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Thirty years ago, the percentage of their income that single persons spent on food was twice what it is today. Given that incomes have risen over the past thirty years, we can conclude that incomes have risen at a greater rate than the price of food in that period. | 200106_3-LR2_20_21 | [
"The amount of food eaten per capita today is identical to the amount of food eaten per capita thirty years ago.",
"In general, single persons today eat healthier foods and eat less than their counterparts of thirty years ago.",
"Single persons today, on average, purchase the same kinds of food items in the same quantities as they did thirty years ago.",
"The prices of nonfood items single persons purchase have risen faster than the price of food over the past thirty years.",
"Unlike single persons, families today spend about the same percentage of their income on food as they did thirty years ago."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if assumed, helps most to justify the conclusion drawn above? |
Viruses can have beneficial effects. For example, some kill more-complex microorganisms, some of which are deadly to humans. But viruses have such simple structures that replacing just a few of a beneficial virus's several million atoms can make it deadly to humans. Clearly, since alterations of greater complexity than this are commonly produced by random mutations, any virus could easily become dangerous to humans. | 200106_3-LR2_21_22 | [
"Random mutation makes some deadly viruses beneficial to humans.",
"Some organisms of greater complexity than viruses are no more likely than viruses to undergo significant alterations through random mutation.",
"Some microorganisms that are more complex than viruses are beneficial to humans.",
"Some viruses that fail to kill other viruses that are deadly to humans are nevertheless beneficial to humans.",
"No virus that is deadly to organisms of greater complexity than itself is beneficial to humans."
]
| 4 | If the statements above are true, than each of the following statements could also be true EXCEPT: |
Societies in which value is measured primarily in financial terms invariably fragment into isolated social units. But since money is not the main measure of value in nonindustrial societies, they must tend in contrast to be socially unified. | 200106_3-LR2_22_23 | [
"Animals of different genera cannot interbreed. But that does not prove that jackals and wolves cannot interbreed, for they belong to the same genus.",
"Ecosystems close to the equator usually have more species than those closer to the poles. Thus, the Sahara Desert must contain more species than Siberia does, since the latter is farther from the equator.",
"Insects pass through several stages of maturation: egg, larva, pupa, and adult. Since insects are arthropods, all arthropods probably undergo similar maturation processes.",
"Poets frequently convey their thoughts via nonliteral uses of language such as metaphors and analogies. But journalists are not poets, so surely journalists always use language literally.",
"Technologically sophisticated machines often cause us more trouble than simpler devices serving the same function. Since computers are more technologically sophisticated than pencils, they must tend to be more troublesome."
]
| 3 | The flawed reasoning in which one of the following is most similar to that in the argument above? |
Ringtail opossums are an Australian wildlife species that is potentially endangered. A number of ringtail opossums that had been orphaned and subsequently raised in captivity were monitored after being returned to the wild. Seventy-five percent of those opossums were killed by foxes, a species not native to Australia. Conservationists concluded that the native ringtail opossum population was endangered not by a scarcity of food, as had been previously thought, but by non-native predator species against which the opossum had not developed natural defenses. | 200106_3-LR2_23_24 | [
"There are fewer non-native predator species that prey on the ringtail opossum than there are native species that prey on the ringtail opossum.",
"Foxes, which were introduced into Australia over 200 years ago, adapted to the Australian climate less successfully than did some other foreign species.",
"The ringtail opossums that were raised in captivity were fed a diet similar to that which ringtail opossums typically eat in the wild.",
"Few of the species that compete with the ringtail opossum for food sources are native to Australia.",
"Ringtail opossums that grow to adulthood in the wild defend themselves against foxes no more successfully than do ringtail opossums raised in captivity."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following, if true, most strongly supports the conservationists' argument? |
Jordan: If a business invests the money necessary to implement ecologically sound practices, its market share will decrease. But if it doesn't implement these practices, it pollutes the environment and wastes resources. Terry: But if consumers demand environmental responsibility of all businesses, no particular business will be especially hurt. | 200106_3-LR2_24_25 | [
"Jordan: Either it will rain and our plans for a picnic will be thwarted or it won't rain and the garden will go yet another day without much-needed watering. Terry: But if it doesn't rain, we can buy a hose and water the garden with the hose.",
"Jordan: Each person can have either an enjoyable life or a long life, for one must eat vegetables and exercise continuously to stay healthy. Terry: That's not true: there are many happy health-conscious people.",
"Jordan: If taxes are raised, many social problems could be solved, but if they're lowered, the economy will grow again. So we can't have both social reform and a growing economy. Terry: But if taxes remain at their current level, neither social problems nor the economy will get worse.",
"Jordan: If we remodel the kitchen, the house will be more valuable, but even if we do, there's no guarantee that we'll actually get more for the house when we sell it. Terry: But if we don't remodel the kitchen, we might get even less for the house than we paid for it.",
"Jordan: If the dam's spillway is opened, the river might flood the eastern part of town, but if the spillway is not opened, the dam might burst. Terry: There's no real danger of the dam's bursting, but if we get more heavy rain, opening the spillway is the most prudent policy."
