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Critic: Most chorale preludes were written for the organ, and most great chorale preludes written for the organ were written by J. S. Bach. One of Bach's chorale preludes dramatizes one hymn's perspective on the year's end. This prelude is agonizing and fixed on the passing of the old year, with its dashed hopes and lost opportunities. It does not necessarily reveal Bach's own attitude toward the change of the year, but does reflect the tone of the hymn's text. People often think that artists create in order to express their own feelings. Some artists do. Master artists never do, and Bach was a master artist. | 199910_4-LR2_19_22 | [
"Bach believed that the close of the year was not a time for optimism and joyous celebration.",
"In composing music about a particular subject, Bach did not write the music in order to express his own attitude toward the subject.",
"In compositions other than chorale preludes, Bach wrote music in order to express his feelings toward various subjects.",
"Most of Bach's chorale preludes were written for instruments other than the organ.",
"Most of the great chorale preludes were written for instruments other than the organ."
]
| 2 | If the critic's statements are true, then on the basis of them which one of the following CANNOT be true? |
Quasars—celestial objects so far away that their light takes at least 500 million years to reach Earth—have been seen since 1963. For anything that far away to appear from Earth the way quasars do, it would have to burn steadily at a rate that produces more light than 90 billion suns would produce. But nothing that burns at a rate that produces that much light could exist for more than about 100 million years. | 199910_4-LR2_20_23 | [
"Instruments in use before 1963 were not sensitive enough to permit quasars to be seen.",
"Light from quasars first began reaching Earth in 1963.",
"Anything that from Earth appears as bright as a quasar does must produce more light than would be produced by 90 billion suns.",
"Nothing that is as far from Earth as quasars are can continue to exist for more than about",
"No quasar that has ever been seen from Earth exists any longer."
]
| 4 | If the statements above are true, which one of the following must also be true on the basis of them? |
Medical researcher: As expected, records covering the last four years of ten major hospitals indicate that babies born prematurely were more likely to have low birth weights and to suffer from health problems than were babies not born prematurely. These records also indicate that mothers who had received adequate prenatal care were less likely to have low birth weight babies than were mothers who had received inadequate prenatal care. Adequate prenatal care, therefore, significantly decreases the risk of low birth weight babies. | 199910_4-LR2_21_24 | [
"The hospital records indicate that many babies that are born with normal birth weights are born to mothers who had inadequate prenatal care.",
"Mothers giving birth prematurely are routinely classified by hospitals as having received inadequate prenatal care when the record of that care is not available.",
"The hospital records indicate that low birth weight babies were routinely classified as having been born prematurely.",
"Some babies not born prematurely, whose mothers received adequate prenatal care, have low birth weights.",
"Women who receive adequate prenatal care, are less likely to give birth prematurely than are women who do not receive adequate prenatal care."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, most weakens the medical researcher's argument? |
Formal performance evaluations in the professional world are conducted using realistic situations. Physicians are allowed to consult medical texts freely, attorneys may refer to law books and case records, and physicists and engineers have their manuals at hand for ready reference. Students, then, should likewise have access to their textbooks whenever they take examinations. | 199910_4-LR2_22_25 | [
"cites examples that are insufficient to support the generalization that performance evaluations in the professional world are conducted in realistic situations",
"fails to consider the possibility that adopting its recommendation will not significantly increase most students' test scores",
"neglects to take into account the fact that professionals were once students who also did not have access to textbooks during examinations",
"neglects to take into account the fact that, unlike students, professionals have devoted many years of study to one subject",
"fails to consider the possibility that the purposes of evaluation in the professional world and in school situations are quite dissimilar"
]
| 4 | The reasoning in the argument is questionable because the argument |
More and more computer programs that provide solutions to mathematical problems in engineering are being produced, and it is thus increasingly unnecessary for practicing engineers to have a thorough understanding of fundamental mathematical principles. Consequently, in training engineers who will work in industry, less emphasis should be placed on mathematical principles, so that space in the engineering curriculum will be available for other important subjects. | 199912_2-LR1_1_1 | [
"The effective use of computer programs that provide solutions to mathematical problems in engineering requires an understanding of mathematical principles.",
"Many of the computer programs that provide solutions to mathematical problems in engineering are already in routine use.",
"Development of composites and other such new materials has meant that the curriculum for engineers who will work in industry must allow time for teaching the properties of these materials.",
"Most of the computer programs that provide solutions to mathematical problems in engineering can be run on the types of computers available to most engineering firms.",
"The engineering curriculum already requires that engineering students be familiar with and able to use a variety of computer programs."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument given for the recommendation above? |
Raymond Burr played the role of Perry Mason on television. Burr's death in 1993 prompted a prominent lawyer to say, "Although not a lawyer, Mr. Burr strove for such authenticity that we feel as if we lost one of our own." This comment from a prestigious attorney provides appalling evidence that, in the face of television, even some legal professionals are losing their ability to distinguish fiction from reality. | 199912_2-LR1_2_2 | [
"takes the views of one lawyer to represent the views of all lawyers",
"criticizes the lawyer rather than the lawyer's statement",
"presumes that the lawyer is qualified to evaluate the performance of an actor",
"focuses on a famous actor's portrayal of a lawyer rather than on the usual way in which lawyers are portrayed on television",
"ignores the part of the lawyer's remark that indicates an awareness of the difference between reality and fiction"
]
| 4 | The reasoning in the argument is flawed because the argument |
Opponents of peat harvesting in this country argue that it would alter the ecological balance of our peat-rich wetlands and that, as a direct consequence of this, much of the country's water supply would be threatened with contamination. But this cannot be true, for in Ireland, where peat has been harvested for centuries, the water supply is not contaminated. We can safely proceed with the harvesting of peat. | 199912_2-LR1_3_3 | [
"Over hundreds of years, the ecological balance of all areas changes slowly but significantly, sometimes to the advantage of certain flora and fauna.",
"The original ecology of the peat-harvesting areas of Ireland was virtually identical to that of the undisturbed wetlands of this country.",
"The activities of other industries in coming years are likely to have adverse effects on the water supply of this country.",
"The peat resources of this country are far larger than those of some countries that successfully harvest peat.",
"The peat-harvesting industry of Ireland has been able to supply most of that country's fuel for generations."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument? |
For the next year, the Chefs' Union has requested a 10 percent salary increase for each of its members, whereas the Hotel Managers' Union has requested only an 8 percent salary increase for each of its members. These facts demonstrate that the average dollar amount of the raises that the Chefs' Union has requested for next year is greater than that of the raises requested by the Hotel Managers' Union. | 199912_2-LR1_4_4 | [
"The Chefs' Union has many more members than does the Hotel Managers' Union.",
"The Chefs' Union is a more powerful union than is the Hotel Managers' Union and is therefore more likely to obtain the salary increases it requests.",
"The current salaries of the members of the Chefs' Union are, on average, higher than the current salaries of the members of the Hotel Managers' Union.",
"The average dollar amount of the raises that the members of the Chefs' Union received last year was equal to the average dollar amount of the raises that the members of the Hotel Managers' Union received.",
"The members of the Chefs' Union received salary increases of 10 percent in each of the last two years, while the members of the Hotel Managers' Union received salary increases of only 8 percent in each of the last two years."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument? |
Parent: I had tried without success to get my young child to brush her teeth. I had hoped that she would imitate me, or that she would be persuaded by reason to brush her teeth. Then, I made a point of brushing her teeth for her immediately before reading her a story before her naps and at night. After several weeks, when I would pick up a storybook at these times, she began automatically to retrieve her toothbrush and brush her teeth herself. | 199912_2-LR1_5_5 | [
"Children are most effectively taught to do something by someone's setting an example.",
"Children more readily adopt a behavior through habit and repetition than through other means.",
"Children are too young to understand rational arguments for adopting a behavior.",
"Children often imitate the behavior of others rather than listening to reason.",
"Children ordinarily act contrary to their parents' expectations in order to get more attention."
]
| 1 | The parent's experience with the child most closely conforms to which one of the following generalizations? |
The student body at this university takes courses in a wide range of disciplines. Miriam is a student at this university, so she takes courses in a wide range of disciplines. | 199912_2-LR1_6_6 | [
"The students at this school take mathematics. Miguel is a student at this school, so he takes mathematics.",
"The editorial board of this law journal has written on many legal issues. Louise is on the editorial board, so she has written on many legal issues.",
"The component parts of bulldozers are heavy. This machine is a bulldozer, so it is heavy.",
"All older automobiles need frequent oil changes. This car is new, so its oil need not be changed as frequently.",
"The individual cells of the brain are incapable of thinking. Therefore, the brain as a whole is incapable of thinking."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following arguments exhibits flawed reasoning most similar to that exhibited by the argument above? |
Opponent of offshore oil drilling: The projected benefits of drilling new oil wells in certain areas in the outer continental shelf are not worth the risk of environmental disaster. The oil already being extracted from these areas currently provides only 4 percent of our country's daily oil requirement, and the new wells would only add one-half of 1 percent. Proponent of offshore oil drilling: Don't be ridiculous! You might just as well argue that new farms should not be allowed, since no new farm could supply the total food needs of our country for more than a few minutea | 199912_2-LR1_7_7 | [
"offering evidence in support of drilling that is more decisive than is the evidence offered by the drilling opponent",
"claiming that the statistics cited as evidence by the drilling opponent are factually inaccurate",
"pointing out that the drilling opponent's argument is a misapplication of a frequently legitimate way of arguing",
"citing as parallel to the argument made by the drilling opponent an argument in which the conclusion is strikingly unsupported",
"proposing a conclusion that is more strongly supported by the drilling opponent's evidence than is the conclusion offered by the drilling opponent"
]
| 3 | The drilling proponent's reply to the drilling opponent proceeds by |
Opponent of offshore oil drilling: The projected benefits of drilling new oil wells in certain areas in the outer continental shelf are not worth the risk of environmental disaster. The oil already being extracted from these areas currently provides only 4 percent of our country's daily oil requirement, and the new wells would only add one-half of 1 percent. Proponent of offshore oil drilling: Don't be ridiculous! You might just as well argue that new farms should not be allowed, since no new farm could supply the total food needs of our country for more than a few minutea | 199912_2-LR1_7_8 | [
"New farms do not involve a risk analogous to that run by new offshore oil drilling.",
"Many of the largest soil deposits are located under land that is unsuitable for farming.",
"Unlike oil, common agricultural products fulfill nutritional needs rather than fuel requirements.",
"Legislation governing new oil drilling has been much more thoroughly articulated than has that governing new farms.",
"The country under discussion imports a higher proportion of the farm products it needs than it does of the oil it needs."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, most weakens the drilling proponent's reply? |
A running track with a hard surface makes for greater running speed than a soft one, at least under dry conditions, because even though step length is shorter on a hard surface, the time the runner's foot remains in contact with the running surface is less with a hard surface. | 199912_2-LR1_8_9 | [
"Dry running conditions can be guaranteed for indoor track races only.",
"In general, taller runners have greater average step length than shorter runners do.",
"Hard tracks enhance a runner's speed by making it easier for the runner to maintain a posture that minimizes wind resistance.",
"The tracks at which the world's fastest running times have been recorded are located well above sea level, where the air is relatively thin.",
"To remain in top condition, a soft track surface requires different maintenance procedures than does a hard one."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, is evidence that the explanation given above is only a partial one? |
Goswami: I support the striking workers at Ergon Foods. They are underpaid. The majority of them make less that $20,000 per year. Nordecki: If pay is the issue, I must disagree. The average annual salary of the striking workers at Ergon Foods is over $29,000. | 199912_2-LR1_9_10 | [
"The average annual salary at Ergon Foods is over $29,000.",
"Pay is the primary issue over which the workers are striking at Ergon Foods.",
"It is reasonable to support striking workers who are underpaid.",
"The striking workers at Ergon Foods are underpaid.",
"It was unreasonable for the workers at Ergon Foods to go on strike."
