they had no continuing connection but were considered branches from the original church. Justice Kinser: What if the parishes here directly joined the Anglican Church of Canada, or the Church of Nigeria? Would that be a branch of TEC? Duncan Getchell: Yes, because those would be competing jurisdictions, like the Methodists had. Justice Kinser: But those didn’t arise from TEC, right? Duncan Getchell: No. Justice Kinser: So they could go to an existing denomination, like the Baptists, and the statute would still apply? Duncan Getchell: In theory, yes. The point is that they used to be in TEC, then divided from TEC. Rebuttal by Heather Anderson Heather Anderson: CANA was formed by the church of Nigeria. It’s not a branch of TEC. The Supreme Court of Virginia has required that denominational trust clauses be enforced, and the Circuit Court was required to follow that rule. [End of oral arguments] * * * * * *
We have a new blog! If you’re wondering why our blog has been quiet, it’s because we’ve been busy migrating the blog archives to its new home at OhioHistory.org! The new content management system has made it possible for us to link our blog content to the Ohio History Connection’s information, content, and events using metatags, which is something we can’t do with our standalone WordPress blog. We hope this change will help us better engage with our patrons. It’s taken us a while to get accustomed to the content management system and user interface on top of our other duties, but we are up and running and hope to start generating new blog content soon. In the meantime, you can expect to see minor changes in the format or appearance as we get the bugs ironed out. Feel free to subscribe to the Natural History, Archaeology, and/or History Collections blogs according to your interests in our Subscription Center, or you can subscribe to our entire blogroll! In the meantime, although we (the natural history curators) will no longer post new material here on our WordPress site, we expect the archives of this blog to remain accessible for some time and we will still have the ability to respond to comments. Let us know what you think of the new blog, and thanks for sticking with us. We hope to see you over at the new site! All about bats! Bat Fast Facts! • Bats are NOT rodents • Bats are NOT blind • Bats have been flying for over 50 million years • There are 1,054 species of bats worldwide • “Giant bats” i.e. Flying Foxes/Fruit Bats (Megachiroptera) are only in the Old World • All bats in the U.S. are insectivorous • There are 13 species of bat in Ohio • Hawaii has its own native bat species • Bats in the U.S. are declining precipitously due to White-Nose Syndrome • Nectar-eating bats are important pollinators along with hummingbirds, bees, and butterflies Alongside snakes and spiders, the bat ranks prominently among the maligned and misunderstood inhabitants with whom we share our world. In popular culture bats have long been associated with rodents, blindness, vampires, and disease. NOT a mouse, and NOT interested in your hair Bat Basics The word for this flying mammal in some languages reflects one misguided impression; the German word for bat is fledermaus, or “flying mouse”, while in French chauve-souris means “bald mouse”. Bats, however, are not even remotely related to rodents. The closest evolutionary branch to the bats is that which led to today’s cats, dogs, bears, horses, pigs, whales, and deer. In fact, primates (i.e. us) are more closely related to rodents than bats! (Hours could be spent exploring the detailed and interactive phylogenetic trees at OneZoom.org. So far, only tetrapod vertebrate species and plants are available to explore, and species known only from fossils are not included in the trees.) Acerodon jubatus Giant Golden-crowned Flying Fox (Acerodon jubatus) So if bats are not rodents or shrews with wings, what are they? Like all mammals, their early ancestor was something small, nocturnal, and insectivorous. DNA evidence suggests the bats branched off from other placental mammals 100 million years ago, or about 30-40 million years before the non-avian dinosaurs went extinct, but so far the earliest fossil definitively identified as a bat is the 52.5 million-year-old Onychonycteris finneyi. This early bat was capable of flight, but scientists are still debating whether it had the ability to echolocate. By 33.5 million years ago, all 26 modern families of bats had evolved. So bats are really their own thing, and make up the most recent branch of the Carnivora family tree! Today there are around 5000 species of mammals, and bats alone comprise over 1/5 of them! Bats are divided into two suborders: the Microchiroptera (small, mostly carnivorous bats that echolocate) and Megachiroptera (fruit bats and flying foxes that do not echolocate). Most bat species can easily fit in a person’s hand, but the fruit-eating Giant Golden-crowned Flying Fox of the Philippines is among the largest, with a wingspan exceeding 5 feet. Eastern Red Bat (Lasiurus borealis) In Ohio, we have 13 species of bats, including the gorgeous Eastern Red Bat (Lasiurus borealis), the adorable Northern Long-Eared bat (Myotis septentrionalis), and the diminutive Tri-colored Bat Perimyotis subflavus (formerly known as the Eastern Pipistrelle). Another misconception is the old adage, “blind as a bat”. While some bat species have eyesight that is relatively poor, no known species of bat is truly blind; even nocturnal species rely on changing light levels to discern when it’s time to become active. Other bats have such well-developed vision that they can detect color at night, making their vision much better than a human’s. Many bat species also “see with their ears” using highly sophisticated echolocation, enhanced in some species by prominences and structures on the ears and nose. Honduran White Bats (Ectophylla alba). Flickr user: Wanja Krah While bats are frequently associated with vampires and the act of drinking blood, only three species of bats depend on blood as their sole food source, and two of those drink bird blood; the third species does not frequently target humans. All are found in Central and South America. Rather than suck blood through hollow fangs as mythical vampires do, they make an incision with their extremely sharp incisors and lap up the blood. The skin patches on their noses have evolved to be particularly sensitive to heat, and their saliva contains anticoagulants and other compounds that prevent clots from forming. One of these compounds was identified for potential use in stroke victims. Bats are also branded as carriers of disease, particularly rabies. There are 1-2 rabies infections in the U.S. per year, so a person living in the U.S. is more likely to catch leprosy or the plague than contract rabies from a bat. And as I learned a couple months ago, a person is also 40 times more likely to die in a forklift accident than die of rabies. Yo dawg, I heard you like forklifts. (DO NOT DO THIS) Worldwide, 99% of rabies deaths are due to encounters with rabid dogs, which is not an issue in the U.S. (thanks to successful vaccination programs). Bats are far less likely to carry rabies than skunks, raccoons, coyotes, foxes and unvaccinated pets; however their small size and docility makes bats appear harmless, so people are more likely to handle them. But bats are extremely feisty and will bite readily when handled! As a result over 80% of rabies cases in the U.S. are due to bat bites resulting from direct handling. The person holding this state-listed Endangered Indiana Bat (Myotis sodalis) has had their rabies vaccine series and the necessary training to handle bats safely. Any bat that is active during the day, lying on the ground and/or does not fly away when approached should not be handled. Keep pets and children away from the bat, call your local wildlife officer or wildlife rehabilitation center for assistance, and finally—don’t kill it. According to Ohio Administrative Code, it is against the law to exterminate a bat, much less a colony of them, unless there has been exposure to a zoonotic disease (such as rabies). I’m compelled to point out that, statistically, mosquitos are a much greater threat to human health than bats. Bats directly benefit humans by consuming thousands of mosquitos and many other insects, some of which damage crops, and are an extremely important part of ecosystems as a whole. The survival rate for rabies in humans is 50% if caught early, however symptoms take 3-4 weeks to develop and are frequently mistaken for the flu. Once symptoms begin, rabies is almost 100% fatal. Only 6 people worldwide in recorded history have been known to survive rabies without a vaccine. One of these survivors is Matthew Winkler of Lima, Ohio, who was bitten as a child in 1970. He is still living today. Bats, hibernacula, and White Nose Syndrome (WNS) Schneider's Leaf-nosed bat (Hipposideros speoris) Schneider’s Leaf-nosed bat (Hipposideros speoris) Flight is energetically expensive, and bats can neither feed around the clock to maintain their high metabolism, nor tolerate very cold temperatures. To conserve energy during periods when temperatures are unfavorable or food is unavailable, all North American bat species enter torpor. During torpor an animal’s metabolism slows, its body temperature plummets, and its heart and breathing rates nearly stop. Torpor may last a matter of hours (i.e. overnight), or it may continue for weeks at a time—a state more commonly known as hibernation. In North America bats may migrate south during the colder months as some birds do, or find a sheltered place to hibernate. Many bat species use caves as hibernacula (places where animals gather to hibernate) since the temperature stays relatively warm and constant (around 50 degrees Fahrenheit) during the winter, while other species use caves as daytime roosts. For some bat species, using caves as hibernacula has made them especially vulnerable to a new threat. White-Nose Syndrome (WNS) is an infection caused by the aptly-named fungus Pseudogymnoascus destructans, or Pd. WNS has been devastating bat populations in the United States since its appearance in 2006 and is causing “the most precipitous decline of North American wildlife in recorded history.” The Little Brown Bat (Myotis lucifugus) and the Big Brown Bat (Eptesicus fuscus) are two of 7 bat species in North America that have been heavily impacted. WNS is named for the white patches that appear on the bat’s noses and other areas where skin is sparsely haired. The origin of Pd was traced to a cave in New York, where it’s thought to have been introduced on the boots of a caver who had recently been spelunking in Europe, where the fungus is native. The fungus does infect European bats but they seem not to succumb to it, having co-evolved with the fungus over several million years. Unlike our familiar bathroom mildew, Pd thrives in cool, damp environments, such as caves. During torpor a bat’s body temperature is barely distinguishable from its surroundings, making them the ideal substrate for the fungus to grow and thrive. It is spread from bat-to-bat primarily during the winter months when they are gathered close together. So far, the fungus is only killing bats that use caves as hibernacula, and not those that roost in caves during the daytime in summer. Cave roosting bats may be getting exposed to Pd, but since they are only torpid for a few hours at a time, the fungus can’t get established and dies once their body temperature returns to normal. WNS detections by county, map updated 9/22/2015 In North American bats, the fungus changes the bats’ wintertime behavior by disrupting their torpor cycle. It is normal for bats to wake for short periods during the winter—in fact it’s when male bats seek out and mate with the unconscious females—but bats with WNS wake earlier, more often, and