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Exposure Response Plan for the Laboratory Handling of Toxoplasma gondii
Toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular parasite that causes the disease toxoplasmosis. The sexual part of the lifecycle takes place in domestic and wild cats. Asexual reproduction can occur in any mammal. The infectious dose is not known. Infection occurs when oocysts from feline feces or contaminated water or, more commonly, tissue cysts from undercooked meat are ingested. When oocysts or tissue cysts are ingested, the parasite replicates rapidly and is disseminated throughout the body via macrophages (this stage of the parasite is referred to as the tachyzoite stage). The immune response controls this stage of the infection, and the parasite forms the latent bradyzoite stage in the tissues including the brain. The host will remain latently infected for life, but immune to repeat infection. Bradyzoite cysts can be reactivated in severely immunocompromised individuals. Complications from infection during pregnancy occur only when Toxoplasma is contracted for the first time during the pregnancy.
Approximately 15-20% of the population in the US harbor latent infection, in France, 90% of the population is seropositive. Because this infection is easily acquired from the environment, and is commonly asymptomatic, the only way to confirm laboratory infection is to demonstrate seroconversion.
Oocysts or tissue cysts: any exposure of the agent to the eyes, nose or mouth, inhalation of aerosols.
Tachyzoites or tissue cysts: Parenteral exposure.
Reporting Exposure Incidents: All exposure incidents must be reported immediately to the supervisor. Toxoplasma strains that are avirulent for mice are still infectious for humans.
Pre-exposure Health Screening:
All employees will be educated by the PI or Occupational Health Professional of the risks of working with Toxoplasma and symptoms of exposure prior to any individual beginning work with or around this agent.
All immunocompromised employees who might potentially be exposed to Toxoplasma during routine work should be advised to self-identify to Employee Health Clinic (Boston) or Occupational Medical Clinics (Grafton/Medford) for further evaluation and discussion of the specific risks associated with immunodeficiency and exposure to Toxoplasma.
Women who first become infected during or just before pregnancy can pass infection to the unborn child. This transmission may result in abortion, stillbirth, and severe central nervous system and eye problems. Women wishing to conceive or those pregnant should avoid working with this agent.
Before an Exposure Incident Occurs:
Immunization for Toxoplasma is currently not available.
After an Exposure Incident Occurs: Immediate Action by Route of Exposure:
Needlestick, Animal Bite or Laceration: Wash the area with soap and running water. Do not apply bleach, alcohol or other disinfectant to the skin. For infection to occur due to this type of exposure, oocysts must be ingested or inhaled. However infection could occur by this route if the investigator is working with tachyzoites or tissue cysts.
Mucous membranes (eye, nose, mouth): If contaminated material is splashed or sprayed into the face contaminating the eyes, nose or mouth: flush the eyes for 10–15 minutes, rinse mouth out with clean water. Be sure not to swallow. Wash down the face being sure that the nasal cavities have been rinsed as much as possible.
Inhalation: If contaminated materials are aerosolized outside of primary containment and potentially inhaled, rinse mouth twice expelling the rinsate. Do not swallow.
- Contact with Intact Skin and Clothing: Remove contaminated clothing using gloves and place objects in plastic bags and dispose of as biological or medical waste. Wash contaminated skin with soap and water. Again, for infection to occur due to this type of exposure, oocysts or tissue cysts must be ingested or inhaled, and tachyzoites would need to be injected. Use caution if clothing is removed over the head.
After an Exposure Incident Occurs: Medical Evaluation and Follow-up:
Following immediate post exposure actions contact the Tufts Medical Center Employee Health Clinic (Boston), TCSVM Occupational Medical Clinic (Grafton) or the Mt. Auburn Occupational Health Services (Medford) and arrange for medical evaluation, diagnosis and treatment if needed.
During this medical evaluation, the exposed individual may be educated on the signs or symptoms of toxoplasmosis, and instructed to watch for the development of these signs and symptoms.
Signs and Symptoms of Toxoplasmosis include:
In the immunocompetent individual: Most people have an asymptomatic infection. Some will have mild flu like symptoms with swollen lymph nodes or muscle aches. People with ocular infections can have reduced or blurred vision, pain, redness or tearing.
In the immunocompromised individual: Neurological complications may occur due to reactivation of bradyzoite cysts in the brain, headache, fever, myocarditis (abnormal heart beat), chest pain and shortness of breath are possible.
Diagnosis of infection is typically made by serologic testing for anti-toxoplasma antibodies. In immunocompromised individuals with neurologic signs, a CAT scan can demonstrate brain lesions from the re-activated cysts.
There is currently no routine post exposure pre-symptom prophylaxis for toxoplasmosis. In otherwise healthy people, treatment may not be needed. A health care provider may decide to initiate presumptive therapy.
If any individual working with or around Toxoplasma develops signs or symptoms suggestive of exposure to toxoplasmosis, they must inform their PI and Biosafety Officer immediately. Signs and symptoms usually develop within 5-25 days of exposure. The individual must be evaluated at Tufts Medical Center Employee Health (Boston), must notify the TCSVM Occupational Health Nurse who will refer the individual to an Infectious Disease specialist (Grafton), or a physician at Mt. Auburn Hospital Occupational Health Group (Medford).
Massachusetts Department of Public Health classifies toxoplasmosis as a reportable disease and must be reported to the Local Board of Health immediately by the attending physician. In accordance with Massachusetts regulation, any clinical laboratory identifying an infection caused by Toxoplasma may be reported to the Massachusetts Department of Public Health in accordance with disease-reporting regulations.
If an employee develops signs and symptoms associated with Toxoplasma exposure in the absence of an exposure incident, the PI and Biosafety Officer should be notified immediately. However, laboratory acquired infection can only be confirmed by documenting seroconversion.
To download a copy, click here.
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Originally Posted by herzzreh
If I have a right angle triangle and I know the x and y dimentions, how do I calculate the height from the base to the slope along a certain point on the slope?
If I understand your question correctly, if you pick a point on the base and go straight up until you reach the hypotenuse you will create a new right triangle that has the same relationship as your original triangle. So if you know what the length of your new base is you can take it as a fraction of your original base and use that fraction to determine the height of your new triangle.
For instance, say you have a 3-4-5 right triangle so that the lengths of the three sides are 3, 4, and 5. If I assume that the the side of length 3 is the base and I use a new base that is one half the length of the original I have a new base of 1.5. I can use this base and the original hypotenuse to create a new right triangle that has lengths of 1.5-2-2.5.
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Find lists of great research paper topics, and basic information on them from the library databases and web resources:
Use these resources to choose a topic to select from. You can also use the library databases on the right to choose a topic from and start your research from there.
ProCon.org: Understand the issues. Understand each other
A leading source for pro con issues with a non-partisan approach, which has a mission of
401 Prompts for Argumentative Writing
401 ideas to write your speech on..Learning Network, Teaching and Learning with the New York Times. (https://www.nytimes.com/section/learning)
509 Informative Speech Ideas and Topics
A site with "hundreds of topics for informative speeches and essays".
Major Types of Informative Speeches
Writing guide from the Writing Studio at Colorado State University
Topic Selection Helper
A list to help pick a topic from, put together by University of Hawai`i Maui Community College Speech Department
A YouTube video presentation on starting with a research project, presented by NCSU
Develop a Research Question that Works
A YouTube video showing the whole process of doing research - step by step. Presented by University of Cincinnati Libraries.
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Swiss biotechnology company Cytos has developed a vaccine for dust mite allergy sufferers.Dust mites found in 'every home' eat flakes of skin, in addition to other things. They live in bedding, upholstered furniture and even stuffed toys. Allergies are reactions to the feces and body parts left by these insects. These reactions can even lead to asthma.
Cytos has claimed that their vaccine has been tested on 20 volunteers and has demonstrated reduction in the dust mite-induced allergic reactions by 100-fold. In addition symptoms have seen a decrease of one-third and asthma attacks, eliminated.
The vaccine uses an empty virus filled with DNA and attached to a protein from the dust mite excrement in order to trigger a response from the immune system.
This boosts the activity of the immune system, which tries to suppress that allergic reaction. According to Cytos the benefits were found to persist even eight months after the inoculations.
The company also plans to develop vaccines for other common allergies such as hay fever.
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The Euthyphro dilemma is often used by atheists to argue that the Christian understanding of morality either makes God subject to a greater morality that is independent from God or it makes God’s judgments concerning what is and is not moral merely arbitrary. This is not as difficult or complex as you might think so, stay with me and you will experience a return on your investment of time.
Euthyphro is part of the dialogues of Plato. The actors in this dialogue are Socrates and Euthyphro. The scene takes place on the porch of King Archon. The dialogue begins with Socrates admitting to being under prosecution by a Meletus, moves to Euthyphro’s family situation in which his father had murdered one of his family members, and whether the act was just or not, and then to Euthyphro’s method for distinguishing himself above others. Euthyphro argues that what makes him more pious is his exact knowledge of what is pious and impious. Socrates then asks if piety and impiety change, a statement which Euthyphro affirms. Then Socrates asks, what is piety and impiety.
Socrates: “I mean to say that the holy has been acknowledged by us to be loved of God because it is holy, not to be holy because it is loved.”
The Euthyphro Dilemma: In our own paraphrase of this you would get, “Is something moral because God loves it or does God love it because it is moral?”
If the Christian says that something is moral because God loves it, this logically ends in an arbitrary morality. So if God had loved rape, it would have been moral or murder, etc. As you can imagine, this would not be consistent with Christian theology. On the other hand, if we say that God only loves things because those things are moral, this separates morality from God, meaning that things can be moral or immoral independent from God. Such a position would make God subject to a moral law which would mean that God is not absolute or supreme in any sense whatsoever. He is just as subject to moral actions as humans are. This does not bold well for the Christian.
The Euthyphro Dilemma seemingly forces the Christian to choose between a God who is arbitrary or one who is not supreme. Both choices destroys Christianity as we know it. What is the Christian to do?
First, the best Christian apologetic is Christian theology. Far too many Christians want to run out and do apologetics will skipping theology. This is like an astronaut who wants to fly to the moon but skip math class. It isn’t going to work out very well. So then, know the God you serve. Know what Christian theology claims about the God who is!
The Dilemma is a common form of argument. The premises of the syllogisms so combined are formulated disjunctively, and devised in a way to trap the opponent by forcing him to accept one or the other of the disjuncts [Copi, 279]. In this case, the disjuncts are both devastating to Christian theology. There are three ways to respond to a dilemma: go between the horns, taking it by the horns, or offering a counter dilemma.
Socrates’ choices are the problem. He has offered Euthyphro only two choices. Either an act is moral because God loves it or God loves an act because it is moral. God loves himself. God is perfectly moral. An act is moral when it reflects God’s nature. Because God loves himself and because God is morally perfect, it is obviously the case that God would love any act that reflects his own nature. Since God is absolute, unchanging, independent, morality is absolute, unchanging, and independent. Since God’s nature is the greatest of all possible good, an act is moral when it reflects God’s nature. Conversely, an act is immoral when it contradicts God’s nature. Morality then is not arbitrary since God’s nature is not arbitrary. Neither is morality independent from God since God’s nature is not independent from God.
As it turns out, the Euthyphro Dilemma is no dilemma at all for the Christian who has invested his or her time in order to understand precisely what Christian theology understands Scripture to reveal about the nature of the God that is!
Here is another quick point about morality. All moral arguments presuppose absolute morality. Arguments that advocate for and those that are opposed to absolute morality presuppose absolute morality in order to argue for their respective morality. This is unavoidable. The opponent to absolute morality will claim that his version of morality is the correct one and will ultimately land on the logical conclusion that every other moral theory is itself immoral and should be surrendered in order to embrace his particular moral theory. If he does not hold this view, then why bother even debating the matter? You can excuse such a person from the discussion which I am pretty sure he will think is immoral. See how that works. You see, a rational person “ought” not to hold to a view that is without sufficient proof or evidence or so the argument goes. And since I think my theory of morality is the only one with sufficient evidence, I also think that every one else ought to give up their view once they understand my view. That is a moral claim. There is an “ought” in that position. You cannot argue for a subjective morality without presupposing objective morality. It is a self-referentially incoherent position. It makes no sense.
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Lutsk is a city in Volhynia, the Ukraine and is situated on the river Styr, 470 km from Kyiv.
During World War I the Jews suffered both from the armies and from war devastation, as the town changed hands several times and was occupied by Russian and German troops.
Between the world wars the Lutsk community led a rich religious and cultural life as well as several social and medical organizations, some of which were assisted by Lutsk landsmanshaften in U.S.A.
In June 1940 the Soviet authorities uncovered the Zionist Gordonia underground and imprisoned its leaders. Many refugees who had fled to Lutsk from Nazi-occupied western Poland were deported to the Soviet Interior. When the German-Soviet War broke out on June 22, 1941, many young Jews left together with the retreating Soviet forces. The town fell to the Germans on June 26, and a few days later some 2,000 Jews were murdered.
On July 4th, 3,000 Jews were put to death in the nearby fortress (zamek) of Lubart. A ghetto was established in December 1941 and the Jewish leaders made every effort to alleviate starvation and control epidemics.
In the spring of 1942 a group of young Jews attempted to escape from the ghetto to the forests, but most of them were caught and murdered by the Ukrainians. A few, however, managed to join the Soviet partisans and fought the Germans as part of the Kowpak units.
Meanwhile the Germans carried out the large-scale action in which the majority of the Lutsk Ghetto was murdered (19-23 August 1942). About 17,000 Jews were led to the Polanka Hill, on the outskirts of the city, and massacred. The remaining 500 Jews, who were employed as artisans in the labour camp, were executed on 12 December 1942.
In June 1940 the Soviet authorities uncovered the Zionist Gordonia underground and imprisoned its leaders.
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What should we learn?Posted: March 18, 2014
Paul Martin writes
Recently, the ‘British design guru’ Stephen Bayley suggested that charm should be taught in school.
This follows in a long line of proposals, usually put forward by non-educationalists. They include handy characteristics such as knowing how to eat healthily, being able to deploy life-saving techniques and sporting expertise.
Teaching professionals often object wearily that there are already too few hours in the school day or ask who will do this extra teaching.
Schools are a victim of their own success being among few institutions that reliably deliver to everyone, but they cannot be expected to solve all society’s problems, yet alone take seriously every momentarily fashionable notion.
While we do need to take on as communities the responsibility of defining what we expect citizens to know and be able to do, there are five caveats:-
· The best place to learn will not always be in school.
· Learning will not be complete until well into adult life, if ever.
· Our view of what is desirable, or even essential, will vary between communities and over time.
· Not everyone will be able to acquire all the skills and knowledge we may consider desirable, so we will need to have some priorities.
· Our capacity to provide the required learning opportunities will occasionally fall short.
If this learning is to be lifelong and extensive, then we must consider what other institutions, current or to-be-invented, might take on this responsibility. We might consider employers and trade unions.
There are, of course, numerous voluntary organisations that may be well-placed to take on this work, though many of them find it hard to find volunteers in an era in which parents work long, late hours and entertainment often displaces activity.
Perhaps we should reinvent local Adult Education services as the ‘hub’ from which we might organise a broader context for learning supporting and sustaining us through life.
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March 25, 2004
Many scholars have written about why and how Christianity conquered the Roman Empire, but it would surely be amiss to neglect the way Christians remade the world by their words.
Christianity inherited the ancient rhetorical tradition and put it to a radically new use. If rhetoric was orphaned, as Cicero complained, with the passing of the Roman Republic into an autocratic Empire, then rhetoric found a new home when it was adopted by the bishops, priests, and theologians who came to dominate the Empire by proclaiming their good news.
Public speaking for the Romans was an essentially political skill, but during the Empire, public speaking no longer served the common good. The days when individuals could stand up and steer the course of Roman history with nothing more than the power of their words were over. Christians, however, rejuvenated rhetoric with their faith in the power of speech. Christians had a good story to tell, and they had learned to tell it well.
Christianity is inextricably tied to the history and the future of rhetoric because Christian theology puts public speaking at the center of the doctrine of divine revelation. The disciples did not seem to care what Jesus looked like, since no physical descriptions of him or likenesses were passed down to later generations. When they thought about the authority of Jesus’ teachings, and the claims he made on his own behalf, they concluded that Jesus was more than just another prophet to whom God had spoken. In Christ, the Word had become flesh. The early Christians concluded that the voice of Jesus was the very sound of God.
Proclamation was thus the means of passing on the faith. Faith comes through hearing, as the Apostle Paul wrote (Romans 10:17), but it also leads directly to public speaking (2 Corinthians 4:13). We all have experienced those moments when we do not know what we think until we open our mouths to speak. The same can be said about Christian faith. Christians do not know what they really believe until they publicly witness to their faith. To be a part of the biblical narrative is to be challenged to speak out in ways that test one’s vocal capacities. The fear of public speaking, far from being a merely psychological problem in the mind or chemical imbalance in the brain, actually tells us something crucial about what it means to be faithful to the Word of God. Stage fright is, in a very real sense, the way in which the Christian body processes the dynamic of faith and doubt.
The significance of understanding God in terms of speaking and hearing can be understood fully only if we recall the visual metaphors for knowledge that dominated the Enlightenment and extend back to Plato’s metaphysics. Although the cave dwellers in Plato’s famous allegory in The Republic hear sounds, the source of which they cannot correctly identify, their seclusion in the dark—and their subsequent visual confusion of shadows for reality—is the point Plato was most concerned to make. It is a point that has been well taken in the West.
Talking about knowledge as illumination and ignorance as darkness comes naturally to us. To be enlightened is to open one’s eyes; to think is to clarify what we see. The Bible’s "audio-centric" worldview that gives hearing primacy among the senses seems strange to us today. We so readily imagine knowledge as the broadest possible view of a topic that we rarely reflect on what we are missing when we focus on sight at the expense of sound.
But connecting knowledge to sight fools us into thinking that knowing is a private event, since you do not have to be seen in order to see. The very image of illumination conjures a quiet moment that takes place in one’s solitude, since light moves without making a sound. And the further you can see (the further from the object you are), the more impressive is your act of knowledge.
The origin of modern science lies in this silencing and distancing of nature; the world is measurable due to its "picturability." This is why Martin Heidegger defined modernity as "the age of the world picture." The primacy of vision turns the world into a thing and thus endows humanity with enormous powers, but it also makes humanity a spectator, alienated and estranged from the object of our inspection.
Hearing, by contrast, establishes a more intimate relationship between source and perception. We must be fairly close to the source of the sound we are trying to hear. Sound waves travel slower and weaken more quickly than light waves, and that physical limitation makes hearing a more relational form of knowledge.
Sight privileges speed. You can observe and analyze much in a moment’s glance.
But sound takes time, requiring the listener to wait until the sound is finished or the person has completely articulated his thought before we can understand what we’ve heard.
Sight is a sense of mastery and control, but in listening and speaking to another person, we give of ourselves intimately in a way that requires mutual submission: when I talk, you listen, when you talk, I listen.
The Bible says that speaking is what most makes us human, but even from a non-Biblical perspective, learning to speak is what makes us different than the animals. We attend to each other’s voices, and that makes community. You can’t have community without taking time for speaking.
Yet we live in an accelerating society. Our attention is fragmented. We’re put to multiple tasks simultaneously and we push ourselves to find the quickest way to process it all. We’re inundated by images and printed words, but the human voice is being eclipsed. We don’t talk as often to each other, and we don’t listen to each other speak. We have to make a conscious decision to read out loud or to articulate our thoughts; our sluggish tongues resist the effort. A phone call seems like an impossible and inefficient labor given the speed of email. Fewer people attend the theater or public lectures; they prefer movies, where the voice is technologically manipulated and subordinated to images and music. We demand that our public speakers be brief, our political speeches chopped into sterile but digestible sound bites, our sermons or presentations little more than accompaniment for graphics on a screen.
When comedians like Lenny Bruce, Richard Pryor, and George Carlin began defying the censors by using profane language in their televised appearances, the whole notion of sacred speech began to collapse. If there are no limits to speech—everything can be said because words are just words—then nothing that we say can convey the sacred or the profane. Without demonic speech, it is unlikely that we will be able to hear something of the divine in speech either.
So public speaking is on the decline. When we don’t take our speeches or our voices very seriously, we degrade our humanity. And to the extent that human speaking is no longer the mainstay of our life together, we have less possibility for true community.
Wabash and other liberal arts colleges are an exception to this trend. It’s no accident that they trace their history to Protestant roots—denominations whose faith was centered on the proclamation and hearing of the Word. Wabash is still a College made out of sound, where the chime of the Chapel carillon, the roar of Chapel sing, and the yells of the crowd after a Little Giant touchdown can be heard campus-wide; where students step onto the stage, raise their voices and sing, act, and debate; still a place that offers students the intimacy of hearing their professors in close quarters, where we know each other through the spoken word, and where community is built upon speaking and listening.
Wabash is also place where we still say you are not educated until you know how to speak. Perhaps not every Wabash student will be proficient in delivering a formal speech, but during the required oral examinations, which are going on as I write this, students have to be able to say what they believe and to present themselves through the spoken word.
Few colleges demand this of their students—one senior at a time professing what he has learned before three faculty "judges." It takes a lot of time, and, as a professor, you have to be patient—it can be work listening to them and pushing them. But the oral examination is the climax of a Wabash education; it’s good work that must be continued and expanded upon if liberal arts colleges such as this are to play their essential role in restoring the human voice to its rightful place in our lives.
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Survey findings have revealed that more than three-quarters of the UK want the next government to end large animal captivity in zoos.
The survey, commissioned by international wildlife charity Born Free, was presented to 2,000 adults. It found that 76 percent consider it “very” or “quite” important for large animals to be phased out of attractions. This would mean no more captive big cats, elephants, giraffes, and rhinos (plus more) in zoos and wildlife parks.
“This compelling statistic shows there is now a tide of public support for Born Free’s founding principle on which the charity has campaigned for nearly four decades,” the charity said in a statement.
“Clearly, politicians and decision-makers can no longer afford to ignore those seeking to end the archaic, unethical, and damaging practice of keeping large animals in zoos.”
UK citizens want to put animals first
Alongside calling for an end to animal captivity, which frequently fails to live up to existing welfare standards, UK citizens appear to want animal legislation in general to be improved.
Central to the report is that 93 percent of the UK regards animal welfare as “very” or “quite” important. People aged 25-34 were the most likely to regard it as such (95 percent). Meanwhile, those over 65 were the least likely (87 percent).
Other findings include 85 percent of people wanting to see a ban on endangered or vulnerable animal hunting trophies imports. The laws surrounding the buying and keeping of exotic pets should also be tightened, according to 83 percent of respondents.
However, it’s not just animals within the UK that are being considered. As many as 82 percent of people want the next UK government to support the eradication of global animal cruelty. It was suggested that trade deals could be used as leverage. Such a move could impact regular barbaric hunts such as dolphin slaughters in the Faroes.
Born Free refers to its survey findings as evidence of public support for “transformative changes” to wildlife legislation.
Therefore, it is demanding that all UK political parties pay attention to the will of the people. This will mean making animal welfare a priority in their manifestos.
“We call on all political parties to recognize the importance of protecting and restoring wildlife and wild habitats and eliminating the negative impacts we have on the welfare of individual animals by placing nature protection and animal welfare improvements at the heart of their manifesto commitments, and delivering on those commitments in the parliamentary sessions that will follow,” Will Travers, Born Free’s co-founder and executive president said in a statement. “Nothing less will do.”
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| 0.955804 | 555 | 2.765625 | 3 |
Africa is poised to become the “future epicenter of the tobacco epidemic,” according to a new analysis from the American Cancer Society. It warns that the number of adults in Africa who smoke could increase to 572 million by 2100, from 77 million today, unless leaders take steps to curb current trends.
“The cost of having to intervene in the future rather than preventing it now will be massive,” says Evan Blecher, Ph.D., one the report’s authors and an economist with the International Tobacco Control Research program at the American Cancer Society.
The report highlights several reasons for the increase in smoking rates:
- In Africa, 9% of boys and 3% of girls smoke -- both rates are high compared with other developing regions.
- Africa is set for massive population growth. The region now accounts for 12% of the global population -- this will climb to 30% by 2100. The study concludes that because of this, Africa will have the second-highest number of smokers of any region by 2060.
- African nations experienced strong economic growth in the 2000s, which means more people have more money to spend on tobacco.
Still, the authors say, most African countries remain in the early stages of the tobacco epidemic, with tobacco use relatively low compared with the rest of the world. Thus, there is time to put prevention strategies into place that could have a significant impact. In fact, the researchers estimate that if African countries put appropriate policy interventions in place, the region could avoid 139 million premature deaths by 2100.
“Failure to prevent the tobacco epidemic in Africa will create a big drain on future health systems in an already constrained environment,” Blecher asserts.
Tobacco use is known to cause cancer, heart disease, lung disease and other serious health problems. Thus, Blecher says, if the smoking rate continues to climb, dealing with such tobacco-related illnesses would divert global resources away from other serious health priorities.
Read the full report here.
FOR RESEARCHERS: Learn how to apply for a research grant from the American Cancer Society.
Read more about American Cancer Society researchers.
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http://www.cancer.org/research/acsresearchupdates/lungcancer/report-forecasts-worsening-smoking-epidemic-in-africa
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| 0.934073 | 441 | 2.859375 | 3 |
By Elizabeth Miller from Great Lakes Today
A new report from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration calls 2016 the warmest year on record around the globe. The surface temperature of the Great Lakes was also above average — and that’s not good news.
Brent Lofgren, a physical scientist at NOAA, says the twice annual overturning of the Great Lakes may stop due to the warming temperature.
“When that overturning happens, that brings nutrients up from the bottom of the lake and oxygen down from the top,” said Lofgren. “With warming, there’s a likelihood that in certain parts of the Great Lakes, that overturning will stop happening.”
So aquatic life that rely on those nutrients could go hungry.
Lofgren says in 2012 and 2017, significant parts of southern Lake Michigan and Lake Ontario didn’t overturn.
According to NOAA’s 2016 State of the Climate report, eight of the last 10 years have been among the warmest years on record, globally.
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| 0.922576 | 215 | 3.421875 | 3 |
Sudoku Solver with Computer Voice
Updated 30 Sep 2015
As said above these codes solves the problems and computer speaks the solutions. It also used OCR to detect the sudoku puzzle from a given image. But that worked only for the given bmp image. :( Other files are not working . Obviously that is a bug, i hope other matlab hobbyists will work on it.. Moreover I wanted to solve these solutions from webcam too! but unfortunately that's not working. How I developed the code? Actually I downloaded the m files of Video Sudoku solver and Text 2 speech files in the file exchange. Edited some codes and added both codes in the same m file. I Hope this file will be developed more . Thanks :)
Md. Muhaimin Rahman (2023). Sudoku Solver with Computer Voice (https://www.mathworks.com/matlabcentral/fileexchange/53302-sudoku-solver-with-computer-voice), MATLAB Central File Exchange. Retrieved .
MATLAB Release Compatibility
Platform CompatibilityWindows macOS Linux
- Gaming > Number games > Sudoku >
- Signal Processing > Audio Toolbox >
Inspired by: text-to-speech, Video Sudoku Solver
Community Treasure Hunt
Find the treasures in MATLAB Central and discover how the community can help you!Start Hunting!
Discover Live Editor
Create scripts with code, output, and formatted text in a single executable document.
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On March 8th, International Women´s Day, Brazilian women workers will on average earn 23 percent less than men, even though women’s education level is higher. Or to look at it another way, a woman would have to work all of last year and until April 22 this year to earn the same as a man did last year.
In the formal sector, the only area that the Labor Ministry tracks, the difference in pay fell from 17 percent in 2007 to 15 percent in 2016. At the current snail’s pace, Brazilian women with formal jobs will receive the same wages as men only in 2083 -- that is, girls born today will work for equal pay around the time they turn 65.
The World Economic Forum ranks Brazil 119 in a list of countries for wage equality for similar work, based on a yearly survey among executives. The gap is especially noticeable for workers with higher levels of education. The Labor Ministry data shows that sixty percent of employees with a university degree are women, but their employers paid them 36 percent less than men with the same educational level.
Those results are consistent with studies in other countries that show that even when controlling for factors such as experience, education, industry, and hours, women and men are paid differently. An in-depth examination of the gender wage gap by economists found that discrimination plays a role.
Women not only earn less than men, but have difficulties entering the workplace. In Brazil, 78 percent of men hold paid jobs, compared with only 56 percent of women, based on International Labor Organization (ILO) estimates. But staying at home is often not the women´s choice. Another ILO survey shows that the vast majority of women in Brazil would like to have a formal job. Eliminating the gap in the rates of employment between men and women would add 382 billion reais (about USD 117 billion) to the country´s economy, or 3.3 percent of GDP, the ILO says.
Politics also remains mostly a men’s club in Brazil. Only 11 percent of members of Congress are women, the third lowest percentage in Latin America, after Haiti and Belize, according to the United Nations. The executive branch does even worse under the current administration. Brazil has only one woman with the rank of minister, the solicitor general, Grace Mendonça.
Brazil’s law encourages women’s participation in politics by establishing that political parties must field women as candidates. And Brazil also has laws prohibiting gender discrimination in pay, professional training, and career advancement. But the reality that women face is very different.
Along with other members of the G-20, Brazil´s government has committed to reduce gender inequality within the workforce by 25 percent by 2025 and, as part of the Sustainable Development Goals set by the United Nations, to achieve equal pay by 2030.
To get there, Brazil’s government should create systems that require employers to reveal salary information, ensure that employers comply with the law that forbids gender discrimination in the workplace, and strengthen legal channels for women to claim their rights under equal employment laws. That would be the best way to commemorate International Women´s Day.
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In 2003, a region known as the Three Parallel Rivers was inscribed to the World Heritage List. According to the UN assessment, this region 'may be the most biologically diverse temperate eco-system in the world.' One with myriad species of plants and rare or endangered animals and fish. The three rivers referred to are the Yangtse, Mekong and Salween—running close together, roaring through deep furrows in this zone at the eastern edge of the Tibetan plateau. The micro-climates in these mountains host a huge range of flora, depending on altitude. Many ornamental plants in the West today derive from this species-rich region—species like azaleas, primroses and rhododendrons were collected by Western plant-hunters.
Recognition by UNESCO requires that there be no interference in the natural state of the region designated. But no sooner was this World Heritage Site confirmed than Chinese engineering companies announced plans for building large dams on the Salween. In April 2004, plans were announced for construction of a cascade of 13 large dams on the Salween, ranging from a wall height of 35 metres—to a whopping 307 metres (the height of a 60-storey building). The fact that some of these dams would be built within a protected UN World Heritage Site does not appear to be a contradiction to China's ruling powers. The Three Parallel Rivers World Heritage Site is protected—but the rivers that give the name to that site are not protected, it would seem.
Biodiversity and mega-dams are not words that go together. Dams are destroyers of biodiversity. What is happening in the Three Parallel Rivers region is no longer preservation of biodiversity: this is a case of bio-adversity. There are rumblings from international observers to place the Three Parallel Rivers region on the World Heritage in Danger List, since the dams—many of them under way—are seriously impacting the eco-systems.
Map of Three Parallel Rivers region, Kham, Yunnan:
The following is excerpted from an article by Jonathan Watts, in The Guardian, UK, 18 Jan 2011:
Last refuge of rare fish threatened by Yangtze dam plans
Developers of hydroelectric plant have redrawn the boundaries of a crucial freshwater reserve for rare and economically important species
The last refuge for many of China's rarest and most economically important wild fish has mere days to secure public support before it is trimmed, dammed and ruinously diminished, conservationists warned today. The alarm was raised after the authorities in Chongqing quietly moved to redraw the boundaries of a crucial freshwater reserve on the Yangtze, which was supposed to have been the bottom line for nature conservation in one of the world's most important centres of biodiversity.
The Upper Yangtze Rare and Endemic Fish Nature Reserve was created in the 1990s as a haven for species that were threatened by the Three Gorges dam, the world's biggest hydroelectric plant. Among the hundreds of species it protects are four types of wild carp that experts say are essential to China's food security because they provide the diverse genetic stock on which fish farms depend for healthy breeding. In recent years, the importance of this 400km-long ecological hold-out has increased as China's hunger for energy has driven power companies to build two more mega-dams — Xiangjiaba and Xiluodu — that have swamped the shoals and stilled the rapids along thousands of kilometres of Asia's biggest river.
Downstream, the combination of dams, pollution, overfishing and river traffic have decimated fish stocks, wiped out at least one species — the Baiji or Yangtze river dolphin — and left others — like the giant Yangtze sturgeon (Acipenser dabryanus), the Chinese paddlefish or the finless porpoise — critically endangered. Upriver, the state has promised to safeguard the last untamed stretch. A coalition of scientists and conservationists has opposed development in the reserve. Premier Wen Jiabao has expressed unease about the impact of excess dam-building on environmentally important areas.
But this goal has run up against the interests of the Three Gorges Project Development Corporation and local officials, who want to build yet another hydroelectric plant at Xiaonanhai that would choke the river to power the development of the poor local economy. The developers appear to have gained the upper hand last week when the Ministry of Environmental Protection announced plans to redraw the boundary of the reserve so that it would no longer encompass the area of the proposed dam. This leaves less than 10 days for public discussion, according to conservationists who are dismayed there has been almost no domestic coverage, partly because many of the 29 endangered fish species — such as Chinese paddle, Yangtze sturgeon and Chinese sucker — are unknown outside of expert circles.
"This is the last hold-out for much of China's freshwater biodiversity. It is a rare situation when one project can do so much damage," said Ma Jun of the Institute for Public and Environmental Affairs, one of the country's leading green campaign groups. "Part of the problem is that unlike pandas, snub-nosed monkeys or Tibetan antelopes, most people have not heard of or seen the fish affected."
Local government insists no decision has been made on the dam, but past precedent suggests that construction will begin before the formal environmental impact assessment is made, by which time developers will argue that it would be a huge waste of money to cancel.
Less often calculated is the economic loss of biodiversity. With fewer wild carp to bolster farm stocks, environmental experts say China is taking a risk with a primary source of protein. Since the Three Gorges was built, the downstream carp population has crashed by 90%, according to Guo Qiaoyu, Yangtze River project manager at The Nature Conservancy.
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| 0.954042 | 1,202 | 3.734375 | 4 |
Prevention of Violent Extremism through Youth Empowerment in Jordan, Libya, Morocco and Tunisia
Violence extremism is the use of violence, in line with an ideological commitment to achieve political, religious, or social goals. PVE measures aim to create an environment where people can be in control of their own lives, free from manipulation by violence, propaganda, and hate speech. Violent extremism is a fundamental social problem, which calls for social solutions where everyone is a stakeholder.
While young women and men in the beneficiary countries seek opportunities to invest their potential, they are often negatively affected by poverty, marginalization, unemployment and under-employment, and often find themselves lacking the necessary literacy, capabilities, and skills to overcome these issues. This makes them a vulnerable target of recruitment by violent extremist groups that exploit their frustrations and vulnerability. Paradoxically, the potential, self-confidence and motivation of youth to change the world for the better can also have the strongest impact against violent extremism.
UNESCO takes a proactive approach to preventing violent extremism by placing emphasis on human rights and open communication in order to prevent and combat the hatred and ignorance that fuels violent extremism. By empowering young women and men to be change-makers in their own communities, UNESCO is actively working towards the promotion of understanding, tolerance and peace.
“We young people are only called up when it’s time to wave flags or put up posters. When we want to share proposals they don’t take us into account and when we voice criticism we are sidelined.” (Central America)
Violent extremism threatens the security and fundamental rights of citizens all over the world, and undermines the attempts of many countries to achieve sustainable peace. Many violent extremists work by recruiting disenfranchised youth and inciting them to commit acts of violence.
This project focuses on youth empowerment because we believe that nurturing their resilience will prevent their involvement in violent extremism and instead transform them into agents of positive change. We will provide a framework for action that will mobilize UNESCO at multiple levels to empower young women and men with the values, knowledge, capacities and skills to hold exchanges, communicate online/offline and cooperate across social and cultural boundaries. In doing so, we hope to enable young women and men to become responsible citizens, resilient to any form of abuse or manipulation, including violent extremism, and to mobilize critical thinking to counter them.
“Youth shouldn’t be on the table, but around the table.” (Youth in the West and Central Africa consultation)
Youth are both partners and beneficiaries in this project, particularly young women and men who are actively engaged in peacebuilding activities and working to safeguard cultural heritage, diversity, and human rights.
Other key partners include media institutions, education stakeholders and policymakers, religious entities, and other practitioners trained to facilitate roles for enhancing global citizenship and peace.
The participatory process that the project intends to adopt from the outset, and throughout the process, is crucial to ensuring ownership of the project by key stakeholders and beneficiary groups, including national and local authorities responsible for youth issues, as well as youth-led and youth-focused organizations at local and national levels.
Jordan / Libya / Morocco / Tunisia
This project adopts an inclusive, multi-sectoral approach across youth, education, culture, and communication and information. The objective is to create an environment where young women and men are empowered, heard and engaged as change-makers in their immediate communities to prevent violent extremism by:
- Equipping youth with values, attitudes, knowledge and skills
- Promoting exchange, communication and cooperation beyond social, cultural and linguistic boundaries
- Supporting youth civic engagement
- Encouraging participation in peacebuilding
- Promoting human rights and intercultural understanding
- Young women and men and key youth stakeholders become key actors in preventing and countering violent extremism
- Prevention of violent extremism is mainstreamed through formal, non-formal and informal education, and the education sector and other relevant/related sectors of society contribute fully to national strategies to prevent violent extremism
- Mobilization of and cooperation between media professionals and online youth communities are strengthened to combat radicalization and online hate speech
- Safeguarding cultural heritage and promotion of cultural diversity to mainstream a culture of citizenship and human rights in communities, and their critical roles as global citizens and contributors to a sustained peace.
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| 0.927387 | 882 | 2.78125 | 3 |
TKI uses the New Zealand Education Sector Logon system for user accounts. A TKI account lets you personalise your experience - enabling you to save custom homepage layouts, create kete, and save bookmarks and searches.
If you already have an Education Sector user ID and password, you are ready to log in. If not, you should register with the link below.
Teacher introduces the concept of Static Images:
Teacher introduces a Model of Communication
When we communicate, we (the ORIGINATOR) convey (MEDIUM) something (MEANING or MESSAGE) for someone (AUDIENCE) for our reasons (PURPOSE) by some means (MODE of TRANSMISSION or form).
Reference: "Exploring Language - A Handbook for Teachers", published for the Ministry of Education by Learning Media Limited, Crown copyright 1996, p. 181
Students copy from Whiteboard or else are provided with a photocopy of the above.
Students convert the written text to an appropriate and effective Static Image which clearly communicates the content of the above model (A3 size)
Students, in groups of four, share individual images, discussing the effectiveness of each, and choosing the perceived "best" example.
Students justify their choice by identifying at least three features of the chosen image that contribute to the effectiveness of the image.
Groups present their "best choice" to the class, identifying the criteria that lead them to their choice.
Teacher records the various criteria on the whiteboard.
Teacher leads class discussion towards grouping of criteria into Key Features of Effective Static Images.
At this stage, students may become aware of the concepts of:
1. Clarity of Composition and Layout
2. Use of Space
3. Lettering Size and Style
4. Use of Colour for emphasis
5. Proportion according to significance of ideas
6. Relationship of ideas as denoted by proximity and visual cues e.g. lines, arrows, text boxes
Teacher provides students with an Introductory Taxonomy of Static Images, briefly explaining the concepts, and alerting students to their future exploration of the concepts.
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http://englishonline.tki.org.nz/English-Online/Teacher-needs/Teaching-learning-sequences/Archived-English-Online-units/English-Units-NCEA-Level-1/Picture-the-Times/Learning-task-1-Introduction-to-static-images
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| 0.89329 | 440 | 3.28125 | 3 |
Consideration of a proposal to redefine everyday timekeeping by scrapping leap seconds - small changes made to clock time - has been postponed.
Leap seconds were first used in 1972
A working party weighing the proposed change to Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) has decided more time is needed to build a consensus on the issue.
Leap seconds synchronise clock time with solar time used by astronomers.
The US delegation to the International Telecommunications Union (ITU) wants to abolish these adjustments to UTC.
Tidal friction is causing the Earth's rotation to slow down. This means that everyday timekeeping, based on the rotation of the Earth (solar time), tends to drift out of sync with respect to the time kept by atomic clocks.
For this reason, the standard for everyday timekeeping, known as Coordinated Universal Time, or UTC, must be adjusted every so often.
This takes the form of individual seconds being added or subtracted from the length of a day, either a 30 June or a 31 December. The first leap second in seven years will be added at the end of 2005.
In this way, clock time is kept in step with solar time, which is used to precisely point telescopes and to find satellites.
The new proposal, originally tabled for discussion at the ITU meeting in Geneva last Wednesday, proposes that the maximum difference between UTC and solar time be increased to an hour.
In a statement, the ITU working party said: "The working party has discussed the proposed change and options, and decided that more time is required to build consensus.
"In addition, the forthcoming leap second just prior to 1 January 2006 provides an opportunity to further document current problems."
Dr Mike Hapgood, secretary of the Royal Astronomical Society (RAS) in the UK, welcomed the decision to defer the discussions until a later date.
"It's what we were seeking, so that's good from our point of view," he told the BBC News website.
It is understood that software issues with the US global positioning system (GPS) sat-nav network are partly driving the proposal.
As well as satellite positioning, GPS provides a time signal, and some software systems used in the sat-nav system find it hard to cope with leap seconds.
Leap seconds also create difficulties for computer programmers making calculations using time.
However, without the leap second, astronomers would lose track of distant stars and spacecraft.
And the idea of clock time following solar time is also deeply embedded in contemporary culture. Researchers estimate that the difference between UTC and Earth time could increase to about an hour within several hundred years.
Daniel Gambis, of the Earth Rotation Service in Paris, which decides when to add or subtract leap seconds, told the BBC: "For me, it would be a problem if the Sun were to rise at 4pm or at a different time like noon or midnight.
"I don't support the idea of the American delegation because I think all our human activities are linked to the rotation of the Earth first."
The UK's Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) is co-ordinating its own response to the American proposal.
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http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4420084.stm
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| 0.95354 | 651 | 3.546875 | 4 |
EARTH SCIENCE > SUN-EARTH INTERACTIONS > SOLAR ENERGETIC PARTICLE PROPERTIES > PARTICLE SPEED
The distance per unit time of particles propagating through the Earth's
atmosphere or through the interplanetary magnetic fields as a result of solar
events. For example, the solar wind has a 'fast' component or high speed stream
with a speed of about 10*5 M/sec. and a 'slow' component of about 5x10*4 m/sec.
Jursa, A.S., ed. 1985. Handbook of Geophysics and the Space Enviornment, Air
Force Geophysics Laboratory, USAF. (Available from NTIS, Springfield, VA).
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http://gcmd.nasa.gov/KeywordSearch/Definitions.do?Portal=amd_nz&KeywordPath=Projects%7CJ+-+L%7CLGP&NumericId=63647&MetadataType=0&lbnode=mdlb5
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| 0.731676 | 156 | 3.171875 | 3 |
The Nairobi River Basin comprises of 3 main rivers namely Ngong, Nairobi and Mathare. Nairobi River flows through the Central Business District . It is the main river of the Nairobi River Basin, a complex of several parallel streams flowing eastwards.
The rivers join east of Nairobi and meet River Athi, eventually flowing to the Indian Ocean. The rivers are mostly narrow and highlypolluted. Currently about 56 percent of the city residents live in highly congested 46 informal and settlements with many located along the Nairobi River banks.
Challenges facing Nairobi river basin
Rapid urbanization, industrialization, poor urban planning and weak enforcement of the environmental laws leading to serious environmental degradation.• Untreated industrial effluents, raw sewage and waste from commercial activities drain into the river.• Considerable amount of solid waste is swept into Nairobi River during rain storms.• Inadequate sewerage systems leading to illegal discharges into the rivers.
Rehabilitation and Restoration of Nairobi Rivers
The Programme aims at enhancing the ecological integrity and socio-economic value of the river basin. This will be achieved through multi-faceted efforts involving all stakeholders. To achieve the aforementioned aim, the Programme interventions will focus on four key component areas which include: environmental education, awareness creation, and public communication; conservation of the riparian reserve; integrated waste management; and the restoration of Nairobi Dam.
There are three major causes of degradation of the environment in Nairobi which have been identified to be notably solid, liquid waste and sewage. Over the years, the Nairobi Rivers have come under intensive pressure from various sources of pollution, point and non-point sources. The Nairobi River system has hence acted as a major depository of waste from both domestic and industrial sources. The riparian reserves of the three Nairobi Rivers (Mathare, Ngong and Nairobi) are marked by numerous informal settlements without adequate sewerage and sanitation services. More often than not, the rivers are used for discharging raw sewage. In addition, most of the industries find it cheaper to discharge the effluents into the rivers without any satisfactory treatment.
Nairobi river before the programmed was held
Nairobi river after removal of solid waste, cleaning and tree planting
10 point strategy to rehabilitate the river
2. Stopping illegal discharges
3.Completing work of 2.5 km demostration stretch
4. Relocating economic activities and informal settlements
5. Developing and implementing an integrated solid waste management system
6. Rehabilitation of Nairobi dam
7. Repairing and installing sewerage and associated infrastructure
8.Developing a Master Plan for economic utilization of riparian zone
9. Landscaping and beautification of the riparian zone.
10. Creating awareness and assessing social impacts
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CC-MAIN-2014-35
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http://lyana-designwithnature.blogspot.com/2009/10/case-study-of-river-restoration_5710.html
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| 0.921267 | 593 | 3.59375 | 4 |
Below is an slightly amended transcript of a video I created to introduce people to the thought of Schopenhauer.
© Peter Sjöstedt-H MMX
Schopenhauer – An Introduction
Arthur Schopenhauer was undoubtedly a genius whose philosophy is little known despite its influence on Schrödinger, Einstein, Wittgenstein, Nietzsche, Wagner, Freud, and other men of note. Indeed, Nobel laureate Erwin Schrödinger, a founder of quantum physics, was an ardent disciple of Schopenhauer. Nietzsche’s philosophy can almost be considered a qualified footnote thereto. I shall therefore introduce the man’s thought in order to begin to fathom the depths that have enticed such souls.
Schopenhauer’s magnum opus is entitled as The World as Will and Representation, a name which encapsulates his central thesis: that we understand the world and universe from two valid epistemological perspectives, ‘double-aspect theory’, the realization of which undermines both dualism and materialism, leading to some strange and counterintuitive conclusions that include the anti-realism of space, time, and causality; the awareness within everything; the ultimate unity of all; the resolution of the mind-body interaction problem; and afterlife considerations. An atheist he was, but of a peculiar, transcendental idealist variety. Let us begin.
Two main types of knowledge pertain to the human: first- and third-person. Third-person knowledge is that which is of what we call the ‘external world’. One senses a spatio-temporal world of dynamic objects imbued with qualities of colour, sound, smell, taste, etc. It is common to believe that this world one perceives exists just as one perceives it; but as Democritus, Galileo, Bacon, and John Locke argued, colours, sounds, and other qualia exist only in our mind, not in the objects themselves. An airwave is translated by our minds into a sound. Without a mind there is no sound. We project the sound onto the world, as it were. Immanuel Kant, Schopenhauer’s greatest influence, went further. Even space, time, and causality are projections of the mind. In reality, there is no space, time, causality, qualia, etc. All of these things are merely the structural filters of human minds. Other species will have different mental structural features. We humans are born with space-time and causality as mental faculties. We do not acquire these concepts from perception or experience; but rather, these concepts make experience possible – a transcendent truth. For instance, if we did not a priori, before experience, presume causality we could not infer external objects caused their perception of themselves in us. And likewise, if we did not presume space a priori we would not translate these perceptions as existing in a three-dimensional world exterior to ourselves. Without these a priori forms of the mind, there would be no subject-object dichotomy.
In sum, third-person knowledge is conditioned by the structure of the mind. Third-person knowledge is the representation of a more ultimate reality: the aspatial, atemporal, acausal, world-in-itself.
First-person knowledge is private. I cannot access your first-person knowledge, but I can guess it from your behavior using my third-person knowledge. If you smile, I can guess that your first-person knowledge is of joy, but I could guess incorrectly. Even if I scanned your brain, I could only infer what your first-person knowledge was of. I could never feel or experience as my first-person knowledge the numerically same first-person knowledge you were having.
Now, first-person and third-person knowledge are correlated. A high serotonin level in the brain (third-person knowledge) is correlated to happiness (first-person knowledge) for example, but they are not correlated because the content of first-person knowledge causes the content of third-person knowledge, as it were, as is the belief of dualists (spirit and body interactionists who believe in free will). Neither, contrariwise, are they correlated because the content of third-person knowledge (i.e. physiology) causes the content of first-person knowledge, as is the belief of epiphenomenalists. In other words, the belief that brain activity causes all mental activity – this is a common view today. Neither are they correlated because first-person knowledge is reducible to third-person knowledge, as is the belief of eliminative materialists (these people deny that first-person knowledge even exists). Rather, first- and third-person knowledge are correlated because both are different types of knowledge of the same ‘thing’: it is a double perspective. This is known, then, as double-aspect theory.
My feeling of happiness is my first-person knowledge of the same thing that my third-person knowledge sees as many serotonin molecules in the brain. First-person knowledge has been neglected by the modern age despite the fact that it is of equal epistemic veracity. In our bodies, and in our bodies alone, we have both first- and third-person knowledge. Of other bodies we have only third-person knowledge. But, all bodies have first-person knowledge, not merely humans. First and third person knowledge is of one type of ‘substance’, that which Schopenhauer calls ‘The Will’. This is not free will, a concept Schopenhauer refutes. Rather, it is to be understood as energy or force. All action is a third-person representation of this will in others. Only in our own bodies do we have a double epistemological view of it. We feel deep sorrow and we perceive tears dropping from our eyes, but only the latter in others. I emphasise, all action is first-person will that we represent as third-person spatio-temporal, qualitative matter – the world as will and representation.
The consequences are that not only animals but plants too, in fact all organisms, have a primitive first-person awareness that we represent as their growth patterns. Even further, all inorganic matter has energy, thus action. For Schopenhauer, even a planet has a non-conscious first-person desire or awareness that we represent as gravity; just as another person has a first-person desire that we, and he, represent as physiological action. The world is will and representation thereof, by will.
But note that awareness is not necessarily consciousness. Schopenhauer writes that the notion of consciousness without a brain is as nonsensical as the notion of digestion without a stomach. One can have desires without being conscious of them, as Freud later sought to develop.
As we humans represent the will within the framework of space and time, the will-in-itself (akin to the notion of Kant’s noumenon) is aspatio-temporal. This will is therefore undifferentiated, because differentiation employs space and time, and thus without past or future. In ultimate reality there is only that which Schopenhauer calls the Eternal Now. As a consequence of this unified reality ontology, Schopenhauer saw that compassion signifies a realisation of this absolute unity. This was the basis of his descriptive ethics. He considered prescriptive normative ethics with its oughts infantile, in opposition to Kant. Kant’s Transcendental Idealism branched in two after his death in 1804. There was Schopenhauer’s advance and concomitantly Hegel’s. Hegel’s philosophy dominated to such a degree that it became known as ‘the German Ideology’. This subsequently influenced Karl Marx who, as we know, influenced the events of the twentieth century.
In my view, Schopenhauer was the true heir of Kant and will come to inspire what we consider to be – the future.
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The hip joint is a ball and socket type joint. The ball consists of the head of the femur bone and this sits snugly in the acetabulum (socket) of the pelvis.
The surfaces of the head of the femur and acetabulum that articulate with each other are covered in articular cartilage. Arthritis is the result of these surfaces being worn away.
The hip is surrounded by a relatively loose capsule that allows the joint to move throughout a wide arc. Arthritis often causes the capsule to thicken and contract and this contributes to the stiffness that you may experience.
The glenoid labrum is a thickened ring of cartilage that is attached firmly to the acetabulum and acts to deepen the socket.
Powerful muscles surround the hip joint. The iliopsoas muscle allows you to bend the hip forward whilst the powerful gluteals allow you to bring it back. The adductors bring the leg in from the side and the abductors bring the leg out to the side. The abductors also have an important role in stabilizing the pelvis when you are walking.
Basic hip bony anatomy
Basic hip muscular insertions
Pain is the main presenting symptom of the majority of people presenting with hip pathology. Usually the pain is located towards the groin but occasionally people present with buttock pain or lateral hip pain. Often the pain is activity related but night pain is also common with hip problems. Sometimes the pain radiates down the leg but hip pathology will rarely go below the knee. Remarkably, some patients can present purely with knee pain even though the source is their hip problem and this is known as referred pain.
Sometimes you might notice difficulty with activities that require a moderate amount of hip flexion such as putting on your shoes / socks or cutting your toe nails. Also activities like getting into / out of a car or even getting up from a chair can be hard.
This is the most common form of arthritis and refers to the progressive loss of cartilage from the surface of joints and is characterized by the development of bony spurs and cysts in response.
This refers to arthritis that develops due to a previous trauma. For example if you previously had a fracture of the acetabulum, you may be at risk of arthritis in the future.
This is a group of disorders that occur when the body's own immune system starts to attack its own tissues. The most well known of these is rheumatoid arthritis but the group also includes psoriatic arthritis, ankylosing arthritis, SLE and inflammatory bowel disease.
In contrast to osteoarthritis, joint swelling and inflammation are usually the predominant symptoms and usually these are worse in the morning time.
When the blood supply to the femoral head is interrupted the bone effectively dies and with time begins to collapse. It can be caused by steroids, alcohol, sickle cell disease, radiotherapy or a multitude of other causes but in reality most are "idiopathic" where the cause remains unknown.
When avascular necrosis is suspected, an MRI will help to confirm the diagnosis and this is important as early intervention can potentially prevent progression of the collapse.
The ring of fibrocartilage around the acetabulum, the labrum can tear in response in trauma in a similar manner to torn cartilage in the knee. Often patients are predisposed to this due to structural abnormalities in either the acetabulum or femoral neck or both. This process is known as femero-acetabular impingement.
Pelvis x-ray demonstrating osteoarthritis in the right hip
Iliopsoas bursitis / tendinitis
The iliopsoas is a powerful hip flexor that runs down from the lumbar sine and pelvis and across the front of the hip joint to insert on the lesser trochanter. A large sac or bursa lies between the hip capsule and the iliopsoas tendon and when inflamed causes iliopsoas bursitis. The tendon itself may also get inflamed from an acute injury or overuse causing a tendinitis.
This refers to inflammation of the small fluid-filled pouch that sits over the greater trochanter. Bursae sit where muscles or tendons move over a bony prominence and act to reduce friction.
In reality, many cases of trochanteric bursitis are actually due to tears at the insertion of the gluteal muscles similar to rotator cuff tears in the shoulder. They should be suspected when steroid injections do not produce lasting relief and are usually diagnosed on MRI. Significant tears that remain symptomatic may be treated either arthroscopically or with a small open repair.
This is usually a burning type of pain down the outside of the thigh due to compression of the lateral cutaneous nerve of the thigh as it passes under the inguinal ligament.
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C is for cat, carrot and car! They looked for all the letter C's and pictures then colored them. C is a special letter because it makes two very different sounds. We discussed who has the letter C in their name. They made letter C puzzles, colored and cut letter C.
For fine motor we drew lines in our journals. For part of our circle time they took turns drawing a card, counting and putting with the corresponding number.
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The Wounds of Jesus
know about the Passion and Death of Jesus primarily through the four gospels.
Each of them dwells on certain details of that great story. John's Gospel,
more than the others, finds the wounds that Jesus receives on the cross
particularly significant. In the tragic events that take place on Calvary
they are among the unlikely signs that reveal the mystery of the Word
The Gospel of John turns quickly from Jesus' trial before Pilate -- who questions him extensively about his kingdom -- to Calvary where he is crucified with two others. There it focuses on a small symbolic group of individuals: Mary, the mother of Jesus, the disciple whom he loved, and a few others who stand beneath the cross that bears "the King of the Jews." A gentile soldier joins them.
Envisioned by John's Gospel, this group represent the "new Jerusalem," spoken of by the Prophet Zechariah: God "will pour out a spirit of compassion and supplication on the house of David and the inhabitants of Jerusalem so that when they look on the one whom they have pierced, they shall mourn for him, as one mourns for an only child, and weep bitterly over him, as one weeps over a firstborn." (Zechariah 11, 10; cf. John 19, 37)
This group receives a precious gift.
