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McBride: The proposed new fuel-efficiency standards, if implemented, will discourage the manufacture of full-size cars. This prospect is troubling because when a subcompact and a full-size car collide, the people in the subcompact are more likely to be seriously injured than if theirs had also been a full-size car. The new fuel-efficiency standards should therefore be opposed. Leggett: But whenever any two cars collide, it is more likely that someone will be seriously injured if one of the cars is a full-size car than if neither car is full-size. So the new fuel-efficiency standards should be supported precisely because they discourage the manufacture of full-size cars. | 199702_1-LR1_3_4 | [
"demonstrating that McBride's claims are contradictory",
"challenging the unstated assumption that all cars are either full-size or subcompact",
"shifting the perspective from which the issue of automobile safety is considered",
"raising doubts about the accuracy of a generalization made by McBride",
"demonstrating that it is impossible to follow the course of action advocated by McBride"
]
| 2 | Which one of the following argumentative strategies does Leggett use in attempting to refute McBride's position? |
Concerns for the environment have led chemists to develop plastics that are degradable. All degradable plastics, which are potentially useful packaging materials, need just the right conditions to break down. Some need exposure to sunlight, some need to be buried in soil and some need to be submerged in water. It should be cautioned that some degradable plastics leave residues of unknown toxicity. | 199702_1-LR1_4_5 | [
"Some materials that are potentially useful for packaging leave residues of unknown toxicity.",
"Some degradable plastics need both sunlight and submersion in order to break down.",
"Some materials that need sunlight in order to break down are not potentially useful packaging materials.",
"Some materials that leave residues of unknown toxicity are not degradable plastics.",
"Some materials that need to be buried in soil to break down leave residues of unknown toxicity."
]
| 0 | If all of the statements above are true, which one of the following must also be true? |
The coming economic recovery will surely be strong. Most of the economists in investment companies now agree that this is so, though the leading academic economists still think otherwise. Since the investment companies' economists are risking their jobs when they make forecasts, whereas academic economists have lifelong tenure, it generally makes sense to take the investment companies' economists more seriously. | 199702_1-LR1_5_6 | [
"by comparing the number of experts who agree with the conclusion with the number who disagree with the conclusion",
"through an assessment of the likely risks and consequences of believing one or another strand of expert opinion",
"through projection from the economic prospects for investment companies to the economic prospects for the economy as a whole",
"through an assessment of the relative reliability of the experts who agree with the conclusion as compared with that of those who disagree",
"by attacking the character of those experts who disagree with the conclusion"
]
| 3 | The main conclusion of the argument is supported only |
The coming economic recovery will surely be strong. Most of the economists in investment companies now agree that this is so, though the leading academic economists still think otherwise. Since the investment companies' economists are risking their jobs when they make forecasts, whereas academic economists have lifelong tenure, it generally makes sense to take the investment companies' economists more seriously. | 199702_1-LR1_5_7 | [
"Their content is likely to be dictated as much by the interests of the economist's employer as by an objective assessment of the economy.",
"They are likely to have more effect on the economic climate than are the predictions of academic economists.",
"The methods used in arriving at them include factors not employed by academic economists.",
"Their accuracy is an important factor affecting the profitability of the investment companies.",
"They are more reliable when they disagree with than when they agree with the predictions of academic economists."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true about the predictions of investment companies' economists, most seriously weakens the argument? |
John wants to win the annual Mayfield raffle next year because he needs the Mayfield raffle's prize. If he enters more than one raffle next year, the likelihood of his winning one of them would be greater than if he entered only a single raffle. Hence, to have this greater likelihood of winning the Mayfield prize, John should enter several other raffles next year. | 199702_1-LR1_6_8 | [
"presupposing that a person's strong desire for a certain outcome increases the likelihood that the actual outcome will be as desired",
"mistaking for the activity itself the goal for which one pursues that activity",
"assuming without warrant that a person will be successful if the person engages only in those activities that are likely to be successful",
"assuming that an event, if it is highly improbable, cannot possibly occur",
"confusing the likelihood that at least one event in a set of events will occur with the likelihood that a designated event in that set will occur"
]
| 4 | The argument exhibits which one of the following flaws in reasoning? |
In order to avoid causing inadvertent harm to their neighbors, householders ought to evade politely or refuse to answer a stranger's questions regarding their neighbors, unless the stranger provides some proof of being a government official pursuing official inquiries, in which case the questions should be answered truthfully. | 199702_1-LR1_7_9 | [
"A man claiming to be a private detective asked Mary whether her neighbor ever entertained guests overnight. Mary, though unsure of the facts, said that her neighbor never did so, and later told the neighbor about the suspicious questioner.",
"A stranger showing a police badge asked Mary whether her neighbor was away on vacation. Because several homes in the neighborhood had recently been burglarized while their owners were vacationing, Mary lied and said no.",
"When asked by a confused-looking couple whether the house next door belonged to a Mr. Brown, who, they said, was expecting them for dinner, Mary answered that it did not, and pointed out Mr. Brown's house.",
"Immigration officers, showing valid identification and asserting that they were on official business, asked Mary whether a neighbor who belonged to a local church that offered sanctuary to refugees lacking visas had sheltered any such refugees. Mary gave an evasive answer and warned her neighbor.",
"A woman claiming to be an insurance adjuster asked Mary whether her neighbor owned any vehicles other than the ones currently parked in the neighbor's driveway. Mary answered that the adjuster would have to ask her neighbor as she herself did not really know."
]
| 4 | In which one of the following situations does Mary act in accordance with the principle above? |
Competitive figure skaters are judged by panels of up to nine judges, who use a numerical scale with the highest mark being 6. To arrive at a total score, all judges' marks are summed. Competitive divers are judged by panels of five or seven judges using a scale with 10 as the highest mark. Before all judges' marks are summed to a final score, however, the highest and lowest marks are discarded in order to eliminate the possibility of bias either in favor of or against a particular diver. Competitive figure skating should adopt the approach taken in diving because it is a fairer system. | 199702_1-LR1_8_10 | [
"There is wider disagreement among figure skating judges than among diving judges.",
"Currently, there is a greater possibility of bias in the scoring process for competitive figure skating than in that for diving.",
"It is more likely that a diver will receive a biased total score than that a skater will.",
"It is fairer to judge a competitor on a 10-point scale than a 6-point scale.",
"Without the discarding of highest and lowest marks, diving would be more vulnerable to bias than figure skating."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following can be inferred from the passage above? |
Rose: The book is either by Deerson or else by Jones; I'm not sure which. However, Deerson's books are generally published by Quince Press, as are Jones's. Therefore, the book is probably published by Quince. | 199702_1-LR1_9_11 | [
"That tree is either a beech or else an elm, and Mercedes can identify most trees, so she will probably be able to tell which it is.",
"The culprits escaped either by car or else on foot, but in either case they must have opened Isidore's creaking gate. Therefore Isidore probably heard them.",
"Judging by what he said in the interview, George is either a liar or incredibly naive. Both these attributes are unsuitable in a customs inspector. Therefore George should not be hired as a customs inspector.",
"Margarethe the Second was born either in Luppingshavn or else in Kindelberg. Most of the people in each city then were of Mondarian descent, so Margarethe probably had Mondarian ancestors.",
"Tomas will probably participate in community service, since he will attend either Dunkeld College or Steventon University and at both most students currently enrolled say that they participate in some form of community service."
]
| 3 | The pattern of reasoning in which one of the following is most similar to that in Rose's argument? |
Sarah, who is an excellent mechanic, said that in her opinion the used car John is considering is in good mechanical condition. However, it is clear that Sarah cannot be trusted to give an honest opinion, since when Emmett asked her opinion of his new haircut she lied and said she thought it looked good. Therefore, it is very likely that Sarah also lied in giving her opinion of the mechanical condition of that car. | 199702_1-LR1_10_12 | [
"It fails to offer any grounds for the attack it makes on the character of the person.",
"It confuses claims about the past with claims about the future.",
"It bases a sweeping claim on the evidence provided by an instance that is not clearly relevant.",
"It presents evidence in value-laden terms that presuppose the conclusion for which that evidence is offered.",
"It wrongly assumes that because someone is a competent judge of one kind of thing, that person will be a competent judge of a very different kind of thing."
]
| 2 | The argument is flawed by virtue of having committed which one of the following errors of reasoning? |
Modern flamingos derive their pink coloration from pigments stored in tiny shrimp that they filter from shallow, salty waters. The shrimp get this pigment from tiny red algae that they filter through their leg bristles. In the Jurassic period (about 200 million years ago), both algae and shrimp were an excellent source of food for any larger animal equipped to sieve them out of the water through an anatomical strainer. The Argentine pterodactyl possessed a row of thin, bristlelike teeth through which it pumped water, straining out any tiny food particles in the process. Thus, because it was able to filter both algae and shrimp, it is reasonable to conclude that the pterodactyl acquired a pink coloration. | 199702_1-LR1_11_13 | [
"The Argentine pterodactyl inhabited the shores of shallow freshwater seas in Jurassic South America.",
"There is a specific type of shrimp that does not eat the algae immediately but carries them on its bristles and eats them later.",
"If the Argentine pterodactyl did not eat a diet containing red algae, its color was determined by factors other than diet.",
"The Argentine pterodactyl's habitat included shallow seas that were particularly rich in red algae and shrimp.",
"Captive modern flamingos, which do not have access to shallow salty waters from which to filter tiny shrimp, are given a diet that produces a red coloration."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following statements, if true, strengthens the argument for the existence of a pink pterodactyl? |
In jurisdictions where use of headlights is optional when visibility is good, drivers who use headlights at all times are less likely to be involved in a collision than are drivers who use headlights only when visibility is poor. Yet Highway Safety Department records show that making use of headlights mandatory at all times does nothing to reduce the overall number of collisions. | 199702_1-LR1_12_14 | [
"In jurisdictions where use of headlights is optional when visibility is good, one driver in four uses headlights for daytime driving in good weather.",
"A law making use of headlights mandatory at all times is not especially difficult to enforce.",
"Only very careful drivers use headlights when their use is not legally required.",
"There are some jurisdictions in which it is illegal to use headlights when visibility is good.",
"The jurisdictions where use of headlights is mandatory at all times are those where daytime visibility is frequently poor."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent discrepancy in the information above? |
Industries waste large amounts of valuable water. Government subsidies allow industries to pay little or nothing for water. Therefore, if industries are required by the government to pay full price for the water they use, inefficient use of water by industry would soon cease altogether. | 199702_1-LR1_13_15 | [
"presents one possible solution to a problem as the only solution to that problem",
"bases its conclusion on an ambiguous interpretation of the word \"inefficient\"",
"draws a conclusion that is stronger than what is warranted by the evidence presented",
"assumes what it sets out to prove",
"offers as evidence considerations that have no relevance to the argument's conclusion"
]
| 2 | A flaw in the argument's reasoning is that the argument |
When a group of people starts a company, the founders usually serve as sources both of funding and of skills in marketing, management, and technical matters. It is unlikely that a single individual can both provide adequate funding and be skilled in marketing, management, and technical matters. Therefore, companies founded by groups are more likely to succeed than companies founded by individuals. | 199702_1-LR1_14_16 | [
"A new company is more likely to succeed if every founding member contributes equally to the company's initial funding than if some members contribute more funds than others.",
"Some founding members of successful companies can provide both funding and skills in marketing, management, or technical matters.",
"New companies are more likely to succeed when their founders can provide adequate funding and skills in marketing, management, and technical abilities than if they must secure funding or skills from nonfounders.",
"Founders of a new company can more easily acquire marketing and management abilities than technical abilities.",
"A new company is more likely to succeed if its technical experts are also skilled in management and marketing than if they lack management or marketing skills."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following is an assumption required by the argument? |
Dead, rotting logs on the forest floor provide the habitat for a small mammal, the red-backed vole, which subsists almost entirely on the portion of certain specialized fungi which grows aboveground. The fungi-spores are deposited on the forest floor by the voles. Some of the fungi that develop from these spores form underground sheaths around the fine roots of growing trees, and assist the trees by processing and sharing nutrients and producing an antibiotic which protects the trees from disease. | 199702_1-LR1_15_17 | [
"The presence of rotting logs on a forest floor can have beneficial effects on the trees around them.",
"The red-backed vole is usually able to derive nutrients from the spores of the fungi it eats.",
"Young, growing trees could not survive without the voles to distribute the spores of certain fungi.",
"The spores of certain fungi cannot remain viable above the ground but must be deposited near the roots of trees.",
"Dead and decaying trees are the ideal environment for the growth of certain fungi."
