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No one wants this job as much as Joshua does, but he is not applying for it. It follows that there will not be any applicants, no matter how high the salary that is being offered. | 199806_2-LR1_2_2 | [
"Beth knows better than anyone else how to spot errors in a computer program, yet even she has not found any in this program so far. So it is clear that the errors must all be in the rest of the program.",
"If anyone can decipher this inscription, it is Professor Alvarez, but she is so involved with her new research that it will be impossible to interest her in this sort of task. Therefore, all we can do now is hope to find someone else.",
"Although he has the strongest motive of anyone for buying Anna's plot of land, Manfred is not pursuing the matter. Therefore, regardless of how low a price Anna is prepared to accept, she will be looking for a buyer in vain.",
"The person initially most interested in obtaining the contract was Mr. Moore, but he of all people suddenly withdrew his bid. This means that, no matter how discouraged the other bidders had been, they will now redouble their efforts.",
"Three times Paul would have liked to take advantage of a special vacation package for himself and his family, but each time he was indispensable at the factory just then. So the more seniority Paul acquires, the greater are the constraints on his personal life."
]
| 2 | The flawed reasoning in the argument above most closely parallels that in which one of the following? |
Many people limit the intake of calories and cholesterol in their diet in order to lose weight and reduce the level of cholesterol in their blood. When a person loses weight, the fat cells in that person's body decrease in size but not in number. As they decrease in size, fat cells spill the cholesterol they contain into the bloodstream. Therefore, a person who goes on a low-calorie, low cholesterol diet ____. | 199806_2-LR1_3_3 | [
"might at first have an increased level of cholesterol in his or her blood",
"will not lose weight any faster than will a person whose diet is high in calories",
"might lose more weight by going on a low calorie, high-cholesterol diet than by going on the low-calorie, low-cholesterol diet",
"will not decrease the size of his or her fat cells",
"will both decrease the level of cholesterol in his or her blood and gain weight"
]
| 0 | Which one of the following most logically completes the argument? |
Advances in photocopying technology allow criminals with no printing expertise to counterfeit paper currency. One standard anticounterfeiting technique, microprinting, prints paper currency with tiny designs that cannot be photocopied distinctly. Although counterfeits of microprinted currency can be detected easily by experts, such counterfeits often circulate widely before being detected. An alternative, though more costly, printing technique would print currency with a special ink. Currency printed with the ink would change color depending on how ordinary light strikes it, whereas photocopied counterfeits of such currency would not. Because this technique would allow anyone to detect photocopied counterfeit currency easily, it should be adopted instead of microprinting, despite the expense. | 199806_2-LR1_4_4 | [
"When an anticounterfeiting technique depends on the detection of counterfeits by experts, the cost of inspection by experts adds significantly to the cost to society of that technique.",
"For any anticounterfeiting technique to be effective, the existence of anticounterfeiting techniques should be widely broadcast, but the method by which counterfeits are detected should be kept secret.",
"The process of microprinting paper currency involves fewer steps than does the printing of paper currency with the special ink.",
"Before photocopying technology existed, most counterfeits of paper currency were accomplished by master engravers.",
"Many criminals do not have access to the advanced photocopiers that are needed to produce counterfeits of microprinted paper currency that cashiers will accept as real."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, provides the most support for the recommendation made by the argument? |
Advances in photocopying technology allow criminals with no printing expertise to counterfeit paper currency. One standard anticounterfeiting technique, microprinting, prints paper currency with tiny designs that cannot be photocopied distinctly. Although counterfeits of microprinted currency can be detected easily by experts, such counterfeits often circulate widely before being detected. An alternative, though more costly, printing technique would print currency with a special ink. Currency printed with the ink would change color depending on how ordinary light strikes it, whereas photocopied counterfeits of such currency would not. Because this technique would allow anyone to detect photocopied counterfeit currency easily, it should be adopted instead of microprinting, despite the expense. | 199806_2-LR1_4_5 | [
"The longer the interval between the time a counterfeit bill passes into circulation and the time the counterfeit is detected, the more difficult it is for law enforcement officials to apprehend the counterfeiter.",
"Sophisticated counterfeiters could produce currency printed with the special ink but cannot duplicate microprinted currency exactly.",
"Further advances in photocopying technology will dramatically increase the level of detail that photocopies can reproduce.",
"The largest quantities of counterfeit currency now entering circulation are produced by ordinary criminals who engage in counterfeiting only briefly.",
"It is very difficult to make accurate estimates of what the costs to society would be if large amounts of counterfeit currency circulated widely."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, most seriously undermines the argument? |
One test to determine whether a person has been infected with tuberculosis consists of injecting the person with proteins extracted from the tuberculosis bacterium. Once a person has been infected by a bacterium, the person's immune system subsequently recognizes certain proteins present in that bacterium and attacks the bacterium. This recognition also takes place in the test and results in a skin irritation at the injection site. Hence the physicians who designed the test reasoned that anyone who reacts in this manner to an injection with the tuberculosis proteins has been infected with tuberculosis. | 199806_2-LR1_5_6 | [
"All of the proteins present in disease-causing bacteria can be recognized by the body's immune system.",
"Localized skin irritations are a characteristic symptom of tuberculosis in most people.",
"The ability of the proteins present in the tuberculosis bacterium to trigger the skin irritation is exclusive to that bacterium.",
"Some people who have been injected with proteins extracted from the tuberculosis bacterium will contract tuberculosis as a result of the injection.",
"The body's immune system cannot recognize infectious bacteria unless there are sufficient quantities of the bacteria to cause overt symptoms of disease."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the physicians' reasoning depends? |
Generations of European-history students have been taught that a political assassination caused the First World War. Without some qualification, however, this teaching is bound to mislead, since the war would not have happened without the treaties and alliances that were already in effect and the military force that was already amassed. These were the deeper causes of the war, whereas the assassination was a cause only in a trivial sense. It was like the individual spark that happens to ignite a conflagration that was, in the prevailing conditions, inevitable. | 199806_2-LR1_6_7 | [
"The assassination did not cause the war, since the assassination was only the last in a chain of events leading up to the war, each of which had equal claim to being called its \"cause.\"",
"The war was destined to happen, since the course of history up to that point could not have been altered.",
"Though the statement that the assassination caused the war is true, the term \"cause\" more fundamentally applies to the conditions that made it possible for that event to start the war.",
"If the assassination had occurred when it did but less military force had at that time been amassed, then the war's outbreak might have been considerably delayed or the war might not have occurred at all.",
"Although the conditions prevailing at the time the war started made war inevitable, if the war had not been triggered by the assassination it would not have taken the course with which students of history are familiar."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following most accurately restates the main point of the passage? |
Toddlers are not being malicious when they bite people. For example, a child may want a toy, and feel that the person he or she bites is preventing him or her from having it. | 199806_2-LR1_7_8 | [
"Biting people is sometimes a way for toddlers to try to solve problems.",
"Toddlers sometimes engage in biting people in order to get attention from adults.",
"Toddlers mistakenly believe that biting people is viewed as acceptable behavior by adults.",
"Toddlers do not recognize that by biting people they often thwart their own ends.",
"Resorting to biting people is in some cases an effective way for toddlers to get what they want."
]
| 0 | The situation as described above most closely conforms to which one of the following generalizations? |
Consumer advocate: Last year's worldwide alarm about a computer "virus" —a surreptitiously introduced computer program that can destroy other programs and data—was a fraud. Companies selling programs to protect computers against such viruses raised worldwide concern about the possibility that a destructive virus would be activated on a certain date. There was more smoke than fire, however, only about a thousand cases of damage were reported around the world. Multitudes of antivirus programs were sold, so the companies' warning was clearly only an effort to stimulate sales. | 199806_2-LR1_8_9 | [
"restates its conclusion without attempting to offer a reason to accept it",
"fails to acknowledge that antivirus programs might protect against viruses other than the particular one described",
"asserts that the occurrence of one event after another shows that the earlier event was the cause of the later one",
"uses inflammatory language as a substitute for providing any evidence",
"overlooks the possibility that the protective steps taken did work and, for many computers, prevented the virus from causing damage"
]
| 4 | The reasoning in the consumer advocate's argument is flawed because this argument |
Insects can see ultraviolet light and are known to identify important food sources and mating sites by sensing the characteristic patterns of ultraviolet light that these things reflect. Insects are also attracted to Glomosus spiderwebs, which reflect ultraviolet light. Thus, insects are probably attracted to these webs because of the specific patterns of ultraviolet light that these webs reflect. | 199806_2-LR1_9_10 | [
"When webs of many different species of spider were illuminated with a uniform source of white light containing an ultraviolet component, many of these webs did not reflect the ultraviolet light.",
"When the silks of spiders that spin silk only for lining burrows and covering eggs were illuminated with white light containing an ultraviolet component, the silks of these spiders reflected ultraviolet light.",
"When webs of the comparatively recently evolved common garden spider were illuminated with white light containing an ultraviolet component, only certain portions of these webs reflected ultraviolet light.",
"When Drosophila fruit flies were placed before a Glomosus web and a synthetic web of similar pattern that also reflected ultraviolet light and both webs were illuminated with white light containing an ultraviolet component, many of the fruit flies flew to the Glomosus web.",
"When Drosophila fruit flies were placed before two Glomosus webs, one illuminated with white light containing an ultraviolet component and one illuminated with white light without an ultraviolet component, the majority flew to the ultraviolet reflecting web."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following, if true, most strongly supports the argument? |
A Habitat Conservation Plan (HCP) is based on a law that allows developers to use land inhabited by endangered species in exchange for a promise to preserve critical habitat or provide replacement land nearby. Some individuals of endangered species are lost in return for assurances by the owner or developer that habitat for those remaining animals will be protected. Environmentalists are pleased that HCPs allow them to win concessions from developers who would otherwise ignore rarely enforced environmental laws. Satisfied property owners prefer HCPs to more restrictive prohibitions of land use. | 199806_2-LR1_10_11 | [
"In order to avoid protracted legal battles environmentalists should compromise with developers.",
"Developers should adhere only to those environmental laws that are not overburdensome.",
"Laws should not be designed to serve the interests of all the parties concerned since they are often so weak that no one's interest is served well.",
"Laws should be fashioned in such a way as to reconcile the interests of developers and environmentalists.",
"The most effective means of preserving endangered species is to refrain from alienating property owners."