]
| 3 | Goswmi and Nordecki disagree over the truth of which one of the following statements? |
Teacher to a student: You agree that it is bad to break promises. But when we speak to each other we all make an implicit promise to tell the truth, and lying is the breaking of that promise. So even if you promised Jeanne that you would tell me she is home sick, you should not tell me that, if you know that she is well. | 199912_2-LR1_10_11 | [
"Most people always tell the truth.",
"It is sometimes better to act in a friend's best interests than to keep a promise to that friend.",
"Breaking a promise leads to worse consequences than does telling a lie.",
"Some implicit promises are worse to break than some explicit ones.",
"One should never break a promise."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the teacher's argument depends? |
Despite the fact that antilock brakes are designed to make driving safer, research suggests that people who drive cars equipped with antilock brakes have more accidents than those who drive cars not equipped with antilock brakes. | 199912_2-LR1_11_12 | [
"Most cars equipped with antilock brakes are, on average, driven more carelessly than cars not equipped with antilock brakes.",
"Antilock brakes malfunction more often than regular brakes.",
"Antilock brakes require expensive specialized maintenance to be even as effective as unmaintained regular brakes.",
"Most people who drive cars equipped with antilock brakes do not know how to use those brakes properly.",
"Antilock brakes were designed for safety in congested urban driving, but accidents of the most serious nature take place on highways."
]
| 4 | Each of the following, if true, would help resolve the apparent discrepancy described above EXCEPT: |
President of the Regional Chamber of Commerce: We are all aware of the painful fact that almost no new businesses have moved into our region or started up here over the last ten years. But the Planning Board is obviously guilty of a gross exaggeration in its recent estimate that businesses are leaving the region at the rate of about four a week. After all, there were never more than about one thousand businesses in the region, so if they were really leaving at such a rate, they would all have been gone long ago. | 199912_2-LR1_12_13 | [
"focuses on what is going out of a system while ignoring the issue of what is coming into the system",
"confuses a claim about a rate of change within a system with a claim about the absolute size of the system",
"argues against a position simply by showing that the position serves the interest of the Planning Board",
"treats a claim about what is currently the case as if it were a claim about what has been the case for an extended period",
"attacks what was offered as an estimate on the ground that it is not precise"
]
| 3 | The argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the ground that it |
It is inaccurate to say that a diet high in refined sugar cannot cause adult-onset diabetes, since a diet high in refined sugar can make a person overweight, and being overweight can predispose a person to adult-onset diabetes. | 199912_2-LR1_13_14 | [
"It is inaccurate to say that being in cold air can cause a person to catch a cold, since colds are caused by viruses, and viruses flourish in warm, crowded places.",
"It is accurate to say that no airline flies from Halifax to Washington. No airline offers a direct flight, although some airlines have flights from Halifax to Boston and others have flights from Boston to Washington.",
"It is correct to say that overfertilization is the primary cause of lawn disease, since fertilizer causes lawn grass to grow rapidly and rapidly growing grass has little resistance to disease.",
"It is incorrect to say that inferior motor oil cannot cause a car to get poorer gasoline mileage, since inferior motor oil can cause engine valve deterioration, and engine valve deterioration can lead to poorer gasoline mileage.",
"It is inaccurate to say that Alexander the Great was a student of Plato; Alexander was a student of Aristotle and Aristotle was a student of Plato."
]
| 3 | The argument is most parallel, in its logical structure, to which one of the following? |
During the recent economic downturn, banks contributed to the decline by loaning less money. Prior to the downturn, regulatory standards for loanmaking by banks were tightened. Clearly, therefore, banks will lend more money if those standards are relaxed. | 199912_2-LR1_14_15 | [
"the downturn did not cause a significant decrease in the total amount of money on deposit with banks which is the source of funds for banks to lend",
"the imposition of the tighter regulatory standards was not a cause of the economic downturn",
"the reason for tightening the regulatory standards was not arbitrary",
"no economic downturn is accompanied by a significant decrease in the amount of money loaned out by banks to individual borrowers and to businesses",
"no relaxation of standards for loanmaking by banks would compensate for the effects of the downturn"
]
| 0 | The argument assumes that |
Zoos have served both as educational resources and as entertainment. Unfortunately, removing animals from their natural habitats to stock the earliest zoos reduced certain species' populations, endangering their survival. Today most zoo animals are obtained from captive breeding programs, and many zoos now maintain breeding stocks for continued propagation of various species. This makes possible efforts to reestablish endangered species in the wild. | 199912_2-LR1_15_16 | [
"Zoos have played an essential role in educating the public about endangered species.",
"Some specimens of endangered species are born and bred in zoos.",
"No zoos exploit wild animals or endanger the survival of species.",
"Nearly all of the animals in zoos today were born in captivity.",
"The main purpose of zoos has shifted from entertainment to education."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following statements is most strongly supported by the information above? |
Only a very small percentage of people from the service professions ever become board members of the 600 largest North American corporations. This shows that people from the service professions are underrepresented in the most important corporate boardrooms in North America. | 199912_2-LR1_16_17 | [
"Six hundred is too small a sample on which to base so sweeping a conclusion about the representation of people from the service professions.",
"The percentage of people from the service professions who serve on the boards of the 600 largest North American corporations reveals little about the percentage of the members of these boards who are from the service professions.",
"It is a mistake to take the 600 largest North American corporations to be typical of corporate boardrooms generally.",
"It is irrelevant to smaller corporations whether the largest corporations in North America would agree to have significant numbers of workers from the service professions on the boards of the largest corporations.",
"The presence of people from the service professions on a corporate board does not necessarily imply that that corporation will be more socially responsible than it has been in the past."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following points out a flaw committed in the argument? |
If there are any inspired performances in the concert, the audience will be treated to a good show. But there will not be a good show unless there are sophisticated listeners in the audience, and to be a sophisticated listener one must understand one's musical roots. | 199912_2-LR1_17_18 | [
"If there are no sophisticated listeners in the audience, then there will be no inspired musical performances in the concert.",
"No people who understand their musical roots will be in the audience if the audience will not be treated to a good show.",
"If there will be people in the audience who understand their musical roots, then at least one musical performance in the concert will be inspired.",
"The audience will be treated to a good show unless there are people in the audience who do not understand their musical roots.",
"If there are sophisticated listeners in the audience, then there will be inspired musical performances in the concert."
]
| 0 | If all of the statements above are true, which one of the following must also be true? |
Columnist: A recent study suggests that living with a parrot increases one's risk of lung cancer. But no one thinks the government should impose financial impediments on the owning of parrots because of this apparent danger. So by the same token, the government should not levy analogous special taxes on hunting gear, snow skis, recreational parachutes, or motorcycles. | 199912_2-LR1_18_19 | [
"The government should fund education by taxing nonessential sports equipment and recreational gear.",
"The government should not tax those who avoid dangerous activities and adopt healthy lifestyles.",
"The government should create financial disincentives to deter participation in activities it deems dangerous.",
"The government should not create financial disincentives for people to race cars or climb mountains, even though these are dangerous activities.",
"The government would be justified in levying taxes to provide food and shelter for those who cannot afford to pay for them."
]
| 2 | Each of the following principles is logically consistent with the columnist's conclusion EXCEPT: |
Scientist: Some critics of public funding for this research project have maintained that only if it can be indicated how the public will benefit from the project is continued public funding for it justified. If the critics were right about this, then there would not be the tremendous public support for the project that even its critics acknowledge. | 199912_2-LR1_19_20 | [
"The benefits derived from the research project are irrelevant to whether or not its funding is justified.",
"Continued public funding for the research project is justified.",
"Public support for the research project is the surest indication of whether or not it is justified.",
"There is tremendous public support for the research project because it can be indicated how the public will benefit from the project.",
"That a public benefit can be indicated is not a requirement for the justification of the research project's continued public funding."
]
| 4 | If the scientist's claims are true, which one of the following must also be true? |
The new agriculture bill will almost surely fail to pass. The leaders of all major parties have stated that they oppose it. | 199912_2-LR1_20_21 | [
"Most bills that have not been supported by even one leader of a major party have not been passed into law.",
"Most bills that have not been passed into law were not supported by even one member of a major party.",
"If the leaders of all major parties endorse the new agriculture bill, it will pass into law.",
"Most bills that have been passed into law were not unanimously supported by the leaders of all major parties.",
"Most bills that have been passed into law were supported by at least one leader of a major party."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, adds the most support for the prediction that the agriculture bill will fail to pass? |
The folktale that claims that a rattlesnake's age can be determined from the number of sections in its rattle is false, but only because the rattles are brittle and sometimes partially or completely break off. So if they were not so brittle, one could reliably determine a rattlesnake's age simply from the number of sections in its rattle, because one new section is formed each time a rattlesnake molts. | 199912_2-LR1_21_22 | [
"Rattlesnakes molt exactly once a year.",
"The rattles of rattlesnakes of different species are identical in appearance.",
"Rattlesnakes molt more frequently when young than when old.",
"The brittleness of a rattlesnake's rattle is not correlated with the length of the rattlesnake's life.",
"Rattlesnakes molt as often when food is scarce as they do when food is plentiful."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following is an assumption the argument requires in order for its conclusion to be properly drawn? |
Tony: A new kind of videocassette has just been developed. It lasts for only half as many viewings as the old kind does but costs a third as much. Therefore, video rental stores would find it significantly more economical to purchase and stock movies recorded on the new kind of videocassette than on the old kind. Anna: But the videocassette itself only accounts for 5 percent of the price a video rental store pays to buy a copy of a movie on video; most of the price consists of royalties the store pays to the studio that produced the movie. So the price that video rental stores pay per copy would decrease by considerably less than 5 percent, and royalties would have to be paid on additional copies. | 199912_2-LR1_22_23 | [
"The royalties paid to movie studios for movies sold on videotape are excessively large.",
"Video rental stores should always stock the highest-quality videocassettes available, because durability is more important than price.",
"The largest part of the fee a customer pays to rent a movie from a video rental store goes toward the royalties the store paid in purchasing that movie.",
"The cost savings to video rental stores that buy movies recorded on the cheaper videocassettes rather than movies recorded on the more durable ones will be small or nonexistent.",
"If the price a video rental store pays to buy a movie on videocassette does not decrease, the rental fee the store charges on the movie will not decrease."
