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Powell: Private waste-removal companies spend 60 percent of what public waste-removal companies spend per customer, yet give their customers at least as good service. Private waste-removal companies, therefore, work more efficiently. Freeman: Your conclusion is unwarranted. Different customers have different waste-removal needs. Since private companies, unlike their public counterparts, can select which customers to serve, they choose to exclude the potential customers whom they judge to be the most costly to serve. | 199812_1-LR1_1_1 | [
"accuracy of the figure of 60 percent with regard to the difference in service costs between private and public waste-removal companies",
"reason private waste-removal companies are able to offer service comparable to that offered by public ones while spending less money per customer",
"ability of private versus public waste-removal companies to select which customers to serve",
"likelihood of the local authorities' turning public waste-removal companies into private ones so that the companies can operate with lower service costs than they now incur",
"relationship between the needs of a waste-removal customer and the amount of money it takes to serve that customer"
]
| 1 | The issue in dispute between Powell and Freeman is the |
Although 90 percent of the population believes itself to be well informed about health care, only 20 percent knows enough about DNA to understand a news story about DNA. So apparently at least 80 percent of the population does not know enough about medical concepts to make well-informed personal medical choices or to make good public policy decisions about health care. | 199812_1-LR1_2_2 | [
"those people who can understand news stories about DNA are able to make well-informed personal medical choices",
"more than 20 percent of the population needs to be well informed about health care for good public policy decisions about health care to be made",
"one's being able to make well-informed personal medical choices ensures that one makes good public policy decisions about health care",
"an understanding of DNA is essential to making well-informed personal medical choices or to making good public policy decisions about health care",
"since 90 percent of the population believes itself to be well informed about health care, at least 70 percent of the population is mistaken in that belief"
]
| 3 | The argument's reasoning is questionable because the argument fails to demonstrate that |
In Yasukawa's month-long study of blackbirds, the percentage of smaller birds that survived the duration of the study exceeded the percentage of larger birds that survived. However, Yasukawa's conclusion that size is a determinant of a blackbird's chances of survival over a month-long period is probably mistaken, since smaller blackbirds are generally younger than larger ones. | 199812_1-LR1_3_3 | [
"Among the blackbirds that survived the month-long study, there was no relation between size and age.",
"Larger blackbirds of a given age are actually more likely to survive over a one-month period than are smaller blackbirds of the same age.",
"Among blackbirds of the same size, a difference in age probably does not indicate a difference in chances of survival over a one-month period.",
"Among blackbirds of the same age, a difference in size may not indicate a difference in chances of survival over a month-long period.",
"With a larger sample of blackbirds, the percentage of smaller birds that survive a one-month period would be the same as the percentage of larger birds that survive."
]
| 3 | The statements above, if true, support which one of the following inferences? |
In Yasukawa's month-long study of blackbirds, the percentage of smaller birds that survived the duration of the study exceeded the percentage of larger birds that survived. However, Yasukawa's conclusion that size is a determinant of a blackbird's chances of survival over a month-long period is probably mistaken, since smaller blackbirds are generally younger than larger ones. | 199812_1-LR1_3_4 | [
"Yasukawa compared the survival chances of two different species of blackbirds, a larger and a small species, rather than of different sizes of birds within one species.",
"Yasukawa examined blackbirds in their natural habitat rather than in captivity.",
"Yasukawa did not compare the survival chances of blackbirds with those of other kinds of birds.",
"Yasukawa noted that the larger blackbirds had more success in fights than did the smaller blackbirds.",
"Yasukawa noted that the larger blackbirds tended to have more firmly established social hierarchies than did the smaller blackbirds."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, indicates that the criticism of Yasukawa's research is based on a misunderstanding of it? |
During the 1980's Japanese collectors were very active in the market for European art, especially as purchasers of nineteenth-century Impressionist paintings. This striking pattern surely reflects a specific preference on the part of many Japanese collectors for certain aesthetic attributes they found in nineteenth-century Impressionist paintings. | 199812_1-LR1_4_5 | [
"Impressionist paintings first became popular among art collectors in Europe at the beginning of the twentieth century.",
"During the 1980s, the Japanese economy underwent a sustained expansion that was unprecedented in the country's recent history.",
"Several nineteenth-century Impressionist painters adopted certain techniques and visual effects found in Japanese prints that are highly esteemed in Japan.",
"During the 1960s and 1970s, the prices of nineteenth-century Impressionist paintings often exceeded the prices of paintings by older European masters.",
"During the 1980s, collectors from Japan and around the world purchased many paintings and prints by well-known twentieth-century Japanese artists."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, most strongly supports the explanation above? |
Frankie: If jelly makers were given incentives to make a certain percentage of their jellies from cloudberries, income for cloudberry gatherers would increase. Anna: That plan would fail. Cacao, like cloudberries, was once harvested from wild plants. When chocolate became popular in Europe, the cacao gathers could not supply enough to meet the increased demand, and farmers began to grow large quantities of it at low cost. Now all cacao used in commercial chocolate production is grown on farms. Likewise, if the demand for cloudberries increases, domesticated berries grown on farms will completely supplant berries gathered in the wild. | 199812_1-LR1_5_6 | [
"giving a reason why a proposed course of action would be beneficial to all those affected by it",
"reinterpreting evidence presented in support of a proposal as a reason to reject the proposal",
"projecting the result of following a proposal in a given situation by comparing that situation with a past situation",
"proposing a general theory as a way of explaining a specific market situation",
"contending that the uses for one product are similar to the uses for another product"
]
| 2 | Anna's argument proceeds by |
Because of the recent recession in Country A, most magazines published there have experienced decreases in advertising revenue, so much so that the survival of the most widely read magazines is in grave doubt. At the same time, however, more people in Country A are reading more magazines than ever before, and the number of financially successful magazines in Country A is greater than ever. | 199812_1-LR1_6_7 | [
"Most magazines reduce the amount they charge for advertisements during a recession.",
"The audience for a successful television show far exceeds the readership of even the most widely read magazine.",
"Advertising is the main source of revenue only for the most widely read magazines; other magazines rely on circulation for their revenue.",
"Because of the recession, people in Country A have cut back on magazine subscriptions and are reading borrowed magazines.",
"More of the new general interest magazines that were launched this year in Country A have survived than survived in previous years."
]
| 2 | Which one the following, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent discrepancy in the information above? |
The gray squirrel, introduced into local woodlands ten years ago, threatens the indigenous population of an endangered owl species, because the squirrels' habitual stripping of tree bark destroys the trees in which the owls nest. Some local officials have advocated setting out poison for the gray squirrels. The officials argue that this measure, while eliminating the squirrels, would pose no threat to the owl population, since the poison would be placed in containers accessible only to squirrels and other rodents. | 199812_1-LR1_7_8 | [
"One of the species whose members are likely to eat the poison is the red squirrel, a species on which owls do not prey.",
"The owls whose nesting sites are currently being destroyed by the gray squirrels feed primarily on rodents.",
"No indigenous population of any other bird species apart from the endangered owls is threatened by the gray squirrels.",
"The owls that are threatened build their nests in the tops of trees, but the gray squirrels strip away bark from the trunks.",
"The officials' plan entails adding the poison to food sources that are usually eaten by rodents but not by other animals."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, most calls into question the officials' argument? |
Sales manager: Last year the total number of meals sold in our company's restaurants was much higher than it was the year before. Obviously consumers find our meals desirable. Accountant: If you look at individual restaurants, however, you find that the number of meals sold actually decreased substantially at every one of our restaurants that was in operation both last year and the year before. The desirability of our meals to consumers has clearly decreased, given that this group of restaurants—the only ones for which we have sales figures that permit a comparison between last year and the year before—demonstrates a trend toward fewer sales. | 199812_1-LR1_8_9 | [
"The company opened at least one new restaurant in the last two years.",
"The company's meals are less competitive than they once were.",
"The quality of the company's meals has not improved over the past two years.",
"The prices of the company's meals have changed over the past two years.",
"The market share captured by the company's restaurants fell last year."
]
| 0 | If the sales figures cited by the accountant and the sales manager are both accurate, which one of the following must be true? |
Sales manager: Last year the total number of meals sold in our company's restaurants was much higher than it was the year before. Obviously consumers find our meals desirable. Accountant: If you look at individual restaurants, however, you find that the number of meals sold actually decreased substantially at every one of our restaurants that was in operation both last year and the year before. The desirability of our meals to consumers has clearly decreased, given that this group of restaurants—the only ones for which we have sales figures that permit a comparison between last year and the year before—demonstrates a trend toward fewer sales. | 199812_1-LR1_8_10 | [
"The company's restaurants last year dropped from their menus most of the new dishes that had been introduced the year before.",
"Prior to last year there was an overall downward trend in the company's sales.",
"Those of the company's restaurants that did increase their sales last year did not offer large discounts on prices to attract customers.",
"Sales of the company's most expensive meal contributed little to the overall two-year sales increase.",
"Most of the company's restaurants that were in operation throughout both last year and the year before are located in areas where residents experienced a severe overall decline in income last year."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following, if true, most seriously calls into question the accountant's argument? |
A local chemical plant produces pesticides that can cause sterility in small mammals such as otters. Soon after the plant began operating, the incidence of sterility among the otters that swim in a nearby river increased dramatically. Therefore, pesticides are definitely contaminating the river. | 199812_1-LR1_9_11 | [
"The bacteria that cause tetanus live in the digestive tract of horses. Tetanus is a highly infectious disease. Consequently it must be that horses contract tetanus more frequently than do most other animals.",
"A diet low in calcium can cause a drop in egg production in poultry. When chickens on a local farm were let out in the spring to forage for food, their egg production dropped noticeably. So the food found and eaten by the chickens is undeniably low in calcium.",
"Animals that are undernourished are very susceptible to infection. Animals in the largest metropolitan zoos are not undernourished, so they surely must not be very susceptible to disease.",
"Apes are defined by having, among other characteristics, opposable thumbs and no external tail. Recently, fossil remains of a previously unknown animal were found. Because this animal had opposable thumbs, it must have been an ape.",
"The only animal that could have produced a track similar to this one is a bear. But there are no bears in this area of the country, so this animal track is a fake."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following arguments contains a flaw in reasoning that is similar to one in the argument above? |
Clothes made from natural fibers such as cotton, unlike clothes made from artificial fibers such as polyester often shrink when washed at high temperatures. The reason for this shrinkage is that natural fibers are tightly curled in their original state. Since the manufacturer of cloth requires straight fibers, natural fibers are artificially straightened prior to being made into cloth. High temperatures cause all fibers in cloth to return to their original states. | 199812_1-LR1_10_12 | [
"Washing clothes made from natural fibers at low temperatures causes the fibers to straighten slightly.",
"High temperatures have no effect on the straightness of fibers in clothes made from a blend of natural and artificial fibers.",
"Clothes made from natural fibers stretch more easily than do clothes made from artificial fibers.",
"If natural fibers that have been straightened and used for cloth are curled up again by high temperatures, they cannot be straightened again.",
"Artificial fibers are straight in their original state."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the information above? |
Problems caused by the leaching of pollutants from dumps and landfills are worst in countries with an annual per capita economic output of $4,000 to $5,000, and less severe for considerably poorer and considerably richer countries. This is so because pollution problems increase during the early stages of a country's industrial development but then diminish as increasing industrial development generates adequate resources to tackle such problems. Therefore, problems caused by such leaching in Country X, where the annual per capita economic output is now $5,000, should begin to diminish in the next few years. | 199812_1-LR1_11_13 | [
"Within the next few years, Country X will impose a system of fines for illegal waste disposal by its industrial companies.",
"Countries surrounding Country X will reduce the amount of pollution that their factories release into the air and water.",
"Industrial development in Country X will increase in the next few years.",
"Country X will begin the process of industrialization in the next few years.",
"No other country with a similar amount of industrial development has pollution problems that are as severe as those in Country X."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? |
Critic: Many popular psychological theories are poor theories in that they are inelegant and do not help to dispel the mystery that surrounds our psyche. However, this is not really important. The theories produce the right results: therapeutically, they tend to have greater success than their more scientific rivals. | 199812_1-LR1_12_14 | [
"It is used to disprove evidence against these theories.",
"It is used to override some considerations against these theories.",
"It is used to suggest that popular psychological theories are actually better scientific explanations than are their rivals.",
"It is used to illustrate what the critic takes to be the most important aspect of scientific theories.",
"It is used to suggest that the popular theories may not be as devoid of explanatory power as one may be led to believe."