]
| 3 | The situation described above most closely conforms to which one of the following principles? |
It has long been thought that lizards evolved from a group of amphibians called anthracosaurs, no fossils of which have been found in any rocks older than 300 million years. However, a fossil of a lizard was recently found that is estimated to be 340 million years old. Lizards could not have evolved from creatures that did not exist until after the first lizards. Therefore, lizards could not have evolved from anthracosaurs. | 199806_2-LR1_11_12 | [
"unknown anthracosaur fossils older than 340 million years",
"unknown lizard fossils older than 340 million years",
"known lizard fossils that predate some anthracosaur fossils",
"known anthracosaur fossils that predate some lizard fossils",
"known lizard fossils whose age is uncertain"
]
| 0 | An assumption made in the argument is that there are no |
Numismatist: In medieval Spain, most gold coins were minted from gold mined in West Africa, in the area that is now Senegal. The gold mined in this region was the purest known. Its gold content of 92 percent allowed coins to be minted without refining the gold, and indeed coins minted from this source of gold can be recognized because they have that gold content. The mints could refine gold and produced other kinds of coins that had much purer gold content, but the Senegalese gold was never refined. | 199806_2-LR1_12_13 | [
"Coins minted from Senegalese gold all contained the same weight, as well as the same proportion, of gold.",
"The source of some refined gold from which coins were minted was unrefined gold with a gold content of less than 92 percent.",
"Two coins could have the same monetary value even though they differed from each other in the percentage of gold they contained.",
"No gold coins were minted that had a gold content of less than 92 percent.",
"The only unrefined gold from which coins could be minted was Senegalese gold."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following inferences about gold coins minted in medieval Spain is most strongly supported by the information the numismatist gives? |
Numismatist: In medieval Spain, most gold coins were minted from gold mined in West Africa, in the area that is now Senegal. The gold mined in this region was the purest known. Its gold content of 92 percent allowed coins to be minted without refining the gold, and indeed coins minted from this source of gold can be recognized because they have that gold content. The mints could refine gold and produced other kinds of coins that had much purer gold content, but the Senegalese gold was never refined. | 199806_2-LR1_12_14 | [
"Because refined gold varied considerably in purity, specifying a price as a number of refined-gold coins did not fix the quantity of gold received in payment.",
"During this period most day-to-day trading was conducted using silver coins, though gold coins were used for costly transactions and long-distance commerce.",
"The mints were able to determine the purity, and hence the value, of gold coins by measuring their density.",
"Since gold coins' monetary value rested on the gold they contained, payments were frequently made using coins minted in several different countries.",
"Merchants obtaining gold to resell for use in jewelry could not sell the metal unless it was first refined."
]
| 0 | As a preliminary to negotiating prices, merchants selling goods often specified that payment should be in the coins minted from Senegalese gold. Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain this preference? |
Some plants have extremely sensitive biological thermometers. For example, the leaves of rhododendrons curl when the temperature of the air around them is below 0°C (Celsius). Similarly, mature crocus blossoms open in temperatures above 2°C. So someone who simultaneously observed rhododendrons with uncurled leaves, crocuses with mature but unopened blossoms, and a thermometer showing 1°C could determine that the thermometer's reading was accurate to within plus or minus 1°C. | 199806_2-LR1_13_15 | [
"Neither rhododendrons nor crocuses bloom for more than a few weeks each year, and the blossoms of rhododendrons growing in any area do not appear until at least several weeks after crocuses growing in that area have ceased to bloom.",
"Many people find it unpleasant to be outdoors for long periods when the temperature is at or about 1°C.",
"The climate and soil conditions that favor the growth of rhododendrons are also favorable to the growth of crocuses.",
"Air temperature surrounding rhododendrons, which can grow 12 feet tall, is likely to differ from air temperature surrounding crocuses, which are normally only a few inches high, by more than 2°C, even if the two plants are growing side by side.",
"Certain types of thermometers that are commonly used to measure outdoor temperatures can be extremely accurate in moderate temperature ranges but much less accurate in warmer or colder temperature ranges."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if true, most seriously undermines the reasoning above? |
Political scientist: The dissemination of political theories is in principle able to cause change in existing social structures. However, all political theories are formulated in the educationally privileged setting of the university, leading to convoluted language that is alienating to many individuals outside academia who would be important agents of change. It follows that, with respect to political theory, there is a special role for those outside the university context to render it into accessible, clear language. | 199806_2-LR1_14_16 | [
"Persons outside academic settings are the most important agents of change to the social structure.",
"Persons within academic settings who formulate political theories attempt to change existing social structures.",
"Persons outside academic settings are better left out of the initial formulation of political theories.",
"Persons outside academic settings stand to gain more from the dissemination of political theories than persons inside.",
"Persons within academic settings are less willing or less able than persons outside to write in a straightforward way."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? |
Nicotine has long been known to cause heart attacks and high blood pressure. Yet a recent study has shown that the incidence of heart attacks and high blood pressure is significantly higher among cigarette smokers who do not chew tobacco than among nonsmokers exposed to an equal amount of nicotine through tobacco chewing. | 199806_2-LR1_15_17 | [
"People who smoke but do not chew tobacco tend to exercise less than those who chew tobacco but do not smoke.",
"Chemicals other than nicotine present in chewing tobacco but not present in cigarette smoke mitigate the effects that nicotine has on the cardiovascular system.",
"People who chew tobacco but do not smoke tend to have healthier diets than those who smoke but do not chew tobacco.",
"Chemicals other than nicotine present in chewing tobacco but not present in cigarette smoke can cause cancer.",
"Chemicals other than nicotine present in cigarette smoke but not present in chewing tobacco raise blood pressure."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if true, helps LEAST to resolve the apparent discrepancy described above? |
President of Central Supply Company: Profits are at an all-time low this fiscal year because of decreased demand for our products. If this situation continues, the company may have to declare bankruptcy. So it is important to prevent any further decrease in profits. Consequently, the only options are to reduce planned expansion or to eliminate some less profitable existing operations. | 199806_2-LR1_16_18 | [
"It presumes without giving justification that survival of the company has been a good thing.",
"It does not take into account that there are alternatives to declaring bankruptcy.",
"It presumes without giving justification that only decreased demand can ever be the cause of decreased profits.",
"It does not allow for the possibility that profits will decrease only slightly during the next fiscal year.",
"It does not take into account that there may be other ways to stop the decrease in profits."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following most accurately describes a flaw, in the company president's reasoning? |
In all mammalian species, the period of a young mammal's life in which it is most frequently playful coincides with the period of most rapid growth of the neural connections in the mammal's brain that give rise to various complex patterns of movement, posture, and social response. Indeed, the neural connections created by frequent play during this period later become indispensable for the mammal's survival and well-being as an adult. | 199806_2-LR1_17_19 | [
"Young mammals of species that are preyed on by other animals are likely to engage in forms of sudden mock flight, bolting away from locations where no predators are to be found.",
"The young of nonmammalian species such as fish, reptiles, and birds do not normally engage in playful behavior that serves the function served by play in the development of young mammals.",
"Adult mammals are more likely to engage in interactive play with their young if they engaged in similar forms of play when they themselves were young.",
"Mammals that cannot engage in certain common forms of play when young are likely to show certain deficits that limit their subsequent success as adults.",
"Young mammals of predatory species tend to practice in their play inoffensive versions of motions and actions that are useful in finding and catching prey when these mammals become adults."
]
| 1 | The statements above, if true, serve LEAST well as evidence for which one of the following? |
Physicist: Determinism is the view that every event has a preceding cause sufficient for its occurrence. That is, if determinism is true, then the events that are presently occurring could not have failed to occur given the state of the universe a moment ago. Determinism, however, is false because it is impossible to know the complete state of the universe at any given time since it is impossible to measure accurately both the position and velocity of any given subatomic particle at a particular time. | 199806_2-LR1_18_20 | [
"That it is impossible to measure accurately both the position and velocity of any given subatomic particle does not imply that it is impossible to know either the position or velocity of all subatomic particles.",
"That the complete state of the universe at any given time is unknowable does not imply that the states at that time of the individual subatomic particles making it up are unknowable.",
"That it is impossible to measure accurately both the position and velocity of any given subatomic particle at a particular time does not imply that its position or velocity cannot be accurately measured separately.",
"That it is impossible to know the complete state of the universe at any given time does not imply that there is no complete state of the universe at that time.",
"That the position and velocity of any given subatomic particle cannot be jointly measured with accuracy does not imply that this is the case for the position and velocity of all subatomic particles."
]
| 3 | The physicist's reasoning is most vulnerable to criticism on which one of the following grounds? |
If this parking policy is unpopular with the faculty, then we should modify it. If it is unpopular among students, we should adopt a new policy. And, it is bound to be unpopular either with the faculty or among students. | 199806_2-LR1_19_21 | [
"We should attempt to popularize this parking policy among either the faculty or students.",
"We should modify this parking policy only if this will not reduce its popularity among students.",
"We should modify this parking policy if modification will not reduce its popularity with the faculty.",
"If the parking policy is popular among students, then we should adopt a new policy.",
"If this parking policy is popular with the faculty, then we should adopt a new policy."
]
| 4 | If the statements above are true, which one of the following must also be true? |
It is an absurd idea that whatever artistic endeavor the government refuses to support it does not allow, as one can see by rephrasing the statement to read: No one is allowed to create art without a government subsidy. | 199806_2-LR1_20_22 | [
"The claim that any driver who is not arrested does not break the law is absurd, as one can see by rewording it: Every driver who breaks the law gets arrested.",
"The claim that any driver who is not arrested does not break the law is absurd, as one can see by rewording it: Every driver who gets arrested has broken the law.",
"The notion that every scientist who is supported by a government grant will be successful is absurd, as one can see by rewording it: No scientist who is successful is so without a government grant.",
"The notion that every scientist who is supported by a government grant will be successful is absurd, as one can see by rewording it: No scientist lacking governmental support will be successful.",
"The notion that every scientist who has been supported by a government grant will be successful is absurd, as one can see by rewording it: No scientist is allowed to do research without a government grant."
]
| 0 | The pattern of reasoning in which one of the following is most similar to that in the argument above? |
Politician: Nobody can deny that homelessness is a problem yet there seems to be little agreement on how to solve it. One thing, however is clear: ignoring the problem will not make it go away. Only if the government steps in and provides the homeless with housing will this problem disappear, and this necessitates increased taxation. For this reason, we should raise taxes. | 199806_2-LR1_21_23 | [
"Only if a measure is required to solve a problem should it be adopted.",
"Only if a measure is sufficient to solve a problem should it be adopted.",
"If a measure is required to solve a problem, then it should be adopted.",
"If a measure is sufficient to solve a problem, then it should be adopted.",
"If a measure is sufficient to solve a problem, any steps necessitated by that measure should be adopted."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following principles, if valid, most supports the politician's argument? |
Trade official: Country X deserves economic retribution for its protectionism. However, it is crucial that we recognize that there are overriding considerations in this case. We should still sell to X the agricultural equipment it ordered; there is high demand in our country for agricultural imports from X. | 199806_2-LR1_22_24 | [
"Agricultural components of international trade are more important than nonagricultural commodities.",
"The ability to keep popular products available domestically is less important than our being able to enter international markets.",
"We should never jeopardize the interests of our people to punish a projectionist country.",
"In most cases, punishing a projectionist country should have priority over the interests of our people.",
"We should balance the justice of an action with the consequences for our interests of undertaking that action."