]
| 3 | Anna's reply is structured to lead to which one of the following conclusions? |
Tony: A new kind of videocassette has just been developed. It lasts for only half as many viewings as the old kind does but costs a third as much. Therefore, video rental stores would find it significantly more economical to purchase and stock movies recorded on the new kind of videocassette than on the old kind. Anna: But the videocassette itself only accounts for 5 percent of the price a video rental store pays to buy a copy of a movie on video; most of the price consists of royalties the store pays to the studio that produced the movie. So the price that video rental stores pay per copy would decrease by considerably less than 5 percent, and royalties would have to be paid on additional copies. | 199912_2-LR1_22_24 | [
"The price that video rental stores pay for movies recorded on videocassettes is considerably less than the retail price of those movies.",
"A significant proportion of the movies on videocassette purchased by video rental stores are bought as replacements for worn-out copies of movies the stores already have in stock.",
"The royalty fee included in the price that video rental stores pay for movies on the new kind of videocassette will be half that included in the price of movies on the old kind.",
"Given a choice, customers are more likely to buy a movie on videocassette than to rent it if the rental fee is more than half of the purchase price.",
"Many of the movies rented from video rental stores, particularly children's movies, average several viewings per rental fee."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, would contribute most to a defense of Tony's position against Anna's reply? |
Physician: Heart disease generally affects men at an earlier age than it does women, who tend to experience heart disease after menopause. Both sexes have the hormones estrogen and testosterone, but when they are relatively young, men have ten times as much testosterone as women, and women abruptly lose estrogen after menopause. We can conclude, then, that testosterone tends to promote, and estrogen tends to inhibit, heart disease. | 199912_2-LR1_23_25 | [
"Hormones are the primary factors that account for the differences in age-related heart disease risks between women and men.",
"Estrogen and testosterone are the only hormones that promote or inhibit heart disease.",
"Men with high testosterone levels have a greater risk for heart disease than do postmenopausal women.",
"Because hormone levels are correlated with heart disease they influence heart disease.",
"Hormone levels do not vary from person to person, especially among those of the same age and gender."
]
| 3 | The physician's argument is questionable because it presumes which one of the following without providing sufficient justification? |
People ought to take into account a discipline's blemished origins when assessing the scientific value of that discipline. Take, for example, chemistry. It must be considered that many of its landmark results were obtained by alchemists—a group whose superstitions and appeals to magic dominated the early development of chemical theory. | 199912_2-LR1_24_26 | [
"fails to establish that disciplines with unblemished origins are scientifically valuable",
"fails to consider how chemistry's current theories and practices differ from those of the alchemists mentioned",
"uses an example to contradict the principle under consideration",
"does not prove that most disciplines that are not scientifically valuable have origins that are in some way suspect",
"uses the word \"discipline\" in two different senses"
]
| 1 | The reasoning above is most susceptible to criticism because the author |
A government ought to protect and encourage free speech, because free speech is an activity that is conducive to a healthy nation and thus is in the best interest of its people. | 199912_4-LR2_1_1 | [
"An activity that is in the best interest of the people ought to be protected and encouraged by a nation's government.",
"Basic, inalienable rights of the people ought to be protected and encouraged by government.",
"An activity that helps a government to govern ought to be protected and encouraged by it.",
"A government ought to protect and encourage an activity that is conducive to the interests of that government.",
"Universal human rights that are in the best interest of the people ought to be protected and encouraged by a nation's government."
]
| 0 | The main conclusion above follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? |
The current theory about earthquakes holds that they are caused by adjoining plates of rock sliding past each other; the plates are pressed together until powerful forces overcome the resistance. As plausible as this may sound, at least one thing remains mysterious on this theory. The overcoming of such resistance should create enormous amounts of heat. But so far no increases in temperature unrelated to weather have been detected following earthquakes. | 199912_4-LR2_2_2 | [
"No increases in temperature have been detected following earthquakes.",
"The current theory does not fully explain earthquake data.",
"No one will ever be sure what the true cause of earthquakes is.",
"Earthquakes produce enormous amounts of heat that have so far gone undetected.",
"Contrary to the current theory, earthquakes are not caused by adjoining plates of rock sliding past one another."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main point of the argument? |
Legal theorist: It is unreasonable to incarcerate anyone for any other reason than that he or she is a serious threat to the property or lives of other people. The breaking of a law does not justify incarceration, for lawbreaking proceeds either from ignorance of the law or of the effects of one's actions, or from the free choice on the part of the lawbreaker. Obviously mere ignorance cannot justify incarcerating a lawbreaker, and even free choice on the part of the lawbreaker fails to justify incarceration, for free choice proceeds from the desires of an agent, and the desires of an agent are products of genetics and environmental conditioning, neither of which is controlled by the agent. | 199912_4-LR2_3_3 | [
"It is offered as a premise that helps to show that no actions are under the control of the agent.",
"It is offered as background information necessary to understand the argument.",
"It is offered as the main conclusion that the argument is designed to establish.",
"It is offered as evidence for the stated claim that protection of life and property is more important than retribution for past illegal acts.",
"It is offered as evidence for the stated claim that lawbreaking proceeds from either ignorance of the law, or ignorance of the effects of one's actions, or free choice."
]
| 2 | The claim in the first sentence of the passage plays which one of the following roles in the argument? |
A certain gene can be stimulated by chemicals in cigarette smoke, causing lung cells to metabolize the chemicals in a way that makes the cells cancerous. Yet smokers in whom this gene is not stimulated have as high a risk of developing lung cancer from smoking as other smokers do. | 199912_4-LR2_4_4 | [
"stimulation of the gene by chemicals in cigarette smoke is not the only factor affecting the risk for smokers of developing lung cancer",
"nonsmokers have as high a risk of developing lung cancer as do smokers in whom the gene has not been stimulated",
"smokers in whom the gene has been stimulated are more likely to develop lung cancer than are other smokers",
"the gene is more likely to be stimulated by chemicals in cigarette smoke than by other chemicals",
"smokers are less likely to develop lung cancer if they do not have the gene"
]
| 0 | If the statements above are true, it can be concluded on the basis of them that |
In a poll of eligible voters conducted on the eve of a mayoral election, more of those polled stated that they favored Panitch than stated that they favored any other candidate. Despite this result, another candidate, Yeung, defeated Panitch by a comfortable margin. | 199912_4-LR2_5_5 | [
"Of Yeung's supporters, a smaller percentage were eligible to vote than the percentage of Panitch's supporters who were eligible to vote.",
"A third candidate, Mulhern, conducted a press conference on the morning of the election and withdrew from the race.",
"The poll's questions were designed by staff members of Panitch's campaign.",
"Of the poll respondents supporting Yeung, 70 percent described the election as \"important\" or \"very important,\" while 30 percent of respondents supporting Panitch did the same.",
"The poll, conducted on a Monday, surveyed persons in the downtown area, and the percentage of Yeung's supporters who work downtown is lower than that of Panitch's supporters."
]
| 0 | Each of the following, if true, contributes to a resolution of the discrepancy described above EXCEPT: |
Commissioner: Budget forecasters project a revenue shortfall of a billion dollars in the coming fiscal year. Since there is no feasible way to increase the available funds, our only choice is to decrease expenditures. The plan before you outlines feasible cuts that would yield savings of a billion dollars over the coming fiscal year. We will be able to solve the problem we face, therefore, only if we adopt this plan. | 199912_4-LR2_6_6 | [
"relies on information that is far from certain",
"confuses being an adequate solution with being a required solution",
"inappropriately relies on the opinions of experts",
"inappropriately employs language that is vague",
"takes for granted that there is no way to increase available funds"
]
| 1 | The reasoning in the commissioner's argument is flawed because this argument |
Critic: Emily Dickinson's poetry demonstrates that meaning cannot reside entirely within a poem itself, but is always the unique result of an interaction between a reader's system of beliefs and the poem; and, of course, any two readers from different cultures or eras have radically different systems of beliefs. | 199912_4-LR2_7_7 | [
"A reader's interpretation of a poem by Dickinson is affected by someone else's interpretation of it.",
"A modern reader and a nineteenth-century reader interpret one of Shakespeare's sonnets in the same way.",
"A reader's interpretation of a poem evolves over time.",
"Two readers from the same era arrive at different interpretations of the same poem.",
"A reader's enjoyment of a poem is enhanced by knowing the poet's interpretation of it."