]
| 0 | The information above provides the most support for which one of the following conclusions? |
Mayor Tyler: In 1982 the courthouse that Roseville still needs would have cost $26 million. Now in 1992 the same building is costing the city close to $30 million to build. If the courthouse had been built in 1982 when I first showed how the building would relieve the overcrowding we were experiencing, Roseville would have saved at least $4 million by now. Councillor Simón: Your own financial reports inform us that $26 million in 1982 dollars is equivalent to $37 million in 1992 dollars. Adding that difference to the money Roseville has saved by not having to maintain an underutilized courthouse for ten years, we can only view the delay as a financial boon for Roseville. | 199702_1-LR1_16_18 | [
"Roseville will build a courthouse in 1992",
"$37 million in 1992 dollars is equivalent to $26 million in 1982 dollars",
"Mayor Tyler is responsible for the city's major financial reports",
"Roseville actually needed a new courthouse between 1982 and 1992",
"Roseville would have expended $4 million to maintain a courthouse from 1982 to 1992"
]
| 3 | A point at issue between Mayor Tyler and Councillor Simón is whether |
Mayor Tyler: In 1982 the courthouse that Roseville still needs would have cost $26 million. Now in 1992 the same building is costing the city close to $30 million to build. If the courthouse had been built in 1982 when I first showed how the building would relieve the overcrowding we were experiencing, Roseville would have saved at least $4 million by now. Councillor Simón: Your own financial reports inform us that $26 million in 1982 dollars is equivalent to $37 million in 1992 dollars. Adding that difference to the money Roseville has saved by not having to maintain an underutilized courthouse for ten years, we can only view the delay as a financial boon for Roseville. | 199702_1-LR1_16_19 | [
"A shortage of courtroom space was not experienced until 1990, but from 1984 to 1992 the city spent a substantial amount of money each year to rent extra office space that the new courthouse would have provided.",
"Roseville had substantially fewer court cases in 1992 than in 1982, but in 1982 the number of court cases was exceptionally large because of challenges to a controversial law passed in 1981 and repealed in 1982.",
"There was more opposition to the mayor's proposal in 1982 to build a new courthouse than to the proposal in 1992 for the courthouse to be built.",
"In 1980 Councillor Simón supported a proposal to build a courthouse that would have cost substantially more than $26 million.",
"In 1987 a prominent judge resigned from office in protest against crowded prison conditions in the Roseville district."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, most strongly supports Mayor Tyler's conclusion? |
In North America there has been an explosion of public interest in, and enjoyment of, opera over the last three decades. The evidence of this explosion is that of the 70 or so professional opera companies currently active in North America, 45 were founded over the course of the last 30 years. | 199702_1-LR1_17_20 | [
"All of the 70 professional opera companies are commercially viable operations.",
"There were fewer than 45 professional opera companies that had been active 30 years ago and that ceased operations during the last 30 years.",
"There has not been a corresponding increase in the number of professional companies devoted to other performing arts.",
"The size of the average audience at performances by professional opera companies has increased over the past three decades.",
"The 45 most recently founded opera companies were all established as a result of enthusiasm on the part of a potential audience."
]
| 1 | The reasoning above assumes which one of the following? |
Although many seventeenth-century broadsides, popular ballads printed on a single sheet of paper and widely sold by street peddlers, were moralizing in nature, this is not evidence that most seventeenth-century people were serious about moral values. While over half of surviving broadsides contain moralizing statements, and it is known that many people purchased such compositions, it is not known why they did so, nor is it known how their own beliefs related to what they read. | 199702_1-LR1_18_21 | [
"Like other forms of cheap seventeenth-century popular literature, surviving broadsides seem mostly to have been of rather low literary quality and to have been written by hack writers.",
"In many moralizing ballads, the moral content was confined to a single stanza expressing a pious sentiment tacked onto a sensationalized account of crime and adultery.",
"Some seventeenth-century ballad sellers also sold sermons printed in pamphlet form.",
"The clergy occasionally stuck broadsides warning about the danger of strong drink on the doors of seventeenth-century alehouses.",
"Well-educated people of the seventeenth century held broadsides in contempt and considered broadside peddlers to be disreputable vagrants."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument? |
In casual conversation, people experience little psychological discomfort in admitting that they have some particular character flaw, but only if they consider trivial the flaw to which they admit. Therefore, if in a casual conversation an individual readily admits that he or she has some particular character flaw, the individual must not consider that flaw to be serious. | 199702_1-LR1_19_22 | [
"Most character flaws are considered trivial by those who have them.",
"People admit to having only those character flaws that most other people consider trivial.",
"In casual conversation, people admit to having character flaws only when they must.",
"In casual conversation, people readily admit to having a character flaw only when that admission causes them little psychological discomfort.",
"In casual conversation, people do not speak of things that would give others an unfavorable impression of their character."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following is an assumption necessary to the argument? |
This semester Professor Popkin will commute to Montreal by plane, leaving every Tuesday and returning to Toronto every Friday. She instructs her travel agent to schedule for her one round-trip that departs from Toronto on the first Tuesday and returns to Toronto on the last Friday of the semester and additional round-trips that depart from and return to Montreal for each weekly commute in between. | 199702_1-LR1_20_23 | [
"Professor Popkin's round-trip tickets are least expensive if each trip is scheduled so that at least one Saturday night intervenes between the departing flight and the returning flight.",
"A ticket for a round-trip in which the departing flight and the returning flight are separated by several months will cost Professor Popkin more than a ticket for a round-trip in which they are separated by less than one week.",
"Professor Popkin will be eligible to travel in the first-class section of the plane at no extra charge after she has completed a specified number of round-trips.",
"If all Professor Popkin's tickets are paid for at one time, she will be eligible for a frequent-traveler discount.",
"In order for Professor Popkin to receive the lowest possible airfare, each of her round-trips must be paid for at least seven days in advance of the departing flight."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain Professor Popkin's instructions to her travel agent regarding the grouping of her flights into round-trips? |
The last outdoor drive-in movie theater in Nova Scotia closed recently. The owners claimed that it could not regularly attract large enough audiences to remain viable. However, for an entire week—the final week of the theater's operation, after the announcement of the impending closure—the place was sold out every night and made a healthy profit. Therefore, the owners' claim was clearly false. | 199702_1-LR1_21_24 | [
"On the many occasions similar to the present when the library's budget was cut, staff layoffs resulted, so even though the administration denies it, the proposed budget cuts are bound to mean staff layoffs.",
"The proposed cuts in library funding would require reducing the hours of the periodicals room. But that is a room in which many students like to study, so the proposed cuts are bound to stir up considerable opposition.",
"All of the students who came to the meeting about proposed cuts in library funding were strongly opposed to the cuts, so all of the students currently enrolled must be strongly opposed.",
"The overall reduction in the university's budget is 10 percent. The library's budget is being cut by 10 percent. Therefore the library's budget cut is fair.",
"The administration claims that the library's funding must be cut because of last year's poor library fund drive. However the athletic department's budget is being increased. Therefore, the administration's claim must be false."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following contains an error of reasoning most similar to that made in the argument above? |
Environmentalist: It takes less energy to make molten glass from recycled glass than from raw materials. Once the recycled glass or raw materials have been turned into molten glass, making bottles from recycled glass follows the same process as making bottles from raw materials. Obviously, soft drink bottlers who make a large percentage of their bottles from recycled glass have significant energy savings. Therefore, by using recycled glass instead of glass made from raw materials, bottlers can lower their costs and benefit the environment at the same time. | 199702_1-LR1_22_25 | [
"The process of making bottles from plastic that has been recycled is not significantly more energy efficient than is the process of making bottles from glass that has been recycled.",
"The amount of glass that is currently recycled each year is enough to supply the major soft drink bottlers with materials for a large percentage of the glass bottles they make that year.",
"Most consumers are not able to distinguish bottles made from recycled glass from glass bottles made from raw materials.",
"Purchasing and transport costs are not so much greater for recycled glass than for raw materials that they outweigh the savings in energy costs resulting from the use of recycled glass.",
"The process of making molten glass from recycled glass requires fewer steps than does the process of making molten glass from raw materials."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument relies? |
Historian: Megapolis was once administered wisely, with vision and with universal public support. That's how it became a great city. City council member: Not so. Megapolis' past glory was achieved not because of greater vision, but because power was concentrated in the hands of autocrats and hence more easily exercised. | 199702_3-LR2_1_1 | [
"whether Megapolis was once a great city",
"what the best explanation is for Megapolis' past glory",
"whether vision and wisdom are important in urban administration",
"whether the administration of Megapolis once had popular support",
"why Megapolis is no longer a well-run city"
]
| 1 | Which one of the following best captures what is at issue in the dispute between the historian and the city council member? |
The striking similarities between Greek temples and subsequent Roman villas testify to the fact that great architects typically draw inspiration from the work of other architects. Such drawing of inspiration does not mean, however, a slavish lack of originality; building according to formulas does not make good buildings. When formulas are used, the results are either bland or disastrous. By contrast, a great architect creates fresh architectural compositions out of familiar forms and synthesizes past and present into a new, richer whole. | 199702_3-LR2_2_2 | [
"Roman architects designed many buildings with little or no originality of thought.",
"The essence of good architecture is faithful reproduction of established models.",
"Buildings with unfamiliar forms are likely to be either bland or architectural disasters.",
"Some Roman architecture exemplifies the creation of fresh architectural compositions out of familiar forms.",
"Some Greek temples were not themselves inspired by older models."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following can be inferred from the passage? |
About two million years ago, lava dammed up a river in western Asia and caused a small lake to form. The lake existed for about half a million years. Bones of an early human ancestor were recently found in the ancient lake-bottom sediments that lie on top of the layer of lava. Therefore, ancestors of modern humans lived in western Asia between two million and one-and-a-half million years ago. | 199702_3-LR2_3_3 | [
"There were no other lakes in the immediate area before the lava dammed up the river.",
"The lake contained fish that the human ancestors could have used for food.",
"The lava that lay under the lake-bottom sediments did not contain any human fossil remains.",
"The lake was deep enough that a person could drown in it.",
"The bones were already in the sediments by the time the lake dried up."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following is an assumption required by the argument? |
A few people who are bad writers simply cannot improve their writing, whether or not they receive instruction. Still, most bad writers can at least be taught to improve their writing enough so that they are no longer bad writers. However, no one can become a great writer simply by being taught how to be a better writer, since great writers must have not just skill, but also talent. | 199702_3-LR2_4_4 | [
"All bad writers can become better writers.",
"All great writers had to be taught to become better writers.",
"Some bad writers can never become great writers.",
"Some bad writers can become great writers.",
"Some great writers can be taught to be even better writers."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following can be properly inferred from the passage above? |
Paretan newspaper editor: David Salino assails as distorted our quotation of remarks on Paretan values by the Qinkoan prime minister and bemoans what he sees as the likely consequences for Paretan-Qinkoan relations. Those consequences will not be our fault, however, since officials at the Qinkoan embassy and scholars at the Institute of Qinkoan Studies have all confirmed that, as printed, our quotation was an acceptable translation of the prime minister's remarks. No newspaper can fairly be blamed for the consequences of its reporting when that reporting is accurate. | 199702_3-LR2_5_5 | [
"What the prime minister said about Paretan values is not a distortion.",
"Assessing the likely consequences of reporting the prime minister's remarks is irrelevant to the question of whether they ought to have been reported.",
"The newspaper's rendering of the prime minister's remarks was not inaccurate reporting according to the authorities who are in the best position to judge.",
"The newspaper cannot be held responsible for the adverse consequences that David Salino claims will likely result from the quotation of the prime minister's remarks in the newspaper.",