]
| 4 | The argument depends on assuming which one of the following principles? |
Jack's aunt gave him her will, asking him to make it public when she died; he promised to do so. After her death, Jack looked at the will; it stipulated that all her money go to her friend George. Jack knew that if he made the will public, George would squander the money, benefiting neither George nor anyone else. Jack also knew that if he did not make the will public, the money would go to his own mother, who would use it to benefit herself and others, harming no one. After reflection, he decided not to make the will public. | 199806_2-LR1_23_25 | [
"Duties to family members take priority over duties to people who are not family members.",
"Violating a promise is impermissible whenever doing so would become known by others.",
"One must choose an alternative that benefits some and harms no one over an alternative that harms some and benefits no one.",
"When faced with alternatives it is obligatory to choose whichever one will benefit the greatest number of people.",
"A promise becomes nonbinding when the person to whom the promise was made is no longer living."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following principles, if valid, would require Jack to act as he did in the situation described? |
Taxpayer: For the last ten years, Metro City's bridge-maintenance budget of $1 million annually has been a prime example of fiscal irresponsibility. In a well-run bridge program, the city would spend $15 million a year on maintenance, which would prevent severe deterioration, thus limiting capital expenses for needed bridge reconstruction to $10 million. However, as a result of its attempt to economize, the city is now faced with spending $400 million over two years on emergency reconstruction of its bridges. | 199806_4-LR2_1_1 | [
"should have budgeted substantially more money for maintenance of its bridges",
"would have had a well-run bridge program if it had spent more money for reconstruction of its bridges",
"is spending more than it needs to on maintenance of its bridges",
"is economizing on its bridge program to save money in case of emergencies",
"has bridges that are more expensive to maintain than they were to build"
]
| 0 | The main point of the taxpayer's argument is that Metro City |
Twenty professional income-tax advisors were given identical records from which to prepare an income-tax return. The advisors were not aware that they were dealing with fictitious records compiled by a financial magazine. No two of the completed tax returns agreed with each other, and only one was technically correct. | 199806_4-LR2_2_2 | [
"Only one out of every twenty income-tax returns prepared by any given professional income-tax advisor will be correct.",
"The fact that a tax return has been prepared by a professional income-tax advisor provides no guarantee that the tax return has been correctly prepared.",
"In order to insure that tax returns are correct, it is necessary to hire professional income-tax advisors to prepare them.",
"All professional income-tax advisors make mistakes on at least some of the tax returns they prepare.",
"People are more likely to have an incorrectly prepared tax return if they prepare their own tax returns than if they hire a professional income-tax advisor."
]
| 1 | If the information above is correct, which one of the following conclusions can be properly drawn on the basis of it? |
The manager of a nuclear power plant defended the claim that the plant was safe by revealing its rate of injury for current workers: only 3.2 injuries per 200,000 hours of work, a rate less than half the national average for all industrial plants. The manager claimed that, therefore, by the standard of how many injuries occur, the plant was safer than most other plants where the employees could work. | 199806_4-LR2_3_3 | [
"Workers at nuclear power plants are required to receive extra training in safety precautions on their own time and at their own expense.",
"Workers at nuclear power plants are required to report to the manager any cases of accidental exposure to radiation.",
"The exposure of the workers to radiation at nuclear power plants was within levels the government considers safe.",
"Workers at nuclear power plants have filed only a few lawsuits against the management concerning unsafe working conditions.",
"Medical problems arising from work at a nuclear power plant are unusual in that they are not likely to appear until after an employee has left employment at the plant."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following, if true, most calls into question the manager's claim? |
Columnist: The country is presently debating legislation that, if passed, would force manufacturers to increase the number of paid vacation days for employees, to pay higher overtime wages, and to pay all day-care expenses for children of each employee. This legislation is being supported by members of groups that have resorted to violent tactics in the past, and by individuals who are facing indictment on tax-evasion charges. We must defeat this legislation and what it stands for. | 199806_4-LR2_4_4 | [
"attacks legislation by calling into question the integrity of the originators of the legislation",
"assails legislation on the basis of the questionable character of supporters of the legislation",
"attempts to discredit legislation by appealing to public sentiment for those who would be adversely affected",
"presupposes that legislation is bad legislation whenever it has only a small number of supporters outside the country's national legislative body",
"rejects legislation on the grounds that its supporters act inconsistently in seeking to place burdens on manufacturers upon whose business success the supporters depend"
]
| 1 | The columnist's argument is flawed because it |
If the ivory trade continues, experts believe, the elephant will soon become extinct in Africa, because poaching is rife in many areas. A total ban on ivory trading would probably prevent the extinction. However, the country of Zimbabwe—which has virtually eliminated poaching within its borders and which relies on income from carefully culling elephant herds that threaten to become too big— objects to such a ban. Zimbabwe holds that the problem lies not with the ivory trade but with the conservation policies of other countries. | 199806_4-LR2_5_5 | [
"International measures to correct a problem should not adversely affect countries that are not responsible for the problem.",
"Freedom of trade is not a right but a consequence of agreements among nations.",
"Respecting a country's sovereignty is more important than preventing the extinction of a species.",
"Prohibitions affecting several countries should be enforced by a supranational agency.",
"Effective conservation cannot be achieved without eliminating poaching."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following principles forms a logical basis for Zimbabwe's objection to a ban? |
The male sage grouse has air sacs that, when not inflated, lie hidden beneath the grouse's neck feathers. During its spring courtship ritual, the male sage grouse inflates these air sacs and displays them to the female sage grouse. Some scientists hypothesize that this courtship ritual serves as a means for female sage grouse to select healthy mates. | 199806_4-LR2_6_6 | [
"Some female sage grouse mate with unhealthy male sage grouse.",
"When diseased male sage grouse were treated with antibiotics, they were not selected by female sage grouse during the courtship ritual.",
"Some healthy male sage grouse do not inflate their air sacs as part of the courtship ritual.",
"Male sage grouse are prone to parasitic infections that exhibit symptoms visible on the birds' air sacs.",
"The sage grouse is commonly afflicted with a strain of malaria that tends to change as the organism that causes it undergoes mutation."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if true, most strongly supports the scientists' hypothesis? |
Consumers will be hurt by the new lower ceilings on halibut catches. Given the law of supply and demand these restrictions are likely to result in an increase in the price of the fish. | 199806_4-LR2_7_7 | [
"The demand for halibut will not decrease substantially after the new restrictions are imposed.",
"There is a connection between the supply of halibut and the demand for it.",
"The lost production of halibut will not be replaced by increased production of other fish.",
"The demand for other fish will be affected by the new restrictions.",
"The amount of halibut consumed represents a very small proportion of all fish consumed."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if assumed, would do most to justify the claim that the price of halibut will increase? |
Knowledge of an ancient language is essential for reading original ancient documents. Most ancient historical documents, however, have been translated into modern languages, so scholars of ancient history can read them for their research without learning ancient languages. Therefore, aspirants to careers as ancient-history scholars no longer need to take the time to learn ancient languages. | 199806_4-LR2_8_8 | [
"It concludes that something is never necessary on the grounds that it is not always necessary.",
"A statement of fact is treated as if it were merely a statement of opinion.",
"The conclusion is no more than a restatement of the evidence provided as support of that conclusion.",
"The judgment of experts is applied to a matter in which their expertise is irrelevant.",
"Some of the evidence presented in support of the conclusion is inconsistent with other evidence provided."
]
| 0 | The argument is vulnerable to criticism on which one of the following grounds? |
The Board of Trustees of the Federici Art Museum has decided to sell some works from its collection in order to raise the funds necessary to refurbish its galleries. Although this may seem like a drastic remedy, the curator has long maintained that among the paintings that the late Ms. Federici collected for the museum were several unsuccessful immature works by Renoir and Cézanne that should be sold because they are of inferior quality and so add nothing to the overall quality of the museum's collection. Hence, the board's action will not detract from the quality of the museum's collection. | 199806_4-LR2_9_9 | [
"Art speculators are unable to distinguish an inferior painting by Renoir from a masterpiece by him.",
"All of the paintings that the board of trustees sells will be among those that the curator recommends selling.",
"All of the paintings by Renior and Cézanne that are owned by the Federici Art Museum were purchased by Ms. Federici herself.",
"Only an avid collector of paintings by Cézanne would be willing to pay a high price for early works by this artist.",
"A great work of art can be truly appreciated only if it is displayed in a carefully designed and well-maintained gallery."
]
| 1 | The conclusion drawn depends on which one of the following assumptions? |
The Board of Trustees of the Federici Art Museum has decided to sell some works from its collection in order to raise the funds necessary to refurbish its galleries. Although this may seem like a drastic remedy, the curator has long maintained that among the paintings that the late Ms. Federici collected for the museum were several unsuccessful immature works by Renoir and Cézanne that should be sold because they are of inferior quality and so add nothing to the overall quality of the museum's collection. Hence, the board's action will not detract from the quality of the museum's collection. | 199806_4-LR2_9_10 | [
"The directors of an art museum can generally raise funds for refurbishing the building in which the museum's collection is housed by means other than selling part of its collection.",
"The quality of an art collection is determined not just by the quality of its paintings, but by what its collection demonstrates about the development of the artistic talent and ideas of the artists represented.",
"The immature works by Renoir and Cézanne that were purchased by Ms. Federici were at that time thought by some critics to be unimportant juvenile works.",
"Those people who speculate in art by purchasing artworks merely to sell them at much higher prices welcome inflation in the art market, but curators of art museums regret the inflation in the art market.",
"The best work of a great artist demands much higher prices in the art market than the worst work of that same artist."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, most weakens the argument? |
Taken together, some 2,000 stocks recommended on a popular television show over the course of the past 12 years by the show's guests, most of whom are successful consultants for multibillion-dollar stock portfolios, performed less successfully than the market as a whole for this 12-year period. So clearly, no one should ever follow any recommendations by these so-called experts. | 199806_4-LR2_10_11 | [
"Taken together, the stocks recommended on the television show performed better than the market as a whole for the past year.",
"Taken together, the stocks recommended on the television show performed better for the past 12-year period than stock portfolios that were actually selected by any other means.",
"Performance of the stocks recommended on the telephone show was measured by stock dividends, whereas the performance of the market as a whole was measured by change in share value.",
"Performance of the stocks recommended on the television show was measured independently by a number of analysts, and the results of all the measurements concurred.",
"The stock portfolios for which the guests were consultants performed better for the past 12-year period than the market as a whole."