]
| 1 | If the critic's statements are true, each of the following could be true EXCEPT: |
Archaeologist: The fact that the ancient Egyptians and the Maya both built pyramids is often taken as evidence of a historical link between Old- and New-World civilizations that is earlier than any yet documented. But while these buildings are similar to each other, there are important differences in both design and function. The Egyptian pyramids were exclusively tombs for rulers, whereas the Mayan pyramids were used as temples. This shows conclusively that there was no such link between Old- and New-World civilizations. | 199912_4-LR2_8_8 | [
"The argument equivocates with respect to the term \"evidence.\"",
"The argument appeals to emotion rather than to reason.",
"The argument assumes the conclusion it is trying to prove.",
"The argument incorrectly relies on words whose meanings are vague or imprecise.",
"The argument presumes that no other evidence is relevant to the issue at hand."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following most accurately describes a flaw in the archaeologist's argument? |
Manuscripts written by first-time authors generally do not get serious attention by publishers except when these authors happen to be celebrities. My manuscript is unlikely to be taken seriously by publishers for I am a first-time author who is not a celebrity. | 199912_4-LR2_9_9 | [
"Challengers generally do not win elections unless the incumbent has become very unpopular. The incumbent in this election has become very unpopular. Therefore, the challenger may win.",
"Fruit salad that contains bananas is ordinarily a boring dish unless it contains two or more exotic fruits. This fruit salad has bananas in it, and the only exotic fruit it has is guava. Thus, it will probably be boring.",
"Thursday's city council meeting is likely to be poorly attended. Traditionally, council meetings are sparsely attended if zoning issues are the only ones on the agenda. The agenda for Thursday is exclusively devoted to zoning.",
"The bulk of an estate generally goes to the spouse, if surviving, and otherwise goes to the surviving children. In this case there is no surviving spouse; hence the bulk of the estate is likely to go to the surviving children.",
"Normally about 40 percent of the deer population will die over the winter unless it is extremely mild. The percentage of the deer population that died over the recent winter was the normal 40 percent. I conclude that the recent winter was not unusually mild."
]
| 1 | The structure of which one of the following arguments is most similar to the structure of the argument above? |
Twelve healthy volunteers with the Apo-A-IV-1 gene and twelve healthy volunteers who instead have the Apo-A-IV-2 gene each consumed a standard diet supplemented daily by a high-cholesterol food. A high level of cholesterol in the blood is associated with an increased risk of heart disease. After three weeks, the blood cholesterol levels of the subjects in the second group were unchanged, whereas the blood cholesterol levels of those with the Apo-A-IV-1 gene rose 20 percent. | 199912_4-LR2_10_10 | [
"Approximately half the population carries a gene that lowers cholesterol levels.",
"Most of those at risk of heart disease may be able to reduce their risk by adopting a low-cholesterol diet.",
"The bodies of those who have the Apo-A-IV-2 gene excrete cholesterol when blood cholesterol reaches a certain level.",
"The presence of the Apo-A-IV-1 gene seems to indicate that a person has a lower risk of heart disease.",
"The presence of the Apo-A-IV-2 gene may inhibit the elevation of blood cholesterol."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the information above? |
High school students who feel that they are not succeeding in school often drop out before graduating and go to work. Last year, however, the city's high school dropout rate was significantly lower than the previous year's rate. This is encouraging evidence that the program instituted two years ago to improve the morale of high school students has begun to take effect to reduce dropouts. | 199912_4-LR2_11_11 | [
"There was a recession that caused a high level of unemployment in the city.",
"The morale of students who dropped out of high school had been low even before they reached high school.",
"As in the preceding year, more high school students remained in school than dropped out.",
"High schools in the city established placement offices to assist their graduates in obtaining employment.",
"The antidropout program was primarily aimed at improving students' morale in those high schools with the highest dropout rates."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true about the last year, most seriously weakens the argument? |
The television show Henry was not widely watched until it was scheduled for Tuesday evenings immediately after That's Life, the most popular show on television. During the year after the move, Henry was consistently one of the ten most-watched shows on television. Since Henry's recent move to Wednesday evenings, however, it has been watched by far fewer people. We must conclude that Henry was widely watched before the move to Wednesday evenings because it followed That's Life and not because people especially liked it. | 199912_4-LR2_12_12 | [
"Henry has been on the air for three years, but That's Life has been on the air for only two years.",
"The show that replaced Henry on Tuesdays has persistently had a low number of viewers in the Tuesday time slot.",
"The show that now follows That's Life on Tuesdays has double the number of viewers it had before being moved.",
"After its recent move to Wednesday, Henry was aired at the same time as the second most popular show on television.",
"That's Life was not widely watched during the first year it was aired."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument? |
Joseph: My encyclopedia says that the mathematician Pierre de Fermat died in 1665 without leaving behind any written proof for a theorem that he claimed nonetheless to have proved. Probably this alleged theorem simply cannot be proved, since—as the article points out—no one else has been able to prove it. Therefore it is likely that Fermat was either lying or else mistaken when he made his claim. Laura: Your encyclopedia is out of date. Recently someone has in fact proved Fermat's theorem. And since the theorem is provable, your claim—that Fermat was lying or mistaken—clearly is wrong. | 199912_4-LR2_13_13 | [
"an assumption for which no support is offered",
"a subsidiary conclusion on which his argument's main conclusion is based",
"a potential objection that his argument anticipates and attempts to answer before it is raised",
"the principal claim that his argument is structured to refute",
"background information that neither supports nor undermines his argument's conclusion"
]
| 1 | Joseph's statement that "this alleged theorem simply cannot be proved" plays which one of the following roles in his argument? |
Joseph: My encyclopedia says that the mathematician Pierre de Fermat died in 1665 without leaving behind any written proof for a theorem that he claimed nonetheless to have proved. Probably this alleged theorem simply cannot be proved, since—as the article points out—no one else has been able to prove it. Therefore it is likely that Fermat was either lying or else mistaken when he made his claim. Laura: Your encyclopedia is out of date. Recently someone has in fact proved Fermat's theorem. And since the theorem is provable, your claim—that Fermat was lying or mistaken—clearly is wrong. | 199912_4-LR2_13_14 | [
"It purports to establish its conclusion by making a claim that, if true, would actually contradict that conclusion.",
"It mistakenly assumes that the quality of a person's character can legitimately be taken to guarantee the accuracy of the claims that person has made.",
"It mistakes something that is necessary for its conclusion to follow for something that ensures that the conclusion follows.",
"It uses the term \"provable\" without defining it.",
"It fails to distinguish between a true claim that has mistakenly been believed to be false and a false claim that has mistakenly been believed to be true."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following most accurately describes a reasoning error in Laura's argument? |
It is not good for a university to have class sizes that are very large or very small, or to have professors with teaching loads that are very light or very heavy. After all, crowded classes and overworked faculty cripple the institution's ability to recruit and retain both qualified students and faculty. | 199912_4-LR2_14_15 | [
"Professors who have very light teaching loads tend to focus their remaining time on research.",
"Classes that have very low numbers of students tend to have a lot of classroom discussion.",
"Very small class sizes or very light teaching loads indicate incompetence in classroom instruction.",
"Very small class sizes or very light teaching loads are common in the worst and the best universities.",
"Professors with very light teaching loads have no more office hours for students than professors with normal teaching loads."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if added as a premise to the argument, most helps to justify its conclusion? |
Sales manager: The highest priority should be given to the needs of the sales department, because without successful sales the company as a whole would fail. Shipping manager: There are several departments other than sales that also must function successfully for the company to succeed. It is impossible to give the highest priority to all of them. | 199912_4-LR2_15_16 | [
"that the sales department taken by itself is not critical to the company's success as a whole",
"the ambiguity of the term \"highest priority\"",
"that departments other than sales are more vital to the company's success",
"an absurd consequence of its apparent assumption that a department's necessity earns it the highest priority",
"that the sales manager makes a generalization from an atypical case"
]
| 3 | The shipping manager criticizes the sales manager's argument by pointing out |
Researchers have found that people who drink five or more cups of coffee a day have a risk of heart disease 2.5 times the average after corrections are made for age and smoking habits. Members of the research team say that, on the basis of their findings, they now limit their own daily coffee intake to two cups. | 199912_4-LR2_16_17 | [
"The study found that for people who drank three or more cups of coffee daily, the additional risk of heart disease increased with each extra daily cup.",
"Per capita coffee consumption has been declining over the past 20 years because of the increasing popularity of soft drinks and also because of health worries.",
"The study did not collect information that would show whether variations in level of coffee consumption are directly related to variations in level of stress, a major causal factor in heart disease.",
"Subsequent studies have consistently shown that heavy smokers consume coffee at about 3 times the rate of nonsmokers.",
"Subsequent studies have shown that heavy coffee consumption tends to cause an elevated blood-cholesterol level, an immediate indicator of increased risk of heart disease."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, indicates that the researchers' precaution might NOT have the result of decreasing their risk of heart disease? |
People who have political power tend to see new technologies as a means of extending or protecting their power, whereas they generally see new ethical arguments and ideas as a threat to it. Therefore, technical ingenuity usually brings benefits to those who have this ingenuity, whereas ethical inventiveness brings only pain to those who have this inventiveness. | 199912_4-LR2_17_18 | [
"Those who offer new ways of justifying current political power often reap the benefits of their own innovations.",
"Politically powerful people tend to reward those who they believe are useful to them and to punish those who they believe are a threat.",
"Ethical inventiveness and technical ingenuity are never possessed by the same individuals.",
"New technologies are often used by people who strive to defeat those who currently have political power.",
"Many people who possess ethical inventiveness conceal their novel ethical arguments for fear of retribution by the politically powerful."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following statements, if true, most strengthens the argument? |
Birds need so much food energy to maintain their body temperatures that some of them spend most of their time eating. But a comparison of a bird of a seed-eating species to a bird of a nectar-eating species that has the same overall energy requirement would surely show that the seed-eating bird spends more time eating than does the nectar-eating bird, since a given amount of nectar provides more energy than does the same amount of seeds. | 199912_4-LR2_18_19 | [
"Birds of different species do not generally have the same overall energy requirements as each other.",
"The nectar-eating bird does not sometimes also eat seeds.",
"The time it takes for the nectar-eating bird to eat a given amount of nectar is not longer than the time it takes the seed-eating bird to eat the same amount of seeds.",
"The seed-eating bird does not have a lower body temperature than that of the nectar-eating bird.",
"The overall energy requirements of a given bird do not depend on factors such as the size of the bird, its nest-building habits, and the climate of the region in which it lives."
]
| 2 | The argument relies on which one of the following questionable assumptions? |
Consumer advocate: The introduction of a new drug into the marketplace should be contingent upon our having a good understanding of its social impact. However, the social impact of the newly marketed antihistamine is far from clear. It is obvious, then, that there should be a general reduction in the pace of bringing to the marketplace new drugs that are now being tested. | 199912_4-LR2_19_20 | [
"The social impact of the new antihistamine is much better understood than that of most new drugs being tested.",
"The social impact of some of the new drugs being tested is poorly understood.",
"The economic success of some drugs is inversely proportional to how well we understand their social impact.",
"The new antihistamine is chemically similar to some of the new drugs being tested.",
"The new antihistamine should be on the market only if most new drugs being tested should be on the market also."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument? |
Tina: For centuries oceans and human eccentricity have been linked in the literary and artistic imagination. Such linkage is probably due to the European Renaissance practice of using ships as asylums for the socially undesirable. Sergio: No. Oceans have always been viewed as mysterious and unpredictable—qualities that people have invariably associated with eccentricity. | 199912_4-LR2_20_21 | [
"Eccentric humans were considered socially undesirable during the European Renaissance.",
"Oceans have always been viewed as mysterious and unpredictable.",
"The linkage between oceans and eccentricity explains the European Renaissance custom of using ships as asylums.",
"People have never attributed the same qualities to oceans and eccentrics.",
"The linkage between oceans and eccentricity predates the European Renaissance."