]
| 1 | The statement about the relative therapeutic success of many popular psychological theories plays which one of the following roles in the critic's argument? |
Tony: Few anarchists have ever performed violent actions. These few are vastly outnumbered by the violent adherents of other political ideologies. Therefore, the special association in the public mind between anarchism and political violence is unwarranted. Keisha: Anarchists have always been few in number, whereas other ideologies have often spawned mass movements. Therefore, the proportion of anarchists who are violent is possibly greater than the proportion of adherents of other ideologies who are violent. | 199812_1-LR1_13_15 | [
"She shows that Tony's conclusion is questionable because Tony bases it on a comparison that inappropriately involves absolute numbers rather than proportions.",
"She attempts to undermine Tony's conclusion by introducing plausible evidence that is incompatible with the evidence Tony offers in support of that conclusion.",
"She questions the accuracy of the claims on which Tony bases his conclusion.",
"She presents evidence that the two groups Tony has compared have no significant qualities in common.",
"She indicates that Tony has adopted questionable criteria for including certain people in the groups he is comparing."
]
| 0 | Keisha responds to Tony's argument in which one of the following ways? |
Recent research shows that sound change (pronunciation shift) in a language is not gradual. New sounds often emerge suddenly. This confounds the classical account of sound change, whose central tenet is gradualness. Since this classical account must be discarded, sound-change theory in general must also be. | 199812_1-LR1_14_16 | [
"The data on which the classical account of sound-change theory was based are now known to be inaccurate.",
"The emergence of new sounds appears to be random.",
"The meeting of linguistically disparate cultures can affect the sound of their languages in unpredictable ways.",
"All theories of sound change rely heavily on the classical theory.",
"For most languages, historical records of their earlier stages are scarce or nonexistent."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if assumed, does most to justify the argument's conclusion? |
The stable functioning of a society depends upon the relatively long-term stability of the goals of its citizens. This is clear from the fact that unless the majority of individuals have a predictable and enduring set of aspirations, it will be impossible for a legislature to craft laws that will augment the satisfaction of the citizenry, and it should be obvious that a society is stable only if its laws tend to increase the happiness of its citizens. | 199812_1-LR1_15_17 | [
"It is the conclusion of the argument.",
"It helps to support the conclusion of the argument.",
"It is a claim that must be refuted if the conclusion is to be established.",
"It is a consequence of the argument.",
"It is used to illustrate the general principle that the argument presupposes."
]
| 1 | The claim that a society is stable only if its laws tend to increase the happiness of its citizens plays which one of the following roles in the argument? |
Astronauts who experience weightlessness frequently get motion sickness. The astronauts see their own motion relative to passing objects, but while the astronauts are weightless their inner ears indicate that their bodies are not moving. The astronauts' experience is best explained by the hypothesis that conflicting information received by the brain about the body's motion causes motion sickness. | 199812_1-LR1_16_18 | [
"During rough voyages ship passengers in cabins providing a view of the water are less likely to get motion sickness than are passengers in cabins providing no view.",
"Many people who are experienced airplane passengers occasionally get motion sickness.",
"Some automobile passengers whose inner ears indicate that they are moving and who have a clear view of the objects they are passing get motion sickness.",
"People who have aisle seats in trains or airplanes are as likely to get motion sickness as are people who have window seats.",
"Some astronauts do not get motion sickness even after being in orbit for several days."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, provides the strongest additional support for the hypotheses above? |
Pollen and other allergens can cause cells in the nose to release histamine, a chemical that inflames nasal tissue and causes runny nose, congestion, and sneezing. Antihistamines minimize these allergy symptoms by blocking the action of histamine. In addition, antihistamines have other effects, including drowsiness. However, histamine plays no role in the processes by which colds produce their symptoms. | 199812_1-LR1_17_19 | [
"Pollen and other allergens do not cause colds.",
"Colds are more difficult to treat than allergies.",
"Antihistamines, when taken alone, are ineffective against congestion caused by colds.",
"The sleeplessness that sometimes accompanies allergies can be effectively treated with antihistamines.",
"Any effect antihistamines may have in reducing cold symptoms does not result from blocking the action of histamine."
]
| 4 | If the statements above are true, which one of the following must also be true? |
A poem is any work of art that exploits some of the musical characteristics of language, such as meter, rhythm, euphony, and rhyme. A novel, though it may be a work of art in language, does not usually exploit the musical characteristics of language. A symphony, though it may be a work of art that exploit the musical characteristics of sounds, rarely involves language. A limerick, though it may exploit some musical characteristics of language, is not, strictly speaking, art. | 199812_1-LR1_18_20 | [
"If a creation is neither a poem, nor a novel, nor a symphony, then it is not a work of art.",
"An example of so-called blank verse, which does not rhyme, is not really a poem.",
"If a novel exploits meter and rhyme while standing as a work of art, then it is both a novel and a poem.",
"Limericks constitute a nonartistic type of poetry.",
"If a symphony does not exploit the musical characteristics of sound, then it is not a work of art."
]
| 2 | The statements above, if true, most strongly support which one of the following? |
In order to pressure the government of Country S to become less repressive, some legislators in Country R want to ban all exports from R to S. Companies in R that manufacture telecommunication equipment such as telephones and fax machines have argued that exports of their products should be exempted from the ban, on the grounds that it is impossible for a country to remain repressive when telecommunication equipment is widely available to the population of that country. | 199812_1-LR1_19_21 | [
"The government of S has recently increased the amount of telecommunication equipment it allows to be imported into the country.",
"The telecommunication equipment that would be imported into S if the exemption were to be granted would not be available solely to top government officials in S.",
"A majority of the members of R's legislature do not favor exempting telecommunication equipment from the ban on exports to Country S.",
"Of all exports that could be sent to Country S, telecommunication equipment would be the most effective in helping citizens of S oppose that country's repressive government.",
"Without pressure from Country R, the government of S would be able to continue repressing its citizens indefinitely."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument given by the manufacturers depends? |
Some people believe that saying that an organization is hierarchical says everything there is to say about how that organization operates. All bureaucratically controlled organizations are hierarchical. Yet the Public Works Department, although bureaucratically controlled, operates quite differently than most other bureaucratically controlled organizations operate. | 199812_1-LR1_20_22 | [
"The Public Works Department operates more like a nonbureaucratically controlled organization than like a bureaucratically controlled organization.",
"Any organization that is hierarchical is bureaucratically controlled.",
"From the fact that a given organization is hierarchical nothing can reliably be concluded about how that organization operates.",
"Not all hierarchical organizations operate in the same way.",
"Whether or not an organization is bureaucratically controlled has nothing to do with how that organization operates."
]
| 3 | If the statements above are true, which one of the following must also be true on the basis of them? |
Research indicates that 90 percent of extreme insomniacs consume large amount of coffee. Since Tom drinks a lot of coffee, it is quite likely that he is an extreme insomniac. | 199812_1-LR1_21_23 | [
"It fails to acknowledge the possibility that Tom is among the 10 percent of people who drink large amounts of coffee who are not extreme insomniacs.",
"It fails to consider the possible contribution to extreme insomnia of other causes of insomnia besides coffee.",
"It relies on evidence that does not indicate the frequency of extreme insomnia among people who drink large amounts of coffee.",
"It draws an inference about one specific individual from evidence that describes only the characteristics of a class of individuals",
"It presumes without warrant that drinking coffee always causes insomnia."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following most accurately describes a flaw in the argument's reasoning? |
Folklorist: Oral traditions are often preferable to written ones. Exclusive dependence on speech improves the memory; literate populations grow sluggish in recall, running to written sources whenever they need information. Because writing has no limits, it can proliferate to the point where writer and reader both become confused. Since oral traditions are dependent on memory, what is useless and irrelevant is quickly eradicated. | 199812_1-LR1_22_24 | [
"Accuracy in communication breeds mental self-reliance.",
"Literate populations need to make efforts to communicate efficiently.",
"Tradition is of greater value than accumulation of knowledge.",
"Economy of expression is to be preferred over verbosity.",
"Ideas that cannot be discussed clearly should not be discussed at all."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the folklorist's argumentation? |
When interviewing job candidates, personnel managers not only evaluate a candidate's work experience and educational background but also inquire about hobbies. Personnel managers try to justify these inquiries by noting that the enthusiasm someone shows for a hobby may well carry over to enthusiasm for a job. But such enthusiasm may also indicate that the candidate is less concerned with work than with play. Therefore personnel managers should not inquire about a candidate's hobbies. | 199812_1-LR1_23_25 | [
"A candidate's involvement in particular hobbies may indicate a capacity to make long-term commitments.",
"Candidates who have no hobbies may pretend that they have one when asked in an interview.",
"Inquiries about a hobby may put candidates at ease, eliciting more honest responses about important questions.",
"Having certain kinds of hobbies may indicate that a candidate has good organizational skills.",
"Personnel managers may make better choices among candidates if they are not restricted from asking particular types of questions."