"David Salino's assessment of the likely consequences of reporting the prime minister's remarks is inaccurate."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the conclusion in the editor's response to David Salino? |
Paretan newspaper editor: David Salino assails as distorted our quotation of remarks on Paretan values by the Qinkoan prime minister and bemoans what he sees as the likely consequences for Paretan-Qinkoan relations. Those consequences will not be our fault, however, since officials at the Qinkoan embassy and scholars at the Institute of Qinkoan Studies have all confirmed that, as printed, our quotation was an acceptable translation of the prime minister's remarks. No newspaper can fairly be blamed for the consequences of its reporting when that reporting is accurate. | 199702_3-LR2_5_6 | [
"The confirmation that the translation is acceptable is sufficient to show that the prime minister's remarks were accurately reported.",
"Newspapers ought not to consider the consequences of their coverage in deciding what to report.",
"If the newspaper's rendering of the prime minister's remarks was not distorted, then there is no reason to fear adverse consequences from reporting the remarks.",
"If David Salino was prepared to praise the newspaper for any favorable consequences of quoting the prime minister's remarks, he could then hold the newspaper to blame for adverse consequences.",
"Only scholars or people with official standing are in a position to pass judgment on whether a translation of Qinkoan into Paretan is acceptable."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the editor's argument depends? |
Automobile manufacturers who began two decades ago to design passenger vehicles that were more fuel-efficient faced a dilemma in the fact that the lighter, more efficient vehicles were less safe on high-speed highways. However, the manufacturers avoided this dilemma by producing two types of passenger vehicles:a lighter vehicle for medium-speed, local transportation, and a heavier, safer vehicle for long-distance travel. Since most automobile traffic is local, a net savings in fuel use was achieved with no loss in safety. | 199702_3-LR2_6_7 | [
"Most households whose members do any long-distance driving own at least two passenger vehicles.",
"There are more cars using high-speed highways today than there were two decades ago.",
"Even large automobiles are lighter today than similar-sized vehicles were two decades ago.",
"Most high-speed highways are used by both commercial vehicles and passenger vehicles.",
"Some automobile manufacturers designed prototypes for fuel-efficient passenger vehicles more than two decades ago."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument? |
Automobile manufacturers who began two decades ago to design passenger vehicles that were more fuel-efficient faced a dilemma in the fact that the lighter, more efficient vehicles were less safe on high-speed highways. However, the manufacturers avoided this dilemma by producing two types of passenger vehicles:a lighter vehicle for medium-speed, local transportation, and a heavier, safer vehicle for long-distance travel. Since most automobile traffic is local, a net savings in fuel use was achieved with no loss in safety. | 199702_3-LR2_6_8 | [
"Lighter vehicles can have smaller, more fuel-efficient engines without sacrificing power.",
"Long-distance drives are usually made on high-speed highways.",
"Every automobile manufacturer now produces a greater number of fuel-efficient passenger vehicles than that manufacturer did two decades ago.",
"Many drivers use high-speed highways even when traveling locally.",
"Passenger vehicles today weigh less, on average, than did passenger vehicles two decades ago."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument? |
A scholar discovered an unlabeled nineteenth-century recording of someone reciting a poem written by Walt Whitman. During the nineteenth century, recordings of poetry were not made for wide commercial sale. Rather, they were made either as rare private souvenirs of the voices of famous poets or else as publicity stunts, in which actors recorded poems that were familiar to the public. Since the Whitman poem in the recording was never even published, it is likely that the voice in the recording is actually Whitman's. | 199702_3-LR2_7_9 | [
"offering several pieces of evidence each of which independently points to the same conclusion",
"distinguishing a phenomenon into two subtypes and then for a particular case eliminating one of those subtypes",
"offering a general principle and then demonstrating that the general principle is violated in a particular case",
"showing that two apparently mutually exclusive alternatives are actually compatible with one another",
"explaining the historical context of an incident in order to demonstrate that each of the two possible scenarios involving that incident is as likely as the other"
]
| 1 | The argument proceeds by |
All coffee drinkers in an office ought to contribute equally to the fund that pays for the office's coffee, because, although some coffee drinkers would prefer to pay for their coffee by the cup, or in some other manner, it is better if everyone who drinks the office's coffee provides the same amount of support to the fund. | 199702_3-LR2_8_10 | [
"It offers, in place of support for its conclusion, a mere restatement of that conclusion.",
"It overlooks the possibility that what is true under certain specified conditions is not necessarily true under most conditions.",
"It uses emotionally charged terms to characterize unfairly the position it attempts to refute.",
"It applies a double standard whereby one group of people is judged wrong and another group judged right for engaging in similar behavior.",
"It offers two alternatives that do not exhaust the possibilities available and then treats those alternatives as the only possible ones."
]
| 0 | The reasoning in the argument is most vulnerable to criticism on which one of the following grounds? |
In 1987 Fabrico, a clothing manufacturer, sold to its customers a total of 2.3 million dollars worth of clothing, a 17 percent increase over 1986 sales. In January 1988, however, Fabrico closed one of its clothing factories, citing reduced demand for its products as the major reason. | 199702_3-LR2_9_11 | [
"The total worldwide dollar value of clothing sales by manufacturers to customers increased by 5 percent over sales in 1986.",
"Fabrico's employees dropped earlier demands for a 25 percent increase in company-paid benefits and a 15 percent increase in hourly wages.",
"Because of escalating costs for raw materials, prices charged by Fabrico for its products were on average 42 percent higher than they were in 1986.",
"Fabrico introduced several new styles of clothing that were generally praised by fashion critics and that sold very well.",
"Fabrico spent less on capital improvements than it did in 1986, when it added new plant capacity and new equipment."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true about 1987, contributes most to a resolution of the apparent discrepancy noted between the sales figures and the reason offered for closing a factory? |
Gerrit: While browsing in a record store I noticed that one copy of a recording I wanted had mistakenly been priced at a quarter of the list price. When I finally reached the cashier I was told that the price had been mismarked and I would have to pay the full list price. Since I had wasted an hour standing in line, the retailer was morally obligated to sell me the recording at the lower price. Saskia: I disagree. You knew that a mistake had been made, and you were simply trying to take advantage of that mistake. | 199702_3-LR2_10_12 | [
"The price displayed on an item in a retail store morally constitutes an irrevocable offer to sell the item at that price.",
"Customers of retail stores are morally entitled to profit from any mistakes that the retailers make in marking prices.",
"Retailers are morally entitled to update marked prices periodically in order to reflect changes in manufacturers' suggested prices.",
"Retailers are morally obligated to meet expectations about prices that they have intentionally encouraged their customers to hold.",
"Retailers are morally obligated to sell an item to a customer at a mismarked price only if that customer was genuinely misled about the intended price by the mismarking."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following principles, if established, would most help to justify Saskia's position? |
Treasure hunter: In general, archaeological artifacts found on public property cannot legally be privately owned. But according to centuries-old maritime law, people who risk their lives attempting to rescue a ship in peril are permitted to keep whatever cargo they can salvage. Under this rule treasure hunters clearly are entitled to keep the cargo from ancient shipwrecks that they risk their lives to save from oblivion in public waters. Archaeologist: Not so. These shipwrecks have stabilized over the centuries they have lain underwater. The only danger they are in is from greedy treasure hunters who destroy archaeological evidence in their hurry to loot salable artifacts. | 199702_3-LR2_11_13 | [
"what constitutes an archaeological artifact",
"in what sense, if any, an ancient shipwreck can be said to be in peril",
"whether treasure hunters risk their lives when they retrieve artifacts from ancient shipwrecks",
"whether maritime law can ever be applied to a ship that has already sunk",
"whether antique shipwrecks in public waters can properly be said to be on public property"
]
| 1 | On the evidence of their statements, it can be concluded that the treasure hunter and the archaeologist disagree on which one of the following? |
Houseflies kept in small containers at normal room temperature lived for about 50 days. Houseflies kept in identical containers but at a significantly cooler temperature lived longer than 6 months. Apart from longevity, the only difference detected between the groups was that the flies in the colder environment consumed oxygen much more slowly than did those kept at room temperature. | 199702_3-LR2_12_14 | [
"For flies kept at room temperature, the larger the container the higher the rate of oxygen consumption.",
"As a fly consumes oxygen, its cells produce a toxic substance that accumulates in the cells until it kills the fly.",
"There were more containers of flies kept in the colder environment than in the warmer one.",
"The spiders that prey on flies consume oxygen more slowly in cold weather than in warm weather.",
"Flies kept in small containers cannot fly, although flying greatly increases a fly's rate of oxygen consumption."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain the difference in the houseflies' life spans? |
It is proposed to introduce mosquitoes into the wild with genetic alterations that destroy their disease-carrying capacity. In this way the dangerous wild population could eventually be replaced by a harmless one without leaving room for another disease-transmitting strain to flourish. One candidate gene would interfere with the mosquitoes' finding mates; another would cause the destruction of a disease parasite before the stage at which it could be transmitted; another would disable the mechanism of the mosquito's own resistance to disease, so that it would die before transmitting the disease. | 199702_3-LR2_13_15 | [
"It is presupposed that all three genes would prove equally easy to isolate and insert into the cells of the mosquitoes.",
"Two of the proposed ways of destroying disease-carrying capacity in the wild mosquito population would jeopardize the goal of the proposal.",
"It does not take into account positive roles that mosquitoes play in the environment, such as serving, in the larval stage, as food for fish.",
"None of the three proposed alternatives would assure that there would be fewer mosquitoes in any given area.",
"Evidence is not presented to show that each alternative method has been successfully tested on a limited scale."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following identifies a discrepancy in the proposal above? |
Zebra mussels, a nuisance when they clog the intake pipes of nuclear power plants and water plants along the Great Lakes, have some redeeming qualities. Since the mussels feed voraciously on algae that they filter from the water that passes by them, bags of zebra mussels suspended in the discharge streams of chemical plants significantly improve water quality, even removing some hazardous wastes. | 199702_3-LR2_14_16 | [
"Zebra mussels arrived in the Great Lakes on transatlantic freighters and, since they have no natural enemies there, are rapidly displacing the native species of clams.",
"If the mussels spread to areas of the Mississippi River where native clams provide the basis for a cultured-pearl industry, that industry will collapse, since the mussels are unsuitable for such use and would displace the clams.",
"There is no mechanical means available for clearing intake pipes by scraping the mussels from them.",
"The algae on which the mussels feed would, if not consumed by the mussels, themselves clog the intake pipes of nuclear power plants and water plants.",
"Any hazardous waste the mussels remove from chemical-plant discharge will remain in the mussels, if they do not transform it, and they then must be regarded as hazardous waste."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following is most strongly supported on the basis of the statements above, if they are true? |
Professor Edwards must have revealed information that was embarrassing to the university. After all, to have been publicly censured by the head of the university, as Edwards was, a professor must either have revealed information that embarrassed the university or have been guilty of gross professional negligence, and Edwards' professional behavior is impeccable. | 199702_3-LR2_15_17 | [
"According to company policy, employees who are either frequently absent without notice or who are habitually late receive an official warning. Since Ms. Jensen has never received such a warning, rumors that she is habitually late must be false.",
"Any employee of Wilkins, Waddel, and Sloan who discusses a client with a member of the press will be either fired or demoted. But since Wilkins employees never discuss their clients at all, no Wilkins employee will ever be demoted.",
"Anyone promoted to supervisor must either have worked on the shop floor for three years or have an influential sponsor. Daniels, therefore, clearly has an influential sponsor, since he was promoted to supervisor after only one year on the shop floor.",
"To earn a merit salary increase, an employee of TGX must either bring in new clients or develop innovative products. No innovative products were developed at TGX this year, however, so TGX employees must have brought in many new clients.",
"Anyone who is either awarded a letter of commendation or who receives a bonus must be recommended by a company officer. Simon has been recommended by a company officer and will receive a bonus, so he must not have been awarded a letter of commendation."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following arguments exhibits a pattern of reasoning most similar to that in the argument above? |