]
| 4 | Tina's and Sergio's statements lend the most support to the claim that they disagree about which one of the following statements? |
In a recent study, a group of subjects had their normal daily caloric intake increased by 25 percent. This increase was entirely in the form of alcohol. Another group of similar subjects had alcohol replace nonalcoholic sources of 25 percent of their normal daily caloric intake. All subjects gained body fat over the course of the study, and the amount of body fat gained was the same for both groups. | 199912_4-LR2_21_22 | [
"Alcohol is metabolized more quickly by the body than are other foods or drinks.",
"In the general population, alcohol is the primary cause of gains in body fat.",
"An increased amount of body fat does not necessarily imply a weight gain.",
"Body fat gain is not dependent solely on the number of calories one consumes.",
"The proportion of calories from alcohol in a diet is more significant for body fat gain than are the total calories from alcohol."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the information above? |
When investigators discovered that the director of a local charity had repeatedly overstated the number of people his charity had helped, the director accepted responsibility for the deception. However, the investigators claimed that journalists were as much to blame as the director was for inflating the charity's reputation, since they had naïvely accepted what the director told them, and simply reported as fact the numbers he gave them. | 199912_4-LR2_22_23 | [
"Anyone who works for a charitable organization is obliged to be completely honest about the activities of that organization.",
"Anyone who knowingly aids a liar by trying to conceal the truth from others is also a liar.",
"Anyone who presents as factual a story that turns out to be untrue without first attempting to verify that story is no less responsible for the consequences of that story than anyone else is.",
"Anyone who lies in order to advance his or her own career is more deserving of blame than someone who lies in order to promote a good cause.",
"Anyone who accepts responsibility for a wrongful act that he or she committed is less deserving of blame than someone who tries to conceal his or her own wrongdoing."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the investigators' claim? |
Telephone companies are promoting "voice mail" as an alternative to the answering machine. By recording messages from callers when a subscriber does not have access to his or her telephone, voice mail provides a service similar to that of an answering machine. The companies promoting this service argue that it will soon make answering machines obsolete, since it is much more convenient, more flexible, and less expensive than an answering machine. | 199912_4-LR2_23_24 | [
"Unlike calls made to owners of answering machines, all telephone calls made to voice-mail subscribers are completed, even if the line called is in use at the time of the call.",
"The surge in sales of answering machines occurred shortly after they were first introduced to the electronics market.",
"Once a telephone customer decides to subscribe to voice mail, that customer can cancel the service at any time.",
"Answering machines enable the customer to hear who is calling before the customer decides whether to answer the telephone, a service voice mail does not provide.",
"The number of messages a telephone answering machine can record is limited by the length of the magnetic tape on which calls are recorded."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if true, most calls into question the argument made by the companies promoting voice mail? |
The judgment that an artist is great always rests on assessments of the work the artist has produced. A series of great works is the only indicator of greatness. Therefore, to say that an artist is great is just to summarize the quality of his or her known works, and the artist's greatness can provide no basis for predicting the quality of the artist's unknown or future works. | 199912_4-LR2_24_25 | [
"The only way of knowing whether someone has a cold is to observe symptoms. Thus, when a person is said to have a cold, this means only that he or she has displayed the symptoms of a cold, and no prediction about the patient's future symptoms is justified.",
"Although colds are very common, there are some people who never or only very rarely catch colds. Clearly these people must be in some way physiologically different from people who catch colds frequently.",
"Someone who has a cold is infected by a cold virus. No one can be infected by the same cold virus twice, but there are indefinitely many different cold viruses. Therefore, it is not possible to predict from a person's history of infection how susceptible he or she will be in the future.",
"The viruses that cause colds are not all the same, and they differ in their effects. Therefore, although it may be certain that a person has a cold, it is impossible to predict how the cold will progress.",
"Unless a person displays cold symptoms, it cannot properly be said that the person has a cold. But each of the symptoms of a cold is also the symptom of some other disease. Therefore, one can never be certain that a person has a cold."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following contains questionable reasoning most similar to that in the argument above? |
Jorge: It is obvious that a shift in economic policy is needed, so why not proceed with the necessary changes all at once? If one wants to jump over a chasm, one would do it with one leap. Christina: I disagree with your view, even though I agree that a shift in economic policy is needed. If one wants to teach a horse to jump fences, one should train it to jump lower heights first. | 200002_2-LR1_1_1 | [
"a shift in economic policy is not needed",
"revising current economic policy incrementally is like teaching a horse to jump fences",
"the faster current economic policy is revised, the less painful the initial changes will be",
"the economic changes should not all be made at the same time",
"the current economic situation is grave"
]
| 3 | Jorge and Christina disagree over whether |
John: For 40 years, fluoride has been added to public drinking water. According to a study, fluoridated public drinking water when given to laboratory rats causes bone cancer. Ninety percent of all the male rats in the test sample were affected, but the female rats were unaffected. Even though I am healthy now, I should nevertheless stop drinking fluoridated water; only then will I be sure not to develop bone cancer. | 200002_2-LR1_2_2 | [
"John does not consider how others besides himself are affected by fluoridation of water.",
"John does not consider whether fluoridated water causes other diseases.",
"John does not consider whether there were any brief periods during the 40 years in which fluoride was not added to the water.",
"John does not focus on the positive effects that fluoridated water has on people",
"John does not consider the possibility of other causes of bone cancer."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following is the strongest criticism of John's reasoning? |
Columnist: Polls can influence voters' decisions, and they may distort the outcome of an election since their results are much less reliable than the public believes. Furthermore, the publication of polls immediately prior to an election allows no response from those wishing to dispute the polls' findings. A ban on publishing polls during the week prior to an election only minimally impairs freedom of expression, and thus should be implemented. | 200002_2-LR1_3_3 | [
"Few people are influenced by the results of polls published during the two weeks immediately prior to an election.",
"The publication of poll results would not decide the winner of an uneven election race.",
"The publication of poll results may remove some voters' motivation to vote because of the certainty that a particular candidate will win.",
"The publication of poll results in the last weeks before an election draws attention to candidates' late gains in popularity.",
"Countries in which such a ban is in effect do not generally have better informed citizens than do countries in which such a ban is not in effect."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the columnist's argument? |
High cholesterol levels are highly correlated with cardiovascular disease. In the Italian town of Limone, however, each of the residents has had high cholesterol levels for many years, and yet they have not developed cardiovascular disease. | 200002_2-LR1_4_4 | [
"Persons who come from families that have enjoyed great longevity tend not to develop cardiovascular disease.",
"The stress and pollution found in large cities exacerbate existing cardiovascular disease, but there is little stress or pollution in Limone.",
"The residents of Limone have normal blood sugar levels, and very low blood sugar levels tend to cancel out the cardiovascular effects of a high cholesterol level.",
"The residents of Limone inherited from common ancestors a blood protein that prevents vascular blockage, which is a cause of cardiovascular disease.",
"Olive oil is a staple of the diet in some parts of Italy, but unlike butter, olive oil is a monosaturated fat, and monosaturated fats do not contribute to cardiovascular disease."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain the unusual health condition of the residents of Limone? |
Smith's new grazing land consists entirely of fescue grass. Half of the grass contains a species of fungus that makes cows ill when they eat it. Smith's cows will most likely learn to graze exclusively on the grass that does not contain the fungus, since, like many other animals, cows will avoid eating a patch of grass if they sense a substance in it that has made them ill. | 200002_2-LR1_5_5 | [
"At least one other species of fungus is contained in the fescue grass that does not contain the fungus that makes cows ill.",
"At least some cows that have been made ill by the fungus are capable of sensing the fungus in fescue grass.",
"The fungus that makes cows ill cannot be found in any variety of grass other than fescue grass.",
"The cows are the only animals grazing on the new land who become ill after eating the fungus contained in the fescue grass.",
"The fungus that is contained in the fescue grass cannot be eradicated without destroying the grass itself."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following is an assumption required by the argument? |
News item: The result of a recent public survey has been called into question because one of the pollsters admitted to falsifying data. The survey originally concluded that most people in the country favor investing more money in information technologies. Because falsified data were included in the survey, its conclusion is not true; a majority does not favor more investment in information technologies. | 200002_2-LR1_6_6 | [
"the conclusion of the survey would be verified if the falsified data were excluded",
"the conclusion of the survey will be accepted by the public even though falsified data were used",
"other pollsters in other surveys also may have falsified data",
"some people who responded to the survey were lying",
"people's opinions about investing in information technologies can change as new technologies are developed"
]
| 0 | The news item's argument is vulnerable to criticism because it fails to consider the possibility that |
When an invading insect threatens an ant colony's territory or food sources, the ants will vigorously swarm over the invader, biting or stinging it. This defensive tactic can effectively deter even aggressive flying insects, such as wasps. Ants do not attack all insects within their territory, however. For example, riodinid caterpillars commonly live harmoniously among South American ants. These caterpillars, which are a favorite prey of wasps, produce secretions the ants consume as food. | 200002_2-LR1_7_7 | [
"The secretions produced by riodinid caterpillars are chemically identical to substances secreted by plants on which South American ants also feed.",
"South American ants are more likely to be successful in defending their food sources and territory against intruders than are ants that live elsewhere.",
"With the sole exception of riodinid caterpillars, South American ants will vigorously attack any organism other than ants that use riodinids as a source of food.",
"Among insect species that inhabit South America, wasps are the only kinds of organism other than ants that use riodinid caterpillars as a source of food.",
"Riodinid caterpillars in South America that live among ants are less likely to be attacked by wasps than those that do not live among ants."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the information above? |
The traditional way to define the difference between rural and urban lifestyles is geographically. But with the impact of communications technology it makes more sense to draw the distinction in informational terms. People who rarely communicate electronically with anyone are living rural lifestyles, irrespective of where they live, while people who communicate daily with dozens of people via fax or modem are living urban lifestyles, even if they live in the country. | 200002_2-LR1_8_8 | [
"Frequency of electronic communication with others is superseding geographical considerations in defining our lifestyles.",
"Many people who use electronic technology find urban lifestyles more satisfying than they find rural lifestyles.",
"People who live rural lifestyles communicate less frequently than do people who live urban lifestyles.",
"We are unable to foresee the magnitude of the changes that the information revolution may have in defining our lives.",
"People are choosing to live in different regions of the nation than previously because of the impact of electronic communications technology."