"It is finished!" Jesus declares as he dies. Then, he bows his head toward them as they mourn over him, and he pours out his spirit on them.
right: the wounds of Jesus, painting by Michael Moran, C.P.
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‘Shoulder impingement’ is a common term used to diagnose pain in the shoulder typically made worse by lifting the arm. Despite its often-misinterpreted label, shoulder impingement describes a normal phenomenon that occurs each time the arm is lifted and the natural movement of bones in your shoulder leads to compression of soft tissues.
For example, compression of the rotator cuff tendons (most commonly the supraspinatus tendon) or bursa. In some people, repetitive and/or excessive compression over time may contribute to significant pain, loss of function and quality of life. Metaphorically speaking, you might consider the rotator cuff tendons or bursa being stuck between a rock and a hard place.
In medical terms, such symptomatic shoulder impingement is referred to as ‘subacromial impingement syndrome’ (SAIS) or more generally ‘subacromial pain syndrome’ (SAPS) and it accounts for up to 70% of shoulder pain presentations.
Like many conditions that we see at Move for Better Health, it is a misconception that surgery is the best management option, especially if the problem has been there a while and there are findings on x-ray or scans showing degenerative changes.
Historically, a commonly performed surgery in patients with SAPS is subacromial decompression surgery, a surgical procedure that involves removal of excess bone and any involved soft tissues through keyhole surgery. Theoretically, removing tissues responsible for narrowing the space where impingement occurs should reduce pain and improve function. Recovery from surgery can take months and importantly involves a graded exercise programme, guided by a physiotherapist, to reduce pain, mobilise and strengthen the shoulder.
A common alternative to surgery, and usually the first recommended management option for SAPS, is Physiotherapy.
Physiotherapy starts with a thorough assessment of the factors that affect your pain and function, but also factors that may have contributed to triggering your pain initially. Treatment can include a range of techniques aimed at reducing pain and improving function in the short-term, but importantly an exercise programme that gently and gradually progresses as your strength and function improves.
A typical treatment programme for shoulder rehabilitation takes 12-16 weeks, which can be less than the time it takes to recover from surgery.
As always, each individual case needs to be judged on its merits, however Doctors, Physiotherapists and other Health Professionals should use the most current research evidence to guide recommendations on the most appropriate treatment.
In recent years, some high-quality scientific studies have investigated the effects of subacromial decompression surgery compared to placebo-surgery (arthroscopic investigation only) or a non-surgical intervention (e.g. no treatment or exercise therapy).
The common aim was to determine the most effective method of reducing shoulder pain and improving function in people with SAPS.
Currently, results suggest that both surgical groups (real and placebo) show marked improvements in pain and function from 6 months to 2 years following surgery, with differences between groups being insignificant.
These findings demonstrate that in some people, the surgical element of ‘decompression’ isn’t a big player, with authors concluding that there is no evidence that subacromial decompression is more beneficial than placebo.
To add to this, subacromial decompression surgery appears to show no greater clinically relevant benefits than exercise therapy alone, an important consideration when discussing management approaches between patient and therapist.
Current research tells us that the surgical benefits of decompression surgery are likely due to the correct dose of rest and tissue loading (e.g. exercise therapy prescribed by a physiotherapist) following surgery.
Additionally, it tells us that exercise therapy alone is just as effective in management of pain and function in the mid-long term. Given the inherent risk of surgery and the noted wide-spread benefits of exercise therapy, a conservative approach to SAPS at first instance appears to be the best option.
At Move for Better Health, our Physiotherapists take the time to thoroughly assess and diagnose your shoulder pain. If you have SAPS, or other shoulder related problems (e.g. rotator cuff tendinopathy or rotator cuff tear), we can help you with an individualised management plan tailored towards achieving your goals, that is based on the best current research evidence.
If you’d like to speak to our team about shoulder pain, you can do so here or by calling us on 8373 5655.
Beard, DJ, Rees, JL, Cook, JA, Rombach, I, Cooper, C, Merritt, N, Shirkey, BA, Donovan, JL, Gwilym, S, Savulescu, J, Moser, J, Gray, A, Jepson, M, Tracey, I, Judge, A, Wartolowska, K & Carr, AJ 2018, ‘Arthroscopic subacromial decompression for subacromial shoulder pain (CSAW): a multicentre, pragmatic, parallel group, placebo-controlled, three-group, randomised surgical trial’, The Lancet, vol. 391, no. 10118, pp. 329-338. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(17)32457-1
Lähdeoja, T, Karjalainen, T, Jokihaara, J, Salamh, P, Kavaja, L, Agarwal, A, Winters, M, Buchbinder, R, Guyatt, G, Vandvik, PO & Ardern, CL 2019, ‘Subacromial decompression surgery for adults with shoulder pain: a systematic review with meta-analysis’, British Journal of Sports Medicine, vol. 7, no.1, pp. 1-10. bjsports-2018-100486. doi:10.1136/bjsports-2018-100486
Paavola, M, Malmivaara, A, Taimela, S, Kanto, K, Inkinen, J, Kalske, J, Sinisaari, I, Savolainen, V, Ranstam, J & Jarvinen, TLN 2018, ‘Subacromial decompression versus diagnostic arthroscopy for shoulder impingement: randomised, placebo surgery controlled clinical trial’, BMJ, vol. 362, k2860. doi:10.1136/bmj.k2860
Steuri, R, Sattelmayer, M, Elsig, S, Kolly, C, Tal, A, Taeymans, J & Hilfiker, R 2017, ‘Effectiveness of conservative interventions including exercise, manual therapy and medical management in adults with shoulder impingement: a systematic review and meta-analysis of RCTs’, British Journal of Sports Medicine, vol. 51, no. 18, pp. 1340-1347. doi:10.1136/bjsports-2016-096515
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• buffalo •
Part of Speech: Verb
Meaning: 1. To intimidate by a show of authority, to overawe. 2. To confuse, perplex, bewilder. 3. To outwit, hoodwink, fool, gull, deceive.
Notes: Today we are focusing on the verb to buffalo. It comes from the noun buffalo, of course. The North American bison, known to everyone in North America as the buffalo, had a reputation of standing its ground when attacked. The herd circles its young and vulnerable, and staunchly challenges all challengers. This is the characteristic that is captured in the original sense of today's verb.
In Play: This is one of those words that are used so seldom that their meanings hazy. We think we can detect three. The first sense is exemplified here: "Ally Katz wasn't buffaloed by Norman Conquest into becoming another of his conquests." Here is the second sense: "The math professor gave his class a problem that had them all buffaloed—including himself, as he found out when asked for the answer." The third meaning of this word seems to be the one expressed in this sentence: "He buffaloed his way into the company, claiming credentials he didn't have."
Word History: Today's Good Word came from the noun buffalo which, in turn, came from a Romance language, either Italian buffalo (bufalo), or Portuguese or Spanish búfalo. All these words came from Late Latin bufalus, classical Latin bubalus "antelope, buffalo". Latin came by the word from Greek boubalos, a reduplication of bous "cow". The original Proto-Indo-European word was something like gwou- "cow, bull", which explains how it could become cow in English. Apparently as it passed through the Germanic languages the [gw] did not become [b] as it did in ancient Greek but, like all [g] sounds, [k], hence English cow ([kau]). One final note: bugle was originally bugle horn back when bugle meant "wild or young ox". This word originated in Old French as bugle, from Latin buculus "young bull". So, it is no coincidence that horn has two meanings referring both to the musical instrument and to the protrusions on the heads of ungulates. Our ancient ancestors started out blowing on cow horns. (We owe our gratitude today to Mary-Alice Boulter, who didn't have to buffalo us into accepting her recommendation.)
Come visit our website at <http://www.alphadictionary.com> for more Good Words and other language resources!
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After 19 years of imprisonment, Mary Queen of Scots is beheaded at Fotheringhay Castle in England for her complicity in a plot to murder Queen Elizabeth I.
In 1542, while just six days old, Mary ascended to the Scottish throne upon the death of her father, King James V. Her mother sent her to be raised in the French court, and in 1558 she married the French dauphin, who became King Francis II of France in 1559 but died the following year. After Francis’ death, Mary returned to Scotland to assume her designated role as the country’s monarch.
In 1565, she married her English cousin Lord Darnley in order to reinforce her claim of succession to the English throne after Elizabeth’s death. In 1567, Darnley was mysteriously killed in an explosion at Kirk o’ Field, and Mary’s lover, the Earl of Bothwell, was the key suspect. Although Bothwell was acquitted of the charge, his marriage to Mary in the same year enraged the nobility. Mary brought an army against the nobles, but was defeated and imprisoned at Lochleven, Scotland, and forced to abdicate in favor of her son by Darnley, James.
In 1568, Mary escaped from captivity and raised a substantial army but was defeated and fled to England. Queen Elizabeth initially welcomed Mary but was soon forced to put her friend under house arrest after Mary became the focus of various English Catholic and Spanish plots to overthrow Elizabeth. Nineteen years later, in 1586, a major plot to murder Elizabeth was reported, and Mary was brought to trial. She was convicted for complicity and sentenced to death.
On February 8, 1587, Mary Queen of Scots was beheaded for treason. Her son, King James VI of Scotland, calmly accepted his mother’s execution, and upon Queen Elizabeth’s death in 1603 he became king of England, Scotland, and Ireland.
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George Goring, Lord Goring
|This article relies largely or entirely upon a single source. (February 2012)|
||This article includes a list of references, related reading or external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. (February 2012)|
Portrait of Lord Goring after Anthony van Dyck.
|Died||1657 (aged 48 or 49)
|Rank||Lieutenant-General of Horse|
|Battles/wars||Siege of Breda, Battle of Seacroft Moor, Battle of Marston Moor, Battle of Langport|
The Goring family
The son of George Goring, 1st Earl of Norwich, Goring became famous at court for his prodigality and dissolute manners. He was married to Lettice Boyle, daughter of Richard Boyle, 1st Earl of Cork, and his father-in-law procured for him a post in the Dutch Army with the rank of colonel. He was permanently lamed by a wound received at Breda in 1637, and returned to England early in 1639, when he was made governor of Portsmouth.
Experience before the Civil Wars
He served in the Bishops' Wars, and already had a considerable reputation when he was involved in the "Army Plot" (1641). Officers of the army stationed at York proposed to petition the king and parliament for the maintenance of the royal authority. A second party was in favour of more violent measures, and Goring, in the hope of being appointed lieutenant-general, proposed to march the army on London and overawe the Parliament during Strafford's trial (1641). This proposition being rejected by his fellow-officers, he betrayed the proceedings to Mountjoy Blount, 1st Earl of Newport, who passed on the information indirectly to John Pym in April.
The 'Lieutenant-General of Horse'
Colonel Goring was thereupon called on to give evidence before the Commons, who commended him for his services to the Commonwealth. This betrayal of his comrades induced confidence in the minds of the parliamentary leaders, who sent him back to his Portsmouth command. Nevertheless he declared for the king in August. He surrendered Portsmouth to the parliament in September 1642 after the Siege of Portsmouth and went to the Netherlands to recruit for the Royalist army, returning to England in December. Appointed to a cavalry command by the Earl of Newcastle, he defeated Fairfax at Seacroft Moor near Leeds in March 1643, but in May he was taken prisoner at Wakefield on the capture of the town by Fairfax. In April 1644 he effected an exchange.
At the Battle of Marston Moor, Goring commanded the Royalist left, and charged with great success, but, allowing his troopers to disperse in search of plunder, was routed by Oliver Cromwell at the close of the battle. In November 1644, on his father's elevation to the earldom of Norwich, he became Lord Goring. The parliamentary authorities, however, refused to recognize the creation of the earldom, and continued to speak of the father as "Lord Goring" and the son as "General Goring".
In August Goring had been despatched by Prince Rupert of the Rhine, who recognized his ability, to join Charles I in the south, and in spite of his dissolute and insubordinate character he was appointed to supersede Henry, Lord Wilmot, as lieutenant-general of the Royalist horse. He secured some successes in the west, and in January 1645 advanced through Hampshire and occupied Farnham; but want of money compelled him to retreat to Salisbury and thence to Exeter. The excesses committed by his troops seriously injured the Royalist cause, and his exactions made his name hated throughout the west.
He had himself prepared to besiege Taunton in March 1645, yet when in the next month he was desired by Prince Charles, who was at Bristol, to send reinforcements to Sir Richard Grenville for the siege of Taunton, he obeyed the order only with ill-humour. Later in April 1645 he was summoned with his troops to the relief of the king at Oxford.
Lord Goring had long been intriguing for an independent command, and he now secured from the king what was practically supreme authority in the west. It was alleged by the Earl of Newport that he was willing to transfer his allegiance once more to the parliament. It is not likely that he meditated open treason, but he was culpably negligent and occupied with private ambitions and jealousies. He was still engaged in desultory operations against Taunton when the main campaign of 1645 opened.
For the part taken by Goring's army in the operations of the Naseby campaign see English Civil War. After the decisive defeat of the king, the army of Fairfax marched into the west and defeated Goring in a disastrous fight at Langport on July 10, 1645. He made no further serious resistance to the parliamentary general, but wasted his time in frivolous amusements, and in November 1645 he obtained leave to quit his disorganised forces and retire to France on the ground of health.
Clarendon says of Goring that he "would, without hesitation, have broken any trust, or done any act of treachery to have satisfied an ordinary passion or appetite; and in truth wanted nothing but industry (for he had wit, and courage, and understanding and ambition, uncontrolled by any fear of God or man) to have been as eminent and successful in the highest attempt of wickedness as any man in the age he lived in or before. Of all his qualifications dissimulation was his masterpiece; in which he so much excelled, that men were not ordinarily ashamed, or out of countenance, with being deceived but twice by him."
- Life by Charles Harding Firth in the Dictionary of National Biography;
- Dugdale's Baronage, where there are some doubtful stories of his life in Spain;
- the Clarendon State Papers;
- Lord Clarendon, History of the Great Rebellion;
- Samuel Rawson Gardiner, History of the Great Civil War.
- This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press (That article is reproduced here: )
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| 0.980753 | 1,326 | 2.734375 | 3 |
Rhode Island - HE K-12 curriculum—suicide prevention (HS): Curricula
State of Rhode Island General Laws § 16-22-14. Suicide prevention awareness.
(a) The department of elementary and secondary education shall develop and prescribe a suicide prevention awareness program for public school students in grades nine (9) through twelve (12). The school committees of the several cities, towns, and school districts shall provide for the incorporation of the program in existing health education courses.
Rules and Regulations for School Health Programs
Section 5.0 Mandated Health Instructional Outcomes: Required Content Areas
5.1 The health education curriculum shall be based on the health education standards of the Rhode Island Health Education Framework: Health Literacy for All Students and consistent with the mandated health instructional outcomes therein. These outcomes shall pertain to no less than the following topics appropriate to grade or developmental level:
- 22.214.171.124 Suicide Prevention: the causes, effects, and treatment of behaviors related to suicide, pursuant to RIGL §16-22-14.
[Inactive as of July 2018.]
Source: Rhode Island Secretary of State
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https://statepolicies.nasbe.org/health/categories/health-education/he-k-12-curriculum%E2%80%94suicide-prevention-hs/rhode-island-he-k-12-curriculum%E2%80%94suicide-prevention-hs-curricula
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Current river mechanics research on particle friction angles of fluvial gravels (data files compressed in BenHex, Winzip and Unix) and Grand Canyon Beach evolution (animation requiring Java 1.0) plus digital elevation files (*.hgx and *.zip files).
Lead page to connect to ground water information on the Nation's ground water resources and ground water activities of the USGS. Includes links to ground-water data, news reports, publications, field techniques, models, programs, and issues.
National Water Information System (NWIS) real-time data on selected ground water sites, ground water level data, site inventory of wells, test holes, drains, springs and excavations and ground water-quality data for the United States.
Lower precipitation and recharge, with deeper groundwater levels, suggest this basin will be less susceptible to contamination than others nearby, but may be susceptible to saltwater intrusion brought on by well pumping.
The groundwater component of streamflow is important because it is indicative of the sustained flow of a stream during dry periods, is often of better quality, and has a smaller range of temperatures, than surface contributions to streamflow.
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Congenital Pyloric stenosis (also called hypertrophic pyloric stenosis) is the definition of an infant born with a thick and muscle surrounding the muscles that encapsulate the outlet of the stomach that attaches to the small intestine. This outlet is the area where stomach contents pass into the small intestines. In infants, in spite of apparent good appetite and ability to eat, the condition causes vomiting immediately after feeding or within several hours. If not treated, the vomiting often turns into projectile vomiting due to the blockage and the inability of food to pass through the stomach into the small intestine.
As a result, babies can lose weight, or fail to gain weight. Dehydration is likely, and bowel movements are infrequent and difficult. Mothers should report the vomiting, and especially projectile vomiting to their doctors and pediatricians as soon as possible.
The condition, causing constriction or enlargement of muscles that encircle the outlet at the end of the stomach mainly affect the muscular two or pyloric is that carries food from the stomach into the small intestine.
In infants suspected of pyloric stenosis, a physical exam, ultrasound, and or a barium swallow x-ray may be performed in order to confirm the diagnosis.
The most common treatment for pyloric stenosis is surgery. Pyloric stenosis surgery is one of the most commonly performed in infants. The actual surgical procedure is called a pyloromyotomy. Prior to surgery, the doctor or pediatrician will make sure the baby remains hydrated with electrolyte solutions or by intravenous or IV infusion. During the pyloric stenosis surgical procedure, the infant will be placed under general anesthesia. The abdominal area is open, and the thickened muscle surrounding the outlet between the stomach and the small intestine will be cut, allowing for a wider "mount".
Following the surgery, the infant is fed, with amounts of food/liquid gradually increasing while doctors and pediatricians in short that food is moving naturally and properly from the stomach into the small intestine. In most cases, infants make a quick and full recovery.
Following a surgical procedure, a firm ridge often appears over the incision site, but this is normal, healthy, and requires no treatment. Infants are often discharged within one to two days following the procedure.
Pediatric surgeons generally perform pyloric stenosis surgery, as do general surgeons. Pediatric surgeons or pediatricians are required to undergo basic medical training in addition to 4 to 8 years of postgraduate training in pediatrics. A 3 to 4 year university degree is typically followed by that additional 3 to 5 years in internship and residency.
Pediatric surgeons may specialize in neonatal surgery, oncology, and typical medical staff subspecialties such as ear, nose and throat, cardiac care, endocrine systems, or genetics. Members of pediatric surgical associations and organizations are required to maintain their professional standing, obtain a lifelong learning and self-assessment education, complete cognitive expertise through examinations and licensing and undergo periodic evaluation for performance in practice.
Accredited and certified surgeons should belong to the American Pediatric Surgical Association or other similar organizations or boards in the surgeon’s country of origin. Always verify the education, training and experience of any surgeon who may perform surgery and make sure they are licensed to practice in the facility of your choice.
Please click the contact button below for more details!
Best Pediatric Treatment Center | Cheap Pediatric Treatment Packages
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https://www.placidway.com/subtreatment/731/Congenital-Pyloric-Stenosis
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A 14-year study of nearly 89,000 women found no evidence that a high-fat diet promotes breast cancer or that a low-fat diet protects against it.
Experts were quick to note that a low-fat diet is still good for the heart and other aspects of health. They said the study indicated a need to look more carefully at how diet may affect the risk of breast cancer.
''We should just accept that good scientists can't tell you yet what to eat to minimize your breast-cancer risk,'' said Dr. John A. Glaspy of the University of California at Los Angeles, who was not involved in the research.
The Harvard University study was published in Wednesday's issue of The Journal of the American Medical Association.
Doctors have theorized that eating large amounts of fat increases the risk of breast cancer. They have based their thinking on animal studies, international comparisons and studies of women who developed breast cancer and women who did not. Others have suggested that the crucial factor is the type of fat consumed rather than the amount, or that contaminants stored in fat promote breast cancer.
The new study tracked 88,795 women in the continuing Nurses' Health Study. The women, ages 30 to 55, completed detailed questionnaires about their eating habits every four years from 1980 to 1994. Diets of the women without breast cancer were compared with those of 2,956 women whose breast cancer was discovered during the study.
Breast cancer was found to be no more common among women who ate large amounts of fat, or among those who ate a high proportion of animal fat, polyunsaturated fat (vegetable fat) or trans-unsaturated fat (partially hydrogenated oils, like those used in margarine).
Nor was breast cancer any less common in women who got a high proportion of their fats from fish oil or who got less than 20 percent of their total calories from fat.
''Our research indicates it's highly unlikely that women who consume a low-fat diet are protected against breast cancer,'' said the study's lead author, Dr. Michelle D. Holmes, an instructor of medicine at Harvard Medical School and Brigham and Women's Hospital in Boston. ''Equally, it appears a high-fat diet also poses no increased risk for the disease.''
Most surprising, women who ate the least amount of fat appeared to have a 15 percent higher rate of breast cancer. But Dr. Holmes said she was not ready to conclude that a low-fat diet increased the risk of breast cancer, because the finding was based on fewer than 1,000 women who ate less than 20 percent of calories as fat.
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The first two principles of HACCP are Identification of hazards, and Determination of Critical Control Points. Let's look at the next step to creating your HACCP plan, establishing critical limits.
After the hazard analysis has been completed and your team has identified each of the critical control points, (CCPs - the points in the process where the identified hazards must be controlled to prevent a food safety hazard) limits must be identified for each of the CCPs.
Establish a maximum or minimum limit for temperature, time, pH, salt level, chlorine level or other processing characteristic that will control the hazard. This is the critical limit for the CCP. If this limit is ever exceeded corrective action must be taken, and all affected product controlled. This will be covered in more detail when we discuss corrective action.
The determination of the critical limit must be based on scientific information or data. It is important to make sure that if you do not have sufficient experience in your company to make this determination you involve outside expertise or use external sources of information to make the decision.
Each CCP and its critical limit will be documented in the HACCP plan. Operational limits for your process can then be planned and documented taking the critical limits into account. Operational limits would be set tighter than the critical limits to ensure that the critical limits are not exceeded.
Remember, if a critical limit is exceeded there is a potential safety hazard and affected product will need to be controlled. This could mean rework or disposal of product. By setting operational limits tighter than control limits you will have a chance to bring the process under control before a critical limit is exceeded.
The team uses information on the process and the hazard to identify each step in the process that is a critical control point.
We recommend HACCP Training by Debbie Newslow. View list of all HACCP courses by Debbie Newslow
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http://22000-tools.com/haccp-plan-critical-control-limits.html
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| 0.913053 | 382 | 3 | 3 |
Cells are often referred to by scientists as the basic building blocks of all natural lifeforms. Though reading about cells will offer a passive understanding of basic cell structures and function, three dimensional cell models offer the opportunity to share a tactile interaction with a cell. Three dimensional cell models utilize a variety of creative building materials to help identify cell structures and conceptualize the functions performed by and within a cell to support life.
Edible cell models are a practical and fun way to demonstrate a cell's various parts. There are several common ways to prepare a cell model. One of the simplest preparations is to create a malleable base material such as crispy rice treats by mixing one part melted marshmallow to two parts puffed rice cereal. Once the material is mixed, it can be molded into a half dome to resemble a cross section of a cell. Use various small candies to represent different cell parts within the mold; a malted milk ball could be a nucleus and several threads of licorice make suitable microtubules. Another option is to make a clear gelatin mold in a clear glass bowl. Once the mold has been refrigerated for several hours, place other food items into the mold to represent various cell parts like chromatin and reticulum. When the mold has turned completely solid, the cell parts will be suspended within the mold yet still visible. Use label flags made from toothpicks to identify each cell part.
Another malleable material that is suitable for creating a cell model is clay or dough. Clay can be purchased or made at home using a simple mixture of two parts flour to one part each salt and water. Create or purchase a wide variety of clay colors so that each cell part is distinct. To create a basic cell form, line a round bowl with wax paper and press the clay against the edge of the bowl; you can leave the dome hollow and suspend additional clay pieces within the dome on toothpicks to represent cell parts. Alternatively, you may fill the entire dome, in which case you should simply lay additional cell parts on the top flat surface. Shape additional clay in various colors to resemble integral cell parts including cell membranes and ribosomes. Let the clay harden overnight before removing the dome from the bowl; some clay can be cooked in an oven per the manufacturer instructions to increase its hardness and durability.
Plastic Bag Cells
Use a plastic bag and a thick syrup to create a three dimensional model of a cell that you can move and feel. Fill a large clear plastic storage bag with various non-water soluble materials that could represent various cell parts; for example, a small balloon filled with sand makes a suitable nucleus while gummy worms or yarn are ideal materials for cell proteins. Fill the bag with corn syrup; you can also use baby oil or vegetable oil if you do not have corn syrup, though the consistency will be a bit more watery. To prevent leaking, place the filled bag into an additional bag and seal the bags with their closures as well as a strong adhesive like duct tape. Because the parts within the model may move around, provide a separate key that outlines what each material represents within the cell.
- blood cells image by Marko Kovacevic from Fotolia.com
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| 0.938188 | 653 | 3.84375 | 4 |
Expanding the Universe, an exhibit in Magill Library at Haverford College, problematizes the conventional wisdom of rapid scientific progress in astronomy after the creation of the telescope. Instead of seeing telescopes as a solution to erroneous ideas about the universe and our position in it, this exhibition illustrates the slow progression of the telescope and of astronomy. When you consider the size of our solar system, let alone the universe, it is understandable that early telescopes would have failed to radically change astronomical ideas. The first telescopes in the early 1600s were capable of only minor discoveries because they lacked magnifying power and were inaccurate in tracking moving astronomical bodies. In observatories, the telescope was overlooked for instruments like quadrants, which were better able to determine and track the position of astronomical objects. The telescope was not the cause of radical change in cosmologies, models which demonstrate organizations of the solar system, because it lacked the sensitivity to prove Earth’s motion. Furthermore, colleges did not advance the telescope until the late 19th century, when it was overdeveloped in its technology but under-employed in astronomical education.
Understanding the telescope’s role in astronomy makes it possible to see why it needed to be a complex and sensitive instrument. The margin of error for detecting motion at great distances, such as those between the Earth and the stars, is so small that even the observatory building’s movement matters. The telescope's role must be contextualized in order to appreciate its astronomical discoveries. Today, the remnants of our moon visits cannot be seen from Earth because even modern telescopes cannot magnify enough to see such detail even at a comparatively short distance in space. Seeing the invention of the telescope as a watershed in which old astronomical ideas were done away with glosses over arduous scientific process. Failing to recognize that scientific discovery and progress require time and dedication creates an overly simplistic view of science that we must avoid if we are to encourage continued exploration of our universe and the questions it raises.
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http://ds.haverford.edu/expandingtheuniverse/index.html
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| 0.953955 | 400 | 3.6875 | 4 |
| | Other topics
News articles on lions
Mongabay.com news articles on lions in blog format. Updated regularly.
(06/03/2014) Four donors from around the world have pledged $80 million to cat conservation group, Panthera. The money will fund projects working to preserve tigers, lions, jaguars, cheetahs, leopards, snow leopards, and cougars over ten years.
Predator appreciation: how saving lions, tigers, and polar bears could rescue ourselves
(01/29/2014) In the new book, In Predatory Light: Lions and Tigers and Polar Bears, authors Elizabeth Marshall Thomas, Sy Montgomery, and John Houston, and photographers Cyril Christo and Marie Wilkinson share with us an impassioned and detailed appeal to appreciate three of the world's biggest predators: lions, tigers, and polar bears. Through lengthy discussions, combining themes from scientific conservation to local community folklore, In Predatory Light takes us step by step deeper into the wild world of these awe-inspiring carnivores and their varied plight as they facedown extinction.
Over 75 percent of large predators declining
(01/09/2014) The world's top carnivores are in big trouble: this is the take-away message from a new review paper published today in Science. Looking at 31 large-bodied carnivore species (i.e those over 15 kilograms or 33 pounds), the researchers found that 77 percent are in decline and more than half have seen their historical ranges decline by over 50 percent. In fact, the major study comes just days after new research found that the genetically-unique West African lion is down to just 250 breeding adults.
Lions face extinction in West Africa: less than 250 survive
(01/08/2014) The lions of West Africa, which may represent a distinct subspecies, are on the precipice of extinction. A sober new study in PLOS ONE reports that less than 250 mature lions survive in the region. Scientists have long known that West Africa's lions were in trouble, but no one expected the situation to be as dire as it was. In fact, in 2012 scientists estimated the population at over 500. But looking at 21 parks, scientists were shocked to find lions persisted in just four with only one population containing more than 50 individuals.
86 percent of big animals in the Sahara Desert are extinct or endangered
(12/03/2013) Bigger than all of Brazil, among the harshest ecosystems on Earth, and largely undeveloped, one would expect that the Sahara desert would be a haven for desert wildlife. One would anticipate that big African animals—which are facing poaching and habitat loss in other parts of the world—would thrive in this vast wilderness. But a new landmark study in Diversity and Distributions finds that the megafauna of the Sahara desert are on the verge of total collapse.
Samburu's lions: how the big cats could make a comeback in Kenya
(09/30/2013) In 2009 conservationists estimated that less than 2,000 lions survive in Kenya, a drop of 26 percent in just seven years. In addition, the East Africa country continues to hemorrhage lions: around a hundred a year. Poaching, poisoning, and large-scale habitat loss has put lions on the defensive across Africa, but even countries once thought lion strongholds--like Kenya--have seen populations harried to devastation and in some cases local extinction. Shivani Bhalla, a fourth-generation Kenyan, is working to turnaround this trend in Samburu National Reserve.
Lions rising: community conservation making a difference for Africa's kings in Mozambique
(09/17/2013) Everyone knows that tigers, pandas, and blue whales are threatened with extinction—but lions!? Researchers were shocked to recently discover that lion populations have fallen precipitously: down to around 30,000 animals across the African continent. While 30,000 may sound like a lot, this is a nearly 70 percent decline since 1960. In addition, lion populations are increasingly fragmented with a number of populations having vanished altogether. However, there is hope: one place where lion populations are actually on the rise is Niassa National Reserve in Mozambique. Here, lion populations have risen by around 60 percent in just seven years. In part this is due to the effort of Colleen and Keith Begg.
Protecting predators in the wildest landscape you've never heard of
(09/10/2013) The Serengeti, the Congo, the Okavango Delta: many of Africa's great wildernesses are household names, however on a continent that never fails to surprise remain vast wild lands practically unknown to the global public. One of these is the Ruaha landscape: covering 51,800 square kilometers (20,000 square miles) of southern Tanzania's woodlands and savannah, Ruaha contains the largest population of elephants in East Africa, over 500 bird species, and a wealth of iconic top predators, including cheetah, hyena, wild dogs, leopard, and—the jewel in its crown—10 percent of the world's lions. But that's not all, one of Africa's least-known and secretive tribal groups, the Barabaig, also calls Ruaha home.
Scientists: lions need funding not fences
(07/15/2013) Fences are not the answer to the decline in Africa's lions, according to a new paper in Ecology Letters. The new research directly counters an earlier controversial study that argued keeping lions fenced-in would be cheaper and more effective in saving the big cats. African lion (Panthera leo) populations across the continent have fallen dramatically: it's estimated that the current population is around 15,000-35,000 lions, down from 100,000 just 50 years ago. The animal kings are suffering from booming human populations, habitat loss and fragmentation, prey decline, trophy hunting, and human-lion conflict.
Lions for sale: big game hunting combines with lion bone trade to threaten endangered cats
(04/18/2013) Koos Hermanus would rather not give names to the lions he breeds. So here, behind a 2.4-meter high electric fence, is 1R, a three-and-a-half-year-old male, who consumes 5kg of meat a day and weighs almost 200kg. It will only leave its enclosure once it has been "booked"' by a hunter, most of whom are from the United States. At that point the big cat will be set loose in the wild for the first time in its life, 96 hours before the hunt begins. It usually takes about four days to track down the prey, with the trophy hunter following its trail on foot, accompanied by big-game professionals including Hermanus. He currently has 14 lions at his property near Groot Marico, about two and a half hours by road west of Johannesburg.
Male lions require dense vegetation for successful ambush hunting
(03/20/2013) For a long time male lions were derided as the lazy ones in the pride, depending on females for the bulk of hunting and not pulling their weight. Much of this was based on field observations—female lions hunt cooperatively, often in open savannah, and therefore are easier to track at night. But new research in Animal Behaviour is showing that males are adroit hunters in their own right, except prickly males hunt alone and use dense vegetation as cover; instead of social hunting in open savannah, they depend on ambushing unsuspecting prey.
Forgotten lions: shedding light on the fate of lions in unprotected areas
(03/18/2013) African lions (Panthera leo) living outside of protected areas like national parks or reserves also happen to be studied much less than those residing within protected areas, to the detriment of lion conservation initiatives. In response to this trend, a group of researchers surveyed an understudied, unprotected region in northwestern Mozambique called the Tete Province, whose geography and proximity to two national parks suggests a presence of lions.
The end of wild Africa?: lions may need fences to survive
(03/06/2013) In order for dwindling lion populations to survive in Africa, large-scale fencing projects may be required according to new research in Ecology Letters. Recent estimates have put lion populations down to 15,000-35,000, a massive drop from a population that was thought to be around 100,000 in 1960. The worsening plight of lions have pushed the researchers to suggest what is likely to be a controversial proposal: fence the top predators in.
Geneticists discover distinct lion group in squalid conditions
(02/04/2013) They languished behind bars in squalid conditions, their very survival in jeopardy. Outside, an international team of advocates strove to bring worldwide attention to their plight. With modern genetics, the experts sought to prove what they had long believed: that these individuals were special. Like other cases of individuals waiting for rescue from a life of deprivation behind bars, the fate of those held captive might be dramatically altered with the application of genetic science to answer questions of debated identity. Now recent DNA analysis has made it official: this group is special and because of their scientifically confirmed distinctiveness they will soon enjoy greater freedom.
Three developing nations move to ban hunting to protect vanishing wildlife
(01/21/2013) Three developing countries have recently toughened hunting regulations believing the changes will better protect vanishing species. Botswana has announced it will ban trophy hunting on public lands beginning in 2014, while Zambia has recently banned any hunting of leopards or lions, both of which are disappearing across Africa. However, the most stringent ban comes from another continent: Costa Rica—often considered one of the "greenest" countries on Earth—has recently passed a law that bans all sport hunting and trapping both inside and outside protected areas. The controversial new law is considered the toughest in the Western Hemisphere.
Lion population falls 68 percent in 50 years
(12/04/2012) African lions, one of the most iconic species on the planet, are in rapid decline. According to a new study in Biodiversity Conservation, the African lion (Panthera leo leo) population has dropped from around 100,000 animals just fifty years ago to as few as 32,000 today. The study, which used high resolution satellite imagery to study savannah ecosystems across Africa, also found that lion habitat had plunged by 75 percent.
Africa's great savannahs may be more endangered than the world's rainforests
(12/04/2012) Few of the world's ecosystems are more iconic than Africa's sprawling savannahs home to elephants, giraffes, rhinos, and the undisputed king of the animal kingdom: lions. This wild realm, where megafauna still roam in abundance, has inspired everyone from Ernest Hemingway to Karen Blixen, and David Livingstone to Theodore Roosevelt. Today it is the heart of Africa's wildlife tourism and includes staunch defenders such as Richard Leakey, Michael Fay, and the Jouberts. Despite this, the ecosystem has received less media attention than imperiled ecosystems like rainforests. But a ground-breaking study in Biodiversity Conservation finds that 75 percent of these large-scale intact grasslands have been lost, at least from the lion's point of view.
Wolves, mole rats, and nyala: the struggle to conserve Ethiopia's highlands
(11/20/2012) There is a place in the world where wolves live almost entirely off mountain rodents, lions dwell in forests, and freshwater rolls downstream to 12 million people, but the place—Ethiopia's Bale Mountains National Park—remains imperiled by a lack of legal boundaries and encroachment by a growing human population. "Much of the land in Africa above 3,000 meters has been altered or degraded to the point where it isn’t able to perform most of the ecosystem functions that it is designed to do. Bale, although under threat and already impacted to a degree by anthropogenic activities, is still able to perform its most important ecosystem functions, and as such ranks among only a handful of representative alpine ecosystems in Africa."
Illegal hunting threatens iconic animals across Africa's great savannas, especially predators
(10/25/2012) Bushmeat hunting has become a grave concern for species in West and Central Africa, but a new report notes that lesser-known illegal hunting in Africa's iconic savannas is also decimating some animals. Surprisingly, illegal hunting across eastern and southern Africa is hitting big predators particularly hard, such as cheetah, lion, leopard, and wild dog. Although rarely targets of hunters, these predators are running out of food due to overhunting and, in addition, often becoming victims of snares set out for other species.
Picture of the day: the maned lioness
(10/15/2012) The title is not a typo. Sometimes lioness grow manes as rich and large as males, and there appears to be larger proportion of such 'maned lionesses' in Botswana's Okavango Delta.
Elephant ancestors and Africa's Bigfoot: new initiative works to preserve a continent's wildest tales
(08/20/2012) Paula Kahumbu, the Executive Director of WildlifeDirect and a 2011 National Geographic Emerging Explorer, is on a mission to reconnect young Africans with the natural world through storytelling. In a new initiative dubbed Africa's Wildest Stories, Kahumbu and others are recording the wit and wisdom of African elders in Kenya as they share their love of nature and the way in which Africans, for millennia, have co-existed with their environment and its astounding wildlife.
King of the jungle: lions discovered in rainforests
(08/13/2012) Calling the African lion (Panthera leo) the 'king of the jungle' is usually a misnomer, as the species is almost always found in savannah or dry forests, but recent photos by the Germany-based Nature and Biodiversity Conservation Union (NABU) document lions in Ethiopian rainforests. Taken in the Kafa Biosphere Reserve, the photos show a female lion hiding out in thick montane jungle.
New campaign targets snares in effort to save world's big cats
(06/05/2012) Last summer, a wild Sumatran tiger—one of only a few hundred surviving on the island—made news in a story that did not have a happy ending. The cat had become entangled in a snare in a logging concession owned by Asia Pulp and Paper (APP). The tiger spent seven days without food or water before wildlife rangers found it, but its snared right paw was a bloody black mess. Although the rangers were able to sedate and free the cat, it died shortly thereafter from its wounds.
Bushmeat trade driving illegal hunting in Zimbabwe park
(12/12/2011) Bushmeat hunting is one of the major threats to mammals in sub-Saharan Africa. Although widely discussed and recognized as an issues in Central and West Africa, a new study in mongabay.com's open access journal Tropical Conservation Science describes a pattern of bushmeat hunting that is also occurring in southern Africa. Interviewing 114 locals living adjacent to Gonarezhou National Park in Zimbabwe, Edson Gandiwa with Wageningen University found that the primary drivers of illegal hunting in the park were bushmeat and personal consumption (68 percent).
Cute animal picture of the day: endangered baby Asiatic lions
(10/20/2011) In the wild, the Asiatic lion subspecies (Panthera leo persica) survives only in India's Gir Forest National Park in the north-western state of Gujarat with a population of just over 400 individuals. Around 90 survive in zoos. The subspecies is listed as Endangered by the IUCN Red List. Given its tiny population and the fact that it survives in a single location, the Asiatic lion continues to be threatened by in-breeding, disease, fires, and illegal mining. As well, conflict with villagers continues, and lions have been poached and poisoned in the past.
Decline in top predators and megafauna 'humankind’s most pervasive influence on nature'
(07/14/2011) Worldwide wolf populations have dropped around 99 percent from historic populations. Lion populations have fallen from 450,000 to 20,000 in 50 years. Three subspecies of tiger went extinct in the 20th Century. Overfishing and finning has cut some shark populations down by 90 percent in just a few decades. Though humpback whales have rebounded since whaling was banned, they are still far from historic numbers. While some humans have mourned such statistics as an aesthetic loss, scientists now say these declines have a far greater impact on humans than just the vanishing of iconic animals. The almost wholesale destruction of top predators—such as sharks, wolves, and big cats—has drastically altered the world's ecosystems, according to a new review study in Science. Although researchers have long known that the decline of animals at the top of food chain, including big herbivores and omnivores, affects ecosystems through what is known as 'trophic cascade', studies over the past few decades are only beginning to reveal the extent to which these animals maintain healthy environments, preserve biodiversity, and improve nature's productivity.
PUMA goes carbon neutral by protecting lions in Kenya
(03/23/2011) PUMA, the sporting goods brand, and its parent company PPR will offset their 2010 carbon dioxide emissions by purchasing carbon credits generated through conservation of wildlife habitat in Kenya.
Conservation groups propose ban on lion parts in US
(03/02/2011) It's not widely known that the African lion ((Panthera leo) is currently threatened with extinction in the wild, but listed as Vulnerable by the IUCN Red List, the king of animals has declined by over 90% in the past 50 years (from 450,000 lions to between 20,000 and 40,000 today). While conservation work to save the species is on-going in Africa, efforts have now moved to the US as well, where a coalition of conservation groups are filing a petition with the US Department of the Interior to list lions as 'endangered' under the Endangered Species Act (ESA). Such a listing would make it illegal to bring lion parts in the country, including those killed by recreational trophy hunters.
Parks key to saving India's great mammals from extinction
(02/24/2011) Krithi Karanth grew up amid India's great mammals—literally. Daughter of conservationist and scientist Dr. Ullas Karanth, she tells mongabay.com that she saw her first wild tigers and leopard at the age of two. Yet, the India Krithi Karanth grew up in may be gone in a century, according to a massive new study by Karanth which looked at the likelihood of extinction for 25 of India's mammals, including well-known favorites like Bengal tigers and Asian elephants, along with lesser known mammals (at least outside of India) such as the nilgai and the gaur. The study found that given habitat loss over the past century, extinction stalked seven of India's mammals especially: Asiatic lions, Bengal tigers, wild dogs (also known as dholes), swamp deer, wild buffalo, Nilgiri Tahr, and the gaur. However, increasing support of protected areas and innovative conservation programs outside of parks would be key to saving India's wildlife in the 21st Century.
A lion's story, an interview with the filmmakers of The Last Lions
(02/14/2011) The new theatrical film, The Last Lions does not open, as one would expect, with a shot of lions or even an African panorama. Instead the first shot is a view of our planet from space at night. Billions of artificial lights illuminate continent showing just how much humans over the past few thousand years have come to dominate our world. Then comes the lions, but not in person, just in this staggering, and little known, statistic: in the last 50 years we have gone from a population of 450,000 lions to 20,000 today, a 95% decline. While the dramatic story of the The Last Lions follows the perils and tragedies of lion motherhood in one of the world's last untouched places—the Okavango Delta—this statistic hangs over the film, reminding us that the story we are witnessing is on the verge of extinction.
Asia's last lions lose conservation funds to tigers
(01/24/2011) The last lions of Asia and the final survivors of the Asiatic lion subspecies (Panthera leo persica) are losing their federal conservation funding to tiger programs, reports the Indian media agency Daily News & Analysis (DNA). While the Asiatic lion once roamed Central Asia, the Middle East, and even Eastern Europe, today the subspecies survives only in India's Gir Forest National Park in the north-western state of Gujarat.
Lion poisonings decimating vultures in Kenya
(01/19/2011) It's a common image of the African savanna: vultures flocking to a carcass on the great plains. However, a new study has found that vulture populations are plummeting in Kenya's Masai Mara National Reserve, a part of the Serengeti plains, due to habitat loss as well as the illegal killing of lions. Increasingly farmers and livestock owners have targeted lions and other big predators by poisoning livestock carcasses with toxic pesticides, such as Furadan. Not only illegal, such poisonings take their toll on other Serengeti wildlife, including vultures that perish after feeding on the laced carcasses.
Lion populations plummet in Uganda's parks
(08/19/2010) Lion populations across Uganda's park system have declined 40 percent in less than a decade, according to the Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS).
Exploring Kenya's sky island
(08/18/2010) Rising over 2,500 meters from Kenya's northern desert, the Mathews Range is a sky island: isolated mountain forests surrounded by valleys. Long cut off from other forests, 'sky islands' such as this often contain unique species and ecosystems. Supported by the Nature Conservancy, an expedition including local community programs Northern Rangelands Trust and Namunyak Conservancy recently spent a week surveying the mountain range, expanding the range of a number of species and discovering what is likely a new insect.
Cameroon says goodbye to cheetahs and African wild dogs
(07/28/2010) Researchers have confirmed that cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) and African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) have become essentially extinct in Cameroon. A three year study by the Institute of Environmental Sciences at Leiden University in the Netherlands found that the same factors that pushed cheetahs and African wild dogs to local extinction, have also left Cameroon's other big predators hanging by a thread, including the lion, the leopard, and two species of hyena: the spotted and the striped.
Activist against illegal mining shot dead in India
(07/21/2010) On July 20th two unidentified men rode up to Amit Jethwa on a motorcycyle as he was coming out of his office in Ahmedabad and shot him dead at point blank range. Jethwa had recently filed a petition against illegal logging in the Gir Forest, the last home of the Asiatic lion, a subspecies of the African lion listed as Endangered by the IUCN Red List.
Dangerous and exploitative: a look at pet wild cats
(07/13/2010) From bobcats, lynx, and pumas to the thousands of lions, tigers, leopards, cheetahs, and little wildcats living in captive environments, the WildCat Conservation Legal Aid Society is solely devoted to ending the commercial exploitation of all wildcats. Its primary objectives are to drastically reduce and subsequently eliminate the private ownership of wildcats as pets; wildcats held in roadside zoos and pseudo-sanctuaries; using wildcats for entertainment purposes; as well as hunting, trafficking, and trade of wildcats. Lisa Tekancic is an attorney in Washington, DC and founder and president of WildCat Conservation Legal Aid Society. Their mission is to protect and defend all native and non-native wildcats. Lisa is an active member of the DC Bar’s Animal Law Committee and has organized and moderated two legal conferences: 'Trafficking, Trade, and Transport of Wildlife,' and 'Wildlife and the Law.' She presented a paper on the methodology of 'Animal Ethics Committee' for the International Conference on Environmental Enrichment, and for four years was volunteer staff at the National Zoological Park’s, Cheetah Station.
Updated: East Africa's lions falling to poison
(05/11/2010) Eight lions have been poisoned to death in a month in Kenya, according to conservation organization WildlifeDirect. Locals, frustrated by lions killing their livestock, have taken to poisoning the great cats using a common pesticide in Kenya called carbofuran, known commercially as Furadan.
Photo & Video: Lion cub triplets
(04/30/2010) The Bronx Zoo today debuted triplet lion cubs born three months ago
Why top predators matter: an in-depth look at new research
(02/02/2010) Few species have faced such vitriolic hatred from humans as the world's top predators. Considered by many as pests—often as dangerous—they have been gunned down, poisoned, speared, 'finned', and decimated across their habitats. Even where large areas of habitat are protected, the one thing that is often missing are top predators. However, new research over the past few decades is showing just how vital these predators are to ecosystems. Biologists have long known that predators control populations of prey animals, but new studies show that they may do much more. From controlling smaller predators to protecting river banks from erosion to providing nutrient hotspots, it appears that top predators are indispensible to a working ecosystem. Top predators sit at the apex of an ecosystem's food chain. Wolves in Alaska, tigers in Siberia, lions in Kenya, white sharks in the Pacific are all examples of top predators.
Starving hyenas kill and eat 12-foot-long python during drought
(01/05/2010) Members with the conservation group Lion Guardians stumbled on a rare site in the Amboseli area of Kenya recently: six hyenas and a number of jackals were attacking and eating a 12-foot-long python. On their blog at WildlifeDirect, Lion Guardians describe the attack: "[the hyenas and jackals] tore into its body from the back, and were taking their share while the upper part of the python was still alive! The Lion Guardian team was shocked and surprised at the same time, having never seen anything like it before."
Is a polar bear worth more than a lion?
(12/08/2009) For most environmentalists and animal rights activists it is an almost blasphemous idea to compare the value of one species with that of another, especially when that value is measured in terms of marketing potential for climate change awareness. In recent years, broad media coverage has turned the polar bear into a global symbol for the effects of climate change not only in the Arctic, but in the rest of the world too. In Germany particularly, the birth and highly publicized early life of the polar bear "Knut" at the Berlin City Zoo has intensified this symbolic effect. The fact that the Arctic ice is melting due to global warming is an established fact, and environmentalists the world over are lucky to have the polar bear and its disappearing habitat as a symbol for the global effects of pollution. All this publicity has, however, spread the exaggerated idea that polar bears are already on the verge of extinction.
Blogging wildlife rangers drive microconservation
(12/01/2009) Wildlife Direct, a group that promotes conservation through blogging by rangers and scientists, has won mongabay.com's "Innovation in Conservation Award" for 2009. The prize, which includes a cash donation and and prominent placement on the mongabay.com web site and newsletter for the month of December, is granted each year to an organization using an unconventional and highly effective approach to conserving forests and biodiversity.
Tsavo lions ate 35 people, not 135
(11/02/2009) A recent study in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences has shown that the two man-killing lions of Tsavo very likely did not kill and eat as many people as claimed. Looking at hair and bone samples from the pair of male lions, now resting in the Chicago Field Museum, researchers were able to determine that the Tsavo lions likely killed and ate approximately 35 people, not 135 as claimed by Lieutenant Colonel John H. Patterson. Patterson became famous for shooting and killing the lions in December 1898. For nine months the two lions terrorized a railroad camp in Kenya.
Uganda to open its doors to big game hunters
(10/15/2009) Uganda, which suffered a 90 percent decline in large mammals during the 70s and 80s, has now lifted a decades-long ban on big game hunting, reports the AFP.
Lion population in Kenya could disappear in 10 to 20 years
(08/20/2009) The Kenyan Wildlife Service recently announced that massive declines in lion population may lead to their disappearence from the region within less than 2 decades. Kenya currently has an estimated 2000 lions, but is losing the large cats at a rate of around 100 each year.
Da Vinci’s lion comes back to life
(08/17/2009) In 1515 Leonardo Da Vinci, artist and engineer, invented a mechanical lion that was given as a gift to Francois I, then King of France. The original was lost, but a new model has been crafted in Amboise, France by Renato Boaretto.
Giant population of lions could live war-torn region
(01/30/2009) The war-torn frontier between Uganda and the Democratic Republic of the Congo has prey to support more than 900 lions, but conservationists must act soon to protect the big cats from poaching and poisoning by livestock herders, report researchers writing in the journal Oryx. The study, which was conducted by Adrian Treves of the University of Wisconsin-Madison and colleagues from Wildlife Conservation Society and the Panthera Foundation, relied on aerial surveys of lion prey — buffalo, warthog, waterbuck and other ungulates — which were then used to estimate the region's potential lion population.
20 convicted for poaching Asiatic lions in their last refuge
(11/06/2008) Twenty people have been convicted for poaching Asiatic lions last year in India's Gir National Park. The twenty individuals will spend three years in prison and be fined 10,000 Rs each.
Africa's lions are disappearing
(03/25/2008) The lion is Africa's best known carnivore. Once widely abundant across the continent, recent surveys show that lion populations have plunged from over 100,000 individuals to around 23,000 over the past century. The reason? Lions are poisoned, shot, and speared by locals who see them as a threat to livestock. While lion populations in protected areas remain relatively healthy, conservationists say that without urgent measures, lions may disappear completely from unprotected areas. The Kilimanjaro Lion conservation Project is working to avoid this fate by developing practical measures to encourage coexistence between people, livestock and predators. Key to the effort is reducing livestock losses to lions. Leela Hazzah, a field researcher with the project, says the "Lion Guardians" program at Mbirikani Ranch in Kenya has proved remarkably successful: not a single lion has been killed since its inception in November 2006. The program employs Maasai warriors to monitor lions and help local communities prevent attacks on livestock.
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The History of Dental Implants
The earliest evidence of endosseous implants, those embedded directly into the bone, can be found in ancient Maya Civilization circa 600 A.D. These pieces of shell are a far cry from what we use today however. We can thank the discovery of titanium’s symbiotic relationship with human tissue in the mid 20th century for modern dental implant technology. After years of experimentation, Swedish surgeon PI Branemark placed the first dental implant in 1965. Decades later we’ve seen massive improvements in the technology and integration of these implants. In addition to seamlessly replacing a missing tooth, they have become useful tools in orthodontic treatment and dentures.
But how exactly do they work?
What are Dental Implants?
Dental implants provide a foundation for replacement teeth that look, feel, and function just like natural teeth. No more need to deal with uncomfortable dentures or bridges. With dental implants, a person who has lost teeth regains the ability to eat and smile.
How a Dental Implant is Placed
Implants are crafted from titanium. This material allows for bone infiltration, making room for osteoblast – the cells that make our bone – activity to take place. This leads to osseointegration, where the bone grows in and around the implant, which secures it in place and allows for its successful function.
An implant restoration can be broken down into three parts:
This is the actual titanium that is embedded in your bone. This requires a certain amount of space on all sides of the implant to work. If this space is lacking, your dentist will discuss different surgical options to create it, including bone grafts and sinus lifts.
Depending on your situation and what, if any, surgery is needed prior to implant placement, this part of the procedure will take one or two sessions. It is most typically performed 2 – 3 months after the removal of your natural tooth to allow sufficient healing time. This piece functions as the root of your tooth.
Before the dentist can put the crown in and finish your restoration, they need something to connect it to the implant, which is now resting below your gum line and out of sight. For this, they use an abutment. This is typically fabricated and placed 2-3 months after your implant goes in to ensure that the proper amount of osseointegration has occurred. This second piece represents the core of the tooth. In our office, we typically combine or cement the abutment with the third part of your implant, the crown.
We've come to the final part of your restoration, the crown. This will be crafted to match your natural teeth in shape and color. The crown is either cemented to the abutment and screwed into the implant, or it is cemented onto an abutment that has already been screwed into the implant.
Success of Dental Implants
There is now a 90 – 95% success rate generally for the placement of implants, which can be decreased by smoking or uncontrolled diabetes. Signs of failing implants are more than 1 mm of bone loss after the first year, lack of osseointegration, and peri-implantitis (destructive inflammation of the surrounding tissue and bone).
Alternatives to Dental Implants
If you and your dentist determine an implant is not for you, there are other options out there, from the more temporary (flippers, retainers) to the more permanent (dentures, bridges). See our other sections to learn more about these treatments, and talk to our dentist about which is right for you!
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The latest research on the link between stress and dementia comes from a study conducted in Denmark. Researchers there examined the impact of a particular type of stress during midlife called “vital exhaustion” – a response to unsolvable problems in an individual’s life. Symptoms include unusual fatigue, increased irritability and demoralization. The study found a higher risk of dementia later in life when vital exhaustion occurs in late middle age. The researchers noted, however, that it is also possible that psychological distress could stem from early stages of dementia pathology.
To reach their conclusions, researchers from the University of Copenhagen, Denmark’s National Research Centre for the Working Environment and the Danish Dementia Research Centre looked at information from 6,807 participants in the Copenhagen City Heart Study who had responded to survey questions about vital exhaustion between 1991 and 1994. At the time the average age of the respondents was 60. The researchers continued to follow the participants through 2016 and by reviewing national health registers were able to determine which of them eventually developed dementia.
For each additional symptom of vital exhaustion in late midlife, the risk of dementia rose by 2 percent. Compared to participants who reported no symptoms, those who had 5 to 9 symptoms had a 25 percent higher risk of dementia. Those reporting 10 to 17 symptoms had a 40 percent higher risk. Even after the researchers adjusted for other known risk factors for dementia, including gender, marital status, lower educational level and other diseases or conditions, the link between vital exhaustion and the risk of dementia did not change.
An earlier, long-term study from Sweden found that midlife stress stemming from divorce, work pressures, and health problems among parents or siblings, can increase the risk of Alzheimer’s disease later in life. In 1968, researchers from Gothenburg University began collecting data on more than 800 women who were then in their late 30s to early 50s. Over the next several decades the women underwent psychiatric exams and were asked about stress in their life and the signs of distress they experienced, including irritability, fear, or sleep disturbances. The most common stressor mentioned was mental illness in a parent or sibling. By 2006, about one in five of the women – a total of 153 – developed dementia at an average age of 79, and another 104 developed Alzheimer’s. Data from the study showed that it took an average of 29 years for the dementia to develop.