]
| 1 | The argument is flawed because it overlooks each of the following possibilities EXCEPT: |
Researcher: The vast majority of a person's dreams bear no resemblance whatsoever to real events that follow the dreams. Thus, it is unreasonable to believe that one has extrasensory perception solely on the basis of having had several vivid dreams about events that happen after the dreams. | 199812_1-LR1_24_26 | [
"It is unreasonable to believe that a new drug cures heart disease when it is tested, albeit successfully, on only a few patients. Most new drugs require testing on large numbers of patients before they are considered effective.",
"Many people who undergo surgery for ulcers show no long-term improvement. So it is unreasonable to believe that surgery for ulcers is effective, even though ulcer surgery benefits many people as well.",
"Even though many cancer patients experience remissions without drinking herbal tea, it is unreasonable to believe that not drinking herbal tea causes such remissions. Several factors are known to be relevant to cancer remission.",
"A number of people who die prematurely take aspirin. But it is unreasonable to conclude that aspirin is dangerous. Most people who take aspirin do not die prematurely.",
"A significant number of children raised near power lines develop cancer. So it is unreasonable to deny a connection between living near power lines and developing cancer, even though many people living near power lines never develop cancer."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following arguments is most similar in its reasoning to the argument above? |
Politician: Governments should tax any harmful substance that is available to the general public at a level that the tax would discourage continued use of the substance. | 199812_4-LR2_1_1 | [
"The tax on products containing sugar is raised in an effort to raise revenue to be applied to the health costs resulting from the long-term use of these products.",
"The tax on certain pain relievers that, even though harmful, are available over the counter is raised, since studies have shown that the demand for these products will not be affected.",
"The tax on a pesticide that contains an organic compound harmful to human beings is raised to give people an incentive to purchase pesticides not containing the compound.",
"The tax on domestically produced alcoholic beverages is not raised, since recent studies show that the tax would have a negative impact on the tourist industry.",
"The tax on products that emit fluorocarbons, substances that have proven to be harmful to the earth's ozone layer, is lowered to stimulate the development of new, less environmentally harmful ways of using these substances."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following is an application of the politician's principle of taxation? |
The average cable television company offers its customers 50 channels, but new fiber-optic lines will enable telephone companies to provide 100 to 150 television channels to their customers for the same price as cable companies charge for 50. Therefore, cable companies will be displaced by the new television services offered by telephone companies within a few years. | 199812_4-LR2_2_2 | [
"The initial cost per household of installing new fiber-optic television service will exceed the current cost of installing cable television service.",
"The most popular movies and programs on channels carried by cable companies will also be offered on channels carried by the fiber-optic lines owned by the telephone companies.",
"Cable television companies will respond to competition from the telephone companies by increasing the number of channels they offer.",
"Some telephone companies own cable companies in areas other than those in which they provide telephone services.",
"The new fiber-optic services offered by telephone companies will be subject to more stringent governmental programming regulations than those to which cable companies are now subject."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to strengthen the argument? |
A just government never restricts the right of its citizens to act upon their desires except when their acting upon their desires is a direct threat to the health or property of other of its citizens. | 199812_4-LR2_3_3 | [
"A just government would not ban the sale of sports cars, but it could prohibit unrestricted racing of them on public highways.",
"An unjust government would abolish many public services if these services did not require compulsory labor.",
"A just government would provide emergency funds to survivors of unavoidable accidents but not to survivors of avoidable ones.",
"A just government would not censor writings of Shakespeare, but it could censor magazines and movies that criticize the government.",
"An unjust government would incarcerate one of its citizens even though it had been several years since that citizen harmed someone."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following judgments most closely conforms to the principle cited above? |
Mayor: Citing the severity of the city's winters, the city road commissioner has suggested paving our roads with rubberized asphalt, since the pressure of passing vehicles would cause the rubber to flex, breaking up ice on roads and so making ice removal easier and less of a strain on the road-maintenance budget. However, rubberized asphalt is more expensive than plain asphalt and the city's budget for building and maintaining roads cannot be increased. Therefore, the commissioner's suggestion is not financially feasible. | 199812_4-LR2_4_4 | [
"Using rubberized asphalt to pave roads would not have any advantages besides facilitating the removal of ice on roads.",
"The severity of winters in the region in which the city is located does not vary significantly from year to year.",
"It would cost more to add particles of rubber to asphalt than to add particles of rubber to other materials that are used to pave roads.",
"Savings in the cost of ice removal would not pay for the increased expense of using rubberized asphalt to pave roads.",
"The techniques the city currently uses for removing ice from city roads are not the least expensive possible, given the type of road surface in place."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following is assumed by the mayor's argument? |
Ticks attach themselves to host animals to feed. Having fed to capacity, and not before then, the ticks drop off their host. Deer ticks feeding off white-footed mice invariably drop off their hosts between noon and sunset, regardless of time of attachment. White-footed mice are strictly nocturnal animals that spend all daytime hours in their underground nests. | 199812_4-LR2_5_5 | [
"Deer ticks all attach themselves to white-footed mice during the same part of the day, regardless of day of attachment.",
"Deer ticks sometimes drop off their hosts without having fed at all.",
"Deer ticks that feed off white-footed mice drop off their hosts in the hosts' nests.",
"White-footed mice to which deer ticks have attached themselves are not aware of the ticks.",
"White-footed mice are hosts to stable numbers of deer ticks, regardless of season of the year."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following conclusions can be properly drawn from the statements above? |
Monarch butterflies spend the winter hibernating on trees in certain forests. Local environmental groups have organized tours of the forests in an effort to protect the butterflies' habitat against woodcutters. Unfortunately, the tourists trample most of the small shrubs that are necessary to the survival of any monarch butterflies that fall of the trees. Therefore, the tour groups themselves are endangering the monarch butterfly population. | 199812_4-LR2_6_6 | [
"the amount of forest land suitable for monarch butterfly hibernation that is not currently used by monarch butterflies for hibernation",
"the amount of wood cut each year by woodcutters in forests used by monarch butterflies for hibernation",
"the amount of plant life trampled by the tourists that is not necessary to the survival of monarch butterflies",
"the proportion of the trees cut down by the woodcutters each year that are cut in the forests used by monarch butterflies for hibernation",
"the proportion of hibernating monarch butterflies that fall of the trees"
]
| 4 | Which one of the following would it be most useful to know in evaluating the argument? |
If you know a lot about history, it will be easy for you to impress people who are intellectuals. But unfortunately, you will not know much about history if you have not, for example, read a large number of history books. Therefore, if you are not well versed in history due to a lack of reading, it will not be easy for you to impress people who are intellectuals. | 199812_4-LR2_7_7 | [
"many intellectuals are not widely read in history",
"there are people who learn about history who do not impress intellectuals",
"it is more important to impress people who are not intellectuals than people who are intellectuals",
"there are other easy ways to impress intellectuals that do not involve knowing history",
"people who are not intellectuals can be impressed more easily than people who are intellectuals"
]
| 3 | The argument's reasoning is flawed because the argument overlooks the possibility that |
People always seem to associate high prices of products with high quality. But price is not necessarily an indicator of quality. The best teas are often no more expensive than the lower-quality teas. | 199812_4-LR2_8_8 | [
"Packing and advertising triple the price of all teas.",
"Most people buy low-quality tea, thus keeping its price up.",
"All types of tea are subject to high import tariffs.",
"Low-quality teas are generally easier to obtain than high quality teas.",
"The price of tea generally does not vary from region to region."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, does most to explain the apparent counterexample described above? |
The only physical factor preventing a human journey to Mars has been weight. Carrying enough fuel to propel a conventional spacecraft to Mars and back would make even the lightest craft too heavy to be launched from Earth. A device has recently been invented, however, that allows an otherwise conventional spacecraft to refill the craft's fuel tanks with fuel manufactured from the Martian atmosphere for the return trip. Therefore, it is possible for people to go to Mars in a spacecraft that carries this device and then return. | 199812_4-LR2_9_9 | [
"The amount of fuel needed for a spacecraft to return from Mars is the same as the amount of fuel needed to travel from Earth to Mars.",
"The fuel manufactured from the Martian atmosphere would not differ in composition from the fuel used to travel to Mars.",
"The device for manufacturing fuel from the Martian atmosphere would not take up any of the spaceship crew's living space.",
"A conventional spacecraft equipped with the device would not be appreciably more expensive to construct than current spacecraft typically are.",
"The device for manufacturing fuel for the return to Earth weighs less than the tanks of fuel that a conventional spacecraft would otherwise need to carry from Earth for the return trip."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? |
Unplugging a peripheral component such as a "mouse" from a personal computer renders all of the software programs that require that component unusable on that computer. On Fred's personal computer, a software program that requires a mouse has become unusable. So it must be that the mouse for Fred's computer became unplugged. | 199812_4-LR2_10_10 | [
"It contains a shift in the meaning of \"unusable\" from \"permanently unusable\" to \"temporarily unusable.\"",
"It treats an event that can cause a certain result as though that event is necessary to bring about that result.",
"It introduces information unrelated to its conclusion as evidence in support of that conclusion.",
"It attempts to support its conclusion by citing a generalization that is too broad.",
"It overlooks the possibility that some programs do not require a peripheral component such as a mouse."