]
| 0 | The situation described above most closely illustrates which one of the following propositions? |
Very powerful volcanic eruptions send large amounts of ash high into the atmosphere, blocking sunlight and causing abnormally cold temperatures for a year or more after the eruption. In 44 B.C. there was a powerful eruption of Mount Etna in Sicily. In the following year, Chinese historians recorded summer frosts and dimmed sunlight in China, thousands of miles east of Sicily. If these phenomena were caused by volcanic ash in the atmosphere, then the ash sent into the atmosphere by Mount Etna's eruption must have spread over great distances. | 200002_2-LR1_9_9 | [
"modern monitoring equipment can detect the precise path of volcanic ash in the atmosphere",
"the abnormal weather in China lasted for a full year or longer",
"temperatures in Sicily were abnormally cold after Mount Etna erupted",
"there were any volcanic eruptions near China around the time of Mount Etna's eruption",
"subsequent eruptions of Mount Etna were as powerful as the one in 44 B.C."
]
| 3 | In evaluating the support given for the conclusion advanced in the last sentence of the passage, it would be most important to determine whether |
Mario: The field of cognitive science is not a genuinely autonomous discipline since it addresses issues also addressed by the disciplines of computer science, linguistics, and psychology. A genuinely autonomous discipline has a domain of inquiry all its own. Lucy: Nonsense. You've always acknowledged that philosophy is a genuinely autonomous discipline and that, like most people, you think of philosophy as addressing issues also addressed by the disciplines of linguistics, mathematics, and psychology. A field of study is a genuinely autonomous discipline by virtue of its having a unique methodology rather than by virtue of its addressing issues that no other field of study addresses. | 200002_2-LR1_10_10 | [
"questioning Mario's expertise in cognitive science",
"demonstrating that Mario confuses the notion of a field of study with that of a genuinely autonomous discipline",
"showing that some of Mario's beliefs are not compatible with the principle on which he bases his conclusion",
"disputing the accuracy of Mario's description of cognitive science as addressing issues also addressed by other disciplines",
"establishing that Mario is not a philosopher"
]
| 2 | Lucy responds to Mario by |
Mario: The field of cognitive science is not a genuinely autonomous discipline since it addresses issues also addressed by the disciplines of computer science, linguistics, and psychology. A genuinely autonomous discipline has a domain of inquiry all its own. Lucy: Nonsense. You've always acknowledged that philosophy is a genuinely autonomous discipline and that, like most people, you think of philosophy as addressing issues also addressed by the disciplines of linguistics, mathematics, and psychology. A field of study is a genuinely autonomous discipline by virtue of its having a unique methodology rather than by virtue of its addressing issues that no other field of study addresses. | 200002_2-LR1_10_11 | [
"If a field of study that has a unique methodology lacks a domain of inquiry all its own, it can nonetheless be a genuinely autonomous discipline.",
"If a field of study is not a genuinely autonomous discipline, it can still have a unique methodology.",
"All fields of study that are characterized by a unique methodology and by a domain of inquiry all their own are genuinely autonomous disciplines.",
"Any field of study that is not a genuinely autonomous discipline lacks both a unique domain of inquiry and a unique methodology.",
"Any field of study that is not a genuinely autonomous discipline addresses issues also addressed by disciplines that are genuinely autonomous."
]
| 0 | On the basis of their statements, Mario and Lucy are committed to disagreeing about the truth of which one of the following? |
Undoubtedly, one's freedom is always worth the risk of losing one's life. Consider a person who is locked in a bare cement room with no hope of escape. This person is not really living and has nothing to lose. | 200002_2-LR1_11_12 | [
"presumes, without providing justification, that nothing can have greater value than one's own freedom",
"fails to consider that it is not always possible to rebel physically against an encroachment on one's freedom",
"generalizes inappropriately from a single extreme case to a universal claim",
"fails to establish that the freedom of others is worth taking risks for",
"overlooks the possibility that some people do not have the courage to take risks for freedom"
]
| 2 | A flaw in the argument's reasoning is that the argument |
Ramona: One of the primary values of a university education is the intellectual growth that results from exposure to a wide range of ideas. Too many students miss this because they choose technical majors only to improve their chances on the job market. Recent pressures to graduate as quickly as possible only make matters worse. Martin: But we have to be realistic. My brother graduated last year as an English major, but he's working as a waiter. Anyway, you are forgetting that even students in technical majors are required to take some liberal arts classes. | 200002_2-LR1_12_13 | [
"students are stimulated to grow intellectually only in English classes",
"only graduates with degrees in technical subjects get good jobs",
"not every university class exposes students to a wide range of ideas",
"intellectual growth is more important than financial security",
"financial security is more important than intellectual growth"
]
| 2 | The conversation most strongly supports the claim that Ramona and Martin agree with each other that |
Essayist: Some researchers criticize British governmental security agencies for not releasing enough information about sightings of unidentified flying objects (UFOs) made by these military and intelligence agencies. Requests for information by civilian researchers are brushed aside. This leads one to suspect that there have been spacecraft sighted near Earth that are extraterrestrial in origin. | 200002_2-LR1_13_14 | [
"The British government is generally not forthcoming with secure information.",
"The British government would withhold information pertaining to UFOs only if it were established that they were from other planets.",
"The British government would deny the requests by civilian researchers to have access to the data only if this government had something to hide.",
"The British government is less trusting of civilian researchers than it is of military researchers.",
"The British government has always attempted to deny the existence of UFOs."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, would most strengthen the essayist's argument? |
Each of two drugs, S and T, greatly reduces the effects of potentially fatal heart attacks if given as soon as possible after the attack begins, but a trial has shown that use of drug T instead of drug S would prevent death in one additional case out of 120. Drug T, however, costs $2,000 more per treatment than drug S. Therefore society is presented with a stark policy decision: whether or not to pay the $240,000 it would cost to use drug T in order to save one additional patient. | 200002_2-LR1_14_15 | [
"Drug S has certain side effects not shared by drug T.",
"Drug T is much newer than drug S, and had far higher development costs.",
"After a heart attack, drug T remains relatively effective if given at a time at which drug S is no longer effective.",
"There is no quick, practical, and relatively inexpensive way of telling for any individual case whether drug S will be as effective as drug T.",
"Drug T works significantly faster than drug S."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument relies? |
Researcher: Results indicate that the higher their educational level, the better are students' mathematical skills. These results do not prove that education improves mathematical skills, however, since it is possible that students who have better mathematical skills to start with are the students who reach higher educational levels. | 200002_2-LR1_15_16 | [
"Results indicate that the quality of papers submitted for publication varies significantly from university to university. This may say nothing about the quality of education offered at different schools, but may only reflect a defect in the review process.",
"Results from competition indicate that professional athletes outperform amateur athletes. These results do not prove that becoming a professional athlete improves one's athletic performance, since it is possible that the athletes who become professionals are those whose performance is better to begin with.",
"Studies indicate that students who graduate from more prestigious schools often get good jobs. These studies do not show that these schools prepare students well for the job market, since it is possible that employers are impressed by the mere fact that the students are from more prestigious schools.",
"Surveys indicate that politicians with law degrees are better at what they do than politicians without law degrees. These surveys do not prove that having a law degree makes one a better politician, since it is possible that many politicians without law degrees were left out of the survey.",
"Studies suggest that some people who are gifted in higher mathematics are inept at performing simple arithmetical calculations. These studies do not show that being good at mathematics precludes being good at arithmetic, since there are also many people who are good at both."
]
| 1 | The reasoning of the researcher's argument is most similar to that of which one of the following arguments? |
Two hundred randomly selected subjects were asked, "Have you ever awakened, seemingly paralyzed, with a sense of a strange presence in the room?" Forty percent answered yes. A randomly selected control group of 200 different subjects in the same study were asked simply if they remembered ever waking up seemingly paralyzed. Only 14 percent of the control group answered yes. | 200002_2-LR1_16_17 | [
"Experiencing a sense of a strange presence in a room in some way causes subjects to feel as though they are paralyzed.",
"The number of subjects who had awakened with a sense of a strange presence in the room was greater in the first group than in the control group.",
"If the reports of the first group of subjects were accurate, approximately 60 percent of them had never awakened with a sense of a strange presence in the room.",
"At least some of the randomly selected subjects of the study gave inconsistent reports.",
"The tendency of subjects to report a recollection of an event can sometimes be increased by suggesting circumstances that accompanied the event."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following statements is most supported by the information above? |
Sid: The sign says "Keep off the grass." Micki: I know, but just one person walking across the grass doesn't hurt it. Sid: Your statement is false. If everyone believed as you do, everyone would walk across the grass, and the grass would die. | 200002_2-LR1_17_18 | [
"attempts to use a statement about the consequences of actions to disprove a statement about the actions themselves",
"treats a statement about the consequences of an action as though it were instead about the consequences of everyone believing the statement",
"contradicts itself by treating a statement that the arguer does not believe as though it were a statement believed by everyone",
"discounts the fact that there may be circumstances under which hurting the grass is justified",
"attempts to undermine a statement by calling into question the character of the person making the statement"
]
| 1 | Sid's argument is questionable in that it |
Newspaper editorial: Many pharmaceutical companies develop "me too" drugs, drugs designed to duplicate, more or less, the effect of another company's product that is already on the market. Some critics object that such development constitutes an unnecessary, redundant use of resources that provides no new benefits to consumers. However, the entry of "me too" drugs into the market can result in a price reduction for the drugs they resemble. Therefore, "me too" drugs can indeed benefit consumers. | 200002_2-LR1_18_19 | [
"Some \"me too\" drugs turn out to be more effective than the drugs they were designed to imitate.",
"If \"me too\" drugs were prohibited, more money would be available for the development of innovative drugs.",
"Pharmaceutical companies often make more money on a \"me too\" drug than on an original drug.",
"If all pharmaceutical companies developed \"me too\" drugs, fewer innovative drugs would be developed.",
"Some pharmaceutical companies lose money on the development of innovative drugs because of the development by other companies of \"me too\" drugs."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the editorial's argument? |
One of the most important events for modern astronomy was the series of collisions, during a single week in 1994, of more than a dozen large objects with Jupiter. The collision of these objects, which once formed most of the comet Shoemaker-Levy 9, resulted in formations that showed no signs of water. There was thus no water involved in the collisions, so we know that none of the comet's fragments penetrated to Jupiter's lower atmosphere and that the comet was composed of rock rather than ice. | 200002_2-LR1_19_20 | [
"Comets tend to be composed largely of ice while asteroids are composed mainly of rock.",
"If Jupiter's lower atmosphere had been penetrated by the comet's fragments, the resulting formations would show signs of water.",
"A larger explosion would occur upon collision with Jupiter if Shoemaker-Levy 9 were composed of rock than if it were composed of ice.",
"The post-collision analysis of Jupiter showed that the formations all had exactly the same composition.",
"The deeper the explosion occurred in Jupiter's atmosphere, the more difficult it would be to detect from Earth."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? |
The experts who now assure us that genetically engineered plants are harmless are the same experts who claimed that introducing non-native plants into the wild was a good idea. It is too late to be skeptical now that some non-native plants have become a serious problem. But we should conclude, while we still have time, that genetically engineered plants will also be harmful. | 200002_2-LR1_20_21 | [
"The same people who complain that taxes are too high complain that the government does not provide enough services. We should conclude that high taxes and big government go together.",
"The film critics who called Meisner's last film brilliant are the same ones who are calling her new film confused and boring. But because Meisner's last film was excellent I conclude that this one will be also.",
"The economists who tell us that the current economic expansion will soon be over are the same economists who failed to predict the end of the last recession. Wise investors will conclude that the expansion will continue for some time.",
"Children who beg and plead with their parents to buy them trendy toys are the same children who begged for trendy toys last year. I conclude that parents ought to ignore such pleadings and simply buy traditional toys.",
"The population experts who are predicting world food shortages in the next decade are the same ones who have erroneously predicted such shortages in the past. Therefore, if there are food shortages in the next decade, it will not be because population experts predicted them."