for longer periods. Sometimes they are found flying during the day or congregating near the hibernacula entrances. Ultimately infected bats die due to dehydration, starvation and exposure before spring, having burned up all of their fat reserves during these wakening periods. The fungus also eats holes in their wing membranes. The infection is easily visible under UV light. WNS was first recorded in Ohio in Lawrence County in 2010 and has been found in 18 counties since that time. In 2013 a hibernaculum in Lawrence County experienced an 80% population decline within a single year. Because most bats produce just one pup a year, populations hit heavily by WNS may take many years, if not decades to recover. One study conducted in 2010 suggested that if current trends continue the Little Brown Bat—our most common species—will become extinct in 16 years. (So they have 11 years left now.) Northern Long-Eared bat (Myotis septentrionalis) Northern Long-Eared bat (Myotis septentrionalis) Thankfully, the news isn’t all bad. Researchers in recent months have discovered that a common soil bacterium Rhodococcus rhodochrous, when exposed to cobalt, releases volatile organic compounds that keep the fungus from multiplying. This property was discovered accidentally when researchers at Georgia State University were looking for a way to delay the ripening of bananas with R. rhodochrous, and noticed that the treated bananas also had a lower fungal burden. A colony of infected bats was captured last fall, treated, and placed back in their cave inside a special cage. In spring, half of the infected bats had recovered, and were released back into the wild. While the news is certainly good, finding a way to treat infected bats efficiently (and cheaply)—i.e. without capturing every single infected individual and releasing them once cured—is another matter. The cave ecosystem is a delicate one in which thousands of microbial species exist together in a delicate balance, and there is concern that introducing R. rhodochrous may disrupt that balance by killing off benign or beneficial fungi. Extensive testing will be necessary before bat caves can be “bombed” with the stuff wholesale, but in the meantime, artificial caves such as abandoned mines or bunkers, having no ecosystems to disrupt, can be inoculated against Pd. Some artificial caves have already been constructed specifically for bats and have successfully hosted hibernating bats. Below: An Australian Flying Fox wildlife rescuer works hard to save a whole lot of what resembles furry baby dragons. What can you do to help? I’m so glad you asked! There are many resources online where you can learn about bats and directly help support and fund their conservation: Just in time for October! This month, be sure to check out an exhibit at the Ohio Statehouse featuring some of OHC’s bat specimens! The exhibit under construction. Photo by Lesley Poling The exhibit under construction. Photo by Lesley Poling It’s NaCl – sodium chloride! Answer to Freak of the Week #38 Specimens of halite. Specimens of halite. Good job readers! Everyone recognized these crystals as salt (sodium chloride – NaCl), seen here in its original form as halite – also sometimes called rock salt. Halite is generally colorless or white but may appear in a variety of colors, depending on the amount and type of impurities. Note the orange-colored specimen in the photo. We mentioned that halite can be identified by its salty taste, however you don’t want to go around tasting unknown minerals! Some minerals that resemble halite can be toxic. Or if it IS a specimen of halite, as you might find in a classroom or museum, it may have been handled by who knows how many people! If geologists need to test for halite by using the taste method, they will lick their finger, rub the mineral, then taste their finger, thereby vastly limiting the amount of material actually ingested. Halite - backlit to show color. Halite – backlit to show color. Halite can be found in areas such as the Great Salt Lake and Searles Lake, California, where it crystalizes out of evaporating brine lakes. It can also be found underground where large salt lakes and ancient seas have evaporated millions of years ago. And halite can be found right here in Ohio! For instance, underneath Cleveland is a huge salt deposit that is currently being mined for rock salt for highways. Although halite is mainly sodium chloride, table salt is not just halite that is ground up. Most table salt is refined from the original material by first dissolving it in water, then other minerals in the salt are precipitated out, and finally it is re-evaporated. If ingredients such as iodine or anti-caking agents are to be added, it is done during the refining process. So the next time you’re putting salt on your dinner, just think that you‘re consuming salt that probably was part of a prehistoric sea! We have a nice specimen of halite on exhibit in the mineral section of the Natural History Mall at the Ohio History Center. So come on down and check it out, along with the other amazing minerals on display! Upcoming workshop on plant collecting, held at Cedar Bog. A mounted herbarium specimen A mounted herbarium specimen Are you interested in learning how to collect and mount plant specimens for scientific or educational purposes, or for personal use!? Then attend the upcoming workshop at Cedar Bog Nature Preserve on “Mounting and Storing Plants” on Saturday, July 11th at 10 AM! Conducted by David Dyer, Curator of Natural History, this two-hour workshop will cover the ethics of plant collecting, methods of pressing and drying specimens, use of archival materials, and different methods of mounting plant specimens. A properly collected, mounted and stored specimen will last for hundreds of years! Over 130 specimens collected by Lewis and Clark on their expedition across North America still survive after over 200 years. The workshop will have a hands-on approach and participants will be able to practice mounting dried plant specimens. The cost is $10, and for Ohio History Connection members or Cedar Bog Association members it is $5. To register, call 937-484-3744 or email [email protected] For more information on Cedar Bog, click here. Preparing herbarium specimens - photo by Jennifer Cross. Preparing herbarium specimens – photo by Jennifer Cross. Beautiful crystals! Freak of the Week #38 Freak of the Week #38 Freak of the Week #38 This Freak of the Week is a mineral, can you identify it!? But it’s not totally fair to ask you what it is by only seeing photos. If you were holding this mineral in your hand you would notice a distinctive feel. Furthermore, it is one of the few minerals that you can actually identify by it’s taste! Any ideas what it might be!? To give you an idea of scale, the larger specimen is about 4 x 3.5 inches. Closer view of the larger crystal. Closer view of the larger crystal. Backlit mineral, to show color. Backlit mineral, to show color. Horse teeth! Answer to FoW #37 Horse teeth Horse teeth Several of you recognized that these two teeth are from a horse. Horse teeth are very distinctive; note the squareish shape of the chewing (occlusal) surface of the tooth. In side view, this gives the tooth an overall rectangular appearance. These are upper premolars (PM2 & PM3); lower cheekteeth will have a more rectangular occlusal surface. A “tall” tooth like this, with a high crown, is called “hypsodont”. This means that the enamel of the tooth extends down the length of the tooth, well past the gumline. In the side view (below) I drew in the approximate location of the gumline, about one-quarter of the way down from the occlusal surface. This type of tooth is different than a low-crowned tooth, such as in humans, dogs, cats, etc., where the enamel stops at the gumline. Gumline in high-crowned (hypsodont) horse teeth. Gumline in high-crowned (hypsodont) horse teeth. Also you can see how complicated the cusp pattern is in the top photo! There are ridges of enamel running down the length of occlusal surface, and some of the ridges are infolded and run across the tooth surface as well. This is called a lophodont crown pattern, and is found in mammals that are primarily grazers. If you’re eating coarse vegetation such as grasses all day long, you need a tooth with a tough occlusal surface made up of ridges of very hard enamel. Grasses contain a large number of phytoliths, microscopic granules of silica, which are very abrasive and can wear down a tooth pretty quickly. So a hypsoodont tooth is an adaptation to a grazing diet because of the phytoliths in …. Recent research has shown that the adaptation of a high-crowned tooth probably happened as a result of the large amount of grit ingested from the soil when grazing, rather than from the grass itself! Paleontologists looked at when the extensive grasslands originated in the Great Plains of North America, and discovered that high-crowned teeth evolved in different mammal groups either millions of years before or after the grasslands developed. So the teeth likely didn’t evolve in response to the abrasive grass but from another cause, the grit itself! Think of how dirty your hands get when weeding your garden or lawn, and imagine you’re eating that stuff! There’s a lot of grit and minerals in the soil that would wear down even the hardest material in an animal’s body: tooth enamel. So back to our two teeth; how do we know that these aren’t from a cow, cows are grazers and have high-crowned dentition!? Well, if we compare the crown pattern of cattle teeth and horse teeth we can see the difference (below). Cattle have a selenodont crown pattern which means that the crown is composed of a series of “half moon” shapes, called selenes, which run the length of each tooth. If you know your Greek mythology (which I don’t!), Selene is the goddess of the moon. Upper toothrow of domestic cattle Upper toothrow of domestic cattle Upper toothrow of a horse Upper toothrow of a horse OK, we’ve established that they are horse teeth but Bob brought up a good point: how old are they!? We know that horses lived in Ohio during the Ice Age, and became extinct in North America after the end of the Pleistocene. They were then introduced back into North America by Europeans at about 1500 A.D. and have been here ever since. Because the modern horse and the Pleistocene horse are so similar morphologically, they are very difficult to separate – especially by just a tooth or two. Documented Pleistocene horse remains from Ohio are pretty rare, so most bones and teeth discovered are probably from the modern horse. We would have to find horse bones in Pleistocene deposits to prove that they are indeed from the Ice Age, and we’d have to be sure that it’s not a modern horse that was simply interred into Pleistocene sediments! So the next time you’re out horsin’ around, keep your eye out for these distinctive looking teeth! Big teeth! Freak of the Week #37 What are these teeth from? Freak of the Week #37 What are these teeth from? Freak of the Week #37 This is the time of the year that people are out working in their gardens or digging in their fields. Sometimes bones or even individual teeth are found, and are brought to the museum for identification. If you came across teeth like these, would you know what they are from!? These are pretty big teeth too; the scale in the photos will show you that the teeth are over an inch wide and about 3 inches long. Put your answer in the Reply box below. Side view of the teeth. Side view of the teeth. You “knee-d” to know this! Answer to Freak of the Week #36 Elk, with joints labelled Elk, with joints labelled Bison, with joints labelled Bison, with joints labelled Great Blue Heron - note that the femur is concealed under the wing and feathers but I marked its location in white. Great Blue Heron – note that the femur is concealed