Citizen: Each year since 1970, a new record has been set for the number of murders committed in this city. This fact points to the decreasing ability of our law enforcement system to prevent violent crime. City official: You overlook the fact that the city's population has risen steadily since 1970. In fact, the number of murder victims per 100 people has actually fallen slightly in the city since 1970. | 199702_3-LR2_16_18 | [
"The incidence of fraud has greatly increased in the city since 1970.",
"The rate of murders in the city since 1970 decreased according to the age group of the victim, decreasing more for younger victims.",
"Murders and other violent crimes are more likely to be reported now than they were in 1970.",
"The number of law enforcement officials in the city has increased at a rate judged by city law enforcement experts to be sufficient to serve the city's increased population.",
"If the health care received by assault victims last year had been of the same quality as it was in 1970, the murder rate in the city last year would have turned out to be several times what it actually was."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following, if true, would most strongly counter the city official's response? |
Some works of art that today are recognized masterpieces were considered obscene when first created. It therefore follows that what is considered obscene or not obscene has changed over time. | 199702_3-LR2_17_19 | [
"Displays of works of art that are considered obscene change the way in which obscenity is defined.",
"The number of things that are considered obscene has decreased with the passage of time.",
"Public opinion does not determine the artistic value of a work of art.",
"Not all currently recognized masterpieces that were once considered obscene are still considered obscene.",
"All currently recognized masterpieces have at one time been considered obscene."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? |
Criminals released from prison on parole have generally been put under routine supervision. A recent program has allowed criminals to leave prison early under intensive supervision; they must obey curfews and in some cases they must be electronically monitored. The percentage of released criminals arrested while under supervision is the same for intensive supervision as for routine supervision, so intensive supervision is no more effective than routine supervision in preventing criminals from committing additional crimes. | 199702_3-LR2_18_20 | [
"The criminals under intensive supervision, but not those under routine supervision, were required to work or attend school during their supervision period.",
"All of the criminals who were arrested while under routine supervision had been in prison more than once before being paroled and put under supervision.",
"The proportion of arrests to crimes committed was not significantly higher for criminals under intensive supervision than for those under routine supervision.",
"Of the criminals arrested while under intensive supervision, some would not have committed crimes if they had been under routine supervision.",
"The number of criminals put under routine supervision was not significantly greater than the number of criminals put under intensive supervision."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument relies? |
Bicycle safety expert: Bicycling on the left half of the road is much more likely to lead to collisions with automobiles than is bicycling on the right. After all, in three different studies of bicycle-automobile collisions, the bicyclist was riding on the left in 15, 17, and 25 percent of the cases, respectively. Skeptic: But in places where a comparatively high percentage of bicyclists used to ride on the left, there was surprisingly little decrease in collisions between bicyclists and automobiles after bicycling on the left was made illegal. | 199702_3-LR2_19_21 | [
"the statistics cited in support of the conclusion that bicycling on the left is more likely to lead to collisions with automobiles already presuppose the truth of that conclusion",
"the statistics it cites do not include the percentage of bicycling that took place on the left",
"no statistics are provided on the proportion of bicycle accidents that are due to bicycle-automobile collisions",
"bicycling on the left is singled out for criticism without consideration of other bicycling practices that are unsafe",
"it does not distinguish between places in which bicycling on the left is legal and places in which it is illegal"
]
| 1 | One reason the strength of the bicycle safety expert's argument cannot be evaluated is that |
Bicycle safety expert: Bicycling on the left half of the road is much more likely to lead to collisions with automobiles than is bicycling on the right. After all, in three different studies of bicycle-automobile collisions, the bicyclist was riding on the left in 15, 17, and 25 percent of the cases, respectively. Skeptic: But in places where a comparatively high percentage of bicyclists used to ride on the left, there was surprisingly little decrease in collisions between bicyclists and automobiles after bicycling on the left was made illegal. | 199702_3-LR2_19_22 | [
"These places also have laws about other aspects of bicycling safety.",
"These places provide bicycle-safety education programs for teenagers.",
"Police officers in these places do not enforce regulations that apply to bicyclists.",
"Large numbers of adults as well as children ride bicycles in these places.",
"Collisions between bicyclists and automobiles constitute about one-quarter of the bicycle accidents in these places."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following statements about places that have outlawed bicycling on the left half of the road, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent discrepancy between the bicycle safety expert's claim and the facts cited by the skeptic? |
Sometimes individuals must choose between two courses of action:one that most benefits the community and another that most benefits the person making the decision. Faced with such a choice, individuals tend to choose the course of action most beneficial to themselves. It is therefore a principle of good government to adjust the incentives and disincentives for private individuals so that such choices rarely arise, ensuring as far as possible that what is the best choice for individuals is the best choice for the community. | 199702_3-LR2_20_23 | [
"In order to escape charges of favoritism, the city government awards the contract for a new courthouse to a different developer from the one who completed the new city hall, even though the contract bids from both developers were the same.",
"In order to satisfy a powerful law-and-order group, the legislature rejects a new bill protecting suspects' rights, despite the bill's popularity among voters in general.",
"In order to placate laid-off government workers who have demanded help in acquiring skills necessary for private industry jobs, the government diverts funds from existing social programs to a new job-training program.",
"In order to deflect voter attention from a recent increase in the salaries of elected officials, the legislature votes against a proposal to increase the salaries of appointed officials.",
"In order to avoid electricity shortages that will occur unless electricity use in the city significantly decreases, the city government approves an increase in the electricity rate charged to city residents."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following best illustrates an application of the cited principle of good government? |
Many professional economists describe economics as a science. Sciences, however, are by definition non-normative they describe but they do not prescribe. Yet economists are often called on to recommend a course of action for governments and financial institutions. Therefore, since economists play a prescriptive role in society, economics should not be thought of as a science. | 199702_3-LR2_21_24 | [
"treats closely related aspects of a discipline as separate and distinct from each other",
"attacks the proponents of a claim rather than addressing the merits of the claim itself",
"insists on a change in terminology when that change would have no practical consequences",
"fails to recognize the significance of the distinction between a discipline and the people who work within that discipline",
"overlooks the necessity of divisions of labor within society"
]
| 3 | The reasoning in the argument is flawed because the argument |
The Venetian Renaissance painter Vittore Carpaccio used sumptuous reds in most of his paintings. Since the recently discovered Venetian Renaissance painting Erato Declaiming contains notable sumptuous reds, it is probably by Carpaccio. | 199702_3-LR2_22_25 | [
"Most Renaissance painters worked in a single medium, either tempera or oil. Since the Renaissance painting Calypso's Bower is in oil, its painter probably always used oil.",
"In Italian Renaissance painting, the single most common subject was the Virgin and Child, so the single most common subject in Western art probably is also the Virgin and Child.",
"Works of art in the Renaissance were mostly commissioned by patrons, so the Renaissance work The Dances of Terpsichore was probably commissioned by a patron.",
"The anonymous painting St. Sebastian is probably an early Florentine painting since it is in tempera, and most early Florentine paintings were in tempera.",
"Since late-Renaissance paintings were mostly in oil, the Venetian late-Renaissance painter Arnoldi, whose works are now lost, probably painted in oil."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following contains a pattern of flawed reasoning most similar to that in the argument above? |
Braille is a method of producing text by means of raised dots that can be read by touch. A recent development in technology will allow flat computer screens to be made of a material that can be heated in patterns that replicate the patterns used in braille. Since the thermal device will utilize the same symbol system as braille, it follows that anyone who is accustomed to reading braille can easily adapt to the use of this electronic system. | 199706_2-LR1_1_1 | [
"Braille is the only symbol system that can be readily adapted for use with the new thermal screen.",
"Only people who currently use braille as their sole medium for reading text will have the capacity to adapt to the use of the thermal screen.",
"People with the tactile ability to discriminate symbols in braille have an ability to discriminate similar patterns on a flat heated surface.",
"Some symbol systems encode a piece of text by using dots that replicate the shape of letters of the alphabet.",
"Eventually it will be possible to train people to read braille by first training them in the use of the thermal screen."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the conclusion depends? |
Mayor of Otterville, a suburb of Center City: Outerville must grow if it is to survive, so, as we have agreed, efforts should be made to attract more residents. The best strategy for attracting residents is to renovate the train station. The numbers of jobs in Center City and of people who prefer to live in suburban towns are increasing. With the rise in tolls, driving into the city is becoming more expensive than train travel. Therefore, people want to live in towns where train travel is convenient and pleasant. | 199706_2-LR1_2_2 | [
"the town of Outerville should attract more residents",
"the train station in Outerville should be renovated",
"residents of Outerville who are in need of work should look for jobs in Center City",
"people who work in Center City but live in Otterville should commute by train rather than driving",
"people who want to live where train travel is convenient and pleasant should live in Otterville"
]
| 1 | The argument leads to the conclusion that |
Land developer: By attempting to preserve endangered species that otherwise would become extinct during our lifetime, we are wasting money on species that will disappear over time regardless of our efforts. Paleontologists have established that extinction is the normal fate of species on the geological time scale of millions of years. Environmentalist: To claim that we should let species disappear because all species eventually die out makes about as much sense as arguing that we should not spend money to find a cure for cancer because all humans are inevitably mortal. | 199706_2-LR1_3_3 | [
"clarify a dilemma that is embedded in the land developer's argument",
"attack the character of the land developer rather than the position the land developer is taking",
"show that more evidence is needed to substantiate the land developer's conclusion",
"show that the land developer's line of reasoning would lead to an unacceptable conclusion if applied to a different situation",
"argue that there are problems that money, however judiciously spent, cannot solve"
]
| 3 | The method the environmentalist uses to object to the land developer's argument is to |
Most small children are flat-footed. This failure of the foot to assume its natural arch, if it persists past early childhood can sometimes result in discomfort and even pain later in life. Traditionally, flat-footedness in children has been treated by having the children wear special shoes that give extra support to the foot, in order to foster the development of the arch. | 199706_2-LR1_4_4 | [
"Many small children who have normal feet wear the same special shoes as those worn by flat-footed children.",
"Studies of flat-footed adults show that flat feet are subject to fewer stress fractures than are feet with unusually high arches.",
"Although most children's flat-footedness is corrected by the time the children reach puberty, some people remain flat-footed for life.",
"Flat-footed children who do not wear the special shoes are as likely to develop natural arches as are flat-footed children who wear the special shoes.",
"Some children who are not flat-footed have hip and lower leg bones that are rotated excessively either inward or outward."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if true, most calls into question the efficacy of the traditional treatment described above? |
The chances that tropical storms will develop in a given area increase whenever the temperature of a large body of water in that area exceeds 26 degrees Celsius to a depth of about 60 meters. If the amount of carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere continues to increase, the temperatures of all of the Earth's waters will rise, with the result that the number of large bodies of water whose temperatures exceed 26 degrees Celsius to a depth of about 60 meters will eventually be greater than it is today. | 199706_2-LR1_5_5 | [
"There are likely to be more tropical storms if the amount of carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere continues to increase.",
"Tropical storms can occur only when the air temperature exceeds 26 degrees Celsius.",
"The number of large bodies of water whose temperatures exceed 26 degrees Celsius to a depth of about 60 meters is greater today than it ever was.",
"The ferocity of tropical storms does not depend on the amount of carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere.",
"Any increase in the temperatures of the Earth's oceans would cause the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere to increase as well."