While these and other studies reveal that stress is involved in the development of dementia, we don’t yet know whether or not stress-reduction training can lower the risk. Learn more about Alzheimer’s disease and measures that may help reduce your risks.
Andrew Weil, M.D.
Sabrina Islamoska et al, “Vital Exhaustion and Incidence of Dementia: Results from the Copenhagen City Heart Study,” Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, January 8, 2019, doi:10.3233/JAD-180478
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John Gottman is one of the most well-known researchers in the area of family relationships and the author of one of my newest favorite books:
In today’s episode I focuses on briefly defining an emotionally intelligent child from what I learned in Dr. Gottman’s book and then giving an overview of the five practices of an Emotion Coaching parent. Those steps are:
1. Become aware of the child’s emotion.
2. Recognize the emotion as an opportunity to teach and get closer to your child.
3. Listen to your child with empathy and validate their feelings.
4. Help your child find words they understand that explain their feelings.
5. Set limits and then help your child come up with alternative, healthy ways to address their emotions.
Emotion Coaching and Homeschool
Can you imagine the benefits this approach to parenting would have in a homeschool environment? I believe the first step towards successful homeschools is the relationship that bridges between the parents and the children. This approach to raising children actually helps you build that bridge.
What would change in your approach to homeschool?
What aspects to homeschool would change if you were to implement Dr. Gottman’s research in your home? What improvements can you imagine? If you are interested, click on the link below for purchase his book for less that $10.
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GCSE Media Studies
This course is designed to enable you to develop a critical understanding of the role of the Mass Media in society. Media Studies is the study of the press (newspapers and magazines), film, television, radio and advertising. It also incorporates the study of other areas such as popular music and the Internet. Within these areas, you will investigate the industries behind the media, the products they produce and the audiences that consume them.
There are many reasons why we should study the media:
- we live in the age of mass communication;
- we are bombarded by messages through advertising, the press, television and film;
- leisure time is dominated by a media culture;
- political and social values are largely shaped by the media who provide much of the material by which people shape their identity;
- the media also cuts across gender, class, race, creed, and nationality to form bonds between groups of people who may exist in totally different circles, bringing us closer to a global culture;
- the media is a powerful force and constantly changing, providing students with endless material for deep and contemporary debate;
- it is necessary to be able to understand, interpret, and criticise the messages which stem from the media.
How you will be assessed
At Wigston Academy the GCSE WJEC specification is taught. The course offers a balance between examination and coursework.
Written Examination 40%
Thinking about the Media: Investigating and Planning
Section A: Thinking about the media – Investigating
Four questions: candidates respond to stimulus material chosen from a topic set by WJEC. This unit section will also assess the way the contemporary media is convergent.
Section B: Thinking about the media – Planning
A series of tasks: candidates demonstrate planning and creative skills through a series of creative tasks which demonstrates knowledge of the convergent nature of the contemporary media.
Creating for the media: Investigating and Producing
Three pieces of work from at least two different media:
- two textual investigations on two different media areas [one must be print-based] (20%)
- one media production consisting of research, planning, the production itself and an evaluation of the production (40%).
How this will help you at post-16
Anyone with a genuine interest in the power and workings of the media will find this a stimulating course. Following GCSE, students may choose to pursue their interest in the media by sitting the subject at AS or A2 level. All universities recognise Media Studies as a valid A-level as the subject fosters in students the ability to debate, investigate, analyse, research and organise the production of their own media products. Media Studies is particularly attractive to those considering a career in journalism, publishing, radio, television, theatre and the arts.
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Gender and sacrifice
It is beyond any doubt that the Balkans are widely perceived to be a region of male dominance, a patriarchal society with little understanding for gender equity. Patriarchy is not an exclusive Balkan phenomenon however because Balkan society has more frequently than not been described in association with a type of violent and primitive masculinity. The region has earned the etiquette: patriarchal and backward zone. It is possible to explain these perceptions with reference to stereotypes and clichés but part of the truth is that there is lot of evidence to support ideas concerning the masculine character of society organized along gender lines. Such evidence can easily be found anywhere from myths and legends, institutional structures, mentality, popular beliefs, to practices of daily life. Images of men entertaining themselves while eating grilled meat and drinking rakija in kafehane (coffeehouses or pubs), telling stories of pride and humility, of honour and shame, of long lost or won battles fought collectively or individually, of great achievements or failures are still to be seen in many different Balkan cities, whether large or small. Women may have different modes of entertainment or may simply wait at home for their men. The story of a masculine grandeur, a manly honour, and of a respectful name is a construct of splendour created by men for themselves which in reality has produced more violence and suffering for Balkan history than any concrete benefit. Patriarchal tradition is so deeply ingrained that at times it seems virtually impossible even to challenge it.
ImmurementThe anthropologist Bronislaw Malinowski claims that "myth acts as a charter for the present-day social order; it supplies a retrospective pattern of moral values, sociological order, and magical belief, the function of which is to strengthen tradition and endow it with a greater value and prestige by tracing it back to a higher, better, more supernatural reality of initial events". One of the most widespread legends in the Balkans is that of immurement, the story of a young woman walled-in within the foundation of an edifice, such as a bridge, a castle or a church in order to stabilize the building and secure its firmness and permanence. In Albanian oral literature it is known as the legend of Rozofat Castle, other variants of the same story are: the castle of Turra, of Petro Petroshi, and of Elbasan. The Serbian variation of the legend of Rozafa Castle, is known as "Grad gradili na Skadar". There is a long lists of folk songs or ballads with the same motive of immurement all over the Balkans; the Bosnians have their legend of Teshanj Castle and the Bridge of Mostar, the Bulgarians the ballad "Struna the Bride" (Struna Neviasta), the Romanians have their legend of the Monastery of Argesh, the Hungarians the ballad of the fortress of Deva. In Turkey it is the legend of the bridge of Adana and in Greece it is the bridge of Arta. Alan Dundes, folklore scholar from the USA estimated that adding up the numbers of Bulgarian, Greek, Hungarian, Romanian, Serbian and Albanian versions of the ballad results in a total of more than seven hundred variants.
The plot tells of a group of men, three brothers, nine or twelve masons who work to build a castle, a church or a bridge. Whatever they construct during the day collapses at night and their work cannot be finished. An old man passing by their construction site, a bird or a dream will inform them about the human sacrifice they will need to make in order to break the magic and secure the building, they are told they need to sacrifice the first woman to come to the building site or else they will never finish their work. Next day the wife of the chief mason or the wife of the youngest of three brothers, ignorant of men's planning for her immurement comes to bring them food and drinks. They tell her the truth and she has no choice but to accept her destiny and comply with men's wishes. In some variants she curses them but at the end she accepts her fate and is content to give her life as a sacrifice. In many variants the woman asks for an opening to be left in the wall so that she may continue to take care of her son, for it is always a little son that is left behind never a little daughter.
I have but one request to make. When you wall me in, leave a hole for my right eye, for my right hand, for my right foot and for my right breast. I have a small son. When he starts to cry, I will cheer him up with my right eye, I will comfort him with my right hand, I will rock him with my right foot and I will wean him with my right breast. Let my breast turn to stone and may the castle flourish. May my son become a great hero, the ruler of the world!"Myth is a system of communication", Roland Barthes has noted, "it is a message". Balkan countries uphold very traditional gender values. Notions of culturally ideal duties for men and women and concepts of masculinity and femininity have been defined along clear cut lines from time immemorial – as were the attempts for fixation of appropriate male or female responsibilities. Men are builders and creators, they build and create, whereas women are supporters and nurturers; they support and nurture even at the price of their own life.
Sacrificing IphigeniaThe seven hundred versions of the legend of immurement depict a woman's sacrifice as a price to be paid in order to secure permanence of a construction as a symbol of life and prosperity for humankind. But the famous legend of the Trojan war puts a woman at the very centre of a highly destructive confrontation between Greeks and Trojans that ends in ruins of the city of Tory. Human history as well as the history of literature is full of stories of disputes and of men fighting duels over a woman but it is only Helen of Troy who will forever remain what Christopher Marlow, in his Doctor Faustus, calls her: "the face that launched a thousand ships". Homer in his Iliad, the most famous epic poem of the Balkans, talks of a Greek fleet sailing to Troy to retrieve Helen of Sparta, whom they believe to have been abducted by Paris, prince of Troy. They besieged the city for ten years but could not break down the walls of the city. It was only after Trojans were deceived by the wooden horse that Greeks managed to get inside the walls and bring death and destruction to the city. According to mythology the war was indirectly instigated by female vanity. Three goddesses – Hera, Athena, and Aphrodite – are at the core of the story. Their pride was offended by Eris the goddess of discord when she offered a golden apple for the fairest among the three of them. In Greek mythology gods and goddesses are given human traits so the three of them start fighting over who is the fairest among the three. Zeus decided that Paris, prince of Troy will be the judge of the dispute. Paris accepted the request and chose Aphrodite, who promised him the most beautiful woman in the world, whereas Hera him promised him power, and Athena wealth. In short this is what we nowadays might call a backstage conspiracy of the Trojan War.
Helen's fate as the main culprit for the war was predestined before she could have any attitudes whatsoever or before she might have had any say in the story. Whether she was really abducted by Paris or had eloped with him was irrelevant to Greek warriors led by Agamemnon, Menelaus' brother, who were determined to kill all the Trojans and burn down their city as revenge for the insult. They assembled their fleet in Aulis but were unable to sail for Troy. Artemis, the virgin goddess of the hunt, was angry with the leaders and stopped the wind in order to hinder their departure. If they were to appease her they would need to sacrifice Agamemnon's daughter, Iphigenia. The men did not stumble upon this obstacle. The demand for the sacrifice came from beyond the powers of mortal men, similar to the legend of immurement, and once again it cannot be negotiated, it only needs to be carried out exactly as demanded. Just as it happened in the legend of immurement, men are asked to sacrifice a woman in order to be able to finish what they had started. In the legend of immurement a husband is asked to sacrifice his wife in order to break the spell. In the legend of Trojan War a father is asked to sacrifice his daughter in order to make peace with a goddess. Agamemnon summoned Iphigenia in Aulis telling his wife Clytemnestra that he wanted their daughter to marry Achilles, before they sail for Troy. The Greek writer Euripides (c. 480-406 BC) wrote about Iphigenia's sacrifice in his last tragedy, "Iphigenia in Aulis" (406 BC). Summoned by her father Iphigenia arrived in Aulis accompanied by her mother Clytemnestra. It is only after she arrived in Aulis that she becomes aware of the horrible truth, precisely the same way as the woman in the legend of immurement realizes she is destined to be sacrificed only after she arrives at the construction site. Clytemnestra has her doubts after she meets Achilles and realizes he is ignorant about any plans for his marriage. Soon the three of them will find out the real plan and quite naturally mother and daughter are terrified by the grim prospect and they will try to find a way out but it will all be in vain. Achilles offers his help because he felt it was his duty to protect her since she was tricked by his name to come to Aulis. Iphigenia talks to her father to appeal to his mercy, and the two of them have the following conversation:
Iphigenia: If I had the eloquence of Orpheus, my father, to move the rocks by chanted spells to follow me, or to charm by speaking anyone I wished, I would have resorted to it. But as it is, I'll bring my tears – the only art I know; ... Do not destroy me before my time, for it is sweet to look upon the light, and do not force me to visit scenes below. [...] By Pelops, I entreat you spare me, by your father Atreus and my mother here, who suffers now a second time the pangs she felt before when bearing me! What have I to do with the marriage of Paris and Helen? Why is his coming to prove my ruin, father? Look upon me; bestow one glance, one kiss, that this at least I may carry to my death as a memorial of you, though you do not heed my pleading.
Agamemnon: While loving my own children, I yet understand what should move my pity and what should not; I would be a madman otherwise. It is terrible for me to bring myself to this, nor is it less terrible to refuse, daughter; for I must do this. You see the vastness of that naval army, and the numbers of bronze-clad warriors from Hellas, who can neither make their way to Ilium's towers nor raze the far-famed citadel of Troy, unless I offer you according to the word of Calchas the seer. Some mad desire possesses the army of Hellas to sail at once to the land of the barbarians, and put a stop to the rape of wives from Hellas, and they will slay my daughter in Argos as well as you and me, if I disregard the goddess's commands. It is not Menelaus who has enslaved me to him, child, nor have I followed his wish; no, it is Hellas, for whom I must sacrifice you whether I will or not; to this necessity I bow my head; for her freedom must be preserved, as far as any help of yours daughter, or mine can go; or they, who are the sons of Hellas, must be pillaged of their wives by barbarian robbery.Finally it is obvious that there is no way of escape and eventually Iphigenia accepts her fate. She talks to her mother trying to comfort her.
Iphigenia: "Mother, hear me while I speak, for I see that you are angry with your husband to no purpose; it is hard for us to persist in impossibilities... Listen, mother; hear what thoughts have passed across my mind. I am resolved to die; and this I want to do with honor, dismissing from me what is mean. Towards this now, mother turn your thoughts, and with me weigh how well I speak; to me the whole of mighty Hellas looks; on me the passage over the sea depends; on me the sack of Troy; and in my power it lies to check henceforth barbarian raids on happy Hellas, if ever in the days to come they seek to seize her women, when once they have atoned by death for the violation of Helen's marriage by Paris. All this deliverance will my death insure, and my fame for setting Hellas free will be a happy one. Besides, I have no right at all to cling too fondly to my life; for you did not bear me for myself alone, but as a public blessing to all Hellas. What! Shall countless warriors, armed with shields, those myriads sitting at the oar, find courage to attack the foe and die for Hellas, because their fatherland is wronged, and my one life prevent all this? What kind of justice is that?"In her speech she even remembers Achilles saying that she would not want to see any troubles come to the noble man, who offered to fight for her knowing that he is all alone in this battle.
Iphigenia: ...It is not right that this man should enter into battle with all Argos or be slain for a woman's sake. Better a single man should see the light than ten thousand women. If Artemis has decided to take my body, am I, a mortal, to thwart the goddess? No, that is impossible. I give my body to Hellas; sacrifice it and make an utter end of Troy. This is my enduring monument; marriage, motherhood, and fame – all these is it to me. And it is right, mother, that Hellenes should rule barbarians, but not barbarians Hellenes, those being slaves, while these are free.She asked her mother not to mourn for her and not to be angry with her father for he was doing this unwillingly and only because of Greece. Clytemnestra is not convinced but because she was unable to change anything she only says: "Fearful are the trials through which he has to go because of you". She cannot forgive her husband the treachery and her words come as a warning because she has plans to revenge her daughter.
The rest of the story of Agamemnon's family was told by Aeschylus (c. 524 BC - c. 455 BC), in his trilogy, The Oresteia. In the first play of the trilogy, Agamemnon, Clytemnestra murders her husband as revenge for her daughter's death. In the second play, The Libation Bearers, Orestes murders his own mother to revenge his father's death. The third play of the trilogy, called The Eumenides, is about the trial of Orestes before Athena and eleven Athenian judges. The Furies accuse him of murdering a blood relative and demand his punishment for the crime. Apollo testifies on behalf of Orestes by claiming that he is not guilty for murdering a blood relative because according to him, mothers are not true blood relatives of their children. He compares mothers to fertile fields where a man plants his seed. As proof of his claim, he puts forward Athena's example that there was no woman who gave birth to her. She was born of Zeus' head. He insisted that mothers are no blood relatives to their children so Clytemnestra too is not a blood relative of Orestes, therefore he cannot be punished for the crime of murdering a blood relative. It was Athena's vote in favour of Orestes and her decision that set him free – for the vote of the jury was evenly distributed.
The "return song"The return song is a story about the determination and persistence of the hero and the heroine that celebrates the honour and the sense of duty of the hero and virtues and determination of the heroine. It reveals the existing hierarchy between the sexes. This type of literature can be found in prose and poetic genres in the Balkan literary tradition, whether oral or written. It is a narrative that prescribes very traditional gender roles for men and women. It praises male power and honour, and female loyalty and perseverance.
The basic pattern of the return song is simple. A hero away from home learns that his wife is about to remarry. He finds a way to quickly return and enters his home incognito with the purpose of testing his wife's fidelity. If it turns out that she had been faithful to him he reveals his true identity. If she has been unfaithful, he kills her. The most famous of the return songs is the Odyssey; and Penelope is the most faithful wife in the history of literature. Gender differences are distinctively projected in these songs. While the hero is a very active figure, the heroine is quite passive and static. All she is allowed to do is wait and hope, hope and wait. Even though Penelope is pressurized by numerous suitors to remarry, she manages to avoid their demand and finds escape by means of deceit. For three years she wove by day and undid all the work by night until her trick was uncovered. At the very last minute when it seems that everything will be finished, Odysseus returns. He enters his home disguised as a poor man and, after he kills or throws out his wife's suitors, he takes back his position at home besides his wife as the head of the family.
"Sworn virgins"The rich literature of the Balkans shows so many models of gender roles, gender differences and the existing hierarchy of gender, both in oral and written form. However, there is one specific phenomenon of the Balkans which may serve as an excellent example for showing the masculine character of the Balkan mentality. It is known as "sworn virgins", and may be seen among Albanians, Montenegrins, Serbs, perhaps some other ethnic communities as well. Although it is widely a practice of the past, most probably it has existed since the fifteenth century, nowadays is still possible to see a few examples of the so called "social men". Their transformation has to do with appearance and behaviour. "Sworn virgins" are women who are transformed into men, most probably due to an absence of male adults in a family.
Some of these women chose this role during their childhood, while others chose it later. Some chose it out of their own free will. Others were forced into it by their life circumstances. Cases of such transformations happen among believers of all religious denominations in the region. After taking an oath on celibacy in front of witnesses they are declared men. Consequently they wear men's clothes, do men's work, and take men's responsibilities. They are treated as if they were men – after a while, even their physique starts to resemble that of a male. Lule Ivanaj, a sworn virgin and a protagonist in a documentary, once asked herself a rhetorical question: "Why live like a man? Because I value my freedom, I suppose I was ahead of my time."
Edith Durham noted that there are three options for women in Montenegro: marriage, life in a convent, or a symbolically neuterized, masculinized permanent virgin status. For Ruth Mandel these three options mean the following: "Each of these three states limits, regulates and restricts the woman's sexuality. She is in effect tamed, jailed or symbolically castrated. A woman's sexuality, if loose and uncontrolled, is thought to be dangerously threatening, so it must be captured and regulated within the ideally, at least acceptable norms."
Gender division is noticeable in processes of everyday life, in practices, images and ideologies. It may be found in the proverbs that perceive women as an inherent danger. A Greek proverb says there are three evils: the sea, the fire and the woman; a Serbian one, that woman is the evil we cannot live without. Whereas Albanians pray to God to be spared from the mischief of women: Pray God, spare me from the evil and the woman's mischief! These proverbs are conceived from the male point of view. The feminine perspective was not a part of the creative process of the knowledge production. It has been non-existent or mainly absent for a very long time. Balkan women did not mange to develop their own narratives told from their own point of view. Instead they have adopted male narratives and in the absence of their own language they have learned to speak man's language. It is a language of grandeur and splendour. It is the language of competition not suitable to express women's fears, for the lives of their men while they are away in their expeditions, to voice their hopes that their lives and the lives of their daughters would not be demanded as a sacrifice for some great cause, a language that will express women's discontent with their designated role of blind obedience and servitude. There is no woman's language in the Balkans, for the Balkans are gendered masculine.
- Quoted in Timothy Brennan, "The national longing for form", in Nation and Narration, Routledge, 2000, 4.
- From Mitrush Kuteli, ed., Tregime te mocme shqiptare, Naim Frasheri, 1965. Translated from the Albanian by Robert Elsie. See also: http://www.albanianliterature.net/oral_lit3/OL3-06.html.
- Euripides, The Plays of Euripides, vol. II, translated by E P Coleridge, George Bell and Sons, 1891.
- Ibid.
- Ibid.
- Joshua Zumbrun, "The Sacrifices of Albania's 'Sworn Virgins'", Washington Post, 11 August 2007. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/08/10/AR2007081002158.html.
- Edith Durham (1863-1944) was a well-known traveller in the Balkan region at the beginning of twentieth century.
- Ruth Mandel, "Sacrifice at the Bridge of Arta: Sex roles and manipulation of power", Journal of Modern Greek Studies 1, no. 1 (May 1983): 173-83.
Original in Bosnian
Translation by Kanita Halilovic
First published in Sarajevo Notebook 39-40 (2012) (Bosnian version); Eurozine (English verison)
Contributed by Sarajevo Notebook
© Sazana Capriqi / Sarajevo Notebook
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For this demo we will utilize Maya's Blinn material, Ramp texture, and Sampler Info utility. We will also use Mental Ray's Dielectric Material and new Mia_material. The user of this tutorial should note that I have also used Mental Ray as my renderer, with Final Gathering, Global Illumination, Caustics, and Image Based lighting used for optimal realism.
Creating Glass with a Blinn
Our first step is to create the geometry for the glasses. Whilst simple, we need to make sure that the revolved surface (constructed here using a NURBS) is thicker at the base (just like a real pint glass). See Fig.01.
Next, I duplicate out a few of these, and set up the scene. My render settings are listed here as well (Fig.02 - 03).
Understanding What Goes into Glass
There are several components which need to be created. The first thing to note is that, of course, glass is a transparent entity. While this is the most obvious, we cannot overlook the subtleties inherent in this transparency due to the thickness of the surface as perceived. Second, glass is reflective, but again we must examine how this reflectivity works. It is a specularized surface, and thusly not very diffuse in terms of surface properties. Finally, glass is a refractive surface, bending light as it enters this medium which is denser than the air around it. Let's break these elements down for a closer look:
- As mentioned, glass is transparent. But let's examine what happens to our material as it gets close to the edge ... It gets thicker. At the edges of the glass we are actually looking through a denser amount of material. Think about it this way: when a space shuttle exits the atmosphere by flying straight up (off the perpendicular normal of the Earth) it only goes through 62 miles of air to reach outer space. Conversely, if you were standing on the top of Mount Everest and could look both north and south from the summit, you might be able to see 150 miles in each direction (a total of 300 miles) before the Earth curves away and you are looking into space. When we look at the edge of the glass, the same thing is true, therefore we are looking at more "object" and should treat these edges as less transparent (Fig.04).
- Applying the same principle as before, that things are going to act oddly at the edge of our glass, we next throw into the mix the Fresnel Effect. When you look down at a reflective surface, the amount of reflection is determined by the viewing angle. If you were to look straight down into a pool of water, you would be able to see through the minimal reflectivity of the surface to the elements in the water below. At a more even angle, looking across the water, you are more likely to see reflection of the sky above, and not what is underneath. So, when texturing our reflectivity, we will also have to examine these edge effects to make our glass more reflective at glancing normals, and less reflective at normals which point directly towards the camera.
Specularity (vs. Diffuse)
- We must also observe where on the spectrum for Diffuse to Reflective our glass needs to be. For the most part, since it is a dense, hard object, we will need to give it a low diffuse value and a higher specular value. We can then control glossiness depending on the purity of the glass, or whether or not the glass is "frosted".
- Finally, since our glass is a denser medium than the surrounding air, we will need to compute the index of refraction value. A chart is listed for your convenience in Fig.05. We can quickly see that Glass's IOR value is 1.52 (or really any value between 1.5 and 1.55). As seen in Fig.06 - 07, when a beam of light enters a denser medium, it bends towards the normal of that surface, changing the perceived shape of objects inside or behind. The famous example can be seen on the left, this is called the "stick in the pond" example, theorized first by Socrates. The straw is not really bent, but the fact that we see it through a glass, with water inside that glass, means that light is bending twice between the straw and the eye. This concept has a name: Dielectrics (hence the specialized Dielectric shader that we will use soon).
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What are the major Jewish holidays?
- Pesach (Passover)
- The Counting of the Omer
- Yom HaShoah (Holocaust Memorial Day)
- Yom HaZikaron (Israel's Memorial Day)
- Yom HaAtzmaut (Israel Independence Day)
- Tisha B'Av
- The month of Elul
- Rosh HaShanah
- Yom Kippur
- Shemini Atzeret & Simchat Torah
- Tu Bishvat
- and the weekly holiday of:
- Shabbat and Havdalah
What Will I Receive?
How Do I Make This?
In four simple steps, you will have your very own cards; just download, print, laminate, and cut. (Or maybe you are firmly in the cut-and-then-laminate camp. Either way works!)
These cards are designed to be printed on regular letter-sized paper. The three part cardsprint four to a page, and the background cards print two to a page.
To assemble these cards you will need:
- The ability to open PDF files
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***Please note this is a digital item only. No physical item will be mailed to you.****
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Print this at home or at any shop that offers printing services. In many cases, you can upload your file to the shop's website and just go in and pick it up when it's ready--you don't even have to talk to another person.
Copyright © Lori Oster. All rights reserved by author. This product is to be used by the original downloader only. Copying for more than one teacher, classroom, department, school, or school system is prohibited. This product may not be distributed or displayed digitally for public view. Failure to comply is a copyright infringement and a violation of the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA). Clipart and elements found in this PDF are copyrighted and cannot be extracted and used outside of this file without permission or license. Intended for classroom and personal use ONLY.
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Print as many times as you'd like for personal or classroom use. Do not share the electronic version of this file.
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Boosting student achievement through AVID: a collective approach
This research addresses how AVID strategies impact student achievement. The literature review provides a historical context for the achievement gap and remedies which have been enacted to combat disparities among student populations. The research looks at a newly implemented AVID program and asks the students to rate various AVID components and determine if they play a key role in helping the students meet their learning objectives. The highlighted AVID components included organization, advocacy, college exposure, and advanced course enrollment. Most participants found AVID strategies pivotal in fostering a sense of achievement. Furthermore, the AVID Coordinator observed how students were beginning to see how AVID strategies transferred across disciplines and had long-term benefits for future college environments
Brown-Guhin, Natasha T., "Boosting student achievement through AVID: a collective approach" (2014). School of Education Student Capstone Theses and Dissertations. 970.
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Cardinal Ratzinger Considers Whether Truth, Faith, and Tolerance Are Compatible
Jesus Christ is the only savior, says Christianity. "Can this absolute claim still be maintained today?" Thats the question addressed by the Vaticans Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger in his new book, Truth and Tolerance: Christian Belief and World Religions.
When, in 2000, the Catholic Church reiterated its teaching about Jesus in its declaration Dominus Iesus, "a cry of outrage arose from modern society," notes Ratzinger, "but also from great non-Christian cultures such as that of India: this was said to be a document of intolerance and of religious arrogance that should have no place in the world of today." Ratzinger argues that the Churchs teaching is not intolerant but true.
How can Christianity insist it is true in the face of other religions and philosophies making competing claims? Do truth and tolerance inevitably conflict with each other? Does respect for others mean all religions are equally true? Does the diversity of religions prove theres no such thing as religious truth? Or do all religions ultimately teach the same thing? Are all religions capable of saving their adherents?
Truth and Tolerance is Ratzingers careful answers to these important questions.
Ratzinger confronts head-on the claim that Christianity has imposed European culture on other peoples. "Christianity originated, not in Europe, but in the Near East, in the geographical point at which the continents of Asia, Africa, and Europe come into contact," he writes.
Yes, Christianity has a European element. But above all it has a perennial message that comes from God, not from any human culture, argues Ratzinger. While Christians have sometimes pushed their cultures on other peoples, as have non-Christians, Christianity itself is alien to no authentically human culture. Its very nature as a free response to Gods gift of himself in Jesus Christ, means that Christianity must propose itself to culture, not impose itself.
The issues of truth and diversity in religion are also tackled by Ratzinger. Some people relegate religion to the realm of feelings and taste. As peoples feelings and tastes vary, so, too, do their religious ideas and practices. Ratzinger responds by presenting what he calls "the inevitability of the question of truth."
Other people argue that all religions essentially affirm the same things. Truth and Tolerance points to fundamental, non-negotiable differences among religions, as well as certain common elements.
Ratzinger distinguishes two main forms of religion. On the one hand, there is a kind of mysticism in which one seeks to merge into or become identical with everything, in an all-embracing, impersonal unity. Many Eastern religions and the New Age movement are religions of that sort. On the other hand, there is "a personal understanding of God," in which one is united in love with a personal God and yet remains distinct from him. Christianity, Judaism, and Islam are examples of the latter kind of religion.
A first-rate theologian, as well as a church leader, Ratzinger also assesses the strengths and weaknesses of the three main contemporary approaches to a "theology of religions": exclusivism, inclusivism, and pluralism.
Exclusivism holds that only those who explicitly accept Christ and the Christian message can be saved. Inclusivism is the view that non-Christian religions implicitly contain Christian truth and therefore that their adherents are "anonymous Christians." Pluralism holds that there are many valid ways to God among the various religions.
At the heart of the discussion about the diversity of religions, contends Ratzinger, is the identity of Jesus Christ. Is the he the sole savior, prefigured by other religious leaders perhaps but nonetheless unique? Is he one among many religious figures who bring salvation? Is he the one true God in human flesh, rather an avatar or one among many different manifestations of the divine?
Christianity has always held that the revelation of God in Jesus Christ is definitive, argues Ratzinger. The divinity of Jesus is "the real dividing line in the history of religions," which makes sense of "two other fundamental concepts of the Christian faith, which have become unmentionable nowadays: conversion and mission."
Relativism, which Ratzinger calls "the central problem for faith in our time," lurks behind most modern mistakes about faith and morality. The net result is a deep skepticism about whether anything is true or can be known to be true.
Christianity can help modern thought overcome its relativism and skepticism by presenting the One who is the truth, Jesus Christ, the one who sets people free by their coming to know, understand and love the truth. Ratzinger explains how tolerance, reason and freedom are not only compatible with truth, but ultimately depend upon it.
With respect to the difficult subject of things interreligious, Ratzinger strongly supports interreligious dialogue, so long as it isnt understood as assuming all points of view are and must be, in the end, equally valid. About interreligious prayerunderstood as prayer together by Christians and non-Christians, with widely different religious viewshe is more skeptical. He distinguishes multireligious prayer, where different religious groups come together but pray separate from one another, and interreligious prayer.
Ratzinger doubts whether reasonable conditions for interreligious prayer can generally be met. Still, he lays out careful criteria for such prayer, which include agreement about the nature of God, and the nature and subject of prayer, as well circumstances that dont lend themselves to misunderstanding such common prayer as relativism or a denial of the uniqueness of Jesus Christ in the Christian faith.
Truth and Tolerance is a book for anyone interested in how Christianity, world religions, faith, truth, and freedom fit together.
Excerpts from Truth and Tolerance: Christian Belief and World Religions (footnotes have been removed).
The position that Christianity assigns itself in the history of religions is one that was basically expressed long ago: it sees in Christ the only real salvation of man and, thus, his final salvation. In accordance with this, two attitudes are possible (to it seems) with regard to other religions: one may address them as being provisional and, in this respect, as preparatory to Christianity and, thus, in a certain sense attribute to them a positive value, insofar as they allow themselves to be regarded as precursors. They can of course also be understood as insufficient, anti-Christian, contrary to the truth, as leading people to believe they are saved without ever truly being able to offer salvation. The first of these attitudes was shown by Christ himself with respect of the Old Testament. That this may also, in a way, be done with regard to all other religions has been clearly shown and emphasized only in recent times. We may in fact perfectly well say that the story of the covenant with Noah (Gen 8:20-9:17) establishes that there is a kernel of truth hidden in the mythical religions: it is in the regular "dying away and coming into existence" of the cosmos that the God who is faithful, who stands in a covenant relationship not merely with Abraham and his people, but with all men, exercises his providential rule. And did not the Magi find their way to Christ (even if they did so only by a round-about way, by way of Jerusalem, and by the Scriptures of the Old Testament) by means of the star, that is, by means of their "superstition", by their religious beliefs and practices (Mt 2:1-23)? Did not their religion, then, kneel before Christ, as it were, in their persons, recognizing itself as provisional, or rather as proceeding toward Christ?
The dominant impression of most people today is that all religions, with a varied multiplicity of forms and manifestations, in the end are and mean one and the same thing; which is something everyone can see, except for them. The man of today will for the most part scarcely respond with an abrupt No to a particular religions claim to be true; he will simply relativize that claim by saying "There are many religions." And behind his response will probably be the opinion, in some form or other, that beneath varying forms they are in essence all the same; each person has his own.
To me, the concept of Christianity without religion is contradictory and illusory. Faith has to express itself as a religion and through religion, though of course it cannot be reduced to religion. The tradition of these two concepts should be studied anew with this consideration in mind. For Thomas Aquinas, for instance, "religion" is a subdivision of the virtue of righteousness and is, as such, necessary, but it is of course quite different from the "infused virtue" of faith. It seems to me that a postulate of the first order of any carefully differentiated theology of religions would be the precise clarification of the concepts of faith and religion, which are mostly used so as to pass vaguely into each other, and both are equally used in generalized fashion. Thus, people talk of "faiths" in the plural and intend thereby to designate all religions, although the idea of faith is by no means present in all religions, is certainly not constitutive element for all of them, andinsofar, as it does occurmeans very different things in them. The broadening of the concept of religion as an overall designation for the relationship of man to the transcendent, on the other hand, has only happened in the second part of the modern period. Such a clarification is urgently needed, especially for Christianity to have a proper understanding of itself and for the way it relates to other world religions.
Can or must a man simply
make the best of the religion that happens to fall to his share, in the
form in which it is actually practiced around him? Or must he not, whatever
happens, be one who seeks, who strives to purify his conscience and, thus,
move towardat the very leastthe purer forms of his own religion?
If we cannot assume as given such an inner attitude of moving onward,
if we do not have to assume it, then the anthropological basis for mission
disappears. The apostles, and the early Christian congregations as a whole,
were only able to see in Jesus their Savior because they were looking
for the "hope of Israel"because they did not simply regard
the inherited religious forms of their environment as being sufficient
in themselves but were waiting and seeking people with open hearts. The
Church of the Gentiles could develop only because there were "Godfearers",
people who went beyond their traditional religion and looked for something
greater. This dynamic imparted to "religion" is also in a certain
sense the casethis is what is true about what Barth and Bonhoeffer
saywith Christianity itself. It is not simply a network of institutions
and ideas we have to hand on but a seeking ever in faith for faiths
inmost depth, for the real encounter with Christ. In that wayto
say it againin Judaism the "poor of Israel" developed;
in that way they would have to develop, again and again, within the Church;
and in that way they can and they should develop in other religions: it
is the dynamic of the conscience and of the silent presence of God in
it that is leading religions toward one another and guiding people onto
the path to God, not the canonizing of what already exists, so that people
are excused from any deeper searching.
Anyone entering the Church has to be aware that he is entering a separate, active cultural entity with her own many-layered intercultural character that has grown up in the course of history. Without a certain exodus, a breaking off with ones life in all its aspects, one cannot become a Christian. Faith is no private path to God; it leads into the people of God and into its history. God has linked himself to a history, which is now also his history and which we cannot simply erase. Christ remains man to eternity, retains a body to eternity; but being a man, having a body, includes having a history and a culture, this particular history with its culture, whether we like it or not. We cannot repeat the process of the Incarnation at will, in the sense of repeatedly taking Christ's flesh away from him, so to speak, and offering him some other flesh instead. Christ remains the same, even according to his body. But he is drawing us to him. That means that because the people of God is, not just a single cultural entity, but is gathered together from all peoples, therefore the first cultural identity, rising again from the break that was made, has its place therein; and not only that, but it is needed in order to allow the Incarnation of Christ, of the Word, to attain its whole fullness. The tension of many active entities within a single entity is an essential part of the unfinished drama of the Sons Incarnation. This is the real inner dynamic of history, and of course it stands always beneath the sign of the Cross; that is to say that it must always be struggling against the opposing weight of shutting off, of isolation and refusal.
We must also bid farewell to the dream of the absolute autonomy of reason and of its self-sufficiency. Human reason needs a hint from the great religious traditions of mankind. It will certainly look at the individual traditions in a critical light. The pathology of religion is the most dangerous sickness of the human spirit. It exists within the religions, yet it exists also precisely where religion as such is rejected and relative goods are assigned an absolute value: the atheistic systems of modern times are the most frightful examples of passionate religious enthusiasm alienated from its proper identity, and that means a sickness of the human spirit that may be mortal. When the existence of God is denied, freedom is, not enhanced, but deprived of its basis and thus distorted. When the purest and most profound religious traditions are set aside, man is separating himself from his truth; he is living contrary to that truth, and he loses his freedom. Nor can philosophical ethics be simply autonomous. It cannot dispense with the concept of God or dispense with the concept of a truth of being that is of an ethical nature. If there is no truth about man, then he has no freedom. Only the truth makes us free.
Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger is the Prefect of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith in Rome. A widely acclaimed theologian and author, he has written many important books on theological and spiritual themes. Read more about his life and work here.
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Suburb Garden Town/Living Standards
Chapter III: Living Standards
The growth of the British economy kept pace with the population. There was a baby boom in the twenties, which is not surprising. At the other end of the age scale the advances in medicines - sulpha drugs and penicillin, stress prevention, and the treatment of shock, were some of the experiences gained from the battlefield. All these, and other treatments, raised life expectancy levels. This rise in the working population added over three and a quarter million to the workforce. This did not just improve production but also raised demand. This increase in working population now included a much larger share for women. Even though returning men from the war eased women out of jobs more associated with ‘men’s work’ the role of women would never return to those of pre-war. A far greater number of women were independent, earning their own living. Professions and occupations previously closed to women now received a number of applicants granted inclusion.
Reading certain history books - giving a social history of Britain, you might be lead to believe that by 1929 the mass of the population were leading a life different from that lived ten years before. It is not so. Some men had not worked continuously since returning home from the war... others engaged on one job at a time - competing for vacancies every morning. In the early thirties the newspapers were filled with stories of the nation’s economic troubles. There were millions unemployed and stories of unrest among the workers. There was real human suffering and the picture from the north of England was bad. The mills were silent, groups of idle workers on every street corner. Clogs were worn - echoed on the cobbles. Scores of children were undernourished. In many towns factories were being torn down for the bricks to be sold on as seconds. As will be pointed out this was a true picture of the industrial sector - up north.
1931 saw the faint glimmer of hope. The Chancellor of the Exchequer, Neville Chamberlain, was a skilled financier; he had already made a name for himself for being an excellent administrator when Minister of Health, now he was to show his skill attending to the nation’s money. His plan was to save by introducing cuts in wages and salary of all people, not just the lower paid. In a series of stringent budgets he presided over a policy of protectionism, great saving were made by converting two thousand million pounds of the five per cent War Loan to three and a half. By this time the schemes for house building had begun and more of the money saved went on rearming the nation. In 1937 the fifteen to sixty-four age group represented nearly seventy per cent of the working population. This added three-quarters of a million to the workforce over a period of thirteen years. The increase, in birth rate, life expectancy, and the resultant consumer spending generated by both, increased national output. These five key decisions: protectionism, reduced wages, realigned interest rate, stimulated house building, and rearmament saw the nation slowly begin its recovery - to begin a ten year cycle of improvement. This programme was mainly directed towards the industrial sector of society. Light engineering, the new sources of power, communications, and the service industries, were never as seriously affected by the depression.
During The National Government's years in office there was a steady improvement in the public’s standards of health. As well as a reduction in the death rate there was an improvement in a child’s life expectancy - deaths dropping by ten per cent. The normal teenager’s death rates: from scarlet fever, diphtheria, whooping cough, and measles, improved greatly – doubling in twenty years. There was a steady improvement in adult height and weight. The 1937, 'Survey of the Social Structure of England and Wales', considered that it was the improvement in: housing, water provision, sanitation, hygiene, and advances in medical skill which contributed to rise. This improvement was common throughout England. All covered by the 1936 Public Health Act, extended later to include the Food and Drugs Act.
The new housing estates, the local planning authorities concern for recreational space, the nations completed sewer system, improved, nutritional diets, and greater health provision - through local cottage hospitals, maternity units and nursing and auxiliary services, all contributed to improved standards in public health. In 1934, an act was passed empowering local authorities to make free or subsidized milk available to schoolchildren. This was distributed in third of a pint bottles by classroom monitors providing a straw for each child. Three years later over three million children had the opportunity to drink milk. By 1935, there were two thousand three hundred doctors and five thousand three hundred nurses engaged in servicing the school’s medical services. In 1936, local authorities had to provide trained midwives. Three years later all schools in Harrow and District provided subsidized school meals, plus a percentage free for the needy.
The National Insurance Act 1912, applied to nearly twelve million workers… by 1921, fifteen million, and finally twenty million by 1938. The scheme provided a free doctor service. For families of insured workers – included most of the middle classes, reliance placed on private schemes and sick clubs. Other health services had to be paid for. Payment for a visit to the hospital in 1928 was a two tier arrangement split between local authorities and voluntary hospitals. Only the very poor had free treatment. Harrow was considered to be the best place to receive medical treatment and your chances of survival from treatment far greater. It has always been the case that life expectancy is greater where there is an improvement in living conditions - environment and diet. In 1930, the BMA suggested a system of health insurance for practically all adults and their dependants. This would include dentists, maternity and ophthalmology. It took over fifteen years for the National Health Service to be fully operational – until after The Second World War.
All towns were provided with public lavatories, some more elaborate than others. North Harrow’s was a brick built and tiled roofed building - in an architectural style in keeping with all the local buildings, sited next to the services road. It boasted a permanent staff of an aged couple who were most particular how their toilets were turned out. The brass work shone and the tiled floor sparkled. The Association for the provision of Drinking Fountains and Horse Troughs had its beginnings in 1847 when the Liverpool local government bought out the private water companies. Their object was to construct public baths and stimulate interested parties to built drinking fountains. Twelve years later Samuel Gurney, a London MP, started an association with the aim of building drinking fountains to provide pure cold water… the first to be built on Holborn Hill on 21st April 1859. With the collaboration of the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals drinking fountains for both humans and animals acclaimed as necessary public amenities… linking up with the evangelical movement gave the movement a strong link with the church. It became so popular that thousands of water troughs were installed on city and town streets. Henceforth, it became obligatory for local councils to provided space in all new town development. North Harrow had two, one on Station Road the other on Pinner Road, close to the town’s main cross-roads. By 1936, the association stopped building new troughs, as cars and trucks took over from the horse. However, more fountains were built at schools and parks… the metal cups chained to the bowls gave way to a small jet, for the sake of hygiene. West Harrow Park, Headstone Park and Pinner Park all were provided with a fountain, the most elaborate sited at West Harrow the oldest park of the three. The standard 1929 design can be seen at each in addition to the more elaborate commemorative fountains.
The dust cart came round once a week – on a Wednesday. The lorry was painted green and the collection was tipped into domed compartments covered by bowed sliding doors. Anything which could not be placed in the back of the cart was put on the roof. Every house had its own metal bin. I do not remember any complaint about having too much rubbish or throwing away an awkward shape or extra heavy item. Everything was taken away without question by the dustmen. The Road Sweeper pushed his metal sided cart to his allotted station, there he took from the rack his broad headed broom to sweep the pavements pushing the rubbish into the gutters. When he had finished the pavement he swept the rubbish into neat piles in the gutter to be later shovelled up and placed in his cart. At the end of his day he pushed the cart to a collection place behind the shops where the council dust cart carried the waste to the dump. All the pavements and roads were similarly treated there was never any rubbish left lying about.
As unemployment rose, after The General Strike, into the thirties, a series of Government Acts were passed to provide extra levels of benefit. It was soon transparent that there were gaps in the payments, benefits and contributions. Many of the poor still had to apply to the Poor Law, and after 1929, to the Public Assistance Committees, of the local authorities. The government soon recognised the gaps - especially the exceptional diversity of employment. The Unemployment Assistance Board Acts of 1934/5 still didn’t seal the gaps and a further series of acts were needed. It took until 1937 for the majority of the unemployed that received assistance under the Public Assistance Committees of the local authority transferred to the Unemployment Assistance Board. By the early 20s the Family Endowment Society was advising a national family allowance system, providing 12s. 6d. per week for mothers, 5s. 0d. for the first child and 3s. 6d. for each subsequent child. This suggestion never got off the ground for it was considered by the government that this would destroy work incentives and reduce the mobility of labour. In 1931/2 Chamberlain took the issue out of the local authority hands and set up the Unemployment Assistance Board in 1934. By 1939/40 the government give way, but not for the original social reasons but to suppress wage claims, labour disputes, and therefore, to control inflation. But the principle was laid…! The Beveridge Report 1942, made family allowance a cornerstone of social insurance.
It is perfectly understandable to find, in census figures, that congregations shrunk after each war, and did so throughout the passing centuries. The First World War had a profound affect on a society staggering from the unsettling results of a shifting population, buffeted, and confused, by industrialization. These uncertainties took their toll. Increasingly, in the twenties, Nonconformist, made inroads upon the established church. It was not because they required less commitment, but less ridged, and prescribed behaviour. Their services: complimented by, song, colourful-tracts, and religious-leaflets, drew-in their congregations - giving them a sense of belonging. Although the graph for York shows that Anglican attendees continued to dominate until after the Second World War, the Nonconformists were waiting to take up the reins soon after that. The figures for Catholicism, on the other hand, show a steady rise throughout the whole period. This is born out by what was happening in North Harrow. Between the wars the attendance figures for Baptists, Wesleyan, Methodists, United Free Church and Congregationalists showed little change. Their attendance figures, reflected the strength of the connection to the youth association, adopted by the church or chapel; for instance: a strong Boys Brigade Company saw a strong congregation. Similarly, Scout Group, or Church Lads movement. For well established churches, and chapels, that catered for the full range of young people, the attendances were higher still. As with all institutions, if they are run by a team of dedicated officers over a long period, and if the takeover, after they retire, is sound, church attendance figures stayed consistent... Although church attendances steadily declined, from the early, strict Victorian period, throughout all social classes, society continued to adhere to the churches principles and teachings. From the end of the thirties... into the war years... and beyond, those principles and teachings has been undermined, disregarded, and in some cases, abandoned. Nevertheless, the values, influencing the new culture, were Christian.
The vast majority of children attended State Schools working towards an in-school – set, marked, and invigilated, exam. I do not think that those children at the bottom of their year looked up to those above, nor do I believe that those in the highest streams looked down on those below. As far as I can remember it was a structured conveyor belt of things you had to do… you stepped on at twelve and alighted three years later. Not one of us displayed any fear for the future or suffered from sleep disturb nightmares. The future – leaving school for work, was another step on the path to adulthood. There was an abundance of jobs. What one ended up doing was as much to do with 'father’s job', as to the result of year’s report.
A number of boys quickly and quietly went from Secondary School to Polytechnic, Trade School or Technical College. They had worked out what they wanted to do. Others went to a prearranged apprenticeship. It wasn’t a question of this job, or that line, or this was paid better. It was up to fate, and a little luck. The Labour Party adopted the principle of secondary education for all, irrespective of the income, class, or occupation of their parents; that children maybe transferred at the age of eleven plus, from primary to one or other of the secondary schools, and remain there until fifteen. This principle was a cornerstone in the Hadow Report in 1923, and came into being in 1926. The two types of secondary school were, Secondary Modern Schools and Grammar. The children attending secondary modern schools were to leave at the age of fifteen. The Hadow Report was accepted but the implementation delayed by the poor state of the country’s economy. The majority of children by 1938 were operating within the reorganized secondary modern system. Some fee-paying schools, from the private sector, qualified for ‘direct grants’ for taking on a number of scholarship boys.
My primary school was Longfield. The class sizes in 1938/9 were between twenty-five to thirty children. The first class was The Introduction Class, a further three classes held a years difference between each. Similarly upstairs, the Junior School operated the same class structure – years 8/9, 9/10, 10/11. The school had been built at the same time as the rest of the town displaying the then modern style – brick walls, metal framed windows and a flat roof. All the furniture and equipment was new. The New Secondary Education system followed the pattern voiced in the thirties – that there should be different schools for different abilities, and the children tested to decide which school system, at the age of eleven.It is impossible to write about England’s class structure without some reference to education. It is what is taught, how it is taught and why, that defines for the recipient where they fit in the social structure. Children are carriers of the parents assumed place in society. When educated they carry also the school’s aims and objectives which includes aspired place for their charges. This overlays their parents opinions, lies in sympathy with it, or, gives them their own place. It is highly likely that these opinions, shaped by heredity, environment, and education, are confused... can be easily changed, depending on circumstance. Class is a subject which will always have to be defined, and the answer will always include: the parents education, the home, the environment, the school, place in year, what university, which course, who taught it, and with what result. As today’s thinking suggests education is a continuous event… social class, for the individual, is beyond defining.
In 1929 William Morris of Oxford was dominating the car production industry. He alone, out of fifty-eight companies, was way out in front, producing a series of models to take British car production ahead of France, to become Europe’s largest car producer. In 1937 Britain provided fifteen per cent of the worlds vehicle exports – a record level of production. By 1938 Morris Motors included MG, Wolseley, and Riley In 1939 Morris Motors produced twenty-seven per cent of the car market - the largest share. By 1924 Britain was producing 146,000 units; thirteen years later the figure was over three times that number. The years at Britain’s lowest production level – in the middle of the depression Britain produced more cars than in any previous year. By the end of our period there were nearly 400,000 employed in motor manufacture. In 1935/6 a popular model could be bought for half the cost of one produced ten years before. The motor vehicle industry was closely linked to aircraft production, motor cycling, push bikes, electrical engineering and kitchen equipment. The whole industry was sixty per cent higher in 1937, than the figures for 1924. From the early thirties rearmament boosted up production in electrical and mechanical engineering – particularly those industries closely linked to military vehicles and aircraft. The chemical industry developed many new materials from oil: Plastic, rayon, synthetic dyes, fertilizers, animal food and gas. The industry employed 100,000 by 1939, catching up fast on engineering. Once again, rearmament served the chemical industry well creating many new materials and uses.
The largest influence to change society forever was the cinema. The life-styles, values, language and music of American film producers exerted pressure, which, through a weekly injection, altered mainly working class morals, behaviour, speech and expectations. Many of Britain’s best actors and comedians followed the trail to America when jobs were hard to find here. To stimulate British films production the Cinematograph Films Act of 1927 was introduced. A wave of lavish productions by Alexander Korda, through London Films, tried to wrestle work away from America. It failed, not having the production cost effective. A spate of cheap ‘quickies’ also failed to satisfy quota requirements. Eventually the Act was modified in 1938, and again later, evened out production schedules and quotas. Another film company in 1928, built upon the Neptune Film Company, became established as the Ideal Film Company, owned by Ludwig Blattner. The Blattner Studio was leased to Joe Rock Productions who bought the company, the whole eventually becoming British National Films Limited. Gainsborough Film Company was also operating at the same time producing comedy films with Will Hay.
Associated British Cinemas, established in 1927, merged a number of Scottish cinema circuits… becoming British International Pictures, later absorbed into Elstree Studio complex – Graham/Wilcox company. This merged with British National Studios. During the 1930s grew to become ABPC. The owner John Maxwell died in 1940 his widow sold out to Warner Brothers. In America Warner Brothers developed the Vitaphone, sound on disc system, producing The Jazz Singer. This was the start to Hollywood musicals. MGM won the first Oscar for the musical Broadway Melody in 1929, following the Wall Street crash. Busby Berkeley reshaped the musical stage with his cleaver editing and unusual camera angles. The first animated musical was Walt Disney’s Snow White and The Seven Dwarfs. Quickly followed by MGMs 'The Wizard of Oz' in 1939. The thirties was a period stage stars turned to the film studio for work including Fred and Adele Astaire, Nelson Eddy and Jeanette MacDonald. It was in the 1930s that a series of British film comedies lifted the British cinemas audiences. The works of Will Hay, Old Mother Riley, George Formby and Max Miller drew in the crowds.
Rank’s venture into film making began when he was a Sunday school teacher. He punctuated his teaching with showing religious films to his own class and to other schools. Eventually he made his own and the distributed them. The Methodist Society complained that about the negative influence American films were having on young people. Rank took up the challenge to make his own ‘family friendly’ films. Within British National Films Company J Arthur Rank created Pinewood Film Studios. He found that after making Turn of the Tide he could not get it screened – the American movie industry denied access. Rank solved the problem by buying a large part of both the distribution and exhibition systems – formed a partnership with C M Woolf to create General Cinema Finance Corporation. He then used that company to buy out General Film Distributors, the UK arm of Universal Pictures. By 1937 Rank consolidated his film making business in both Pinewood and Denham Film Studios, within a new company called the Rank Organisation.By 1939 four million cinema seats gave daily access to the false, romantic, sham and colourful escapism of Hollywood… The first Technicolor film musical was The Wizard of Oz and from 1939 there was a string of fantastic musicals still produced on the stage today. The following year Rank bought the Odeon cinema chain, and Amalgamated Studios in Elstree. The Rank Organisation then bought Gaumont–British Picture Corporation and Lime Grove Studios. The following year negotiated to buy Paramount cinema chain, in 1942.
The country’s citizens were entertained by other popular mediums: the radio, football and boxing. These sops to the daily grind of life, supplied relief replacing religion which never recovered from the tragedy and farce of The First World War. Churchgoers fell from twenty per cent to twelve, between 1910 and 1960 From the start of the thirties consumerism manifested considerable influence: there was more to buy, a more colourful society to copy, more money in the housewife’s pockets and jobs were becoming available. Things were looking up…!
Harrow, as we know it today, was a merger of Harrow-on-the-Hill Urban District, and Wealdstone and Hendon Rural Districts in 1934. The town’s chief claims to fame are its public school, church and hill, upon which both sit. Prior to the 1920s its population gathered around the hill unevenly spreading further out towards London. Every town in the vicinity had its own cinema. Naturally the largest town required the largest cinema which more often than not the smartest. Harrow had its Granada cinema which boasted an organ – the only cinema that had one close at hand. In 1929 there were about four thousand cinemas in Britain. The Granada was, when built, considered to be one of the new super cinemas that could seat upto four thousand patrons.
The Harrow Coliseum, as with all large theatres of the day, was resplendent in gold paint and red velvet cloth. The carpets, thick and lush, and the seats, soft and springy. All covered in red velvet with gold headed nails. It represented ‘High Victorian’ design - mouldings and motifs, statues, niches and plaster cornicing. The Coliseum was opened in 1940 in Station Road, Harrow, by Queen Mary. The auditorium, circle and boxes designed to seat two-thousand patrons in luxury. The theatre was closed fifteen years later, in 1955. The original site was a 1922 cinema, foundered by the owners of Hammer Films – whose doors opened to the public in 1923 to great acclaim.
The Local Authority Greenhouses and Nurseries were situated at West Harrow Park. It is important to explain that Parks, Gardens and Walks were under the authority that maintained and stocked their gardens, verges and beds. To be able to do this there was an organized nursery system large enough to cope with all their needs. It was on a grand scale overseen by the Head Gardener. His position was guaranteed by his previous experience… upheld by the gardeners below him - maintaining a high standard. All the Borough’s flower beds were immaculate, every bit as good as those seen at large holiday resorts on the coast. A competition was held by all the parks as to who’s the best each year. This prize was eagerly sought after and suitable notices and reports made in the local newspapers. The only way a gardener could apply for an advanced position, if he could show how well his gardens performed in competition. West Harrow Park had a paddling pond that provided space for those keen enough to sail their model boats. The park held the local tennis courts and Bowling Green as well as providing a bandstand. The park was for perambulating not for children’s games, running about or cycling. The grass was perfect and the flower beds a riot of perfectly formed colour and floral design. Headstone Manor Park was home to Bessborough Cricket Ground, circled by stately elms. Pinner Park had a fountain, and Streamside Walk meandered beside the River Pinn, bridged over to allow movement along the further bank. All these local parks were perfections of horticultural splendour policed by park keepers who stopped children running, cycling or walking on the grass. They were places for peace and quiet providing seating for contemplation and rejuvenation.
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Who doesn’t like a cold soda on a hot day in Fontana? Well, that can of soda or a bottle of an energy drink can do a tremendous amount of damage to your teeth if you consume them on a regular basis.
What can soda and energy drinks do to my teeth?
Not only do soft drinks and energy drinks contain sugar which is metabolized by bacteria in the mouth into erosive acids, but also they may contain direct acids. These acids are detrimental to the tooth enamel, the outer layer of the tooth, and actually break it down causing cavities. The obvious solution to this is to stop drinking sodas and energy drinks.
What if I don’t want to give up soda and energy drinks?