]
| 3 | Each of the following, if true, weakens the argument EXCEPT: |
The school principal insisted that student failures are caused by bad teaching. In a relatively short time failing grades disappeared from the school. The principal happily recognized this as evidence that the teaching had improved at the school. | 199806_4-LR2_11_12 | [
"The nutritionist insisted that the weight gain that team members complained of was caused by overeating. In a brief time all the members stopped overeating. The nutritionist was pleased to conclude that they had stopped gaining weight.",
"The manager insisted that the workers who filed complaints had too many different tasks. The manager simplified the jobs, and complaints stopped. The manager happily concluded that the working environment has been improved.",
"The nutritionist insisted that the weight gain that team members complained of was merely in their imagination. Members were given weight charts for the last three months. The nutritionist was pleased to conclude that the complaints of weight gain had stopped.",
"The manager insisted that the workers who filed complaints did not have enough to do. Soon there were no more complaints filed. The manager was pleased to conclude that the workers were now productively filling their time.",
"The nutritionist insisted that the weight gain that team members complained of was caused by their thinking of food too often. The nutritionist was happy to conclude that the weight gain had stopped once the team members reported that they had stopped thinking of food so often."
]
| 3 | The flawed pattern of reasoning in the above is most similar to that in which one of the following? |
Unlike other primroses, self-pollinating primroses do not need to rely on insects for pollination. In many years insect pollinators are scarce, and in those years a typical non-self-pollinating primrose produces fewer seeds than does a typical self-pollinating primrose. In other years, seed production is approximately equal. Thus, self-pollinating primroses have the advantage of higher average seed production. Aside from seed production, these self-pollinating primroses are indistinguishable from non-self-pollinating primroses. Nevertheless, self-pollinating primrose plants remain rare among primroses. | 199806_4-LR2_12_13 | [
"Insects that collect pollen from primroses do not discriminate between self-pollinating primroses and non-self-pollinating primroses.",
"When insect pollinators are scarce, non-self-pollinating primroses produce larger seeds that are more likely to germinate than are seeds from self-pollinating primroses.",
"Self-pollinating primroses that are located in areas with few insects produce no fewer seeds than do self-pollinating primroses that are located in areas with many insects.",
"Many primroses are located in areas in which the soil conditions that are optimal for seed germination are not present.",
"Self-pollinating primroses can be assisted by insects during pollination but do not require the assistance of insects to be pollinated."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent discrepancy in the information above? |
We have a moral obligation not to destroy books, even if they belong to us. The reason is quite simple: If preserved, books will almost certainly contribute to the intellectual and emotional enrichment of future generations. | 199806_4-LR2_13_14 | [
"It is morally incumbent upon us to devote effort to performing actions that have at least some chance of improving other people's lives.",
"We are morally obligated to preserve anything that past generations had preserved for our intellectual and emotional enrichment.",
"The moral commitments we have to future generations supersede the moral commitments we have to the present generation.",
"We are morally obligated not to destroy anything that will most likely enrich, either intellectually or emotionally, for posterity.",
"Being morally obligated not to destroy something requires that we be reasonably assured that that thing will lead to the betterment of someone we know."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the principle underlying the argument? |
The southern half of a certain region of the earth was covered entirely by water during the Cretaceous period, the last 75 million years of the Mesozoic era, the era when dinosaurs roamed the earth. Dinosaurs lived only on land. Thus, plesiosaurs—swimming reptiles that lived during the Cretaceous period exclusively—were not dinosaurs. No single species of dinosaur lived throughout the entire Mesozoic era. | 199806_4-LR2_14_15 | [
"Dinosaurs inhabited the northern half of the region throughout the entire Mesozoic era.",
"Plesiosaurs did not inhabit the southern half of the region during the Cretaceous period.",
"Plesiosaurs did not inhabit the southern half of the region before the Cretaceous period.",
"Dinosaurs did not inhabit the northern half of the region during the Cretaceous period.",
"Dinosaurs inhabited the southern half of the region throughout the entire Mesozoic era."
]
| 4 | If the statements in the passage are true, each of the following could be true EXCEPT: |
Essayist: Wisdom and intelligence are desirable qualities. However, being intelligent does not imply that one is wise, nor does being wise imply that one is intelligent. In my own experience, the people I meet have one or the other of these qualities but not both. | 199806_4-LR2_15_16 | [
"Most people are neither intelligent or wise.",
"Most people are both intelligent and wise.",
"No one is both wise and intelligent.",
"No one is either wise or intelligent.",
"Many people are intelligent and yet lack wisdom."
]
| 3 | If the essayist's statements are true, then each of the following could be true EXCEPT: |
Concerned citizen: The mayor, an outspoken critic of the proposed restoration of city hall, is right when he notes that the building is outdated, but that the restoration would be expensive at a time when the budget is already tight. We cannot afford such a luxury item in this time of financial restraint, he says. However, I respectfully disagree. The building provides the last remaining link to the days of the city's founding, and preserving a sense of municipal history is crucial to maintaining respect for our city government and its authority. So to the question, "Can we really afford to?" I can only respond, "Can we afford not to?" | 199806_4-LR2_16_17 | [
"The argument is solely an emotional appeal to history.",
"The argument ambiguously uses the word \"afford.\"",
"The argument inappropriately appeals to the authority of the mayor.",
"The argument incorrectly presumes that the restoration would be expensive.",
"The argument inappropriately relies on the emotional connotations of words such as \"outdated\" and \"luxury.\""
]
| 1 | Which one of the following most accurately characterizes a flaw in the concerned citizen's argument? |
Obviously, we cannot in any real sense mistreat plants. Plants do not have nervous systems, and having a nervous system is necessary to experience pain. | 199806_4-LR2_17_18 | [
"Any organism that can experience pain can be mistreated.",
"Only organisms that have nervous systems can experience pain.",
"Any organism that has nervous system can experience pain.",
"Only organisms that can experience pain can be mistreated.",
"Any organism that has nervous system can be mistreated."
]
| 3 | The conclusion above follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? |
Inez: In these poor economic times, people want to be sure they are getting good value for their money. I predict people would be more willing to buy antiques at our fair if we first have the object inspected by professional appraisers who would remove any objects of questionable authenticity. Anika: I disagree with your prediction. Our customers already are antiques experts. Furthermore, hiring professional appraisers would push up our costs considerably, thus forcing us to raise the prices on all our antiques. | 199806_4-LR2_18_19 | [
"indicating that a particular plan would have an effect contrary to the anticipated effect",
"claiming that a particular plan should not be adopted because, while effective, it would have at least one undesirable consequence",
"arguing that an alternative plan could achieve a desired result more easily than the plan originally proposed",
"questioning the assumption that authorities are available who have special knowledge of the problem under discussion",
"offering a counterexample in order to show that a particular general claim is too broadly stated"
]
| 0 | Anika's response proceeds by |
In some ill-considered popularizations of interesting current research, it is argued that higher apes have the capacity for language but have never put it to use—a remarkable biological miracle, given the enormous selectional advantage of even minimal linguistic skills. It is rather like claiming that some animal has wings adequate for flight but has never thought to fly. | 199806_4-LR2_19_20 | [
"Arguing that there are some humans who never sleep is rather like discovering a species of lion that does not eat meat.",
"Arguing that Earth has been visited by aliens from outer space is rather like claiming that early explorers had visited North America but never founded cities.",
"Arguing that the human brain has telekinetic powers that no humans have ever exercised is rather like arguing that some insect has legs but never uses them to walk.",
"Claiming that some people raised tobacco but did not smoke it is rather like claiming that a society that knew how to brew alcohol never drank it.",
"Arguing that not all people with cars will drive them is rather like claiming that humans invented gasoline long before they used it as fuel for transportation."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following is most similar in its reasoning to the argument above? |
Sarah: Some schools seek to foster a habit of volunteering in their students by requiring them to perform community service. But since a person who has been forced to do something has not really volunteered and since the habit of volunteering cannot be said to have been fostered in a person who has not yet volunteered for anything, there is no way this policy can succeed by itself. Paul: I disagree. Some students forced to perform community service have enjoyed it so much that they subsequently actually volunteer to do something similar. In such cases, the policy can clearly be said to have fostered a habit of volunteering. | 199806_4-LR2_20_21 | [
"He argues that Sarah is assuming just what she sets out to prove.",
"He argues that Sarah's conception of what it means to volunteer excludes certain activities that ought to be considered instances of volunteering.",
"He introduces considerations that call into question one of Sarah's assumptions.",
"He questions Sarah's motives for advancing an argument against the school policy.",
"He argues that a policy Sarah fails to consider could accomplish the same aim as the policy that Sarah considers."
]
| 2 | Paul responds to Sarah's argument using which one of the following argumentative techniques? |
Sarah: Some schools seek to foster a habit of volunteering in their students by requiring them to perform community service. But since a person who has been forced to do something has not really volunteered and since the habit of volunteering cannot be said to have been fostered in a person who has not yet volunteered for anything, there is no way this policy can succeed by itself. Paul: I disagree. Some students forced to perform community service have enjoyed it so much that they subsequently actually volunteer to do something similar. In such cases, the policy can clearly be said to have fostered a habit of volunteering. | 199806_4-LR2_20_22 | [
"there are any circumstances under which an individual forced to perform a task can correctly be said to have genuinely volunteered to perform that task",
"being forced to perform community service can provide enjoyment to the individual who is forced to perform such service",
"being forced to perform community service can by itself encourage a genuine habit of volunteering in those students who are forced to perform such service",
"it is possible for schools to develop policies that foster the habit of volunteering in their students",
"students who develop a habit of volunteering while in school are inclined to perform community service later in their lives"
]
| 2 | The main point at issue between Sarah and Paul is whether |
Only computer scientists understand the architecture of personal computers, and only those who understand the architecture of personal computers appreciate the advances in technology made in the last decade. It follows that only those who appreciate these advances are computer scientists. | 199806_4-LR2_21_23 | [
"The argument contains no stated or implied relationship between computer scientists and those who appreciate the advances in technology in the last decade.",
"The argument ignores the fact that some computer scientists may not appreciate the advances in technology made in the last decade.",
"The argument ignores the fact that computer scientists may appreciate other things besides the advances in technology made in the last decade.",
"The premises of the argument are stated in such a way that they exclude the possibility of drawing any logical conclusion.",
"The premises of the argument presuppose that everyone understands the architecture of personal computers."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following most accurately describes a flaw in the reasoning in the argument? |
Sociologist: Research shows, contrary to popular opinion, that, all other things being equal, most people who have pets are less happy than most people who do not. Therefore, any person who wants to be as happy as possible would do well to consider not having a pet. | 199806_4-LR2_22_24 | [
"Some people who have pets are happier than most people who do not.",
"Most people who have no pets occasionally wish that they had pets.",
"Most people who have pets are reasonably happy.",
"Most people who have pets feel happier because they have pets.",
"All people who have no pets admit to feeling unhappy sometimes."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the sociologist's argument? |
The dwarf masked owl, a rare migratory bird of prey, normally makes its winter home on the Baja peninsula, where it nests in the spiny cactus. In fact, there are no other suitable nesting sites for the dwarf masked owl on the Baja peninsula. But a blight last spring destroyed all of the spiny cacti on the Baja peninsula. So unless steps are taken to reestablish the spiny cactus population, the dwarf masked owl will not make its home on the Baja peninsula this winter. | 199806_4-LR2_23_25 | [
"No birds of prey other than the dwarf masked owl nest in the spiny cactus.",
"If the Baja peninsula contains spiny cacti, then the dwarf masked owl makes its winter home there.",
"On occasion the dwarf masked owl has been known to make its winter home far from its normal migratory route.",
"The dwarf masked owl will not make its winter home on the Baja peninsula only if that region contains no spiny cacti.",
"Suitable nesting sites must be present where the dwarf masked owl makes its winter home."