under the wing and feathers but I marked its location in white. I couldn’t trick our astute readers with this question! You are all correct, those are indeed ankles and the knees do actually bend forward. Sometimes people get confused because the upper limb bone of the hind and forelimb, the femur and humerus respectively, sometimes gets “lost” in the mass of the body. That, combined with the fact that many animals have extended the length of their feet and now walk on either their toes or on the ends of their hoofs, makes it appear that the ankle is actually the knee! Both the elk and bison are considered “unguligrade” meaning that they walk on their hooves. The keratin hooves encase the last toe bone, so basically they are walking on their tip-toes! This means that most of the foot is actually off the ground and the heel bone (calcaneus) projects to the back of the animal, and can look like a “backward knee”! Sometimes this is easier to see on the skeleton: Feet of mammals Why did some animals evolve such a system? For speed! The elongated leg and fused bones of the foot provides for greater speed in a forward direction. Notice how many of the prey species are unguligrade, such as deer, elk, moose, pronghorn, bison, etc. while many of the carnivores (canids, felids, etc.) are digitigrade – meaning that they run on their toes and not just on the last digit. “Why do deer knees bend backwards!?” Freak of the Week #36 Here is a little bit different Freak of the Week for you! It’s a question that I’ve been asked several times, so I thought I’d put it out there for you to ponder: “Why do deer knees bend backwards?” It’s not just deer, but the question can be asked of elk (which is really just a large species of deer), bison, cattle, horse, or any other large ungulate. In fact, this apples to most birds too! See the photo below of the Great Blue Heron. How would you answer this question!? Great Blue Heron - © Frank Schulenburg / CC-BY-SA-3.0 Great Blue Heron – © Frank Schulenburg / CC-BY-SA-3.0 Return of the Snakes Have you been to Serpent Mound yet? If you needed an excuse to visit this iconic OHC site, I’m here to give you one: The Return of the Snakes, a family-friendly event run by our site parter, the Arc of Appalachia Preserve System on June 27 from 10-4. The largest collection of Ohio’s native reptiles and amphibians ever gathered in our state will be displayed at Serpent Mound, while teaching about their natural history, ecology, and conservation challenges. Special Events • Ohio’s native reptiles and amphibians on live display (don’t worry – both you and the animals will be completely safe). • For Adults: Presentations every hour by Ohio’s finest researchers & field naturalists – Ohio’s endangered reptile and amphibian species, identification, and natural history. • For Kids: Toad feeding, turtle pool, games, stories, and crafts. Touch a real live snake! Jr. Herpetologist hike for budding naturalists (please pre-register on the website). Event Schedule: http://arcofappalachia.org/events/snakes-schedule.html. Directions to Serpent Mound: http://arcofappalachia.org/visit/serpent-mound-directions.html. We hope to see you there!
Search tips Search criteria Nature. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2013 March 13. Published in final edited form as: PMCID: PMC3577372 Diversity, stability and resilience of the human gut microbiota The gut microbiota, the trillions of microbes inhabiting the human intestine, is a complex ecological community that through its collective metabolic activities and host interactions, influences both normal physiology and disease susceptibilities. Understanding factors underlying compositional and functional changes will aid in designing therapies that target the gut microbiota. This goal is formidable because of the immense diversity of the microbiota, interpersonal variation and temporal fluctuations in composition, especially during disease and early development. Here, we describe recent advances in understanding gut microbiota from an ecological perspective, and discuss how these insights might promote health by guiding therapeutic strategy development. Most gut microbes are harmless or beneficial to the host. The gut microbiota protects against enteropathogens1,2, extracts nutrients and energy from our diets 3,4, and contributes to normal immune function5. Dysbiosis, disruption of the normal balance between the gut microbiota and host, has been associated with obesity6,7, malnutrition8, inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) 9,10, neurological disorders11, and cancer12. Understanding how the gut microbiota affects health and disease therefore requires a shift in focus from individual pathogens, towards an ecological approach considering the community as a whole. The first step towards understanding the symbiotic relationships of gut microbes with their hosts is to characterize the baseline healthy microbiota and differences that are associated with disease. Large-scale efforts including Meta-HIT 13 and the Human Microbiome Project (HMP) 14 have made substantial progress. Once we understand the desired compositional and functional states of the gut microbiota, we can determine which features, when disrupted, are associated with disease. However, the complexity of the microbiota, and intra- and inter-subject variability, complicate the definition of what a “desired” state may look like for a population or for a given individual. Ecological principles have increasingly aided understanding of host-microbe interactions and specific gut microbial functions. Improved sequencing technologies and other “omics” technologies (such as proteomics and metabolomics), coupled with metabolic network modeling15,16, show how host and environmental factors affect gut microbial ecology over the human lifespan. The composition, diversity and function of gut microbial communities could potentially inform personalized nutritional and drug strategies (Fig. 1). In this review, we summarize recent progress towards characterizing the diversity and function of microbial communities in the healthy human gut, describe ways in which this ecosystem can go awry, and discuss prospects for ecosystem restoration. Fig. 1 Maintaining our gut microbial lawn Microbial diversity in the healthy gut Even basic questions about the diversity of the gut microbiota remained unanswered until the recent advent of higher-throughput sequencing: How much diversity exists in the human microbiota and microbiome (the collection of genes represented in the microbiota) at the species level and at higher taxonomic levels? Which features of the microbiota, such as species or functions, are ubiquitous and which are unique to an individual? To what extent might we predict the functions in a community based on knowledge of the species present? Taxonomic Diversity Culture-based studies suggested that all healthy adults share most gut bacterial species, constituting a “core microbiota.” For example, Escherichia coli can be isolated from most people. However, culture-independent sequencing studies (Fig. 2) have repeatedly demonstrated a vast microbial diversity that is highly variable both over time and across human populations, defying the concept of a core. Each of us harbors an estimated >1000 species-level phylotypes (i.e. clusters of sequences with about as much diversity in their small subunit rRNA genes as in validly named species)17. Most of these phylotypes are bacteria belonging to just a few phyla. In adults, Bacteroidetes and Firmicutes usually dominate, whereas Actinobacteria, Proteobacteria, and Verrucomicrobia are frequent but generally minor constituents18 (Fig. 3). Our microbiota also contains methanogenic archaea (mainly Methanobrevibacter smithii), eukarya (mainly yeasts), and viruses (primarily phage)19. Despite the consistency of these major components, their relative proportions and the species present vary dramatically between individuals (Figs. 3, ,4).4). Attempts to identify a core set of species-level phylotypes in the adult gut microbiota have yielded several “major players”, including Faecalibacterium prausnitzii, Roseburia intestinalis, and Bacteroides uniformis13, although even these species can be at <0.5% relative abundance in some individuals 20. As studies have expanded to include developing countries and a broad range of ages (from infancy to the ninth and tenth decade of life) 4,21, the notion that there is a core set of shared species in the human gut microbiota has been weakened further. Fig. 2 Tools for understanding compositional and functional diversity of the microbiota, and for generating hypotheses about functionally important genes and how to modulate metabolic phenotypes Fig. 3 Diversity of the human microbiota at different phylogenetic scales Fig. 4 Functional redundancy Functional Diversity Microbial community composition alone does not necessarily provide understanding of community function. Functional information comes in part from study of cultured isolates that are well-characterized in terms of in their genome content and ex vivo phenotypes and from sequencing community DNA. Functional screening by shotgun metagenomics relies on sequencing total microbial community DNA, including from uncultured members, and matching the sequences to those of known functional genes in databases (Fig. 2). Identification of genes involved in specific metabolic pathways can lead to predictions of functional capabilities but in lieu of mRNA, protein and metabolite profiling, these remain predictions. This reference-mapping process is improving as additional human gut microbial genomes are sequenced and annotated22 and as more complementary “omics” datasets become available 23,24. Despite having highly divergent gut microbiota compositions, functional gene profiles are quite similar in different individuals (Fig. 4). This principle was first seen in 18 females who all shared >93% of ‘enzyme’ level functional groups, but few ‘genus-level’ phylotypes20; the HMP and MetaHit confirmed this result in much larger populations 13,14. Core functions of the gut microbiota include central metabolic pathways and pathways particularly important in the gut including carbohydrate and amino acid metabolism20. However, not all pathways are represented in the core, and grouping genes into broad functional categories can also conceal meaningful inter-individual differences in function that occur at finer scales. Variable functions restricted to species or strain, including pathogenicity islands, vitamin and drug catabolism, motility and nutrient transporters, are intriguing targets for personalized diets and therapeutic strategies. Many genes are expressed only under specific conditions. Shotgun sequencing approaches that measure levels of mRNA (“metatranscriptomics”) or shotgun proteomics (“metaproteomics”) may uncover functional variation with disease, diet or other factors, that DNA studies overlook. For example, genes involved in carbohydrate metabolism and energy generation were expressed as proteins at higher levels than predicted from metagenome data, underscoring that these processes are important in the gut23. The overall pattern from studies of the core is that we share a functional core microbiome, but not a core microbiota. This concept may be understood by analogy to macroecosystems. Rainforests in different parts of the world, for example, are highly similar visually and in many functional respects, yet are composed of different species that have independently evolved. For ecological studies of the gut, a key challenge is to understand functional redundancy, (i.e. which members of the community have similar functional niches and can substitute for one another). Although taxonomic gene composition is far more variable than functional gene composition, at least at a general process level, several