If you don’t want to give them up, drink them in moderation, drink them quickly and don’t swish with them. Using a straw will help reduce the damage of these drinks and rinsing with water immediately after drinking them is a good idea. Another helpful hint is to chew sugarless gum after having sodas or energy drinks. Chewing sugarless gum stimulates saliva production which serves to wash away the harmful acids and protect your teeth.
More helpful tips
Don’t brush your teeth for at least 30 minutes after drinking soda; the acid weakens the enamel and brushing too soon can cause further damage, according to a German study reported in the September 2003 issue of “The Journal of the American Dental Association.” Also, avoid energy drinks and sodas at bedtime. Your mouth tends to get dry during sleep and the effectiveness of saliva to wash the harmful sugars and acids away from teeth is reduced. Call our Fontana, CA dental practice to schedule a dental cleaning today.
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In this tutorial I will show you how to make a paper airplane that, for me, flew around 25 feet.
Step 1: 1st Fold, Half fold
Grab any piece of paper, almost all will work, as long as it is rectangular. I used printing 8.5" x 11" paper for it's availiability although same size notebook paper will work just as well. Fold in half hot-dog style. This is the most important fold because if this is uneven the rest is uneven as well, causing spinning. Start out by lining up the corners and folding there, then sliding your hand across the bend and folding along the way.
Step 2: 2nd Fold, Corners
Holding the paper like the picture from the last step Fold the top left and right corners to the middle.
Fold the new side you made with the last fold to the middle, holding the flap below it at the middle dividing line to keep both folds even.
Fold in the middle to make the side you just had on top be facing out. Then fold the two flaps you just made (like the front and back cover of a book) to the "spine" of the book, or to the first fold you made on the paper.
Now fold the newest flaps you made back to the top of the airplane so that when you look at it from the back it looks like the second picture.
Fold each side of the airplanes whole top half to their respective bottoms covering all previous flap folds.
Open up all previous flap folds like the picture below.
It should be ready now. Now results may vary but when I threw it I got about 25 feet on average but you might get better by using different paper than just regular 8 1/2" by 11" white printing paper, adding small folds on the ends of the wings, or folding the nose of the plane inside to protect it when it crashes.
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Oligonucleotides are those smallish bits of DNA or RNA that we rely so heavily on for many of our molecular biology experiments. In their naked form, they are single, inert strands of DNA or RNA bases. But if you dress them up, you can increase their functionality.
Here are some of the common oligo wardrobe additions:
Fancy it up with phosphorylation
One of the most common oligo additions is phosphorylation. Anytime you are going to use the oligo with DNA ligase, you want to make sure your oligos are wearing 5’ phosphates. For example, if you are going to anneal two oligos and clone them into an unphosphorylated vector to change the multiple cloning site, your oligos will need to be phosphorylated.
You can also phosphorylate the 3’ end of your oligo. This will prevent degradation of the oligo by 3’-exonucleases and will block extension by polymerases.
Add some bling
You can also make your oligo shine by adding a fluorescent tag. Fluorescent dyes for oligo modification are available in a variety of excitation and emission spectra.
Note: Some dyes are added post-oligo synthesis which can result in lower yields. In addition, some fluorescent modifications require a higher level of purification which can increase the cost.
Black is always in style
You can tone things down by adding a dark quencher onto your oligo. They can be added either to the 5’ or 3’ end. Use these with fluorescence-quenched probes and improve the sensitivity of your real-time PCR assays.
Stretching out your oligo
Sometimes you need to give your oligo a little room to stretch its wings. Spacers can be incorporated into the oligo either internally or at the end of the oligo. Ending spacers are ideal when you are attaching a bulky group such as a fluorophore.
Spacers can also be photo-cleavable. Shine a little UV light on your experiment and a portion of your oligo will be released.
A little change can go a long way
Maybe you love your oligo the way it is and only want to make minor changes. Then consider base modifications. The naturally fluorescent base, 2-aminopurine, can be substituted for dA and allow you to study the structure of DNA.
If you want to make your oligo more sticky, you can use 2,6-diaminopurine in place of dA. It forms 3 hydrogen bonds with dT and can increase the melting temperature of short oligos.
Protect your oligo
If your oligo is under attack by nucleases, you can help it out by incorporating a phosphorothioate bond modification. This substitutes a sulfur atom in place of a non-bridging oxygen in the phosphate backbone. Like a coat of armor, it will protect the linkage from nuclease degradation.
There are many ways you can dress up your oligo. And most of the time you can order your oligo with the modification already attached – it will arrive already dressed up for the ball.
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Maps of Minnesota are generally an vital area of genealogy and family history research, particularly if you live faraway from where your ancestor was living. Due to the fact Minnesota political boundaries often changed, historic maps are generally important in helping you find out the exact specific location of your ancestor’s home, what land they owned, just who their neighbors were, and more.
Maps of Minnesota often have a tendency to be an outstanding resource for getting started with your own research, because they provide considerably important information and facts immediately. Minnesota Maps are usually a major source of substantial amounts of information on family history.
Learn more about Historical Facts of Minnesota Counties.
Interactive Map of Minnesota County Formation History
Old Antique Atlases & Maps of MinnesotaDisclaimer: All Minnesota maps are free to use for your own genealogical purposes and may not be reproduced for resale or distribution.Source: David Rumsey Historical Map Collection
1856 Minnesota Map
1866 Map of Minnesota
1866 Sketch of the Public Surveys in the State of Minnesota
1880 County Map of Minnesota
D.O.T. County Road and Highway Maps of Minnesota
To View the Map: Just click the Image to view the map online. In order to make the Image size as small as possible they were save on the lowest resolution.
Minnesota Map Links
- Minnesota Digital Map Library (usgwarchives.net)
- Old Historical Maps of Minnesota (alabamamaps.ua.edu)
- Minnesota Maps – The Perry-Castañeda Library Map Collection (lib.utexas.edu)
- Minnesota Maps, Atlases & Gazetteers (ancestry.com)
- Historic Township Plats (state.mn.us)
- U.S., Indexed County Land Ownership Maps, 1860-1918 (ancestry.com)
- Air Photography 1930’s & 1950 (state.mn.us)
- County Subdivision Outline Map and County Location Index (census.gov)
- American Memory Map Collection: 1500-2004 (memory.loc.gov)
- Minnesota USGenWeb Archives Digital Map Library (usgwarchives.net)
- Minnesota County Subdivision Outline Map and County Location Index (census.gov)
- Minnesota Map Books (amazon.com)
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St. Mark’s School offers a challenging, comprehensive curriculum that recognizes the unique talents of each child, combined with educational technology to motivate and engage the students.
Our students score well above national norms on standardized tests. Our classrooms are centered on learning and produce students who achieve excellence and are well prepared for the future.
Students build a math foundation by using manipulative materials to develop math concepts and solve meaningful problems. Students in all grades work to achieve fluency and accuracy in computation, especially as applied in problem solving situations.
Our science curriculum strives to incorporate a hands-on approach that is inquiry based for the students to be able to explore and investigate their world and utilize problem-solving skills. We also provide an embedded IMSA (Illinois Math and Science) curriculum to selected students in order to increase students’ interest, involvement and literacy in science and mathematics.
The religion curriculum engages students in hearing and understanding the proclamation of the faith and invites the student to respond through deeper openness to a relationship with God. This relationship is expressed in active participation in the life of the Church as a disciple of Jesus Christ.
Students construct meaning and make personal and textual connections as they learn from and about reading. Students learn effective comprehension strategies that they apply to fiction and nonfiction texts. Components of the reading curriculum include a teacher directed mini-lessons, shared reading, interactive read-aloud, independent reading, reader's response, guided reading groups, literature study groups and share time.
The goal of the Social Studies curriculum is to help create historically literate and well informed citizens who actively participate in a democratic society.
We also offer Art, Music, Computer, Physical Education, and Library.
Shadowing is the process of following a student through all or part of the school day to gain insight into what a student experiences within the school setting. This allows the student to experience firsthand what it’s like to be a part of St. Mark’s School family! Contact the school office to schedule your shadowing visit today.
St. Mark’s School offers full day and half day Pre-K programs for three- and four-year olds. Our Pre-K classroom is closely involved with Bradley’s Psychology Department’s Pre-K Child Study Center.
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Encircling the Union Army
Jeb Stuart's Controversial Ride Around McClellan During the Peninsula Campaign, June 1862eBook - 2013
Jeb Stuart's bold and unauthorized ride around the enemy in June 1862 is still studied and celebrated as one of history's most daring intelligence raids. By late May 1862, Gen. George B. McClellan had moved his massive Army of the Potomac to the outskirts of the Confederate capital at Richmond. When Confederate Gen. Joseph Johnston fell wounded at Seven Pines on May 31, Gen. Robert E. Lee assumed command of the Army of Northern Virginia and turned the tide of war in the Eastern Theater. Lee ordered his dashing cavalry leader Jeb Stuart and 1,200 troopers to find the position of McClellan's rig.
Publisher: Havertown : 2013. Savas Publishing,
Branch Call Number: REM
Characteristics: 1 online resource (116 pages)
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IF YOU CAN’T BREATHE THROUGH YOUR NOSE - YOU WILL BREATHE THROUGH YOUR MOUTH
Why this is not good.
When we breathe, if we cannot get enough oxygen through our nose to get the oxygen levels needed for our blood, we automatically open our mouth and switch to mouth breathing. This is true when sleeping, during athletic activities or even when sitting at a computer.
This is exactly why PerformAIR® Nasal Dilators were developed.
When sleeping, if you switch to mouth breathing – you are likely to start snoring and create a condition called dry mouth.
During athletic activities, mouth breathing increases water loss, results in decreased energy, and changes the athlete’s salivary production creating greater likelihood of heat stress and lower muscle performance – all of which negatively affect athletic performance due to dehydration.
Even during work related functions if congestion, allergies, or other nasal blockages occur you can reduce your oxygen levels in the blood and when these drop sufficiently you may experience shortness of breath, headache, and confusion. Mental clarity requires deep breathing and oxygen in the blood – using PerformAIR® during sleep, work or athletic performance can provide better mental clarity.
PerformAIR® provides a unique ergonomically designed dilator that wraps around the nasal airways in the nose – opening them up by expanding the outer wall of the nose outwardly and increasing the “pipe” you use to move air through your nose. Most competitive dilators are placed IN your airway effectively blocking your “pipe” – use PerformAIR ® to optimize your airflow.
SLEEP BETTER | BREATHE BETTER | PERFORM BETTER
MOUTH BREATHING IS A PRIMARY CAUSE FOR SNORING
Source: Snore LabMouth breathing is a primary cause for snoring, nasal breathing not only lowers your snoring risk, but has other benefits too. Nasal breathing warms and humidifies incoming air, helping to prevent your airways drying out. It also channels air over your snoring noise-makers in a far less turbulent way than mouth breathing does.
NASAL BREATHING REDUCES SNORING
Source: Raj C. Dedhia, MD, MSCR, assistant professor, Otolaryngology/HNS & Sleep Medicine, at Emory University Hospital report:
So how does nasal breathing relate to snoring? Dedhia says breathing through your nose is actually the optimal way to breathe during sleep.
“Mouth breathing has a couple of problematic effects on the course of the airflow,” he says. “When you breathe through your mouth, your jaw tends to fall back, which causes your tongue to fall back, and even your palates are relaxed more.
That combo makes it more likely for the patient to have an obstruction. When the airflow goes through the mouth and hits that back wall, there isn’t a smooth transition like there is in the back of the nose. So there’s more turbulence that can generate snoring sounds.”
BREATH BETTER | SLEEP BETTER | PERFORM BETTER
When using PerformAIR® Nasal Dilators:
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SoCal Gems - 5 Articles
Five articles about gemstones and mining in Southern California, published between 1903 and 1911, in a variety of publications.
- “The Value of Radium, Roentgen Rays and Ultra-Violet Radiations in Mineralogical Determinations” from Electrical World and Engineer, Vol. XLII, No. 12 (19 Sep. 1903), pp. 481–482
- “Gems and Rare Minerals of Southern California” by L. Douglas Sovereign, from the Bulletin of the Southern California Academy of Sciences, Vol. IV, No. 5 (May 1905), pp. 85–90
- “Gem Mining in California” from The Pacific Monthly, Vol. XIV, No. 5 (Nov. 1905), pp. 495–496
- “San Diego’s Gem Casket” by Richard Keene, from The Pacific Monthly, Vol. XV, No. 3 (Mar. 1906), pp. 328–334
- “Himalaya Tourmaline Mine” by John Cowan, from Mines and Minerals, Vol. XXXII, No. 3 (Oct. 1911), pp. 181–182
The Value of Radium, Roentgen Rays and Ultra-Violet Radiations in Mineralogical Determinations
An uncredited article originally published in Electrical World and Engineer,
Vol. XLII, No. 12 (19 Sep. 1903), pp. 481–482.
With the advent of Kunzite, the newly-discovered gem, and its remarkable behavior when subjected to the action of radio-active substances and electromagnetic radiations as observed by Dr. George Frederic Kunz, late president of the New York Mineralogical Club, and Prof. Charles Baskerville, head of the chemical department of the University of North Carolina, fresh stimulus has been given to the study of the new properties of minerals acquired in a radio-active field.
Before presenting these remarkable phenomena a brief history of the stone named in honor of Dr. Kunz will be given. A gem believed by mineralogists to be extinct was noted by Dr. Kunz in his treatise on precious stones some ten years ago, the data being obtained from spodumene, a mineral generally found in large, opaque whitish crystals, but which sometimes appears as highly colored transparent specimens of very small size.
These are the clear yellow gem-spodumene of Brazil , the green variety known as hiddenite or lithia emerald of North Carolina [3; this reference mark is missing from the original text], and the lilac or amethystine specimens found occasionally at Branchville, Conn. These minute crystals are plainly remnants of what must have once been elegant specimens, but this special spodumene was extremely susceptible to alteration, and the finer properties of the larger specimens have been destroyed through their environments and their transparency and beauty of tint eliminated.
From these remaining fragments the doctor was enabled to approximate their appearance when in the perfect state and classified as precious stones. Nearly nine months ago spodumene crystals, unaltered, transparent and of a rich lilac color were discovered near Pala, California, and specimens were sent to Dr. Kunz for classification, and it was ascertained by him that these were not only different from all other minerals heretofore examined, but also fulfilled to a nicety the conditions exacted by the extinct stone previously described in his work.
These newly-discovered crystals of spodumene measured 10 x 20 x 4 centimeters and are not only of extraordinary size, but are of exceeding beauty and transparency as well; in color they vary from a rich deep rosy lilac to pale and almost colorless crystals, depending on the depth from which they are obtained, the striking colors being found at considerable depths and the colorless varieties near the surface of the earth.
Up to a very recent date this new gem was without a name, but while Dr. Kunz was on his vacation Prof. Baskerville, in view of the acute observations of the eminent mineralogist, cleverly proposed the name of Kunzite, which was heartily received by scientists both at home and abroad.
|Fig. 1.—Crystals of Kunzite.|
Fig. 1 illustrates photographically crystals of Kunzite, the size being relatively indicated. The dimensions and weights of six of the largest crystals are here appended.
|Weight, grains.||Weight, troy.||Dimensions, centimeters.|
Dr. Kunz and Prof. Baskerville have subjected these magnificent crystals to the bombardment of the Röntgen rays having high penetrative powers, yet on examining the stone in a dark room they emitted a white light for as long a period as twenty minutes, whereas with all other specimens of altered and unaltered spodumene obtained from Brazil, North Carolina and Connecticut included in all the private and public collections available, none was found to produce a similar effect.
Again, it was found that a crystal 2x4x10 centimeters, excited by a stream of Röntgen rays for a few minutes, set up a secondary radiation by which a radiograph of the crystal itself was easily made on a sensitized paper by its own emanations, and even when thin paper was interposed between the radio-active crystal and the light sensitive paper the radiation still was active. These savants have shown that this phosphorescent property is not confined merely to the surface of the crystal but persists throughout its mass. Fig. 2 is a radiograph of Kunzite crystal made with a 12-in. spark coil and a self-regulating tube, with an exposure of 60 seconds. Oppositely disposed, ultra-violet radiation does not produce the slightest indication of fluorescence or phosphorescence when Kunzite is subjected to its action.
|Fig. 2.—Radiograph of a Kunzite crystal.|
The Kunzite is highly dichroic in the darker specimens, and with the dichroscope the darker specimens show a rich, deep purple for ordinary rays, and a pink for the extraordinary rays. For a lighter crystal, almost like pink topaz in color, the ordinary ray is transformed into pink, and the extraordinary ray showed almost no color, having an approximately white appearance.
A small quantity of radium of 300,000 radio-activity and the purest yet received in this country reached the American Museum of Natural History (New York City) a few days ago, sealed in a small glass tube with an outer casing of lead-foil, the total diameter being about 3 centimetres. This, as well as a quantity of 7.000 activity was employed by Dr. Kunz and his colleague, Prof. Baskerville, in the examination of the hitherto unrevealed properties inherent in gems. Not only was Kunzite subjected to its searching influence, but the entire Bement-Morgan collection—over 13,000 specimens in number—and the Morgan-Tiffany collection of gems containing several thousand specimens, together with some thousands of different diamonds and a large number of gems and minerals, were investigated.
|Fig. 3.—Gems cut and polished.|
Fig. 3 shows two forms of Kunzite gems cut and polished, and it was ascertained that after these specimens were influenced by the radium they emitted a wonderful phosphorescence. Figs. 4 and 5 illustrate how the experimenters protected themselves from the untoward effects of the radium—such as it may possess. Two corks with a piece of lead-foil inserted between them was securely fastened together with the tube of radium suspended over it, as shown in Fig. 4. which is a top elevation. Fig. 5 shows the lead-foil projecting forward and the little apparatus in position so that the radium will emit its corpuscles directly on the gem held under it. The tube is snugly tucked away, not only that it may not sustain damage to itself but so, too, it may not accidentally sear the flesh or destroy the vision of those in whose keeping it is entrusted.
|Figs. 4 and 5.—Radium tube of 300,000 radio-activity.|
The radium, now the property of the Museum, was acquired through the courteous gift of Edward D. Adams, Esq., for the especial purpose of the researches recited above. By its aid diamonds exhibit a marked phosphorescent property, which they retained for a time after the stones are removed; other diamonds, on the other hand, do not phosphoresce at all; this striking example was most notable in a cut gem weighing 15½ carats, of a beautiful white color and from an unknown Brazilian locality; others of the same class were uncut gems found in British Guiana, and a large diamond weighing 16 carats found at Eagle, Wis. The mineral Willemite exhibited a fluorescence and phosphorescence, and Wollastonite a marvelous phosphorescence, but the new gem, Kunzite, phosphoresced with a greater brilliancy than any other substance examined with radium. When the radio-active matter was held under the entire gem, which measured an inch in diameter, an inch in depth and weighing 55 5-16 carats, it glowed with an orange-red color, and its phosphorescent emissions penetrated from three to six sheets of paper.
It is pleasing to note that this work has been taken up by men so remarkably well qualified as Dr. Kunz and Prof. Baskerville. The latter is a graduate of the University of Virginia and is Professor of Chemistry in the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N. C., and has made extensive researches in what is known as rare earths, which have attracted so much attention in recent years, as it is the incandescence of these earthly minerals that has been the subject of so much experimenting in gas and electric lighting.
Dr. George F. Kunz first gave his attention to the subject of phosphorescence about 1875, and in April, 1876, he read a paper before the New York Lyceum of Natural History on the phosphorescence of pectolite by attrition as a distinguishing characteristic between it and the fibrous zeolites. He next made a series of experiments on the phosphorescence of the diamond at the Paris Exposition of 1889 jointly with Prof. E. Mascart, the well-known electrician. Prof. Kunz continued his researches on his return to America, and finally deduced the sweeping law that all diamonds phosphoresce by attrition. He published a statement to the effect that certain diamonds from Brazil absorbed sunlight and some of them ultra-violet radiation, which they emitted in the dark in the form of light waves, and that this effect was due to the presence of some substance, possibly a hydro-carbon, to which he gave the name of Tiffanyite. This phenomenon was shown in an electrical exhibition at Grand Central Palace, New York, in 1896, for an entire month, where it was viewed by thousands of spectators. The experiment was conducted in a specially-constructed room, where the diamonds were shown in white light and under ultra-violet radiation, and then allowed to phosphoresce in the dark.
Dr. Kunz discovered as early as 1887 that chlorophane, a mineral from Amelia County, Va., emitted light by attrition, and that it phosphoresced by the glow of the hand, which proved to be a distinguishing characteristic between it and other varieties of fluorites. He has also made an exhaustive study of fireflies and glow worms, both in the United States and Europe and Asiatic Russia.
With this wide experience in testing gems, together with the subtle aid which X-rays, ultra-violet radiation and radio-active substances will give in the exploration of regions hitherto inaccessible through the medium of microscopy, spectrum analysis and chemical analysis, we must not be surprised if phenomena even more noteworthy be presented for our consideration.
For twenty-one years Dr. Kunz has been a special agent in charge of precious stones for the United States Geological Survey; received the honorary degree of Ph.D. from University of Marburg, Germany, and A. M., Columbia University.
- Gems and Precious Stones of North America, Kunz, third edition, 1892, page 150. [return to text]
- Pigani, Comptes Rendus, 84, 1509, 1887. [return to text]
- J. L. Smith, Am. Journal of Science, 21, 128, 1881. [return to text]
- Penfield, id 20, 259, 1880. [return to text]
- Kunz, Science, 452, 280, Aug. 23, 1903. [return to text]
Rare Minerals of Southern California
By L. Douglas Sovereign
Hidden deep in the heart of the heat distorted Colorado Desert, in San Diego County, guarded by great naked buttes that frown down upon the intrepid prospector, is probably one of the richest of Nature’s unrifled coffers of crystaline wealth.
This little southwestern corner of the country, embracing the desert waste and the low mountain range between it and the sea, might well be named the jewel casket of the United States.
Though as yet only the hardiest of prospectors have ventured from the beaten trails that mark the shortest route from water-hole to water-hole, those who have dared have either left their bones to whiten on the arid plain or been rewarded by evidence of vast undeveloped wealth.
Where the prospector’s pick has uncovered those closely guarded secrets in this remarkable section, finds of commercial importance and of great scientific interest have been recorded.
There is probably no known section in the world that today offers the gem hunter greater possibilities, and there are few fields offering the geologist greater reward for research.
The astonishing discovery of rare minerals and unsurpassed crystals in the dwarf mountains to the west have comparatively recently brought this section into prominence. The finding of the richest and most productive known deposit of tourmaline crystals, the uncovering of the only known deposit of lilac-colored spodumene and the discovery and development of lepidolite in quantities never dreamed of before the uncovering of the Pala dike, are among its claims to distinction.
In importance the discovery of the lepidolite deposit, where development has brought to light immense quantities of ores of lithia, estimated by the thousands of tons, probably ranks first. The locality, without doubt, is unequaled in the world for its abundance of lithia minerals, as the deposit contains, besides high grade lepidolite ore, immense quantities of amblygonite.
The Pala mines would be interesting from almost any point of view. To the scientist the geology of the great dike of lithium bearing muscovite, tracked for hundreds of feet by well defined croppings, affords a study worthy of his best efforts. Commercially this deposit is of importance. Its principal value lies in the lithia the ore contains, carrying as it does on an average, close to 5%. Salts and tablets have been manufactured from the lithia extracted from this ore, and were the deposit reduced and converted into tablets there would be sufficient to meet the world’s demand for generations to come or to convert one of our country’s fresh water lakes into a great effervescent sea of trouble.
This ore contains close to 50% silica, 25% alumina, 12½% potash and soda and small quantities of iron, manganese, flourine [sic], lime and magnesia. Aside from its importance as a lithia producer, its other properties give it almost as much value. In its reduction the lithia and potash can be extracted cheaply, and these are of course always marketable, but in this case the residuum would be of little value. If however the potash remains and only the lithia be removed, the remaining material will make a most beautiful opal glass; or by mixing it with good quality of kaolin, porcelain, or china, of great beauty can be manufactured at small cost. By taking the balance, after extracting the lithia and potash, and combining it with the necessary proportions of lime or limestone, and calcining and grinding, a good quality of Portland cement is the result.
So far as known, I believe, these are the only applications made up to this time, although it is more than likely that others will suggest themselves when the reduction of the ore is begun on a large scale.
The amblygonite, a lithium-aluminum phosphate, found associated with the lepidolite, is even more valuable from a commercial standpoint. Besides carrying a higher percentage of lithia than the lepidolite ore, averaging over 8%, it contains 46% phosphorus, over 33% alumina, with silica, lime, potash and manganese in small quantities.
After extracting the lithia from the amblygonite there remains a large amount of available phosphorus and alumina, the former at least of considerable value. It is used in various ways in the arts and sciences and is in demand in any amount obtainable as a fertilizing agent. The alumina can be produced as a sulphate to be used by dryers, paper makers or converted into alum.
It has been estimated that the byproducts after the lithia is extracted are of sufficient value to pay all the expense of the reduction of the ore, leaving the lithia as a profit.
To the layman, unacquainted with its commercial value and scientific importance, the deposit could not fail to be of interest as it is impressively beautiful. The colors of the ore range from rose pink through a variety of shades of violet gray to yellowish and whitish. It occurs in granular masses made up of foliated scales. Probably the most striking and beautiful ore is that in which rubellite crystals are found entirely embedded in the lepidolite, the rubellite appearing as pink radiations in dark gangue of lilac-colored lepidolite.
Those who have been permitted to inspect the workings have marveled at the wonder-hand of Nature. From the rocky slope one plunges into the yawning mouth of a tunnel that zig zags its way to the ledge that lies between walls of pegmatyte, or muscovite-granite and quartz. In places, this quartz is deeply stained by bismuth and decomposed rubellite.
The first stope, broken in along the contact of the ledge and pegmatyte, is like a grotto in Aladdin’s cave. Embedded in the walls on one side the rubellite is found in great radiations, like clusters of pink chrysanthemums on a background of lilac that shades to deep blue. On the other side the milky white pegmatyte, with large brilliant scales of mica, gives an attractive setting for the jet black crystals of tourmaline that are also found in radiations in this rock. The light of a single candle is caught up by the millions of scales and reflected over and over until the effect is dazzling.
This stope has been named by the workmen the “Bridal Chamber”. This deposit has attracted to it scientists from many corners of the world, German chemists being especially interested by reason of its lithia contents, as at present the principal supply of tablets is manufactured in that country.
Less than half a mile northeast of this deposit, across the canyon and near the summit of the western slope, is the famous Kunzite mine. Here less than three years ago was unearthed a most remarkable deposit of unaltered lilac-colored spodumene. These crystals were beautiful in their color tones, varying from deep rosy lilac to pale or almost colorless—a striking contrast to the rich deep pink-purple found at a greater depth.
This is the only known lilac-colored spodumene deposit in the world, and is most valuable for its beauty as a gem. Crystals to the value of many thousands of dollars have been taken from the ledge, and within the past thirty days several new pockets containing many valuable crystals have been opened. Hiddenite, or lithia emerald, is a variety of spodumene varying in color from a yellow green to a deep emerald green tinged with yellow. Like Kunzite this is at present known to but one locality (Stony Point in North Carolina), but knowing ones predict that development will also expose this valuable gem crystal at the Pala mines.
Kunzite is found in metamorphic rocks, generally gneiss or mica schist. The rock is a coarse decomposed granite, the feldspar much kaolinized and reduced to red dirt. The crystals occur in a vein with rutile, tourmaline, black oxide of manganese and lepidolite. There are also quantities of quartz crystals. I have seen quartz crystals extracted from the ledge that weighed hundreds of pounds, many having perfectly formed terminations.
Dr. G. F. Kunz, for whom the remarkable crystal was named, says of it: “These crystals are extraordinary objects to the eye of the mineralogist; to see flat spodumene of characteristic form as large as a man’s hand, but with bright luster and perfect transparency and rich delicate pink amethystine tint, is a novel and unlooked for experience.”
One of the peculiar properties of the crystal is brought out in a paper by Charles Baskerville, who, in writing of the new find, said: “No such crystals of spodumene have ever been seen before and the discovery is of great mineralogical interest. The crystals have been etched by weathering and have a twinning like the hiddenite variety. The mineral, when cut and mounted parallel to the base, gives gems of great beauty. I have submitted large crystals to the action of ultra-violet light with very positive and continued phosphorescence. When subjected to the bombardment of the Röntgen rays of high penetration for several minutes no fluorescence is observed, but on removal to a dark chamber it exhibits a persistent white luminosity not observed with this class of minerals. I have been able to excite a crystal by the action of the X-ray for five minutes sufficiently to cause it to photograph itself when subsequently placed directly upon a sensitive plate and allowed to remain in a dark room for a period of ten minutes.”
The mining of this gem crystal is done in the most crude fashion from open cuts following the outcrop, the crystals occurring in pockets.
In this same deposit gem tourmaline crystals are also found, but for the most part these are small. Above the lepidolite, however, and near the same ledge, some work has been done resulting in the exposure of clear tourmaline of very unusual nine colors. These are very rare and are not of large size.
At Mesa Grande, forty miles east and north of the Pala mines, is probably the largest ledge deposit of tourmaline crystals of gem quality known. While prospecting in the mountains in this locality a large ledge was discovered that appeared to he a mass of lepidolite. The first blast showed the lepidolite to be present in large quantities, but in larger and more brilliant scales than that at Pala. Subsequent development showed that both in the lepidolite and associated quartz were magnificent crystals of tourmaline, the rubellite variety predominating. These deposits are now worked through a tunnel and, since the discovery, crystals to the value of thousands of dollars have been mined and cut into gems. Many of these crystals are translucent, or even transparent, and occur as large, separate crystals with perfect prisms and terminations.
The habit of the crystals is very interesting, in that many of them, when doubly terminated, end in a flat, basal form of pyramid, and are not hemimorphic, as tourmalines generally are. The question of color is also of interest. Some specimens are of one color only; others are green, then yellow, red and finally green; others are crimson, tipped with black, or dark green passing into blue. In some specimens the different colors pass imperceptibly one into another; in others the line of demarkation is well defined. I had some cut crystals mined at Mesa Grande at the St. Louis fair, showing the two colors in the cut stone. These were declared the finest gems of the kind on exhibition.
The mining of these stones at Mesa Grande is done principally by Indians who take great pleasure in seeking out the valuable crystals. There is a fascination about the seeking of value in the piles of worthless clay and quartz crystals, that appeals to the red man, and he is willing to work at low wages for the excitement of the thing and incidentally for what he can carry away. It might be said that it is not all that glitters that finds its way into the company’s strong boxes.
The gangue of the Mesa Grande tourmaline is generally white opaque quartzite, the crystals penetrating in all directions. As depth is attained the colors become deeper and consequently more valuable.
In mining the ledge material is removed with as much care as possible, and after being broken, is sorted and screened. This is done with great care, as it is a very easy matter to fracture a crystal that might be worth many times its weight in gold.
There are many points in this section of the country where croppings can be seen that give as favorable indications of tourmaline as those at the Mesa Grande mine. Several small pockets have been uncovered on Smith Mountain, and even as far as Julian pockets of lepidolite have been encountered.
Near Ramona golden beryls were recently found which, after cutting, are matchless for their brilliancy. In the same district rose beryls, perfectly formed, were found near the surface. Some of these shipped to New York brought handsome prices. A few really high grade aquamarines, showing clear shades of sky blue and sea green, have been found, and there are many evidences to encourage the prospector.
Garnets can be picked up in a dozen places, many found being clear and suitable for gem cutting. Spinel is known to exist in at least one locality, and this fact alone would be an inducement to seek for other treasures.
Epidote, jade, turquoise, aragonite and zircons of the hyacinth variety, have also been found, though the country as yet has not been scratched over.
Among the really unusual deposits found in this section is a ledge of palagonite near the San Isabel valley. Though not a true mineral, being an alteration of tufa, resulting through the agency of steam or hot water, its presence is notable, as rare in this region. It is named from the place it was first found in Italy.
This deposit consists of a series of different colored ledges, each of which is well defined. They are continuous, the only line of separation being a marked change in their color. These ledges vary in width from five to twenty feet, forming a solid mass of material eighty feet wide. The natural colors of the higher grade varieties are umber, Indian red and sienna. This material when extracted is soft and can be cut with a knife, but when exposed to air it hardens and will take an excellent polish. Besides being available as a decorative stone, it can be used in the manufacturing of paints, paint filler, soap filler, sapolio, tooth powder, kalsomine, putty and polishing powder.
Still another unusual and interesting deposit is found in the mountain range chiefly near the desert’s edge. It is a deposit of gabbro, granitoid, consisting chiefly of labradorite and pyroxene, containing hornblende and magnetite. Specimens of this orbicular gabbro have been polished and are truly beautiful. Were it possible to mine this in large quantities there would be a demand for it for decorative and ornamental work.
In view of the fact that only the most meager investigations have been made of the mineral resources of this section, it is truly remarkable that so many rare and valuable minerals have been found. There are most promising indications to induce the mineralogist to seek for the hidden things and within a short time others may be brought to light.
Gem Mining in California
An article originally published without attribution
in the “People—Places—Things” section of
The Pacific Monthly, Vol. XIV, No. 5
(Nov. 1905), pp. 495–496.
The recent discovery of rich deposits of tourmaline, a precious gem, in the Mesa Grande Mountains of San Diego County, California, has drawn the attention of the entire country, in fact, the whole world, to one of the most valuable properties in what has for some time been known as a rich mineral and semiprecious gem section. From surface indications of the country which has thus far been prospected it would appear that the extent and value of the properties now being developed will yield immense returns to their owners.
While it has been known for several years that tourmaline existed in various localities in San Diego County and several small mines have been opened from which a large number of the gems have been taken, until the “strike” in the Mesa Grande district was made, its value and extent was hardly realized. The tourmalines mined in this district are said to be far more valuable on account of hardness, color, and brilliancy than those found in Ceylon, Brazil, and the State of Maine. The prevailing color of the San Diego tourmaline is red and is found in shades running from a delicate pink to the deep rich color of the Burmah and Indian rubies. The green tourmaline is also found in large quantities. These two colors, the green and the red, are the most valuable and eagerly sought after by gem buyers.
|C. O. McCarroll, who discovered the largest piece of tourmaline known.|
In the history of the discovery of precious stones, particularly in the diamond-bearing gravels of Brazil, tourmalines have generally been found in connection with the topaz, amethyst and diamond, and as several of the latter have already been discovered in San Diego County, it is but fair to assume that it will only be a matter of time before the diamond will also be mined in California.
Prof. George F. Kunz, the geological and mineralogical expert, who has recently made a thorough and exhaustive report on the tourmaline deposits of the Mesa Grande Mountain district, says:
“There are magnificent crystals of tourmaline, the rubellite (or ruby) variety predominating. This locality, however, differs from others in having the tourmaline in distinct, isolated crystals. Many of them are translucent, or even transparent, and occur as large separate crystals, with perfect prisms and terminations. The rubellite seems the predominating variety at Mesa Grande Mountain, but there is also a large proportion of parti-colored crystals—i.e., those made up of three, four, or five distinct sections, as at Haddam Neck, Conn., and Paris, Me.; others present the Brazilian type, in which several different colored tourmalines appear, as though included one within the other.
|The mouth of a tunnel in a San Diego County, California, gem mine.|
“Owing to the great variety of crystals at Mesa Grande, and their size, perfection, and beauty, the locality may prove to be the most important yet found.” In a more recent report on the same section, and after having looked the ground over more thoroughly, he takes up the question and cost of mining the tourmaline gem, and says:
“There has been taken from one mine about $15,000 worth of gems, and six or seven thousand dollars’ worth were found within twelve feet of the surface. The best stones taken out are at a depth of fifty feet, and the predominating color is pink. Some of the last stones mined have more brilliancy than any stone except the diamond.
“The cost of working these mines is less than that of any other class of mines. After being opened it will not be necessary to handle any waste. At one of the mines nearly $1,000,000 worth of gems have been mined at a cost of less than $6,000.
“Mesa Grande produced in 1901–2 more tourmalines than the balance of the world, and it is claimed by experts that the best quality of Mesa Grande tourmalines are better than any tourmaline from any part of the world. The Siberian tourmaline has been sold for rubies for years, but they are not as brilliant as the Mesa Grande tourmaline.”
|Portion of San Diego County, California, where tourmaline mining is being carried on successfully.|
In addition to the tourmaline, rose beryl and other material that have been found at Mesa Grande is the spessatite garnet, found in garnet rock in brilliant crystals from five to fifteen millimeters in diameter. These are usually translucent, and, while they only furnish small transparent gems, possess great brilliancy and are in great demand in the gem market.
San Diego’s Gem Casket
By Richard Keene
An article originally published in The Pacific Monthly,
Vol. XV, No. 3
(Mar. 1906), pp. 328–334.
The resplendent reflected rays of the tiny facets comprising the perfected whole of a flawless jewel have kindled and rekindled, ever and anon, the inspiring fire of prophet and poet. From the stores of legendary lore, gathered from Arabia, Persia, India, South Africa, Egypt and Europe, we find the ever-continuing tribute to the mighty force of the tiny jewel, humanity’s “Multum in Parvo.”
In this article time and space will permit the writer to chip from the poetic gems of historical writings but limited illustration of the unison of the human mind in its adoration of the jewel from time immemorial, the greatest illustration of which is in the language of the tie that binds the ancient to the modern, the Jew to the Gentile—the Old Testament.
|Prospecting outfit preparing for the start. In the heart of the mines. (By courtesy of the San Diego Gem Company)|
That mighty genius, Shakespeare, in the “Merchant of Venice,” endows us with the celebrated “Caskets of Jewels” scene.
Music, not to be outdone, ushered through the brain of that marvelous composer, Gounod, the jewel scene in “Faust” as her contribution.
Mephisto, jealous of that matchless triumvirate, Holy Writ, Poetry and Music, and realizing that he could not beat that combination, slipped into tune and doffed his cap to the power of the jewel.
In the march of the ages, first one country and then another has come to the front with its gem discoveries, but only recently has our own beloved America, the youngest of the grown-up nations, spoken.
The last to speak, by no means the least; as the increasing attention of the jewelers of the world now being focused upon San Diego County, California, will prove.
|The last hotel on the road to the mine. (By courtesy of the San Diego Gem Company)|
While the industry is yet in its infancy, it promises in the near future to become of such importance that San Diego County can unfurl her banner to the world and say: “In our gems lies our greatness.”
Australia has its opals, Persia its turqoises [sic], and South Africa its diamonds; but it has remained for this favored spot, the most southwestern county of the United States, to surpass, by far, any known locality in the world in the production of tourmaline, hyacinth and beryl.
The progress which has been made in the mining and cutting of these gems has been little less than marvelous. Marvelous indeed! when you stop to consider that only a few years ago the existence of gems was entirely unknown in California.
Today there are at least twenty mines being successfully worked, producing hundreds of thousands of dollars’ worth of gems annually, which are cut and polished in San Diego by the San Diego lapidaries.
These gems, mined and cut by native sons, have been battling against competition not only in the United States, but they are at present forcing their way by superior quality and brilliancy of cutting into the markets of the world.
|In the heart of the mines. (By courtesy of the San Diego Gem Company)|
San Diego County produces both the quality and the quantity, and with the realization of the anticipated developments now planned for the San Diego County gem field, San Diego must ultimately be known as the gem center and literally the gem city of the Western hemisphere.
Years ago, during the early settlement of California, it was prophesied that California’s future greatness would be acquired from the superior natural advantages possessed by the soil and climate in the production of citrus fruits and as a retreat for the aged and invalids from the blizzards of the Eastern States.
This alone seemed adequate to entitle California to the honor of being christened the Italy of America, and San Diego the Naples of the Pacific Coast, but since the discovery of gems, and as these unknown prospects were gradually developed into valuable mines, it has dawned upon the time-honored prophets that more important than all else are the vast stores of precious stones hidden away in the unproductive-looking ledges of San Diego County.
|Recording formations from surface indications. (By courtesy of the San Diego Gem Company)|
THE FIRST DISCOVERIES.
But before going further, let us turn back to the time the first discoveries were made.
We will speak first of the prospector.
During the past, as at the present, the financial world has been in a great measure dependent upon the prospector to supply the source of investment which meets with the approval of the financial plunger and speculator.
To these same prospectors is due in a large degree the credit for the distinction San Diego enjoys as a gem center.
The gem district runs from northwest to southeast, across the west-central part of San Diego County, and this section of the country is rough and mountainous. The hillsides are mostly covered with dense, sprangling brush.
|Discovery and location of “The Hazel Dell” Hyacinth Mine. (By courtesy of the San Diego Gem Company)|
Prospecting is a peculiarly interesting study; for one must have not only a technical knowledge, but it is necessary to visit the various mining camps personally and thus practically study the formations, for no two gem districts are identical.
It is frequently the case that men who hold large mining interests know very little nor care to know, much concerning the daily routine in the working of a mine.
Neither would the man who understands the tempering of drill steel, the use of dynamite, or the hoisting and milling of ore, be successful as a prospector.
|Mr. D. Wilson, President of the San Diego Gem Company, an eminent mineralogical gem authority. (By courtesy of the San Diego Gem Company)|
The prospector, too, is invariably willing and prefers to turn over his undeveloped prospect to some one more specially adapted to that class of work than himself, and in turn go forth in search of surface indications of other deposits.
Thus you will see that the promoter, prospector and miner are separate and distinct from each other; yet each is dependent upon the other for his subsistence.
Prospectors in general, who first prepared themselves by necessary study and practical research, have been successful in finding the surface indications, which, when developed by sinking or tunneling on the ledge, have proven to be gem-bearing formations.
|Monument built upon the site of the first gem mine. (By courtesy of the San Diego Gem Company)|
That those mines in San Diego County, which have been developed or are at present being developed, have been and are profitable to their owners, must be admitted without question.
A few years ago at the time of the first discoveries and consequent exploitation of the present famous gem-producing mines, one of the leading mineralogists of the United States was consulted as to the possible extent of the gem deposits of San Diego County, and he stated as his opinion that it would be useless to attempt to mine for gems at a greater depth than twenty-five feet.
|A hard-earned rest. (By courtesy of the San Diego Gem Company)|
That this eminent authority was mistaken in his deductions is evidenced by the fact that at the present time there are gem mines in San Diego County which have been worked to a depth of one hundred feet, while the quality of the stones remains equal or superior to those found at a depth of twenty-five feet.
It is therefore with a confidence born of actual experience by competent authorities, that the statement is made that the quality of the California gems and the vastness of the deposits in San Diego County is unexcelled by any other gem-producing area in the known world. There are more gems in the ground by countless thousands than have ever been taken out, and it would be safe to say that the present production will be looked upon as merely a scratching of the earth’s crust in the light of the greater development to come.
|On the trail to Eagle Peak Hyacinth Mine. (By courtesy of the San Diego Gem Company)|
THE GEMS OF SAN DIEGO COUNTY.
Among the most beautiful and valuable gem stones found within the borders of San Diego County are the tourmaline, hyacinth and beryl.
There is a legend told about the tourmaline. Once upon a time there lived a hideous evil spirit, who being himself so ugly, was thrown into a terrible rage on seeing anything beautiful. One day while sitting on the edge of the cave in which he lived, he saw a rainbow in the sky above him, and on seeing its varied and beautiful colors, his anger knew no bounds. By the use of an evil spell he captured the many-hued rainbow and carried it into the dark fissure, where it remained unto this day, and prospectors finding pieces of the broken rainbow, crushed by this evil spirit in his fury, named them tourmaline.
The tourmaline is one of the most wonderful and beautiful of gems; wonderful in the complex number of elements necessary to its crystallization, and beautiful in its many hues, ranging from pure crystal white to jet black, in every shade of every color. Its colors are at times blended, and as many as three distinct colors occur in one crystal, usually in transverse sections, but sometimes in distinct layers or coatings, the center being red and the outside green, or vice versa.
|Gem mining at 130 degrees in the shade. (By courtesy of the San Diego Gem Company)|
There is evidence that these deposits were known and valued by the Indians long before they were discovered by the white man. Arrowheads of clear-colored tourmaline have been found in the vicinity of the present mines, while old graves are decorated with them, and quite frequently rounded tourmaline beads have been found buried among the property of the departed.
Although not possessing the range in color of the tourmaline group, the hyacinth runs in various shades from a light straw and golden yellow into a deep crimson, or columbine red, and has a brilliancy second only to the diamond. The true hyacinth is the zircon of mineralogy, and this is what has recently been discovered in San Diego County, but the hyacinth of commerce is mostly derived from varieties of garnet, the essonite being cinnamon colored, the succonite being straw or amber colored, and the spessartite being brownish red: Thus to the ordinary observer the difference in the brilliancy of the true hyacinth over the commercial substitute becomes at once apparent.
In the Southern California gem belt these hyacinths occur crystalized in a higher and more perfect condition than those found in any other locality on the globe. The commercial hyacinth, heretofore used, is readily fusible, but the San Diego hyacinths are practically infusible. Our wonderful hyacinths seem to have imbibed the sunshine of California’s balmy clime.
The largest hyacinth stone yet cut weighs a trifle over six carats, and was recently sold for $500.
|The Esmeralda Tourmaline mine at Mesa Grande. (By courtesy of the San Diego Gem Company)|
There are four members of the beryl family, the best known of which is the emerald, a green beryl colored by oxide of chronium [sic] and valued higher than the diamond. This variety has never yet been produced in San Diego County, but the other three varieties have been found in their highest and most perfect form of crystallization. The golden runs through the different shades of yellow, from light straw to deep golden. The aquamarine is the color of deep ocean water.
Last, but in reality the rarest of all, is the rose beryl, the color of the petal of the wild rose. The largest known rose beryl, weighing thirty-two and nine-sixteenth carats, with almost the brilliancy of the diamond, and without a flaw, has been produced in San Diego County. This gem is 8, or second to the diamond in hardness, and is valued at $750. Rose beryl has heretofore been found sparingly and was too rare to become generally known until the lid was raised from the gem casket in San Diego County.
|Entrance to Beryl Mine at Mesa Grande. (By courtesy of the San Diego Gem Company)|
THE CUTTING OF GEMS.
The method of cutting gems in San Diego is the method of the new world—the twentieth century process, cutting entirely by machinery manufactured expressly for the work, with such improvements as have been found to be best adapted to this field. To the improvements controlled and used only by the San Diego people are due the advanced methods that make the Southern California gems today occupy such an exclusive position in the gem world, acmes of brilliancy and perfection of design.
After a gem has been received at the lapidary, the rough stone is first carefully washed and then put through what is known as the roughing or shaping process, to get it in an approximate working shape before placing it in the little grinding machine known as the “Hand Piece.” Next, an exacting microscopic examination is made of the stone to locate any possible flaws in the gems themselves, which are embedded in the rough stone. If no flaws are found, it is next placed in the “Hand Piece” referred to above, and is speedily transformed from an unprepossessing stone to a beautiful and brilliant gem. This little machine—the “Hand Piece”—does its work with such accuracy that it will cut to the one-hundredth part of an inch, registering the degrees from 0 to 90.
The brilliancy of any cut stone depends upon three things, viz: first, the stone must be transparent and free from all flaws; second, and most important—in order that the stone may be brilliant—are the angles at which the facets are cut on the stone. These little planes (polished surfaces) called facets, arranged in rows around the stone, serve as mirrors, causing the sides and the back of the stone to reflect the light forward, while those on the top serve to break the light up into smaller reflections. These facets must be arranged proportionately in order that a brilliant effect may be secured. For instance, if the top facets are cut at an angle too steep in proportion to those on the bottom, the light will be diverted and a dead spot will appear in the center of the stone, or vice versa. To cut a stone to correct proportions, without undue waste, is the work of a genius—an accomplishment not to be acquired, but born with the operator. It is a problem requiring patience, diligence, a trained eye, but above all, a natural instinct of harmony of color, design and effect.
|A section of the San Diego Gem Company’s lapidary. (By courtesy of the San Diego Gem Company)|
The third and last essential in the production of a perfect gem, is that relating to the polishing process. This part of the work does not require the fine discrimination in judgment, nor yet the diligence which the cutting calls for. It is necessary, however, that each facet have a perfectly flat surface and not be rounded off, as is the procedure with most European cutters, who cut and polish the stones by hand on wooden laps, with which there is necessarily more or less oscillation, thus preventing the insurance of a perfectly flat surface. The rigidity with which American machines are constructed has a tendency to hold the stone solidly in its place while being polished on a metal lap, and has the effect of securing an absolutely plane surface, as rounded and poorly polished surfaces do not reflect bright lights.
By John Cowan
An article originally published in Mines and Minerals,
Vol. XXXII, No. 3
(Oct. 1911), pp. 181–182.
The Himalaya tourmaline mine, at Mesa Grande, is owned by the Himalaya Mining Co., of New York. The company’s agent in charge of the property is J. Goodman Braye, Jr., who was born in Australia, of African parentage, and who came to America when only a lad to make his fortune. He is now in sole charge of the greatest tourmaline mine in the world, so that his career furnishes proof that the accident of race or color is no bar to achievement in this country.
Externally the Himalaya tourmaline mine is as commonplace and uninviting as any coal mine. From 1898 until 1905 operations were conducted by surface or bench digging. Then the overburden of earth became so great that its removal was unduly expensive, and in the rainy season trouble was experienced with the caving in of the sides, so a tunnel was driven for a distance of several hundred feet, following the gem-bearing vein the whole way. This vein varies from 18 inches to nearly 4 feet in thickness. The tourmaline occurs in irregular pockets, mingled with talc, hydrous mica, and an extraordinary variety of other minerals, some of which possess some value, while others are worthless. Among these are lepidolite, quartz crystals, orthoclase, spodumene, muscovite, beryl, hornblende, spessarite and essonite garnet.
The entire mass of material in the pocket is removed, taken outside in mine cars, and conveyed to the washing plant, which is remarkable only for its simplicity. A hose is first turned upon the material, which sufficiently clears the large crystals and other minerals for their identification. Many of the small crystals are covered with tightly adherent talc and clay; so that the mass of small, broken mineral is placed in a suspended barrel, to which a hose is attached, permitting a steady stream of water to be poured in. An outlet in the end of the barrel permits the escape of the water. The barrel is shaken vigorously for as long as may be necessary for the removal of the clay and talc, and the material is then emptied upon trays. The tourmaline crystals and other gem materials worth saving are then picked out by hand.
|Fig. 1. Sorting Tourmalines at Mesa Grande|
The tourmaline crystals are sorted with respect to size and quality, varying from small, pencil-like crystals, not more than an eighth of an inch in diameter, up to crystals 2 or 3 inches in diameter. In these crystals almost all the colors of the rainbow may be found. Tourmaline is known by various names, depending upon the color. The red or pink transparent variety is called rubellite; the violet-red, siberite; the blue or bluish-black, indicolite; Berlin blue, Brazilian sapphire; green, Brazilian emerald; yellow or amber is known as Ceylonese peridot; colorless tourmaline as achroite; black, with resinous fracture, as aphrizite; and brown or greenish-black as dravite. All these varieties are found at Mesa Grande.
It is difficult to make a general statement of the value of tourmaline as a gem material, this depending upon its freedom from checks and flaws, its transparency, color, luster, and hardness. The great mass of tourmaline as it comes from the mine is worth but a few cents a carat, on account of checks, cracks, bubbles or lack of transparency, or the colors being too pale. Whatever value such material has as a jeweler’s material arises, in the main, from the cutting. But flawless tourmaline, of exceptional hardness, suitable for cutting in the same manner as diamonds is worth from $5 to $20 per carat. Material has been taken from the Himalaya mine that no one but an expert could tell from ruby; and specimens of green tourmaline are sometimes found that almost rival the emerald in appearance. So while some crystals are worth no more than quartz crystals or garnet, others of exceptional hardness and coloring nearly rival the diamond in value. The range of hardness is great, some specimens being 7, some 7.5 and some 8, in the scale in which the hardness of the diamond is 10.
China offers a ready market for all the pink tourmaline not readily absorbed by the American and European demand. Late in June the sale to Chinese dealers of many thousands of carats of this material from the Mesa Grande, was reported. Every year (in common with most other highly colored gems) tourmaline is coming more and more into favor, and is enhancing in price. However, in this country it does not yet enjoy the popularity it merits, as a distinctively American gem. One advantage it possesses is in the fact that it cannot be successfully imitated, owing to certain peculiar optical properties. Plates cut from transparent crystals, parallel to their length, are much used in experiments in optics, on account of their remarkable polarizing action on light.
Tourmaline is found in Burmah, India, Siberia, Germany, Brazil, Maine, Massachussetts [sic], Connecticut, New York, and California; but in most sections its occurrence is haphazard and uncertain, not justifying systematic mining operations. Nowhere are gems found so abundantly or of such remarkable size, beauty, richness and variety of coloring as at Mesa Grande. Only the Himalaya and San Diego mines are in operation, but the Esmerelda [sic] mine, a mile and a half distant, has yielded some fine gems and may give a good account of itself hereafter. Numerous other prospects have been located in various parts of San Diego and Riverside counties, but their value is problematical.
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Mkandawire Sitwe Benson (2005)similarities and differences between indigenous African education and that type of education which was brought by the missionaries. The discussion will start with aims, objectives, organization, administration, content and the methods of teaching.
The term education has got a lot of definitions. Different scholars in the world give different definitions in trying to capture the subject matter. Some scholars like Snelson (1974:1) defines education as
A condition of human survival. It is the means where by one generation transmits the wisdom, knowledge and experience which prepares the next generation for life’s duties and pleasure.
Although this definition may not cater or address all the issues raised in education, it helps us to have a wide knowledge about all aspects of education. This also helps us to act with more insight and more intelligence in molding the youths in an acceptable manner. As human beings, the kind of personality one becomes will depend very much on the home he/she is born into, on his parents, on his village in which they are brought up. It can also be based on his or her school and on the tribe or nation to which they belongs. The kind of personality will not only depend on the things mentioned but also on beliefs and ideas that he will encounter throughout his life.
Education existed as early as man’s history. It existed for a long time as human beings started living in societies of Africa and this education is referred to indigenous African education. We find evidence of possession of knowledge, skills and customs told by the old generation. On the other hand the missionaries of the Christian church brought modern education to Africa , who had concluded that Africans where completely uneducated. A mistake which they had.
However, there are a lot of similarities and differences between the two terms. One of the similarities between indigenous African education and the type of education brought by missionaries is that they had the same purpose of preparing of the young generation into a useful adult life in household, village and tribe. Both aimed at bringing up an individual as a responsible person in the society. This was done through the transmitting of attitudes, values, skills social understanding and the various customs of the society.
Both indigenous and missionary types of education had an aim of equipping leaders on how to perform social functions respecting of their adults and other people in the society.. For instance in the village or denomination to which they belonged, children were taught different survival skills.
Both types of education prepared individuals for employment in their own environment because they believed that people must have life. To this effect they taught people how to find food through farming. Areas which had fertile soils were identified as farms and various crops such as maize, beans and groundnuts where grown. Furthermore, they both believed that shelter was very important for people to live in. hence, construction of houses was encouraged and some of them developed the skill of building such shelters.
Both types of education believed in good morality that is how to live well. Education tended to focus on instruction as they where taught how to live in order to be accepted in the society. Accepted values and norms such as honesty, generosity, diligence and hospitality where part of civic education.
In terms of differences, we can say that, although both were agents of transmitting culture to the young generation, indigenous African education taught children their own African culture based within their own society while missionaries brought in their culture from another society specifically European to which African children were not very familiar with.
Indigenous African education was for everyone in Africa and existed for the purpose of strengthening the African community while missionaries aimed at promoting the growth of their church. The aims and objectives of indigenous African education according to Kelly (1999) were to teach or instilling of the accepted standards and beliefs governing good behaviour, creating unit and general agreement by people. However competition on practical and intellectual basis was encouraged while the education of the missionaries mainly focused on spreading Christianity
In terms of organization structure, the education brought by the missionaries was hierarchically structure from lowest to the highest level while African education according to Farrant (1980:30) states that “indegenious education had no schools or buildings or formal organization of either nation or local educational systems”.
As for indigenous African education, this clearly tells us that it had unstructured type of education in terms of hierarchy. This explains why education took place any time and anywhere in the indigenous African education. It could take place under a tree, in the bush as they where hunting or collecting fire wood or fruits. In some societies where education was largely informal parents where predominatly responsible for teaching using their house holds as the school. This house hold education covered practical skills and continued as long as the child lived with his/her parents. In short, this type of education was informal and there was no sort of organization at local or national level. In the economic sphere education depended on geographical point of location for that society to satisfy their own needs.