]
| 0 | The statements above, if true, most strongly support which one of the following conclusions? |
Astorga's campaign promises are apparently just an attempt to please voters. What she says she will do if elected mayor is simply what she has learned from opinion polls that voters want the new mayor to do. Therefore, voters are not being told what Astorga actually intends to do if she becomes mayor. | 199706_2-LR1_6_6 | [
"If she is elected mayor, Astorga will not be capable of carrying out the campaign promises she has made.",
"The opinion polls on which Astorga's promises are based do not accurately reflect what voters want the new mayor to do.",
"Most voters are unlikely to be persuaded by Astorga's campaign promises to vote for her in the mayoral election.",
"Astorga has no strong opinions of her own about what the new mayor ought to do in office.",
"Astorga does not actually intend, if elected, to do what she has learned from the public opinion polls that voters want the new mayor to do."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following is a questionable assumption on which the argument relies? |
Newsletter for community-center volunteers: Retired persons who regularly volunteer their time to help others generally display fewer and milder effects of aging than their nonvolunteering contemporaries: in social resources, mental outlook, physical health, economic resources, and overall functioning, they are found to be substantially stronger than nonvolunteers. Volunteering is often described as doing good works to improve the lives of others. How good to know that there is evidence that it can equally benefit your own well-being! | 199706_2-LR1_7_7 | [
"the center has a self-interested motive to attract new volunteers",
"it interprets \"well-being\" as including the factors of social and economic resources, mental outlook, physical health, and overall functioning",
"some of those who do not volunteer might be older than some volunteers and so could not be considered their peers",
"growing older might not necessarily result in a change in mental outlook",
"those with better resources, health, outlook, and functioning are more able to work as volunteers"
]
| 4 | The inference drawn above is unwarranted because |
The local agricultural official gave the fruit growers of the District 10 Farmers' Cooperative a new pesticide that they applied for a period of three years to their pear orchards in place of the pesticide they had formerly applied. During those three years, the proportion of pears lost to insects was significantly less than it had been during the previous three-year period. On the basis of these results, the official concluded that the new pesticide was more effective than the old pesticide, at least in the short term, in limiting the loss of certain fruit to insects. | 199706_2-LR1_8_8 | [
"The amount of fruit that an orchard can potentially produce depends in part on how many mature trees it contains, and the number of mature pear trees in District 10 has declined steadily over the past eight years.",
"During the past five years, the farmers of the District 10 Farmers' Cooperative have been gradually implementing a variety of insect-abatement programs, and some of these programs have proven successful.",
"Over the past five years, one of the several species of birds that typically prey on the insects that feed on pears has gradually shifted its migratory patterns, spending more and more months each year in the region that contains District 10.",
"Some of the species of insects in District 10 that infest pear trees are water breeders, and the reservoirs and marshlands in this district have been shrinking rapidly over the past three years.",
"The effects of certain pesticides, including the pesticide that had formerly been used in District 10, are cumulative and persist for several years after the pesticide is no longer applied."
]
| 0 | Each of the following, if true, weakens the official's argument EXCEPT: |
The local agricultural official gave the fruit growers of the District 10 Farmers' Cooperative a new pesticide that they applied for a period of three years to their pear orchards in place of the pesticide they had formerly applied. During those three years, the proportion of pears lost to insects was significantly less than it had been during the previous three-year period. On the basis of these results, the official concluded that the new pesticide was more effective than the old pesticide, at least in the short term, in limiting the loss of certain fruit to insects. | 199706_2-LR1_8_9 | [
"peach trees grown in the district that were treated with the new pesticide instead of the old pesticide",
"peach trees grown in the district that were treated with the new pesticide in addition to the old pesticide",
"pear trees grown in the district that were treated with the old pesticide instead of the new pesticide",
"pear trees grown in a neighboring district that were treated with neither the old nor the new pesticide",
"pear trees grown in a neighboring district that were treated with the new pesticide instead of the old pesticide"
]
| 2 | The official's conclusion is most strongly supported if which one of the following groups of trees did not show a reduction in losses of fruit to insects? |
The only motives that influence all human actions arise from self-interest. It is clear, therefore, that self-interest is the chief influence on human action. | 199706_2-LR1_9_10 | [
"denies that an observation that a trait is common to all the events in a pattern can contribute to a causal explanation of the pattern",
"takes the occurrence of one particular influence on a pattern or class of events as showing that its influence outweighs any other influence on those events",
"concludes that a characteristic of a pattern or class of events at one time is characteristic of similar patterns or classes of events at all times",
"concludes that, because an influence is the paramount influence on a particular pattern or class of events, that influence is the only influence on that pattern or class of events",
"undermines its own premise that a particular attribute is present in all instances of a certain pattern or class of events"
]
| 1 | The reasoning in the argument is fallacious because the argument |
Astronomer: Astronomical observations in many areas have become useless because light from nearby cities obscures the stars Many people argue that since streetlights are needed for safety, such interference from lights is inevitable. Here in Sandsville, however, the local observatory's view remains relatively clear, since the city has restricted unnecessary lighting and installed special street lamps that direct all their light downward. It is therefore possible to have both well-lighted streets and relatively dark skies. | 199706_2-LR1_10_11 | [
"appealing to a scientific authority to challenge a widely held belief",
"questioning the accuracy of evidence given in support of the opposing position",
"proposing an alternative scientific explanation for a natural phenomenon",
"making a distinction between terms",
"offering a counter example to a general claim"
]
| 4 | The astronomer's argument proceeds by |
Music critic: Some people argue that, unlike certain works of Handel, which set to music familiar religious texts, the organ symphonies of Louis Vieme are not religious music. Quite the contrary. Sitting in Notre Dame cathedral in Paris and hearing his organ symphonies demonstrates that Vierne's works are divinely inspired. | 199706_2-LR1_11_12 | [
"takes for granted that all religious music is inspiring",
"confuses two different meanings of the term \"religious\"",
"overlooks the possibility that some organ music is not divinely inspired",
"confuses two different meanings of the term \"symphonies\"",
"takes for granted that all organ symphonies are religious music"
]
| 1 | The music critic's reasoning is vulnerable to criticism on the ground that it |
Charles: During recessions unemployment typically rises. Thus, during a recession air pollution due to automobile exhaust decreases, since fewer people commute in cars to jobs and so cars emitting pollutants into the air are used less. Darla: Why think that air pollution would decrease? During a recession fewer people can afford to buy new cars, and cars tend to emit more pollutants as they get older. | 199706_2-LR1_12_13 | [
"It calls into question the truth of the premises that Charles uses to support his conclusion.",
"It makes an additional claim that can be true only if Charles's conclusion is false.",
"It presents an additional consideration that weakens the support given to Charles's conclusion by his evidence.",
"It argues that Charles's conclusion is true, although not for the reasons Charles gives to support that conclusion.",
"It presents an argument showing that the premises in Charles' s argument support an absurd conclusion that Charles has overlooked."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following most accurately describes how Darla's response is related to Charles's argument? |
Charles: During recessions unemployment typically rises. Thus, during a recession air pollution due to automobile exhaust decreases, since fewer people commute in cars to jobs and so cars emitting pollutants into the air are used less. Darla: Why think that air pollution would decrease? During a recession fewer people can afford to buy new cars, and cars tend to emit more pollutants as they get older. | 199706_2-LR1_12_14 | [
"People who have never been employed drive no less frequently during a recession than they would otherwise.",
"Most air pollution is caused by automobile exhaust emitted by cars used by people commuting to jobs.",
"Most people who are employed do not use any form of public transportation to commute to their jobs.",
"During a recession, decreases in the use of cars resulting from reductions in commuting to jobs are not offset by increased use of cars for other reasons.",
"During a recession, a higher proportion of people who commute in cars to their jobs lose those jobs than do people who do not use cars to commute to their jobs."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which Charles's argument depends? |
For the condor to survive in the wild, its breeding population must be greatly increased. But because only a few eggs can be produced by a breeding pair over their lifetime, any significant increase in the number of birds depends upon most of these eggs hatching, which is extremely unlikely in the wild due to environmental dangers. One possible way to eliminate the effects of these factors is to breed the birds in captivity and subsequently return them to the wild. | 199706_2-LR1_13_15 | [
"The condor as a species will eventually become extinct in the wild.",
"The best way to save the condor from extinction is to breed it in captivity.",
"It is almost impossible to eliminate all the environmental threats to the eggs of condors.",
"If more condor eggs do not hatch, the condor as a species will not survive in the wild.",
"The most feasible way to save the condor from extinction is to increase egg production."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the information above? |
Allowing more steel imports would depress domestic steel prices and harm domestic steel manufacturers. Since the present government will not do anything that would harm the domestic steel industry, it will not lift restrictions on steel imports. | 199706_2-LR1_14_16 | [
"Building construction increases only when people are confident that the economy is doing well. Therefore, since people are now confident in the economy we can expect building construction to increase.",
"Since workers are already guaranteed the right to a safe and healthful workplace by law, there is no need for the government to establish further costly health regulations for people who work all day at computer terminals.",
"In countries that have deregulated their airline industry, many airlines have gone bankrupt. Since many companies in other transportation industries are in weaker economic condition than were those airlines, deregulating other transportation industries will probably result in bankruptcies as well.",
"The chief executive officer of Silicon, Inc., will probably not accept stock in the company as a bonus next year, since next year's tax laws will require companies to pay a new tax on stock given to executives.",
"The installation of bright floodlights on campus would render the astronomy department's telescope useless. The astronomy department will not support any proposal that would render its telescope useless; it will therefore not support proposals to install bright floodlights on campus."