studies have shown correlation between the two 4,14,25. Deviations from predictions about function from a microbiota may be critical for identifying and understanding functional components associated with altered physiological states (Fig. 2). Factors driving normal variation Having established that the normal gut microbiota is highly variable, we must next understand why it varies, so that we can use this information for tailored therapies or clinical trials. For example, the extent to which family members harbor similar microbes will determine whether family histories of microbiota-driven diseases is informative. The extent to which the microbiota varies with age or pregnancy should be taken into account when designing cohorts. The sensitivity of the microbiota to external factors such as diet, will inform the most promising strategies for treating microbiome-linked diseases. Recent studies have clarified how these factors affect the microbiota. Role of age Dramatic changes in the gut microbiota occur during early life, with an increase in diversity and stability over the first three years 4,26,27 (Fig. 5). The maturation of the human microbiota is thus an example of ecological succession 4,26,27, in which communities undergo consecutive compositional and functional changes following initial colonization until a relatively stable “climax community” is established. Fig. 5 Human microbial diversity and “enterotypes” The infant microbiota is relatively volatile. Interpersonal variation in both microbial communities and functional gene repertoires is greater in infants than adults. This observation is replicated in rural Malawian African populations and Venezuelan Amerindian populations, and in metropolitan populations of European and African ancestry in the USA 4. However, infant microbiomes share characteristic properties across individuals and populations. These characteristics are both compositional (many Bifidobacteria, and lower species richness, than adults) and functional (higher representation of genes encoding enzymes involved in folate biosynthesis 4). Antibiotics, breastfeeding status, and delivery mode all have large effects on the infant microbiota, although whether microbiota differences in early life ultimately affect adult microbiota composition is not well understood28,29. Compositional differences driven by these factors in infancy, however, may affect susceptibility to immunologic diseases, including asthma and atopic diseases into adulthood29. A possible mechanism for this susceptibility has been demonstrated in mice. Germ-free GF) mice accumulate invariant natural killer T (iNKT) cells in the colonic lamina propria and lung, increasing morbidity in models of IBD and allergic asthma 5. Colonization of neonatal-but not adult-GF mice with a conventional microbiota protected the animals, indicating that infancy is a critical time for contact with the microbiota5. Further studies are needed to identify specific components of the human microbiota that shape our immune system in early life. Role of genetics, environment and diet The relative role of genetics and environment, including diet, in shaping the human microbiome is still unclear in part because these factors are often confounded. Related individuals, including twins and mother-daughter pairs, have more similar microbiota compositions, initially suggesting that human genetics influences the microbiota9,20. However, monozygotic and dizygotic adult twins share equally similar microbiota, so shared environment rather than genes may drive familial similarities20. Characteristic differences separate the gut microbiota in different populations, including children in Italy and Burkina Faso30, and both children and adults in Malawi, Venezuela and the US 4. In the latter study, the US population was a clear outlier relative to the two populations in developing countries (Fig. 5) 4. Although genetically different, these populations also differ in many other factors potentially affecting the microbiota, including environmental exposures, hygiene, diet and antibiotic use. Cultural factors, especially diet, may thus be crucial in shaping the gut microbiota. The ratio of two major genera of gut bacteria, Prevotella and Bacteroides, correlates surprisingly well with overall diversity patterns across healthy adults (see discussion of enterotypes below) 31,32. Prevotella were enriched in children with a high-fiber diet in a rural African village of Burkina Faso30 and in children and adults in Malawi and Venezuelan populations with diets dominated by maize-, cassava-, and other plant-derived polysaccharides. In contrast, individuals from the US had more Bacteroides 4. Within healthy US adults, differences in long-term diet correlated with these same genera. Bacteroides were associated with a long-term diet rich in animal protein, several amino acids, and saturated fats (prevalent in the US and Europe), whereas Prevotella were associated with carbohydrates and simple sugars32 (prevalent in agrarian societies). The relative importance for health of microbiota changes due to diet versus other factors remains a subject of active investigation. Understanding how varying human cultural traditions affect the microbiota should illuminate factors underlying dramatic differences in microbiota-associated disease incidence. For example, the incidence of IBD and allergy is greater in industrialized Western societies than in traditional agrarian cultures33. Deeper insight will require expanded studies that sample more populations and control for confounding factors. Perhaps we need a “Human Microbiome Diversity Project” to parallel the Human Genome Diversity Project34. Populations in which we can measure many variables that might correlate with microbiota diversity will be especially valuable. These variables include history of antibiotic usage, diet, and environmental exposures. The latter may require sampling not only from individuals but also from their environments. Because microbiota exposure in early life is particularly important for the development of diseases of an immunologic basis 5, prospective studies that enroll subjects in infancy, or even prenatally, will be especially valuable. Immigrant populations provide an opportunity to disentangle host genetics, geography, and culture when trying to determine disease etiology, because the incidence of some diseases matches that present in the place of destination rather than that in the place of origin 35. Microbiota variability and human health and medicine Studies of compositional and functional differences in the gut microbiota lay the foundation for relating these differences to human health. For example, differences in the microbiota and the microbiome may help explain interpersonal variations in gut metabolic processes, including metabolism of drugs and dietary substrates11,36. Because many of these metabolic pathways are outside the common functional core, they can underlie host-specific responses. For example, many health benefits of soy-rich diets, including positive outcomes for vasomotor symptoms, osteoporosis, prostate cancer, and cardiovascular disease, have been attributed to S-(-)equol produced from the soy isoflavone diadzein by bacterial rather than human enzymes37. Only 25–30% of the adult population of Western countries produce S-(-)equol when fed soy foods, compared to a 50–60% frequency in adults from Japan, Korea, or China38. Thus cancer-protective effects of soy described in Asian populations might not generalize to Westerners because of differences in key components of the microbiota. Similarly, gut microbiota indirectly determine whether acetaminophen will be metabolized to acetaminophen sulfate or acetaminophen glucuronide, potentially altering both efficacy and toxicity of this widely used analgesic36. Microbes mediate this metabolic phenotype by producing the compound p-cresol, which competes with acetaminophen for human enzymes catalyzing sulfonation36. Therefore, the results of drug trials conducted in one population (e.g. performed inexpensively in Africa or South Asia) may not generalize to a population that has a substantially different gut microbiota (e.g. Western populations). Understanding how the microbiota varies across the human population, and correlating this variability with specific microbial functions, is thus emerging as a component of personalized medicine. Stable configurations of healthy microbiota The landscape of stable states or “regimes” for the human gut is still unknown. Samples obtained over time from the same individual are more similar to one another compared to those obtained from other individuals, suggesting that each person has a relatively distinct, stable community 20,3942. This temporal stability can be related to the concept that stable equilibrium states exist for the microbiota, in which disturbances, stochasticity, and temporal dynamics of individual microbes produce change yet the community is still drawn to a central attractor 43,44. It would be especially convenient for clinical purposes if a few, clearly differentiable stable states could be used to stratify the gut microbiome across the human population. For example, if microbes in one state were known to metabolize a drug into harmful metabolites, a simple test could avoid problems associated with giving that drug to those patients, as in the case of acetaminophen and liver toxicity36. It would be especially convenient if the same states applied broadly so the same community features correlated with for example the generation of toxic metabolites from a drug also correlated with obesity. The recently introduced concept of “enterotypes” proposes exactly this stratification. Based on 33 fecal shotgun metagenomes, the human microbiome was proposed to form three distinct host-microbial symbiotic states driven by groups of co-occurring species/genera, characterized by relatively high representation of the genera Bacteroides, Prevotella, or Ruminococcus, respectively31. Although the overall clustering structure in the original report was not statistically significant, these three enterotype clusters better described the real data than randomly generated datasets31. The authors reported similar patterns after re-analysis of existing 16S rRNA data from 154 Americans20 and metagenome data from 85 Danes 13. Subsequent studies of the microbiota of 98 healthy adults from the US32, 531 healthy infants, children, and adults from Malawi, Venezuelan Amerindians, and the US 4, and of 250 healthy adults from the US 14, failed to recover the same stratification. Variation among adults in these populations was, however, associated with a trade-off between Prevotella and Bacteroides, suggesting an important role for these taxa, or taxa that co-distribute with them, in structuring the microbiota. When infants were introduced into the analysis, variation was additionally associated with a trade-off between the infant-associated Bifidobacteria genus and lineages uniquely common to adults 4 (Fig. 5). The number of unique configurations forming functional, stable communities may thus be quite large and not easily classifiable into a manageable number of distinct “types”. This concept will be important to consider further in more extensive datasets from individuals representing different ages, cultural traditions/geographic locations, and physiologic or disease states. Perturbation of stable states Differences in the microbiota with disease The composition of the microbiota at the community level differs with host physiological states. For example, obese persons harbor fewer types of microbes in their guts than lean persons, and lean and obese people differ significantly in abundances of specific taxa and functional genes6,7,45. Although community-level effects exists, and people can be classified as lean or obese with 