In terms of agriculture, Sherington (1987:8) pointed out that a person learnt how to grow crops in the indigenous African education such as finger millet, rice, wheat, sorghum, maize, sweetpotatoe and pumpkins. This was an economic system of education. Apart from this type of education system the indigenous African education also practiced technology in which they learned how to manufacture metal tools such as axes, hoes, spears, merchants, knives, arrows and bows. There was also a political stability of life among the indigenous African people which led to the political system. Society was based first of all on family relations; the smallest social unit was home stead in which a child learnt how to behave with the mother and father. Chief was recognized as a leader of all civil, military, judiciary and religious matters affecting the people in his area. This type of education had religious teachings centred on supreme beings with strong believes in the ancestral spirits. The young people had to learn when and why spirits of the departed had to be propitiated on ceremonial purification had to be performed. The value of certain charms and protective medicine.
Unlike indigenous education the missionaries had structured type of education since they had buildings where learning took place. This explains why they had an organized link between local and international institutions (outside). This type of education was formal and school building were well established. However, these established structures were divided into three categories that is lower level, middle level and upper level. They had curriculum and time table in place.
In spite of both indigenous and missionaries education having teachers, the indigenous African teachers were not specific. The teaching included any one elderly or knowledgeable person that the teachers. Missionary education had an obligation to train teachers and these were paid in kind. The trained teachers were those who could read, understand and interpret the bible. Training of teachers took place at normal schools.
On content of indigenous education, the physical environment influenced the content of the curriculum. This shows as that what was taught meant to assist the child to adjust and adapt to the environment so that the child could exploit and derive benefit from it. The child learnt about landscape, weather and about plants and animals so as to come to term with the environment. In addition, the physical situation influenced what practical skills the child acquired in order to be prepared for the future responsibilities. For instance, boys and girls who lived in fishing areas learnt such skills
In addition to what has been highlighted on above, the principle aim of the African education was to prepare an individual for self reliance, there was early introduction for adult life from six years. This was to free the infancy from dependants upon parents. To this effect, education was based on the assumption that an individual can participate in community life and benefit from the education the community had to offer. Learners were impacted with knowledge on survival skills such as carpentry, forming pottery and basketry. Unlike indigenous African education, missionaries’ type of education had a sore objective to spread the knowledge about religions among forefathers and other nations. The aim of spreading the world of God was to have people who are literate to read and interpret the bible. Most of the Christian leaders were nurtured through education in order to sing hymn songs in foreign language. The type of education that was brought by the missionaries was aimed at making Africans learn how to read and write so that Africans can easily be converted to Christianity. Thus, the missionaries were motivated to give formal education, (that is literacy and numercy) so that Africans could read the Bible (evangelization) and spread the gospel to others.
To a large extent the missionaries discarded our way of life. They thought we are ignorant and know nothing. They rejected much of tradition way of life because their desire was to convert as many as possible to Christianity religion. Thus, the education provided was biased towards religion.
Ocitti (1973) states that
African indigenous education, was highly centralised the powers were limited to tribal social division (family, lineage or village, clan, chiefdom). Organizations mainly describe the social relationships that existed, that are the rights and duties of husbands, wives and children. It also looks at whether a particular tribe is patrilineal, that is, Children belong to the husband or matrilineal where descent is towards the mother’s side or family. The relation between relatives (for example mothers or father’s brother) was also seen to have special importance to a child’s growing up.
In terms of facilitation, African indigenous education administration was being managed by the elders and not youths.
In the indigenous African education, children were strictly taught about land ownership and how people were to treaty. The whole land would be administered by the kings or chiefs who used to get into the throne through the matrilineal system of kingship in which someone gets into power through hereditary.
Politically, the indigenous African education was highly organized with strong beliefs in guardians. They belied in working in groups and generally the content of indigenous education had much stress on the communal and social aspect rather than on an individual. This was done mainly to prepare boys and girls for adult life in households, villages and tribes as mentioned earlier.
Mwanakatwe (1974)) argues that
The indigenous type of education is not flexible. That is why the type of education provided was “static”. This means that it was unchanging from generation to generation, in other words it was rather conservative and not innovative. Thus it was the same education that was practiced over and over for years. The content of indigenous education had its paramount importance on the detailed knowledge of physical environment and the skills to exploit it. For instance, hunting on the part of men and farming the part of females. It also had its stress on togetherness or unity as well as understanding the rights and obligation of each individual in a particular society. The concept of togetherness would teach the indigenous people on how to live and work with others within the societies or chiefdoms. The rights and obligations will put in place the extent and limitations of individual rights. This was responsible for making sure that boys and girls understand what is required of them in a particular society.
In summary, indigenous African education was more practical than the kind of education brought by the missionaries. Indigenous type of education had a bearing to the traditions, norms and cultural being to the society to which the children belonged. African education was not well structured while western education was well structured and it was bookish. African education gave a sense of belonging to the culture while the missionaries kind of education did not.
Kelly, M.J. (1998). Origins and Development of Education in Zambia , Lusaka : Image
Mwanakatwe M.J. (1974). The growth of Education in Zambia Since Independence,
Lusaka : Oxford UNZA Press.
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to the Rescue
the sci-fi Blob that grew exponentially as it ate people, an unruly foreign
plant known as Giant Salvinia now threatens to blanket lakes in at least
12 states. The plant, found naturally in Brazil and Bolivia, floats on
water and grows unimaginably fast. Small lakes can be covered by dense
mats of the weed in days. Accumulating to a thicknesses of up to three
feet, the colonies block sunlight to waters below, killing indigenous
plants, bugs, and fish. The result is not only environmental destruction
but also devastation to the local economy and industries like fishing,
farming, and hydroelectric power. What's worse, recreational boaters
who trailer their boats from one lake to another are suspected of causing
most of the Salvinia's spreading.
plant has been an enormous problem in 12 countries and three continents,"
says Philip Tipping, PhD, a research entomologist at the U.S. Dept. of
Agriculture. "In the 1980s it brought the shipping industry in New
Guinea to its knees. Now it's here."
help is on the way. In October Tipping led a new assault on the vile vegetation.
He released more than 1,000 Australian weevils at lakes in Texas and Louisiana.
The insects, originally from Brazil, feed exclusively on the plant by
tunneling through its foliage and eating its terminal buds.
strategy has worked phenomenally in other places, including New Guinea.
But will they kill off the Giant Salvinia here? "I would expect
these insects to work extremely fast on this plant," Tipping says.
"But we'll have to wait and see."
meantime, Tipping says boaters should be careful to clean their hulls
thoroughly before hauling them to other lakes.
SHELVES: The Cruiser's Guide to Hurricane Survival
Every year hurricane season catches many boaters off guard. Now's
the perfect time to prepare yourself for this year's squalls. The
Cruiser's Guide to Hurricane Survival tells you how to weather
the biggest storms, whether you're at the dock, on the hook, or
coming in from sea. With tons of photos and diagrams, the book not only
helps you identify weather patterns from barometer and wind data, but
also how to protect your boat in any conditions. You can also order an
e-mail version of the book for $9.95 at www.cruisingguides.com.
$14.95, paperback. Cruising Guide Publications.
4. The Chesapeake Bay Boat Show in Baltimore. (212) 984-7000.
Jan. 31 - Feb. 3. The 19th-annual Hartford Boat Show in Hartford,
Connecticut. (860) 767-2645.
6-9. IBEX in Fort Lauderdale. (207) 359-4651.
13-18. The Grand Center Boat Show in Grand Rapids, Michigan. (800)
14-18. The Yacht & Brokerage Show in Miami. (954) 764-7642.
14-20. The 59th-annual Miami International Boat Show. (305) 531-8410.
15-17. The 19th-annual Boat Show in Ocean City, Maryland. (410)
15-18. The Pennsylvania Boat Show in Philadelphia. (804) 288-5653.
21-24. The New Jersey Boat Show in Edison. (732) 449-4004.
page > Manhunt for a Boatbuilder, and more!
> Page 1, 2
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New concepts for the reuse of Microplastics
Waste, including the microplastic agglomerates from our removal processes, is recyclable. In our research area reuse, we investigate how these valuable residues could get back into the value chain. The key: circular economy meets resource conservation.
Produce, consume, throw away - this form of economic activity is a one-way street. The existing linear economy is incompatible with planetary challenges and boundaries and does not do justice to the efforts to preserve our earth.
Society, science, politics, and business must find a responsible approach to our limited resources and make the cycle the new guiding principle. Recycling and saving resources are key concepts.
Responsible research for more value
From the start of our research projects, we think about the end..
This includes that we identify recycling concepts for our microplastic removal products. For us, thermal decomposition is the last resort, if at all.
The waste products from Wasser 3.0 PE-X® become the basis for new products. We understand wastewater treatment to be a value creation process. The treated water can either be reused as process water or discharged as microplastic or micropollutant-free wastewater.
There is an individual reuse concept for each removal process, depending on the composition of the pollutants and the properties of the water.
detect | remove | reuse describes Wasser 3.0 in a circular economy context. Only those who close the cycle work sustainably. With Wasser 3.0 reuse, we research the reuse of our agglomerates.
We do research for more ECO³ in all processes.
- Save water.
- Avoid waste.
- Improve water quality.
A circular economy strategy for water treatment
For Wasser 3.0 reuse, we work with innovatively thinking and acting partners to find and research new product applications for our microplastic removal products.
Wasser 3.0 reuse reduces the need for fossil resources, reduces the carbon footprint, and meets the standards of zero waste and circular economy.
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kick ( kicks plural & 3rd person present) ( kicking present participle) ( kicked past tense & past participle )
1 verb If you kick someone or something, you hit them forcefully with your foot.
He kicked the door hard... V n
He threw me to the ground and started to kick... V
He escaped by kicking open the window... V n with adj
The fiery actress kicked him in the shins... V n in n
An ostrich can kick a man to death. V n to n
Kick is also a noun., n-count
He suffered a kick to the knee.
2 verb When you kick a ball or other object, you hit it with your foot so that it moves through the air.
I went to kick the ball and I completely missed it... V n
He kicked the ball away... V n with adv
A furious player kicked his racket into the grandstand. V n prep
Kick is also a noun., n-count
Schmeichel swooped to save the first kick from Borisov.
3 verb If you kick or if you kick your legs, you move your legs with very quick, small, and forceful movements, once or repeatedly.
They were dragged away struggling and kicking... V
First he kicked the left leg, then he kicked the right... V n
He kicked his feet away from the window. V n adv/prep, Also V prep
Kick out means the same as kick., phrasal verb
As its rider tried to free it, the horse kicked out. V P
4 verb If you kick your legs, you lift your legs up very high one after the other, for example when you are dancing.
He was kicking his legs like a Can Can dancer... V n
She begins dancing, kicking her legs high in the air. V n adj
5 verb If you kick a habit, you stop doing something that is bad for you and that you find difficult to stop doing.
INFORMAL She's kicked her drug habit and learned that her life has value... V n
6 n-sing If something gives you a kick, it makes you feel very excited or very happy for a short period of time.
INFORMAL a N
I got a kick out of seeing my name in print.
7 If you say that someone kicks you when you are down, you think they are behaving unfairly because they are attacking you when you are in a weak position.
kick you when you are down phrase V inflects
In the end I just couldn't kick Jimmy when he was down.
8 If you say that someone does something for kicks, you mean that they do it because they think it will be exciting.
for kicks phrase PHR after v
They made a few small bets for kicks.
9 If you say that someone is dragged kicking and screaminginto a particular course of action, you are emphasizing that they are very unwilling to do what they are being made to do.
kicking and screaming phrase PHR after v, oft PHR into n/-ing (emphasis)
He had to be dragged kicking and screaming into action.
10 If you describe an event as a kick in the teeth, you are emphasizing that it is very disappointing and upsetting.
kick in the teeth phrase usu v-link PHR, PHR after v (emphasis)
We've been struggling for years and it's a real kick in the teeth to see a new band make it ahead of us.
11 You use kickyourself in expressions such as I could have kicked myself and you're going to kick yourself to indicate that you were annoyed or are going to be annoyed that you got something wrong.
kick oneself phrase V inflects (feelings)
I was still kicking myself for not paying attention...
alive and kicking
to kick up a fuss
fuss kick around phrasal verb If you kick around ideas or suggestions, you discuss them informally.
INFORMAL We kicked a few ideas around... V n P
They started to kick around the idea of an electric scraper. V P n (not pron) kick back phrasal verb If you kick back, you relax.
INFORMAL As soon as they've finished up, they kick back and wait for the next show. V P kick down , kick in phrasal verb If someone kicks something down or if they kick it in, they hit it violently with their foot so that it breaks or falls over.
(=break down, smash down)
She was forced to kick down the front door... V P n (not pron), Also V n P kick in
1 phrasal verb If something kicks in, it begins to take effect.
As discounts kicked in, bookings for immediate travel rose by 15%... V P
2 phrasal verb If someone kicks in a particular amount of money, they provide that amount of money to help pay for something.
Kansas City area churches kicked in $35,000 to support the event... V P n (not pron)
kick down kick off
1 phrasal verb In football, when the players kick off, they start a game by kicking the ball from the centre of the pitch.
Liverpool kicked off an hour ago. V P
2 phrasal verb If an event, game, series, or discussion kicks off, or is kicked off, it begins.
The shows kick off on October 24th... V P
The Mayor kicked off the party... V P n (not pron)
We kicked off with a slap-up dinner. V P with n, Also V n P
3 phrasal verb If you kick off your shoes, you shake your feet so that your shoes come off.
She stretched out on the sofa and kicked off her shoes. V P n (not pron), Also V n P
4 phrasal verb To kick someone off an area of land means to force them to leave it.
INFORMAL We can't kick them off the island. V n P n, Also V n P kick out phrasal verb To kick someone outof a place means to force them to leave it.
The country's leaders kicked five foreign journalists out of the country... V n P of n
Her family kicked her out. V n P, Also V P n (not pron)
kick 3 kick up
1 phrasal verb If you kick up a fuss about something, you make it very obvious that you are annoyed or dissatisfied.
Those customers who have kicked up a fuss have received refunds... V P n (not pron)
2 phrasal verb If you kick up dust or dirt, you create a cloud of dust or dirt as you move along a dusty road.
(=stir up) She shuffled along, kicking up clouds of dust. V P n (not pron)
free kick ( free kicks plural ) In a game of football, when there is a free kick, the ball is given to a member of one side to kick because a member of the other side has broken a rule. n-count
kick boxing , kickboxing
Kick boxing is a type of boxing in which the opponents are allowed to kick as well as punch each other. n-uncount
kick-off ( kick-offs plural )
in AM, use kickoff
1 n-var In football, the kick-off is the time at which a particular game starts.
The kick-off is at 1.30.
2 n-count In American football, a kickoff is the kick that begins a play, for example at the beginning of a half or after a touchdown or field goal.
3 n-sing The kick-off of an event or activity is its beginning.
INFORMAL People stood waiting for the kick-off of the parade.
kick-start ( kick-starts plural & 3rd person present) ( kick-starting present participle) ( kick-started past tense & past participle ) , kickstart
1 verb To kick-start a process that has stopped working or progressing is to take a course of action that will quickly start it going again.
The President has chosen to kick-start the economy by slashing interest rates. V n
Kick-start is also a noun., n-count
The housing market needs a kick-start.
2 verb If you kick-start a motorcycle, you press the lever that starts it with your foot.
He lifted the bike off its stand and kick-started it. V n
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Good safeguarding practice
Access to adults suspected to be at risk or abuse or neglect
This guide aims to clarify the different types of legal powers that can be called upon when access to an adult who is suspected to be at risk of neglect or abuse is required but, for whatever reason, is being denied or restricted.
Berkshire Safeguarding Adults Policy and Procedures
The purpose of the Berkshire Safeguarding Adults Policy and Procedures is to support staff to respond appropriately to all concerns of abuse or neglect they may encounter, providing a consistent response across the county. They are updated regularly and practitioners are encouraged to refer to the online version rather than download and retain a copy.
A considerable proportion of safeguarding adults work relates to the abuse or neglect of people with care and support needs who are living in their own homes. Domestic abuse can take many other forms and be perpetrated by a range of people. Adult Safeguarding and Domestic Abuse This guide sets out the overlaps between safeguarding and domestic abuse and the approaches and legal frameworks for domestic abuse that can be used in the safeguarding context.
Female Genital Mutilation
FGM is illegal in the UK. It is also illegal to take a British national or permanent resident abroad for FGM or to help someone trying to do this. The Berkshire Child Protection Procedures includes a clear pathway on what to do if you suspect FGM. Further information on FGM.
Indicators of Abuse
Some adults at risk may reveal abuse themselves by talking about or drawing attention to physical signs, or – where verbal communication is limited or absent – displaying certain actions or gestures. Practitioners and carers need to be aware of these signs and understand what they may mean. This Good practice guide by SCIE lists possible indicators and examples of behaviour to help practitioners identify abuse.
Making Safeguarding Personal
Adult safeguarding arrangements are there to protect individuals. Making safeguarding personal means it should be person-led and outcome-focused. It engages the person in a conversation about how best to respond to their safeguarding situation in a way that enhances involvement, choice and control as well as improving quality of life, wellbeing and safety. The Making Safeguarding Personal Toolkit sets out models, theories and approaches that safeguarding practitioners need to be aware of. It can be used as a practitioner guide for pointers on how to respond to individual cases, or as a starting point resource for service development. It has been designed as a resource that will develop over time and allow updates and amendments to be made as development takes place or innovative and effective practice comes to light.
Mental Capacity Act
The Mental Capacity Act (MCA) is designed to protect and empower individuals who may lack the mental capacity to make their own decisions about their care and treatment. It is a law that applies to individuals aged 16 and over. There is a Mental Capacity Act Code of Practice 2005. Case Study: a practical analysis of a mental capacity assessment is a practice analysis reflecting on issues of mental capacity, choice, best interests and deprivation of liberty.
See also Deprivation of Liberty Safeguards.
Modern slavery and human trafficking
Modern slavery is a serious crime. It encompasses slavery, servitude, and forced or compulsory labour and human trafficking. Modern slavery victims can often face more than one type of abuse and slavery, for example if they are sold to another trafficker and then forced into another form of exploitation. A person is trafficked if they are brought to (or moved around) a country by others who threaten, frighten, hurt and force them to do work or other things they don’t want to do. Specified public authorities have a duty to notify the Home Office about any potential victims of modern slavery they encounter in England and Wales.
Modern slavery information for workers in Health, Housing and Education.
Modern Slavery Helpline. Call 08000 121 700 to get help, report a suspicion or get advice.
How to report modern slavery
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(the information on this page is public commons – please do share!)
Oppression is the use of power to disempower, marginalize, silence or otherwise subordinate one social group or category, often in order to further empower and/or privilege the oppressor. Social oppression may not require formally established organizational support to achieve its desired effect; it may be applied on a more informal, yet more focused, individual basis.
The Anti-Oppression network seeks to recognize the oppressions that exist in our society, and attempts to mitigate its affects and eventually equalize the power imbalance in our communities.
Basically there are certain groups in our society and communities that hold power over others based on their membership in those groups. For example, if you were to look at the demographics of the CEO’s of any major corporation, city council, parliament etc. you would notice that most if not all of these positions of great power are populated by white (publicly straight) males. On the flip side, if you were to look at the demographics of janitorial staff or fast food workers you might notice that these positions are populated largely by persons of colour, specifically women of colour. When studying the statistics of those receiving social assistance, or state aid, you would also notice that the vast majority of those in our communities living in this poverty are folks with disabilities and the elderly.
Black people | Women | People of Colour | LGBT2IQ – Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans, 2spirit, Intersex, Queer people | Seniors/Elders | Folks with disabilities | Low-income people | People of Indigenous ancestry | Children/Teenagers/Youth | Fat folks | Peoples with mental health struggles | New immigrants/Refugees | ELL – English Language Learners | Marginalized animal species | etc. (Certainly there are more, and communities like LGBT2IQ are problematic where as oppression exists where the more privileged believe their needs are greater than others)
Practicing anti-oppression work in real terms is not only confronting individual examples of bigotry, or confronting societal examples, it is also confronting ourselves and our own roles of power and oppression in our communities and the bigger picture.
Though you may be a person that would never think to ever say anything racist/sexist/classist etc., by not realizing the power that you hold, and how your actions affect other people you will inevitably fall into sustaining and contributing to a larger system of oppression.
The theory of kyriarchy is that individually we are all oppressed while we are all oppressors. While you may be a person who is historically marginalized (a person of colour for example) you may also have a role and be a member of a group that is oppressive to others (while you are a person of colour, you may also be a man, an abled person, upper/middle class, straight etc.) The idea is that no single oppression holds more weight than another, and that we all have a role in combating oppression and unequal power dynamics.
(The information above was taken – in part – from this page. It is very similar to much information online.)
for a more comprehensive definition of oppression and other terminology check out: https://theantioppressionnetwork.wordpress.com/resources/terminologies-of-oppression/
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Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Fact Sheet
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is the most commonly diagnosed disorder in children and teens. Its hallmark symptoms include hyperactivity, inattention, and impulsivity. Children have difficulty concentrating, following instructions, sitting still, and interacting with others. Some kids may call out answers without waiting their turn and make inappropriate comments. Others might be quiet and keep to themselves, daydreaming away at their desks.
ADHD also affects approximately 4 percent of adults, according to the National Institute of Mental Health. These adults have problems with organization, time management, sustaining their attention, completing tasks and controlling their emotions. They can miss deadlines, speak without thinking, get easily distracted, misplace items, and have trouble remembering things. Similar to children, symptoms in adults can vary — some adults might be especially gregarious while others withdraw and isolate themselves.
For both kids and adults, these symptoms create problems at school, work, and in relationships. Though ADHD can make daily life difficult, it’s effectively treated with medication and psychotherapy. If you think you or a loved one has ADHD, see a mental health professional for a comprehensive evaluation.
What Are the Risk Factors and Causes of ADHD?
Like other psychological disorders, ADHD is caused by a multitude of factors, including the following.
- Genetics: Studies show that ADHD runs in families with greater frequency than in the general population. Twin studies have attributed about 80 percent of ADHD to genes (see Faraone, 2004), though estimates vary. Researchers also have explored the contribution of specific genes. A recent large-scale study demonstrated that many genes are involved in ADHD (see genetic determinants of ADHD). Since many symptoms make up the disorder, that would seem to make sense.
- Environment: The maternal environment might increase the risk for ADHD, including smoking during pregnancy (in an already genetically susceptible child), low birth weight and mom’s mental health. Some research has found that preschool children exposed to high levels of lead might be vulnerable to ADHD (Braun, Kahn, Froehlich, Auinger & Lanphea, 2006). Also, ADHD seems to be associated with traumatic events, such as emotional or physical abuse (see Banerjee, Middleton & Faraone, 2007).
- Food additives: The hypothesis that food additives increase ADHD risk has been a controversial one. A recent study found that drinking beverages with food additives increased hyperactivity in children without ADHD (see here and here).
- Brain injury: Head trauma can cause ADHD-like symptoms, though only a small percentage of children with ADHD have experienced brain injury, according to the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH). Also, a recent study disputes this hypothesis.
Symptoms of ADHD
- Misses details and makes careless mistakes
- Is unable to organize tasks and activities
- Has difficulty following through on instructions and completing assignments
- Gets bored with a task after only several minutes
- Doesn’t seem to listen when spoken to
- Is easily distracted
- Often loses toys, school supplies, or anything necessary for a particular task
- Is often forgetful
- Avoids, dislikes, or hesitates to participate in activities that require continuous mental effort (e.g., homework)
- Fidgets or squirms in seat
- Leaves his or her seat when it isn’t appropriate
- Runs or climbs when it isn’t appropriate (in adults, this might be restlessness)
- Frequently has difficulty playing or participating in activities quietly
- Often acts like he or she is “on the go” or “driven by a motor”
- Talks excessively
- Blurts out answers before questions are completed
- Has a tough time awaiting his or her turn
- Interrupts others (e.g., disrupts a conversation or game)
Issues with Adult Diagnosis
The criteria for diagnosing children with ADHD are reliable. However, since they were originally created with children in mind, they may be inappropriate for diagnosing adults.
Many symptoms adults commonly experience, including procrastination, poor motivation, and time management problems, are excluded from the criteria (see Davidson, 2008). Also, it can be difficult to distinguish ADHD from other psychological disorders, including depression, bipolar disorder, and generalized anxiety.
What Are the Different Types of ADHD?
- Predominantly Inattentive Type: A prevalent diagnosis among adults, this type shows six or more symptoms from the inattention category and fewer than six symptoms from the hyperactive-impulsive (but individuals can exhibit some of these symptoms).
- Predominantly Hyperactive-Impulsive Type: These individuals show six or more symptoms from the hyperactive-impulsive category and fewer than six symptoms from the inattention type (but some of these symptoms can be present).
- Combined Type: Common in children, this type exhibits six or more symptoms of the inattentive type along with six or more symptoms from the hyperactive-impulsive type.
How Is ADHD Diagnosed?
A trained mental health professional, such as a psychologist, psychiatrist, or therapist, can accurately diagnose ADHD. This is done with a face-to-face clinical interview. The practitioner will take a comprehensive history, including current and past symptoms, medical conditions, co-existing psychological disorders and family history. When diagnosing ADHD in children, the practitioner will gather information from parents and teachers.
What Treatments Exist for ADHD?
Both children and adults with ADHD are treated with psychotherapy, medication, or both.
What Kinds of Medications Are Used for ADHD?
Both stimulants and nonstimulants are prescribed to treat ADHD, helping to improve academic, occupational and social functioning. Medication is available in either a short-acting dose (which lasts for about four hours) or a long-acting dose (which lasts about 12 hours).
Contrary to their name, stimulants actually calm patients and are used as the first line of treatment. They help control hyperactivity, impulsivity, and inattention, improving an individual’s ability to concentrate, learn, follow instructions, and interact with others.
There are two primary types of stimulants—methylphenidate-based (Ritalin, Concerta, Metadate) and amphetamine-based (Adderall, Dexedrine).
Studies have shown that these medications are safe. Side effects may include trouble sleeping, loss of appetite and anxiety. Because of this, stimulants might not be appropriate for someone who already has anxiety.
There are several concerns with prescribing stimulants for children:
- Stunted growth. Though there might be subtle effects, it seems stimulants don’t affect one’s ultimate height and weight, according to a recent review (Faraone, Biederman, Morley & Spencer, 2008). The authors did note that doctors should still monitor children’s height.
- Addiction and future drug abuse. Many parents also worry their kids will become addicted to stimulants and develop drug abuse problems. However, a great deal of research has found that taking stimulants does not increase an individual’s risk for substance abuse (see Biederman, Monuteaux, Spencer, Wilens, MacPherson & Faraone, 2008). Interestingly, some research has even shown protective effects—children who respond well to stimulants are at lower risk for alcohol and substance-related problems. (This might not be true for adults).
- Heart problems. Rare, but fatal cardiac complications may occur in children with underlying heart disease. For this reason, the American Heart Association has recommended that all children with ADHD have cardiovascular screenings before they’re prescribed stimulants.
- Nonstimulants. Atomoxetine (Strattera) was the first and so far only nonstimulant medication to receive approval to treat childhood ADHD. It also was the first ADHD medication approved for adults. Strattera lasts 24 hours as opposed to the four- or 12-hour effects of other stimulants. Its side effects also include insomnia and loss of appetite, though this is more common with stimulants.The FDA has required that Strattera be sold with a black box warning about suicidal risk; it might increase children’s and teens’ suicidal thinking and behavior.
- Medication concerns for adults. All of the above medications also are prescribed to adults with ADHD. However, because of the high risk for abuse, there is controversy over prescribing stimulants to adults with a history of substance abuse — prevalent among adults with ADHD, reports ADDitude.
Psychotherapy is a significant component of ADHD treatment, because it teaches both children and adults the skills they need to succeed. In addition to therapy, many adults with ADHD work with a coach who helps them get organized and develop and achieve their goals and can provide valuable feedback and support. For more details on ADD coaches see here and here.
Behavior therapy is just as it sounds: It helps promote appropriate behavior (e.g., doing one’s homework) and decrease problem behavior (e.g., acting out in class). The therapist, parents, and teachers establish rewards and consequences to promote positive behaviors.
Cognitive-behavioral therapy helps adults identify negative thoughts and behaviors and change them. In addition, individuals learn how to overcome everyday struggles, including problems with organization and time management.
Social skills training teaches both adults and children how to interact appropriately with others and build healthy relationships. Individuals with ADHD tend to have difficulty understanding social cues (e.g., facial expressions; body language) and might come off as inattentive or offensive.
What Do I Do Next?
If you think you have or a loved one has ADHD, you’ve already accomplished your first step: educating yourself about the disorder. For more detailed information, check out our ADHD guide and complete an ADHD questionnaire. Sometimes it helps to know that you’re not alone, and that many famous people also live with ADD.
To receive a comprehensive clinical assessment, see a mental health professional or check with your primary care physician or community mental health clinic. Remember that ADHD can be successfully managed, so it’s essential to get evaluated as soon as possible.
Tartakovsky, M. (2020). Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Fact Sheet. Psych Central. Retrieved on February 26, 2020, from https://psychcentral.com/adhd/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-fact-sheet/
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Located underneath the liver, the gallbladder is a small organ that stores digestive fluid known as bile. Gallstones form when bile hardens into solid deposits. They can range in size from minor concretions to large masses, and gallbladder pain caused by gallstones will vary depending on how they affect a specific individual.
When gallstones block the flow of bile into the small intestine, gallbladder removal surgery is necessary to the correct the problem. Dr. Kamrava is a fellowship-trained and board-certified colorectal surgeon who specializes in minimally invasive surgical techniques that provide the highest levels of care and success rates for his patients.
Who Develops Gallstones?
In the United States, gallstones are a common condition that occurs in both men and women. Individuals who are 40 years of age of older have a higher chance of developing gallstones. While some people may develop only one gallstone, others develop many at one time. If gallstones do not produce any physical symptoms, medical treatment is not typically necessary. Gallstones become a health concern when they block the standard flow of bile from passing from the gallbladder in the intestines.
What Causes Gallbladder Pain?
Gallstones may exist for years without any symptoms. When they cause an infection in the body’s bile ducts, they will cause gallbladder pain. The exact reason that gallstones form is unclear, but low-fiber, high-cholesterol diets may contribute to the formation of gallstones in the gallbladder. Many gallstones are primarily made up of cholesterol. When gallstones migrate into the ducts of the biliary tract, the condition is referred to as choledocholithiasis; an obstruction of the biliary tree can lead to acute ascending cholangitis, which is a serious infection of the bile ducts. When gallstones obstruct the exocrine system, a person may develop pancreatitis.
In addition to gallbladder pain, a number of other symptoms may be a sign that you’re suffering from gallstones. Although the size and number of gallstones has not been shown to influence gallbladder pain or symptoms, a person may first become aware of the presence of gallstones when they experience intense pain in the upper-right side of the mid-section of the body. This type of “gallbladder attack” is often accompanied by nausea and vomiting. A high fever with chills or yellowing of the skin may also be present. It’s important to seek immediate medical care if you experience any of those symptoms.
Gallbladder Pain Frequently Asked Questions
A proper diagnosis of your condition is the first step to effective gallbladder pain treatment. To help you learn more about gallstones, here are answers to frequently asked questions about the condition. Don’t hesitate to contact Dr. Kamrava if you’re experiencing gallstone symptoms or gallbladder pain. Call our office at 424.279.8222 to schedule an appointment.
Q: What causes gallstones?
A: Bile normally passes through the gallbladder, but when the substance hardens, gallstones form. The exact that this happens is unclear, but since many gallstones commonly consist of cholesterol, a high-cholesterol diet may make individuals more prone to developing gallstones.
Q: Is gallbladder pain always severe?
A: Some gallstones may not cause any symptoms, but when you experience gallbladder pain, it will often be severe discomfort in the upper-right portion of your abdomen that lasts from 30 minutes to several hours. The pain typically takes place at night after a meal.
Q: When should you see a doctor about gallstone symptoms?
A: Gallstones that do not produce any physical symptoms often can be left alone and do not need medical intervention. However, the pain and discomfort that gallstones potentially produce should not be left untreated. Intense pain that makes it difficult to get comfortable, accompanied by a fever or chills, may be a sign of a “gallstone attack.” A doctor should be consulted immediately.
Q: How are gallstones diagnosed?
A: When a patient exhibits signs and symptoms of gallstones, an ultrasound or radionuclide biliary scan can confirm the presence of gallstones.
Q: Are there different types of gallbladder removal surgeries?
A: Standard open surgery makes a large incision to remove the gallbladder. Dr. Kamrava uses a minimally invasive technique called laparoscopic surgery. Through this advanced procedure, the gallbladder is removed with only four small incisions. Minimally invasive surgeries offer reduced scarring, pain, and recovery time.
Call Today to Schedule a Gallstones Consultation With Dr. Kamrava
Make an appointment with Dr. Kamrava as soon as possible if you’ve been suffering from gallstone symptoms. If you need surgery, he’ll advise the best treatment method to remove your gallstones and get you feeling better soon. Schedule an appointment today by calling 424.279.8222!
Next, learn about lipomas.
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[Seven Ways to Think Like the Web] by Jon Udell
1. It’s all just data.
2. Data doesn’t mean anything on its own—it has to be interpreted.
3. Programming is about creating and composing abstractions.
4. Models are for computers, and views are for people.
5. Paranoia makes us productive.
6. Better algorithms are better than better hardware.
7. The tool shapes the hand.
"I want to take pride in my work. I want to deliver working, stable things. To do that, we need to understand what we are building, in and out, and that’s impossible to do in bloated, over-engineered systems.
So it’s our mission as engineers to show the world what’s possible with today’s computers in terms of performance, reliability, quality, usability. If we care, people will learn."
[Reading Code vs. Reading Tutorials]
Tutorials can often include extra, making it harder to extract the minimal amount of code you need to try the feature out in the first place! This is where seeing the code can be more helpful.
Warning: Using this approach, you may miss out on important underlying principles which the author had taken the time to explain in the tutorial, such as gotchas and warnings as to when such a feature may not be the right approach.
Password rotation = changing/resetting of a password(s). Limiting the lifespan of a password reduces the risk from and effectiveness of password-based attacks and exploits, by condensing the window of time during which a stolen password may be valid.
[SoR vs SSOT]
System of Record = Identified authority for a data element or entity.
-- Single piece of information is replicated and stored multiple times across multiple databases backing various systems.
Single Source Of Truth = practice of structuring information models and associated data schema such that every data element is stored exactly once.
-- the single piece of information is only stored once in a single database.
[ IaaS vs PaaS vs Saas ]
'=' stands for 'you manage'
Infrastructure as a Service = App + Data + Runtime + Middleware + O/S
e.g. DigitalOcean, Linode, Rackspace, Amazon Web Services (AWS), Cisco Metapod, Microsoft Azure, Google Compute Engine (GCE)
Platform as a Service = App + Data
e.g. AWS Elastic Beanstalk, Windows Azure, Heroku
Software as a Service = Nothing!
e.g. Google Apps, Dropbox
"Policy as code is the idea of writing code in a high-level language to manage and automate policies. By representing policies as code in text files, proven software development best practices can be adopted such as version control, automated testing, and automated deployment."
"Infrastructure as code (IaC) is the process of managing and provisioning computer data centers through machine-readable definition files, rather than physical hardware configuration or interactive configuration tools."
"Terraform is an open-source infrastructure as code software tool created by HashiCorp. It enables users to define and provision a datacenter infrastructure using a high-level configuration language known as Hashicorp Configuration Language or JSON."
Tried the GDPR data export from Spotify. By default, you get like 6 JSON files with almost nothing. After many emails and complaining and a month of waiting, I got a 250MB archive with basically EVERY INTERACTION I ever did with any Spotify client, all my searches. Everything.
Another key quote:
> We went the IBM way, and we probably didn't realize it. All that we do today is built for structured teams of thousands of engineers. We prioritize big batch development over individual productivity.
[ Is true hacking dead? What we lost. ]
"today newest languages focus primarily in being able to gobble up millions of lines of code in various modules while making iteration and direct manipulation increasingly inefficient"
"The new IBMs do know very well that lines of code are for the most part worthless, but people and communities aren't, so it's a no brainer to opensource more if in change one gets more people involved in a project, and more engineers hired..."
The Configuration Complexity Curse
"Don’t be a YAML Engineer"
"Unknown Fund is Going to Invest and Donate $75 Million for the Development of Ideas of Anonymity"
"Researchers found most participants raised few or no suspicions when presented with wrong answers, until the answers were quite wrong.
one positive takeaway from the calculator study is that training is critical if we want to improve people’s cybersecurity practices. This includes training individuals on what to do as online users, how to do it, and why it’s important."
[ Do Not Use VPN ] https://gist.github.com/joepie91/5a9909939e6ce7d09e29
"Mozilla is working on integrating a privacy-focused rival to Google Translate that will enable Firefox users to read pages in different languages without gobbling up data."
The 100:10:1 method: my approach to open source
100 [ wackyIdeas ] :10 [ MinimumViableProduct (MVP) ] :1 [
An Internet exchange point (IX or IXP) is the physical infrastructure through which Internet service providers (ISPs) and content delivery networks (CDNs) exchange Internet traffic between their networks (autonomous systems).
Fosstodon is an English speaking Mastodon instance that is open to anyone who is interested in technology; particularly free & open source software.
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Area Bridge A National Historic Landmark
Knights Ferry Bridge
The federal government has announced the designation of 26 national historic landmarks.
The Knights Ferry Bridge has joined the prestigious list. The Interior Department reports that the bridge was constructed from 1862-63. It is considered a great example of 19th-century covered bridge construction using the William Howe patented truss, one of the most successful, and widely used American timber bridge truss types.
Ken Salazar, Secretary of the Interior, states, "Each of the landmarks represents a thread in the great tapestry that tells the story of our beautiful land, our diverse culture and our nation's rich heritage."
California had a strong presence in this year's list, adding four national historic landmarks. The others are the Bay Historic Archaeological District in Marin County, the U.S. Post Office and Courthouse in San Francisco and the U.S. Post Office and Courthouse in Los Angeles.
The National Historic Landmarks program was established in 1935, and is administered by the National Park Service, on behalf of the Secretary of the Interior.
Written by BJ Hansen
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The news that Germany's nuclear phase-out is being challenged by a Swedish company is not without irony. In doing so, the Swedish energy company Vattenfall is using the very mechanism designed by the German government to protect German investors from the actions of developing countries' governments.
Germany and Pakistan concluded the world's first ever investment treaty in 1959 and renewed their vows on its 50th anniversary in 2009. The blueprint of the German bilateral investment treaty (BIT), which set the template for most European BITs, was cast by the notorious Hermann Abs, chairman of Deutsche Bank in Germany, and Lord Shawcross QC, attorney-general in the UK. This was in 1957, when the Society to Advance the Protection of Foreign Investments, an organisation of German business people, published a draft instrument entitled International Convention for the Mutual Protection of Private Property Rights in Foreign Countries. The goal of this initiative was to protect European investments abroad against interference by communist and nationalistic governments.
Today the German investment treaty empire, consisting of over 135 countries, is the largest in the world. In addition to having BITs with countries such as Somalia, Papua New Guinea and Venezuela, Germany also has some 13 BITs with its poorer cousins in the EU, including Greece (signed in 1961, in force since 1963). BITs are typically concluded between a developed and a developing country with the intention that investments from the former will be protected by guarantees of protection and non-discrimination in the latter.
BITs are an anomaly in public international law because they grant private investors the right to bring claims before an international arbitration tribunal. Thus, investors can rely on broad guarantees, such as full protection and security, and fair and equitable treatment before privately hired arbitral tribunals, rather than government appointed judges. These treaty rights are often more favourable to investors than those found in national law.
The concern that foreign investors under UK's BITs may be entitled to higher compensation rights than those available to British shareholders of Northern Rock was put to Lord Davies, the then government deputy chief whip, at the time of the bank's collapse in 2008. Davies denied that such treaties applied to Britain, while also criticising the fairness of such arrangements in general. He appeared unpleasantly surprised that treaties created reciprocal rights which foreign investors from the less developed treaty partner could use against European governments. Davies also found it unbelievable that European standards of governance were somehow wanting under treaties meant to discipline developing country governments.
For years, European and north American governments saw no need for treaties to protect investment flows between developed nations. Thus, the largest flows of foreign investment were unprotected by investment treaties, owing to the mutual confidence developed countries enjoyed in each others' systems of governance and courts.
This dynamic was perhaps accidentally disturbed by the conclusion of chapter 11 of the North American Free Trade Agreement (Nafta), which saw the creation of a tripartite investment treaty between Canada, Mexico and the US in 1994. The idea was to provide north American businesses with the investor-state arbitration mechanism to challenge Mexico, the developing country in the party. Although north American investors did sue Mexico under Nafta Chapter 11, the vast majority of Nafta claims involve US investors suing the Canadian government and vice versa. Having tasted blood, Canadian investors are likely to demand an investor-state mechanism in the EU-Canada negotiations.
Although at least 81 governments have faced investment treaty arbitration in over 400 claims, western European countries have so far avoided such actions – as there are few investors from the developing world that have the means or occasion to challenge government measures in private arbitration proceedings. European BITs are almost always concluded with lesser developed countries.
The conclusion of the energy charter treaty to promote and protect investments in the new democracies of eastern Europe and central Asia, like Nafta, also permits, perhaps inadvertently, western European investors such as the Swedes to bring claims against other European governments such as the German, French and British. The recent claim by Vattenfall warns of another crack in European cohesion as European investors start using investor-state arbitration in treaties governed by public international law, which will prevail over national and European Union law.
Further, the rise of investments from "developing countries" such as China and India into Europe will provide the occasion to use the investor-state mechanism against the UK and Germany. European countries may find themselves paying out several million dollars per claim to feed the monster let loose by the late Abs Hermann and Lord Shawcross.
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The following HTML text is provided to enhance online
readability. Many aspects of typography translate only awkwardly to HTML.
Please use the page image
as the authoritative form to ensure accuracy.
FREE ELECTRON LASERS AND OTHER ADVANCED SOURCES OF LIGHT: Scientific Research Opportunities
A far-infrared free electron laser user facility capable of producing picosecond pulses should be established. Such a facility could be a new construction or a modification of an existing facility. The committee believes that the scientific opportunity justifies the establishment of such a facility.
Such a facility should have a means of synchronizing a second tunable laser with the free electron laser for use in pump-probe experiments as well as a means for selecting single picosecond pulses from the free electron laser. One method of doing this involves using a photocathode electron gun.
The current research and development directed toward the production of a compact free electron laser that could be purchased and operated by a single academic department or individual investigator should be continued.
NEAR-INFRARED, VISIBLE, AND ULTRAVIOLET REGION (10 µm to 200 nm)
The region of the near infrared, visible, and ultraviolet accessible with commercial lasers covers wavelengths from roughly 10 µm to 200 nm. Noncommercial instrumentation can extend the limits of commercial laboratory lasers with some difficulty to 20 µm to 100 nm. This region is crucial for scientific research and is of great importance for much current and planned research, not only because photon sources and detectors are highly developed in this region, but also because of the fundamental properties of matter. The fingerprint region of molecular vibrations falls in the near infrared, valence transitions of chemical bonds fall in the visible and ultraviolet, and band gaps of solids fall in the visible or near infrared.
A wide variety of laboratory laser sources and nonlinear techniques based on laboratory lasers are effective in this region. These lasers are already widely tunable and capable of producing short pulses with high peak and average powers. Research and development will lead to further improvement. There are also existing free electron lasers that operate in this region, but conventional laboratory lasers will probably remain the mainstay of scientific research in this wavelength region. The national expenditure in 1993 on laboratory lasers used in scientific research was approximately $37M.
Laboratory lasers have been and will continue to be an important photon source for research in the region from 10 µm to 200 nm. Much of the science in this wavelength region involves simultaneous use of several sophisticated laboratory lasers. When cost and convenience are considered, it is unlikely that free electron lasers will be competitive with laboratory lasers in this spectral region in the foreseeable future.
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The CDC has created an information hub for doctors and other health care professionals to be informed about the novel coronavirus outbreak in Wuhan, China, designated 2019-nCoV. There is limited information available so far about the virus, its symptoms, and specific treatment. The information hub has information on risk assessment, laboratory and clinical information, and how the CDC is responding to the outbreak. There are clinical criteria for monitoring patients suspected of contracting the virus, but these are evolving as more is learned about the virus. Make sure to check the links regularly for updated information.
To report a suspect case or for additional local guidance, please call the CDPHE Disease Reporting Line: 303-692-2700 or 303-370-9395 (after hours). The Tri-County Health Department is also posting Health Alert Network updates on the disease — their latest is here (pdf).
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eHealth (also written e-health) is a relatively recent term for healthcare practice which is supported by electronic processes and communication. The term is inconsistently used: some would argue it is interchangeable with health care informatics, while others use it in the narrower sense of healthcare practice using the Internet.
The term can encompass a range of services that are at the edge of medicine/healthcare and information technology:
o Electronic Medical Records: enable easy communication of patient data between different healthcare professionals (GPs, specialists, care team, pharmacy)
o Telemedicine: includes all types of physical and psychological measurements that do not require a patient to travel to a specialist. When this service works, patients need to travel less to a specialist or conversely the specialist has a larger catchment area.
o Evidence Based Medicine: entails a system that provides information on appropriate treatment under certain patient conditions. A healthcare professional can look up whether his/her diagnosis is in line with scientific research. The advantage is that the data can be kept up-to-date.
o Consumer Health Informatics (or citizen-oriented information provision): both healthy individuals and patients want to be informed on medical topics.
o Health knowledge management (or specialist-oriented information provision): e.g. in an overview of latest medical journals, best practice guidelines or epidemiological tracking.
o Virtual healthcare teams: consist of healthcare professionals who collaborate and share information on patients through digital equipment (for transmural care.)
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Breast cancer affects approximately one out of every eight women over a lifetime, but some women are more vulnerable than others. The majority of women do not develop breast cancer due to a gene mutation, but between 5 and 10 percent of breast cancer patients do have a mutation of either the BRCA 1 or BRCA 2 genes. Women with BRCA mutations tend toward earlier cancer development than those in the general population. That is why BRCA testing for breast cancer is imperative.
According to the National Cancer Institute, roughly 70 percent of women with these gene mutations will go on to develop breast cancer. BRCA mutations also greatly increase the likelihood of ovarian cancer. Just 1.3 percent of women eventually are diagnosed with ovarian cancer, but if the BRCA mutation is present, as many as 44 percent of those affected will suffer from ovarian cancer.
BRCA 1 and BRCA 2 Genes
The function of the BRCA 1 and BRCA 2 genes is tumor suppression. These genes produce proteins that repair damaged DNA, but a mutation can mean that such damage goes unrepaired.
BRCA testing involves the doctor taking a saliva or blood sample from the patient and sending it off to a laboratory for analysis. Expect to receive the test results in about one month. If the tests are positive, meet with a genetic counselor to discuss the results and your options. Keep in mind that if the BRCA tests are negative, that does not mean you will not develop cancer, but that your risks are likely the same as the general population.
BRCA tests are not standard tests for most women. However, if you have a history of breast or ovarian cancer in your family, or have been diagnosed with these diseases, these tests will reveal whether you have a genetic predisposition toward these types of cancers.
Risk factors for a BRCA mutation include:
- Ashkenazi Jewish ancestry
- Breast cancer diagnosis before age 45
- Cancer in both breasts
- Family history
The BRCA mutations also affect men, increasing the risk of prostate and pancreatic cancer. A history of these diseases in close male relatives may indicate BRCA mutations.
Prophylactic Mastectomy or Oophorectomy
For those whose BRCA tests come back as positive, you have options going forward. While a positive result does not mean a woman is guaranteed to develop breast or ovarian cancer, it does mean the odds increase significantly. A positive result also means the woman may pass the mutation to her offspring, and that any full siblings have a 50 percent chance of sharing the mutation.
Women with no sign of the disease may opt for prophylactic mastectomy – surgical removal of the breasts –or oophorectomy, removal of the ovaries. The latter is generally a minimally invasive procedure performed via laparoscopy. If a woman chooses mastectomy, she may have a breast reconstruction procedure started at the same time.
Although both procedures contain risks, prophylactic mastectomy may reduce breast cancer development by 90 percent, with oophorectomy reducing ovarian cancer development by approximately the same amount.
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Teaching Comparative Adjectives: An ESL Lesson Plan
One of the most fundamental things for ESL students to learn is how to use comparative adjectives to describe nouns. When students have a strong knowledge of comparative adjectives, not only can they describe things but express themselves better in conversation. Keep scrolling to read about teaching comparative adjectives effectively. You will also find a free Off2Class ESL lesson plan download on the topic.
When to use this lesson on comparative adjectives
This lesson is the first of three on the topic. It is designed so that teachers can introduce a new concepts to students engagingly and educationally. You can teach this lesson to beginner, elementary English speakers or use it as a review for more intermediate-level speakers. This lesson can also be used during individual and group lessons. Keep in mind that age does not necessarily correlate with a learner’s level of proficiency in English.
Before this lesson, students should have prerequisite knowledge of the present simple tense, present continuous tense and the ability to count syllables.
Download the lesson here:
What will students learn about comparative adjectives?
In this lesson, students will study and apply the rules relevant to comparative adjectives. The objective of this lesson is to use the comparative forms on an adjective including spelling changes and the irregular forms: better, worse, further.
First, you should ask your student to describe the images using adjectives that they already know. Then they will learn to describe different images using comparative adjectives like old and older. This is a great way to warm up for class and gauge a student’s current knowledge of adjectives.
Then you will introduce students to different groups of adjectives. They will have many opportunities to fill in the blanks and match words with images throughout the lesson.
Additionally, students learn the rules to form comparative adjectives. For example, most one-syllable adjectives form the comparative by adding —er or —ier. With this, they will work on applying these rules and completing related activities.
Also, in this lesson students will work on counting syllables. Since they should have preexisting knowledge of syllables this is a good point of practice. You can even try to challenge students by having them come up with a four-syllable word in English!
Finally, students will learn about two-syllable (or more) adjectives. To make these types of adjectives comparative, you add more to them. For example, delicious becomes more delicious. With this, students will practice filling in the blanks with one, two and three-syllable comparative adjectives.
By the end of this lesson, students will be able to determine when to change the end of an adjective or whether to add more to make it into the comparative form.
Wait, there’s more…
Wondering how to make these lessons even better for students? Download a free Off2Class account so you can access the teacher notes that come with this lesson; they are extremely useful! In any case, be sure to encourage students and go at their pace. Teaching comparative adjectives has never been easier!
We at Off2Class hope that you found this post helpful as well as the free lesson download. Please, leave a comment down below to let us know when you use this lesson!
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When you think of an accountant, whom do you picture? Most people would envision a frazzled business professional tirelessly working to file their clients’ tax claims. Accountants and taxes often go hand-in-hand.
But you may be surprised to learn that there are several different types of accountants out there who don’t just work with taxes all day. So if you like the idea of working with numbers, but not thrilled about the thought of filing taxes, you’re in luck!
It turns out you can still take advantage of the exciting earning potential and faster-than-average job growth. Keep reading to familiarize yourself with some lesser-known types of accountants. Who knows? Your future job title may be featured in this list.
9 types of accountants you may not know about
Accounting professionals can find employment in all sorts of different work settings. You could become an insider on the upper floors of a Fortune 500 corporation, experience the adrenaline rush of an emerging entrepreneurial enterprise, bring order to the halls of government or fuel your passion at a mission-driven nonprofit.
If an organization works with money in any capacity, it needs an accountant on staff. Here are some examples of the different types of accountants out there:
1. CPA: Certified Public Accountant
Certified Public Accountants (CPA) are upper-level accountants who are recognized as experts in an organization’s accounting records, taxes and financial standing. While some of their work does involve taxes, their involvement tends to be more in-depth than just working with taxes.
A CPA’s role is that of a trusted advisor, helping their clients plan and meet their financial goals, while also assisting in other fiscal matters. This could include audits and reviews, forensic accounting, consulting and/or litigation services.
2. Forensic accountant
Forensic accountants are the detectives of the accounting world. These professionals analyze financial records to ensure they’re compliant with standards and laws. Conversely, forensic accountants are brought in to uncover errors, omissions or outright fraud.
A forensic accountant must possess a unique skillset, combining the mind of a “numbers person” with the curiosity of an investigator. They typically work in either investigation or litigation support. In some cases, forensic accountants can serve as expert witnesses in court proceedings.
In order to land this position, you’ll need to earn a bachelor’s degree in accounting. Upon graduating, you’ll also likely be required to acquire some certification. Most forensic accountants earn a CPA credential. You may even consider becoming a certified fraud examiner (CFE).
Auditors are the accuracy experts in an organization. Many organizations, from commercial businesses to non-profits, are required to conduct an annual audit to ensure records are precise. Auditors are typically brought in from outside of an organization to analyze numbers without any preconceived bias.
These accounting professionals are tasked with examining financial statements, inspecting account books and accounting systems, organizing and maintaining fiscal records and assessing financial operations to provide recommendations for improvement. Some auditors specialize in a particular area or industry.
To become an auditor, you’ll need to earn a bachelor’s degree in accounting. Earning an accounting certification often improves your job prospects as well.
4. Management accountant
When making important strategic decisions, business leaders need to know the status of an organization’s financial health and how it could be affected. It’s the responsibility of management accountants to provide this information so that sound decisions can be made regarding a company’s future.
Some common duties of a management accountant are planning and budgeting, external financial reporting, risk management, profitability analysis and much more. In addition to technical accounting skills, these professionals must possess the ability to organize information and present it in a way that is simple for business executives to comprehend.
The first step toward becoming a management accountant is to earn an accounting bachelor’s degree. You’ll also need to pass an exam to become a certified management accountant (CMA).
5. Cost accountant
Businesses are always trying to improve their processes in effort to save money. This is precisely what cost accountants help with. They are responsible for examining every expense associated with a company’s supply chain to conduct a profitability analysis and budget preparation.
They analyze every cost related to labor, materials, shipping, production, administration and more. This information is then compiled and communicated to business leaders to help them identify ways in which they can improve financial efficiency.
Cost accountants must be equipped with a bachelor’s degree in accounting or finance and be in possession of strong math and statistics skills. It’s also recommended to acquire a standard licensure, such as a CPA credential, or a specialized licensure, such as the Certified Cost Accountant (CCA) accreditation.
6. Government accountant
Government comes in many forms. In addition to the federal government, there is state, county, city and several types of district government. What’s one thing they all have in common? They need accountants to keep track of money.
These professionals have the duty to make sure hard-earned taxpayer money is spent in a wise and prudent way. They also help government agencies plan out their activities for a fiscal year. Some government accountants are employed for agencies like the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) and are responsible for auditing private businesses and individuals.
These accounting professionals must possess at least a bachelor’s degree in accounting. Many government accountants also hold a master’s degree in accounting, finance, taxation or business administration.
7. Project accountant
A project accountant is one who works on a project-by-project basis. This person oversees all aspects of a project that might affect the overall cost, including preparing and collecting invoices, approving expenses, verifying employees’ billable hours, planning and maintaining budgets and ensuring the team is meeting project deadlines.
There are many types of projects that a project accountant may work on, everything from a new product launch to the construction of a new facility. Project accountants typically work with project managers and other professional colleagues, so strong communication and interpersonal skills are necessary.
Most project accountants hold at least a bachelor’s degree in accounting. Some employers prefer hiring candidates who have also obtained other certification, such as a CPA or CMA credential.
8. Investment accountant
Investment accountants work in the fast-paced fields of finance and investment. Investment accountants typically work for brokerage and asset management firms. These accountants become keenly knowledgeable about stocks, bonds, ETFs, currencies, precious metals and other investment vehicles.
The primary responsibility of an investment accountant is to maintain their clients’ investments while adhering to state regulations. They may also play a role in helping develop their firm’s key financial strategy.
Investment accountants must hold at least a bachelor’s degree in accounting, finance, economics or business. Many also go on to earn their CPA credential and some also choose to become Personal Financial Specialists (PFS).