]
| 1 | The argument is most vulnerable to which one of the following criticisms? |
P: Complying with the new safety regulations is useless. Even if the new regulations had been in effect before last year's laboratory fire, they would not have prevented the fire or the injuries resulting from it because they do not address its underlying causes. Q: But any regulations that can potentially prevent money from being wasted are useful. If obeyed, the new safety regulations will prevent some accidents, and whenever there is an accident here at the laboratory, money is wasted even if no one is injured. | 199812_4-LR2_11_11 | [
"last year's fire resulted in costly damage to the laboratory",
"accidents at the laboratory inevitably result in personal injuries",
"the new safety regulations address the underlying cause of last year's fire",
"it is useful to comply with the new safety regulations",
"the new safety regulations are likely to be obeyed in the laboratory"
]
| 3 | A point at issue between P and Q is whether |
P: Complying with the new safety regulations is useless. Even if the new regulations had been in effect before last year's laboratory fire, they would not have prevented the fire or the injuries resulting from it because they do not address its underlying causes. Q: But any regulations that can potentially prevent money from being wasted are useful. If obeyed, the new safety regulations will prevent some accidents, and whenever there is an accident here at the laboratory, money is wasted even if no one is injured. | 199812_4-LR2_11_12 | [
"extending the basis for assessing the utility of complying with the new regulations",
"citing additional evidence that undermines P's assessment of the extent to which the new regulations would have prevented injuries in last year's laboratory fire",
"giving examples to show that the uselessness of all regulations cannot validly be inferred from the uselessness of one particular set of regulations",
"showing that P's argument depends on the false assumption that compliance with any regulations that would have prevented last year's fire would be useful",
"pointing out a crucial distinction, overlooked by P, between potential benefits and actual benefits"
]
| 0 | Q responds to P's position by |
Historian: The ancient Greeks failed to recognize that, morally, democracy is no improvement over monarchy. It is wrong for an individual to have the power to choose the course of action for a government, so it is no less wrong to grant this power to society, which is just a collection of individuals. | 199812_4-LR2_12_13 | [
"There is no point in trying to find someone else to solve that problem. If Robin cannot solve it, then none of Robin's friends would be able to solve it.",
"We should not pick Hank for the relay team. He has not won a race all season, so there is no reason to expect him to help the relay team win.",
"Laws that contain exemptions for some individuals based on no relevant consideration are fundamentally immoral. If it is wrong for a given person to commit an act, then it is wrong for anyone else in similar circumstances to commit the act.",
"There is no point in asking the club to purchase tents and make them available for use by club members. No member of the club can afford one of those tents, so the club is unable to afford any either.",
"Agreeing with all of the other members of society does not guarantee that one is correct about an issue. With many topics it is possible for society to be mistaken and hence every individual in society to be likewise mistaken."
]
| 3 | The pattern of flawed reasoning in the argument above is most similar to that in which one of the following? |
In 1712 the government of Country Y appointed a censor to prohibit the publication of any book critical of Country Y's government; all new books legally published in the country after 1712 were approved by a censor. Under the first censor, one half of the book manuscripts submitted to the censor were not approved for publication. Under the next censor, only one quarter of the book manuscripts submitted were not approved, but the number of book manuscripts that were approved was the same under both censors. | 199812_4-LR2_13_14 | [
"More books critical of Country Y's government were published before the appointment of the first censor than after it.",
"The first censor and the second censor prohibited the publication of the same number of book manuscripts.",
"More book manuscripts were submitted for approval to the first censor than to the second.",
"The second censor allowed some book manuscripts to be published that the first censor would have considered critical of Country Y's government.",
"The number of writers who wrote published manuscripts was greater under the first censor than under the second."
]
| 2 | It the statements in the passage are true, which one of the following can be properly concluded from them? |
It is often said that beauty is subjective. But this judgment has to be false. If one tries to glean the standard of beauty of earlier cultures from the artistic works they considered most beautiful, one cannot but be impressed by its similarity to our own standard. In many fundamental ways, what was considered beautiful in those cultures is still considered beautiful in our own time. | 199812_4-LR2_14_15 | [
"Few contemporary artists have been significantly exposed to the art of earlier cultures.",
"The arts held a much more important place in earlier cultures than they do in our culture.",
"Our own standard of beauty was strongly influenced by our exposure to works that were considered beautiful in earlier cultures.",
"Much of what passes for important artistic work today would not be considered beautiful even by contemporary standards.",
"In most cultures art is owned by a small social elite."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following statements, if true, most weakens the argument? |
Nutrition education in schools once promoted daily consumption of food from each of the "four food groups" : milk, meat, fruit and vegetables, and breads and cereals. This recommendation was, however, dangerous to health. | 199812_4-LR2_15_16 | [
"The division into four groups gave the impression that an equal amount of each should be consumed, but milk and meat tend to contain fats that promote heart disease and cancer and should be eaten in lesser amounts.",
"The omission of fish, which contains beneficial oils, from the names of groups in the list gave erroneous impression that it is less healthy as a food than is red meat.",
"A healthy diet should include the consumption of several different fruits and vegetables daily, but the recommendation was often interpreted as satisfied by the consumption of a single serving of a fruit or vegetable.",
"The recommendation that some food from the fruit and vegetable group be consumed daily constituted a reminder not to neglect this group, which provides needed vitamins, minerals, and fiber.",
"Encouraging the daily consumption of some product from each of the four food groups gave the impression that eating in that manner is sufficient for a healthy diet, but eating in that manner is consistent with the overconsumption of sweets and fats."
]
| 3 | Each of the following, if true, provides support for the critique above EXCEPT: |
The Green Ensemble, a nonprofit theater group, has always been financially dependent on contributions from corporations and would have been forced to disband this year if any of its corporate sponsors had withdrawn their financial support. But the Green Ensemble has not only been able to continue in operation throughout the year, but has recently announced its schedule for next year. | 199812_4-LR2_16_17 | [
"None of the Green Ensemble's corporate sponsors withdrew their financial support of the group this year.",
"Earlier this year the Green Ensemble found other sources of funding for next year, making the group less dependent on corporations for financial support.",
"During this year corporate funding for the Green Ensemble has been steadily increasing.",
"This year corporate funding was the source of more than half of the Green Ensemble's income.",
"Corporate funding for nonprofit theater groups like the Green Ensemble has recently increased."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following is a conclusion that can be properly drawn from the information above? |
Book publishers have traditionally published a few books that they thought were of intrinsic merit even though these books were unlikely to make a profit. Nowadays, however, fewer of these books are being published. It seems, therefore, that publishers now, more than ever, are more interested in making money than in publishing books of intrinsic value. | 199812_4-LR2_17_18 | [
"Book publishers have always been very interested in making money.",
"There has been a notable decline in the quality of books written in recent years.",
"In the past, often books of intrinsic value would unexpectedly make a sizable profit.",
"There have always been authors unwilling to be published unless a profit is guaranteed.",
"In recent years, profits in the book publishing industry have been declining."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following statements, if true, most seriously weakens the argument? |
Most people feel that they are being confused by the information from broadcast news. This could be the effect of the information's being delivered too quickly or of its being poorly organized. Analysis of the information content of a typical broadcast news story shows that news stories are far lower in information density than the maximum information density with which most people can cope at any one time. So the information in typical broadcast news stories is poorly organized. | 199812_4-LR2_18_19 | [
"It is not the number of broadcast news stories to which a person is exposed that is the source of the feeling of confusion.",
"Poor organization of information in a news story makes it impossible to understand the information.",
"Being exposed to more broadcast news stories within a given day would help a person to better understand the news.",
"Most people can cope with a very high information density.",
"Some people are being overwhelmed by too much information."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following is an assumption that the argument requires in order for its conclusion to be properly drawn? |
Art Historian: Robbins cannot pass judgment on Stuart's art. While Robbins understands the art of Stuart too well to dismiss it, she does not understand it well enough to praise it. | 199812_4-LR2_19_20 | [
"in order to pass judgment on Stuart's art, Robbins must be able either to dismiss it or to praise it",
"if art can be understood well, it should be either dismissed or praised",
"in order to understand Stuart's art, Robbins must be able to pass judgment on it",
"Stuart's art can be neither praised nor dismissed",
"if Robbins understands art well, she will praise it"
]
| 0 | The art historian's argument depends on the assumption that |
Words like "employee," "payee," and "detainee" support the generalization, crudely stated, that words with the ending -ee designate the person affected in the specified way by an action performed by someone else. The word "absentee" seems to be a direct counterexample: it ends in -ee, yet, if it makes sense here to speak of an action at all—that of absenting oneself, perhaps—the word can refer to the person who actually performs that action. Clearly, however, putting forward the following resolves the impasse: if a word with the ending -ee refers to one party in a two-party transaction, it refers to the party at which the other party's action is directed. | 199812_4-LR2_20_21 | [
"provides additional support for the original generalization in part by showing that the supposed force of the counterexample derives from a misanalysis of that example",
"dismisses the counterexample on the grounds that its force, compared to the weight of the supporting evidence, is insignificant",
"concedes that the proposed counterexample is an exception to the generalization but maintains the generalization on the grounds that all generalizations have exceptions",
"narrows the scope of the generalization at issue in such a way that the putative counterexample is no longer relevant",
"shows how replacing the notion of being affected in the specified way by an action with that of having someone's action directed at oneself reveals the counterexample to be spurious"
]
| 3 | The argument does which one of the following in dealing with the counterexample it offers? |
Words like "employee," "payee," and "detainee" support the generalization, crudely stated, that words with the ending -ee designate the person affected in the specified way by an action performed by someone else. The word "absentee" seems to be a direct counterexample: it ends in -ee, yet, if it makes sense here to speak of an action at all—that of absenting oneself, perhaps—the word can refer to the person who actually performs that action. Clearly, however, putting forward the following resolves the impasse: if a word with the ending -ee refers to one party in a two-party transaction, it refers to the party at which the other party's action is directed. | 199812_4-LR2_20_22 | [
"honoree",
"appointee",
"nominee",
"transferee",
"escapee"
]
| 4 | The reasoning in the argument could have remained unchanged in force and focus if which one of the following had been advanced as a counterexample in place of the word "absentee" ? |
Much of today's literature is inferior: most of our authors are intellectually and emotionally inexperienced, and their works lack both the intricacy and the focus on the significant that characterize good literature. However, Hypatia's latest novel is promising; it shows a maturity, complexity, and grace that far exceeds that of her earlier works. | 199812_4-LR2_21_23 | [
"Much of today's literature focuses less on the significant than Hypatia's latest novel focuses on the significant.",
"Much of today's literature at least lacks the property of grace.",
"Hypatia's latest novel is good literature when judged by today's standards.",
"Hypatia's latest novel is clearly better than the majority of today's literature.",
"Hypatia's latest novel has at least one property of good literature to a greater degree than her earlier works."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following statements is most strongly supported by the information in the passage? |
Scientists, puzzled about the development of penicillin-resistant bacteria in patients who had not been taking penicillin, believe they have found an explanation. The relevant group of patients have dental fillings made of mercury-containing amalgam, and the bacteria the patients develop are immune to mercury poisoning. Scientists have concluded that the genes causing resistance to penicillin are closely bundled on the chromosomes of bacteria with the gene that produces immunity to mercury poisoning. Exposure to the mercury kills off bacteria that lack the relevant immunity gene, and leaves room for those that possess both the mercury-immunity gene and the penicillin-resistance gene to flourish. | 199812_4-LR2_22_24 | [
"It is a hypothesis that is taken by the scientists to be conclusively proven by the findings described in the passage.",
"It is a generalization that, if true, rules out the possibility that some people who do not take penicillin develop bacteria resistant to it.",
"It is a point that, in conjunction with the fact that some patients who do not take penicillin develop penicillin-resistant bacteria, generates the problem that prompted the research described in the passage.",
"It is the tentative conclusion of previous research that appears to be falsified by the scientists' discovery of the mechanism by which bacteria become resistant to mercury poisoning.",
"It is a generalization assumed by the scientists to conclusively prove that the explanation of their problem case must involve reference to the genetic makeup of the penicillin-resistant bacteria."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following most accurately characterizes the role played in the passage by the unstated assumption that some patients who take penicillin develop bacteria with an immunity to penicillin? |
All any reporter knows about the accident is what the press agent has said. Therefore, if the press agent told every reporter everything about the accident, then no reporter knows any more about it than any other reporter. If no reporter knows any more about the accident than any other reporter, then no reporter can scoop all of the other reporters. However, the press agent did not tell every reporter everything about the accident. It follows that some reporter can scoop all of the other reporters. | 199812_4-LR2_23_25 | [
"The press agent did not tell everything about the accident to any reporter.",
"Even if some reporter knows more about the accident than all of the other reporters, that reporter need not scoop any other reporter.",
"Some reporter may have been told something about the accident that the reporter tells all of the other reporters.",
"The press agent may not know any more about the accident than the most knowledgeable reporter.",
"No reporter knows any more about the accident than any other reporter."