]
| 4 | The argument depends on assuming which one of the following? |
At night, a flock of crows will generally perch close together in a small place—often a piece of wooded land—called a roost. Each morning, the crows leave the roost and fan out in small groups to hunt and scavenge the surrounding area. For most flocks, the crows' hunting extends as far as 100 to 130 kilometers (60 to 80 miles) from the roost. Normally, a flock will continue to occupy the same roost for several consecutive years, and when it abandons a roost site for a new one, the new roost is usually less than eight kilometers (five miles) away. | 199806_4-LR2_24_26 | [
"Crows will abandon their roost site only in response to increases in the population of the flock.",
"When there is a shortage of food in the area in which a flock of crows normally hunts and scavenges, some members of the flock will begin to hunt and scavenge outside that area.",
"Most of the hunting and scavenging that crows do occurs more than eight kilometers (five miles) from their roost.",
"Once a flock of crows has settled on a new roost site, it is extremely difficult to force it to abandon that site for another.",
"When a flock of crows moves to a new roost site, it generally does so because the area in which it has hunted and scavenged has been depleted of food sources."
]
| 4 | Of the following claims, which one can most justifiably be rejected on the basis of the statements above? |
Insurance that was to become effective at 9 A.M. on a certain date was taken out on the life of a flight attendant. He died on that date at 10 A.M. local time, which was two hours before 9 A.M. in the time zone where the policy had been purchased. The insurance company contended that the policy had not become effective; a representative of the flight attendant's beneficiary, his mother, countered by arguing that the policy amount should be paid because the attendant had been his mother's sole support, and she was ill. | 199809_2-LR1_1_1 | [
"the conclusion is no more than a paraphrase of the evidence offered in support of it",
"it appeals to the emotion of pity rather than addressing the issue raised",
"it makes an unwarranted distinction between family obligations and business obligations",
"it substitutes an attack on a person for the giving of reasons",
"a cause and its effect are mistaken for each other"
]
| 1 | The representative's argument is flawed as a counter to the insurance company's contention because |
Once a child's imagination becomes developed, a host of imaginary creatures may torment the child. But this newly developed cognitive capacity may also be used to render these creatures harmless. For instance, a child's new toy may be imagined as an ally, powerful enough to ward off any imaginary threats. | 199809_2-LR1_2_2 | [
"Some newly developed capacities only give rise to problems.",
"Sometimes the cause of a problem may also provide its solution.",
"Children are not able to distinguish between real and imaginary threats.",
"The most effective way for children to address their fears is to acknowledge them.",
"Most problems associated with child-rearing can be solved with a little imagination."
]
| 1 | The type of situation described above most closely conforms to which one of the following propositions? |
Trisha: Today's family is declining in its ability to carry out its functions of child-rearing and providing stability for adult life. There must be a return to the traditional values of commitment and responsibility. Jerod: We ought to leave what is good enough alone. Contemporary families may be less stable than traditionally, but most people do not find that to be bad. Contemporary criticisms of the family are overblown and destructive. | 199809_2-LR1_3_3 | [
"adequate as it is",
"changing over time",
"valued by most people",
"not going to survive",
"no longer traditional"
]
| 0 | Trisha and Jerod disagree over whether the institution of the family is |
Politician P: My opponent claims that the government is obligated to raise taxes to increase funding for schools and health care. Because raising taxes to increase funding for schools and health care would make taxpayers upset over their loss of buying power, my opponent is simply mistaken. | 199809_2-LR1_4_4 | [
"presupposing that a claim is mistaken on the grounds that the person defending it advocates other unpopular views",
"assuming that a claim is false on the grounds that the person defending it is of questionable character",
"concluding that a view is false on the grounds that its implementation would lead to unhappiness",
"appealing to wholly irrelevant issues to deflect attention away from the real issue",
"insisting that an obligation exists without offering any evidence that it exists"
]
| 2 | Politician P's reasoning is questionable because it involves |
In defending the Hyperion School of Journalism from charges that its program is of little or no value to its students, the dean of the school pointed to its recent success in placing students: 65 percent of its graduates went on to internships or jobs in print or broadcast journalism. | 199809_2-LR1_5_5 | [
"More than half of the school's students came from jobs in journalism to improve their skills.",
"Some newspaper editors do not regard journalism schools as a necessary part of the training of a journalist.",
"The number of cities with more than one major newspaper has declined sharply over the last 25 years.",
"The program offered by the Hyperion School of Journalism is similar in quality and content to those offered by its peer institutions.",
"The proportion of applicants to the Hyperion School of Journalism that are admitted is lower than it was ten years ago."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, most seriously undermines the defense offered by the dean? |
The largest volcano on Mars rises 27 kilometers above the surrounding plain and covers an area roughly the size of Romania. Even if the Earth's gravity were as low as the gravity of Mars is, no volcano of such size could exist on Earth, for the Earth's crust, although of essentially the same composition as that of Mars, is too thin to support even a small fraction of that mass and would buckle under it, causing the mountain to sink. | 199809_2-LR1_6_6 | [
"The surface of Mars is less subject to forces of erosion than is the surface of the Earth.",
"The highest volcanoes on Mars occur where its crust is thickest.",
"On average, volcanoes on Mars are higher than those on Earth.",
"The crust of Mars, at least at certain points on the planet, is thicker than the crust of the Earth.",
"At least some of the Earth's volcanoes would be larger than they actually are if the Earth's crust were thicker than it is."
]
| 3 | If the statements above are true, which one of the following must also be true on the basis of them? |
Speakers of the Caronian language constitute a minority of the population in several large countries. An international body has recommended that the regions where Caronian-speakers live be granted autonomy as an independent nation in which Caronian-speakers would form a majority. But Caronian-speakers live in several, widely scattered areas that cannot be united within a single continuous boundary while at the same time allowing Caronian-speakers to be the majority population. Hence, the recommendation cannot be satisfied. | 199809_2-LR1_7_7 | [
"A nation once existed in which Caronian-speakers formed the majority of the population.",
"Caronian-speakers tend to perceive themselves as constituting a single community.",
"The recommendation would not be satisfied by the creation of a nation formed of disconnected regions.",
"The new Caronian nation will not include as citizens anyone who does not speak Caronian.",
"In most nations several different languages are spoken."
]
| 2 | The argument relies on which one of the following assumptions? |
Sociologist: The welfare state cannot be successfully implemented because it rests on the assumption that human beings are unselfish—a seemingly false assumption. The welfare state is feasible only if wage earners are prepared to have their hard-earned funds used to help others in greater need, and that requires an unselfish attitude. But people innately seek their own well-being, especially when the interest of others threaten it. | 199809_2-LR1_8_8 | [
"The welfare state will not work.",
"The welfare state unfairly asks those who work hard to help those in greater need.",
"The assumption that human beings are unselfish is false.",
"The interests of the less fortunate impinge on the interests of others.",
"The welfare state relies on the generosity of wage earners."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main conclusion of the sociologist's argument? |
Early pencil leads were made of solid graphite mined in Cumberland, in Britain. Modern methods of manufacturing pencil leads from powdered graphite are the result of research sponsored by the government of France in the 1790s, when France was at war with Britain and thus had no access to Cumberland graphite. | 199809_2-LR1_9_9 | [
"The world's only deposit of graphite suitable for manufacture of pencils is in Cumberland, in Britain.",
"In the 1790s, France's government did not know of any accessible source of solid graphite appropriate to meet France's need for pencils.",
"One of the causes of war between France and Britain in the 1790s was the British government's attempt to limit the amount of Cumberland graphite being exported to France.",
"Government-sponsored research frequently gives rise to inventions that are of great benefit to society.",
"Even today, all pencil leads contain Cumberland graphite."