]
| 4 | The pattern of reasoning in the argument above is most similar to that in which one of the following? |
Wild cheetahs live in the African grasslands. Previous estimates of the size that the wild cheetah population must be in order for these animals to survive a natural disaster in the African grasslands region were too small, and the current population barely meets the previous estimates. At present, however, there is not enough African grassland to support a wild cheetah population larger than the current population. | 199706_2-LR1_15_17 | [
"Previous estimates of the size of the existing wild cheetah population were inaccurate.",
"The cheetah's natural habitat is decreasing in size at a faster rate than is the size of the wild cheetah population.",
"The principal threat to the endangered wild cheetah population is neither pollution nor hunting, but a natural disaster.",
"In the short term, the wild cheetah population will be incapable of surviving a natural disaster in the African grasslands.",
"In regions where land is suitable for cheetah habitation, more natural disasters are expected to occur during the next decade than occurred during the past decade."
]
| 3 | The statements above, if true, most strongly support which one of the following conclusions? |
To classify a work of art as truly great, it is necessary that the work have both originality and far-reaching influence upon the artistic community. | 199706_2-LR1_16_18 | [
"By breaking down traditional schemes of representation, Picasso redefined painting. It is this extreme originality that warrants his work being considered truly great.",
"Some of the most original art being produced today is found in isolated communities, but because of this isolation these works have only minor influence, and hence cannot be considered truly great.",
"Certain examples of the drumming practiced in parts of Africa's west coast employ a musical vocabulary that resists representation in Western notational schemes. This tremendous originality coupled with the profound impact these pieces are having on musicians everywhere, is enough to consider these works to be truly great.",
"The piece of art in the lobby is clearly not classified as truly great, so it follows that it fails to be original.",
"Since Bach's music is truly great, it not only has both originality and a major influence on musicians, it has broad popular appeal as well."
]
| 1 | The principle above, if valid, most strongly supports which one of the following arguments? |
Professor Robinson: A large meteorite impact crater in a certain region was thought to be the clue to explaining the mass extinction of plant and animal species that occurred at the end of the Mesozoic era. However, the crystalline structure of rocks recovered at the site indicates that the impact that formed this crater was not the culprit. When molten rocks crystallize, they display the polarity of Earth's magnetic field at that time. But the recrystallized rocks recovered at the site display normal magnetic polarity, even though Earth's magnetic field was reversed at the time of the mass extinction. | 199706_2-LR1_17_19 | [
"The crater indicates an impact of more than sufficient size to have caused the mass extinction.",
"The recovered rocks recrystallized shortly after they melted.",
"No other event caused the rocks to melt after the impact formed the crater.",
"The recovered rocks melted as a result of the impact that formed the crater.",
"The mass extinction would have occurred soon after the impact that supposedly caused it."
]
| 0 | Each of the following is an assumption on which Professor Robinson' s argument depends EXCEPT: |
Pieces of music consist of sounds and silences presented to the listener in a temporal order. A painting, in contrast, is not presented one part at a time to the viewer; there is thus no particular path that the viewer's eye must follow in order to "read" the painting. Therefore, an essential distinction between the experiences of hearing music and of viewing paintings is that hearing music has a temporal dimension but viewing a painting has none. | 199706_2-LR1_18_20 | [
"the argument does not allow for the possibility of being immersed in experiencing a painting without being conscious of the passage of time",
"the argument is based on a very general definition of music that does not incorporate any distinctions among particular styles",
"the argument fails to bring out the aspects of music and painting that are common to both as forms of artistic expression",
"relying on the metaphor of \"reading\" to characterize how a painting is viewed presupposes the correctness of the conclusion to be drawn on the basis of that characterization",
"the absence of a particular path that the eye must follow does not entail that the eye follows no path"
]
| 4 | The reasoning in the argument is flawed because |
A study of the difference in earnings between men and women in the country of Naota found that the average annual earnings of women who are employed full time is 80 percent of the average annual earnings of men who are employed full time. However, other research consistently shows that, in Naota, the average annual earnings of all employed women is 65 percent of the average annual earnings of all employed men. | 199706_2-LR1_19_21 | [
"In Naota, the difference between the average annual earnings of all female workers and the average annual earnings of all male workers has been gradually increasing over the past 30 years.",
"In Naota, the average annual earnings of women who work full time in exactly the same occupations and under exactly the same conditions as men is almost the same as the men's average annual earnings.",
"In Naota, a growing proportion of female workers hold full-time managerial, supervisory, or professional positions, and such positions typically pay more than other types of positions pay.",
"In Naota, a larger proportion of female workers than male workers are part-time workers, and part-time workers typically earn less than full-time workers earn.",
"In ten other countries where the proportion of women in the work force is similar to that of Naota, the average annual earnings of women who work full time ranges from a low of 50 percent to a high of 90 percent of the average annual earnings of men who work full time."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if also established by research, most helps explain the apparent discrepancy between the research results described above? |
Biologist: Some speculate that the unusually high frequency of small goats found in island populations is a response to evolutionary pressure to increase the number of goats so as to ensure a diverse gene pool. However, only the reproductive success of a trait influences its frequency in a population. So, the only kind of evolutionary pressure that can reduce the average size of the members of a goat population is that resulting from small goats achieving greater reproductive than their larger cousins. | 199706_2-LR1_20_22 | [
"The evolutionary pressure to ensure a diverse gene pool could have the effect of increasing the frequency of a gene for small size.",
"The unusual frequency of small goats in island populations is not a result of the greater reproductive success small goats possess when space is limited.",
"Contrary to what some believe, large goats achieve greater reproductive success than small goats even when space is limited.",
"The evolutionary pressure to ensure a diverse gene pool does not have the effect of increasing the frequency of a gene for small size.",
"A diverse gene pool cannot be achieved in a goat population unless the average size of its members is reduced."
]
| 3 | The biologist's view, if true, provides the most support for which one of the following? |
Several carefully conducted studies showed that 75 percent of strict vegetarians reached age 50 without developing serious heart disease. We can conclude from this that avoiding meat increases one's chances of avoiding serious heart disease. Therefore, people who want to reduce the risk of serious heart disease should not eat meat. | 199706_2-LR1_21_23 | [
"The majority of people who regularly drive over the speed limit will become involved in traffic accidents. To avoid harm to people who do not drive over the speed limit, we should hire more police officers to enforce the speed laws.",
"Studies have shown that cigarette smokers have a greater chance of incurring heart disease than people who do not smoke. Since cigarette smoking increases one's chances of incurring heart disease, people who want to try to avoid heart disease should give up cigarette smoking.",
"The majority of people who regularly drink coffee experience dental problems in the latter part of their lives. Since there is this correlation between drinking coffee and incurring dental problems, the government should make coffee less accessible to the general public.",
"Studies show that people who do not exercise regularly have a shorter life expectancy than those who exercise regularly. To help increase their patients' life expectancy, doctors should recommend regular exercise to their patients.",
"Most people who exercise regularly are able to handle stress. This shows that exercising regularly decreases one's chances of being overwhelmed by stress. So people who want to be able to handle stress should regularly engage in exercise."
]
| 4 | The flawed pattern of reasoning exhibited by which one of the following is most similar to that exhibited by the argument above? |
Mr. Nance: Ms. Chan said that she retired from Quad Cities Corporation, and had received a watch and a wonderful party as thanks for her 40 years of loyal service. But I overheard a colleague of hers say that Ms. Chan will be gone for much of the next year on business trips and is now working harder than she ever did before; that does not sound like retirement to me. At least one of them is not telling the truth. | 199706_2-LR1_22_24 | [
"is based in part on hearsay",
"criticizes Ms. Chan rather than the claims she made",
"draws a conclusion based on equivocal language",
"fails to consider that Ms. Chan's colleague may have been deceived by her",
"fails to infer that Ms. Chan must be a person of superior character, given her long loyal service"
]
| 2 | Mr. Nance's reasoning is flawed because it |
A recent survey showed that 50 percent of people polled believe that elected officials should resign if indicted for a crime, whereas 35 percent believe that elected officials should resign only if they are convicted of a crime. Therefore, more people believe that elected officials should resign if indicted than believe that they should resign if convicted. | 199706_2-LR1_23_25 | [
"draws a conclusion about the population in general based only on a sample of that population",
"confuses a sufficient condition with a required condition",
"is based on an ambiguity of one of its terms",
"draws a conclusion about a specific belief based on responses to queries about two different specific beliefs",
"contains premises that cannot all be true"
]
| 1 | The reasoning above is flawed because it |
Advertisement: Among popular automobiles, Sturdimades stand apart. Around the world, hundreds of longtime Sturdimade owners have signed up for Sturdimade's "long distance" club, members of which must have a Sturdimade they have driven for a total of at least 100,000 miles or 160,000 kilometers. Some members boast of having driven their Sturdimades for a total of 300,000 miles (480,000 kilometers)! Clearly, if you buy a Sturdimade you can rely on being able to drive it for a very long distance. | 199706_4-LR2_1_1 | [
"It draws a general conclusion from cases selected only on the basis of having a characteristic that favors that conclusion.",
"Its conclusion merely restates the evidence given to support it.",
"It fails to clarify in which of two possible ways an ambiguous term is being used in the premises.",
"The evidence given to support the conclusion actually undermines that conclusion.",
"It treats popular opinion as if it constituted conclusive evidence for a claim."
]
| 0 | Construed as an argument, the advertisement's reasoning is most vulnerable to criticism on which one of the following grounds? |
Faced with a financial crisis, Upland University's board of trustees reduced the budget for the university's computer center from last year' s $4 million to $1.5 million for the coming year. However, the center cannot operate on less than $2.5 million. Since the board cannot divert funds from other programs to the computer center, there is no way that the center can be kept operating for the coming year. | 199706_4-LR2_2_2 | [
"The computer center did not use all of the $4 million that was budgeted to it last year.",
"The budgets of other programs at the university were also reduced.",
"The computer center has no source of funds other than those budgeted to it for the coming year by the university's board of trustees.",
"No funds from any program at the university can be diverted to other programs.",
"The board of trustees at the university value other programs at the university more highly than they do the computer center."