]
| 4 | The argument's reasoning is flawed because the argument fails to recognize that which one of the following is consistent with the facts the argument presents? |
Tennyson's line of poetry "nature, red in tooth and claw" is misconstrued by many evolutionists as a reference to Darwin's theory of evolution. The poem in which the line appears was published in 1850, but Darwin kept his theory closely held until publishing it in 1859. In addition, in view of the context provided by the rest of the poem, the line was clearly meant to refer to the dominant biological theory of the early nineteenth century, which was a creationist theory. | 199902_1-LR1_1_1 | [
"The line of Tennyson's poetry cannot now be construed as an apt description of Darwin's theory of evolution.",
"The dominant biological theory in the early nineteenth century was a creationist theory.",
"Tennyson's line of poetry was written well before Darwin had published his theory of evolution.",
"Darwin's theory of evolution was not the dominant biological theory in the early nineteenth century.",
"Tennyson's line of poetry was not a reference to Darwin's theory of evolution."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main point of the argument? |
Tennyson's line of poetry "nature, red in tooth and claw" is misconstrued by many evolutionists as a reference to Darwin's theory of evolution. The poem in which the line appears was published in 1850, but Darwin kept his theory closely held until publishing it in 1859. In addition, in view of the context provided by the rest of the poem, the line was clearly meant to refer to the dominant biological theory of the early nineteenth century, which was a creationist theory. | 199902_1-LR1_1_2 | [
"It casts doubt on whether the theory of evolution should be attributed to Darwin alone.",
"It supports the claim that creationist theories of biology were dominant in the early nineteenth century.",
"It provides reason to believe that Tennyson did not know about Darwin's theory when the poem was published.",
"It suggests that Tennyson's line provided Darwin with the inspiration for developing his theory.",
"It implies that Tennyson knew little about the dominant biological theories of the nineteenth century."
]
| 2 | The claim about the publication dates of Tennyson's poem and Darwin's theory plays which one of the following roles in the argument? |
Space programs have recently suffered several setbacks with respect to their large projects, and much money has been lost. Consequently, these grand projects should be abandoned in favor of several small ones. | 199902_1-LR1_2_3 | [
"The cost of starting a space project increases every year.",
"It is just as easy to revise, and even scrap, small projects as it is large ones.",
"Large projects are intrinsically more likely to fail and so are more financially risky than small projects.",
"Project managers prefer to work on small projects rather than large ones.",
"Large space projects can explore a few places thoroughly, while small projects can investigate more regions, though less thoroughly."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, provides the most support for the reasoning above? |
In an experiment testing whether hyperactivity is due to a brain abnormality, the brain activity of 25 hyperactive adults was compared to the brain activity of 25 adults who were not hyperactive. The tests revealed that the hyperactive adults had much less brain activity in the premotor cortex, a region of the brain believed to control action, than did the nonhyperactive adults. The experimenters concluded that diminished activity in the premotor cortex is one cause of hyperactivity. | 199902_1-LR1_3_4 | [
"Some of the nonhyperactive adults in the study had children who suffer from hyperactivity.",
"The hyperactive adults who participated in the experiment varied in the severity of their symptoms.",
"The neuropsychologists who designed the experiment were not present when the tests were performed.",
"All of the hyperactive adults in the study had been treated for hyperactivity with a medication that is known to depress activity in some regions of the brain, while none of the nonhyperactive adults had been so treated.",
"The test was performed only on adults because even though the method by which the test measured brain activity is harmless to adults, it does require the use of radiation, which could be harmful to children."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if true, most undermines the conclusion drawn by the experimenters? |
Large discount chains can make a profit even while offering low prices, because they buy goods in large quantities at favorable cost. This creates a problem for small retailers. If they try to retain their customers by lowering prices to match those of large discount chains, the result is a lower profit margin. But small retailers can retain their customer base without lowering prices if they offer exceptional service. Hence, small retailers that are forced to compete with large discount chains must offer exceptional service in order to retain their level of profitability. | 199902_1-LR1_4_5 | [
"not all large discount chains do in fact make a profit",
"some large discount chains have lower profit margins than do some small retailers",
"small retailers are often motivated by things other than the desire for profit",
"not all small retailers are forced to compete with large discount chains",
"exceptional service is not the only reason customers prefer small retail stores"
]
| 4 | The reasoning is flawed because it fails to take into account the possibility that |
We should do what will make others more virtuous and not do what will make others less virtuous. It is an irony of human existence that praise makes those who are less virtuous more virtuous, while it makes those who are more virtuous less virtuous. And, of course, none except the more virtuous deserve praise. | 199902_1-LR1_5_6 | [
"We should withhold praise from those who deserve it least.",
"We should not fail to praise those who deserve it most.",
"We should praise those who do not deserve it and withhold praise from those who deserve it.",
"We should praise everyone, regardless of whether or not they deserve it.",
"We should withhold praise from everyone, regardless of whether or not they deserve it."
]
| 2 | From the statements above, if true, which one of the following can be properly inferred? |
Generic drugs contain exactly the same active ingredients as their brand-name counterparts, but usually cost much less to develop, produce, and market. So, generic drugs are just as effective as their brand-name counterparts, but cost considerably less. | 199902_1-LR1_6_7 | [
"The ingredients used in the manufacture of brand-name drugs cost no more than the ingredients used to produce their generic counterparts.",
"Generic drugs are no more likely than brand-name drugs to suffer from defects in composition.",
"Generic drugs are just as likely as brand-name drugs to be readily available in pharmacies.",
"The higher costs of brand-name drugs underwrite drug companies' heavy investment in research.",
"Because of advertising, doctors frequently prescribe brand-name drugs by their brand name, rather than by their chemical name."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument? |
Economist: In the interaction between producers and consumers, the only obligation that all parties have is to act in the best interests of their own side. And distribution of information about product defects is in the best interests of the consumer. So consumers are always obligated to report product defects they discover, while producers are never obligated to reveal them. | 199902_1-LR1_7_8 | [
"It is never in the best interests of producers for a producer to reveal a product defect.",
"No one expects producers to act in a manner counter to their own best interests.",
"Any product defect is likely to be discovered by consumers.",
"A product defect is more likely to be discovered by a consumer than by a producer.",
"The best interests of consumers never coincide with the best interests of producers."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following is an assumption required by the economist's argument? |
All potatoes naturally contain solanine, which is poisonous in large quantities. Domesticated potatoes contain only very small amounts of solanine, but many wild potatoes contain poisonous levels of solanine. Since most of the solanine in potatoes is concentrated in the skin, however, peeling wild potatoes makes them at least as safe to eat as unpeeled domesticated potatoes of the same size. | 199902_1-LR1_8_9 | [
"The proportion of a potato's solanine that is contained in its skin is larger in wild potatoes than in domesticated potatoes.",
"The amount of solanine concentrated in the skin of a wild potato is large enough by itself to be poisonous.",
"There is no more solanine in a peeled wild potato than in an unpeeled domesticated potato of the same size.",
"There are no poisonous substances in domesticated potatoes other than solanine.",
"Wild potatoes are generally much smaller than domesticated potatoes."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if assumed, allows the conclusion above to be properly drawn? |
The consequences of surgical errors can be devastating, and no one would want to risk surgery unless it was performed by someone highly competent to perform surgery. General surgeons have special training and expertise that make them extremely competent to perform surgery. Therefore, surgery at the hands of anyone other than a general surgeon involves highly undesirable risks. | 199902_1-LR1_9_10 | [
"there are general surgeons who are incompetent",
"general surgeons are not the only doctors competent to perform surgery",
"the competence of the doctor performing surgery does not guarantee a successful outcome",
"risk is not the only factor in deciding whether to have surgery",
"factors in addition to competence are relevant when choosing a doctor"
]
| 1 | The reasoning in the argument is flawed because the argument fails to consider the possibility that |
Although the concept of free will is essential to that of moral responsibility, its role in determining responsibility is not the same in all situations. We hold criminals morally responsible for the damage they cause, assuming that they freely chose their activities. But we do not hold someone who has a heart attack while driving morally responsible for the damage caused, if any, even when we have good reason to believe that the heart attack could have been prevented by eating different foods and that one's choice of diet is made freely. | 199902_1-LR1_10_11 | [
"It is a subsidiary conclusion of the argument.",
"It is used to show that we should hold someone morally responsible for damages caused by having a heart attack while driving.",
"It is cited as evidence that our concept of moral responsibility should be the same in all situations.",
"It is used to disprove the claim that we should not hold criminals morally responsible for damages.",
"It is used in support of the conclusion of the argument."