9. Staff accountant
Staff accountant is one of the most common job titles in the field—they are the generalists of the accounting world. They have a wide variety of responsibilities, which can include preparing financial statements, maintaining a company’s general and subsidiary accounts, performing account reconciliations, maintaining payroll records, cash management and supervising clerical employees.
Generally speaking, staff accountants employed at small businesses tend to have more bookkeeping duties. Those working for large companies may find themselves performing more supervisory duties. The specific job duties will vary greatly depending on the position.
Earning a bachelor’s degree in accounting is the typical requirement to become a staff accountant. Any additional education or certification could also improve job prospects.
A number of opportunities
You’re probably relieved to learn there are many types of accountants out there who do more than just file taxes. With a little research, you can find the position that perfectly aligns with your skills and interests.
But, as you saw above, earning a bachelor’s degree is generally the first step regardless of which type of accountant you’d like to become. Learn more about the value of this formal education in our article, Is an Accounting Degree Worth it or Worthless?
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Older but Mellower: Aging brain shifts gears to emotional advantage
Given all the bad news that science has delivered about brain cells withering and memory waning as the years mount, older people have a right to be cranky. But, instead, the over-50 crowd handles life’s rotten realities and finds life’s bright side more effectively than whippersnappers do. In no small part, that’s because the aging brain makes critical emotional adjustments, a new study indicates.
Advancing age heralds a growth in emotional stability accompanied by a neural transition to increased control over negative emotions and greater accessibility of positive emotions, according to a team led by neuroscientist Leanne M. Williams of Westmead (Australia) Hospital. A brain area needed for conscious thought, the medial prefrontal cortex, primarily influences these emotional reactions in older adults, Williams and her colleagues say.
In contrast, people under age 50 experience negative emotions more easily than they do positive ones. These younger adults’ emotion-related activity centers on the amygdala, a brain structure previously implicated in automatic fear responses.
This gradual reorganization of the brain’s emotion system may result from older folk responding to accumulating personal experiences by increasingly looking for meaning in life, the researchers propose in the June 14 Journal of Neuroscience.
Evidence that emotional functions improve in older brains “indicates that our ability to register the significance of information is preserved, and even enhanced, as we age,” Williams says. Older people may benefit from associating information they need to remember with personally significant matters, such as a favorite tune, he adds.
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Ironically, older individuals’ reliance on the medial prefrontal cortex to regulate emotions comes as aging kills cells in this area. The surviving neurons somehow pick up the slack, the investigators note.
The researchers studied 122 males and 120 females, ages 12 to 79, who had no current or past mental illnesses and good physical health.
Scores on a questionnaire that assesses emotional stability rose steadily from adolescence into the senior years.
Brain testing occurred as volunteers viewed images of various facial expressions. They had been told to identify the emotion in each expression and to rank its intensity. Researchers measured neural response using functional magnetic resonance imaging, which tracked blood-flow changes, and an electrode-studded cap that monitored brain cells’ electrical responses.
In older adults, mushrooming medial prefrontal cortex activity triggered by negative facial expressions occurred in conjunction with neural responses that have been linked to conscious thought. This pattern appeared even in older adults who displayed especially low numbers of prefrontal neurons.
In contrast, young people showed far more medial prefrontal activity, and thus conscious thought, in response to positive facial expressions than older people did.
The new results provide a neural framework for growing evidence that, unlike young people, older adults focus on positive information and downplay negative events, remarks psychologist Mara Mather of the University of California, Santa Cruz. The amygdala showed little volume decline with age in the new study, so it’s unlikely that age-related shrinkage of that structure causes the psychological shift, she adds.
“Older adults apparently use cognitive-control processes supported by prefrontal brain regions to help them avoid experiencing negative information and focus instead on positive information,” Mather says.
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Philadelphia Schools has a “just say no” policy, when it comes to school bullies and other related negative student behavior.
Approximately, two thirds of all deaths among children and adolescents in the United States are the result of injury-related causes. These include motor vehicle crashes, unintentional injuries, homicide and suicide. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, at least 126 students committed a school-associated homicide or suicide between 1994 and 1999. Of these students, 28 committed suicide, of which eight intentionally injured others immediately before killing themselves. None of these students were involved in gangs.
The suicides, now referred to as “bullycide”, were attributed to school-associated violence, including bullying and other such social stressors. Though the 126 students may seem small for a national statistic, this is only the tip of the iceberg. It does not address the number of students who develop substance abuse and psychological problems due to being bullied and harassed at school — some for many years from elementary through high school by the same individual(s).
“Pediatrics”, Journal of the American Academy of Pediatrics, reported in its May 5, 2004, issue that the rise of obesity and overweight in school-aged children is associated with “many negative social and psychological ramifications.” Peer aggression is at the top of the list.
To work toward eliminating this rising national problem in their schools, Philadelphia schools developed a policy that prohibits anyone from bullying or seriously threatening any member of the school community during school hours and coming to and from school. This includes:
- Repeated threats;
- Threats of bodily injury;
- Physical or psychological intimidation;
- Extortion of any type;
- Fighting or other acts/threats of violence;
- Repeatedly posting information about another individual without his/her consent on the Internet, bulletin boards, school walls, individual’s personal belongings, or any other location — whether it is during school hours or not; and
- Harassment for any reason, but especially due to race, gender, disability, language or physical characteristic.
Besides school personnel, Philadelphia schools have enlisted the help of the students and their parents. They have set up a Bully Hotline that is staffed 24 hours a day for students or parents to report school-related abuse. The hotline serves over 175 languages through a telephonic interpretation service. Philadelphia schools promise to act on a reported problem within 24 hours of receiving the hotline complaint. For some issues, callers may receive a follow-up telephone call to ensure the situations were satisfactorily resolved.
Philadelphia schools created flyers in nine different languages that describe the school policy against these negative behaviors, the Bully Hotline, and instructions for non-English language individuals to access the hotline. The eight non-English languages are the most frequently encountered in Philadelphia schools and represent over 85 percent of their “English as a Second Language” students.
The flyers were sent to the parents of students enrolled in their schools. Additionally, they asked parents and community groups to further distribute the flyers throughout the city.
Philadelphia schools are truly concerned about the safety and well-being of its students. They believe that all students have a right not to be bullied or harassed. With their “no bully” policy and the hotline, they are well on their way to prevent, address and eliminate intimidation and harassment of any student for any reason.
This information on Philadelphia schools is brought to you by http://www.schoolsk-12.com.
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Candlemas is the festival of delicacies and crêpes! A moment of shared pleasure that warms the heart. © AFP
A Catholic celebration of the Presentation of Jesus at the Temple, forty days after his birth, but also the festival of delicacies and the day of crêpes, Candlemas come from the Latin expression "festa candelarum", the festival of candles, and before everything designates the festival of lights. Candlemas takes place every year on 2 February.
In Latin antiquity
Originally, the month of February designated the last month of the year for the Romans, "februarius", the "month of purification” before the arrival of spring. On 2 February, the Romans celebrated Lupercalia, a celebration inspired by Lupercus, the god of fertility and shepherds. A great procession with participants waving torches led the way to it.
When the Empire became Christian
In the 5th century, in 472, Pope Gelasius I decided to replace the pagan festival of candles on 2 February with the Presentation of Jesus at the Temple, but it wasn't until 1372 that this festival would officially be called the Feast of the Purification of Mary. The torches in churches were replaced by candles which were consecrated and which served as a reminder that Christ is the light of the world.
Why crêpes on Candlemas?
At the beginning of February, crêpes were distributed to pilgrims arriving in Rome. It was at this time of the year that the winter sowing season began. The extra flour was used to make crêpes, a symbol of prosperity for the year to come. The French have a saying on this custom which translates: If you don't want sooty wheat, eat crêpes on Candlemas. Another custom: flipping the first crêpe with the right hand while holding a piece of gold in the left hand.
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One of the most promising, yet also most frustrating, aspects of dealing with Climate Change is how the noise (the static) of the debate makes it difficult for the majority of people to understand the power of the "No Regrets" strategy opportunity and promise.
The concept of a "No Regrets" strategy has been around for decades. For example, this 1991 New York Times article on a National Academies of Science report was entitled Economic Scene: The 'No Regrets' Greenhouse Fix.
Reduced to its journalistic essence, "no regrets" goes something like this:
Atmospheric levels of greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, CFC refrigeration chemicals) are rising rapidly...virtually guarantees the planet will trap more solar energy and the earth will grow warmer.
But the plausible range of temperature change is as little as 2 degrees Fahrenheit to as much as 9 ... [this does] not tell us much about the ensuing environmental and economic damage or the difficulty of adaptation. In agriculture, for example, hard-to-predict shifts in rainfall are likely to have far greater consequences than the direct effect of hotter summers.
Gradual weather change would probably prove only an expensive headache for humans. ... there is some possibility of discontinuous, catastrophic change -- for example, a huge release of methane from the melting Arctic tundra that turned the cornfields of Iowa into a desert in a single generation. And there is little doubt that thousands of marine and plant species would be decimated by even a gradual warming.
Note that this is from nearly 20 years ago, during the First Bush administration, and the formal reports, with imprimateur of a Republican administration made clear that Global Warming/Climate Change was/is real, that it had serious risks, and merited actions. But what actions ...
What to do? The panel's "no regrets" strategy starts with emissions-reducing initiatives that would pay for themselves in greater economic efficiency. High on this list is energy conservation for buildings, vehicles and industrial processes.
win-win paths to cut radically emissions and reliance on fossil fuels that make absolutely sense before one even accounts for climate change. Mining and drilling for those negawatts and negagallons is the richest set of veins to tap into the United States ... 20 years ago and today. And, those savings can be had for a fraction of the fiscal cost of producing new power.
And, when looking at producing new power, with each passing day "clean" sources are becoming more cost-competitive with polluting sources -- even before considering the national security implications of dependency on foreign oil and the polluting costs of fossil fuels (whether asthma, cancer, mercury in the foodstream, smog visual impacts at National Parks, or Global Warming). Once factoring those "externalities" into our understanding and calculations, the 'clean' choice becomes an even more powerfully smart choice.
In short, the pure "No Regrets" strategy can only take us so far. We can, at a profit, carve a tremendous chunk out of the damaging impacts that our energy profligacy and polluting practices cause. At some point, however, the 'profit' motive fails to deliver. That is, it "fails to deliver" only if we choose to ignore something the NAS highlighted back in 1991: the uncertainty factor. Again:
There is some possibility of discontinuous, catastrophic change.
Americans spend tremendous resources on "insurance," hoping never to need it, but spending those resources "just in case." Whether disability insurance through the Social Security taxes or additional private payments, health insurance, life insurance, or even travel insurance and extended product warranties, we "insure" ourselves to reduce the harm from and help us weather the potentially 'catastrophic' event (like our DVD player breaking 1 year and 1 day after purchase or coming down with a cancer that requires $100,000s of medical care and will keep us out of the work force for years).
Thus, a true "no regrets" strategy wrings out all those elements that will improve economic performance (as individuals, businesses, communities, nation). And, after doing so, asks the question: What is a logical cost assessment of the remaining risk and how much would it cost to reduce that risk? If the risk of sea level rise, species extinctions, disrupted agriculture, new infrastructure investments required to adapt to catastrophic climate change, etc can be valued at $20 trillion in "net present value" (NPV ... value today, in today's dollars), then an investment of $trillion or $4 trillion to obviate that risk is a well-spent insurance policy.
And, this was the conclusion of that 1991 NAS panel:
the panel ... would go further, buying a little insurance against an unexpectedly rainy (or, more likely, a very dry) day. This would surely include spending money to develop greenhouse-benevolent energy technologies that will be on the shelf and relatively affordable if they are needed. And it would probably also include reducing greenhouse emissions where there are only modest net costs.
Truth be told, some 20 years of near inaction (and, actually, worsening action) have made the exact recommendations clearly OBE, even if the overall sense of the report is spot on in terms of creating the political and societal cases for taking actions to mitigate catastrophic climate change.
And, the power of "No Regrets" is one reason why you will hear naysayers fighting so hard against "Green Jobs" (or Clean Energy Jobs), arguing that energy efficiency gains are false (Jovan's Paradox), that renewables aren't real, etc ... They will strive to continue the confusion on this because they realize that as people understand that much of what needs to be done isn't 'sitting in the dark', but finding ways to more cost effectively (efficiently) get them their lighting, the support for real action will grow. When people begin to realize that, almost certainly, we can make green by Going Green, the support for serious action on energy efficiency, clean energy, and climate change mitigation will mount. As people understand that it is not a question of the economy versus the environment, but the economy and the environment, the support for serious and aggressive action away from our fossil foolish heritage will mount.
Those who seek to keep the United States embedded in a 19th century energy system, who believe that the answer to everything is 'more' rather than use smarter, and look down beneath their legs when they hear energy (coal, natural gas, oil), are fearful of losing their record profits as Americans move toward an Energy Smart future. They wish to keep their profits and thus seek to confuse the public and the political system as to the value of aggressively pursuing a No Regrets Strategy. And, if we continue to listen to them as has been the case for far too long, we will only have regrets ... quite serious regrets.
Follow A. Siegel on Twitter: www.twitter.com/A_Siegel
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Exciting things are afoot at America’s national parks. Here’s the scoop on brand new parks, an upcoming big birthday, and a new initiative that aims to get more kids enjoying nature.
This week, the National Park Service inducted three new national parks into the system. Pullman National Monument is Chicago’s first national park. The park preserves the historic district that was an industrial town for the Pullman Company in the 1880s. Honouliuli National Monument in Hawaii is the site of a World War II Japanese internment camp. And Browns Canyon National Monument in Colorado protects an area of outstanding natural beauty and world-class recreational activities.
Every Kid in a Park
What a year to be a fourth grader. The new Every Kid in a Park initiative gives kids who will be in fourth grade during the 2014-2015 school year, plus their lucky families, free access to national parks and public lands.
The National Park Service turns 100 in August of 2016. The Park Service and the National Park Foundation are already working on ways to get every American to “explore, learn, be inspired or to simply have fun in their 407 national parks.” Expect events throughout the year at parks around the country, and know that if you’re planning a national park trip in the summer of 2016, you’ll likely need to book early to beat the rush.
(Photo: Bureau of Land Management via Flickr)
You Might Also Like:
- 10 Crowd-Free National Parks
- Unforgettable Places to Sleep in National Parks
- 10 National Parks That Are Better in Winter
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Overview of Mental Health CounselingPsychological health therapy or clinical counseling is a practice in psychology that helps relieve psychological disorders or distress by promoting individual development. It also practices psychiatric therapy, consultation, forensic investigation specifically forensic testimony, formula, application and evaluation of plans and programs for treatment of mental dysfunction and research study. It is normally kept track of as a mental health profession because of the nature of this field.
Psychological health counseling has its roots from the later part of 19th century. And as the field of psychology grew, branches began to develop, amongst them is counseling psychology and medical therapy- both work in mental health evaluation and therapy.
While carefully connected with medical psychology, there are still marked differences in between the two practices.
On the other hand, scientific counseling deals with more advance and severe forms of psychological disorders such as schizophrenia and psychosomatic disorders. In essence, these are simply small psychological health disease that needs very little (if there is any) medical interventions.
This approach attempts to address minor mental concerns and make use of therapy methods. This is possible since clients subjected under this technique are still in control of their mind. For example, individuals who are distressed due to bothersome circumstances might look for the professionals who might render therapy psychology.
Counseling psychology focuses more on the individual problems of the person that obstruct his psychological health. It helps him deal with issues by utilizing non-directive methods, therefore a therapy psychologist would only open alternatives that will help resolve the issue without being reliable or suggestive. Counseling psychology is more focused on rational thinking rather of unconscious performance.
Second distinction is that therapy psychology abides by humanistic or person-centered method. Third, it has a various view on the developmental issues associated with psychological disorders.
On the other hand, scientific psychology offers more on serious mental disorders such as scientific manic depression like unipolar why not find out more and bipolar disorders, sexual dysfunctions such as sadism, fetishism and exhibitionism, phobias, traumas and substance-abuse or dependency.
Due to the fact that of a more comprehensive and extensive nature of this field, clinical therapy makes usage of psychological evaluation tools that even more verify the symptoms of conditions among individuals with interfered with mental health. Psychological health evaluation is a medium for assessing signs that an individual presents. This offers insights to mental health professionals that will assist them in the preparation, administration and assessment like this of treatment methods that are apt to the psychological health requirements of a patient.
Despite of these distinctions, counseling psychology and clinical therapy are proven to be really effective as psychological health counseling approaches. Both advocates making use of talk treatment that could either assist deal with the problem for the psychological health client or open up signs that may be explained as causes of the development of the condition. In effect, both kinds of counseling make mental health treatment and recovery possible.
Psychological health counseling or medical therapy is a practice in psychology that helps ease mental disorders or distress by promoting personal advancement. Therapy psychology focuses more on the personal problems of the individual that obstruct his mental health. Since of a more thorough and intensive nature of this field, scientific counseling makes use of psychological assessment tools that even more validate the signs of disorders among people with interrupted psychological health. Despite of these distinctions, counseling psychology and clinical counseling are proven to be very efficient as psychological health therapy approaches. In result, both types of therapy make psychological health treatment and healing practical.
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I understand a little about eddy currents and synchrotron radiation; I believe I am correct in saying that they are examples of energy loss (essentially drag) when moving though a gradient of magnetic flux. But are there any materials/effects/things that cause drag when moving through a uniform magnetic field? In other words: say we have an object moving through an infinite, uniform magnetic field in a vacuum; what properties or components does the object need to have in order to eventually come to rest relative to the magnetic field? Are there several possibilities? Would it matter whether it was moving parallel/perpendicular to the field lines? Thanks for any input!
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Grace has to do with power. Grace is God's way of exercising power, and with the word grace, Martin Luther most clearly expresses his concept of God. The desire for a gracious God was what drove Martin Luther in his search. A search for a God who does not punish, but liberates, as we would rather say today. Luther was looking for that kind relationship of faith to live in and a church that allowed such a faith.
Martin Luther was a biblical theologian and in reading biblical texts, he found God to be full of grace. In Lutheran theology this is called the Reformation discovery: God grants both forgiveness and peace, unconditionally. It's about just receiving it.
Everything is grace – you are called to freedom, not to be a slave to any system. This went against many viewpoints in Luther's time and became the basis for his criticism of monastic life, the sale of indulgences and other ways in which the church put conditions on what qualified as religious life and true faith. Martin Luther said that this interfered with and prevented people from a relationship with God in their lives that really was by grace. That there was absolutely no requirement for certain beliefs or the right deeds. Ethical requirements have to do with human relations. The relationship to God is different.
Liberating instead of punishing
Grace is the absence of demands. But is difficult to define freedom in relationships, because we perceive relationships as something that sets conditions. Often freedom in relationships is something we are unaccustomed to. God is free, which means that the relationship with God is different from the relationships between people. Luther often turned to imagery for help. In theology, we often think of a person standing in a courtroom who is guilty, but God as the judge unexpectedly acquitting the convicted person. It is a ruling by grace.
In this image God is shown as someone who exercises a power different from that of imposing penalties. A liberating power. A surprising power. One that believes in giving new opportunities after all. When that happens a person stands there surprised and amazed. God wants a relationship and gives faith as a gift to a person. Martin Luther said that this picture of God is overwhelming. Life is opened up in an unexpected direction. God surprises. The totally unexpected happens. That God wants to be with me, despite everything that should prevent it. That is grace. A loving way to use power to give life.
The text is a shortened version. The entire text is available in Swedish at www.svenskakyrkan.se/500-ar-av-reformation
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As part of an ongoing project called the Seychelles Child Development Study
, researchers studied 1,784 children, young adults and their mothers. They used hair samples (collected from each of the mothers raound the time of their child’s birth) to determine the level of prenatal mercury exposure. They also asked them to complete two questionnaires (one to be completed by the parents of the child and the other to be completed by the children’s teachers). These were used to determine if the study participants exhibited any autism-spectrum-type behaviors (struggle with speech, language and/or social skills). Philip Davidson, who was the principal investigator of the study and professor emeritus at the University of Rochester said, “While the amount of fish consumed in the Seychelles is significantly higher than [in] other countries in the industrialized world, it is still considered low-level exposure.” People living on Seychelles eat upwards of 10 times more fish than woman living in the U.S. and Europe. Davidson added, “This study shows no consistent association in children with mothers with mercury levels that were six to 10 times higher than those found in the U.S. and Europe. This is a sentinel population, and if it does not exist here, than it probably does not exist.”Fish and shellfish are good sources of high quality protein
and other essential nutrients like omega-3 fatty acids. But, some types of fish do contain more mercury than others — eat these in limited amounts, or avoid them entirely. Keep in mind the following basic rules, and check out the FDA or EPA for more extensive info.
Never eat shark, swordfish, king mackerel, or tilefish.
Limit lower mercury fish such as canned light tuna, shrimp,salmon, catfish, and tilapia to 12 ounces (two average meals) a week.
Albacore “white” tuna has more mercury than canned light tuna, so limit your intake to one serving (six ounces) per week.
Fish sticks and fast-food sandwiches are usually made from low mercury fish. (And that’s the only time we’ll recommend the drive through!)What about shrimp?Shrimp is safe to eat
because it falls into the category of low-mercury seafood, which also includes salmon
, pollack, sardines and catfish. But you should still limit your intake of these fish to no more than 12 ounces per week, says Laura Riley, MD, director of labor and delivery at Massachusetts General Hospital and author of You & Your Baby: Pregnancy
Did you eat fish during your pregnancy?
Plus, more from The Bump:
Should I Eat More Fish Now That I’m Pregnant?
Can I Eat Sushi While Pregnant?
What to Avoid During Pregnancy (and How Not to Miss It Too Much!)
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Intestinal germ helps sushi digestion
Japanese have an easy time digesting sushi and other seaweed-wrapped delicacies thanks in part to an intestinal bacterium that hijacked genes from a marine germ, say scientists.
The surprising discovery, published in journal Nature, sheds further light on the trillions of friendly germs that inhabit our gut.
By breaking down starchy plant fibres, these bacteria get their share of nutrition - as do we.
Researchers, led by Dr Mirjam Czjzek of the Station Biologique de Roscoff in France, studied a marine bacterium, Zobellia galactanivorans and found it had an interesting new class of enzyme that busts open a starch molecule called porphyran, found in red seaweed of the Porphyra species.
Scanning publicly-available databases of DNA codes, the team were astonished to find genes coding for the same enzyme in an intestinal bacterium, Bacteroides plebeius, that so far has only ever been noted in the faeces of Japanese.
The scientists believe that B. plebius picked up the genes from a fellow bacterium that lived on seaweed.
In a classic example of Darwinian selection, strains of B. plebius that had the imported genes had a better chance of survival than others, as they could feast on a major component of the Japanese diet.
Gnawing at nori
The Japanese eat around 14 grams of seaweed each day, and Porphyra, known as nori and used in sushi, is the most important food alga of all.
Recorded evidence of the central role of seaweed in the Japanese diet goes back to the eighth century, when tax archives showed that people could use the commodity as a means of settling their bill with the government.
The human gut is alive with bacteria that supply the body with energy by breaking down plant starch through carbohydrate active enzymes, or CAZymes, that the body cannot produce by itself.
"Traditionally, nori is not roasted, and thus contact with associated marine microbes is promoted through Japanese sushi," says the paper.
"Consequently, the consumption of food with associated environmental bacteria is the most likely mechanism that prompted this CAZyme update into the human gut microbe."
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| 0.952247 | 476 | 3.375 | 3 |
Proportion simply refers to the size relationships between objects. If you want to draw a subject or scene with accurate proportions, you must employ proper techniques and train your eyes over time.
When drawing, most of my time is spent on measuring, comparing, re-measuring and re-comparing. The more time you spend trying to improve the accuracy of your drawing, the better you will “see”.
How to Draw With Correct Proportions
I’m going to introduce a few techniques to measure and check your accuracy. When you draw, it’s best to use as many measuring techniques as possible. You can use these techniques in any order, wherever you see fit.
I like to measure my subject before, during and sometimes even after I finish my portraits.
Measuring before I draw helps me understand what I’m seeing and familiarize myself with the subject. It’s very helpful when drawing portraits of people I’ve never seen before.
Measuring after I draw is a way for me to do a final check to find mistakes that I may have missed and a way to gain confidence in the finished product. You should never leave measuring to the very end!
Important: If you’re following along, you’ll want to use very light pressure so you can easily erase any mistakes you make.
Click the following link and hit the download button beside the printer icon to download the PDF: RapidFireArt Tutorials – Lesson 4
#1: Measure with Your Pencil
To draw something accurate in relative size, you can use your pencil and thumb as a measuring tool to measure the relationships between body parts or objects in a scene. Here’s how to do it:
Maintain Accuracy Across All Measurements
Before you make any measurements, it’s important to understand how to maintain accuracy throughout the measuring process.
Raise your pencil up directly in front of your eye without bending your elbow. If you bend your elbow, it will be very difficult to maintain consistent measurements. This could result in compounding mistakes. Since your arm is pivoting from your shoulder, not from your eye, your measurements will not remain accurate throughout the process. To combat this, lower your eye as close to your shoulder as possible to get the most accurate measurements from start to finish.
If you’re drawing from a reference image, there’s no need to worry about bending your elbow or tilting your head because you can measure directly up against the reference photo.
If you’re not comfortable measuring with a pencil, you can use a proportion drawing tool.
Measure Your Subject’s Length and Width
Use the tip of the pencil and the tip of your thumb to measure the height of your subject’s head. To find out how tall he is, move your hand down slowly, counting how tall your subject is in head units. For this example, my subject is equal to 8 heads. These units are relative, so you can draw the subject much larger or smaller compared to the original size of the reference image.
Let’s say I already drew the head and then decided I might as well draw the rest of the body too. Since I know the man is 8 heads tall, all I need to do is measure the head in my drawing and multiply that by 8 to find out where I’ll need to draw his feet.
You can do the same thing for the width as well. Simply measure the head’s length and then turn your pencil horizontally. You can figure out the width of the head as well as the shoulders, waist, etc.
Note: Sometimes, the relationship between two body parts will not be a whole unit. In this case, you will need to search for other relationships or do your best to eyeball that part of the sketch.
How to Transfer that Information to Your Sketchbook
What’s the maximum length you want for your drawing? Once you decide, make a tick at the top and bottom of the sketchbook. It will help if you draw a vertical line down the entire page to align the ticks perfectly.
Since we know the man is equal to 8 heads tall, we can confidently divide the space into 8 equal sections vertically. Double check that the spaces are all even. You can use a ruler to do this. Now that I have my ticks, I know the exact height and width to draw the head.
Measure and Compare Other Parts of the Body
You can use this technique to measure all other parts of the body to get a good idea of the size relationships between each. This is very useful when you’re drawing several people in one scene. How do you know how tall or wide to draw one person compared to another? How big do you draw a child’s head compared to her parents?
- The buttock is equal to 2 head units.
- The right shoe is slightly smaller in total width than the left shoe.
#2: Check Relationships Between Objects on the Vertical and Horizontal Axis
Getting the sizing right is great, but it’s also important to know where to align everything. Let’s say you already jumped ahead and made a rough sketch. You got the length and width of each body part right, but something just doesn’t seem quite right.
In the examples below, I’m using vertical and horizontal lines to find out where certain body parts are aligned.
If you look at the first row of images, you’ll find that the following statements are true:
Image 1: The right shoulder and right buttock are aligned perfectly on the vertical axis.
Image 2: The middle of the head is in line with the inner side of the right foot.
Image 3: The bottom of the left shoe comes down to the middle of the right shoe.
Image 4: The left elbow is lower than the right elbow.
If you compare the top row to the bottom row, you’ll notice that 3 of these observations do NOT match the sketch. Now I know what’s wrong with my sketch and what I need to fix.
Tools you can use
To get accurate vertical/horizontal measurements of your subject, you can use the following tools:
- A pocket level tool
- A weight on the end of a string, aka a plumb bob + line (works for vertical measurements only)
- Your pencil: Put your pencil up in front of your eye and align it with a straight horizontal or vertical edge, lock that angle in place and then move your hand back over to your subject. You can reference a straight edge such as a flat horizon line or perfectly straight poll if you’re outside. If you’re indoors you can reference the edge of the floor or the side of a wall. Make sure your vertical/horizontal references do not change!
If you’re drawing from a photo reference, you can simply use a ruler or pencil. Press the ruler flat up against the photo and align it to the edges of the paper. For super accurate measurements, you may want to try a drawing board with an inbuilt transparent ruler.
#3: Check Angles
Angles are especially hard to eyeball. For this dilemma, I use a sliding technique. What you want to do is hold your arm out between your eye and the subject without bending your elbow and then tilt your pencil at an angle until the edge of the pencil matches the angle you’re checking. Then carefully slide your hand in front of your drawing while holding the pencil as still as possible.
Important: Your sketchbook must be in a fairly upright position, sitting on something stable such as an easel and aligned fairly close to your subject for accurate results. As a beginner, you want to minimize the amount of travel time while you’re moving your hand from the subject to the sketchpad.
If you lost your grip and lost the angle, don’t worry. Sketch it anyway by making your best guess, then verify your line by repeating the process above until you get the angle just right.
You can use the same sliding technique to measure the relationship between several body parts. For example: the angle from the bottom of the seagull’s foot to the end of its tail feathers.
#4: Observe Negative Space
If you find it easier to draw geometric shapes like squares, triangles or circles than it is for
you to draw detailed subjects like people and animals, here’s a useful technique you can add to your drawing process.
Look a the negative space around your weirdly shaped subject to find familiar shapes such as triangles or circles that are easy for your brain to recognize. Shifting your focus from the subject to the space around it will change the way you see, perhaps simplifying it, which will allow you to make more sense of things.
Important things to remember
#1: Don’t press too hard
Keep your lines light. Make sure everything is in the right place before you start adding details and shading.
#2: Always triple check and cross-check
Measuring once or twice is not enough. Small errors that you make in the beginning can add up to bigger mistakes in the end. So make sure you do your due diligence. I like to measure my subject before, during and even after I’ve completed the drawing.
#3: Spend A LOT of time measuring to get the best results
The more time you spend, the more accurate your drawing will be.
#4: Use all the techniques above In any order you want
…just make sure you try all of them.
I have 4 images here, each with an increasing level of difficulty. Your homework this week is to use the techniques in this lesson plus what you learned in the previous lessons to draw your most accurate representation of each image.
Once you’re done, you can post your work on the RFA Facebook page, which is where I’ll post my left-handed homework assignment as well. If you submit your 4 drawings on Facebook, I will feature your work down below with a link to your facebook page so other readers can check you out. Feel free to draw other subjects or scenes as well!
If you want constructive feedback, please write “constructive feedback request” somewhere in your facebook reply :)
If you love RapidFireArt tutorials and want to support what I do, check out my Patreon page where you can support RFA and earn cool rewards at the same time!
Readers Who Completed the Challenge!
Darlene created RFA In 2013 with the goal of sharing simple yet detailed drawing tutorials with other artists on the world wide web. She is a self taught pencil portrait artist and Youtuber.
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With a library for parsing binary data, you're ready to write some code for reading and writing an actual binary format, that of ID3 tags. ID3 tags are used to embed metadata in MP3 audio files. Dealing with ID3 tags will be a good test of the binary data library because the ID3 format is a true real-world format--a mix of engineering trade-offs and idiosyncratic design choices that does, whatever else might be said about it, get the job done. In case you missed the file-sharing revolution, here's a quick overview of what ID3 tags are and how they relate to MP3 files.
MP3, also known as MPEG Audio Layer 3, is a format for storing compressed audio data, designed by researchers at Fraunhofer IIS and standardized by the Moving Picture Experts Group, a joint committee of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). However, the MP3 format, by itself, defines only how to store audio data. That's fine as long as all your MP3 files are managed by a single application that can store metadata externally and keep track of which metadata goes with which files. However, when people started passing around individual MP3 files on the Internet, via file-sharing systems such as Napster, they soon discovered they needed a way to embed metadata in the MP3 files themselves.
Because the MP3 standard was already codified and a fair bit of software and hardware had already been written that knew how to decode the existing MP3 format, any scheme for embedding information in an MP3 file would have to be invisible to MP3 decoders. Enter ID3.
The original ID3 format, invented by programmer Eric Kemp, consisted of 128 bytes stuck on the end of an MP3 file where it'd be ignored by most MP3 software. It consisted of four 30-character fields, one each for the song title, the album title, the artist name, and a comment; a four-byte year field; and a one-byte genre code. Kemp provided standard meanings for the first 80 genre codes. Nullsoft, the makers of Winamp, a popular MP3 player, later supplemented this list with another 60 or so genres.
This format was easy to parse but obviously quite limited. It had no way to encode names longer than 30 characters; it was limited to 256 genres, and the meaning of the genre codes had to be agreed upon by all users of ID3-aware software. There wasn't even a way to encode the CD track number of a particular MP3 file until another programmer, Michael Mutschler, proposed embedding the track number in the comment field, separated from the rest of the comment by a null byte, so existing ID3 software, which tended to read up to the first null in each of the text fields, would ignore it. Kemp's version is now called ID3v1, and Mutschler's is ID3v1.1.
Limited as they were, the version 1 proposals were at least a partial solution to the metadata problem, so they were adopted by many MP3 ripping programs (which had to put the ID3 tag into the MP3 files) and MP3 players (which would extract the information in the ID3 tag to display to the user).1
By 1998, however, the limitations were really becoming annoying, and a new group, led by Martin Nilsson, started work on a completely new tagging scheme, which came to be called ID3v2. The ID3v2 format is extremely flexible, allowing for many kinds of information to be included, with almost no length limitations. It also takes advantage of certain details of the MP3 format to allow ID3v2 tags to be placed at the beginning of an MP3 file.
ID3v2 tags are, however, more of a challenge to parse than version 1 tags. In this chapter, you'll use the binary data parsing library from the previous chapter to develop code that can read and write ID3v2 tags. Or at least you'll make a reasonable start--where ID3v1 was too simple, ID3v2 is baroque to the point of being completely overengineered. Implementing every nook and cranny of the specification, especially if you want to support all three versions that have been specified, would be a fair bit of work. However, you can ignore many of the features in those specifications since they're rarely used "in the wild." For starters, you can ignore, for now, a whole version, 2.4, since it has not been widely adopted and mostly just adds more needless flexibility compared to version 2.3. I'll focus on versions 2.2 and 2.3 because they're both widely used and are different enough from each other to keep things interesting.
Before you can start cutting code, you'll need to be familiar with the overall structure of an ID3v2 tag. A tag starts with a header containing information about the tag as a whole. The first three bytes of the header encode the string "ID3" in ISO-8859-1 characters. In other words, they're the bytes 73, 68, and 51. Then comes two bytes that encode the major version and revision of the ID3 specification to which the tag purports to conform. They're followed by a single byte whose individual bits are treated as flags. The meanings of the individual flags depend on the version of the spec. Some of the flags can affect the way the rest of the tag is parsed. The "major version" is actually used to record the minor version of the spec, while the "revision" is the subminor version of the spec. Thus, the "major version" field for a tag conforming to the 2.3.0 spec is 3. The revision field is always zero since each new ID3v2 spec has bumped the minor version, leaving the subminor version at zero. The value stored in the major version field of the tag has, as you'll see, a dramatic effect on how you'll parse the rest of the tag.
The last field in the tag header is an integer, encoded in four bytes but using only seven bits from each byte, that gives the total size of the tag, not counting the header. In version 2.3 tags, the header may be followed by several extended header fields; otherwise, the remainder of the tag data is divided into frames. Different types of frames store different kinds of information, from simple textual information, such as the song name, to embedded images. Each frame starts with a header containing a string identifier and a size. In version 2.3, the frame header also contains two bytes worth of flags and, depending on the value of one the flags, an optional one-byte code indicating how the rest of the frame is encrypted.
Frames are a perfect example of a tagged data structure--to know how to parse the body of a frame, you need to read the header and use the identifier to determine what kind of frame you're reading.
The ID3 tag header contains no direct indication of how many frames are in a tag--the tag header tells you how big the tag is, but since many frames are variable length, the only way to find out how many frames the tag contains is to read the frame data. Also, the size given in the tag header may be larger than the actual number of bytes of frame data; the frames may be followed with enough null bytes to pad the tag out to the specified size. This makes it possible for tag editors to modify a tag without having to rewrite the whole MP3 file.2
So, the main issues you have to deal with are reading the ID3 header; determining whether you're reading a version 2.2 or 2.3 tag; and reading the frame data, stopping either when you've read the complete tag or when you've hit the padding bytes.
Like the other libraries you've developed so far, the code you'll write in this chapter is worth putting in its own package. You'll need to refer to functions from both the binary data and pathname libraries developed in Chapters 24 and 15 and will also want to export the names of the functions that make up the public API to this package. The following package definition does all that:
(defpackage :com.gigamonkeys.id3v2 (:use :common-lisp :com.gigamonkeys.binary-data :com.gigamonkeys.pathnames) (:export :read-id3 :mp3-p :id3-p :album :composer :genre :encoding-program :artist :part-of-set :track :song :year :size :translated-genre))
As usual, you can, and probably should, change the
com.gigamonkeys part of the package name to your own domain.
You can start by defining binary types for reading and writing several of the primitive types used by the ID3 format, various sizes of unsigned integers, and four kinds of strings.
ID3 uses unsigned integers encoded in one, two, three, and four
bytes. If you first write a general
type that takes the number of bytes to read as an argument, you can
then use the short form of
define-binary-type to define the
specific types. The general
unsigned-integer type looks like
(define-binary-type unsigned-integer (bytes) (:reader (in) (loop with value = 0 for low-bit downfrom (* 8 (1- bytes)) to 0 by 8 do (setf (ldb (byte 8 low-bit) value) (read-byte in)) finally (return value))) (:writer (out value) (loop for low-bit downfrom (* 8 (1- bytes)) to 0 by 8 do (write-byte (ldb (byte 8 low-bit) value) out))))
Now you can use the short form of
define-binary-type to define
one type for each size of integer used in the ID3 format like this:
(define-binary-type u1 () (unsigned-integer :bytes 1)) (define-binary-type u2 () (unsigned-integer :bytes 2)) (define-binary-type u3 () (unsigned-integer :bytes 3)) (define-binary-type u4 () (unsigned-integer :bytes 4))
Another type you'll need to be able to read and write is the 28-bit
value used in the header. This size is encoded using 28 bits rather
than a multiple of 8, such as 32 bits, because an ID3 tag can't
contain the byte
#xff followed by a byte with the top 3 bits
on because that pattern has a special meaning to MP3 decoders. None
of the other fields in the ID3 header could possibly contain such a
byte sequence, but if you encoded the tag size as a regular
unsigned-integer, it might. To avoid that possibility, the
size is encoded using only the bottom seven bits of each byte, with
the top bit always zero.3
Thus, it can be read and written a lot like an
unsigned-integer except the size of the byte specifier you
LDB should be seven rather than eight. This similarity
suggests that if you add a parameter,
bits-per-byte, to the
unsigned-integer binary type, you could then define a
id3-tag-size, using a short-form
define-binary-type. The new version of
is just like the old version except with
everywhere the old version hardwired the number eight. It looks like
(define-binary-type unsigned-integer (bytes bits-per-byte) (:reader (in) (loop with value = 0 for low-bit downfrom (* bits-per-byte (1- bytes)) to 0 by bits-per-byte do (setf (ldb (byte bits-per-byte low-bit) value) (read-byte in)) finally (return value))) (:writer (out value) (loop for low-bit downfrom (* bits-per-byte (1- bytes)) to 0 by bits-per-byte do (write-byte (ldb (byte bits-per-byte low-bit) value) out))))
The definition of
id3-tag-size is then trivial.
(define-binary-type id3-tag-size () (unsigned-integer :bytes 4 :bits-per-byte 7))
You'll also have to change the definitions of
u4 to specify eight bits per byte like this:
(define-binary-type u1 () (unsigned-integer :bytes 1 :bits-per-byte 8)) (define-binary-type u2 () (unsigned-integer :bytes 2 :bits-per-byte 8)) (define-binary-type u3 () (unsigned-integer :bytes 3 :bits-per-byte 8)) (define-binary-type u4 () (unsigned-integer :bytes 4 :bits-per-byte 8))
The other kinds of primitive types that are ubiquitous in the ID3 format are strings. In the previous chapter I discussed some of the issues you have to consider when dealing with strings in binary files, such as the difference between character codes and character encodings.
ID3 uses two different character codes, ISO 8859-1 and Unicode. ISO 8859-1, also known as Latin-1, is an eight-bit character code that extends ASCII with characters used by the languages of Western Europe. In other words, the code points from 0-127 map to the same characters in ASCII and ISO 8859-1, but ISO 8859-1 also provides mappings for code points up to 255. Unicode is a character code designed to provide a code point for virtually every character of all the world's languages. Unicode is a superset of ISO 8859-1 in the same way that ISO 8859-1 is a superset of ASCII--the code points from 0-255 map to the same characters in both ISO 8859-1 and Unicode. (Thus, Unicode is also a superset of ASCII.)
Since ISO 8859-1 is an eight-bit character code, it's encoded using one byte per character. For Unicode strings, ID3 uses the UCS-2 encoding with a leading byte order mark.4 I'll discuss what a byte order mark is in a moment.
Reading and writing these two encodings isn't a problem--it's just a question of reading and writing unsigned integers in various formats, and you just finished writing the code to do that. The trick is how you translate those numeric values to Lisp character objects.
The Lisp implementation you're using probably uses either Unicode or
ISO 8859-1 as its internal character code. And since all the values
from 0-255 map to the same characters in both ISO 8859-1 and Unicode,
you can use Lisp's
CHAR-CODE functions to
translate those values in both character codes. However, if your Lisp
supports only ISO 8859-1, then you'll be able to represent only the
first 255 Unicode characters as Lisp characters. In other words, in
such a Lisp implementation, if you try to process an ID3 tag that
uses Unicode strings and if any of those strings contain characters
with code points higher than 255, you'll get an error when you try to
translate the code point to a Lisp character. For now I'll assume
either you're using a Unicode-based Lisp or you won't process any
files containing characters outside the ISO 8859-1 range.
The other issue with encoding strings is how to know how many bytes to interpret as character data. ID3 uses two strategies I mentioned in the previous chapter--some strings are terminated with a null character, while other strings occur in positions where you can determine the number of bytes to read, either because the string at that position is always the same length or because the string is at the end of a composite structure whose overall size you know. Note, however, that the number of bytes isn't necessarily the same as the number of characters in the string.
Putting all these variations together, the ID3 format uses four ways to read and write strings--two characters crossed with two ways of delimiting the string data.
Obviously, much of the logic of reading and writing strings will be
quite similar. So, you can start by defining two binary types, one
for reading strings of a specific length (in characters) and another
for reading terminated strings. Both types take advantage of that the
type argument to
write-value is just
another piece of data; you can make the type of character to read a
parameter of these types. This is a technique you'll use quite a few
times in this chapter.
(define-binary-type generic-string (length character-type) (:reader (in) (let ((string (make-string length))) (dotimes (i length) (setf (char string i) (read-value character-type in))) string)) (:writer (out string) (dotimes (i length) (write-value character-type out (char string i))))) (define-binary-type generic-terminated-string (terminator character-type) (:reader (in) (with-output-to-string (s) (loop for char = (read-value character-type in) until (char= char terminator) do (write-char char s)))) (:writer (out string) (loop for char across string do (write-value character-type out char) finally (write-value character-type out terminator))))
With these types available, there's not much to reading ISO 8859-1
strings. Because the
character-type argument you pass to
write-value of a
must be the name of a binary type, you need to define an
iso-8859-1-char binary type. This also gives you a good place
to put a bit of sanity checking on the code points of characters you
read and write.
(define-binary-type iso-8859-1-char () (:reader (in) (let ((code (read-byte in))) (or (code-char code) (error "Character code ~d not supported" code)))) (:writer (out char) (let ((code (char-code char))) (if (<= 0 code #xff) (write-byte code out) (error "Illegal character for iso-8859-1 encoding: character: ~c with code: ~d" char code)))))
Now defining the ISO 8859-1 string types is trivial using the short
define-binary-type as follows:
(define-binary-type iso-8859-1-string (length) (generic-string :length length :character-type 'iso-8859-1-char)) (define-binary-type iso-8859-1-terminated-string (terminator) (generic-terminated-string :terminator terminator :character-type 'iso-8859-1-char))
Reading UCS-2 strings is only slightly more complex. The complexity
arises because you can encode a UCS-2 code point in two ways: most
significant byte first (big-endian) or least significant byte first
(little-endian). UCS-2 strings therefore start with two extra bytes,
called the byte order mark, made up of the numeric value
#xfeff encoded in either big-endian form or little-endian
form. When reading a UCS-2 string, you read the byte order mark and
then, depending on its value, read either big-endian or little-endian
characters. Thus, you'll need two different UCS-2 character types.
But you need only one version of the sanity-checking code, so you can
define a parameterized binary type like this:
(define-binary-type ucs-2-char (swap) (:reader (in) (let ((code (read-value 'u2 in))) (when swap (setf code (swap-bytes code))) (or (code-char code) (error "Character code ~d not supported" code)))) (:writer (out char) (let ((code (char-code char))) (unless (<= 0 code #xffff) (error "Illegal character for ucs-2 encoding: ~c with char-code: ~d" char code)) (when swap (setf code (swap-bytes code))) (write-value 'u2 out code))))
swap-bytes function can be defined as follows,
taking advantage of
SETFable and thus
(defun swap-bytes (code) (assert (<= code #xffff)) (rotatef (ldb (byte 8 0) code) (ldb (byte 8 8) code)) code)
ucs-2-char, you can define two character types that will
be used as the
character-type arguments to the generic string
(define-binary-type ucs-2-char-big-endian () (ucs-2-char :swap nil)) (define-binary-type ucs-2-char-little-endian () (ucs-2-char :swap t))
Then you need a function that returns the name of the character type to use based on the value of the byte order mark.
(defun ucs-2-char-type (byte-order-mark) (ecase byte-order-mark (#xfeff 'ucs-2-char-big-endian) (#xfffe 'ucs-2-char-little-endian)))
Now you can define length- and terminator-delimited string types for
UCS-2-encoded strings that read the byte order mark and use it to
determine which variant of UCS-2 character to pass as the
character-type argument to
write-value. The only other wrinkle is that you need to
length argument, which is a number of bytes, to
the number of characters to read, accounting for the byte order mark.
(define-binary-type ucs-2-string (length) (:reader (in) (let ((byte-order-mark (read-value 'u2 in)) (characters (1- (/ length 2)))) (read-value 'generic-string in :length characters :character-type (ucs-2-char-type byte-order-mark)))) (:writer (out string) (write-value 'u2 out #xfeff) (write-value 'generic-string out string :length (length string) :character-type (ucs-2-char-type #xfeff)))) (define-binary-type ucs-2-terminated-string (terminator) (:reader (in) (let ((byte-order-mark (read-value 'u2 in))) (read-value 'generic-terminated-string in :terminator terminator :character-type (ucs-2-char-type byte-order-mark)))) (:writer (out string) (write-value 'u2 out #xfeff) (write-value 'generic-terminated-string out string :terminator terminator :character-type (ucs-2-char-type #xfeff))))
With the basic primitive types done, you're ready to switch to a high-level view and start defining binary classes to represent first the ID3 tag as a whole and then the individual frames.
If you turn first to the ID3v2.2 specification, you'll see that the basic structure of the tag is this header:
ID3/file identifier "ID3" ID3 version $02 00 ID3 flags %xx000000 ID3 size 4 * %0xxxxxxx
followed by frame data and padding. Since you've already defined binary types to read and write all the fields in the header, defining a class that can read the header of an ID3 tag is just a matter of putting them together.
(define-binary-class id3-tag () ((identifier (iso-8859-1-string :length 3)) (major-version u1) (revision u1) (flags u1) (size id3-tag-size)))
If you have some MP3 files lying around, you can test this much of
the code and also see what version of ID3 tags your MP3s contain.
First you can write a function that reads an
id3-tag, as just
defined, from the beginning of a file. Be aware, however, that ID3
tags aren't required to appear at the beginning of a file, though
these days they almost always do. To find an ID3 tag elsewhere in a
file, you can scan the file looking for the sequence of bytes 73, 68,
51 (in other words, the string "ID3").5 For now
you can probably get away with assuming the tags are the first thing
in the file.
(defun read-id3 (file) (with-open-file (in file :element-type '(unsigned-byte 8)) (read-value 'id3-tag in)))
On top of this function you can build a function that takes a filename and prints the information in the tag header along with the name of the file.
(defun show-tag-header (file) (with-slots (identifier major-version revision flags size) (read-id3 file) (format t "~a ~d.~d ~8,'0b ~d bytes -- ~a~%" identifier major-version revision flags size (enough-namestring file))))
It prints output that looks like this:
ID3V2> (show-tag-header "/usr2/mp3/Kitka/Wintersongs/02 Byla Cesta.mp3") ID3 2.0 00000000 2165 bytes -- Kitka/Wintersongs/02 Byla Cesta.mp3 NIL
Of course, to determine what versions of ID3 are most common in your
MP3 library, it'd be handier to have a function that returns a
summary of all the MP3 files under a given directory. You can write
one easily enough using the
walk-directory function defined in
Chapter 15. First define a helper function that tests whether a given
filename has an
(defun mp3-p (file) (and (not (directory-pathname-p file)) (string-equal "mp3" (pathname-type file))))
Then you can combine
walk-directory to print a summary of the ID3 header in each
file under a given directory.
(defun show-tag-headers (dir) (walk-directory dir #'show-tag-header :test #'mp3-p))
However, if you have a lot of MP3s, you may just want a count of how many ID3 tags of each version you have in your MP3 collection. To get that information, you might write a function like this:
(defun count-versions (dir) (let ((versions (mapcar #'(lambda (x) (cons x 0)) '(2 3 4)))) (flet ((count-version (file) (incf (cdr (assoc (major-version (read-id3 file)) versions))))) (walk-directory dir #'count-version :test #'mp3-p)) versions))
Another function you'll need in Chapter 29 is one that tests whether a file actually starts with an ID3 tag, which you can define like this:
(defun id3-p (file) (with-open-file (in file :element-type '(unsigned-byte 8)) (string= "ID3" (read-value 'iso-8859-1-string in :length 3))))
As I discussed earlier, the bulk of an ID3 tag is divided into frames. Each frame has a structure similar to that of the tag as a whole. Each frame starts with a header indicating what kind of frame it is and the size of the frame in bytes. The structure of the frame header changed slightly between version 2.2 and version 2.3 of the ID3 format, and eventually you'll have to deal with both forms. To start, you can focus on parsing version 2.2 frames.
The header of a 2.2 frame consists of three bytes that encode a
three-character ISO 8859-1 string followed by a three-byte unsigned
integer, which specifies the size of the frame in bytes, excluding
the six-byte header. The string identifies what type of frame it is,
which determines how you parse the data following the size. This is
exactly the kind of situation for which you defined the
define-tagged-binary-class macro. You can define a tagged
class that reads the frame header and then dispatches to the
appropriate concrete class using a function that maps IDs to a class
(define-tagged-binary-class id3-frame () ((id (iso-8859-1-string :length 3)) (size u3)) (:dispatch (find-frame-class id)))
Now you're ready to start implementing concrete frame classes. However, the specification defines quite a few--63 in version 2.2 and even more in later specs. Even considering frame types that share a common structure to be equivalent, you'll still find 24 unique frame types in version 2.2. But only a few of these are used "in the wild." So rather than immediately setting to work defining classes for each of the frame types, you can start by writing a generic frame class that lets you read the frames in a tag without parsing the data within the frames themselves. This will give you a way to find out what frames are actually present in the MP3s you want to process. You'll need this class eventually anyway because the specification allows for experimental frames that you'll need to be able to read without parsing.
Since the size field of the frame header tells you exactly how many
bytes long the frame is, you can define a
id3-frame and adds a single field,
that will hold an array of bytes.
(define-binary-class generic-frame (id3-frame) ((data (raw-bytes :size size))))
The type of the data field,
raw-bytes, just needs to hold an
array of bytes. You can define it like this:
(define-binary-type raw-bytes (size) (:reader (in) (let ((buf (make-array size :element-type '(unsigned-byte 8)))) (read-sequence buf in) buf)) (:writer (out buf) (write-sequence buf out)))
For the time being, you'll want all frames to be read as
generic-frames, so you can define the
function used in
:dispatch expression to
generic-frame, regardless of the frame's
(defun find-frame-class (id) (declare (ignore id)) 'generic-frame)
Now you need to modify
id3-tag so it'll read frames after the
header fields. There's only one tricky bit to reading the frame data:
although the tag header tells you how many bytes long the tag is,
that number includes the padding that can follow the frame data.
Since the tag header doesn't tell you how many frames the tag
contains, the only way to tell when you've hit the padding is to look
for a null byte where you'd expect a frame identifier.
To handle this, you can define a binary type,
will be responsible for reading the remainder of a tag, creating
frame objects to represent all the frames it finds, and then skipping
over any padding. This type will take as a parameter the tag size,
which it can use to avoid reading past the end of the tag. But the
reading code will also need to detect the beginning of the padding
that can follow the tag's frame data. Rather than calling
read-value directly in
should use a function
read-frame, which you'll define to
NIL when it detects padding, otherwise returning an
id3-frame object read using
read-value. Assuming you
read-frame so it reads only one byte past the end of
the last frame in order to detect the start of the padding, you can
id3-frames binary type like this:
(define-binary-type id3-frames (tag-size) (:reader (in) (loop with to-read = tag-size while (plusp to-read) for frame = (read-frame in) while frame do (decf to-read (+ 6 (size frame))) collect frame finally (loop repeat (1- to-read) do (read-byte in)))) (:writer (out frames) (loop with to-write = tag-size for frame in frames do (write-value 'id3-frame out frame) (decf to-write (+ 6 (size frame))) finally (loop repeat to-write do (write-byte 0 out)))))
You can use this type to add a
frames slot to
(define-binary-class id3-tag () ((identifier (iso-8859-1-string :length 3)) (major-version u1) (revision u1) (flags u1) (size id3-tag-size) (frames (id3-frames :tag-size size))))
Now all that remains is to implement
read-frame. This is a bit
tricky since the code that actually reads bytes from the stream is
several layers down from
What you'd really like to do in
read-frame is read one byte
NIL if it's a null and otherwise read a frame with
read-value. Unfortunately, if you read the byte in
read-frame, then it won't be available to be read by
It turns out this is a perfect opportunity to use the condition
system--you can check for null bytes in the low-level code that reads
from the stream and signal a condition when you read a null;
read-frame can then handle the condition by unwinding the
stack before more bytes are read. In addition to turning out to be a
tidy solution to the problem of detecting the start of the tag's
padding, this is also an example of how you can use conditions for
purposes other than handling errors.
You can start by defining a condition type to be signaled by the low-level code and handled by the high-level code. This condition doesn't need any slots--you just need a distinct class of condition so you know no other code will be signaling or handling it.
(define-condition in-padding () ())
Next you need to define a binary type whose
:reader reads a
given number of bytes, first reading a single byte and signaling an
in-padding condition if the byte is null and otherwise reading
the remaining bytes as an
iso-8859-1-string and combining it
with the first byte read.
(define-binary-type frame-id (length) (:reader (in) (let ((first-byte (read-byte in))) (when (= first-byte 0) (signal 'in-padding)) (let ((rest (read-value 'iso-8859-1-string in :length (1- length)))) (concatenate 'string (string (code-char first-byte)) rest)))) (:writer (out id) (write-value 'iso-8859-1-string out id :length length)))
If you redefine
id3-frame to make the type of its
frame-id instead of
condition will be signaled whenever
read-value method reads a null byte instead of the beginning
of a frame.