]
| 2 | The conclusion of the argument is properly drawn if which one of the following is assumed? |
Muriel: I admire Favilla's novels, but she does not deserve to be considered great writer. The point is that, no matter how distinctive her style may be, her subject matter is simply not varied enough. John: I think you are wrong to use that criterion. A great writer does not need any diversity in subject matter; however, a great writer must at least have the ability to explore a particular theme deeply. | 199706_4-LR2_3_3 | [
"whether Favilla has treated a wide variety of subjects in her novels",
"whether Favilla should be considered a great writer because her style is distinctive",
"whether treating a variety of subjects should be a prerequisite for someone to be considered a great writer",
"whether the number of novels that a novelist has written should be a factor in judging whether that novelist is great",
"whether there are many novelists who are considered to be great but do not deserve to be so considered"
]
| 2 | Which one of the following is a point at issue between Muriel and John? |
Muriel: I admire Favilla's novels, but she does not deserve to be considered great writer. The point is that, no matter how distinctive her style may be, her subject matter is simply not varied enough. John: I think you are wrong to use that criterion. A great writer does not need any diversity in subject matter; however, a great writer must at least have the ability to explore a particular theme deeply. | 199706_4-LR2_3_4 | [
"Even if the subject matter in Favilla's writings is not particularly varied, she should not thereby be excluded from being considered a great writer.",
"Even if Favilla cannot explore any particular theme deeply in her writings, she should not thereby be excluded from being considered a great writer.",
"If Favilla has explored some particular theme exceptionally deeply in her writings, she deserves to be considered a great writer.",
"If the subject matter in Favilla's writings were exceptionally varied, she would not deserve to be considered a great writer.",
"If Favilla's writings show no evidence of a distinctive style, she does not deserve to be considered a great writer."
]
| 0 | John's statements commit him to which one of the following positions? |
Astronaut: Any moon, by definition, orbits some planet in a solar system. So, the moons in solar system S4 all orbit the planet Alpha. | 199706_4-LR2_4_5 | [
"There is only one moon in S4.",
"Every moon in S4 orbits the same planet.",
"Alpha is the only planet in S4.",
"Every planet in S4 is orbited by more than one moon",
"There is at least one moon that orbits Alpha."
]
| 2 | The astronaut's conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? |
A worker for a power company trims the branches of trees that overhang power lines as a prevention against damage to the lines anticipated because of the impending stormy season. The worker reasons that there will be no need for her to trim the overhanging branches of a certain tree because the owners of the tree have indicated that they might cut it down anyway. | 199706_4-LR2_5_6 | [
"A well inspector has a limited amount of time to inspect the wells of a town. The inspector reasons that the wells should be inspected in the order of most used to least used, because there might not be enough time to inspect them all.",
"All sewage and incoming water pipes in a house must be replaced. The plumber reasons that the cheaper polyvinyl chloride pipes should be used for sewage rather than copper pipes, since the money saved might be used to replace worn fixtures.",
"A mechanic must replace the worn brakes on a company's vans that are used each weekday. The mechanic reasons that since one of the vans is tentatively scheduled to be junked, he will not have to replace its brakes.",
"A candidate decides to campaign in the areas of the city where the most new votes are concentrated. The candidate reasons that campaigning in other areas is unnecessary because in those areas the candidate's message is actually liable to alienate voters.",
"None of the children in a certain kindergarten class will take responsibility for the crayon drawing on the classroom wall. The teacher reasons that it is best to keep all the kindergarten children in during recess in order to be certain to punish the one who did the drawing on the wall."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following decisions is based on flawed reasoning that is most similar to the worker's flawed reasoning? |
Currently, the city of Grimchester is liable for any injury incurred because of a city sidewalk in need of repair or maintenance. However, Grimchester's sidewalks are so extensive that it is impossible to hire enough employees to locate and eliminate every potential danger in its sidewalks. Governments should be liable for injuries incurred on public property only if they knew about the danger beforehand and negligently failed to eliminate it. | 199706_4-LR2_6_7 | [
"A person is injured after tripping on a badly uneven city sidewalk, and the city administration had been repeatedly informed of the need to repair the sidewalk for several years.",
"A person is injured after tripping over a shopping bag that someone had left lying in the middle of the sidewalk.",
"A person is injured after stepping in a large hole in a city sidewalk, and the city administration had first learned of the need to repair that sidewalk minutes before.",
"A person who is heavily intoxicated is injured after falling on a perfectly even city sidewalk with no visible defects.",
"A person ridding a bicycle on a city sidewalk is injured after swerving to avoid a pedestrian who had walked in front of the bicycle without looking."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following describes an injury for which the city of Grimchester is now liable, but should not be according to the principle cited above? |
Early in the development of a new product line, the critical resource is talent. New marketing ventures require a degree of managerial skill disproportionate to their short-term revenue prospects. Usually, however, talented managers are assigned only to established high-revenue product lines and, as a result, most new marketing ventures fail. Contrary to current practice, the best managers in a company should be assigned to development projects. | 199706_4-LR2_7_8 | [
"On average, new ventures under the direction of managers at executive level survive no longer than those managed by lower-ranking managers.",
"For most established companies, the development of new product lines is a relatively small part of the company's total expenditure.",
"The more talented a manager is, the less likely he or she is to be interested in undertaking the development of a new product line.",
"The current revenue and profitability of an established product line can be maintained even if the company's best managers are assigned elsewhere.",
"Early short-term revenue prospects of a new product line are usually a good predictor of how successful a product line will ultimately be."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the author's argument? |
Television news coverage gives viewers a sense of direct involvement with current events but does not provide the depth of coverage needed for the significance of those events to be appreciated. Newspapers, on the other hand, provide depth of coverage but no sense of direct involvement. Unfortunately, a full understanding of current events requires both an appreciation of their significance and a sense of direct involvement with them. Therefore, since few people seek out news sources other than newspapers and television, few people ever fully understand current events. | 199706_4-LR2_8_9 | [
"treats two things, neither one of which can plausibly be seen as excluding the other, as though they were mutually exclusive",
"ignores the possibility that people read newspapers or watch television for reasons other than gaining a full understanding of current events",
"makes crucial use of the term \"depth of coverage\" without defining it",
"fails to consider the possible disadvantages of having a sense of direct involvement with tragic or violent events",
"mistakenly reasons that just because something has the capacity to perform a given function it actually does so"
]
| 0 | The reasoning in the argument is flawed because the argument |
Critic: Some writers have questioned Stalin's sanity during his last years. They typically characterized his vindictiveness and secrecy as "paranoia" and "morbid suspiciousness," the latter almost a standard term applied by the Soviet writers under glasnost to explain this extraordinary man's misdeeds. But Stalin's cruelty and deviousness are not more apparent during those years than in earlier periods of his rule. "Morbid suspiciousness" has to be a characteristic of tyrants. Without it they would not remain long in power. | 199706_4-LR2_9_10 | [
"whether Stalin should be held guilty of the cruel deeds attributed to him",
"whether Stalin's cruel misdeeds provide evidence of morbid suspiciousness",
"whether it is Stalin's state of paranoia or rather his cruelty that gives the stronger reason for doubting his sanity",
"whether tyranny tends to lead to cruelty",
"whether it was Stalin's psychological state or rather his political condition that was the primary cause of his cruel misdeeds"
]
| 4 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses a point of disagreement between the critic and the writers? |
Even though apes are the only nonhuman creatures able to learn human language, no ape has ever used its human language skills to ask such philosophical questions as, "How am I different from all other creatures?" Therefore, philosophical thought is unique to humans. | 199706_4-LR2_10_11 | [
"Human language is unique to humans.",
"Apes are incapable of thinking in human language.",
"Philosophical thought can be expressed only in human language.",
"Speaking in human language is easier than thinking in human language.",
"It is more difficult to learn human language than to express philosophical questions."
]
| 2 | The conclusion in the passage above relies on which one of the following assumptions? |
Most adults in country X consume an increasing amount of fat as they grow older. However, for nearly all adults in country X, the percentage of fat in a person's diet stays the same throughout adult life. | 199706_4-LR2_11_12 | [
"They generally consume more fat than do people of the same age in other countries.",
"They generally eat more when they are older than they did earlier in their adulthood.",
"They generally have diets that contain a lower percentage of fat than do the diets of children in country X.",
"They tend to eat more varied kinds of food as they become older.",
"They tend to lose weight as they become older."
]
| 1 | The statements above, if true, most strongly support which one of the following conclusions about adults in country X? |
Politician: The bill that makes using car phones while driving illegal should be adopted. My support of this bill is motivated by a concern for public safety. Using a car phone seriously distracts the driver, which in turn poses a threat to safe driving. People would be deterred from using their car phones while driving if it were illegal to do so. | 199706_4-LR2_12_13 | [
"The more attention one pays to driving, the safer a driver one is.",
"The only way to reduce the threat to public safety posed by car phones is through legislation.",
"Some distractions interfere with one's ability to safely operate an automobile.",
"Any proposed law that would reduce a threat to public safety should be adopted.",
"Car phone use by passengers does not distract the driver of the car."
]
| 3 | The argument's main conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? |
When soil is plowed in the spring, pigweed seeds that have been buried in the soil all winter are churned up to the surface and redeposited just under the surface. The brief exposure of the seeds to sunlight stimulates receptors, which have become highly sensitive to sunlight during the months the seeds were buried in the soil, and the stimulated receptors trigger germination. Without the prolonged darkness, followed by exposure to sunlight, the seeds do not germinate. | 199706_4-LR2_13_14 | [
"Fewer pigweed plants will grow in the field if it is plowed only at night than if it is plowed during the day.",
"Fewer pigweed plants will grow in the field if it is plowed at all than if it is plowed only at night.",
"Fewer pigweed plants will grow in the field if it is plowed just before sunrise than if it is plowed just after sunset.",
"The pigweed seeds that are churned up to the surface of the soil during the plowing will not geminate unless they are redeposited under the surface of the soil.",
"All of the pigweed seeds that are already on the surface of the soil before the field is plowed will germinate."
]
| 0 | The statements above, if true, most strongly support which one of the following statements about a field that will be plowed in the spring and in which pigweed seeds have been buried in the soil all winter? |
In 1992, there were over 250 rescues of mountain climbers, costing the government almost 3 million dollars. More than 25 people died in climbing mishaps that year. Many new climbers enter the sport each year. Members of a task force have proposed a bonding arrangement requiring all climbers to post a large sum of money to be forfeited to the government in case of calamity. | 199706_4-LR2_14_15 | [
"Taxpayers should not subsidize a freely chosen hobby and athletic endeavor of individuals.",
"The government is obliged to take measures to deter people from risking their lives.",
"For physically risky sports the government should issue permits only to people who have had at least minimal training in the sport.",
"Citizens who use publicly subsidized rescue services should be required to pay more toward the cost of these services than citizens who do not.",
"People who engage in physically risky behavior that is not essential to anyone's welfare should be held responsible for the cost of treating any resulting injuries."