90% accuracy based solely on their gut microbiota46,47, lean and obese individuals do not separate into distinct microbiota-based clusters on commonly used principal coordinates (PCoA) plots used to identify statistical differences between groups. Thus multiple statistical techniques are needed to fully reveal differences in microbiota correlated with different physiological states (Fig. 2). Mouse studies show that some microbiota differences can contribute directly to disease states. “Gnotobiotic mice” raised germ-free then inoculated with the microbiota from an obese mouse gained adiposity more rapidly than those inoculated with a lean mouse’s microbiota 7,45. A given phenotype can emerge from different compositional backgrounds, perhaps indicating that specific components of the microbiota exert large effects or that many different changes lead to the same functional result. Differences in fecal microbial community diversity, composition and function have also been correlated with IBD (Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis)9,10, irritable bowel syndrome (IBS)48, C. difficile associated disease (CDAD)49, and acute diarrhea50. One twin cohort study of IBD found marked and reproducible deviations in ileal Crohn’s patients relative to controls, and more subtle but characteristic changes with colonic Crohn’s patients 51; functional differences were observed based on metabolic profiling of the same samples24. Other diseases have less reproducible microbial correlations. For example, individuals with initial C. difficile infection and healthy controls had comparable phylum-level diversity. In contrast, individuals with recurrent CDAD had phylum-level diversity that diverged dramatically from healthy but that did not resemble each other 49. Many disease studies are confounded by extensive histories of antibiotic administration and other treatments that may obscure truly disease-associated changes. Prospective longitudinal studies that establish cause and effect are thus urgently needed. Parallels between host physiological states Most studies of the microbiota target one specific disease or state, but comparisons of the microbiota across diseases reveal common changes in the gut environment. For example, disturbed mucous layers lining the intestinal cell wall and concomitant inflammation are observed in individuals with IBD, celiac disease, HIV enteropathy, acute diarrhea, diverticulosis, carcinoma, and IBS52. Given these parallels, one might expect similar microbes to increase or decrease in abundance across these different disturbances 53, although elucidation of these differences may require detailed biogeographical studies along the length of the gut (once safe and reliable means for such comprehensive sampling are developed). Perturbed adult gut microbial communities are intriguingly similar to infant gut microbial communities. Perhaps both systems represent successional communities where the same opportunistic or “weedy” species predominate 53. For example, C. difficile, a normal gut resident that can cause disease when antibiotics compromise stable adult gut communities, also colonizes 2–65% of infants, although most are asymptomatic54,55. Other Clostridium species, associated with the disturbed gut and systemic infections (Clostridium bolteae and Clostridium symbiosum) are found in the infant gut 53. Individuals with ileal Crohn’s disease also resemble infants in some respects; both have more Ruminococcus gnavus and Enterobacteraceae in their stools, and an underrepresentation of genera that are prevalent in healthy adults including Faecalibacterium and Roseburia 51. These examples underscore the importance of understanding whether generally opportunistic members of the gut microbiota have a selective advantage during early succession or during disruption caused by disease, and thus may be side-effects of disease rather than causal agents. Resilience of stable states to perturbation Resilience across scales If the gut microbiota normally exists in a stable state, how resistant is this state to change in response to different perturbations? Resilience is the amount of stress or perturbation that can be tolerated before a system’s trajectory changes towards a different equilibrium state56. Several studies of macroecosystems illustrate how human interference can transform ecological systems into less productive or otherwise less desired states. Such interference includes resource exploitation, pollution, land-use change, and global warming56. For example, communities with extensive free-floating plant cover versus those in which submerged plants dominate represent alternate regimes in tropical lakes. The submerged-plant regime is preferred, because dense mats of floating plants create anoxic conditions that reduce animal biomass and diversity. Pollution can cause floating plants to predominate, however, because they better compete for light and can competitively exclude submerged plants when nutrient load is high. Understanding environmental drivers of conversion between states can enable interventions that induce regime change. For example a single harvest of the floating plants can induce a permanent shift to the submerged-plant-dominant state, but only if the nutrient loading is not too high57. Environmental studies also provide examples of microbial responses to perturbations, and perhaps, insight into how gut microbiota might react. For example, during the recent Deepwater Horizon oil spill off the Gulf of Mexico, there was a shift in the microbial community structure and functional gene repertoire in the deep-sea oil plume, with a transient enrichment of microbes capable of hydrocarbon-degradation 58,59. This example may parallel the impact of an extreme dietary change on the gut microbiota of mice switched from a low-fat plant rich diet to a high-fat, high-sugar “Western” diet 7. In both cases, the microbial communities shift substantially and this shift is likely due to their exposure to new substrates that provide a selective advantage to specific members of the community, thus shifting to alternative community states. Whether a particular disturbance disrupts a formerly stable state depends on the resilience of the microbial community to a given type of perturbation. Resilience to dietary changes Understanding the resilience of the gut microbiota is critical for determining the efficacy of therapeutic diets. Studies in humans show that consuming carbohydrate- or fat-restricted low-calorie diets for 1 year6 or high-fat/low-fiber or low-fat/high-fiber diets for 10 days32 induce statistically significant changes in the gut microbiota. Nonetheless, these changes in species and/or gene content are small compared to baseline interpersonal variations. Long-term dietary surveys and cross-cultural comparisons suggest that dietary changes might lead to regime changes over longer time periods 4,32, perhaps “eroding” the landscape of alternative stable states to allow changes that short-term nudges cannot produce. Resilience to antibiotic administration Antibiotic administration can move the microbiota to alternate stable states. In healthy volunteers given two courses of ciprofloxaxin over a 10-month period, the fecal microbiota reached a stable state similar to yet distinct from the pre-treatment state41. The magnitude of disturbance following ciprofloxacin treatment, and the speed and extent of recovery to the pre-ciprofloxacin state, suggested that resilience of the microbiota varies across individuals and between ciprofloxacin treatments within an individual41. Long-term studies of the microbiota following antibiotics indicate that post-antibiotic equilibrium states are themselves resilient. For example, clindamycin treatment affected gut Bacteroides up to two years following cessation of treatment60. Similarly, three individuals with dyspepsia given one week of metronidazole, clarithromycin, and omeprazole had a state shift that persisted up to four years without additional antibiotic treatment42. In both cases, significant increases in antibiotic-resistance genes persisted for years42,60, suggesting the post-disturbance state would likely be increasingly resilient against the same disturbance because a greater proportion of the microbiota would be resistant. This finding is consistent with the pattern found for one of the healthy subjects given the two courses of ciprofloxacin over a 10-month period41. In this case, initial recovery of the microbiota was slow and incomplete, stabilizing on a different interim state, but recovery was relatively fast after a second treatment. However, another individual in the same study had the opposite pattern, showing an essentially complete recovery following the first ciprofloxaxin treatment but stabilizing to a distinct state after the second, suggesting that the initial antibiotic treatment decreased resilience41. The impact of antibiotic disturbance on the resilience of microbiota to future antibiotic treatments can thus also vary considerably across individuals. Resilience to invasion by new species Resilience of the microbiota to challenge with exogenous microbes is also important. The gut microbiota generally exhibits “colonization resistance,” where the native microbiota prohibits establishment of harmful (pathogenic)1,2,61 and potentially beneficial (probiotic)62 microbes. Studies challenging the gut microbiota with a foreign microbiota rather than with specific pathogens or probiotics, however, suggest the native community may be less resilient to colonization by exogenous microbes than previously believed. When 14 conventionally raised Lewis rats were gavaged with the pooled microbiota of rats from the Sprague Dawley and Wistar strains, the recipients’ microbiota diversity increased substantially and changed to resemble that of the donors and phylotypes established from the donor persisted up to three months post-transplantation63. In contrast to ecological theory that disturbance eliminating native species facilitates establishment of exotic species64, transplantation after the resident microbiota were depleted with two broad-spectrum antibiotics reduced, rather than promoted, establishment of the donor microbiota63. The success of microbiota transplantation in the treatment of recurrent CDAD further supports the plasticity of an established gut microbiota when challenged with a complex microbiota. In this technique, also called bacteriotherapy65, a fecal sample from a healthy donor is introduced as a homogenate by injection into the cecum using a colonoscope. In one case study, a patient with recurrent CDAD was cured of disease symptoms following fecal transplantation from a healthy donor. Her first well-formed bowel movement came only two days post-treatment, and one month later, no C. difficile was found in her feces. Prior to treatment, the recipient had a disturbed microbiota with Veillonella and Streptococcus predominating. In contrast, the donor microbiota was dominated by Bacteroides. The same donor species were found in the patient stool samples one month post-treatment, indicating that the donor microbiota persisted over this interval. Fecal transplantation for CDAD has been administered many times and appears to be highly effective. A recent survey of 317 patients treated across 27 case series reported disease resolution in 92% of cases, with a single treatment sufficing in 89%66. The success of bacteriotherapy suggests that prior antibiotic treatment reduced the resident microbiota to the extent that it enabled engraftment of a donor microbiota. However, because fecal transplantation is not a first-line therapy no data exist concerning its effectiveness without antibiotics (A. Khoruts, pers. comm.). Further studies are needed to understand the successional processes and microbial taxa that allow a healthy microbiota configuration to be