]
| 4 | The claim that a choice of diet can affect whether or not one has a heart attack plays which one of the following roles in the argument? |
Alice will volunteer to work on the hospital fund-raising drive only if her brother Bruce also volunteers and a majority of the others working on the drive promise to select Bruce to manage the drive. However, although Bruce is willing to volunteer, none of the others working on the drive will promise to select Bruce to manage the drive. Thus it is certain that Alice will not volunteer. | 199902_1-LR1_11_12 | [
"Bill and Steve will work together at the bake sale tomorrow only if Bill has enough time. However, since Bill has quite a few errands to run tomorrow, it is likely that Steve will work alone at the sale.",
"Leon will go to the picnic only if Vera also goes. However, according to his friends Leon does not plan to go to the picnic: so it is certain that Vera is not planning to go.",
"Jim will go to the party only if both Sam and Elaine also go. Sam is going to the party, but Elaine is not going. So it is certain that Jim will not go to the party.",
"If Paula works with Elise, then Jane will work with Arthur only. However, if Paula does not work, Elise will also work with Jane. So if Paula does not work, Arthur will work with both Jane and Elise.",
"Therese will work in the yard tomorrow only if Maria helps her and it is not raining. Although Maria does not like working in the yard, she will help Therese. So unless it rains tomorrow, Therese will certainly work in the yard."
]
| 2 | In which one of the following arguments is the pattern of reasoning most similar to the pattern of reasoning in the argument above? |
If an artist receives a public subsidy to support work on a specific project—e.g., making a film—and if this project then proves successful enough to allow the artist to repay the subsidy, is the artist morally obliged to do so? The answer is clearly yes, since the money returned to the agency distributing the subsidies will be welcome as a source of support for other artists deserving of public subsidies. | 199902_1-LR1_12_13 | [
"this person has benefited from other people's acting in just this way in the past",
"acting this way would allow others to obtain a benefit such as the one that this artist has obtained in the past",
"this person had in fact, at an earlier time, made a tacit promise to act this way",
"not acting this way would be a small benefit to the person in the short term but a substantial detriment to the person in the long run",
"this person, by acting this way, would provide general benefits with a value exceeding the cost to the person of acting this way"
]
| 1 | The passage tries to establish an artist's obligation by arguing that |
If an artist receives a public subsidy to support work on a specific project—e.g., making a film—and if this project then proves successful enough to allow the artist to repay the subsidy, is the artist morally obliged to do so? The answer is clearly yes, since the money returned to the agency distributing the subsidies will be welcome as a source of support for other artists deserving of public subsidies. | 199902_1-LR1_12_14 | [
"An artist has a moral duty to urge deserving fellow artists to try to obtain public subsidies, especially if those artists' projects promise to be financially successful.",
"A financially successful artist should acknowledge that financial success is not solely a function of artistic merit.",
"A subsidy should be understood as creating a debt that, though routinely forgiven, is rightly forgiven only if either the debtor is unable to repay it or the creditor is not interested in repayment.",
"The provider of a subsidy should judge as most deserving of subsidies those whose projects are most likely to turn into financial successes.",
"An artist requesting a subsidy for a potentially profitable project should be required to make a reasonable effort to obtain a bank loan first."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following principles, if established, most helps to justify the conclusion in the passage? |
Jessica: The budget surplus should be used only to increase government payments to those who are unemployed. Marcie: A better use of the money would be for a public works project that would create jobs. | 199902_1-LR1_13_15 | [
"Using the budget surplus to increase government payments to those who are unemployed is putting the money to good use.",
"The public deserves to have jobs created when there are many people who are unemployed.",
"When there is a choice between increasing payments to the unemployed and funding a public works project, the latter should usually be chosen.",
"Creating jobs through a public works project will ultimately benefit the public.",
"There is a better way to use the budget surplus than increasing government payments to those who are unemployed."
]
| 4 | On the basis of their statements, Jessica and Marcie are committed to disagreeing about the truth of which one of the following? |
In a town containing a tourist attraction, hotel and restaurant revenues each increased more rapidly over the past year than did revenue from the sale of passes to the attraction, which are valid for a full year. This led those in charge of the attraction to hypothesize that visitors were illicitly selling or sharing the passes. | 199902_1-LR1_14_16 | [
"During the past year other tourist attractions have opened up in the area.",
"Those possessing passes made more frequent trips to the attraction last year than in previous years.",
"While the cost of passes is unchanged since last year, hotel and meal prices have risen.",
"The local board of tourism reports that the average length of stay for tourists remained unchanged over the past year.",
"Each pass contains a photograph of the holder, and during the past year these photographs have usually been checked."
]
| 3 | Each of the following, if true, helps to undermine the hypothesis of those in charge of the tourist attraction EXCEPT: |
The difference between manners and morals is that the former are necessarily social in nature whereas the latter are not necessarily social in nature. So the rules of etiquette do not apply when one is alone. | 199902_1-LR1_15_17 | [
"One could be immoral without ever having caused any other person any harm",
"No immoral act could be a violation of the rules of etiquette.",
"The rules of morality apply only when one is alone.",
"It is more important to be moral than to have good manners.",
"What is social in nature could not be a matter of morality."
]
| 0 | The statements above, if true, most strongly support which one of the following inferences? |
Sociologist: The intended function of news is to give us information on which to act. But in a consumer society, news becomes a product to be manufactured and dispensed to the consumer. An enormous industry for the production and consumption of news has evolved, and we ingest news with an insatiable appetite. Under such circumstances, news is primarily entertaining and cannot, therefore, serve its intended function. | 199902_1-LR1_16_18 | [
"News that serves its intended function should not be entertaining.",
"Most viewers prefer that news be entertaining.",
"News has only one important function.",
"News that primarily entertains does not give us information on which to act.",
"A news industry that aims to make a profit inevitably presents news as entertainment."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the sociologist's argument depends? |
Paleontologist: It is widely, but falsely, held that life began in the ocean and did not exist on land until half a billion years ago. Traces of carbon 14 have been found throughout certain 1.2-billion-year-old rock in North America. Carbon 14 is extracted by plants and microbes from the atmosphere to fuel their chemical reactions, and is then released when the plants and microbes die. | 199902_1-LR1_17_19 | [
"According to one dating technique, a few fossils of plants that lived on land are more than half a billion years old.",
"The severity of conditions in the primordial oceans would have made it difficult for life to begin there.",
"Research suggests that some portions of the 1.2-billion-year-old rocks were at one time submerged in water, though portions clearly never were.",
"The 1.2-billion-year-old rocks were formed from soil containing very small amounts of carbon 14 that entered the soil directly from the atmosphere.",
"Uranium testing has been used to confirm that the age of the rocks is 1.2 billion years."
]
| 3 | Each of the following, if true, provides additional support for the paleontologist's conclusion EXCEPT: |
The nature of English literature reflects the rich and diverse vocabulary of the English language, which resulted from the dual influence of the Anglo-Saxon and, later, French languages. The French language, though, is a direct descendant of Latin, with few traces of the Celtic language spoken by the pre-Roman inhabitants of the area: the hallmark of French literature is its simplicity and clarity. | 199902_1-LR1_18_20 | [
"The origin of English played a role in shaping English literature.",
"The vocabulary of the Anglo-Saxon language was richer than that of the French language.",
"The vocabulary of English is larger than the vocabulary of French.",
"Simple and clear literature cannot be written in a language with a rich and diverse vocabulary.",
"English literature and French literature have had little influence on one another."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following can be most reasonably inferred from the information above? |
Two doctrines have been greatly influential in this century. The first holds that the explanation of any historical event must appeal to economic factors. The second attempts to account psychologically for all historical events, especially in terms of early childhood experience. Both doctrines, however, are mistaken. Certainly there have been events that were due both to economic forces and to the nature of the early childhood experiences of the major participants in the event. | 199902_1-LR1_19_21 | [
"The first doctrine precludes any noneconomic factors in explanations of historical events.",
"The second doctrine places importance only on childhood experiences.",
"Historical events are influenced as much or as little by economic factors as by psychological factors.",
"One is likely to find that both economic and psychological explanations have been proposed for any given historical event.",
"Appeals to both economic and psychological factors are needed to understand any historical event properly."
]
| 0 | The argument depends on assuming which one of the following? |
Editorial: Supporters of the proposed law that would require bicyclists to wear helmets are seriously misguided. The number of pedestrians who die yearly as a result of accidents involving automobiles is five times the number of deaths resulting from bicycle accidents, and drunken driving exacts a much higher toll than both combined. Yet there are no calls for a ban on alcohol or walking down the street. | 199902_1-LR1_20_22 | [
"It is silly to recommend that test pilots give up cigarette smoking. Their risk of death from other causes is so high that it is unlikely they will live long enough to develop lung cancer.",
"It is foolish to require lab workers to wear safety goggles when working with acids and other dangerous liquids. No one suggests that people stop eating or socializing, even though more people become ill due to food poisoning and contagious diseases than are injured in laboratory accidents.",
"The proposal to introduce foreign language study to students in their first years of school is misguided. Young students should master their own language first and learn basic mathematics before studying a foreign language. No one suggests teaching calculus before arithmetic.",
"The recommendation that this company replace the radio communication system in our fleet of trucks with an entirely new system is unwise. Most of our trucks are scheduled to be replaced by the end of next year, so updating the communication system then would be more cost effective.",
"The mayor's directive that all city employees be tested for Lyme disease is inefficient. Not one case of the disease has been reported among office workers. The directive should apply only to those employees who work outside and may have been exposed to the ticks that carry the disease."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following exhibits a pattern of flawed reasoning most similar to that in the argument above? |
Deep tillage is even more deleterious to the world's topsoil supply than previously believed. For example, farmers who till deeply are ten times more likely to lose topsoil to erosion than are farmers who use no-till methods. Results like these make it clear that farmers who now till deeply should strive, by using other topsoil aeration techniques, to incorporate no-till methods instead. | 199902_1-LR1_21_23 | [
"Topsoil erosion does not make farmers want to till more deeply.",
"In deep-tillage farming, the deeper one tills, the greater the susceptibility to topsoil erosion.",
"Tilling by any method other than deep tillage is not a viable option.",
"The most expensive farming methods employ topsoil aeration techniques other than deep tillage.",
"On average, topsoil that is no-tilled is more aerated than topsoil that is tilled deeply."
