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The third crucial mutation is in your cell's suicide switch. | [
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Most cells are constantly recycled and refreshed. | [
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When cells amass too much damage, they usually notice, and special genes trigger a controlled suicide called apoptosis. | [
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If the genes that control this process get damaged, cells are free to live on, despite being dangerously corrupted. | [
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and begins to grow rapidly without restraint, it turns into a young cancer cell. | [
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These cells have to be killed as quickly as possible. | [
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While they are bad at this stage, they are still pretty weak and easy to kill. | [
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But if they continue to mutate and increase in number, they can learn to avoid your defenses and become a real threat. | [
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At any moment of your life, your immune system is hunting these cells. | [
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But how do you identify and kill corrupted cells that seem indistinguishable from healthy ones? | [
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Well, here we come back to the proteins your cells produce and the story they tell. | [
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So, if for example your oncogenes switch back on, they make oncogene proteins. | [
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Your immune system knows that they should not be present if you're an adult. | [
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So to know which cells are corrupt and which are healthy, your immune system needs to know what proteins they're making inside. | [
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To solve this, evolution came up with MHC class 1 molecules, a sort of display window that makes cells transparent. | [
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Cells constantly take little samples of the proteins they make and put them into thousands of these MHC molecules to showcase what they're doing. | [
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The selection is constantly refreshed, always giving an up-to-date picture. | [
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There's a whole library of proteins that are highly dangerous and should not be made by healthy cells, and your immune system has them all on file. | [
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It has billions of specialized cells called T-cells made to recognize specific proteins. | [
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If a T-cell sees a forbidden protein in an MHC display window, it knows that the cell is corrupted and kills it immediately. | [
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At this very second, hundreds of millions of natural killer cells are patrolling your body looking for cells that have already turned into cancer or are corrupted by a virus. | [
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This is so amazing because it covers all of your bases. | [
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While T-cells look for the presence of the unexpected, something that should not be here, natural killer cells look for the absence of the expected, the absence of something that should be here. | [
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Your healthy cells have to convince it that they should not die today. | [
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Okay, but if your body is this prepared, why do we still get cancer? | [
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Well, sometimes cancer cells mutate more and get much better at fighting back. | [
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Cancer is a story of an arms race. | [
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We'll look at these therapies in future videos. | [
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So, the war is not won yet, but we are on to cancer and eventually it will be eliminated once and for all. | [
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This video was made possible in part by direct viewer support and in part through a grant by Gates Ventures. | [
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Please check out our source document for more background and in-depth information. | [
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You almost certainly don't want to go there. | [
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The pioneers doing the hard work on Mars will have an intensely stressful life filled with incredibly challenging problems, never encountered before. | [
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For this video, we will assume there have been prior missions to Mars to scout out a good place for an outpost, store resources and equipment and that there's already a moon base that serves as a hub for Mars missions. | [
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The first major challenge for our outpost is the fact that Mars is very energy poor. | [
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Alternatives such as wind power and geothermal energy are also unfeasible as there's hardly any atmosphere and Mars's interior is much too cold. | [
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Since Mars doesn't have easily accessible radioactive elements, the nuclear fuel needs to come from Earth along with the reactor. | [
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If we do set it up, it could power our small outpost for the first few years. | [
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Corners and flat walls are weak points, so the habitats will have rounded and smooth shapes to handle the stress of great pressure differences between the interior and exterior. | [
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The airlocks need to be very airtight and work perfectly every time. | [
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Without an extensive magnetosphere or a dense atmosphere, half of all radiation coming from space reaches the ground. | [
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A person on the surface would be subjected to 50 times the radiation that they would be on Earth. | [
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Three years on the surface of Mars exceeds the radiation dose limits imposed on NASA astronauts for their entire career. | [
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This increases cancer risks significantly. | [
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Covering the dry ice with a meter of dirt would further increase the level of protection. | [
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Sadly, this means almost no windows. | [
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It's much finer than dust on Earth, so it could find its way into the gears or electronics of our machines. | [
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It would be impossible to avoid carrying lots of Mars dust into our habitat and into the lungs of our crew. | [
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To make this even worse, Mars' soil is filled with very toxic perchlorate salts. | [
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Spacesuits, for example, could be made in a way that they never truly enter the base, but stay attached to the outside of the habitats. | [
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Now we've safely isolated humans in terms of energy and air, and protected them from cancer, we just need to feed them. | [
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Water is easy to come by if a settlement is positioned near the Martian poles with their thick layers of ice. | [
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All of this will take a lot of time and is very energy intensive. | [
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So we might use aquaponics to raise fish and plants together, making the astronauts' diets more varied and tasty at the same time. | [
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This will be an important psychological boost for our overworked crew. | [
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