established in fecal transplant recipients. These studies will allow development of a standardized way of formulating and analyzing the donor specimen, design and interpretation of dosing studies, and analysis of short- and long-term safety. Mechanisms conferring resilience Understanding mechanisms that confer resilience to stable states of the microbiota would allow us to devise strategies to increase resilience of healthy states, or decrease resilience of unhealthy states. For example, a healthy state with high resilience to exogenous microbes might enable one person at a dinner party to escape food poisoning while their companions fall ill. A degraded state with high resilience can contribute to chronic problems with diarrhea or inflammation, as is inherent with CDAD, IBD, and IBS. Species and functional response diversity In macroecosystems, several aspects of diversity are critical for conferring resilience, and the same features are likely important in microbial ecosystems including the human gut microbiota. One important parameter is species richness, i.e. the number of species present in a given system. (Note that in culture-independent studies, this number depends on sampling effort, i.e. the number of sequences collected per sample). Ecological theory predicts that species-rich communities are less susceptible to invasion because they use limiting resources more efficiently, with different species specializing to each potentially limiting resource64. Excess nutrient loading, or eutrophication, often causes decreased ecosystem diversity because a small number of species overgrow and outcompete everything else, with a concomitant decrease in resilience67. Consistent with this notion, decreased diversity has been linked with obesity and with a “Western” diet high in fat and sugar compared to those on low-fat plant-based diets 4,7, although whether this decreased microbiota diversity results in a decrease in resilience is not known. Low microbiota diversity also correlates with IBD51 and recurrent CDAD49 with unknown effects on microbiota resilience. Another aspect of diversity that may be particularly important for promoting resilience is functional response diversity, defined as the degree to which species in a community that contribute to the same ecosystem function vary in their sensitivity to ecosystem changes68. High functional response diversity may, for instance, allow a relatively rare but functionally similar species to fill a niche when an abundant species is compromised by an environmental disturbance 68. In an example from macroecology, a regime change in coral reefs from a healthy state to an unhealthy, algal-dominated state is prevented by a diversity of algal grazers. One compromised reef only switched to an algal-dominated state after both algal-grazing fish were removed by overfishing and the sea urchin that had increased in numbers to fill this niche was compromised by a pathogen 68. The same principles likely apply to the gut microbiota. For instance, following antibiotic administration, a previously rare microbe may increase in abundance to fill an essential niche previously dominated by a microbe with higher antibiotic sensitivity, leading to persistence of the same stable state but with decreased resilience due to a decrease in functional redundancy. High functional response diversity in human gut-adapted bacteria is likely because phylogenetically disparate microbes often perform similar metabolic functions. For example, in humans and mice, methanogenic Archaea, sulfate-reducing bacteria, and phylogenetically diverse acetogens all consume H2 generated by other microbes during fermentation69. The ecological diversity of butyrate-producers in the Clostridiales provides a second example of functional redundancy. Known butyrate producers in this family have different ecological strategies, including adaptation to different stages of community succession. Anaerostipes caccae abundance peaks in infancy, while Eubacterium hallii and R. intestinalis are more abundant in adults. These taxa also vary in oxygen tolerance, with A. caccae better able to survive 10–60 minute periods of exposure to air than E. hallii or R. intestinalis70. They also differ in their substrate preferences. For example, Eubacterium halli but not F. prausnitzii can utilize lactate as a substrate71. Competition and feedback loops Competition in the densely populated gut environment is also expected to be important. Microbes can compete to use the same resources, or inhibit each other directly using anti-microbial products. We might expect phylogenetically related bacteria to compete because of overlapping functional roles and/or habitats. Instead, phylogenetically similar species tend to appear in the same samples72. For example, a recent analysis of bacteria with complete/draft genome sequences across 124 Europeans found that related species within the genus Enterobacter, including E. coli, Salmonella enterica, Citrobacter koseri, and Enterobacter cancerogenus, were positively correlated in abundance in the same individuals 53. These related species may share environmental preferences that selects for all of them simultaneously. Mouse studies also show that abundances of closely related species can predict susceptibility to intestinal colonization by both pathogenic and commensal bacteria73. Feedback loops, in which microbes affect their own abundance, may stabilize or destabilize the microbiota (Fig. 6). For example, stable physiological states are preserved by negative feedback, in which a change to the gut environment results in opposing changes that maintain homeostasis. These feedbacks are likely controlled by a tight interplay between microbial metabolic activities and host pathways. For example, microbial metabolites might induce changes in the expression of the host pathways that control gut retention time so that it rises above or below the optimum, causing diarrhea or constipation, respectively. Deviation from this optimum would likely induce host signaling pathways to correct it. This scenario is analogous to body temperature regulation. A rise above the optimum induces thermoregulatory mechanisms such as sweating to reduce it, and a descent below the optimum induces mechanisms such as shivering to increase it. Stability in physiological parameters controlled by negative feedback from the host could thus promote resilience of the microbiota. Fig. 6 Compositional transitions in the human gut microbiota Negative feedback loops that promote microbiota resilience could also operate independently of the host. For example, this would occur if when the abundance of a particular microbe exceeded a certain threshold, it would result in a change in the gut environment that would decrease that microbe’s growth relative to other species. Such negative feedback loops may involve the accumulation of phage specific to that microbe or the accumulation of a specific toxic metabolite. Modeling studies suggest that negative feedback promotes high ecosystem diversity which can promote resilience74. Positive feedback is traditionally considered to induce ecosystem change, e.g. because a difference from a set point in one direction produces additional change in the same direction. Positive feedbacks, however, have the potential to support stability at the level of individual microbes or of microbial consortia that promote each other’s growth. For instance, microbes may, through their metabolic activities or interactions with host pathways, induce a physiologic state that favors their growth over those of potential competitors, thus promoting resilience. The microbiota is thus likely to contain both key functional drivers of physiological status as well as microbes that co-occur because they are able to thrive in such an environment. Invasion by microbes that do not thrive at that particular physiological state would be prevented. One example would be if a microbiota containing functional drivers of a low inflammatory state resists colonization from pathogens, and a microbiota with functional drivers of a relatively high inflammatory state resists colonization from beneficial microbes (Fig. 6). Positive and negative feedbacks also likely play a strong role in destabilizing the microbiota during regime changes, such as during succession in early development and following a disturbance (Fig. 6). Negative feedbacks in which an organism’s activity alters the environment such that its fitness is decreased, can induce directional change when microbes induce a physiologic state that favors their competitors. For instance, a higher redox potential in the gut of infants is likely one of the factors explaining the relative success of facultative anaerobes such as Escherichia coli or certain Lactobacillus in early development75, but the reduction of oxygen that results from their metabolism favors their eventual replacement by a consortium dominated by strict anaerobes. Feedbacks important for successional changes also likely involve a complex interplay with the microbiota and its host. As an example, the same changes in redox potential that directly affect microbial fitness, also affect the expression of host factors in the gut epithelium such as hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF) in both early development and in inflammatory diseases of the gut76. Understanding how to manipulate positive and negative feedback at the level of the host, the individual microbes and of the entire gut ecosystem will be critical for understanding how to maintain healthy stable states, and how to switch from an unhealthy to a healthy state. Studies enabled by high-throughput sequencing over the past five years suggest that each individual’s microbiota has some resistance to perturbation, but that this resistance could potentially be overcome by therapies that alter the microbiota composition via diet, drugs, prebiotics or probiotics. For example, dietary changes may cause regime changes in the gut over long timescales. The surprising success of whole community transplants in healthy rats and in humans with CDAD reveals that exogenous microbes can colonize despite resistance from an entrenched microbiota. However, we do not yet understand which microbes will best colonize once introduced, or how particular microbial configurations and their functional attributes change in response to specific dietary components or exogenous microbes. Just like gardeners, we must learn what conditions promote the health of desired species and exclude undesirable weeds. The landscape of stable states of the microbiota and its implications for resilience is an important research direction. Current evidence suggests that small perturbations, such as short-term dietary changes, may allow a return to the same state, but larger perturbations, such as antibiotic administration, may cause movement to a different state. The long-term implications for such changes for health are not yet well understood. Furthermore, perturbation of the landscape of stable equilibrium states of the gut microbiota through long-term changes, such as inflammation, diet, or repeated antibiotic administration, might make new states reachable even with smaller perturbations. Factors such as host genetics, the process of development, diet, and long-term drug administration might all contribute to differences in the landscape among individuals. Consequently, both the general landscape and the current community state may be important for determining individual responses to a given intervention. The exhibited degree of resilience to diet, disturbances including antibiotics, and challenge with exogenous microbes has important implications for health care. The degree to which repeated applications of broad-spectrum antibiotics degrade the microbiota and its ability to provide ecosystem services needs to