]
| 2 | The argument depends on assuming which one of the following? |
Editorial: Our society has a vested interest in maintaining a political system in which candidates are free to adhere to their principles. Yet campaigning for elected office is extremely costly, and because only the wealthiest individuals are able to finance their own political campaigns, most candidates must seek funding from private sources. In so doing, the candidates are almost invariably obliged to compromise their principles. Thus, government itself should assume the cost of candidates' campaigns. | 199902_1-LR1_22_24 | [
"Candidates should not run for elected office if doing so would compel the candidates to compromise their principles.",
"Candidates wealthy enough to finance their own political campaigns should not be permitted to raise additional funds from private sources.",
"Voters should not support a candidate if that candidate is known to have accepted funding from private sources.",
"The government should finance a given activity if doing so will further a vested interest of society.",
"Private funding for political campaigns should be encouraged only if it redresses an imbalance among candidates' financial means."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the conclusion as it is drawn in the argument? |
A clothing manufacturer reports that unsalable garments, those found to be defective by inspectors plus those returned by retailers, total 7 percent of the garments produced. Further, it reports that all of its unsalable garments are recycled as scrap, but the percentage of garments reported as recycled scrap is 9 percent. | 199902_1-LR1_23_25 | [
"Garments with minor blemishes are sent to wholesale outlets for sale at discounted prices and are not returned for recycling.",
"The percentage of garments returned by retail outlets as unsalable includes, in addition to detective merchandise, garments in unacceptable styles or colors.",
"Some inspectors, in order to appear more efficient, tend to overreport defects.",
"The total number of garments produced by the manufacturer has increased slightly over the past year.",
"Insalable garments are recorded by count, but recycled garments are recorded by weight."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following, if true, could contribute most to explaining the discrepancy between the reported percentages? |
Marion knows that the bridge on her usual route is closed and that, unless she takes the train instead of driving, she can get to work on time only by leaving at least 45 minutes early. She must go to her neighborhood bank before leaving for work, however, and the bank will not be open in time for her to do so if she leaves 45 minutes early. Therefore, since she hates taking the train, Marion cannot avoid being late for work. | 199902_1-LR1_24_26 | [
"mistakes a situation that almost certainly affects many people for one that affects a particular person alone",
"ignores the fact that people often know that something is the case without considering all the consequences that follow from its being the case",
"assumes without justification that because people generally have an interest in avoiding a given result, any particular person will have an interest in avoiding that result",
"treats evidence that someone will adopt a particular course of action as though that evidence excluded the possibility of an alternative course of action",
"overlooks the possibility that someone might occasionally adopt a given course of action without having a good reason for doing so"
]
| 3 | The reasoning in the argument is flawed because the argument |
Shortly after Isaac Newton circulated some of his theories of light in 1672, his colleague Robert Hooke claimed that most of those theories were based on Hooke's own work. A modern reader might interpret Newton's famous comment, "if I have seen further it is by standing on the shoulders of giants," as a conciliatory gesture acknowledging indebtedness to Hooke and other contemporary scientists for some of his theories. Conciliatory gestures acknowledging indebtedness were uncharacteristic of Newton, however, and in his day such allusions to "giants" typically referred to the ancient Greeks, not to contemporary scientists. | 199902_4-LR2_1_1 | [
"Newton did not intend the quoted comment to be an acknowledgment that his theories of light were largely derived from Hooke's.",
"Newton did not take credit for any advances that Hooke made in the theory of light.",
"Newton did not believe that any of Hooke's theories of light were based on those of the ancient Greeks.",
"Newton intended to credit some contemporary scientists other than Hooke for some of the advances that Newton made in the theory of light.",
"Newton was not familiar with Hooke's work on the theory of light."
]
| 0 | The statements in the passage, if true, most strongly support which one of the following? |
The blues is a modern musical form whose lyrics usually address such topics as frustration, anger, oppression, and restlessness. Yet blues musicians claim to find joy in performing, and the musicians and fans alike say that the blues' overall effect is an affirmation of life, love, and hope. | 199902_4-LR2_2_2 | [
"The sharing of blues music serves to create a cohesive, sympathetic social network.",
"Blues musicians who do not draw on their personal tragedies are no more successful than blues musicians who do.",
"The irony and wit found in the blues provide a sense of perspective on life's troubles.",
"The realization that other people share one's plight is helpful in dealing with life's problems.",
"The conversion of personal sorrow into an artistic work can have a cathartic effect on artists and their audiences."
]
| 1 | Each of the following, if true, helps to resolve the apparent conflict in the passage EXCEPT: |
Nutritionist: A study revealed that although most adults estimated their diets to correspond closely with the recommendations of standard nutritional guidelines, most of their diets did not come close to those recommendations. Both women and men underestimated the amount of fat in their diets and overestimated their intake of most other foods. In most food categories, especially fruits and vegetables, women's diets did not meet the recommendations. Men underestimated their fat intake by half, and though they met the recommendations for breads, they fell short in all other categories. | 199902_4-LR2_3_3 | [
"Both men and women in the study misjudged their compliance with the nutritional guidelines in every food category.",
"In the study, more men than women were aware that in some food categories their diet failed to reflect the recommendations closely.",
"Women in the study were more aware than men were of the recommended intake of breads.",
"Men in the study estimated their daily intake of fruits and vegetables to be significantly lower than it in fact was.",
"Most men in the study did not consume the amounts of fruits and vegetables that the nutritional guidelines recommend."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the information offered by the nutritionist? |
Maude is incessantly engaging in diatribes against people who are materialistic. But her hypocrisy is evinced by the sentimental treatment of the watch her grandmother gave her. She certainly is very fond of the watch—she worries about damaging it; in fact she always sets it carefully in a special box before going to bed. | 199902_4-LR2_4_4 | [
"Possessions that come from relatives are treated with better care than those that do not.",
"Sentimental attachment to a single possession indicates being materialistic.",
"People who care about material things in general tend to take special care of all their possessions.",
"Maude's watch is not the only material thing she especially cares for.",
"People who are not materialistic tend to have merely sentimental attachments to things."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? |
The most reliable way to detect the presence of life on a planet would be by determining whether or not its atmosphere contains methane. This is because methane completely disappears from a planet's atmosphere through various chemical reactions unless it is constantly replenished by the biological processes of living beings. | 199902_4-LR2_5_5 | [
"There are other ways of detecting the presence of life on a planet.",
"Not all living beings have the ability to biologically produce methane.",
"We are incapable at present of analyzing a planet's atmosphere for the presence of methane.",
"Some living beings biologically produce only very small amounts of methane.",
"Earth is the only planet whose atmosphere is known to contain methane."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following statements, if true, most seriously weakens the argument? |
Willett: Lopez and Simmons, a married couple, have both been offered jobs at Evritech Corporation. Because Evritech has a rule against hiring more than one member of the same family, Lopez and Simmons have decided to reveal their marriage to Evritech. Their decision is foolish, however, since it will mean that one of them will have a job offer withdrawn. After all, they could easily keep their marriage secret initially and, if they want, later claim to have married after they were hired: Evritech has no policy of terminating one of two employees who marry each other. | 199902_4-LR2_6_6 | [
"Lopez and Simmons should not both have applied for jobs at Evritech Corporation",
"Evritech Corporation's rule against hiring more than one member of the same family is often not enforced",
"Lopez and Simmons would be unwise to reveal their marriage to Evritech Corporation without already having started to work there",
"Evritech Corporation should be willing to employ two members of the same family if it is willing to retain two of its employees who marry each other",
"Evritech Corporation is not likely to discover the marital status of Lopez and Simmons if they do not volunteer the information"
]
| 2 | The main conclusion of Willett's argument is that |
Willett: Lopez and Simmons, a married couple, have both been offered jobs at Evritech Corporation. Because Evritech has a rule against hiring more than one member of the same family, Lopez and Simmons have decided to reveal their marriage to Evritech. Their decision is foolish, however, since it will mean that one of them will have a job offer withdrawn. After all, they could easily keep their marriage secret initially and, if they want, later claim to have married after they were hired: Evritech has no policy of terminating one of two employees who marry each other. | 199902_4-LR2_6_7 | [
"Corporations that have rules against hiring more than one member of the same family should also prohibit their employees from marrying one another.",
"Corporations should adopt a policy of refusing to hire more than one member of the same family if that policy promotes overall fairness in its hiring practices.",
"Job applicants are no more entitled to withhold information that is requested on application forms than they are entitled to lie on such application forms.",
"Job candidates should refuse to accept positions in corporations whose personnel policies they cannot adhere to.",
"Job candidates have no obligation to reveal to a prospective employer personal information such as marital status, regardless of the employer's policies."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to support the reasoning in Willett's argument? |
Linguist: Only if a sentence can be diagrammed is it grammatical. Any grammatical sentence is recognized as grammatical by speakers of its language. Speaker X's sentence can be diagrammed. So, speaker X's sentence will be recognized as grammatical by speakers of its language. | 199902_4-LR2_7_8 | [
"most people are unable to diagram sentences correctly",
"some ungrammatical sentences are diagrammable",
"all sentences recognized as grammatical can be diagrammed",
"all grammatical sentences can be diagrammed",
"some ungrammatical sentences are recognized as ungrammatical"
]
| 1 | The linguist's reasoning is flawed because it fails to consider the possibility that |
To allay public concern about chemicals that are leaking into a river from a chemical company's long-established dump, a company representative said, "Federal law requires that every new chemical be tested for safety before it is put onto the market. This is analogous to the federal law mandating testing of every pharmaceutical substance for safety." | 199902_4-LR2_8_9 | [
"When pharmaceutical substances are tested for safety pursuant to federal requirements, a delay is imposed on the entry of potentially lifesaving substances onto the market.",
"Leakage from the dump has occurred in noticeable amounts only in the last few months.",
"Before the federal law requiring testing of nonpharmaceutical chemicals went into effect recently, there were 40,000 such chemicals being manufactured, many of them dangerous.",
"The concentration of chemicals leaking into the river is diluted, first by rainwater and then by the water in the river.",
"The water in the river is murky because of the runoff of silt from a number of nearby construction projects."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the representative's implied argument that the public need not be concerned about the leak? |
In the course of his reading, George Orwell probably encountered certain storytelling conventions over and over again, and these are the devices he would have most likely used in his work. That is why it does not follow that, even though his 1984 resembles other books of its futuristic genre, Orwell read those books; it is possible that he and the other authors were simply drawing on the same body of literary conventions. | 199902_4-LR2_9_10 | [
"A novel that is directly influenced by Gothic novels is likely to fall into the Gothic genre.",
"A mystery novel may not resemble novels from other genres, even though it was directly influenced by such novels.",
"To direct an effective movie within the cowboy genre, a director must study previously successful cowboy movies.",
"A recent film that involves car chases, explosions, and clever villains is not necessarily directly influenced by other films of the action genre.",
"A historical romance novel does not fit into its literary genre unless it employs certain kinds of conventions."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following most closely illustrates the principle that the passage illustrates? |
On the basis of research with young children, a developmental psychologist hypothesized that the skills involved in copying curves must be developed before the skills involved in copying angles can be developed. | 199902_4-LR2_10_11 | [
"All of the children who can copy curves can also copy straight lines.",
"All of the children who can copy angles can also copy curves.",
"The ability to discriminate angles must be developed before angles can be copied.",
"Some of the children who cannot copy curves can copy angles.",
"Young children have the cognitive processes involved in copying angles."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, supports the developmental psychologist's hypothesis? |
Nearly everyone has complained of a mistaken utility bill that cannot easily be corrected or of computer files that cannot readily be retrieved. Yet few people today would tolerate waiting in long lines while clerks search for information that can now be found in seconds, and almost no one who has used a word processor would return to a typewriter. | 199902_4-LR2_11_12 | [
"The fact that people complain about some consequences of technology cannot be taken as a reliable indication that they would choose to live without it.",
"If people do not complain about some technology, then it is probably not a significant factor in their daily lives.",
"The degree to which technologies elicit complaints from people is always an accurate measure of the extent to which people have become dependent on them.",
"The complaints people make about technological innovations are more reliable evidence of the importance of those innovations than the choices people actually make.",
"The less willing people are to do without technology the more likely they are to complain about the effects of the technology."