]
| 1 | The information above most strongly supports which one of the following? |
Commercial passenger airplanes can be equipped with a collision-avoidance radar system that provides pilots with information about the proximity of other airplanes. Because the system warns pilots to take evasive action when it indicates a possible collision, passengers are safer on airplanes equipped with the system than on comparable airplanes not so equipped, even though the system frequently warns pilots to evade phantom airplanes. | 199809_2-LR1_10_10 | [
"Passengers feel no safer on airplanes equipped with the radar system than on comparable airplanes not so equipped.",
"Warnings given by a collision-avoidance system about phantom airplanes are not caused by distorted radar signals.",
"The frequency of invalid warnings will not cause pilots routinely to disregard the system's warnings.",
"Commercial passenger airplanes are not the only planes that can be equipped with a collision-avoidance system",
"The greatest safety risk for passengers traveling on commercial passenger airplanes is that of a midair collision."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? |
Commercial passenger airplanes can be equipped with a collision-avoidance radar system that provides pilots with information about the proximity of other airplanes. Because the system warns pilots to take evasive action when it indicates a possible collision, passengers are safer on airplanes equipped with the system than on comparable airplanes not so equipped, even though the system frequently warns pilots to evade phantom airplanes. | 199809_2-LR1_10_11 | [
"Evasive action taken in response to the system's warnings poses no risk to the passengers.",
"Commercial passenger airplanes are in greater danger of colliding with other airplanes while on the ground than they are while in flight.",
"Commercial passenger airplanes are rarely involved in collisions while in flight.",
"A study by ground-based air traffic controllers found that 63 percent of the warnings by the system were invalid.",
"The collision-avoidance radar system is run by a computerized device on the plane that scans the sky and calculates the distances between planes."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument? |
The higher the average fat intake among the residents of a country, the higher the incidence of cancer in that country; the lower the average fat intake, the lower the incidence of cancer. So individuals who want to reduce their risk of cancer should reduce their fat intake. | 199809_2-LR1_11_12 | [
"The differences in average fat intake between countries are often due to the varying makeup of traditional diets.",
"The countries with a high average fat intake tend to be among the wealthiest in the world.",
"Cancer is a prominent cause of death in countries with a low average fat intake.",
"The countries with high average fat intake are also the countries with the highest levels of environmental pollution.",
"An individual resident of a country whose population has a high average fat intake may have a diet with a low fat intake."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if true, most weakens the argument? |
A local television station is considering a plan to create a panel of child psychologists to review programs in advance of their airing and rate the level of violence. A program that portrays a high level of violence would be listed in newspapers with four guns after the title. On the other hand, if a show has little violence, one gun would appear after its listing. The station believes that this remedy would forewarn parents about the level of violence in any given program. | 199809_2-LR1_12_13 | [
"Parents would read and pay attention to the ratings listed in the newspapers.",
"There would be fewer shows rated with one gun than with four guns.",
"The rating system described in the passage is the most effective system available.",
"The local television station has an obligation to forewarn parents of the level of violence in television shows.",
"Television producers of programs rated as having high levels of violence would make an effort to reduce those levels."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following must the television station assume in order to conclude that the plan will meet its stated purpose? |
The common ancestors of Australian land- and tree-dwelling kangaroos had prehensile (grasping) tails and long opposable thumbs, attributes that are well-adapted to tree-dwelling but offer kangaroos few advantages on land. It is hardly surprising, therefore, that land-dwelling kangaroos eventually lost these attributes; what is puzzling is the fact that all modern tree-dwelling kangaroos now lack them as well. | 199809_2-LR1_13_14 | [
"Modern tree-dwelling kangaroos must back down tree trunks slowly and carefully, but the common ancestors of modern tree-and land-dwelling kangaroos used their opposable thumbs to descend trees quickly headfirst.",
"Modern tree-dwelling kangaroos are smaller than most modern land-dwelling kangaroos but larger than their common ancestors.",
"Modern tree-dwelling kangaroos' tails cannot grasp branches, but they are somewhat longer and more flexible than those of modern land-dwelling kangaroos.",
"Modern tree-dwelling kangaroos are descended from species of land-dwelling kangaroos that had been land-dwellers for many generations before modern tree-dwelling kangaroos started to develop.",
"Modern tree-dwelling kangaroos have smaller and weaker hind legs than modern land-dwelling kangaroos, and they move more slowly on land than do modern land-dwelling kangaroos."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps explain the puzzling fact cited above? |
Editorialist: Society is obligated to bestow the privileges of adulthood upon its members once they are mature enough to accept the corresponding responsibilities. But science has established that physiological development is completed in most persons by age seventeen. Since this maturing process has been completed by most seventeen-year-olds, there is no reason not to grant these citizens all of the privileges of adulthood. | 199809_2-LR1_14_15 | [
"assumes what it is trying to prove",
"too hastily reaches a general conclusion on the basis of a few examples",
"equivocates with respect to a central concept",
"too readily accepts a claim by appeal to inappropriate authority",
"ignores the fact that some people are mature at age sixteen"
]
| 2 | The editorialist's argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the ground that it |
Every new play that runs for more than three months is either a commercial or a critical success. Last year, all new plays that were critical successes were also commercial successes. Therefore, every new play that ran for more than three months last year was a commercial success. | 199809_2-LR1_15_16 | [
"Most new restaurants require either good publicity or a good location in order to succeed. But most restaurants with a good location also receive good publicity. Hence, a restaurant that has a good location is guaranteed to succeed.",
"Every best-selling cookbook published last year is both well written and contains beautiful photographs. The cookbook Cynthia Cleveland published last year is well written and contains beautiful photographs. Therefore, Cleveland's cookbook is a best seller.",
"All students at the Freeman School of Cooking study either desserts or soups in their second year. This year, all Freeman students studying soups are also studying desserts. Therefore, every second-year student at Freeman is studying desserts this year.",
"Chefs who become celebrities either open their own restaurants or write books about their craft, but not both. John Endicott is a celebrated chef who opened his own restaurant. Therefore, Endicott does not write books about his craft.",
"Every catering service in Woodside Township will accept both residential and business catering assignments. Peggy's Fine Foods is a catering service that will not accept business catering assignments. Hence, Peggy's Fine Foods is not in Woodside Township."
]
| 2 | The pattern of reasoning in which one of the following arguments is most similar to that in the argument above? |
Commissioner: I have been incorrectly criticized for having made my decision on the power plant issue prematurely. I based my decision on the report prepared by the neighborhood association and, although I have not studied it thoroughly, I am sure that the information it contains is accurate. Moreover, you may recall that when I received input from the neighborhood association on jail relocation, I agreed with its recommendation. | 199809_2-LR1_16_17 | [
"It takes for granted that the association's information is not distorted by bias.",
"It draws a conclusion about the recommendations of the association from incomplete recollections.",
"It takes for granted that the association's report is the only direct evidence that needed to be considered.",
"It hastily concludes that the association's report is accurate, without having studied it in detail.",
"It takes for granted that agreeing with the association's past recommendation helps to justify agreeing with its current recommendation."
]
| 1 | The commissioner's argument is LEAST vulnerable to which one of the following criticisms? |
Each child in a group of young children read aloud both a short paragraph and a list of randomly ordered words from the paragraph. The more experienced readers among them made fewer pronunciation errors in whichever task they performed second, whether it was the list or the paragraph. The order in which the two tasks were performed, however, had no effect on the performance of beginning readers, who always made fewer pronunciation errors when reading the paragraph than when reading the list. | 199809_2-LR1_17_18 | [
"Because several words were used more than once in the paragraph but only once in the list, the list was shorter than the paragraph.",
"In reading the paragraph, the more experienced readers were better at using context to guess at difficult words than were the beginning readers.",
"The more experienced readers sounded out difficult words, while the beginning readers relied solely on context to guess at difficult words.",
"Both tasks used the same words, so that the words the children read in whichever task was performed first would be recognized in the second task.",
"The beginning readers made more pronunciation errors than the more experienced readers did in reading both the paragraph and the list."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain why the order in which the tasks were performed was not significant for the beginning readers? |
Anthropologist: Violence is an extreme form of aggression, and is distinct from the self-expression sufficient for survival under normal conditions. Human beings in certain situations react to unpleasant stimuli with violence—but only because they are conditioned by their culture to react in this manner. | 199809_2-LR1_18_19 | [
"Not all aggression is violent.",
"The self-expression required for survival is generally nonagressive.",
"Some behaviors are influenced by the cultures in which human beings live.",
"In normal circumstances, human beings can survive by responding nonviolently.",
"Violent behavior is a product of one's cultural environment."
]
| 1 | Each of the following can be logically inferred from the anthropologist's statements EXCEPT: |
Martha's friend, who is very knowledgeable about edible flowers, told Martha that there are no edible daisies, at least not any that are palatable. Martha, however, reasons that since there are daisies that are a kind of chrysanthemum and since there are edible chrysanthemums that are quite palatable, what her friend told her must be incorrect. | 199809_2-LR1_19_20 | [
"Jeanne is a member of the city chorus, and the city chorus is renowned. So Jeanne is an excellent singer.",
"Rolfe belongs to the library reading group, and all members of that group are avid readers. So Rolfe is an avid reader.",
"Some of Noriko's sisters are on the debate team, and some members of the debate team are poor students. So at least one of Noriko's sisters must be a poor student.",
"Most of Leon's friends are good swimmers, and good swimmers are quite strong. So it is likely that at least some of Leon's friends are quite strong.",
"Many of Teresa's colleagues have written books. Most of the books they have written are on good writing. So some of Teresa's colleagues are good writers."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following has a flawed pattern of reasoning most like that in Martha's reasoning? |
Attorney for Ziegler: My client continued to do consulting work between the time of his arrest for attempted murder and the start of this trial. But I contend that Ziegler was insane at the time that he fired the shot. This is the only reasonable conclusion to draw from the fact that the accusers have submitted no evidence that he was sane at the time he pulled the trigger, only that he was sane some time after he did so. | 199809_2-LR1_20_21 | [
"It presumes that being a well-educated professional is relevant to being guilty or innocent.",
"It concludes on the basis of evidence against Ziegler's being sane that there is a lack of evidence for Ziegler's being sane.",
"It fails to consider that Ziegler might have been insane when he worked as a consultant.",
"It presumes that whether one is sane is relevant to whether one is morally responsible for one's actions.",
"It fails to consider the possibility that Ziegler's being sane after the shooting is an indication that he was sane at the time of the shooting."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following most accurately describes a flaw in the reasoning of Ziegler's attorney? |
Most students are bored by history courses as they are usually taught, primarily because a large amount of time is spent teaching dates and statistics. The best way to teach history, therefore, is to spend most class time recounting the lives of historical figures and very little on dates and statistics. | 199809_2-LR1_21_22 | [
"One should avoid boring one's students when teaching a history course.",
"It is not incompatible with the attainable goals of teaching history to spend very little class time on dates and statistics.",
"It is possible to recount the lives of historical figures without referring to dates and statistics.",
"It is compatible with the attainable goals of teaching history to spend most class time recounting the lives of historical figures.",
"Students are more bored by history courses as they are usually taught than they would be by courses that spend most class time recounting the lives of historical figures."
]
| 2 | Each of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends EXCEPT: |
In a certain municipality, a judge overturned a suspect's conviction for possession of an illegal weapon. The suspect had fled upon seeing police and subsequently discarded the illegal weapon after the police gave chase. The judge reasoned as follows: the only cause for the police giving chase was the suspect's flight; by itself, flight from the police does not create a reasonable suspicion of a criminal act; evidence collected during an illegal chase is inadmissible; therefore, the evidence in this case was inadmissible. | 199809_2-LR1_22_23 | [
"Flight from the police could create a reasonable suspicion of a criminal act as long as other significant factors are involved.",
"People can legally flee from the police only when those people are not involved in a criminal act at the time.",
"Police can legally give chase to a person only when the person's actions have created a reasonable suspicion of a criminal act.",
"Flight from the police should not itself be considered a criminal act.",
"In all cases in which a person's actions have created a reasonable suspicion of a criminal act, police can legally give chase to that person."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the judge's decision that the evidence was inadmissible? |
Monica: The sculpture commissioned for our town plaza has been scorned by the public ever since it went up. But since the people in our town do not know very much about contemporary art, the unpopularity of the work says nothing about its artistic merit and thus gives no reason for removing it. Hector: You may be right about what the sculpture's popularity means about its artistic merit. However, a work of art that was commissioned for a public space ought to benefit the public, and popular opinion is ultimately the only way of determining what the public feels is to its benefit. Thus, if public opinion of this sculpture is what you say, then it certainly ought to be removed. | 199809_2-LR1_23_24 | [
"Public opinion of a work of art is an important consideration in determining the work's artistic merit.",
"Works of art commissioned for public spaces ought at least to have sufficient artistic merit to benefit the public.",
"The only reason for removing a work of art commissioned for a public space would be that the balance of public opinion is against the work.",
"The sculpture cannot benefit the public by remaining in the town plaza unless the sculpture has artistic merit.",
"In determining whether the sculpture should remain in the town plaza, the artistic merit of the sculpture should be a central consideration."