be studied, especially in children because early development is a crucial time for interactions between microbiota and host5. However, the identification of suitable controls is challenging given the large intra- and interpersonal variation in the gut microbiota during early development. As indicated by studies of resilience to dietary changes, regime change is not always instigated by acute disturbances and can occur gradually. Individuals with a ‘degraded’ microbiota from long-term consumption of a high-fat/high-sugar Western diet may need long-term dietary changes to restore their microbiota to a healthy state. The decreased taxonomic diversity of individuals in Western cultures raises concern about the maintenance of important microbial symbionts in the broader population, and whether global trends in diet can result in the permanent loss/extinction of bacterial species that can provide important health benefits. Maintaining culture collections from individuals in the developing world or specifically in agrarian cultures may help to preserve potentially important components of the microbiota. Given that gut microbes often produce unique states in the gut through their collective activities and cooperative metabolism, it will be important to understand associations between disease states and sets of species rather than single taxa 53. A central problem of culture-independent metagenomic analyses is that identified phylotypes (or collections of phylotypes) often represent species for which little is known biologically. Therefore, the field of gut microbial ecology has come full circle, with increasing attention being paid to developing methods for culturing the majority of diversity present in a community so that hypotheses about the contributions of community members can be further explored. Encouragingly, the human fecal microbiota is largely composed of readily cultured bacteria 77. In vitro experiments with these isolates will be extremely valuable for exploring specific hypotheses about the metabolic attributes of a particular microbe or set of microbes and the genes involved. However, because microbiota composition and function are also controlled by feedbacks from the host, in vivo studies in gnotobiotic mice will be particularly valuable. Indeed, the culturable component of the microbiota exhibits similar colonization dynamics, biogeographical distribution, and responses to dietary perturbations compared to the full microbiota when transplanted into gnotobiotic mice77. A translational science pipeline is thus developing where particular phylotypes and interactions between phylotypes that are important for health and/or that contribute to disease can first be identified based on distribution patterns with disease. Furthermore, biological attributes that may be driving these patterns can be predicted based on the expression or prevalence of functional genes in whole communities and in genomes. These specific hypotheses can then be tested and verified in culture and in animal models before application to humans. Tools for this pipeline are now in place. Although the path ahead will be difficult, the direction is becoming clearer. We would like to thank Laura Parfrey, John Knight and Allison Knight for their comments on this manuscript. 1. Candela M, et al. Interaction of probiotic Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium strains with human intestinal epithelial cells: adhesion properties, competition against enteropathogens and modulation of IL-8 production. 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Why Ethanol Is Well Entrenched by: Alpha Guru For the past five years, the U.S. government has paid fuel companies billions of dollars in subsidies to buy home-grown, corn-based ethanol, making it a viable part of the nation's gasoline supply. The worst drought in half a century revived a fierce food versus fuel debate. Livestock and food producers and others are calling on President Barack Obama to abandon at least temporarily a government mandate that requires converting more than a third of the U.S. corn crop to ethanol. Global political pressure is mounting to repeal the U.S. Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS) in 2013, as the most severe drought in more than half a century has cut the US corn supply and driven up prices substantially. According to IEA, the RFS requires a minimum volume of 13.2 billion gallons of ethanol, most of which is derived from corn, to be blended into the gasoline pool each year so as to reduce greenhouse gases and limit the consumption of nonrenewable fuel. However experts feel that ethanol use is more influenced by economics than by government policies, and waiving the RFS would have little impact on ethanol demand and therefore corn prices. The following chart shows that futures prices for corn, ethanol and gasoline all imply that ethanol blending will maintain its profitability into the near future. The practice of mixing ethanol into gasoline results in considerable cost savings for refiners, since they can purchase ethanol at a $0.35 per gallon discount to an equivalent amount of gasoline. Furthermore, reducing the proportion of ethanol blended into gasoline would require costly refinery alterations, as well as a realignment of the supply chain. Another challenge refiners would face, should they decide to revert to conventional gasoline blends, is that octane/oxygenate substitutes, such as toluene and alkylates, cost more than ethanol and are not as widely available. There would be serious political repercussions to repealing the RFS, considering that ethanol plants are a growing source of jobs and that gasoline prices would then increase at a time of tepid economic growth. Investment options: U.S. retail investors can long the following securities that will benefit from ethanol advantage. Pacific Ethanol (NASDAQ:PEIX) BioFuel Energy (NASDAQ:BIOF) Xethanol Corporation (XNL) The Teucrium Corn ETF (NYSEARCA:CORN) REX American (NYSE:REX) MGP Ingredients (MGPI Verasun Energy (VSE) Pacific Ethanol Andersons (NASDAQ:ANDE) Archer Daniels Midland (NYSE:ADM) Renewable Energy Group (NASDAQ:REGI) Aventine Renewable (OTCPK:AVRW) Click to enlarge
Econ 211 Answers to Selected Problem Set 1 Questions 1. If you view the calorie content of fatty foods as part of the "price" you pay to eat such foods, then a "low-calorie" product may be viewed as cheaper, therefore people are more likely to increase their consumption of the product. It is entirely possible that people could actually end up eating a lot more of these products--so much more that they begin to put on more weight. 2. The new law might actually encourage pregnant women and disabled individuals to increase the amount of their time spent waiting in lines since they will be able to take "cuts" into lines. Some pregnant women and disabled folks might actually sell their services as professional line waiters! In addition, some people might pretend to be pregnant or disabled in order to take advantage of the law. 3. $51,900 (= $27,000 + 900 + $24,000). The other expenses are fixed costs that have to be paid whether Joe goes to college or not. 5. The cost of traveling by air is: C = 150 + 1W. The cost of traveling by bus is: C = 50 + 5W. The wage that makes the person indifferent between traveling by air or bus is found by setting the two equations equal and solving for W (the wage rate). In this case, W = 25. 6. When economists measure costs we not only count actual cash outlays, but also foregone opportunities. In this case, the accountant has calculated that your (accounting) profits are $300 per week. The accountant has neglected to include the cost of your time in the profit calculation--in other words, the accountant has underestimated total costs. The accountant should have included $400 (= 40 hours per week * $10 per hour) as part of your cost of doing business. What this all means is that you would make more money working for someone else than running your own business. 7. How would you measure the cost of cutting grass? What are the labor and capital costs involved? 9. The time already spent waiting in line shouldn't matter. The lost time represents a sunk cost--and there's not much you can do about sunk costs. People's actions are (assumed to be) based on the marginal costs and benefits of actions yet to be taken. 10. does the change in speed limits affect driving incentives? Raising the speed limit on interstate highways might be expected to attract those drivers who like to drive fast. Thus, fewer fast drivers will be on the non-interstate highways--making these roads relatively safer. 11. Why do people smoke cigarettes? An economist might reason that people expect to benefit from cigarette consumption. Smokers must believe that the costs of smoking are so low (and far off into the future) that the immediate benefits simply outweigh the costs. Arguments to ban smoking usually assume that smoking imposes costs on non-smokers or that smokers don't really know what's in their best interest. 12. Rational computer thief? (a) The expected MB = $350,000; the expected MC = [($80,000)(10) + $5,000](.25)(.80) = $161,000. Since MB > MC, a rational thief would steal the computers. (b) To find the optimal jail sentence, set MC = $350,000 (since that's the cost that would make the thief unwilling to steal the computers) and solve for J. Thus: MC = [(80,000)(J) + 5,000](.25)(.80) = 350,000 ==> J = 21.8 years. (c) You can find the optimal fine and joint probability in the same fashion: Optimal Fine = (d) Optimal Joint Probability = 13. Napolean Dynamite a) Marginal benefits: 30, 25, 20, 15, 10, 5, 3, -1 d) 3 times e) 7 times 17. Normative questions generally elicit more argument among economists. Normative: a, d. Positive: b, c, e 18. Normative: a, c, e. 19. a) capital b) land c) capital d) labor e) capital 20. Circular flow diagram shows how money flows between producers and consumers in two markets: goods market and factor market. 21. Macro: c, e. Micro: a, b, d 22. PPF a) A to B: 10 units of AOG (all other goods); B to C: 20 units of AOG; C to D: 30 units of AOG; D to E: 40 units of AOG. b) No, since this combination would put the country inside its PPC indicating some type of inefficiency (eg, unemployment). c) Since this combination is outside the current PPC, there must've been an increase in resources or technology to allow the economy to produce such a combination. 23. While it is clear that Selena has an absolute advantage over Justin, you need to determine who holds the comparative advantage in preparing drinks and who holds the comparative advantage in preparing dinners. For Selena, the opportunity cost of preparing one more dinner is 2.5 drinks. For Justin, the opportunity cost of preparing one more dinner is 3 drinks. Thus, Selena has the comparative advantage in preparing dinners since her opportunity cost is lower. Justin, by default, has the comparative advantage in preparing drinks. [For Justin, the opportunity cost of preparing one drink is preparing 0.33 dinners. Selena's opportunity cost of preparing one drink is preparing 0.40 dinners. As you can see, Justin's opportunity cost of preparing drinks is lower--therefore he has the comparative advantage in serving drinks.] 24. Golf balls and clubs. a) No graph provided. b) Yes, PPFs exhibit constant opportunity cost. In other words, they are linear PPFs. c) Country A has an absolute advantage in producing Golf Balls and Clubs. d) Country A has a comparative advantage in producing Golf Clubs (their opportunity cost for each Club is 4 Balls; Country B's opportunity cost for each Club is 6 Balls). Country B has the comparative advantage in Balls. e) Country A would export Clubs and B would export Balls. 27. Trade between US and South Korea. Output per Hour Opportunity Cost of ... Country Tons of Steel Bushels of Wheat 1 ton of steel 1 bushel of wheat US 6 60 10 bushels of wheat 1/10 ton of steel South Korea 3 6 2 bushels of wheat 1/2 ton of steel a) US has absolute advantage in both goods. b) US has comparative advantage in wheat, SK has comparative advantage in steel. c) SK would export steel and import wheat; US would export wheat and import steel. US South Korea Steel Wheat Steel Wheat Production Change: -6 +60 +12 -24 Trade: +10 -50 -10 +50 Consumption Change: +4 +10 +2 +26