]
| 2 | Each of the following principles, if valid, supports the task force members' proposal EXCEPT: |
The familiar slogan "survival of the fittest" is popularly used to express the claim, often mistakenly attributed to evolutionary biologists, that the fittest are most likely to survive. However, biologists use the term "fittest" to mean "most likely to survive," so the slogan is merely claiming that the most likely to survive are the most likely to survive. While this claim is clearly true, it is a tautology and so is neither informative nor of scientific interest. | 199706_4-LR2_15_16 | [
"All claims that are of scientific interest are informative.",
"Only claims that are true are of scientific interest.",
"Popular slogans are seldom informative or of scientific interest.",
"Informative scientific claims cannot use terms in the way they are popularly used.",
"The truth of a purported scientific claim is not sufficient for it to be of scientific interest."
]
| 4 | The argument above depends on assuming which one of the following? |
Council member: The preservation of individual property rights is of the utmost importance to the city council. Yet, in this city, property owners are restricted to little more than cutting grass and weeding. Anything more extensive, such as remodeling, is prohibited by our zoning laws. | 199706_4-LR2_16_17 | [
"Property owners are sometimes allowed exemptions from restrictive zoning laws.",
"It is in the best interest of property owners to maintain current laws in order to prevent an increase in their property taxes.",
"The city council places less importance on property rights than do property owners.",
"An individual's property rights may be infringed upon by other people altering their own property .",
"Zoning laws ensure that property rights are not overly extensive."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following provides a resolution to the apparent inconsistency described by the council member? |
Coach: Our team has often been criticized for our enthusiasm in response to both our successes and our opponents' failures. But this behavior is hardly unprofessional, as our critics have claimed. On the contrary, if one looks at the professionals in this sport, one will find that they are even more effusive. Our critics should leave the team alone and let the players enjoy the game. | 199706_4-LR2_17_18 | [
"misleadingly equates enthusiasm with unethical play",
"misinterprets the critics' claim that the team is unprofessional",
"too quickly generalizes from the sport at one level to the sport at a different level",
"shifts the blame for the team's behavior to professional players",
"takes everyone on the team to have performed the actions of a few"
]
| 1 | The coach's argument is most vulnerable to the charge that it |
Speaker: Contemporary business firms need to recognize that avoiding social responsibility leads to the gradual erosion of power. This is Davis and Blomstrom's Iron Law of Responsibility: "In the long run, those who do not use power in a manner which society considers responsible will tend to lose it." The law's application to human institutions certainly stands confirmed by history. Though the "long run" may require decades or even centuries in some instances, society ultimately acts to reduce power when society thinks it is not being used responsibly. Therefore, a business that wishes to retain its power as long as it can must act responsibly. | 199706_4-LR2_18_19 | [
"Government institutions are as subject to the Iron Law of Responsibility as business institutions.",
"Public relations programs can cause society to consider an institution socially responsible even when it is not.",
"The power of some institutions erodes more slowly than the power of others, whether they are socially responsible or not.",
"Since no institution is eternal, every business will eventually fail.",
"Some businesses that have used power in socially responsible ways have lost it."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following statements, if true, most weakens the speaker's argument? |
It would be wrong to conclude that a person has a Streptococcus infection if there is no other evidence than the fact that Streptococcus bacilli are present in the person's throat; after all, infection does not occur unless the host is physically run down. | 199706_4-LR2_19_20 | [
"When a person experiences blurred vision, it does not follow that a physical defect in the person's eyes Is the cause, since blurring of a person's vision also can be induced by certain drugs.",
"Even if a healthy lavender plant receives six or more hours of direct sunlight each day, one cannot predict on that basis alone that the plant will bloom, because lavender requires both six or more hours of sunlight per day and slightly alkaline soil to bloom.",
"When a bee colony fails to survive the winter, it would be wrong to conclude that low temperatures were the cause. Bees have very good defense mechanisms against extreme cold which are designed to ensure survival of the colony, though not of individual bees.",
"A female holly plant cannot produce berries without a male plant nearby to provide pollen. But it does not follow that two or more male hollies in the vicinity will cause a female plant to bear more berries than it would with only a single male holly nearby.",
"A person cannot be presumed to be hypertensive on the basis of a high reading for blood pressure that is exceptional for that person, since only people with chronically high blood pressure are properly called hypertensive."
]
| 1 | The reasoning in which one of the following is most similar to the reasoning in the argument above? |
Terry: Some actions considered to be bad by our society have favorable consequences. But an action is good only if it has favorable consequences. So, some actions considered to be bad by our society are actually good. Pat: I agree with your conclusion, but not with the reasons you give for it. Some good actions actually do not have favorable consequences. But no actions considered to be bad by our society have favorable consequences, so your conclusion, that some actions our society considers bad are actually good, still holds. | 199706_4-LR2_20_21 | [
"presupposing that if a certain property distinguishes one type of action from another type of action, then that property is one of many properties distinguishing the two types of action",
"presupposing that if most actions of a certain type share a certain property, then all actions of that type share that property",
"presupposing that if a certain property is shared by actions of a certain type in a given society, then that property is shared by actions of that type in every society",
"presupposing that if an action's having a certain property is necessary for its being a certain type of action, then having that property is sufficient for being that type of action",
"presupposing that if a certain property is shared by two types of action, then that property is the only property distinguishing the two types of action from actions of other types"
]
| 3 | Which one of the following correctly describes both an error in Terry's reasoning and an error in Pat's reasoning? |
Dinosaur expert: Some paleontologists have claimed that birds are descendants of a group of dinosaurs called dromeosaurs. They appeal to the fossil record, which indicates that dromeosaurs have characteristics more similar to birds than do most dinosaurs. But there is a fatal flaw in their argument; the earliest bird fossils that have been discovered date back tens of millions of years farther than the oldest known dromeosaur fossils. Thus the paleontologists' claim is false. | 199706_4-LR2_21_22 | [
"Having similar characteristics is not a sign that types of animals are evolutionarily related.",
"Dromeosaurs and birds could have common ancestors .",
"Knowledge of dromeosaur fossils and the earliest bird fossils is complete.",
"Known fossils indicate the relative dates of origin of birds and dromeosaurs.",
"Dromeosaurs are dissimilar to birds in many significant ways."
]
| 3 | The expert's argument depends on assuming which one of the following? |
Party spokesperson: The opposition party's proposal to stimulate economic activity in the province by refunding $600 million in provincial taxes to taxpayers, who could be expected to spend the money, envisions an illusory benefit. Since the province's budget is required to be in balance, either new taxes would be needed to make up the shortfall, in which case the purpose of the refund would be defeated, or else workers for the province would be dismissed. So either the province's taxpayers or its workers, who are also residents of the province, will have the $600 million to spend, but there can be no resulting net increase in spending to stimulate the province's economy. | 199706_4-LR2_22_23 | [
"reinterpreting a term that is central to an opposing argument",
"arguing that a predicted advantage would be offset by an accompanying disadvantage",
"casting doubt on the motives of opponents",
"drawing a distinction between different kinds of economic activity",
"seeking to show that the assumption that taxpayers would spend money that might be refunded to them is dubious"
]
| 1 | The spokesperson proceeds by |
Party spokesperson: The opposition party's proposal to stimulate economic activity in the province by refunding $600 million in provincial taxes to taxpayers, who could be expected to spend the money, envisions an illusory benefit. Since the province's budget is required to be in balance, either new taxes would be needed to make up the shortfall, in which case the purpose of the refund would be defeated, or else workers for the province would be dismissed. So either the province's taxpayers or its workers, who are also residents of the province, will have the $600 million to spend, but there can be no resulting net increase in spending to stimulate the province's economy. | 199706_4-LR2_22_24 | [
"taxpayers of the province would spend outside the province at least $300 million of any $600 million refunded to them",
"taxpayers of the province would receive any refund in partial payments during the year rather than in a lump sum",
"province could assess new taxes in a way that would avoid angering taxpayers",
"province could, instead of refunding the money, stimulate its economy by redirecting its spending to use the $600 million for construction projects creating jobs around the province",
"province could keep its workers and use them more effectively, with a resulting savings of $600 million in its out-of-province expenditures"
]
| 4 | The conclusion about whether there would be a resulting net increase in spending would not follow if the |
Essayist: Every contract negotiator has been lied to by someone or other, and whoever lies to anyone is practicing deception. But, of course, anyone who has been lied to has also lied to someone or other. | 199706_4-LR2_23_25 | [
"Every contract negotiator has practiced deception.",
"Not everyone who practices deception is lying to someone.",
"Not everyone who lies to someone is practicing deception.",
"Whoever lies to a contract negotiator has been lied to by a contract negotiator.",
"Whoever lies to anyone is lied to by someone."
]
| 0 | If the essayist's statements are true, which one of the following must also be true? |
A member of the British Parliament is reputed to have said, "The first purpose of good social reform is to increase the sum total of human happiness. So, any reform which makes somebody happy is achieving its purpose. Since the reform I propose would make my constituents happy, it is a good social reform." | 199706_4-LR2_24_26 | [
"Different things make different people happy.",
"The proposed reform would make a few people happy, but would not increase the happiness of most other people.",
"The proposed reform would affect only the member of Parliament's constituents and would make them happy.",
"Increasing some people's happiness might not increase the sum total of human happiness if others are made unhappy.",
"Good social reforms usually have widespread support."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument attributed to the member of Parliament? |
Anita: Since 1960 the spotted owl population has declined alarmingly. Timber companies that have been clearing the old-growth forests where the spotted owl lives are responsible for this. Jean: No, the spotted owl's decline is due not to the timber companies but to a rival species. For the past three decades, the more prolific barred owl has been moving steadily into the spotted owl's habitat and replacing the spotted owl. | 199710_2-LR1_1_1 | [
"denies the truth of Anita's premise that timber companies have been clearing old-growth forests",
"challenges Anita's assumption that the decline in the population of the spotted owl poses a threat to the species' continued survival",
"proposes an alternative explanation for the decline in the spotted owl population",
"argues that Anita's conclusion is not valid because she has failed to consider the spotted owl population over a long enough time period",
"suggests that Anita overlooked the possibility that spotted owls are able to live in forests that are not old-growth forests"
]
| 2 | Jean does which one of the following in her response to Anita? |
Veterinarian: A disease of purebred racehorses that is caused by a genetic defect prevents afflicted horses from racing and can cause paralysis and death. Some horse breeders conclude that because the disease can have such serious consequences, horses with this defect should not be bred. But they are wrong because, in most cases, the severity of the disease can be controlled by diet and medication, and the defect also produces horses of extreme beauty that are in great demand in the horse show industry. | 199710_2-LR1_2_2 | [
"Racehorses that have the genetic defect need not be prevented from racing.",
"There should not be an absolute ban on breeding racehorses that have the genetic defect.",
"Racehorses that are severely afflicted with the disease have not been provided with the proper diet.",
"The best way to produce racehorses of extreme beauty is to breed horses that have the genetic defect.",
"There should be no prohibition against breeding racehorses that have any disease that can be controlled by diet and exercise."
]
| 1 | The point of the veterinarian's response to the horse breeders is most accurately expressed by which one of the following? |
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