]
| 4 | Monica's and Hector's statements commit them to disagreeing about which one of the following principles? |
Monica: The sculpture commissioned for our town plaza has been scorned by the public ever since it went up. But since the people in our town do not know very much about contemporary art, the unpopularity of the work says nothing about its artistic merit and thus gives no reason for removing it. Hector: You may be right about what the sculpture's popularity means about its artistic merit. However, a work of art that was commissioned for a public space ought to benefit the public, and popular opinion is ultimately the only way of determining what the public feels is to its benefit. Thus, if public opinion of this sculpture is what you say, then it certainly ought to be removed. | 199809_2-LR1_23_25 | [
"no matter what the public's opinion is on an issue affecting the public good, that public opinion ought to be acted on, even though the opinion may not be a knowledgeable one",
"Monica's assessment of the public's opinion of the sculpture is accurate",
"if the sculpture had artistic merit, then even a public that was not knowledgeable about modern art would not scorn the sculpture",
"works of art commissioned for public spaces ought not to be expected to have artistic merit",
"if the public feels that it does not benefit from the sculpture, this shows that the public does not in fact benefit from the sculpture"
]
| 4 | The argument Hector makes in responding to Monica depends on the assumption that |
From the tenth century until around the year 1500, there were Norse settlers living in Greenland. During that time, average yearly temperatures fell slightly worldwide, and some people claim that this temperature drop wiped out the Norse settlements by rendering Greenland too cold for human habitation. But this explanation cannot be correct, because Inuit settlers from North America, who were living in Greenland during the time the Norse settlers were there, continued to thrive long after 1500. | 199809_3-LR2_1_1 | [
"The drop in average yearly temperature was smaller in Greenland than it was in the world as a whole.",
"The Norse settlers' diet, unlike that of the Inuit, was based primarily on livestock and crops that were unable to survive the temperature drop.",
"There were settlements in North America during the fifteenth century that were most likely founded by Norse settlers who had come from Greenland.",
"The Inuit and the Norse settlements were typically established in coastal areas.",
"The Norse community in Norway continued to thrive long after 1500."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following if true, most helps explain why the Norse settlements in Greenland disappeared while the Inuit settlements survived? |
From the tenth century until around the year 1500, there were Norse settlers living in Greenland. During that time, average yearly temperatures fell slightly worldwide, and some people claim that this temperature drop wiped out the Norse settlements by rendering Greenland too cold for human habitation. But this explanation cannot be correct, because Inuit settlers from North America, who were living in Greenland during the time the Norse settlers were there, continued to thrive long after 1500. | 199809_3-LR2_1_2 | [
"denying the relevance of an analogy",
"producing evidence that is inconsistent with the claim being opposed",
"presenting an alternative explanation that purports to account for more of the known facts",
"citing a general rule that undermines the claim being opposed",
"redefining a term in a way that is favorable to the argument's conclusion"
]
| 1 | Which one of the following is a technique of reasoning used in the argument? |
Even though trading in ivory has been outlawed by international agreement, some piano makers still use ivory, often obtained illegally, to cover piano keys. Recently, experts have devised a synthetic ivory that, unlike earlier ivory substitutes, has found favor with concert pianists throughout the world. But because piano makers have never been major consumers of ivory, the development of the synthetic ivory will therefore probably do little to help curb the killing of elephants, from whose tusks most natural ivory is obtained. | 199809_3-LR2_2_3 | [
"Most people who play the piano but are not concert pianists can nonetheless easily distinguish between the new synthetic ivory and inferior ivory substitutes.",
"The new synthetic ivory can be manufactured to resemble in color and surface texture any of the various types of natural ivory that have commercial uses.",
"Other natural products such as bone or tortoise shell have not proven to be acceptable substitutes for natural ivory in piano keys.",
"The most common use for natural ivory is in ornamental carvings, which are prized not only for the quality of their workmanship but also for the authenticity of their materials.",
"It costs significantly less to produce the new synthetic ivory then it does to produce any of the ivory substitutes that scientists had developed previously."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to strengthen the argument? |
The government has spent heavily to clean groundwater contaminated by toxic chemical spills. Yet not even one spill site has been completely cleaned, and industrial accidents are spilling more toxic chemicals annually than are being cleaned up. More of the government's budget should be redirected to preventing spills. Since prevention is far more effective than cleanup, it makes little sense that the entire annual budget for prevention is less than the amount spent annually on one typical cleanup site. | 199809_3-LR2_3_4 | [
"It represents an unsupported speculation.",
"It both supports another claim in the argument and is supported by others.",
"It is the claim that the argument as a whole is structured to support.",
"It is a presupposition on which the argument is explicitly based.",
"It presents an objection to another proposal mentioned in the argument."
]
| 2 | The proposal about how the government's budget should be redirected plays which one of the following roles in the argument? |
Consumer: I would like to have the features contained in the latest upgrade to your computer software package, but I am leery of installing the upgrade because a friend has told me he had a problem with it. Company representative: We have distributed nearly 3,000 copies of the upgrade and we have received fewer than 100 calls saying that it has caused problems. So it is very unlikely that you will experience any problems with the upgrade. | 199809_3-LR2_4_5 | [
"the company will issue another upgrade that corrects the problems with the current upgrade",
"some of the problems people have experienced with the upgrade have been quite serious",
"a significant number of people have experienced problems with the upgrade but have not reported them",
"the consumer will experience software problems if the upgrade is not installed",
"some of the reported problems were a result of users failing to follow instructions"
]
| 2 | The reasoning in the company representative's argument is most vulnerable to criticism because it fails to consider the possibility that |
First legislator: Medical research is predominantly done on groups of patients that include only men. For example, the effects of coffee drinking on health are evaluated only for men, and studies are lacking on hormone treatments for older women. Government-sponsored medical research should be required to include studies of women. Second legislator: Considerations of male/female balance such as this are inappropriate with respect to research; they have no place in science. | 199809_3-LR2_5_6 | [
"Government-sponsored research is supported by all taxpayers, both male and female.",
"Serving as a subject for medical research can provide a patient access to new treatments but also can subject the patient to risks.",
"Government-sponsored medical research is often done in military hospitals or prisons that hold only male residents.",
"The training of male and female scientists does not differ according to their sex.",
"Restriction to males of the patient base on which data are collected results in inadequate science."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following rejoinders, if true, most directly counters the second legislator's objection? |
Lack of exercise produces the same or similar bodily effects as aging. In fact, the physical changes that accompany aging can often be slowed down by appropriate exercise. No drug, however, holds any promise for slowing down the changes associated with aging. Therefore, ____. | 199809_3-LR2_6_7 | [
"taking drugs has the same effect on aging as does a lack of exercise",
"people who do not exercise are likely to need drugs to sustain their health",
"appropriate exercise can prevent the physical changes associated with aging",
"people who do not exercise when they are young will gain few benefits from beginning to exercise at a later age",
"if the physical changes of aging are to be slowed, it is more practical to rely on exercise than on drugs"
]
| 4 | Which one of the following provides a logical completion to the passage above? |
Grasses and woody plants are planted on dirt embankments to keep the embankments from eroding. The embankments are mowed to keep the grasses from growing too tall; as a result, clippings pile up. These piles of clippings smother the woody plants, causing their roots, which serve to keep the embankments from eroding, to rot; they also attract rodents that burrow into the dirt and damage the woody plants' roots. Therefore, bringing in predators to eradicate the rodents will prevent erosion of the embankments. | 199809_3-LR2_7_8 | [
"Two events that merely co-occur are treated as if one caused the other.",
"A highly general proposal is based only on an unrepresentative set of facts.",
"The conclusion is no more than a restatement of one of the pieces of evidence provided to support it.",
"One possible solution to a problem is claimed to be the only possible solution to that problem.",
"An action that would eliminate one cause of a problem is treated as if it would solve the entire problem."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following is an error of reasoning in the argument? |
Scientific and technological discoveries have considerable effects on the development of any society. It follows that predictions of the future condition of societies in which scientific and technological discovery is particularly frequent are particularly untrustworthy. | 199809_3-LR2_8_9 | [
"Predictions of scientific and technological discoveries or predictions of their effects have harmful consequences in some societies.",
"The development of a society requires scientific and technological discoveries.",
"Forecasts of scientific and technological discoveries, or forecasts of their effects, are not entirely reliable.",
"An advanced scientific and technological society frequently benefits from new discoveries.",
"It is not as difficult to predict scientific and technological discoveries in a technologically more advanced society as it is in a technologically less advanced society."
]
| 2 | The argument depends on assuming which one of the following? |
Tires may be either underinflated, overinflated, or neither. We are pretty safe in assuming that underinflation or overinflation of tires harms their tread. After all, no one has been able to show that these do not harm tire tread. | 199809_3-LR2_9_10 | [
"The argument assumes what it is attempting to demonstrate.",
"The argument overlooks that what is not in principle susceptible to proof might be false.",
"The argument fails to specify how it is that underinflation or overinflation harms tire tread.",
"The argument rejects the possibility that what has not been proven is nevertheless true.",
"The argument fails to precisely define the terms \"underinflation\" and \"overinflation.\""
]
| 3 | Which one of the following most accurately describes a flaw in the argument's reasoning? |
Lindsey has been judged to be a bad songwriter simply because her lyrics typically are disjointed and subjective. This judgment is ill founded, however, since the writings of many modern novelists typically are disjointed and subjective and yet these novelists are widely held to be good writers. | 199809_3-LR2_10_11 | [
"Disjointed and subjective writing has a comparable effect in modern novels and in songs.",
"Some readers do not appreciate the subtleties of the disjointed and subjective style adopted by modern novelists.",
"Song lyrics that are disjointed and subjective have at least as much narrative structure as any other song lyrics do.",
"A disjointed and subjective style of writing is usually more suitable for novels and song lyrics than it is for any other written works.",
"The quality of Linsey's songs is better judged by the quality of their lyrics than by the quality of their musical form."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? |
The Levant—the area that borders the eastern Mediterranean-was heavily populated in prehistoric times. The southern Levant was abandoned about 6,000 years ago, although the northern Levant, which shared the same climate, remained heavily populated. Recently archaeologists have hypothesized that the sudden depopulation in the southern Levant was due to an economic collapse resulting from deforestation. | 199809_3-LR2_11_12 | [
"The sheep and goats herded by the peoples of the southern Levant until 6,000 years ago grazed extensively on the seedlings and saplings of indigenous tree species.",
"Trees were used in the production of lime plaster, a building material used extensively throughout the southern Levant until 6,000 year ago.",
"Organic remains from the northern Levant reliably indicate that tree species flourished there without interruption during the period when the southern Levant was being abandoned.",
"Carbon dating of organic remains from the southern Levant reliably demonstrates that there were no forests present in that area prior to 6,000 years ago.",
"Since there are few traces of either quarried stone or of mud brick in buildings excavated in the southern Levant, it is likely that the buildings built there prior to 6,000 years ago were made almost entirely of timber."