]
| 2 | The flawed reasoning in which one of the following most closely parallels the flawed reasoning in the argument above? |
One can be at home and be in the backyard, that is, not in one's house at all. One can also be in one's house but not at home, if one owns the house but rents it out to others, for example. So one's being at home is not required for one's being in one's own house. | 200002_2-LR1_21_22 | [
"The claim is required to establish the conclusion.",
"The claim represents the point the conclusion is intended to refute.",
"The claim is compatible with the truth or falsity of the conclusion.",
"The claim points out an ambiguity in the phrase \"at home.\"",
"The claim inadvertently contradicts the conclusion."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following most accurately describes the relationship between the argument's conclusion and its claim that one can be at home without being in one's own house? |
Economist: In any country, inflation occurs when the money supply grows more than the production of goods and services grows. Similarly, deflation occurs when the production of goods and services grows more than does the money supply. In my country, gold anchors the money supply, so the money supply is very stable. Hence, my country is very unlikely to experience significant inflation or deflation. | 200002_2-LR1_22_23 | [
"Having stability in the production of goods and services is the most effective means of preventing inflation or deflation.",
"Having an anchor such as gold is necessary for the stability of a country's money supply.",
"The production of goods and services in the economist's country is unlikely to grow markedly.",
"Inflation is no more likely to occur in the economist's country than is deflation.",
"A stable money supply is the most effective means of preventing inflation."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the economist's argument depends? |
Agricultural economist: We can increase agricultural production without reducing biodiversity, but only if we abandon conventional agriculture. Thus, if we choose to sustain economic growth, which requires increasing agricultural production, we should radically modify agricultural techniques. | 200002_2-LR1_23_24 | [
"Agricultural production should be reduced if doing so would increase biodiversity.",
"Economic growth should not be pursued at the expense of a loss of biodiversity.",
"Economic growth should be sustained only as long as agricultural production continues to increase.",
"Preserving biodiversity is no more important than increasing agricultural production.",
"Agricultural techniques should be radically modified only if doing so would further the extent to which we can increase agricultural production."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the agricultural economist's reasoning? |
Despite the best efforts of journalists to be objective, it is inevitable that their own biases will enter their reporting, even if inadvertently. Therefore, it is imperative that a trained editor look over journalists' work with an eye toward detecting and removing their biases, so as to make reporting as objective as possible. | 200002_3-LR2_1_1 | [
"Journalists do not eliminate all of the biases that enter their reporting.",
"It is imperative that reporting be as objective as possible.",
"Objectivity in reporting is undermined by the presence of journalists' biases.",
"Trained editors are able to detect at least some biases of journalists.",
"Journalists' reporting that is not objective is not taken seriously by trained editors."
]
| 4 | Each of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends EXCEPT: |
Astronomer: Mount Shalko is the perfect site for the proposed astronomical observatory. The summit would accommodate the complex as currently designed, with some room left for expansion. There are no large cities near the mountain, so neither smog nor artificial light interferes with atmospheric transparency. Critics claim that Mount Shalko is a unique ecological site, but the observatory need not be a threat to endemic life-forms. In fact, since it would preclude recreational use of the mountain, it should be their salvation. It is estimated that 20,000 recreational users visit the mountain every year, posing a threat to the wildlife. | 200002_3-LR2_2_2 | [
"More than a dozen insect and plant species endemic to Mount Shalko are found nowhere else on earth.",
"A coalition of 14 different groups, as diverse as taxpayer organizations and hunting associations, opposes the building of the new observatory.",
"Having a complex that covers most of the summit, as well as having the necessary security fences and access road on the mountain, could involve just as much ecological disruption as does the current level of recreational use.",
"The building of the observatory would not cause the small towns near Mount Shalko eventually to develop into a large city, complete with smog, bright lights, and an influx of recreation seekers.",
"A survey conducted by a team of park rangers concluded that two other mountains in the same general area have more potential for recreational use than Mount Shalko."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, most weakens the astronomer's argument? |
The local fair held its annual photography contest and accepted entries from both amateurs and professionals. The contest awarded prizes in each of several categories. As it turned out, most of the prizes in the contest were won by amateurs. | 200002_3-LR2_3_3 | [
"Many more of the entries in the contest were from amateurs than were from professionals.",
"The judges in the contest were amateurs, and amateurs tend to prefer photographs taken by other amateurs.",
"Amateurs tend to enter their best photographs while professionals tend to save their best work for their clients.",
"Each category in the contest was restricted to amateurs only or professionals only, and there were more categories open to amateurs.",
"Three times as many amateurs entered the contest as had entered in any previous year."
]
| 4 | Each of the following, if true, could by itself constitute an explanation of the outcome of the photography contest EXCEPT: |
The average 40-year-old North American will have watched more than one million TV commercials in his or her lifetime. We may safely conclude, therefore, that the TV commercial has influenced North American habits of thought. | 200002_3-LR2_4_4 | [
"The habits of thought that people develop are largely determined by external influences.",
"Anything people are exposed to in great quantity will influence their habits of thought.",
"It is impossible to avoid or ignore television commercials.",
"Some people find television commercials more interesting to watch than the programs themselves.",
"Certain forms of communication to which people are subjected will affect their habits of thought."
]
| 1 | The conclusion above follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? |
Researchers have developed a membrane that quickly removes the oxygen from a refrigerator, thereby killing bacteria and enabling food to be stored almost indefinitely. Since food need not be kept as cold to prevent spoilage, energy costs will be greatly reduced. Thus, over the long run, oxygen-removing refrigerators will prove far less expensive than current models. | 200002_3-LR2_5_5 | [
"address the expense of building or refitting a refrigerator with the new technology",
"address the possibility of consumer discomfort with the new refrigerators",
"explain the technology that enabled the oxygen-removing membrane to be developed",
"take into account the effectiveness of current refrigerator technology in preventing food spoilage",
"take into account the inconvenience caused by food spoilage in current refrigerators"
]
| 0 | The reasoning in the argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it does not |
Shortly after the power plant opened and began discharging its wastewater into the river, there was a decrease in the overall number of bass caught by anglers downstream from the plant. | 200002_3-LR2_6_6 | [
"The discharged wastewater made the river more attractive to fish that are the natural predators of bass.",
"The discharged water was warmer than the normal river temperature, leading the bass to seek cooler water elsewhere.",
"Because of the new plant, access to the part of the river downstream from the plant was improved, leading to an increase in the number of anglers fishing for bass.",
"Because of the new plant, the level of noise downstream increased, making that section of the river a less popular place for anglers to fish.",
"The discharged wastewater created turbulence that disrupted the vegetation of the river downstream, destroying some of the bass's natural habitat."