]
| 0 | The information above conforms most closely to which one of the following principles? |
Television allows us to transmit images of ourselves that propagate into space. The earliest of these transmissions have by now reached all of our neighboring star systems. None of these transmissions, so far as we know, has been recognized; we have yet to receive any messages of extraterrestrial origin. We must conclude that there is no extraterrestrial intelligence in any of our neighboring star systems. | 199902_4-LR2_12_13 | [
"fails to provide an adequate definition of the word \"messages\"",
"infers that there is no extraterrestrial intelligence in neighboring star systems from the lack of proof that there is",
"assigns too little importance to the possibility that there is extraterrestrial intelligence beyond our neighboring star systems",
"neglects to mention that some governments have sent meticulously prepared messages and recordings on spacecraft",
"overlooks the immense probability that most star systems are uninhabited"
]
| 1 | The reasoning in the argument is questionable because the argument |
Citizen: Our legislators need to act quickly to counter the effects of the recession, especially the present level of unemployment, which is the highest ever. We urgently need a major tax cut for our upper-income citizens. There would then be a correspondingly large increase in investment that would create new jobs. If this measure is not taken, investment will not grow. | 199902_4-LR2_13_14 | [
"the recession in the citizen's country is the worst one in its history",
"the greater the tax cut given to a group of people, the more likely it is that members of that group will invest the money",
"upper-income citizens have invested more money in total than have lower-income citizens",
"upper-income citizens could use the money gained from the tax cut in ways that increase investment",
"in the past tax cuts for certain groups of people have tended to create new jobs"
]
| 3 | The citizen's argument depends on the assumption that |
Ideally, scientific laws should display the virtues of precision and generality, as do the laws of physics. However, because of the nature of their subject matter, laws of social science often have to use terms that are imprecise: for example, one knows only vaguely what is meant by "republicanism" or "class." As for generality, laws that apply only in certain social systems are typically the only ones possible for the social sciences. | 199902_4-LR2_14_15 | [
"All else being equal, a precise, general scientific law is to be preferred over one that is not general.",
"The social sciences would benefit if they redirected their focus to the subject matter of the physical sciences.",
"Terms such as \"class\" should be more precisely formulated by social scientists.",
"Social scientists should make an effort to construct more laws that apply to all societies.",
"The laws of social science are invariably not truly scientific."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following statements is most strongly supported by the information above? |
The miscarriage of justice in the Barker case was due to the mistaken views held by some of the forensic scientists involved in the case, who believed that they owed allegiance only to the prosecuting lawyers. Justice was thwarted because these forensic scientists failed to provide evidence impartially to both the defense and the prosecution. Hence it is not forensic evidence in general that should be condemned for this injustice. | 199902_4-LR2_15_16 | [
"Most forensic scientists acknowledge a professional obligation to provide evidence impartially to both the defense and the prosecution.",
"The type of injustice that occurred in the Barker case has occurred in other cases as well.",
"Most prosecuting lawyers believe that forensic scientists owe a special allegiance to the prosecution.",
"Many instances of injustice in court cases are not of the same type as that which occurred in the Barker case.",
"Many forensic scientists do not believe that any miscarriage of justice occurred in the Barker case."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument? |
Everyone who is excessively generous is not levelheaded, and no one who is levelheaded is bold. | 199902_4-LR2_16_17 | [
"Everyone who is excessively generous is not bold.",
"Everyone who is not bold is excessively generous.",
"No one who is not bold lacks excessive generosity.",
"If someone is levelheaded, then that person is neither bold nor excessively generous.",
"If someone is not levelheaded, then that person is either bold or excessively generous."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following is strictly implied by the above? |
In a study in which secondary school students were asked to identify the teachers they liked the best, the teachers most often identified possessed a personality that constitutes 20 percent of the general public but only 5 percent of teachers. Thus something must discourage the people who would be the best-liked teachers from entering the profession. | 199902_4-LR2_17_18 | [
"People with the personality type constitute 5 percent of the medical profession.",
"People with the personality type constitute 5 percent of college students pursuing a degree in education.",
"Students of teachers with the personality type are intensely recruited for noneducational professions.",
"Students with the personality type are more likely to be liked by teachers than those with other personality types.",
"Teachers with the personality type are more likely to quit teaching than those with other personality types."
]
| 4 | Which of the following, if true, most weakens the argument? |
A successful chess-playing computer would prove either that a machine can think or that chess does not involve thinking. In either case the conception of human intelligence would certainly change. | 199902_4-LR2_18_19 | [
"the conception of intelligence is inextricably linked to that of thought",
"a truly successful chess program may never be invented",
"computer programs have been successfully applied to games other than chess",
"a successful chess-playing computer would not model a human approach to chess playing",
"the inability to play chess has more to do with lack of opportunity than with lack of intelligence"
]
| 3 | The reasoning above is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it does not consider the possibility that |
James: Chemists have recently invented a new technique for extracting rhodium, an element necessary for manufacturing catalytic converters for automobiles, from nuclear waste. Catalytic converters function to remove noxious gases from automobile exhaust. The use of nuclear power is therefore contributing in at least one way to creating a cleaner environment. Marta: The technique you mention, though effective, is still at an experimental stage, so there has been no shift in the sources of the rhodium currently used in manufacturing catalytic converters. | 199902_4-LR2_19_20 | [
"casting doubt on the accuracy of the claims made by James in support of his conclusion",
"questioning the credibility of advocates of nuclear power",
"indicating that James is assuming the truth of the conclusion that he intends to establish",
"pointing out a fact that James, in drawing his conclusion, did not take into account",
"point out that James's premises are no more plausible than is his conclusion"
]
| 3 | Marta responds to James's argument by |
Ethicist:A person who treats others well is more worthy of praise if this treatment is at least partially motivated by feelings of compassion than if it is entirely motivated by cold and dispassionate concern for moral obligation. This is so despite the fact that a person can choose to do what is morally right but cannot choose to have feelings. | 199902_4-LR2_20_21 | [
"Only actions that are at least partially the result of a person's feelings should be used in measuring the praiseworthiness of that person.",
"If a person feels compassion toward the people affected by that person's actions, yet these actions diminish the welfare of those people, that person does not deserve praise.",
"Only what is subject to a person's choice should be used in measuring the praiseworthiness of that person.",
"Someone who acts without feelings of compassion toward those affected by the actions is worthy of praise if those actions enhance the welfare of the people affected.",
"If someone wants to have compassion toward others but does not, that person is worthy of praise."
]
| 2 | If the ethicist's statements are true, then each of the following could be true EXCEPT: |
Children fall into three groups—nontasters, regular tasters, and supertasters—depending on how strongly they experience tastes. Supertasters strongly prefer mild cheddar cheese to sharp, regular tasters weakly prefer mild to sharp, and nontasters show no preference. Also, the more bitter a food tastes, the less children like it. Thus, supertasters experience sharp cheddar as tasting more bitter than mild cheddar, but nontasters experience sharp cheddar as tasting no more bitter than mild cheddar. | 199902_4-LR2_21_22 | [
"Supertasters like mild cheddar cheese more than do regular tasters.",
"The age of the child is the most important factor in determining whether that child is a nontaster, a regular taster, or a supertaster.",
"The sweeter a food tastes, the more children like it.",
"Bitterness is the only factor relevant to how strongly children prefer sharp cheddar cheese to mild cheddar cheese.",
"Nontasters tend to like a wider variety of foods than do regular tasters, who in turn like a wider variety of foods than do supertasters."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if assumed, enables the conclusion above to be properly inferred? |
Donna claims to have found the museum's current exhibition of bronzes from Benin less interesting than many of the other exhibitions recently put on by the museum. According to all the critical reviews, however, the Benin exhibition is more interesting than any other exhibition that the museum has put on in years. Therefore, Donna's claim must be false. | 199902_4-LR2_22_23 | [
"Alice claims to have completed her assignment. According to her supervisor, however, the task that Alice was assigned to do has not yet been completed. Alice's claim, therefore, must be false.",
"Morris claims to have seen the famous fire at the Charles Theater. According to all the news reports, however, that fire took place in 1982 and Morris was out of the country during all of 1982. Morris's claim, therefore, must be false.",
"Denise claims to have gone to the party only to please Albert. Albert, however, insists that he went to the party only to please Denise. Denise's claim, therefore, must be false.",
"Loren claims to like the taste of the fish at the Diggin's Diner. However, since according to everyone who knows anything about food, the fish at the Diggin's Diner tastes dreadful. Loren's claim must be false.",
"Douglas claims to have climbed the tallest mountain in the country. According to the atlas, however, the county contains two other mountains that are taller than the one Douglas climbed. Douglas's claim, therefore, must be false."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following arguments contains flawed reasoning that is most similar to the flawed reasoning in the argument above? |
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