]
| 3 | If the statements above are true and the archaeologists' hypothesis is correct, which one of the following CANNOT be true? |
Using rational argument in advertisements does not persuade people to buy the products being advertised. Therefore, advertisers who replace rational argument with nonrational appeals to emotion in advertisements will persuade people to buy the products being advertised. | 199809_3-LR2_12_13 | [
"People who ask others for favors are refused. Therefore, anyone who has not had the experience of being refused has never asked for a favor.",
"In the past, people who have tried to solve their problems by discussing them have often failed. Therefore, in the future, people who try to solve their problems by discussing them will often fail.",
"Using a computer has not improved students' writing skills. Thus, students should to try to improve their writing skills by using a computer.",
"A person who does to have positive letters of reference cannot get a good job. Therefore, the better the letters of reference a person has, the better the job that person will get.",
"People never learn to program a computer by reading poorly written directions. Therefore, if people read well-written directions, they will learn to program a computer."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following contains flawed reasoning most similar to the flawed reasoning in the argument above? |
A commercial insect trap consists of a small box containing pesticide mixed with glucose, a sweet substance known to attract insect pests. Yet in households where this type of trap has been used regularly for the past several years, recently installed traps are far less effective in eliminating insect pests than were traps of that type installed several years ago. Research scientists have hypothesized that traps in those households decreased in effectiveness because successive generations of the pests developed a resistance to the pesticide in the traps. | 199809_3-LR2_13_14 | [
"In households where the traps have been used regularly, the proportion of insect pests that have a natural aversion to eating glucose has increased with each successive generation.",
"Even when only a few individuals out of an entire generation of insects survive the effects of a pesticide, the offspring of those individuals are usually resistant to that pesticide.",
"After eating glucose mixed with the pesticide, insects that live in households that do not use the trap tend to die in greater numbers than do insects from households where the traps have been used regularly.",
"After the manufacturer of the traps increased the concentration of the pesticide used in the traps, the traps were no more effective in eliminating household insect pests than were the original traps.",
"The kind of glucose used to bait the traps is one of several different kinds of glucose that occur naturally."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, most seriously undermines the hypothesis? |
A person's dietary consumption of cholesterol and fat is one of the most important factors determining the level of cholesterol in the person's blood (serum cholesterol). Serum cholesterol levels rise proportionally to increased cholesterol and fat consumption until that consumption reaches a threshold, but once consumption of these substances exceeds that threshold, serum cholesterol levels rise only gradually, even with dramatic increases in consumption. The threshold is one fourth the consumption level of cholesterol and fat in today's average North American diet. | 199809_3-LR2_14_15 | [
"The threshold can be lowered by lowering the dietary consumption of cholesterol and fat.",
"People who consume an average North American diet cannot increase their consumption of cholesterol and fat without dramatically increasing their serum cholesterol levels.",
"People who consume half as much cholesterol and fat as in the average North American diet will not necessarily have half the average serum cholesterol level.",
"Serum cholesterol levels cannot be affected by nondietary modifications in behavior, such as exercising more or smoking less.",
"People who consume less cholesterol and fat than the threshold cannot reduce their serum cholesterol levels."
]
| 2 | The statements above, if true, most strongly support which one of the following? |
The recently negotiated North American Free Trade Agreement among Canada, Mexico, and the United States is misnamed, because it would not result in truly free trade. Adam Smith, the economist who first articulated the principles of free trade held that any obstacle placed in the way of the free movement of goods, investment, or labor would defeat free trade. So since under the agreement workers would be restricted by national boundaries from seeking the best conditions they could find, the resulting obstruction of the flow of trade would, from a free-trade perspective, be harmful. | 199809_3-LR2_15_16 | [
"ruling out alternatives",
"using a term in two different senses",
"citing a nonrepresentative instance",
"appealing to a relevant authority",
"responding to a different issue from the one posed"
]
| 3 | The argument proceeds by |
Parents who wish to provide a strong foundation for the musical ability of their children should provide them with a good musical education. Since formal instruction is often a part of a good musical education, parents who wish to provide this strong foundation need to ensure that their children receive formal instruction. | 199809_3-LR2_16_17 | [
"parents might not be the only source of a child's musical education",
"some children might not be interested in receiving a strong foundation for their musical ability",
"there are many examples of people with formal instruction whose musical ability is poor",
"formal instruction might not always be a part of a good musical education",
"some children might become good musicians even if they have not had good musical educations"
]
| 3 | The reasoning is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it fails to consider that |
A stingray without parasites is healthier than it would be if it had parasites. Nevertheless, the lack of parasites in stingrays is an indicator that the ecosystem in which the stingrays live is under environmental stress such as pollution. | 199809_3-LR2_17_18 | [
"During part of their life cycles, the parasites of stingrays require as hosts shrimp or oysters, which are environmentally vulnerable organisms.",
"A stingray is a free-ranging predator that feeds on smaller organisms but has few predators itself.",
"A parasite drains part of the vitality of its host by drawing nourishment from the host.",
"An ecosystem can be considered stressed if only a few species of very simple organisms can live there.",
"Since the life of parasites depends on that of their host, they need to live without killing their host or else not reproduce and infect other individuals before their own host dies."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to reconcile the discrepancy indicated above? |
Over the past 20 years, skiing has become a relatively safe sport due to improvements in ski equipment. There has been a 50 percent drop in the number of ski injuries over the last 20 years. Clearly, however, there have not been decreases in the number of injuries in all categories, as statistical data readily show, for although broken legs and ankle injuries have decreased by an astounding 90 percent, knee injuries now represent 16 percent of all ski injuries, up significantly from the 11 percent of 20 years ago. | 199809_3-LR2_18_19 | [
"It fails to allow for there being ski injuries other than broken legs, ankle injuries, and knee injuries.",
"It infers disparate effects from the same single cause.",
"It ignores the possibility that the number of skiers has increased over the past 20 years.",
"It assumes that an increase in the proportion of knee injuries rules out a decrease in the number of knee injuries.",
"It proceeds as though there could be a greater decrease in injuries in each category on injury than there is in injuries overall."
]
| 3 | The reasoning in the argument is flawed because the argument does which one of the following? |
Only poetry cannot be translated well, and therefore it is poets who preserve languages, for we would not bother to learn a language if we could get everything written in it from translation. So, since we cannot witness the beauty of poetry except in the language in which it is composed, we have motivation to learn the language. | 199809_3-LR2_19_20 | [
"All nonpoetic literature can be translated well.",
"One purpose of writing poetry is to preserve the language in which it is written.",
"Some translations do not capture all that was expressed in the original language.",
"The beauty of poetry is not immediately accessible to people who do not understand the language in which the poetry was written.",
"Perfect translation from one language to another is sometimes impossible."
]
| 1 | The information above provides the LEAST support for which one of the following? |
The companies that are the prime purchasers of computer software will not buy a software package if the costs of training staff to use it are high, and we know that it is expensive to teach people a software package that demands the memorization of unfamiliar commands. As a result, to be successful, commercial computer software cannot require users to memorize unfamiliar commands. | 199809_3-LR2_20_21 | [
"If most prime purchasers of computer software buy a software product, that product will be successful.",
"Commercial computer software that does not require users to memorize unfamiliar commands is no more expensive than software that does.",
"Commercial computer software will not be successful unless prime purchasers buy it.",
"If the initial cost of computer software is high, but the cost of training users is low, prime purchasers will still buy that software.",
"The more difficult it is to learn how to use a piece of software, the more expensive it is to teach a person to use that software."
]
| 2 | The conclusion above follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? |
Whenever she considers voting in an election to select one candidate for a position and there is at least one issue important to her, Kay uses the following principle in choosing which course of action to take: it is acceptable for me to vote for a candidate whose opinions differ from mine on at least one issue important to me whenever I disagree with each of the other candidates on even more such issues; it is otherwise unacceptable to vote for that candidate. In the upcoming mayoral election, the three candidates are Legrand, Medina, and Norton. There is only one issue important to Kay, and only Medina shares her opinion on that issue. | 199809_3-LR2_21_22 | [
"If there are no issues important to her, it is unacceptable for her to vote for any candidate in the election.",
"If she agrees with each of the candidates on most of the issues important to her, it is unacceptable for her to vote for any candidate in the election.",
"If she agrees with a particular candidate on only one issue important to her, it is unacceptable for her to vote for that candidate.",
"If she disagrees with each of the candidates on exactly three issues important to her, it is unacceptable for her to vote for any candidate in the election.",
"If there are more issues important to her on which she disagrees with a particular candidate than there are such issues on which she agrees with that candidate, it is unacceptable for her to vote for that candidate."
]
| 3 | If the statements in the passage are true, which one of the following must also be true about Kay's course of action in any election to select one candidate for a position? |
Whenever she considers voting in an election to select one candidate for a position and there is at least one issue important to her, Kay uses the following principle in choosing which course of action to take: it is acceptable for me to vote for a candidate whose opinions differ from mine on at least one issue important to me whenever I disagree with each of the other candidates on even more such issues; it is otherwise unacceptable to vote for that candidate. In the upcoming mayoral election, the three candidates are Legrand, Medina, and Norton. There is only one issue important to Kay, and only Medina shares her opinion on that issue. | 199809_3-LR2_21_23 | [
"it is acceptable for Kay to vote for either Medina or Legrand, but it is unacceptable for her to vote for Norton",
"the only unacceptable courses of action are for Kay to vote for Norton and for her to vote for Legrand",
"it is unacceptable for Kay to vote for any of the candidates",
"the only unacceptable course of action is for Kay to vote for Medina",
"it is acceptable for Kay to vote for any of the candidates"
]
| 1 | According to the principle stated in the passage, in the upcoming mayoral election |
Over the last 25 years, the average price paid for a new car has steadily increased in relation to average individual income. This increase indicates that individuals who buy new cars today spend, on average, a larger amount relative to their incomes buying a car than their counterparts did 25 years ago. | 199809_3-LR2_22_24 | [
"There has been a significant increase over the last 25 years in the proportion of individuals in households with more than one wage earner.",
"The number of used cars sold annually is the same as it was 25 years ago.",
"Allowing for inflation, average individual income has significantly declined over the last 25 years.",
"During the last 25 years, annual new-car sales and the population have both increased, but new-car sales have increased by a greater percentage.",
"Sales to individuals make up a smaller proportion of all new-car sales than they did 25 years ago."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following, if true, most weakens the argument? |
Credit card companies justify charging cardholders additional fees for late payments by asserting the principle that those who expose other individuals, companies, or institutions to financial risk should pay for that risk, and by pointing out that late-paying cardholders present a greater risk of default than other cardholders. Without late fees, the companies argue, they would have to spread the cost of the risk over all cardholders. | 199809_3-LR2_23_25 | [
"School authorities should use student activity funds to pay for student-caused damages to school property since, even though only a few students cause any significant damage, authorities cannot in most instances determine which students caused the damage.",
"Insurance companies should demand higher insurance rates of drivers of sports cars than of other drivers, since sports car divers are more likely to cause accidents and thus are more likely to require the companies to pay out money in claims.",
"Libraries should charge high fines for overdue books, since if they did not do so some people would keep books out indefinitely, risking inconvenience to other library users who might want to use the books.",
"Cities should impose high fines for littering. The risk of being caught littering is quite low, so the fine for those who are caught must be correspondingly high in order to deter people from littering.",
"Municipalities should use tax money to pay for the maintenance of municipal roads, since if individuals paid for only those roads they used, some important roads in remote areas would be inadequately maintained."
]
| 1 | The principle invoked by the credit card companies would, if established, be most usefully invoked in which one of the following arguments? |
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