]
| 2 | Each of the following, if true, could explain the decrease described above EXCEPT: |
The existing works of ancient literature, science, and philosophy do not represent the most original work produced in ancient times. The most compelling evidence for this view is that the existing works frequently refer to other works that we no longer have. | 200002_3-LR2_7_7 | [
"Works that contain frequent references to other works tend to be derivative.",
"Many extant works have laudable things to say about the missing works.",
"A surprisingly large number of ancient texts have been irretrievably lost.",
"Subversive ideas tend to be suppressed whenever they are proposed.",
"Most current ideas regarded as original were already proposed in ancient times."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following statements, if added to the argument, most helps to justify its conclusion? |
A metaphor is the application of a word or phrase to something to which it does not literally apply in order to emphasize or indicate a similarity between that to which it would ordinarily apply and that to which it is—nonliterally—being applied. Some extremists claim that all uses of language are metaphorical. But this cannot be so, for unless some uses of words are literal, there can be no nonliteral uses of any words. | 200002_3-LR2_8_8 | [
"It is not the case that all uses of language are metaphorical.",
"Either all uses of words are literal or all uses of words are metaphorical.",
"Nonliteral meaning is possible only if some uses of words employ their literal meanings.",
"Metaphors are nonliteral uses of language that can be used to suggest similarities between objects.",
"The ordinary meanings of words must be fixed by convention if the similarities between objects are to be representable by language."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main conclusion of the argument? |
In a recent poll of chief executive officers (CEOs) of 125 large corporations, the overwhelming majority claimed that employee training and welfare is of the same high priority as customer satisfaction. So the popular belief that the top management of large corporations behaves indifferently to the needs and aspirations of employees is unfounded. | 200002_3-LR2_9_9 | [
"fails to define adequately the term \"top management\"",
"presumes, without giving justification, that one is not indifferent to something that one considers a top priority",
"presumes, without giving justification, that the CEOs' priorities tend to be misplaced",
"presumes, without giving justification, that the CEOs' claims are reflected in actual practice",
"makes a generalization based on an unrepresentative sample"
]
| 3 | The argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it |
Many people joke about Friday the thirteenth being an unlucky day, but a study showed that in one year approximately 17 percent of people scheduled to fly canceled or did not show up for their flights on Friday the thirteenth—a rate higher than that on any other day and date in that year. This shows that a significant percentage of the population would rather disrupt their travel plans than risk flying on a supposedly unlucky day. | 200002_3-LR2_10_10 | [
"People who fly tend to be professionals who as a group are less superstitious than the general public.",
"Surveys show that less than 5 percent of the population report that they believe that Friday the thirteenth is an unlucky day.",
"Weather conditions at several major airports were severe on the Fridays that fell on the thirteenth in the year of the study.",
"In the year of the study, automobile traffic was no lighter on Friday the thirteenth than on other Fridays.",
"The absentee rate among airline workers was not significantly higher than normal on the Fridays that fell on the thirteenth in the year of the study."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following statements, if true, most seriously weakens the argument? |
The everyday behavior of whales is particularly difficult to study because introducing novel stimuli, such as divers or submarines, into the whales' environment causes whales to behave in unusual ways. Some biologists plan to train sea lions to carry video cameras on their backs and, on command, to swim along with whales. They argue that since whales are accustomed to there being sea lions nearby, using the sea lions to film the whales would allow biologists to study the everyday behavior of the whales. | 200002_3-LR2_11_11 | [
"Whales will often react aggressively in the presence of divers and submarines although aggressive behavior is unusual for whales.",
"The behavior of the sea lions under human command will be within the range of sea lion behavior to which the whales are accustomed.",
"The trained sea lions will not be aware that they are carrying video cameras on their backs.",
"Sea lions carrying video cameras will be able to film whales at a much closer range than divers can.",
"Whales prefer the presence of sea lions to that of either divers or submarines."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the biologists' reasoning depends? |
Geologist: A geological fault in the mountain under which the proposed nuclear waste storage facility would be buried could, after a few thousand years, cause the contents to seep out or water to seep in. Since nuclear waste remains dangerous for up to 25,000 years, such seepage would be disastrous. So we should not place a nuclear waste storage facility under this mountain until scientists investigate whether this mountain has any geological faults. | 200002_3-LR2_12_12 | [
"In a few thousand years, human civilization may no longer exist.",
"The scientists' investigation would conclusively show whether or not the mountain has any geological faults.",
"The proposed facility was not initially intended to be used for the storage of nuclear waste.",
"The scientists' investigation would increase dramatically the cost of storing nuclear waste under the mountain.",
"Nuclear waste could be stored in the proposed facility on a temporary basis."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following arguments, if true, most strengthens the geologist's argumentation? |
Mall manager: By congregating in large groups near the stores in our mall, teenagers create an atmosphere in which many adult shoppers feel uncomfortable. As a result, the adults have begun to spend less time shopping than they have in the past. The mall's goal in this situation is to prevent a significant loss in overall sales, so merchants should do their utmost to discourage teenagers from congregating near stores. Merchant: But the amount spent by teenagers who congregate near mall stores constitutes a significant percentage of the total amount spent in those stores. | 200002_3-LR2_13_13 | [
"disputing the truth of claims the manager offers as support for the recommendation",
"giving information that pertains to the relation between the manager's recommendation and the mall's goal",
"suggesting that the mall's goal is an undesirable one",
"contending that the manager's recommendation is sound but for reasons other than those given by the manager",
"using the information cited by the manager to make an additional recommendation that would help achieve the goal"
]
| 1 | The merchant's response to the manager's argument is most accurately described as |
Wu: Jurgens is dishonest and so should not be elected mayor. Miller: I disagree with your conclusion. Jurgens should be elected mayor. Honest people usually are not tough enough to run a city. | 200002_3-LR2_14_14 | [
"Wu: We should not go back to that restaurant. The service is too slow. Miller: Yes, we should. Food that is served quickly is often of poor quality.",
"Wu: Bailey should not be the company spokesperson. He is too aggressive. Miller: Yes, he should. Aggressive people generally do not get pushed around.",
"Wu: We should not paint the office this shade of yellow. It's too bright. Miller: Yes, we should. Bright colors keep people feeling wide awake.",
"Wu: We should not upgrade the software. It's too expensive. Miller: Yes, we should. The best normally costs more.",
"Wu: This job applicant should be hired. She has experience. Miller: No, we should hire Lyons instead. Everyone lacks experience when first starting out."
]
| 0 | Miller's questionable reasoning in which one of the following dialogues is most closely parallel to Miller's questionable reasoning in the dialogue above? |
A survey of historians shows that most believe written texts to be the best source for historical understanding. None of the historians regarded painting, architecture, music, dance, or culinary arts as the best source for historical understanding. So these historians neglect many important repositories of historical knowledge. | 200002_3-LR2_15_15 | [
"there are no potential sources for historical understanding other than written texts and the arts",
"painting, architecture, music, dance, and culinary arts are important only as sources for historical understanding",
"there are no sources for historical understanding that are neither considered best by historians nor neglected by them",
"something other than written texts is the best source for historical understanding",
"the other sources for historical understanding mentioned by the historians surveyed are not important repositories of historical knowledge"
]
| 2 | The reasoning in the argument is flawed because the argument takes for granted that |
To act responsibly in one's professional capacity, one must act on the basis of information that one has made a reasonable effort to make sure is accurate and complete. | 200002_3-LR2_16_16 | [
"Peggy acted responsibly in ordering new computers for the school last year because they turned out to be needed due to an unexpected increase in enrollment this year.",
"Mary acted responsibly in firing John, for she first examined the details of his work record and listened to negative reports from some of his supervisors and coworkers.",
"Toril did not act responsibly in investing the company's money in Twicycled Ink, for, though the investment yielded a large return, she had not investigated the risks associated with that investment.",
"Conchita did not act responsibly in hiring Helmer to do the company's bookkeeping because Helmer made a mistake that cost the company a lot of money, though he had never been known to make such a mistake in the past.",
"Jennifer did not act responsibly in deciding where to go on her vacation because, instead of carefully weighing her options, she waited until the last minute and decided on impulse."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following judgments most closely conforms to the principle cited above? |
Radial keratotomy (RK), a surgery that is designed to reshape the cornea so that light focuses correctly on the retina, is supposed to make eyeglasses or contact lenses that correct for nearsightedness unnecessary. Yet a study of patients who have undergone RK shows that some of them still need to wear glasses or contact lenses. | 200002_3-LR2_17_17 | [
"As the eye heals from an operation to correct nearsightedness, it may in fact overcorrect, causing the person to be farsighted.",
"The more severe a patient's nearsightedness, the less effective the corneal reshaping of RK will be in correcting the problem.",
"Occasionally an RK patient's eyes may heal differently, causing a difference in the two eyes' visual acuity that can be overcome only with corrective lenses.",
"RK patients who originally suffered from only mild nearsightedness may, if the cornea does not heal evenly, develop an astigmatism that requires corrective lenses.",
"Those who choose to undergo RK tend to be as nearsighted before this operation as those who choose not to undergo RK."
]
| 4 | Each of the following, if true, would help to resolve the apparent discrepancy in the information above EXCEPT: |
Chelas and Stelma are required to leave their respective stations immediately to pursue any prisoner who attempts to escape from their sector. Furthermore, unless they are pursuing such a prisoner, Chelas and Stelma are forbidden to leave their stations until their replacements have arrived. On May 11 at 9 P.M., when Chelas and Stelma finished the four-hour shift in their sector and their replacements arrived, it was discovered that Chelas had violated these rules and Stelma had not. | 200002_3-LR2_18_18 | [
"Chelas and Stelma were at their respective stations at 9 P.M.",
"Stelma left her station before 9 P.M. but Chelas did not.",
"Chelas left his station before 9 P.M. but Stelma did not.",
"A prisoner attempted to escape from Chelas and Stelma's sector at 7 P.M. and neither Chelas nor Stelma left his or her station before 9 P.M.",
"A prisoner attempted to escape from Chelas and Stelma's sector at 7 P.M. and both Chelas and Stelma left their stations before 9 P.M."
]
| 3 | If the statements above are true, each of the following could be true EXCEPT: |
Faden: Most of our exercise machines are still in use after one year. A recent survey of our customers shows this. Greenwall: But many of those customers could easily be lying because they are too embarrassed to admit that they don't exercise anymore. Faden: You have no way of showing that customers were lying. Your objection is absurd. | 200002_3-LR2_19_19 | [
"Greenwall takes for granted that many customers have stopped using the equipment but are too embarrassed to admit it.",
"Greenwall presumes, without giving justification, that most people are dishonest about their personal habits.",
"Faden presumes, without providing justification, that the more conclusive the evidence is for a claim, the less believable the claim becomes.",
"Faden presumes, without providing justification, that the evidence for a claim has not been undermined unless that evidence has been proven false.",
"Greenwall ignores the possibility that some people stopped using the equipment but were not embarrassed about it."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following most accurately describes a flaw in the reasoning above? |
Sarah: Reporters, by allotting time to some events rather than others, are exercising their judgment as to what is newsworthy and what is not. In other words, they always interpret the news. Ramon: Reporters should never interpret the news. Once they deem a story to be newsworthy, they are obliged to relay the facts to me untainted. | 200002_3-LR2_20_20 | [
"Reporters actually do interpret the news every time they report it.",
"Reporters should exercise their own judgment as to which events are newsworthy.",
"Reporters' primary responsibility is to see that people are kept informed of the facts.",
"Reporters should not allot time to reporting some events rather than others.",
"Reporting on certain events rather than others qualifies as interpreting the news."
]
| 4 | Sarah and Ramon's remarks provide the most support for holding that they disagree about the truth of which one of the following statements? |
Advertisement for a lactase supplement: Lactase, an enzyme produced by the body, aids in the digestion of lactose, a natural sugar found in dairy foods. Many subjects in an experiment who drank a liter of milk on an empty stomach showed signs of lactose intolerance—difficulty in digesting dairy products because of insufficient lactase. Thus, extrapolating from the number of subjects adversely affected, at least 50 million people in North America alone should take lactase supplements. | 200002_3-LR2_21_21 | [
"Eating solid food when drinking milk can decrease the amount of lactase produced by the body.",
"Most people who consume dairy products consume less lactose at each meal than the amount found in a liter of milk.",
"The production of lactase by the human body increases with age.",
"Lactose intolerance can interfere with proper nutrition.",
"Some dairy foods, such as cheese, contain a form of lactose more difficult to digest than that found in milk."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following statements, if true, most seriously weakens the argument? |
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