Australian Town Bans Bottled Water Residents of Bundanoon, New South Wales, Australia have voted to ban the sale of bottled water in their rural town—probably the first in the world to do so. Only two voters opposed the ban. Why? Bundanoon's battle against the bottle has been brewing for years, ever since a Sydney-based beverage company announced plans to build a water extraction plant in the town. Residents were furious over the prospect of an outsider taking their water, trucking it up to Sydney for processing and then selling it back to them. The town is still fighting the company's proposal in court. In other words, bottling water wastes an incredible amount of resources—natural and capital. (Producing the bottles for the American market requires 17 million barrels of oil; three liter of water are needed to produce a liter of bottled water.) So officials in Bundanoon will install more drinking fountains and encourage residents to use them to fill reusable water bottles for free. I hope something like this catches on elsewhere. It's certainly possible. When San Francisco announced it would ban businesses from giving out plastic bags for free, some store owners griped it would hurt their bottom lines because paper bags are more expensive than plastic. But walk in to any Trader Joe's or Walgreens and you'll see a majority customers bringing their own bags or reusing them from previous trips. That's the power of a collective mindset, albeit one driven in part by a law. Of course, there are other benefits to reusable bags, the least of which is not having to dedicate a cupboard to a heap of plastic stamped with CVS's logo. But there are more potent incentives to banning bottled water. For one, the environmental benefit is greater (Americans recycle less than seven percent of their plastic, compared to 55 percent of the paper they use.) To me, though, the most potent incentive is purely economic: Part of the reason we pay taxes is so that we have clean drinking water. Whenever I buy a bottle of water, I feel like I'm doing something incredibly irrational, spending money on something for which there exists a free and arguably better substitute—tap water. Eco-news Roundup: Thursday July 9 Blue Marblish stories from our other blogs you might have missed. Healthcare Pitfalls: A public plan might mean cuts for those with severe health problems. 411 on G8: World leaders at G8 summit fail to agree on climate change goals. Placebo Effect: There are lots of treatments for cancer, but not a lot of data on results. Justice, Iranian Style: Torture and interrogations are now common, say sources. You Can't Catch Black: Inner-city kids booted out of pool because white guests were scared. Numerical Oddity: Today the clock will strike 12:34:56... on 7/8/9. Old Forests Cool the World The practice of reducing forest fuels to lessen the chances of catastrophic fire undercuts a more vital service performed by old woodlands: the sequestration of carbon to offset global warming. According to a new study in Ecological Applications, even if forestry biofuels were used in an optimal manner to produce electricity or make cellulosic ethanol there would still be a net loss of carbon sequestration in the forests of the Pacific Northwest for at least 100 years—and probably much longer. Here's what the study found: In a Coast Range forest, if you remove solid woody biofuels to reduce fire risks and then use them for fuel, you need 169 years before you reach a break-even point in carbon sequestration. If you use the same woody materials for the inefficient production of cellulosic ethanol, you need 339 years to break even. Prior to this study, it was widely believed that using biofuels to produce energy would offset the carbon emissions from this process. But these data negate that hypothesis. Instead, the authors conclude, we should forego fuel reduction treatments to enable forest ecosystems to provide maximal amelioration of atmospheric CO2 over the next 100 years. The hypothetical benefits of fuel reduction went up in flames when the fossil fuel costs of transportation, fuel for thinning, and other energy expenditures, was factored in. With those calculations, forestry biofuels recovered only 60 to 65 percent of the energy they cost. Producing cellulosic ethanol recovered as little as 35 percent. The bottom line: Transforming old existing forests into anything other than old existing forests produces a net loss in carbon sequestration. Interesting note: Another study recently concluded that the forests of Oregon and northern California, if managed exclusively for carbon sequestration, could double or even triple the amount of sequestration in many areas. Not considered in this study: How global warming might affect the increase of catastrophic fire. However, the authors write that fire severity in many forests may be more a function of severe weather rather than fuel accumulation. Therefore fuel reduction efforts may be of only limited effectiveness, even in a hotter future. So what'll it be—more fuel or a more stable world? G-8 Summit: The Battle of East vs. West As the world's most powerful leaders convene in L'Aquila, Italy for the largest G-8 summit ever, one wonders, will anything actually be accomplished? The Associated Press reported that many of the leaders arrived to the summit in electric cars. (We presume that for security purposes, Obama arrived in a traditional American-made hyper-bulletproof gas guzzler.) This begs the question, will America take the lead in initiating global change? As Kevin Drum reported earlier: The basic problem isn't the 80% reduction by 2050, which is supported by both Obama and congressional Democrats. The problem is the 2020 goal. Right now, the Waxman-Markey climate bill requires a 17% cut by 2020, but that's from a baseline of 2005. Depending on how you crunch the numbers, that works out to a cut of only 0-4% from 1990 levels. The Europeans, conversely, want to see a 20% cut from 1990 levels by 2020. Obama, presumably, sees no chance at all of getting Congress to agree to that, and the Europeans aren't willing to compromise their more stringent goals. So for now, no agreement. And Copenhagen is only five months away. A Banner Weak for the Climate Bill The day before the Senate began hearings on HR 2454, Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid fired up the troops with this call to arms: "As a legislator, everything is negotiable." Indeed. And we saw how that process worked in the House. The Obama administration's tough beginnings melted like a snowman in December under the heat of industry lobbying. Oil. Coal. Agriculture. They all demanded concessions. They all got them. Many progressives are holding their noses and supporting the "kludge of a bill" for a variety of reasons, all thoroughly debated throughout the blogosphere at this point. The only real news on this front is the action taken today by Greenpeace -- scaling Mt. Rushmore and unfurling a banner that exhorts President Obama to hang tough in this fight. It was a beautiful sight. But it will take more than that to get the job done. A blogger at 1Sky rightly points out that "grassroots pressure will be essential" in keeping the climate bill intact, let alone in making it stronger. Yesterday's hearing before the Senate's Environment committee, was typical Kabuki Theatre. Committee Chair Barbara Boxer warned viewers to prepare for the GOP Hymn #137, "No, We Can't." Republican Senators spoke early and often about the need to add billions for new nuclear power plants -- not that global warming is real, mind you, but, well, just because... There are several committee hearings left (including more before Boxer's committee) and time for a grassroots movement to grow under the banner demanding a stronger bill. But that will take more concerted action than supporters have shown so far. T. Boone Pickens Scraps Plan for Massive Wind Farm Solar Blimp to Debut on English Channel Here's another bright, green idea to save the world. Within the next few weeks, a solar powered blimp sponsored by the French Projet Sol'r will fly across the English Channel. The timing is a clear homage to Louis Bleriot, the first person to fly across the channel in an airplane on July 25, 1909. When Bleriot embarked on his flight in his rinky dinky airplane, few could have imagined the advances in flight technology that would soon take us to the moon, or send hundreds of civilians across the world within hours. This month's blimp flight, a century later, will mark an exciting era of exploration into the practical uses of alternative energy. For now, the significance of this project is mostly symbolic. But with transportation companies looking for new ways to cut costs, and the government threatening to crack down on emissions, the flight could indicate whether cutting out traditional fuel and deflating carbon emissions will become part of the equation. Eco-News Roundup: Wednesday July 8 Here are stories from our other blogs you might have missed yesterday on healthcare, energy, and the environment. And don't forget to check out our new drug package! Lots of good tidbits in there, including my own painstaking map. Feeling Bullish: Obama may go a little Raging Bull on oil speculators. Changing the Guard: Mexico elections show people may think Calderon's drug war is failing. Photo of the Day: Pretty topography as a soldier surveys Afghanistan. Vegetarian Diet Prevents Disease Just in time to refute last week's atrociously reported story...The American Dietetic Association released a position paper stating that vegetarian diets are healthful and nutritious for adults, infants, children and adolescents, and can help prevent and treat chronic diseases including heart disease, cancer, obesity and diabetes. The American Dietetic Association is the world’s largest organization of food and nutrition professionals. The good news is that vegetarian diets tend to be lower in saturated fat and cholesterol, with higher levels of fiber, magnesium, potassium, vitamins C and E, folate, carotenoids, flavonoids and other phytochemicals. Consequently, people eating well-balanced vegetarian diets tend toward lower blood cholesterol levels, lower risk of heart disease, lower blood pressure levels, and lower risk of hypertension and type 2 diabetes. Beyond that, vegetarians tend toward lower body mass indices and lower overall cancer rates. Expanded sections in this updated position paper include: cancer protection factors in vegetarian diets, and the roles of fruits, vegetables, soy products, protein, calcium, vitamins D and K and potassium in bone health. In other words, a vegetarian diet is better for you than a meat diet. It's also better for every other living thing on Earth. So why hasn't this study cracked the headlines? Eco-News Roundup: Tuesday, July 7 Your Tuesday dose of environment, health, and science stories from around our blogs: Straight wonks on dope: Kevin Drum has never smoked weed. He's only seen a joint once. Here’s why he wants pot decriminalized. Plus: Government lies about pot revealed. Palin's last hurrah: Possibly a requirement that Alaska girls under 18 to get parental consent for abortions, despite scientific evidence that such policies result in more late-term abortions. Does not compute: Conservatives' bizarro healthcare arguments are sounding less and less convincing.

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