(define-tagged-binary-class id3-frame () ((id (frame-id :length 3)) (size u3)) (:dispatch (find-frame-class id)))
read-frame has to do is wrap a call to
read-value in a
HANDLER-CASE that handles the
in-padding condition by returning
(defun read-frame (in) (handler-case (read-value 'id3-frame in) (in-padding () nil)))
read-frame defined, you can now read a complete version
2.2 ID3 tag, representing frames with instances of
generic-frame. In the "What Frames Do You Actually Need?"
section, you'll do some experiments at the REPL to determine what
frame classes you need to implement. But first let's add support for
version 2.3 ID3 tags.
id3-tag is defined using
define-binary-class, but if you want to support multiple
versions of ID3, it makes more sense to use a
define-tagged-binary-class that dispatches on the
major-version value. As it turns out, all versions of ID3v2
have the same structure up to the size field. So, you can define a
tagged binary class like the following that defines this basic
structure and then dispatches to the appropriate version-specific
(define-tagged-binary-class id3-tag () ((identifier (iso-8859-1-string :length 3)) (major-version u1) (revision u1) (flags u1) (size id3-tag-size)) (:dispatch (ecase major-version (2 'id3v2.2-tag) (3 'id3v2.3-tag))))
Version 2.2 and version 2.3 tags differ in two ways. First, the header of a version 2.3 tag may be extended with up to four optional extended header fields, as determined by values in the flags field. Second, the frame format changed between version 2.2 and version 2.3, which means you'll have to use different classes to represent version 2.2 frames and the corresponding version 2.3 frames.
Since the new
id3-tag class is based on the one you originally
wrote to represent version 2.2 tags, it's not surprising that the new
id3v2.2-tag class is trivial, inheriting most of its slots
from the new
id3-tag class and adding the one missing slot,
frames. Because version 2.2 and version 2.3 tags use different
frame formats, you'll have to change the
id3-frames type to be
parameterized with the type of frame to read. For now, assume you'll
do that and add a
:frame-type argument to the
id3-frames type descriptor like this:
(define-binary-class id3v2.2-tag (id3-tag) ((frames (id3-frames :tag-size size :frame-type 'id3v2.2-frame))))
id3v2.3-tag class is slightly more complex because of the
optional fields. The first three of the four optional fields are
included when the sixth bit in
flags is set. They're a four-
byte integer specifying the size of the extended header, two bytes
worth of flags, and another four-byte integer specifying how many
bytes of padding are included in the tag.7 The fourth optional field, included when
the fifteenth bit of the extended header flags is set, is a four-byte
cyclic redundancy check (CRC) of the rest of the tag.
The binary data library doesn't provide any special support for optional fields in a binary class, but it turns out that regular parameterized binary types are sufficient. You can define a type parameterized with the name of a type and a value that indicates whether a value of that type should actually be read or written.
(define-binary-type optional (type if) (:reader (in) (when if (read-value type in))) (:writer (out value) (when if (write-value type out value))))
if as the parameter name looks a bit strange in that
code, but it makes the
optional type descriptors quite
readable. For instance, here's the definition of
(define-binary-class id3v2.3-tag (id3-tag) ((extended-header-size (optional :type 'u4 :if (extended-p flags))) (extra-flags (optional :type 'u2 :if (extended-p flags))) (padding-size (optional :type 'u4 :if (extended-p flags))) (crc (optional :type 'u4 :if (crc-p flags extra-flags))) (frames (id3-frames :tag-size size :frame-type 'id3v2.3-frame))))
crc-p are helper functions that
test the appropriate bit of the flags value they're passed. To test
whether an individual bit of an integer is set, you can use
LOGBITP, another bit-twiddling function. It takes an index and
an integer and returns true if the specified bit is set in the
(defun extended-p (flags) (logbitp 6 flags)) (defun crc-p (flags extra-flags) (and (extended-p flags) (logbitp 15 extra-flags)))
As in the version 2.2 tag class, the frames slot is defined to be of
id3-frames, passing the name of the frame type as a
parameter. You do, however, need to make a few small changes to
read-frame to support the extra
(define-binary-type id3-frames (tag-size frame-type) (:reader (in) (loop with to-read = tag-size while (plusp to-read) for frame = (read-frame frame-type in) while frame do (decf to-read (+ (frame-header-size frame) (size frame))) collect frame finally (loop repeat (1- to-read) do (read-byte in)))) (:writer (out frames) (loop with to-write = tag-size for frame in frames do (write-value frame-type out frame) (decf to-write (+ (frame-header-size frame) (size frame))) finally (loop repeat to-write do (write-byte 0 out))))) (defun read-frame (frame-type in) (handler-case (read-value frame-type in) (in-padding () nil)))
The changes are in the calls to
write-value, where you need to pass the
argument and, in computing the size of the frame, where you need to
use a function
frame-header-size instead of the literal value
6 since the frame header changed size between version 2.2 and
version 2.3. Since the difference in the result of this function is
based on the class of the frame, it makes sense to define it as a
generic function like this:
(defgeneric frame-header-size (frame))
You'll define the necessary methods on that generic function in the next section after you define the new frame classes.
Where before you defined a single base class for all frames, you'll
now have two classes,
id3v2.2-frame class will be essentially the same as the
(define-tagged-binary-class id3v2.2-frame () ((id (frame-id :length 3)) (size u3)) (:dispatch (find-frame-class id)))
id3v2.3-frame, on the other hand, requires more changes.
The frame identifier and size fields were extended in version 2.3
from three to four bytes each, and two bytes worth of flags were
added. Additionally, the frame, like the version 2.3 tag, can contain
optional fields, controlled by the values of three of the frame's
flags.8 With those changes in
mind, you can define the version 2.3 frame base class, along with
some helper functions, like this:
(define-tagged-binary-class id3v2.3-frame () ((id (frame-id :length 4)) (size u4) (flags u2) (decompressed-size (optional :type 'u4 :if (frame-compressed-p flags))) (encryption-scheme (optional :type 'u1 :if (frame-encrypted-p flags))) (grouping-identity (optional :type 'u1 :if (frame-grouped-p flags)))) (:dispatch (find-frame-class id))) (defun frame-compressed-p (flags) (logbitp 7 flags)) (defun frame-encrypted-p (flags) (logbitp 6 flags)) (defun frame-grouped-p (flags) (logbitp 5 flags))
With these two classes defined, you can now implement the methods on
the generic function
(defmethod frame-header-size ((frame id3v2.2-frame)) 6) (defmethod frame-header-size ((frame id3v2.3-frame)) 10)
The optional fields in a version 2.3 frame aren't counted as part of
the header for this computation since they're already included in the
value of the frame's
In the original definition,
id3-frame. But now
id3-frame has been replaced with the
two version-specific base classes,
id3v2.3-frame. So, you need to define two new versions of
generic-frame, one for each base class. One way to define this
classes would be like this:
(define-binary-class generic-frame-v2.2 (id3v2.2-frame) ((data (raw-bytes :size size)))) (define-binary-class generic-frame-v2.3 (id3v2.3-frame) ((data (raw-bytes :size size))))
However, it's a bit annoying that these two classes are the same except for their superclass. It's not too bad in this case since there's only one additional field. But if you take this approach for other concrete frame classes, ones that have a more complex internal structure that's identical between the two ID3 versions, the duplication will be more irksome.
Another approach, and the one you should actually use, is to define a
generic-frame as a mixin: a class intended to be
used as a superclass along with one of the version-specific base
classes to produce a concrete, version-specific frame class. The only
tricky bit about this approach is that if
doesn't extend either of the frame base classes, then you can't refer
size slot in its definition. Instead, you must use the
current-binary-object function I discussed at the end of the
previous chapter to access the object you're in the midst of reading
or writing and pass it to
size. And you need to account for
the difference in the number of bytes of the total frame size that
will be left over, in the case of a version 2.3 frame, if any of the
optional fields are included in the frame. So, you should define a
data-bytes with methods that do the right
thing for both version 2.2 and version 2.3 frames.
(define-binary-class generic-frame () ((data (raw-bytes :size (data-bytes (current-binary-object)))))) (defgeneric data-bytes (frame)) (defmethod data-bytes ((frame id3v2.2-frame)) (size frame)) (defmethod data-bytes ((frame id3v2.3-frame)) (let ((flags (flags frame))) (- (size frame) (if (frame-compressed-p flags) 4 0) (if (frame-encrypted-p flags) 1 0) (if (frame-grouped-p flags) 1 0))))
Then you can define concrete classes that extend one of the
version-specific base classes and
generic-frame to define
version-specific generic frame classes.
(define-binary-class generic-frame-v2.2 (id3v2.2-frame generic-frame) ()) (define-binary-class generic-frame-v2.3 (id3v2.3-frame generic-frame) ())
With these classes defined, you can redefine the
find-frame-class function to return the right versioned class
based on the length of the identifier.
(defun find-frame-class (id) (ecase (length id) (3 'generic-frame-v2.2) (4 'generic-frame-v2.3)))
With the ability to read both version 2.2 and version 2.3 tags using generic frames, you're ready to start implementing classes to represent the specific frames you care about. However, before you dive in, you should take a breather and figure out what frames you actually care about since, as I mentioned earlier, the ID3 spec specifies many frames that are almost never used. Of course, what frames you care about depends on what kinds of applications you're interested in writing. If you're mostly interested in extracting information from existing ID3 tags, then you need implement only the classes representing the frames containing the information you care about. On the other hand, if you want to write an ID3 tag editor, you may need to support all the frames.
Rather than guessing which frames will be most useful, you can use
the code you've already written to poke around a bit at the REPL and
see what frames are actually used in your own MP3s. To start, you
need an instance of
id3-tag, which you can get with the
ID3V2> (read-id3 "/usr2/mp3/Kitka/Wintersongs/02 Byla Cesta.mp3") #<ID3V2.2-TAG @ #x727b2912>
Since you'll want to play with this object a bit, you should save it in a variable.
ID3V2> (defparameter *id3* (read-id3 "/usr2/mp3/Kitka/Wintersongs/02 Byla Cesta.mp3")) *ID3*
Now you can see, for example, how many frames it has.
ID3V2> (length (frames *id3*)) 11
Not too many--let's take a look at what they are.
ID3V2> (frames *id3*) (#<GENERIC-FRAME-V2.2 @ #x72dabdda> #<GENERIC-FRAME-V2.2 @ #x72dabec2> #<GENERIC-FRAME-V2.2 @ #x72dabfa2> #<GENERIC-FRAME-V2.2 @ #x72dac08a> #<GENERIC-FRAME-V2.2 @ #x72dac16a> #<GENERIC-FRAME-V2.2 @ #x72dac24a> #<GENERIC-FRAME-V2.2 @ #x72dac32a> #<GENERIC-FRAME-V2.2 @ #x72dac40a> #<GENERIC-FRAME-V2.2 @ #x72dac4f2> #<GENERIC-FRAME-V2.2 @ #x72dac632> #<GENERIC-FRAME-V2.2 @ #x72dac7b2>)
Okay, that's not too informative. What you really want to know are
what kinds of frames are in there. In other words, you want to know
ids of those frames, which you can get with a simple
MAPCAR like this:
ID3V2> (mapcar #'id (frames *id3*)) ("TT2" "TP1" "TAL" "TRK" "TPA" "TYE" "TCO" "TEN" "COM" "COM" "COM")
If you look up these identifiers in the ID3v2.2 spec, you'll discover that all the frames with identifiers starting with T are text information frames and have a similar structure. And COM is the identifier for comment frames, which have a structure similar to that of text information frames. The particular text information frames identified here turn out to be the frames for representing the song title, artist, album, track, part of set, year, genre, and encoding program.
Of course, this is just one MP3 file. Maybe other frames are used in
other files. It's easy enough to discover. First define a function
that combines the previous
MAPCAR expression with a call to
read-id3 and wraps the whole thing in a
to keep things tidy. You'll have to use a
:test argument of
DELETE-DUPLICATES to specify that you want
two elements considered the same if they're the same string.
(defun frame-types (file) (delete-duplicates (mapcar #'id (frames (read-id3 file))) :test #'string=))
This should give the same answer except with only one of each identifier when passed the same filename.
ID3V2> (frame-types "/usr2/mp3/Kitka/Wintersongs/02 Byla Cesta.mp3") ("TT2" "TP1" "TAL" "TRK" "TPA" "TYE" "TCO" "TEN" "COM")
Then you can use Chapter 15's
walk-directory function along
mp3-p to find every MP3 file under a directory and
combine the results of calling
frame-types on each file.
NUNION is the recycling version of the
frame-types makes a new list for each file,
this is safe.
(defun frame-types-in-dir (dir) (let ((ids ())) (flet ((collect (file) (setf ids (nunion ids (frame-types file) :test #'string=)))) (walk-directory dir #'collect :test #'mp3-p)) ids))
Now pass it the name of a directory, and it'll tell you the set of identifiers used in all the MP3 files under that directory. It may take a few seconds depending how many MP3 files you have, but you'll probably get something similar to this:
ID3V2> (frame-types-in-dir "/usr2/mp3/") ("TCON" "COMM" "TRCK" "TIT2" "TPE1" "TALB" "TCP" "TT2" "TP1" "TCM" "TAL" "TRK" "TPA" "TYE" "TCO" "TEN" "COM")
The four-letter identifiers are the version 2.3 equivalents of the version 2.2 identifiers I discussed previously. Since the information stored in those frames is exactly the information you'll need in Chapter 27, it makes sense to implement classes only for the frames actually used, namely, text information and comment frames, which you'll do in the next two sections. If you decide later that you want to support other frame types, it's mostly a matter of translating the ID3 specifications into the appropriate binary class definitions.
All text information frames consist of two fields: a single byte indicating which string encoding is used in the frame and a string encoded in the remaining bytes of the frame. If the encoding byte is zero, the string is encoded in ISO 8859-1; if the encoding is one, the string is a UCS-2 string.
You've already defined binary types representing the four different
kinds of strings--two different encodings each with two different
methods of delimiting the string. However,
provides no direct facility for determining the type of value to read
based on other values in the object. Instead, you can define a binary
type that you pass the value of the encoding byte and that then reads
or writes the appropriate kind of string.
As long as you're defining such a type, you can also define it to
take two parameters,
:terminator, and pick
the right type of string based on which argument is supplied. To
implement this new type, you must first define some helper functions.
The first two return the name of the appropriate string type based on
the encoding byte.
(defun non-terminated-type (encoding) (ecase encoding (0 'iso-8859-1-string) (1 'ucs-2-string))) (defun terminated-type (encoding) (ecase encoding (0 'iso-8859-1-terminated-string) (1 'ucs-2-terminated-string)))
string-args uses the encoding byte, the length, and the
terminator to determine several of the arguments to be passed to
write-value by the
id3-encoded-string. One of the length and
terminator arguments to
string-args should always be
(defun string-args (encoding length terminator) (cond (length (values (non-terminated-type encoding) :length length)) (terminator (values (terminated-type encoding) :terminator terminator))))
With those helpers, the definition of
simple. One detail to note is that the keyword--either
:terminator--used in the call to
write-value is just another piece of data returned by
string-args. Although keywords in arguments lists are almost
always literal keywords, they don't have to be.
(define-binary-type id3-encoded-string (encoding length terminator) (:reader (in) (multiple-value-bind (type keyword arg) (string-args encoding length terminator) (read-value type in keyword arg))) (:writer (out string) (multiple-value-bind (type keyword arg) (string-args encoding length terminator) (write-value type out string keyword arg))))
Now you can define a
text-info mixin class, much the way you
(define-binary-class text-info-frame () ((encoding u1) (information (id3-encoded-string :encoding encoding :length (bytes-left 1)))))
As when you defined
generic-frame, you need access to the size
of the frame, in this case to compute the
:length argument to
id3-encoded-string. Because you'll need to do a similar
computation in the next class you define, you can go ahead and define
a helper function,
bytes-left, that uses
current-binary-object to get at the size of the frame.
(defun bytes-left (bytes-read) (- (size (current-binary-object)) bytes-read))
Now, as you did with the
generic-frame mixin, you can define
two version-specific concrete classes with a minimum of duplicated
(define-binary-class text-info-frame-v2.2 (id3v2.2-frame text-info-frame) ()) (define-binary-class text-info-frame-v2.3 (id3v2.3-frame text-info-frame) ())
To wire these classes in, you need to modify
to return the appropriate class name when the ID indicates the frame
is a text information frame, namely, whenever the ID starts with
T and isn't TXX or TXXX.
(defun find-frame-class (name) (cond ((and (char= (char name 0) #\T) (not (member name '("TXX" "TXXX") :test #'string=))) (ecase (length name) (3 'text-info-frame-v2.2) (4 'text-info-frame-v2.3))) (t (ecase (length name) (3 'generic-frame-v2.2) (4 'generic-frame-v2.3)))))
Another commonly used frame type is the comment frame, which is like a text information frame with a few extra fields. Like a text information frame, it starts with a single byte indicating the string encoding used in the frame. That byte is followed by a three-character ISO 8859-1 string (regardless of the value of the string encoding byte), which indicates what language the comment is in using an ISO-639-2 code, for example, "eng" for English or "jpn" for Japanese. That field is followed by two strings encoded as indicated by the first byte. The first is a null-terminated string containing a description of the comment. The second, which takes up the remainder of the frame, is the comment text itself.
(define-binary-class comment-frame () ((encoding u1) (language (iso-8859-1-string :length 3)) (description (id3-encoded-string :encoding encoding :terminator +null+)) (text (id3-encoded-string :encoding encoding :length (bytes-left (+ 1 ; encoding 3 ; language (encoded-string-length description encoding t)))))))
As in the definition of the
text-info mixin, you can use
bytes-left to compute the size of the final string. However,
description field is a variable-length string, the
number of bytes read prior to the start of
text isn't a
constant. To make matters worse, the number of bytes used to encode
description is dependent on the encoding. So, you should
define a helper function that returns the number of bytes used to
encode a string given the string, the encoding code, and a boolean
indicating whether the string is terminated with an extra character.
(defun encoded-string-length (string encoding terminated) (let ((characters (+ (length string) (if terminated 1 0)))) (* characters (ecase encoding (0 1) (1 2)))))
And, as before, you can define the concrete version-specific comment
frame classes and wire them into
(define-binary-class comment-frame-v2.2 (id3v2.2-frame comment-frame) ()) (define-binary-class comment-frame-v2.3 (id3v2.3-frame comment-frame) ()) (defun find-frame-class (name) (cond ((and (char= (char name 0) #\T) (not (member name '("TXX" "TXXX") :test #'string=))) (ecase (length name) (3 'text-info-frame-v2.2) (4 'text-info-frame-v2.3))) ((string= name "COM") 'comment-frame-v2.2) ((string= name "COMM") 'comment-frame-v2.3) (t (ecase (length name) (3 'generic-frame-v2.2) (4 'generic-frame-v2.3)))))
Now that you have the basic ability to read and write ID3 tags, you
have a lot of directions you could take this code. If you want to
develop a complete ID3 tag editor, you'll need to implement specific
classes for all the frame types. You'd also need to define methods
for manipulating the tag and frame objects in a consistent way (for
instance, if you change the value of a string in a
text-info-frame, you'll likely need to adjust the size); as
the code stands, there's nothing to make sure that
Or, if you just need to extract certain pieces of information about an MP3 file from its ID3 tag--as you will when you develop a streaming MP3 server in Chapters 27, 28, and 29--you'll need to write functions that find the appropriate frames and extract the information you want.
Finally, to make this production-quality code, you'd have to pore over the ID3 specs and deal with the details I skipped over in the interest of space. In particular, some of the flags in both the tag and the frame can affect the way the contents of the tag or frame is read; unless you write some code that does the right thing when those flags are set, there may be ID3 tags that this code won't be able to parse correctly. But the code from this chapter should be capable of parsing nearly all the MP3s you actually encounter.
For now you can finish with a few functions to extract individual
pieces of information from an
id3-tag. You'll need these
functions in Chapter 27 and probably in other code that uses this
library. They belong in this library because they depend on details
of the ID3 format that the users of this library shouldn't have to
To get, say, the name of the song of the MP3 from which an
id3-tag was extracted, you need to find the ID3 frame with a
specific identifier and then extract the information field. And some
pieces of information, such as the genre, can require further
decoding. Luckily, all the frames that contain the information you'll
care about are text information frames, so extracting a particular
piece of information mostly boils down to using the right identifier
to look up the appropriate frame. Of course, the ID3 authors decided
to change all the identifiers between ID3v2.2 and ID3v2.3, so you'll
have to account for that.
Nothing too complex--you just need to figure out the right path to
get to the various pieces of information. This is a perfect bit of
code to develop interactively, much the way you figured out what
frame classes you needed to implement. To start, you need an
id3-tag object to play with. Assuming you have an MP3 laying
around, you can use
read-id3 like this:
ID3V2> (defparameter *id3* (read-id3 "Kitka/Wintersongs/02 Byla Cesta.mp3")) *ID3* ID3V2> *id3* #<ID3V2.2-TAG @ #x73d04c1a>
Kitka/Wintersongs/02 Byla Cesta.mp3 with the
filename of your MP3. Once you have your
id3-tag object, you
can start poking around. For instance, you can check out the list of
frame objects with the
ID3V2> (frames *id3*) (#<TEXT-INFO-FRAME-V2.2 @ #x73d04cca> #<TEXT-INFO-FRAME-V2.2 @ #x73d04dba> #<TEXT-INFO-FRAME-V2.2 @ #x73d04ea2> #<TEXT-INFO-FRAME-V2.2 @ #x73d04f9a> #<TEXT-INFO-FRAME-V2.2 @ #x73d05082> #<TEXT-INFO-FRAME-V2.2 @ #x73d0516a> #<TEXT-INFO-FRAME-V2.2 @ #x73d05252> #<TEXT-INFO-FRAME-V2.2 @ #x73d0533a> #<COMMENT-FRAME-V2.2 @ #x73d0543a> #<COMMENT-FRAME-V2.2 @ #x73d05612> #<COMMENT-FRAME-V2.2 @ #x73d0586a>)
Now suppose you want to extract the song title. It's probably in one of those frames, but to find it, you need to find the frame with the "TT2" identifier. Well, you can check easily enough to see if the tag contains such a frame by extracting all the identifiers like this:
ID3V2> (mapcar #'id (frames *id3*)) ("TT2" "TP1" "TAL" "TRK" "TPA" "TYE" "TCO" "TEN" "COM" "COM" "COM")
There it is, the first frame. However, there's no guarantee it'll
always be the first frame, so you should probably look it up by
identifier rather than position. That's also straightforward using
ID3V2> (find "TT2" (frames *id3*) :test #'string= :key #'id) #<TEXT-INFO-FRAME-V2.2 @ #x73d04cca>
Now, to get at the actual information in the frame, do this:
ID3V2> (information (find "TT2" (frames *id3*) :test #'string= :key #'id)) "Byla Cesta^@"
^@ is how Emacs prints a null character. In a
maneuver reminiscent of the kludge that turned ID3v1 into ID3v1.1,
information slot of a text information frame, though not
officially a null-terminated string, can contain a null, and ID3
readers are supposed to ignore any characters after the null. So, you
need a function that takes a string and returns the contents up to
the first null character, if any. That's easy enough using the
+null+ constant from the binary data library.
(defun upto-null (string) (subseq string 0 (position +null+ string)))
Now you can get just the title.
ID3V2> (upto-null (information (find "TT2" (frames *id3*) :test #'string= :key #'id))) "Byla Cesta"
You could just wrap that code in a function named
id3-tag as an argument, and you'd be done. However,
the only difference between this code and the code you'll use to
extract the other pieces of information you'll need (such as the
album name, the artist, and the genre) is the identifier. So, it's
better to split up the code a bit. For starters, you can write a
function that just finds a frame given an
id3-tag and an
identifier like this:
(defun find-frame (id3 id) (find id (frames id3) :test #'string= :key #'id)) ID3V2> (find-frame *id3* "TT2") #<TEXT-INFO-FRAME-V2.2 @ #x73d04cca>
Then the other bit of code, the part that extracts the information
text-info-frame, can go in another function.
(defun get-text-info (id3 id) (let ((frame (find-frame id3 id))) (when frame (upto-null (information frame))))) ID3V2> (get-text-info *id3* "TT2") "Byla Cesta"
Now the definition of
song is just a matter of passing the
(defun song (id3) (get-text-info id3 "TT2")) ID3V2> (song *id3*) "Byla Cesta"
However, this definition of
song works only with version 2.2
tags since the identifier changed from "TT2" to "TIT2" between
version 2.2 and version 2.3. And all the other tags changed too.
Since the user of this library shouldn't have to know about different
versions of the ID3 format to do something as simple as get the song
title, you should probably handle those details for them. A simple
way is to change
find-frame to take not just a single
identifier but a list of identifiers like this:
(defun find-frame (id3 ids) (find-if #'(lambda (x) (find (id x) ids :test #'string=)) (frames id3)))
get-text-info slightly so it can take one or more
identifiers using a
(defun get-text-info (id3 &rest ids) (let ((frame (find-frame id3 ids))) (when frame (upto-null (information frame)))))
Then the change needed to allow
song to support both version
2.2 and version 2.3 tags is just a matter of adding the version 2.3
(defun song (id3) (get-text-info id3 "TT2" "TIT2"))
Then you just need to look up the appropriate version 2.2 and version 2.3 frame identifiers for any fields for which you want to provide an accessor function. Here are the ones you'll need in Chapter 27:
(defun album (id3) (get-text-info id3 "TAL" "TALB")) (defun artist (id3) (get-text-info id3 "TP1" "TPE1")) (defun track (id3) (get-text-info id3 "TRK" "TRCK")) (defun year (id3) (get-text-info id3 "TYE" "TYER" "TDRC")) (defun genre (id3) (get-text-info id3 "TCO" "TCON"))
The last wrinkle is that the way the
genre is stored in the
TCO or TCON frames isn't always human readable. Recall that in ID3v1,
genres were stored as a single byte that encoded a particular genre
from a fixed list. Unfortunately, those codes live on in ID3v2--if
the text of the genre frame is a number in parentheses, the number is
supposed to be interpreted as an ID3v1 genre code. But, again, users
of this library probably won't care about that ancient history. So,
you should provide a function that automatically translates the
genre. The following function uses the
genre function just
defined to extract the actual genre text and then checks whether it
starts with a left parenthesis, decoding the version 1 genre code
with a function you'll define in a moment if it does:
(defun translated-genre (id3) (let ((genre (genre id3))) (if (and genre (char= #\( (char genre 0))) (translate-v1-genre genre) genre)))
Since a version 1 genre code is effectively just an index into an
array of standard names, the easiest way to implement
translate-v1-genre is to extract the number from the genre
string and use it as an index into an actual array.
(defun translate-v1-genre (genre) (aref *id3-v1-genres* (parse-integer genre :start 1 :junk-allowed t)))
Then all you need to do is to define the array of names. The following array of names includes the 80 official version 1 genres plus the genres created by the authors of Winamp:
(defparameter *id3-v1-genres* #( ;; These are the official ID3v1 genres. "Blues" "Classic Rock" "Country" "Dance" "Disco" "Funk" "Grunge" "Hip-Hop" "Jazz" "Metal" "New Age" "Oldies" "Other" "Pop" "R&B" "Rap" "Reggae" "Rock" "Techno" "Industrial" "Alternative" "Ska" "Death Metal" "Pranks" "Soundtrack" "Euro-Techno" "Ambient" "Trip-Hop" "Vocal" "Jazz+Funk" "Fusion" "Trance" "Classical" "Instrumental" "Acid" "House" "Game" "Sound Clip" "Gospel" "Noise" "AlternRock" "Bass" "Soul" "Punk" "Space" "Meditative" "Instrumental Pop" "Instrumental Rock" "Ethnic" "Gothic" "Darkwave" "Techno-Industrial" "Electronic" "Pop-Folk" "Eurodance" "Dream" "Southern Rock" "Comedy" "Cult" "Gangsta" "Top 40" "Christian Rap" "Pop/Funk" "Jungle" "Native American" "Cabaret" "New Wave" "Psychadelic" "Rave" "Showtunes" "Trailer" "Lo-Fi" "Tribal" "Acid Punk" "Acid Jazz" "Polka" "Retro" "Musical" "Rock & Roll" "Hard Rock" ;; These were made up by the authors of Winamp but backported into ;; the ID3 spec. "Folk" "Folk-Rock" "National Folk" "Swing" "Fast Fusion" "Bebob" "Latin" "Revival" "Celtic" "Bluegrass" "Avantgarde" "Gothic Rock" "Progressive Rock" "Psychedelic Rock" "Symphonic Rock" "Slow Rock" "Big Band" "Chorus" "Easy Listening" "Acoustic" "Humour" "Speech" "Chanson" "Opera" "Chamber Music" "Sonata" "Symphony" "Booty Bass" "Primus" "Porn Groove" "Satire" "Slow Jam" "Club" "Tango" "Samba" "Folklore" "Ballad" "Power Ballad" "Rhythmic Soul" "Freestyle" "Duet" "Punk Rock" "Drum Solo" "A capella" "Euro-House" "Dance Hall" ;; These were also invented by the Winamp folks but ignored by the ;; ID3 authors. "Goa" "Drum & Bass" "Club-House" "Hardcore" "Terror" "Indie" "BritPop" "Negerpunk" "Polsk Punk" "Beat" "Christian Gangsta Rap" "Heavy Metal" "Black Metal" "Crossover" "Contemporary Christian" "Christian Rock" "Merengue" "Salsa" "Thrash Metal" "Anime" "Jpop" "Synthpop"))
Once again, it probably feels like you wrote a ton of code in this chapter. But if you put it all in a file, or if you download the version from this book's Web site, you'll see it's just not that many lines--most of the pain of writing this library stems from having to understand the intricacies of the ID3 format itself. Anyway, now you have a major piece of what you'll turn into a streaming MP3 server in Chapters 27, 28, and 29. The other major bit of infrastructure you'll need is a way to write server-side Web software, the topic of the next chapter.
1Ripping is the process by which a song on an audio CD is converted to an MP3 file on your hard drive. These days most ripping software also automatically retrieves information about the songs being ripped from online databases such as Gracenote (née the Compact Disc Database [CDDB]) or FreeDB, which it then embeds in the MP3 files as ID3 tags.
2Almost all file systems provide the ability to overwrite existing bytes of a file, but few, if any, provide a way to add or remove data at the beginning or middle of a file without having to rewrite the rest of the file. Since ID3 tags are typically stored at the beginning of a file, to rewrite an ID3 tag without disturbing the rest of the file you must replace the old tag with a new tag of exactly the same length. By writing ID3 tags with a certain amount of padding, you have a better chance of being able to do so--if the new tag has more data than the original tag, you use less padding, and if it's shorter, you use more.
3The frame data following the ID3 header could also potentially contain the illegal sequence. That's prevented using a different scheme that's turned on via one of the flags in the tag header. The code in this chapter doesn't account for the possibility that this flag might be set; in practice it's rarely used.
4In ID3v2.4, UCS-2 is replaced by the virtually identical UTF-16, and UTF-16BE and UTF-8 are added as additional encodings.
5The 2.4 version of the ID3 format also supports placing a footer at the end of a tag, which makes it easier to find a tag appended to the end of a file.
6Character streams support two functions,
UNREAD-CHAR, either of which would be a
perfect solution to this problem, but binary streams support no
7If a tag had an extended header, you could use this value to determine where the frame data should end. However, if the extended header isn't used, you'd have to use the old algorithm anyway, so it's not worth adding code to do it another way.
8These flags, in addition to controlling whether the
optional fields are included, can affect the parsing of the rest of
the tag. In particular, if the seventh bit of the flags is set, then
the actual frame data is compressed using the zlib algorithm, and if
the sixth bit is set, the data is encrypted. In practice these
options are rarely, if ever, used, so you can get away with ignoring
them for now. But that would be an area you'd have to address to make
this a production-quality ID3 library. One simple half solution would
be to change
find-frame-class to accept a second argument and
pass it the flags; if the frame is compressed or encrypted, you could
instantiate a generic frame to hold the data.
9Ensuring that kind of interfield consistency would be a
fine application for
:after methods on the accessor generic
functions. For instance, you could define this
size in sync with the
(defmethod (setf information) :after (value (frame text-info-frame)) (declare (ignore value)) (with-slots (encoding size information) frame (setf size (encoded-string-length information encoding nil))))
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| 0.834598 | 17,795 | 3.171875 | 3 |
|2. Conceptual Change|
|3. Historical Developments|
|4. Changes in Disease Concepts|
|5. Changes in Germ Concepts|
|6. Other Representational Accounts of Conceptual Change|
|7. Referential Change|
AbstractBy contrasting Hippocratic and nineteenth century theories of disease, this paper describes important conceptual changes that have taken place in the history of medicine. Disease concepts are presented as causal networks that represent the relations among the symptoms, causes, and treatment of a disease. The transition to the germ theory of disease produced dramatic conceptual changes as the result of a radically new view of disease causation. An analogy between disease and fermentation was important for two of the main developers of the germ theory of disease, Pasteur and Lister. Attention to the development of germ concepts shows the need for a referential account of conceptual change to complement a representational account.
Laypeople are familiar with dozens of diseases such as influenza, chicken pox, and cancer. Medical personnel acquire concepts for thousands of additional diseases, from Alzheimer's to yellow fever. What is the nature of these concepts? Examination of historical and contemporary writings on disease suggests that disease concepts can best be viewed as causal networks that represent relations among the symptoms, causes, and treatment of a disease. Conceptual change concerning disease is primarily driven by changes in causal theories about diseases. To defend these claims, I will review some important developments in the history of medicine and describe the major changes that have taken place in the concept of disease.
I begin with the ancient Greek view of disease displayed in the writings attributed to Hippocrates, whose concepts are closely connected to the humoral theory of the causes of disease. This view dominated European medical thought until the development of the germ theory of disease, which was first hinted at in the sixteenth century but not developed and generally accepted until the nineteenth. Fracastoro, an Italian physician, wrote the first important work on contagion in 1546, but the modern germ theory of disease developed with the research of Pasteur, Lister, Koch, and others in the 1860s and 1870s. Transition from the humoral to the germ theory of disease required a major conceptual revolution, involving many kinds of conceptual change including a fundamental shift in how diseases are classified. Less radical conceptual changes occurred in the twentieth century with the discovery of genetic, nutritional, and immunological causes of disease.
Recently, a growing number of psychologists have emphasized the role of causal connections in understanding the nature of concepts (Carey, 1985; Keil, 1989; Medin, 1989; Murphy and Medin, 1985). The concept of a drunk, for example, is not just a set of prototypical features or typical examples, but also involves causal relations that can be used to apply the concept in an explanatory fashion: if someone falls into a swimming pool fully clothed, we can say that it happened because he or she is a drunk.
Disease concepts are particularly interesting from this theoretical perspective, because they display a rich causal structure schematized in figure 1. Symptoms are the observable manifestations of a disease, which can develop over time in particular ways that constitute the expected course of the disease. The symptoms arise from the cause or causes (etiology) of the disease. Treatment of the disease should affect the symptoms and course of the disease, often by affecting the causal factors that produce the symptoms. For example, tuberculosis has a set of typical symptoms such as coughing and the growth of tubercles (nodules) in the lungs and elsewhere, along with a course that before the twentieth century often included wasting and death. The disorder most commonly affects the lungs, but tuberculosis can also infect many other parts of the body. In 1882, Robert Koch discovered that the cause of tuberculosis is a bacterium, now called , and in 1932, Gerhard Domagk discovered that this microbe can be killed by the drug Prontosil. The drug streptomycin was discovered in 1944 and proved effective in treating the disease. Hence today tuberculosis has a well-understood cause and a kind of treatment that is effective except for the emergence of bacterial strains resistant to antibiotics.
Understanding a disease concept as a causal structure like that shown in figure 1 is consistent with aspects of prototype and exemplar theories of concepts. Patients may have symptoms that approximately match a set of symptoms that typically occur in people with a particular disease. Medical personnel may have in mind particular examples of patients with a particular disease. But a disease concept is not fully captured by a set of typical symptoms or exemplars, because the causal relations are an important part of the conceptual structure, as historical examples will show (1).
|1. Adding a new instance of a concept, for example a patient who has tuberculosis.|
|2. Adding a new weak rule, for example that tuberculosis is common in prisons.|
|3. Adding a new strong rule that plays a frequent role in problem solving and explanation, for example that people with tuberculosis have Mycobacterium tuberculosis.|
|4. Adding a new part-relation, for example that diseased lungs contain tubercles.|
|5. Adding a new kind-relation, for example differentiating between pulmonary and miliary tuberculosis.|
|6. Adding a new concept, for example tuberculosis (which replaced the previous terms phthisis and consumption) or AIDS.|
|7. Collapsing part of a kind-hierarchy, abandoning a previous distinction, for example, realizing that phthisis and scrofula are the same disease, tuberculosis.|
|8. Reorganizing hierarchies by branch jumping, that is shifting a concept from one branch of a hierarchical tree to another, for example reclassifying tuberculosis as an infectious disease.|
|9. Tree switching, that is, changing the organizing principle of a hierarchical tree, for example classifying diseases in terms of causal agents rather than symptoms.|
All of these kinds of conceptual change occurred in the development of the concept of disease, particularly during the transition to the germ theory. Accounts of conceptual change by other researchers in the history, philosophy, and psychology of science are reviewed at the end of this paper. With various kinds of conceptual change in mind, particularly branch jumping and tree switching, let us now look at some key developments in the history of the concept of disease.
Hippocrates developed a naturalistic approach to medicine that contrasted sharply with the religious views that preceded him. Figure 2 shows the causal network that the Hippocratics rejected, for example in their discussion of the "sacred disease", epilepsy. On the traditional view, epilepsy was caused by divine visitation, and hence could only be cured by using an appeal to the gods or other magic. Little was said of the existence of a physical disorder responsible for the observable symptoms. The Hippocratics argued that epilepsy is no more sacred than any other disease, and contended that it is caused by an excess of phlegm, one of the four humors (fluids) that constitute the human body.
The following quotes from Hippocratic treatises concisely summarize the humoral theory:
The human body contains blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile. These are the things that make up its constitution and cause its pains and health. Health is primarily a state in which these constituent substances are in the correct proportion to each other, both in strength and quantity, and are well mixed. (Lloyd, 1978, p. 262)To modern ears, the humoral theory sounds odd, but contextually it possessed a great deal of conceptual and explanatory coherence. Many of Hippocrates' contemporaries believed that there are four fundamental elements: earth, air, fire, and water. These possess various combinations of the four qualities of moist, dry, hot, and cold; for example, fire is hot and dry. The four humors also possess these qualities in different degrees, so that bile tends to be hot and phlegm tends to be cold.
All human diseases arise from bile and phlegm; the bile and phlegm produce diseases when, inside the body, one of them becomes too moist, too dry, too hot, or too cold; they become this way from foods and drinks, from exertions and wounds, from smell, sound, sight, and venery, and from heat and cold. (Hippocrates, 1988, p. 7).
Diseases arise because of humoral imbalances. For example, too much bile can produce various fevers, and too much phlegm can cause epilepsy or angina. Imbalances arise from natural causes such as heredity (phlegmatic parents have phlegmatic children), regimen (diet and other behavior), and climate (temperature, wind, and moisture conditions). Different kinds of imbalance produce different diseases with symptoms and development that were acutely observed by the Hippocratics. They described in detail not only the symptoms of patients with a particular disease, but also the ways that the patients tended to develop toward recovery or death. The course of a disease was affected by the development of a particular humor, producing crises that signaled basic changes in patient outcome. Fevers were classified as tertian, quartan, and so on based on the number of days before a crisis occurred.
Treatment of a disease can address either the causes of the humoral imbalance by changing diet and environment, or the humoral balance itself. To rid the body of excess bile or phlegm, methods were used to induce vomiting or evacuation of the bowels, and veins were opened to let blood. The use of emetics, purgatives, and phlebotomy remained standard medical practice well into the nineteenth century. These techniques make sense within the Hippocratic framework because they are means of changing fluid balances. Figure 3 displays the structure of the causal network underlying the Hippocratic concept of disease.
The Hippocratics primarily classified diseases by symptoms, particularly in terms of the parts of the body affected by the diseases. The treatise Affections classified diseases as shown in table 2. The four seasons played an important role in Hippocratic discussions of diseases, because different seasons brought with them different amounts of the four qualities of heat, cold, moist, and dry, and therefore affected humoral balance.
|Diseases of the head|
| Diseases of the cavity
Fracastoro did not deny the existence of bodily humors such as phlegm, but he contended that there is a large class of diseases caused by contagion rather than humoral imbalance. Persons can contract infections even if their humors are normally balanced. He defined a contagion as a "corruption which develops in the substance of a combination, passes from one thing to another, and is originally caused by infection of the imperceptible particles" (Fracastorius, 1930, p. 5.). He called the particles the seminaria (seeds or seedlets) of contagion. (I translate Fracastoro's "seminaria" as "seeds" rather than the customary but anachronistic "germs".) Fracastoro was unable to say much about the nature of these conjectured particles; bacteria were not observed by van Leeuwenhoek until 1683, and their role in infection was not appreciated until the 1860s. Fracastoro nevertheless discussed the causes and treatment of various contagious diseases.
He described how contagion can occur by direct contact, by indirect contact via clothes and other substances, and by long-distance transmission. In addition, he stated that diseases can arise within an individual spontaneously. His book has chapters for the arrangement of contagious diseases shown in table 3.
The differences between diseases are explained by their having different "active principles", i.e. different seeds. Fracastoro distinguished between different kinds of fevers in part on the basis of their being caused by different kinds of contagion. Rather than abandoning the humoral theory, he blended it with his contagion theory, suggesting that seeds for different diseases have different analogies (affinities) for different humors. For example, the principles of syphilis have an affinity with thick phlegm, whereas those of elephantiasis have an affinity with black bile.
| Contagious fevers
The poxes and measles
Just as Fracastoro's contagion theory of disease postulates different causes than the humoral theory, it also recommends different treatments. Cure comes not from restoring a bodily imbalance, but from destroying or expelling the seeds of contagion. Remedies that destroy the seeds of contagion include extreme heat and cold, while evacuation of the seeds can be brought about by bowel movements, urination, sweating, blood-letting, and other methods. Methods of treatment thus overlap with those advocated by the Hippocratics, although Fracastoro urged that blood-letting not be used for contagious diseases that arise from without as opposed to those spontaneously generated from within. Figure 4 shows the causal structure of Fracastoro' conception of disease. The seminaria produce an infection that can be treated by destroying or expelling them.
According to Nutton (1990), Fracastoro's theory of contagion was respectfully received by his contemporaries, although they tended to assimilate his views to the Galenist metaphor of "seeds of disease" which did not, unlike Fracastoro's view, assume that such seeds are infectious agents transmitted from one person to another. Since no one had observed the seminaria postulated by Fracastoro, his hypothesis had no obvious advantage over Hippocratic assumptions that noxious airs rather than germs are a main source of epidemic diseases. After 1650, Fracastoro had little influence, although interest in his work revived in the nineteenth century when the modern germ theory emerged.
Pasteur (and independently the British surgeon Joseph Lister) made the most important mental leap in the history of medicine, pursuing an analogy between fermentation and disease. They realized that just as fermentation is caused by yeast and bacteria, so diseases may also be caused by microorganisms. In 1878, Pasteur wrote concerning his work on fermentation:
What meditations are induced by those results! It is impossible not to observe that, the further we penetrate into the experimental study of germs, the more we perceive sudden lights and clear ideas on the knowledge of the causes of contagious diseases! Is it not worthy of attention that, in that Arbois vineyard (and it would be true of the million hectares of vineyards of all the countries in the world), there should not have been, at the time I made the aforesaid experiments, one single particle of earth which would not have been capable of provoking fermentation by a grape yeast, and that, on the other hand, the earth of the glass houses I have mentioned should have been powerless to fulfill that office? And why? Because, at the given moment, I covered that earth with some glass. The death, if I may so express it, of a bunch of grapes, thrown at that time on any vineyard, would infallibly have occurred through the saccharomyces parasites of which I speak; that kind of death would have been impossible, on the contrary, on the little space enclosed by my glass houses. Those few cubic yards of air, those few square yards of soil, were there, in the midst of a universal possible contagion, and they were safe from it. .... Is it not permissible to believe, by analogy, that a day will come when easily applied preventive measures will arrest those scourges which suddenly desolate and terrify populations; such as the fearful disease (yellow fever) which has recently invaded Senegal and the valley of the Mississippi, or that other (bubonic plague), yet more terrible perhaps, which has ravaged the banks of the Volga? (translated in Vallery-Radot 1960, pp. 287-289; for the original see Pasteur, 1922, vol. II, p. 547).From silkworms, Pasteur moved on to diseases such as anthrax and rabies, applying his proverb to "seek the microbe". Some microbes such as the virus that causes rabies are too small to be identified by the microscopes available to Pasteur. The concept of germ underwent substantial changes as microbiology progressed, as I will describe in a later section.
According to Geison (1995, p. 36), "the old and widely accepted analogy between fermentation and disease made any theory of the former immediately relevant to the latter." But Pasteur's breakthrough was more than simple analogical transfer from the domain of fermentation to the domain of disease, for he had to revise the existing analogy. In an 1857 memoir, Pasteur disputed the influential view of Liebig that putrefaction is the cause of both fermentation and contagious diseases (Brock 1961, p. 28). From Liebig's perspective, fermentation and contagion are analogous because they are both caused by putrefaction (rotting). After the establishment of the germ theory of fermentation, Pasteur concluded that disease can be viewed as analogous in that it too is caused by germs. A new analogical mapping supplanted Liebig's. Pasteur seems to have had the revised analogy in mind even before he began work on silkworms in 1865: in his work on problems with wine fermentation in 1864 he wrote of "les maladies des vins", i.e. diseases of wines. See Holyoak and Thagard (1995, ch. 8) for a discussion of scientific analogies.
Pasteur developed the technique of heating milk and wine to prevent development of bacteria, but what is now called pasteurization is no help with diseases of humans (compare Fracastoro' ideas about heat!). Pasteur had no direct way of killing microorganisms, but he discovered how to prevent rabies using vaccination, an ancient technique of exposing people or animals to an attenuated strain of an infectious agent that had been successfully applied by Jenner to smallpox in the late eighteenth century.
The British surgeon Joseph Lister was quick to appreciate the significance of Pasteur's ideas about fermentation, writing in 1867:
Turning now to the question how the atmosphere produces decomposition of organic substances, we find that a flood of light has been thrown upon this most important subject by the philosophic researches of M. Pasteur, who has demonstrated by thoroughly convincing evidence that it is not to its oxygen or to any of its gaseous constituents that the air owes this property, but to the minute particles suspended in it, which are the germs of various low forms of life, long since revealed by the microscope, and regarded as merely accidental concomitants to putrescence, but now shown by Pasteur to be its essential cause, resolving the complex organic compounds into substances of simpler chemical constitution, just as the yeast plant converts sugar into alcohol and carbonic acid. ...As a surgeon, Lister had seen many of his patients die from infection, but he realized that Pasteur's finding that germs cause fermentation suggested not only an explanation for why wounds become infected, but also a possible means of preventing infection. Knowing that carbolic acid had been used in Carlisle on sewage to prevent odor and diseases in cattle that fed upon the pastures irrigated from the refuse material, Lister (analogically) began to use carbolic acid to sterilize wounds, dramatically dropping the infection rate.
Applying these principles to the treatment of compound fracture, bearing in mind that it is from the vitality of the atmospheric particles that all mischief arises, it appears that all that is requisite is to dress the wound with some material capable of killing those septic germs, provided that any substance can be found reliable for this purpose, yet not too potent as a caustic. (reprinted in Brock , 1961, p. 84).
In the 1870s and 1880s, the German doctor Robert Koch demonstrated that anthrax and tuberculosis are caused by bacteria. Koch realized that there are many different kinds of bacteria, and specific kinds are responsible for specific diseases. By the 1890s, researchers had recognized that microbes much smaller than bacteria are responsible for rabies and many other diseases, and the modern concept of a virus originated. Antibiotic cures for bacterial infections were not developed until the 1930s. But in the latter half of the nineteenth century, sometimes called the golden age of bacteriology, researchers identified the microbial causes of many diseases listed in table 4. Even in recent years, new bacterial infections such as Lyme disease and Legionnaire's disease have been identified, and evidence is mounting that peptic ulcers have a bacterial origin (see Thagard, forthcoming-a, forthcoming-b).
|1877||Anthrax||Bacillus anthracis||Koch, R.|
|1879||Gonorrhea||Neisseria gonorrhoeae||Neisser, A.L.S.|
|1880||Typhoid fever||Salmonella typhi||Eberth, C.J.|
|1882||Tuberculosis||Mycobacterium tuberculosis||Koch, R.|
|1883||Cholera||Vibrio cholerae||Koch, R.|
|1884||Tetanus||Clostridium tetani||Nicholaier, A.|
|1885||Diarrhea||Escherichia coli||Escherich, T.|
|1886||Pneumonia||Streptococcus pneumoniae||Fraenkel, A.|
|1887||Meningitis||Neisseria meningitidis||Weischselbaum, A.|
|1888||Food poisoning||Salmonella enteritidis||Gaertner,A.A.H.|
|1892||Gas gangrene||Clostridium perfringens||Welch, W.H.|
|1894||Plague||Yersinia pestis|| Kitasato, S.,
|1896||Botulism||Clostridium botulinum||van Ermengem, E.M.P.|
|1898||Dysentery||Shigella dysenteriae||Shiga, K.|
|1900||Paratyphoid||Salmonella paratyphi||Schottmuller, H.|
|1903||Syphilis||Treponema pallidum||Schaudinn, F.R., and Hoffmann, E.|
|1906||Whooping cough||Bordtella pertussis||Bordet, J., and Gengou, O.|
The germ theory viewed diseases in terms of a causal network similar to that of Fracastoro, but with much more detail about the nature of germs and possible treatments. Figure 5 displays very schematically the causal relations known to hold for many diseases by the end of the nineteenth century. The Hippocratics were largely confined to a taxonomy of diseases in terms of symptoms, and Fracastoro' theory allowed only a limited causal classification based on kinds of contagion; but the germ theory of disease made possible a detailed and clinically powerful taxonomy of diseases in terms of their microbial causes. Today, infectious diseases are typically classified as bacterial (e.g. syphilis, tuberculosis,), viral (e.g. AIDS, herpes), protozoal (e.g. malaria), and so on. Knowing what bacteria are responsible for a particular disease indicates what antibiotic treatment to apply. Viruses have proven to be much more resistant to chemical attack.
Although classification in terms of superficial symptoms such as fever is no longer important, the taxonomy of infectious diseases in terms of microbial agents goes hand in hand with classification in terms of organ system affected. Textbooks are commonly structured in terms of organ systems, so that, for example, respiratory diseases are discussed together. The Hippocratics' combined an emphasis on humoral imbalances with only a sketchy knowledge of anatomy; the doctrine that diseases have seats in particular bodily organs was developed by Morgagni in the eighteenth century
The authoritative Cecil Textbook of Medicine is divided into parts that implicitly classify diseases in two complementary respects: organ systems and pathogenesis. Table 5 lists the relevant parts of the textbook. Most of these are organized around physiological systems, such as the cardiovascular and respiratory systems. But there are also parts that group diseases in terms of pathogenetic mechanisms that can affect various organ systems: oncology, metabolic diseases, nutritional diseases, infectious diseases, and so on. Some diseases are naturally discussed in more than one part, as when myocarditis occurs both under cardiovascular diseases and infectious diseases. Modern medical classification thus blends two overlapping taxonomies of disease.
| Cardiovascular diseases
Diseases of the liver, gall bladder, and bile ducts
Endocrine and reproductive diseases
Diseases of the bone and bone mineral metabolism
Diseases of the immune system
Musculoskeletal and connective tissue diseases
HIV and associate disorders
Diseases caused by protozoa and metazoa
The shift from the humoral to the germ theory of disease required a conceptual revolution: the old conceptual and explanatory system was replaced by a radically different one. In contrast, the development in the twentieth century of concepts of genetic, nutritional, immunological, and metabolic diseases were relatively conservative extensions of the nineteenth century ideas: new causes were introduced without denying that the germ theory was right about the causes of diseases to which it had been applied. Let us now look at changes in the concept of disease more systematically.
Adding a new part relation is usually a conservative conceptual change in the history of medicine, since finding new parts does not require rejection of previous views about parts. For example, when Schwann proposed in 1839 that animals are composed of cells, his new subdivision did not require rejection of previous views about organs. However, identifying new parts can sometimes lead to nonconservative rule addition if the new parts suggest new causal rules, as when the discovery of new organs made possible novel diagnoses..
Adding a new kind-relation can be conservative when it simply involves subdividing accepted kinds into finer distinctions, as when diabetes mellitus is divided into two kinds, type I or insulin-dependent diabetes and type II or non-insulin dependent diabetes. Sometimes, however, adding kind-relations involves changing causal rules, as when the germ theory introduced infectious diseases as a new class with causes very different from those associated with the humoral theory.
Adding a new concept can be conservative when the concept fits with the existing conceptual system. Adding the classes of genetic and nutritional diseases was conservative with respect to the germ theory, since the new concepts largely applied to diseases that had not previously been asserted to be infectious. In contrast, the concept of infectious disease was nonconservative with respect to the humoral theory, since it required rejecting not only previous beliefs but also previous concepts. Modern concepts of blood, phlegm, and bile do not play anything like the explanatory and clinical role that they did for the Hippocratics.
For the germ theory, fever is not itself a disease as it was for Hippocrates and Fracastoro, but only a symptom of infection. Hence there is no need to include in the taxonomy of diseases a classification of kinds of fever. Abandonment of the fever branch of the disease taxonomy exemplifies the seventh kind of conceptual change listed in table 1, collapsing a kind-hierarchy to abandon a previous distinction. This change is clearly nonconservative, requiring the abandonment of previously accepted concepts and beliefs.
Branch jumping - reorganizing hierarchies by shifting a concept from one branch of a hierarchical tree to another branch - is similarly nonconservative. To take a recent example, the new bacterial theory of the origins of many peptic ulcers requires reclassification of ulcers as an infectious disease, rather than as a disorder due to excess acidity or as a psychosomatic disease due to stress (Thagard, ULCERS-I). Similarly, the classification of diseases such as tuberculosis, cholera, rabies, and malaria in terms of their microbial causes shifts these concepts to a new place in the tree of diseases, abandoning their classification in terms of kind of fever or superficial symptoms.
Tree switching, changing the basis on which classifications are made, is nonconservative, since it goes together with the development of new branches that supersede previous classifications. The transition to the germ theory was a case of tree switching, since it introduced classification of diseases in terms of their causes, particularly their microbial causes. Modern medicine no longer classifies diseases in terms of symptoms, but rather in terms of causes and organ systems affected. Symptoms are related to organ systems, since, for example, a lung disorder has symptoms involving the lungs, but the seat of the disorder and its causes are more fundamental to classification of diseases than are symptoms. In contrast, dictionaries of symptoms and other books written for laypeople are still organized in terms of symptoms rather than organ systems or causes of disease.
In sum, the transition in the nineteenth century from the humoral theory to the germ theory of disease was highly nonconservative, involving new concepts, new causal rules, and new classifications, as well as the abandonment of old ones. The transition from the humoral to the germ theory was largely accomplished by the ability of the latter to provide a superior new account of the causes and treatments of diseases. In contrast, the twentieth-century expansion of causes of diseases to include nutritional, immunological, and metabolic considerations was largely conservative with respect to the germ theory. New causes were introduced, without rejecting the established concepts and beliefs about infectious diseases. Harvard Medical School now advocates a "biopsychosocial" model of medicine (Tosteson, Adelstein, and Carver, 1994). The modern trend to multifactorial theories envisioning such diseases as cancers as the result of complex interactions of genetic, environmental, immunological and other factors is similarly conservative, except with respect to narrow views that attempt to specify a single cause for each particular disease.
Although we can say that Leeuwenhoek discovered protozoa and bacteria, these concepts did not originate with him, for he wrote only of animalcules differing in their size and parts. Leeuwenhoek never associated the animalcules he observed with the causation of disease. The concept of germ that arose in the nineteenth century was both biological and medical: a germ is a biological organism that can cause disease. Fracastorius concept of seminaria was medical but not biological; Leeuwenhoek's concept of animalcule was biological but not medical. Fracastorius and Leeuwenhoek both introduced new concepts that retrospectively can be seen as ancestors of modern microbiology but were very different from current concepts.
In the twelfth (1767) edition of the Systema Naturae Linnaeus assigned all the animalcules then known to three genera, Volvo, Furia, and Chaos. The entities that Leeuwenhoek had observed were termed "infusoria" in the eighteenth century because they were observed in infusions (solutions) of decaying organic matter. Linnaeus lumped all the infusoria to a single species, Chaos infusorium. (Bullock, 1979, p. 37). The term "bacterium" was introduced by Gottfried in 1829.
Modern microbiology began with the French chemist Pasteur, who in 1857 discovered that lactic acid fermentation is caused by a microorganism, yeast. Previously, fermentation was believed to be result of decomposition of a substance, not the effect of an organism such as yeast. In 1861, Pasteur announced that the ferment which produces butyric acid is an infusorium ("infusoire", Brock, 1961, p. 265). The anaerobic bacteria observed by Pasteur were small cylindrical rods about .002 mm in diameter. This discovery, and subsequent work by Pasteur, Koch, and others on the involvement of microorganisms in disease, led to an explosion of work that resulted, by the end of the nineteenth century, in the identification of many different kinds of bacteria and protozoa, along with demonstrations that many important diseases such as tuberculosis and malaria are caused by microbes. (The term "microbe" was introduced in 1878 by Sédillot.)
Attempts were made to identify microbes responsible for diseases such as rabies and smallpox, but the agents in these cases were what we now call viruses, which are too small to be seen through an optical microscope. The term "virus" originally meant "poison", and any cause of disease, including Fracastorius's seminaria, could be referred to as a virus. In 1884 Chamberland used filtration through a porous vase of porcelain to purify water of microbes, but in 1892 Ivanowski was surprised to find that a filtered extract from diseased tobacco plants could cause disease in previously healthy plant. In 1898 Löffler and Frosch conjectured that hoof and mouth disease is caused by "a previously undiscovered agent of disease, so small as to pass through the pores of a filter retaining the smallest known bacteria.". (Lechevalier and Solotorovsky, 1974, pp. 284-285). The conjectured poison became known as a "filterable virus". After 1915, when Twort showed that bacteria can be attacked by filterable viruses, the concept of a virus as an ultramicroscopic organism became established. In 1935, Stanley presented crystallographic evidence that tobacco mosaic virus is a protein. During the 1930s, the electron microscope was developed, and in 1939 Kausch, Pfankuch, and Ruska used it to describe the appearance of the tobacco mosaic virus. Thus use of the term "virus" evolved gradually from concerning any disease-causing poison to concern very small microorganisms detected by electron microscopes.
After Pasteur, Lister and others showed the medical significance of bacteria in the 1860s , great progress was made in identifying new kinds of bacteria and demonstrating their roles in a host of diseases, including diphtheria, tuberculosis, and cholera. By the end of the 1870s, people no longer spoke of "the" bacteria, but of different bacteria (Bullock, 1979, p. 203). In place of the general concepts of animalcule and infusorium, concepts referring to particular kinds of bacteria and protozoa were developed, and the concept of microbe was introduced to reunify the plethora of newly differentiated concepts. Taxonomy of bacteria was very important for the development of the germ theory of disease: If one bacterium could unpredictably turn into another kind, then it would be difficult to accept the fact that specific disease was caused by a specific bacteria (Brock, 1988, p. 73). Today, more than 2,000 species of bacteria have been identified, along with many species of protozoa.
Proliferation of microbiological concepts did not simply involve extension of existing classification, but often required revision of kind relations. Leeuwenhoek and the eighteenth century taxonomists classified bacteria and other infusoria as animals, but in 1852 Perty contended that some of the infusoria are "animal-plants", and Cohn argued in 1854 that bacteria of the genus Vibriona are plants analogous to algae. In 1857, the German botanist Nageli proposed that bacteria should be regarded as a class of their own within the vegetable kingdom, for which he coined the term "Schizmocyetes", or "fission fungi" (Collard, 1976, p. 151). Today, in the widely used five kingdom classification, bacteria are no longer classed with fungi, but rather with blue-green algae in the kingdom Monera.
Reclassification of viruses has been even more complex. Originally, "virus" meant "slime" or "poison", but only at the end of the nineteenth century did it start to acquire the meaning of "infectious agent". By the 1940s, the electron microscope made it possible to discern the structure of many kinds of viruses, which are particles consisting only of DNA or RNA (but not both) and a protein shell. Unlike bacteria, which consist of living cells, viruses can not reproduce on their own, but only when they are parasites in living cells. When Pasteur and other early researchers attempted to identify the cause of diseases such as rabies and smallpox, they thought they were looking for a kind of bacteria, but viruses turned out to be a much smaller and simpler kind of entity. Hundreds of kinds of viruses have been identified. By 1950, viruses were soundly differentiated from bacteria, and the field of virology split off from bacteriology. The mental representations of microbiologists reflect these differences, and hundreds of kinds of viruses are now distinguished based on their structure as revealed by electron microscopy . Viruses "cannot logically be placed in either a strictly biochemical or in a strictly biological category; they are too complex to be macromolecules in the ordinary sense and too divergent in their physiology and manner of replication be conventional living organisms" (Hughes, 1977, p. 106). Virologists are wont to say: viruses are viruses.
Reclassification of bacteria first as Schizmocyetes and then Monera, and reclassification of viruses as a unique kind of entity, are examples of branch jumping, the movement of a concept from one branch of a taxonomic tree to another. The development of concepts of bacteria and viruses does not seem to have involved radical change in classificatory practices, although after 1908 pathogenicity was admitted as a taxonomic criterion for bacteria (Collard, 1976, p. 153). The empirical classification is designed to aid the differentiation between medically and industrially important species and others.
In sum, conceptual change in microbiology has involved the formation of many new mental representations corresponding to terms such as "animalcule", "bacteria", and "virus". Concept formation often involved differentiation, as new kinds of entity were distinguished from ones previously known. In addition, the organization of microbiological concepts has changed dramatically over time, as new kinds of infectious agents have been identified and as existing kinds have been reclassified in terms of higher order kinds. The concept of infection has also changed, as the modern meaning of invasion by microorganisms replaced the older, vaguer meaning of infection as staining or pollution. Today, infectious diseases can be differentiated as bacterial infections or viral infections, just as germs can be differentiated as bacteria or viruses. Thus germ concepts and the concept of infection changed in tandem with changes in the concept of disease.
Terminological and mental change has been coupled with changes in ways of fixing the reference of concepts of germs, as the last section of this paper will show. First, I shall compare the preceding account of changes in disease and germ concepts with other recent discussions of conceptual change.
My discussion of concepts of disease similarly assumes that scientific categories can be thought of as forming a taxonomic tree, although in medicine the tree is tangled because of the intermingling of physiological and pathogenetic taxonomies. I have described several different kinds of changes to the taxonomy of diseases that occurred with the development of the germ theory of disease. It is indeed difficult to translate completely between the humoral and the germ conceptions of disease, because the Hippocratic taxonomy of diseases in terms of bodily locations divides the world up very differently from the classification of diseases in terms of microbial causes. Partial translation is nevertheless possible: we can recognize ancient discussions of diseases like phthisis (tuberculosis) because the symptoms associated with it today are similar to ones identified long ago, even if the etiology and taxonomy of the disease has changed dramatically. Like Kuhn (1993, p. 315), who refers to the lexicon as a "mental module", I take conceptual change to be change in mental representations.
Is change in the concept of disease radical in Chi's sense? Brock (1961, p. 74) suggests that Fracastoro' contagion theory introduced the concept of an infectious disease as a process rather than a thing. But the Hippocratics' extensive discussions of the courses and prognoses of diseases suggest that they also thought of diseases as falling under the ontological category of process. Chi's fundamental ontological categories are matter (kinds and artifacts), events, and abstractions. For the Hippocratics as well as the nineteenth century germ theorists, diseases were complex events, not kinds of things or abstractions. So the transition to the germ theory of disease did not involve radical conceptual change in Chi's sense. Nevertheless, it did require the sort of replacement mechanism that she describes for radical conceptual change in which a whole new conceptual scheme is constructed, not simply produced by piecemeal modification of the previous humoral scheme (3).
The germ theory undoubtedly brought with it new modes of reference for disease terms. Tuberculosis could now be described as the disease caused by the tubercle bacillus. Disease concepts did not change completely, however, since, the descriptive modes of reference associated with familiar observable symptoms did not change. Terms for the various microbes that cause disease had baptismal modes of reference that occurred when researchers such as Koch first observed them under the microscope.
When Fracastoro described seminaria as the causes of contagion, he used a verbal description that was intended to refer to agents of disease. Microbiologists from Leeuwenhoek on, however, were able to fix reference baptismally by pointing to examples of the new kinds of microorganisms that were being discovered. Their ability to do this depended on the development of a series of technological advances that illustrate the crucial role of instruments in conceptual change in microbiology.
Why was Leeuwenhoek the first to discover the tiny "animalcules" that we now call bacteria? Others in his time were using microscopes to look at previously unobserved phenomena, but Leeuwenhoek developed his own techniques of microscope construction that were unrivaled for decades afterward. He was then able to see numerous sorts of previously unidentified organisms. Here is Leeuwenhoek's own description of the first observation of bacteria, which took place in 1676 as the accidental result of an attempt to discover why pepper is hot to the tongue:
I did now place anew abut 1/3 ounce of whole pepper in water, and set it in my closet, with no other design than to soften the pepper, that I could better study it. ... The pepper having lain about three weeks in the water, ... I saw therein, with great wonder, incredibly many very little animalcules, of divers sorts. ... The fourth sort of little animals, which drifted among the three sorts aforesaid, were incredibly small; nay, so small, in my sight, that I judged that even if 100 of these very wee animals lay stretched out one against another, they could not reach to the length of a grain of course sand (excerpts from Dobell, 1958, pp. 132-133).Observation of bacteria through a microscope is not easy, both because of the difficulty of producing accurate lenses and because of the need to focus on specimens where bacteria exist. Microscopes that reduced aberration sufficiently to facilitate observation of bacteria were not available until the 1820s. Fixing the reference of concepts referring to different kinds of bacteria depended on these advances in microscopy.
Other experimental techniques were also required for the development of bacteriology (Collard, 1976). Through the 1870s, it was very difficult to obtain pure cultures that contained only one kind of bacterium, since liquid solutions tended to contain many kinds of bacteria. But in 1881 Robert Koch developed a technique of growing bacteria on cut potatoes, and the next year agar was introduced as a solid medium for culturing bacteria. The identification of many medically important bacteria in the next few years used these new techniques.
The transparency of bacteria makes them difficult to observe, but staining techniques have provided powerful ways of determining their presence and structure. Vegetable stains were first applied to bacteria by Hoffman in 1869, and improved techniques including Gram's technique of counter-staining were developed over the next decades. Like culturing in solid media, staining is an important aid to the fixing of reference of terms for new kinds of bacteria. Culturing and staining enabled Robert Koch to discover the bacterium responsible for tuberculosis:
On the basis of my extensive observations, I consider it as proved that in all tuberculous conditions of man and animals there exists a characteristic bacterium which I have designated as the tubercle bacillus, which has specific properties which allow it to be distinguished from all other microorganisms. (Koch, quoted in Brock, 1988, p. 121).The baptismal mode of reference to the tubercle bacillus thus depended on the development of new experimental techniques.
New techniques were also crucial for the referential development of concepts concerning viruses. Filtration techniques in the 1880s made possible the differentiation of viruses from bacteria, which were too large too pass through the filters. At this point, the only mode of reference for filterable viruses was descriptive: virus was whatever passed through the filters and caused disease. After 1920, centrifuges were increasingly used to isolate viruses and estimate their size based on centrifugation time and force of gravity. A few very large viruses can be identified with optical microscopes, but baptismal fixing of reference of most concepts of viruses requires use of the electron microscope, which also made possible determination of the structure of bacteria. Before 1939, when Kausche, Pfankuch, and Ruska first used the electron microscope for visualization of a virus, the mode of reference was descriptive, as in "the virus of measles". The third type of mode of reference defined by Kitcher (1993) is conformist, when a speaker's usage is parasitic on the usage of others who have established the reference of a term either descriptively or baptismally. For most people, the reference of concepts like bacteria and virus is fixed in this way, since they have neither seen such entities themselves nor been given an accurate description.
How are Kitcher's three modes of reference - descriptive, baptismal, and conformist - related to representational changes involving concept formation, differentiation, and reclassification? Descriptive modes of reference that involve words and verbal descriptions are easily cast in terms of mental representation by supposing that thinkers have (1) mental concepts corresponding to words and (2) proposition-like representations corresponding to descriptions. With respect to description, the mental representation view of conceptual change currently is richer than the referential view, since it pays attention to the kind relations of concepts. But ideas like differentiation and reclassification could be reframed in terms of a verbal lexicon rather than a mental lexicon by taking kind as a relation among verbal terms rather than mental structures. Given the theoretical richness of taking concepts as mental representations, there is no reason to prefer discussion of terms as words rather than as concepts.
But the reference-potential view of conceptual change does have an advantage over the mental-representation when it comes to understanding the relation between representations and the world. The baptismal mode of reference operated repeatedly in the history of microbiology, from Leeuwenhoek fixing the reference of "animalcule" to Koch fixing the reference of "tubercle bacillus", to electron microscopists fixing the reference of "tobacco mosaic virus." This mode of reference is best viewed not as a single act, but as a matter of ongoing interaction with the world using instruments and experimental techniques. Koch not only baptized the tubercle bacillus, he photographed and showed how to culture it and transmit it to laboratory animals. This was more than description, and more than baptism: it was development of replicable physical procedures for interacting with the entity referred to by the term (or concept) "tubercle bacillus." Changes in such procedures and attendant new baptismal episodes are aspects of conceptual change not captured by concentration solely on mental representation.
When concepts are formed purely descriptively, for example when seminaria are characterized as the seeds of disease, conceptual change can be viewed in terms of mental structures. But when concepts are formed ostensively as the result of interactions with the world, we have to understand conceptual change in terms of reference as well as representation. Differentiation is not only conceptual: entities can be differentiated into different classes if observation makes them sufficiently distinguishable that they can be dubbed independently.
Although changes in baptismal reference fixation are important to understanding the development of germ concepts, they are not so directly relevant to understanding the development of disease concepts. Diseases involve complexes of symptoms, so there is no entity that one can identify ostensively. Reference to diseases is fixed descriptively in terms of their symptoms or causes, although reference to symptoms and microbial causes can be fixed baptismally.
The mental-representation approach has also tended to neglect the social nature of conceptual change implicit in Kitcher's conformist mode of reference. Even from the perspective of mental representation, conceptual change is a social as well as a psychological phenomenon, but this is not the place to address social aspects of conceptual change in medicine. Thagard (1994) discusses the complementarity of social and psychological explanations of scientific change.
Although representational accounts of conceptual change do not tell the whole story, there remains ample reason to describe conceptual change in part as change in mental representations, especially kind-relations. Conceptual change is clearly both representational and referential, since the meaning of concepts is a function both of how they relate to each other and how they relate to the world. A full theory of conceptual change must integrate its representational, referential, and social aspects.
1. Disease concepts are causal networks that represent the relations among causes, disorders, symptoms, and treatments of diseases.Emphasis on the causal structure of disease concepts does not exclude other cognitive aspects such as sets of prototypical symptoms which are also associated with diseases. But it sees disease as an inherently causal concept, not just a featural one.
2. The most important changes in disease concepts occurred because of alterations in beliefs about the causes of disease.
3. The development of germ concepts should be thought of in terms of referential change as well as representational change.
Many issues have not been addressed in this paper. What were the cognitive mechanisms by which the concepts and hypotheses of the germ theory of disease were introduced? Analogy, which is clearly at work in the writings of Pasteur and Lister, is one relevant mechanism, but other kinds of concept formation and hypothesis construction may also have been important. Why was the germ theory accepted as superior to the humoral theory? Conceptual changes such as the addition of new concepts, kind-relations, and classifications, in company with abandonment of old humoral ones, show that development of the germ theory was not made by piecemeal revision of the old. Instead, a new conceptual structure had to be put together that supplanted the old one. All the major scientific revolutions in the natural sciences involved replacement of one theory by another on the basis of explanatory coherence (Thagard, 1992), but whether a similar account applies to the adoption of the germ theory of disease remains to be shown.
Recent interest in conceptual change has come as much from developmental and educational psychologists as from historians and philosophers of science. It would be interesting to determine what kinds of conceptual changes must be undergone by medical students training to be physicians or by laypeople attempting to understand and comply with treatment of their illnesses (see Skelton and Coyle, 1991). The structure and change of disease concepts is thus a topic of practical as well as theoretical interest.
(1) My account of the structure of disease concepts is consistent with findings by health psychologists that lay theories of illness include the elements of symptoms, consequences, temporal course, cause, and cure; see Skelton and Croyle (1991). Michela and Wood (1986) provide a comprehensive review of causal attributions in health and illness.
(2) The historical and philosophical literature on disease concepts is vast. Useful historical works include Have (1990), Heidel (1941), Hudson (1983), King (1982), Kiple (1993), Magner (1992), Nuland (1988), and Temkin (1973). Philosophical discussions of the nature of disease include Caplan et al. (1981) and Reznek (1987). Also relevant to the germ theory of disease are works on the history of microbiology, such as Brock (1961), Collard (1976), Grafe (1991), and Lechevalier and Solotorovsky (1974).
(3) If laypeople think of diseases as things rather than processes, medical education may require conceptual change across Chi's ontological categories.
Bulloch, W. (1979). The history of bacteriology. New York: Dover.
Caplan, A. L., Engelhardt, H. T., & McCartney, J. M. (Ed.). (1981). Concepts of health and disease: Interdisciplinary perspectives. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Carey, S. (1985). Conceptual change in childhood. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press/Bradford Books.
Carey, S. (1992). The origin and evolution of everyday concepts. In R. N. Giere (Eds.), Cognitive models of science (pp. 89-128). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Chi, M. (1992). Conceptual change within and across categories: Implications for learning and discovery in science. In R. Giere (Eds.), Cognitive Models of Science, Minnesota Studies in the Philosophy of Science (pp. 129-186). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, in press.
Collard, P. (1976). The development of microbiology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Devor, E. J. (1993). Genetic disease. In K. F. Kiple (Eds.), The Cambridge world history of disease (pp. 113-126). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Dobell, C. (1958). Antony von Leeuwenhoek and his 'little animals'. New York`: Russell & Russell.
Fracastorius, H. (1930). Contagion, contagious diseases, and their treatment (Wright, W. C., Trans.). New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons.
Geison, G. (1995). The private science of Louis Pasteur. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Grafe, A. (1991). A history of experimental virology (Reckendorf, E., Trans.). Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
Hacking, I. (1993). Working in a new world: The taxonomic solution. In P. Horwich (Eds.), World changes: Thomas Kuhn and the nature of science (pp. 275-310). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Have, A. M. J. t., Kimsma, G. K., & Spicker, S. F. (Ed.). (1990). The growth of medical knowledge. Dordrecht: Kluwer.
Heidel, W. A. (1941). Hippocratic medicine: Its spirit and method. New York: Columbia University Press.
Hippocrates (1988). Hippocrates, vol. V (Potter, P., Trans.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Holyoak, K. J., & Thagard, P. (1995). Mental leaps: Analogy in creative thought. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press/Bradford Books.
Hudson, R. P. (1983). Disease and its control: The shaping of modern thought. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood.
Hughes, S. S. (1977). The virus: A history of the concept. London: Heinemann.
Keil, F. (1989). Concepts, kinds, and cognitive development. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press/Bradford Books.
King, L. S. (1982). Medical thinking: A historical preface. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Kiple, K. F. (Ed.). (1993). The Cambridge world history of disease. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Kitcher, P. (1993). The advancement of science. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Kuhn, T. (1970). Structure of scientific revolutions (2 ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Kuhn, T. S. (1993). Afterwords. In P. Horwich (Eds.), World changes: Thomas Kuhn and the nature of science (pp. 311-341). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Lechevalier, H. A., & Solotorovsky, M. (1974). Three centuries of microbiology. New York: Dover.
Lloyd, G. E. R. (Ed.). (1978). Hippocratic writings. Harmondsworth: Penguin.
Magner, L. M. (1992). A history of medicine. New York: Marcel Dekker.
Medin, D. (1989). Concepts and conceptual structure. American Psychologist, 44, 1469-1481.
Michela, J. L., & Wood, J. V. (1986). Causal attributions in health and illness. In P. C. Kendall (Eds.), Advances in cognitive-behavioral research and therapy, vol. 5, (pp. 179-235). New York: Academic Press.
Murphy, G., & Medin, D. (1985). The role of theories in conceptual coherence. Psychological Review, 92, 289-316.
Nersessian, N. (1989). Conceptual change in science and in science education. Synthese , 80 , 163-183.
Nersessian, N. (1992). How do scientists think? Capturing the dynamics of conceptual change in science. In R. Giere (Eds.), Cognitive Models of Science (pp. 3-44). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Nuland, S. B. (1988). Doctors: The biography of medicine. New York: Knopf.
Nutton, V. (1990). The reception of Fracastoro's theory of contagion: The seed that fell among thorns? Osiris, Second series, 6, 196-234.
Pasteur, L. (1922). Oeuvres. Paris: Masson.
Reznek, L. (1987). The nature of disease. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Skelton, J. A., & Croyle, R. T. (Ed.). (1991). Mental representation in health and illness. New York: Springer-Verlag.
Slotta, J. D., Chi, M. T. H., and Joram, E., (1996). Assessing students' misclassifications of physics concepts: An ontological basis for conceptual change. Cognition and Instruction, 13, 373-400.
Smith, E. (1989). Concepts and induction. In M. Posner (Eds.), Foundations of cognitive science (pp. 501-526). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Smith, E., & Medin, D. (1981). Categories and concepts. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Temkin, O. (1973). Health and disease. In P. P. Wiener (Eds.), Dictionary of the history of ideas (pp. 395-407). New York: Scribner's.
Thagard, P. (1992). Conceptual revolutions. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Thagard, P. (in press). Mind: Introduction to cognitive science. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Thagard, P. (forthcoming-a). Ulcers and bacteria I: Discovery and conceptual change. Studies in History and Philosophy of Science.
Thagard, P. (forthcoming-b). Ulcers and bacteria II: Physical and social interactions. Studies in History and Philosophy of Science.
Tosteson, D. C., Adelstein, S. J., & Carver, S. T. (Ed.). (1994). New pathways to medical education: Learning to learn at Harvard Medical School. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Vallery-Radot, R. (1926). The life of Pasteur (Devonshire, R. L., Trans.). Garden City, NY: Doubleday.
van Helvoort, T. (1994). History of virus research in the twentieth century: The problem of conceptual continuity. History of Science, 23, 185-235.
Wyngaarden, J. B., Smith, L. H., & Bennett, J. C. (Ed.). (1992). Cecil Textbook of Medicine (19th ed.). Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders.
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COVID-19. The new plague has caused a shortage of medical staff, masks, and…toilet paper? Unexpectedly, since the beginning of the pandemic outbreak, toilet paper has gone out of stock in stores as people hoard it and empty the shelves. This is an example of panic buying – as an urgent concern like COVID-19 appears, people feel compelled to stock up on essential items. However, this is detrimental to the nation. Hoarding toilet paper must stop because of the stress it places on the economy and people’s lives as they struggle to buy a basic necessity.
Stocking up on toilet paper may not seem like such a terrible thing. It wouldn’t cause any sort of significant damage, right? Wrong. Hoarding toilet paper has grave consequences for the economy, specifically the industry of producing and delivering toilet paper. Manufacturers of toilet paper are pressured to produce at unforeseen efficiency, which can pose dangers to workers in terms of risk for coronavirus as they are exposed to others for longer periods of time. However, the workers are not the only ones being stressed – the consumers are as well. As people stock up on toilet paper, stores run out of storage, which leaves shelves devoid of the product. This causes increased fear that indeed, toilet paper has run out, bringing even more people clamoring to grab any rolls they can. With this exponentially growing demand for toilet paper and enormous decline in supply, stores are forced to sell toilet paper at high prices and even limit the amount of toilet paper a family can buy in order to ensure that not all the toilet paper is snatched up in a few minutes. Many families, especially from vulnerable or low-income communities, may not be able to purchase toilet paper at that high of a price. And many families may not even be able to buy toilet paper as it runs out so quickly. This leaves households vulnerable and possibly unable to obtain a basic necessity, which is extremely dangerous for the health and safety of all our communities.
Thus, panic buying of toilet paper must end. The shortage has caused inconveniences and stress for businesses, workers, and consumers. Toilet paper is not essential to combatting the virus, but it is essential for the comfort and well being of all our families. We must be considerate of others and realize that the large stockpiles in our closets are not necessary – we only need to buy what we need to help stop the effects of the pandemic.
By Jessica Jiang
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Eq | 1
- Describe common problems related to providing universal accessibility and designs that offer equitable solutions.
- Provide examples of elegant, efficient, and accessible designs that beautifully their contexts.
- Build awareness of inadequate accessible design and the need for equitable access solutions.
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People with limited abilities are often "designed out" of places, events, and activities. Three decades after adoption of the ADA, the COVID-19 pandemic emphasized the need for planning for inclusion and equitable access and accepting the challenges of safely separating users and uses. COVID's silver lining may be renewed emphasis on safer pedestrian travel, transit, and more open outdoor-recreation spaces.
Mobility remains a sometimes-insurmountable challenge for people with disabilities. Scooters, bikes, and utilities often block wheelchair users and trip blind people. Transit access depends on compliant sidewalks with clear paths to accessible stops. Ride-share, mobility, and other first mile/last mile "solutions" are not accessible to wheelchair users and many other disabled folks.
There are always challenges to providing elegant designs that retrofit existing and historic buildings and sites. Often, the only (inequitable) solutions offered put accessibility features in the back. After thirty years of halfway accessibility solutions, it is time for planners to address equity and inclusion challenges.
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During COVID-19, Take Simple Steps to Establish a New Normal
It’s always the right time to commit to healthy habits, behaviors and steps to improve your physical and mental health. With the COVID-19 pandemic creating so much uncertainty and upending so many routines, experts say that focusing on the things within your control is particularly important.
“At this particular moment -- challenging as it may be -- it is very important for all of us as individuals to recognize that our actions can and do have a collective impact,” says Dr. Patrice A. Harris, president of the American Medical Association (AMA).
“A lot of people are grieving at this moment. Tragically some are grieving loss of loved ones; but people can also grieve the loss of employment, routines or the ability to be with family and friends. Everyone should know that these feelings are normal, and they should allow themselves to experience them.”
Here some simple steps from the AMA to maintain your physical and mental health during the unusual times of COVID-19:
1. Channel your feelings of anxiety or helplessness into action. Practicing physical distancing and making sure to wash your hands with warm soapy water for at least 20 seconds are two steps that protect your health and the health of others. Create a safety action plan for you and your family. Also consider how small gestures – like offering to pick up groceries for an older or at-risk neighbor who may be anxious about leaving home -- can make a big difference.
2. Take care of yourself physically. Get as much sleep as you can, try to include fruits and vegetables into your diet, and make sure you move. With many gyms and parks closed and physical distancing in place, it may seem harder to work out, so consider options at home, including dancing, to stay active.
3. Create new routines. With more people working from home and/or caring for school-aged children, the daily lives we had before COVID-19 are a distant memory. But building routines -- time for work, time for meals, time for decompressing -- is critical to creating a new normal. In the world today, there are so many things we can’t control, but our schedules are something we can.
4. Take time to turn off social media and the news. It is critical at this moment to know what is happening in the world and to stay connected with family and friends, but if social media and 24-hour news are making you anxious, consume them in doses.
5. Feel your feelings. It’s natural to worry and be afraid at a moment like this. It is also important to remember there are physicians, public health officials at all levels of government, as well as experts in the private sector, working tirelessly to limit the spread and impact of COVID-19.
6. Stay connected. Social media gives us a common connection point during times of isolation, but there is real opportunity at this moment to stay connected via phone calls, greeting cards and video chats with friends, family, and even people you haven’t heard from in a while. Physical distancing is important, but it’s still okay to socialize.
7. If you have children, talk to them in an age-appropriate way, and avoid ascribing feelings to them. Don’t say, “I know you’re scared.” Kids are observant and they’re wise. They may know things are different, but they may not be afraid. Let them know smart people are working on ways to keep us all safe. Model healthy coping.
~ StatePoint Media
- Culture Greetings
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COUNTRY WISE PAPERS
About German :German language is belongs to the Indo-European language family. It is a West Germanic language. It has derived most of its vocabulary from the Germanic group of the Indo-European languages. Some of the words in German language are derived from Latin, Greek, French and English languages. The Dutch, Luxembourgish, Yiddish, English, the Scandinavian and the Frisian languages are most similar to the German Language. From the history German was divided into 3 main periods - 1.Old German , 2.Middle German and 3.Modern German.
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Update, November 8, 2018: Thanks to the research efforts of my brilliant readers, I’m able to update this post with information about the group above. The following quotes in italics are from a web page, Friends War Victims Relief Committee in the Franco-Prussian War, on the site quakersintheworld.org:
The first official Friends War Victims Relief Committee (FWVRC) was set up in 1870, following the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War – seven years after the founding of the Red Cross and six years after the signing of the Geneva Convention.
Through the agency of 41 commissioners (33 men and 8 women), the FWVRC undertook relief work among the civilian population of towns and villages devastated by the war. Many of the commissioners already knew the countryside well – some as scholars, some as members of the Alpine Club – and spoke French or German or both. They set out to help French and Germans equally – the first occasion this policy of “no discrimination” was formally adopted.
As soon as the first commissioners – William Jones and Henry Allen – began work, it became clear that a recognisable symbol was needed to identify the commissioners, their transport and the goods they carried. The now familiar red and black star of the Quaker relief worker was in fact the symbol of the London Daily News, which was then also funding relief work.
This was also the first occasion that women worked alongside men, as opposed to having their own, parallel relief organisations – though that seems to have happened almost by accident, in response to an urgent need to simply roll up their sleeves and get working.
Their work fell into three phases. Firstly, following the siege of the town of Metz, they provided emergency famine relief, and later experimented with the new-fangled steam ploughing in order to provide urgently needed help with planting the next harvest.
Update, April 2019: I purchased a copy of the booklet They Chose The Star: Quaker War Relief Work in France 1870-1875, by William K. Sessions, 2nd ed. (1991). It contains photographs of many of the commissioners, which have helped me to identify several sitters in the photograph above. The man in back at far left is John Dunning (1826-1885) of Middlesbrough. The young woman sitting next to him is Ellen Jackson. The man at left in front is Dr. Thomas D. Nicholson of Birkenhead. The man at right in front may be Charles Wing Gray (1845-1920) of Halstead, Essex. The man at right in back may be Samuel James Capper (1840-1904) of Liverpool.
Sessions writes on page 22 of They Chose The Star:
Nearly six months after the first commissioners entered Metz, the depot was finally closed by Thomas D. Nicholson and Charles W. Gray, who returned to England on 10th April, 1871.
Multiple sources mention that John Dunning first went to Metz in December 1870, then returned to England, then went back to Metz for about a month in the spring of 1871. If all the commissioners left Metz by April 10, we can assume the photo was taken in March or early April 1871.
The carte-de-visite was made at the studio of L. Krier & Cie (company). Metz is in northeastern France, near the border with Luxembourg to the north and Germany to the east.
The J. Paul Getty Museum has one CDV by L. Krier in its collection, but the photo isn’t displayed on the museum’s website.
Page last updated April 18, 2019.
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According to Oxford Dictionary Technologies is “the application of scientific knowledge for practical purposes, especially in the industry”. As Clocksin claims technology usage rise productivity of factories especially ceramic tile producing, (Clocksin, 2003)Technologies such as artificial intelligence or well-developed machines may develop the manufacturing process. According to Statista.com(2018) number of sold industrial robots rise sharply from 2004 to 2016, and earnings of “Yaskawa”, one of the leading company, raised by two times between 2009 and 2015. This fact shows that importance of industrial robots usage, and prove hypothesis about relevance between economics and science. If we look at an economical point of view, by using high-technologies in the industry owners save much more money than by using human labor. In addition, as Jorgensen states in this situation science and technology play big role because the level of science in the country gives some advantages in industrial developing.(Jorgensen, 2001) Also, this theme related to concepts change and process, because it shows how changes process of manufacturing. On the other hand according to US Department of labor(2017) unemployment rate in the USA is 4.1 %, which is normal for developed countries.In the words of Frey, Benedict and Osborne (2013) some economists explain jobless growth by the rate of using automated technologies.That is why we can predict that in the nearest future unemployment rate grow up to 5-6%, and the country will spend money to decrease jobless rate. However, people may spend their time on self-improvement.Humans play important role in replacing human labor. Robots, AI technologies, machine learning systems all of these technologies made by humanity. Moreover, only high-educated persons can construct and set up machines.However, replacing of human labor may become the cause of some problems. As Autor claims that because of automation of human labor demand in labor decreases and may cause unemployment ( Autor D,2015). Also White states that majority of the profession such as miners, constructors, stevedores will be replaced in nearest future (White,2016). According to Raphael, S., & Winter?Ember, R. (2001) Unemployment is one of the determinants of the crime rate. Therefore, if employees lost their jobs, the crime rate in this region will increase.
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What are the full forms of etc, i.e, viz
Abbreviations are commonly used in written communication to convey information concisely.
They help save time, space, and effort. However, sometimes we come across abbreviations that leave us puzzled.
In this blog post, we will demystify three commonly used abbreviations: etc., i.e., and viz.
We will explore their full forms, meanings, and usage, allowing you to enhance your understanding of these abbreviations and communicate more effectively.
- etc. – Et cetera
The abbreviation “etc.” is derived from the Latin phrase “et cetera,” which translates to “and other things.”
It is primarily used to indicate that there are additional items, examples, or possibilities that are not explicitly mentioned.
For example, in a sentence like “She loves reading novels, biographies, etc.,” the abbreviation “etc.” implies that there are more genres of books that the person enjoys, but they are not specifically listed.
- i.e. – Id est
The abbreviation “i.e.” is derived from the Latin phrase “id est,” which means “that is.”
It is used to clarify or explain a statement or concept mentioned before it.
For instance, in the sentence “She loves reading classics, i.e., books that have stood the test of time,” the abbreviation “i.e.” introduces a clarification by stating that classics refer to books that have endured over time.
- viz. – Videlicet
The abbreviation “viz.” is derived from the Latin word “videlicet,” which translates to “namely” or “that is to say.”
It is used to introduce or specify examples or specific details related to the preceding statement.
For example, in the sentence “She loves reading classic novels, viz., Pride and Prejudice and Jane Eyre,” the abbreviation “viz.” provides specific examples of classic novels that the person enjoys.
Abbreviations such as etc., i.e., and viz. are widely used in written communication to convey information concisely.
By understanding their full forms and meanings, you can effectively incorporate them into your writing and enhance clarity for your readers.
While abbreviations can be helpful, it’s essential to use them appropriately and sparingly to avoid confusion.
So, the next time you come across these abbreviations, you’ll know exactly what they stand for and how to use them correctly.
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As home ownership may sometimes be unaffordable or inconvenient, a majority of the population in India’s major cities live in rented homes. The follow-up task is to then find a suitable rental property and create and execute a proper rent agreement to make the renting arrangement legal. As the rent agreement remains key to this entire arrangement, the same shall be made with utmost legality and the tenant must know every nitty-gritty about this crucial document.
What is a rent agreement?
A rent agreement is a crucial document that is signed between a landlord and a tenant to initiate and govern a tenancy. This document mentions every detail about tenancy and the terms and conditions of the tenancy. Both parties are governed by such agreement and have to follow the rules mentioned in the rent agreement.
Legal validity of rent agreement
To save costs, tenants and landlords sometimes reach a verbal agreement about the tenancy and avoid executing a rent agreement. Some may also document the arrangement and put terms and conditions with respect to the tenancy but decide not to register the document. This is because both parties tend to avoid to pay the registration charge if a rent agreement is created and registered. Entering into a rental agreement without registration can be said to be illegal and could prove to be a risky arrangement for both parties, especially in case of a future dispute.
It is in the favour of both the parties, to draft an agreement with specific terms and conditions and to get it registered. After drafting the rent agreement, the landlord should print it on stamp paper. Once the tenant and the landlord sign the documents in the presence of two witnesses, they should then get it registered at the sub-registrar’s office, after paying the required fee.
Details to be included in the rent agreement
Key details included in a standard rent agreement are:
- Names and addresses of the tenant and the landlord.
- Signatures of the tenant and the landlord.
- Monthly rental amount and hike.
- Security deposit.
- Maintenance charges.
- Period of tenancy.
- Responsibilities/rights of the landlord.
- Responsibilities/rights of the tenant.
- Penalty for delay in payment.
- Dispute Resolution.
Stamp duty & E-registration on rent agreement
One has to pay government stamp duty and e-registration fees while getting the rent agreement registered, which will vary, depending on the city where it is registered. The amount of Stamp Duty is paid by way of purchase of the stamp paper of the said value and the amount of e-registration is paid by way of purchase of E-registration fees. In Delhi, the stamp duty is payable at 2% of the average annual rent, in the case of lease / rent agreements for a term of up to five years.
Two passport size photographs of the Landlord and Tenant each; ID proof such as Aadhaar card, Voter’s ID card of all the parties including 2 witnesses; Copy of the computerised House Tax ID; PAN Card of all the parties including 2 witnesses, copy of latest electricity bill; Email ID and Phone Numbers of the parties; Stamp paper and registration fees receipt.
LEGAL ASSIST is a premier global legal management firm and India’s leading legal firm in the field of Property Matters, Inheritance and Succession. The vast experienced team of Legal Assist steps forward to provide a range of services to resolve property issues related to the following – Title Search, Transfer of Property, Property Documentation and Registration, drafting and registration of residential and commercial Rent Agreements, Probate of WILL, Succession Certificate, Surviving Member Certificate, Freehold Conversion, Mutation, Estate Planning. Besides these, we can help you find solutions to any dispute related to property. Feel free to reach us any time!
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There have been previous studies that have suggested that immaturity may contribute to some behaviors that were attributed to attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). There was a recent study that supports that claim. Specifically, there was an insurance database study of >407,000 children that highlight the need for a practitioner considering the patients maturity level when making an ADHD diagnosis. In states with a September 1st deadline for enrollment in kindergarten, children with August birthdays had higher rates of diagnosis of ADHD at age four to seven years than children with September birthdays (8.5 versus 6.4 per 1000); they also had higher rates of pharmacologic treatment.
This new study spotlights the importance of considering relative immaturity and adhering to ADHD diagnostic criteria when evaluating children for ADHD.
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It is important to know when to stop. A cell has to know when to stop expanding. A flower's pistil and its stamen when to stop elongating. And a flagellum to stop extending. Because there is a fair chance that without this knowledge, it would be difficult to keep organisms alive. But how do all these various parts of living matter know when the time has come to stop growing? There must be a mechanism of some kind. A sort of molecular device which holds up a STOP sign, or acts as a means of measure when something has reached the required shape or length. Recently, such a scheme was discovered in the flagella of the alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii; a ruler of sorts that defines not only the length of the units which make up the axoneme but also the nature of the flagellum's structure. This molecular yardstick is a protein known as coiled-coil domain-containing protein 40 - or CCDC40.
All things have ideal lengths. Too long or too short is rarely a good option. This holds for people's height, the length of their tongue and of their toes. And, on the molecular level, for the width of a cell and the length of a domain within a protein complex. That is why it is necessary to have systems inside us that act as surveyors making sure that everything is kept within acceptable norms.
Flagella and cilia are found on the surface of many cells - or one-cell organisms - and are either used to move through fluids or to make fluids move past them, besides frequently showing acute sensory roles. While cilia have both motile and fluid-circulation functions, flagella are only used for cell motility. Both flagella and cilia form slim elongated structures that protrude from the main body of a cell but are still enclosed within its membrane, which thus forms a sort of sheath around them. Their molecular structure is identical and includes what is known as an axoneme as well as many accessory matrix proteins involved in assembling or disassembling the axoneme - a very dynamic structure. In all, it is thought that about 300 proteins are engaged in keeping flagella functional.
Characteristically, an axoneme is a long cylindrical structure made up of nine long outer filaments, or microtubules, which line its circumference, and one long central filament. The central filament is composed of two adjoining microtubules. The nine outer filaments are equally composed of two adjoining microtubules but are also flanked by what are known as dynein arms and radial spokes. It is not difficult to understand that such a complex structure demands a scaffold; something that makes sure that the different parts are not only bound to each other but that it also happens in an orderly fashion.
CCDC40 is part of the scaffold. If CCDC40 is lacking or defective, the parts making up the axoneme lose their sense of proportion and direction, and the structure is disorganised and badly assembled. This results in a flagellum, or cilium, that is short and unable to beat. Such an occurrence in sperm brings about male sterility for example. So it is important for the axoneme to piece together properly. How then does CCDC40 manage this?
A closer look at the axoneme shows that its various components are arranged within a 96 nanometre longitudinal repeat whose extremities are marked by the positions of successive radial spokes. This 96 nanometre periodicity is broken if CCDC40 is defective. Why? CCDC40 stretches out along the axis of each microtubule, spanning exactly 96 nanometres. This is not only used as a sort of molecular ruler along each microtubule but acts as an anchoring site to which components can bind. CCDC40 is indeed involved in the correct assembly of an axoneme's dynein components.
If a flagellum - or cilium - is defective, many things can go wrong. Typically, a flagellum beats so that a cell can move around; cilia, on the other hand, will beat either for a cell's mobility or to move fluids that surround a cell. Be it cilia or flagella, if something is wrong with CCDC40, the effects can be devastating. Besides male sterility, if cells are unable to move, an organism's development can be impaired. As an example, the position of internal organs in an organism can be mirrored, a condition known as situs inversus in humans. Defective cilia are also the cause of primary ciliary dyskinesia, a condition which affects the lungs that are unable to brush away the mucus and clear the airways. Clearly, CCDC40 seems to be an ideal target for designing drugs that would be able to re-establish impairments its mutation causes.
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performance-based teacher evaluations like No Child Left Behind waivers did, teacher evaluation policy has largely fallen out of the public narrative. But that does not mean states or districts know how they are going to proceed with teacher evaluation policy—in fact, its future remains unclear in this new era of lessened federal oversight."
- Taken from an article which appeared on the website of the Thomas B Fordham Institute on December 20th 2016
Is the same happening here in England and Wales?
Just how valued is appraisal?
Is it a tool for personal development and school improvement or simply an ineffective performance management process?
65% of teacher in Australia consider the process of appraisal to be little more than a ‘box-ticking exercise’ [Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership]
Three factors determine the effectiveness of teacher appraisal:
1. Does it benefit the teacher?
a. How will the evaluation be used?
b. Does the teacher have a chance to improve any rating, grade, or score?
2. Is it wanted / asked for?
a. Does the teacher “respect” the evaluator?
b. Does the rating, grade, or score mean anything to the teacher?
3. Does the evaluation give the teacherr the opportunity and information needed to make the necessary improvements?
a. Are specific improvement strategies identified?
b. Are opportunities available for the teacher to learn and practice these strategies?
c. Are the targets specific, measurable, achievable, realistic, time limited?
Another important aspect is the manner in which information is shared with the teacher.
One suggestion for increasing meaningful methods of appraisal is to survey the individual(s) who will be appraised. Questions, such as the following, provide a base from which to build useful, meaningful appraisals:
1. What does your ideal performance review look or sound like?
a. What would you like it to say?
b. What knowledge and skills would be recognized?
c. What accomplishments would be included?
2. What type of environment do you work best in?
a. Do you prefer to work alone, or as part of a team? Explain.
b. On a scale of 1 to 10, how autonomous would you prefer your job to
i. How often do you think you should report your progress?
ii. How would you like to report your progress?
3. What expectations do you have of yourself?
a. What expectations do you think that the school has of you?
b. What expectations seem reasonable to you?
c. What expectations don’t seem reasonable to you?
d. How do you reconcile any differences between the two?
4. What type of evaluation is most helpful for you?
a. How would you like to receive your observation feedback?
b. How would your strengths to be presented?
c. How would you like the school to address your opportunities for improvement?
For teacher evaluations to be effective, the focus must be on personal and professional growth that leads to improved performance and school improvement. When fear is present or when teachers perceive evaluations as little more than “hoops” to be jumped through, there is virtually no chance for appraisal to be useful. Our teachers and students deserve a system that improves teacher performance and student learning.
© Phil Garner, April 2017.
Phil undertakes a range of both teacher appraisals and senior staff mentoring/ induction programmes.
Please contact him for a discussion on how to make best use of staff appraisals.
T: 07714 700983
You can also find out more information about Phil on his Portal Consultancy Page
Related Information: You can also watch a great video on lesson observations by Jon Haines of Newcastle University here.
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A university professor tells the story of how the taco became an American – and global – staple.
You can find tacos in outer Mongolia, Amsterdam, Addis Ababa and Australia -- even in outer space (the latter thanks to NASA). They have, in fact, become as ever present as the hamburger.
And that's the rub. They no longer seem Mexican, but American, says Jeffrey Pilcher, a University of Minnesota history professor who will give a talk about "Planet Taco" on Tuesday.
Indeed, the taco revolution spread globally -- and extraterrestrially -- via entrepreneurial Americans and U.S. companies, not Mexicans. That might explain why, in part, the rest of the world looks at that overstuffed hard-shell taco spilling over with lettuce, tomato and Cheddar cheese and thinks "American."
(Not so incidentally, Mexicans migrate almost entirely to the United States, Pilcher noted. If Americans hadn't traveled with their tacos, he says he would be offering a very different history lesson.)
Fifty years ago, Mexican food could be found only in Mexico, California or the Southwest, including small roadside stands where tacos were sold. Los Angeles phone books from 1950 reflect the abundance of these taco spots. These were the very early days of food franchises. (Ray Kroc started the McDonald's chain in 1954.) Glen Bell, the founder of Taco Bell and a fellow Californian, had an idea. Today we think of tacos as the lowest common denominator of Mexican food -- well, maybe that would, or should, be nachos -- but he was cutting-edge at a time when the rest of America was dining on tuna casserole, mac-and-cheese and cream of tomato soup.
Today foodies may sniff their noses and think "Taco Bell ruined Mexican food," but, Pilcher says, the chain simply franchised it. As for all those arched eyebrows and comments that Tex-Mex isn't real Mexican, well, the taco shell came out of the Mexican community -- the original taco machine was patented by a Mexican -- and it was adapted to local foods in the United States, as so often happens when immigrants meet the hard realities of the American supermarket.
That meant iceberg lettuce and Cheddar cheese because they were readily available.
At this point the story diverges. California surfers and counterculture figures spread the taste of tacos throughout the world as they traveled, often in need of work. And they did what immigrants often do when they land in another country: open a restaurant.
In Amsterdam it was a hippie with a work visa who needed to be self-supporting and started the Pacifico Cafe with tacos galore. In Queensland, Australia, the oldest Mexican restaurant -- Taco Bill -- was founded by another Californian who brought with him a tortilla press and the knowledge of how to use it.
U.S. companies added to the globalization, with Old El Paso as the leader. After all, you need the ingredients if a dish is to become popular.
By 1972, Diana Kennedy, a cooking authority on Mexican food, was pooh-poohing Tex-Mex food as not authentic.
"We forget that Texas was part of Mexico, but really it was just another region of Mexico," said Pilcher.
In a 1980 study, Wilbur Zalinsky mapped ethnic restaurants across the United States, showing that Mexican food clearly was expanding across the nation.
Discovery of authenticity
Soon Rick Bayless, a Chicago chef and now TV cooking star on all things Mexican, and Mark Miller, a restaurateur in Santa Fe, N.M., brought serious culinary attention to Mexican food, even as fajitas began sizzling in restaurants across the United States.
Fajitas were a lower-class food in Mexico, made with lean meat from a different breed of cattle that could withstand tropical temperatures. Not marbled, the beef needed to be cooked either quickly (as in fajitas) or slowly (for mole). By the early '70s, fajitas were served in Laredo, Texas, before the recipe headed across the country.
Then there are nachos, found in theaters in Russia or at ballgames in Anywhere, USA.
Why does this matter as we nibble on our stuffed taco?
"People will forget that tacos are Mexican just as pizza is from Italy," said Pilcher, who specializes in food history and earned his doctorate while eating his way through Tex-Mex food in Fort Worth, Texas. He has written "Que vivan los tamales! Food and the Making of Mexican Identity."
"The Italians brought with them all kinds of greens. Americans were not great salad eaters before," said Pilcher. "The Mexicans brought us tomatillos, cilantro and chiles.
"We tend to become part of that food, too."
Lee Svitak Dean • 612-673-1749
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Now showing items 1-2 of 2
Water quality in Imbang river, Negros Occidental: effluents and pollutant loads from agriculture, sugar mills, households, and shrimp farms
- In TU Bagarinao (Ed.), Research Output of the Fisheries Sector Program, 2007 - Bureau of Agricultural Research, Department of Agriculture
An ecological assessment of Imbang River in Negros Occidental was undertaken from December 1992 to February 1995. The effluents from sugar mills, households, shrimp farms, sugarcane plantations and rice fields were ...
Sugar mill effluents and water quality in Imbang River and Malisbog River, Negros Occidental
- In T Bagarinao (Ed.), Research Output of the Fisheries Sector Program, 2007 - Bureau of Agricultural Research, Department of Agriculture
The effluents of two sugar mills and the effects on water quality in the receiving rivers were studied. Sugar mill A was located in Barangay Dos Hermanas in Talisay and discharged directly into Imbang River. Sugar Mill B ...
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Tomato has been the most favourite fruit for us with such juicy texture
having rich vitamins and minerals that are the sure requirement for our
body to maintain the healthiness. But how about your little pet,
hamster. Whether your pet can have such fruit which is full of
pulp? Can Hamsters Eat Tomatoes? Can Your pet have this succulent fruit
which surely consists of all minerals and vitamins which are essential
for a hamster’s diet?
Can Hamsters Eat Tomatoes?
Yes! Hamsters can eat tomatoes for sure! In fact, Feeding tomato to your hamster is a good thing, but you must remember, never try to include tomato as a daily meal. Therefore, giving tomato every twice is a good way of feeding them. One must remember the diet index for the hamster. All hamsters can eat tomato as it is a good source of vitamins and minerals which are the sure requirement for their diet.
Why Should You Include Tomatoes In The Daily Diet For Your Hamster?
- Vitamin C plays a key role in the immune system.
- Vitamin K is crucial for normal blood clotting.
- Low calories are crucial for domestic hamsters.
- High Fiber slows digestion for easy and proper assimilation of the food to maintain sugar levels as well as maintaining a healthy digestive system.
- Decreases risk of having anaemia.
- Low-carbohydrates is necessary for maintaining sugar levels.
Thus, Tomato is the best fit snack for your little hamster as a healthy
food. But remember such nutrition content varies for all your hamsters. So
one must know the apt. needs of one’s hamster.
Why Should You Not Include Tomatoes In The Daily Diet For Your Hamster?
You must feed the Tomato to your hamster under small amounts
which will surely not cause any side effects but remember if you
observe your hamster having digestive upset and not having ample
water and food: Then your hamster may be suffering from Diarrhoea.
How Many Tomatoes Are Ideal For Your Hamster?
Tomato must be given to your hamsters in small amounts and the
serving must be ¼ teaspoon once a week.
Which Form Of Tomato Should You Give To Your Hamster?
You can give Tomatoes to your Hamster in various forms which can be discussed as follows:
- Raw tomato
- Cherry tomato
- Grape tomato
You must remember, not to give tomato leaves to your hamster.[sc name=”food” ]
How To Ensure If Your Hamster Likes Tomato?
You must look for indications given by your little ham. If your little ham is eating the tomato for the first time, and to know whether it is comfortable for it, Make sure it is drinking ample amount of water/ Check for the stool (constipated i.e. hard stool)/allergic symptoms (hair loss etc.)
But make sure never overfeed them as overfeeding will lead to
Are Tomatoes Good For All Sorts Of Hamsters?
Can Campbell’s/Chinese Hamsters Have Tomatoes?
Can Hamsters Eat Raw Tomatoes?
Can Dwarf Hamsters Eat Tomatoes?
So overall, it is true and sure that hamsters do eat tomato and the owner must give them under the right quantity as per the nutritional requirements of your Hamster.
I am stressing on a nutritional diet because it is very important to make
your hamster healthy by feeding under the right amount.
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BREMERTON — For viewers on the Kitsap Peninsula, about 83 percent of the sun will be covered at the height of the eclipse around 6:15 p.m. Sunday.
In our area, expected clouds will need to scoot out of the way to get the full impact, however.
The eclipse is called an annular eclipse, meaning the moon is too far away to fully cover the sun for anyone on Earth. In Redding, Calif., and Reno, Nev., the moon will cross near the center of the sun, creating a so-called "ring of fire." But in Washington state, the moon will be off-center to the sun, creating something of a crescent.
"It will become fairly dark," said Cliff Mygatt, president of Olympia Astronomical Society, "and you will feel a noticeable change in temperature."
The beginning of the eclipse will be at 5:01 p.m. in Kitsap, and it will be over by 7:30 p.m., according to a map available on NASA's website.
Mygatt and other experts are issuing a strong warning against looking at the sun with bare eyes or an inadequate filter, because the sun's rays can damage the eyes.
One can view the sun through specially designed solar glasses, but not regular sunglasses. One can use a #13 or #14 arc-welder glass, but avoid any other kind of smoked glass or film.
It is possible to project an image of the sun onto a white card with binoculars, but not by looking through the lens without the right filter. For details, see Sky and Telescope magazine, www.skyandtelescope.com/observing.
Another option is to punch a pinhole in a piece of thin cardboard and project the image onto another piece of paper, Mygatt said. It may help to have two people to do this.
Some people may have success by locating a tree that provides partial shade with diffuse light coming through the branches, he said. Under the right conditions, numerous little images of the eclipse can be seen on the ground. For details, see Solar Eclipse, www.exploratorium.edu/eclipse/how.html.
Battle Point Astronomical Association, www.bpastro.org/, will hold a public viewing at Ritchie Observatory in Battle Point Park on Bainbridge Island if the weather cooperates.
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<urn:uuid:b2678dfd-9750-4af0-b41a-d6872e0d0408>
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CC-MAIN-2013-48
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http://www.kitsapsun.com/news/2012/may/18/weather-willing-eclipse-will-be-visible-here/
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-48/segments/1387345759258/warc/CC-MAIN-20131218054919-00027-ip-10-33-133-15.ec2.internal.warc.gz
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en
| 0.917322 | 494 | 2.609375 | 3 |
Skip to Main Content
We present the design of a micropillar array that leads to the formation of stable and uniform liquid crystal (LC) thin films for sensing applications. Photolithography and electroplating methods were employed to fabricate the micropillar array. By using this microfabricated structure, thin films of LC (5CB: 4'-pentyl-4-cyanobiphenyl) were formed and stabilized against gravitational forces and mechanical shock. The geometric profile of the supported LC thin film was simulated by using finite element methods. Orientational ordering transitions of nematic LCs in the supported thin films were used to detect liquid- and vapor-phase analytes via changes in the intensity of light transmitted through the LCs. The LC thin films supported by these microfabricated structures were tested and found to respond to dimethyl methylphosphonate gas.
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<urn:uuid:cfd6890e-fe53-4ce3-ac93-8b90d421e893>
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CC-MAIN-2014-10
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http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/articleDetails.jsp?reload=true&arnumber=5256208
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2014-10/segments/1393999659065/warc/CC-MAIN-20140305060739-00074-ip-10-183-142-35.ec2.internal.warc.gz
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en
| 0.954318 | 182 | 2.625 | 3 |
King Lear Act 3, Scene 3
Gloucester and Edmund appear on stage. Gloucester tells his bastard son that he doesn't like how Cornwall and Regan have suddenly assumed authority in his home. Edmund, lying, quickly agrees with his father that their behavior is "savage and unnatural." But we know Edmund is lying because he himself wants to overturn what is "natural."
Gloucester makes the quick mistake of telling Edmund that he's received a letter from French invaders saying they are planting their forces in England. Old Gloucester plans to disobey Cornwall's orders and go to the king with whatever comfort he can provide. He asks his son to lie for him by saying that Gloucester has gone to sleep early for the evening due to an illness. Once Gloucester leaves, Edmund reveals that he will betray this confidence to advance his cause.
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<urn:uuid:96e3f43f-4a41-4c99-ac9d-81750fe65bc8>
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CC-MAIN-2014-41
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http://www.bookrags.com/notes/kl/part12.html
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2014-41/segments/1410657102753.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20140914011142-00091-ip-10-196-40-205.us-west-1.compute.internal.warc.gz
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en
| 0.987457 | 172 | 3.015625 | 3 |
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