]
| 0 | In which one of the following exchanges is the logical relationship between Jordan's and Terry's statements most similar to the logical relationship between their statements above? |
The media now devote more coverage to crime than they did ten years ago. Yet this is not because the crime rate has increased, but rather because the public is now more interested in reading and hearing about crime. After all, a crucial factor in the media's decisions about what issues to cover and to what extent to cover them is the interests of their audiences. | 200106_3-LR2_25_26 | [
"It supports the conclusion that the media now devote more coverage to crime than the crime rate alone justifies.",
"It is presented as evidence that the media decide what to cover and to what extent to cover it depending on the interests of the public.",
"It is a counterexample to the claim that the media devote more coverage to crime now than they did ten years ago.",
"It is a generalization based on the claim that the crime rate has increased over the past ten years.",
"It is offered as an alternative explanation of why the media devote more coverage to crime now than they did ten years ago."
]
| 4 | The proposition that the public is now more interested in reading and hearing about crime plays which one of the following roles in the argument? |
Some critics argue that an opera's stage directions are never reflected in its music. Many comic scenes in Mozart's operas, however, open with violin phrases that sound like the squeaking of changing scenery. Clearly Mozart intended the music to echo the sounds occurring while stage directions are carried out. Hence, a change of scenery—the most basic and frequent stage direction—can be reflected in the music, which means that other operatic stage directions can be as well. | 200110_1-LR1_1_1 | [
"a change of scenery is the stage direction most frequently reflected in an opera's music",
"an opera's stage directions are never reflected in its music",
"an opera's music can have an effect on the opera's stage directions",
"a variety of stage directions can be reflected in an opera's music",
"the most frequent relation between an opera's music and its stage directions is one of musical imitation of the sounds that occur when a direction is carried out"
]
| 3 | In the argument, the statement that many comic scenes in Mozart's operas open with violin phrases that sound like the squeaking of changing scenery is offered in support of the claim that |
Lecturer: Given our current state of knowledge and technology, we can say that the generalization that the entropy of a closed system cannot decrease for any spontaneous process has not been falsified by any of our tests of that generalization. So we conclude it to be true universally. Yet, it must be admitted that this generalization has not been conclusively verified, in the sense that it has not been tested in every corner of the universe, under every feasible condition. Nevertheless, this generalization is correctly regarded as a scientific law; indeed, it is referred to as the Second Law of Thermodynamics. | 200110_1-LR1_2_2 | [
"Whatever is a scientific law has not been falsified.",
"If a generalization is confirmed only under a few circumstances, it should not be considered a scientific law.",
"Whatever is true universally will eventually be confirmed to the extent current science allows.",
"If a generalization is confirmed to the extent current science allows, then it is considered a scientific law.",
"Whatever is regarded as a scientific law will eventually be conclusively verified."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following principles, if valid, most justifies the lecturer's classification of the generalization described above? |
More women than men suffer from Alzheimer's disease—a disease that is most commonly contracted by elderly persons. This discrepancy has often been attributed to women's longer life span, but this theory may be wrong. A recent study has shown that prescribing estrogen to women after menopause, when estrogen production in the body decreases, may prevent them from developing the disease. Men's supply of testosterone may help safeguard them against Alzheimer's disease because much of it is converted by the body to estrogen, and testosterone levels stay relatively stable into old age. | 200110_1-LR1_3_3 | [
"A decrease in estrogen, rather than longer life span, may explain the higher occurrence of Alzheimer's disease in women relative to men.",
"As one gets older, one's chances of developing Alzheimer's disease increase.",
"Women who go through menopause earlier in life than do most other women have an increased risk of contracting Alzheimer's disease.",
"The conversion of testosterone into estrogen may help safeguard men from Alzheimer's disease.",
"Testosterone is necessary for preventing Alzheimer's disease in older men."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main conclusion of the argument? |
Parent P: Children will need computer skills to deal with tomorrow's world. Computers should be introduced in kindergarten, and computer languages should be required in high school. Parent Q: That would be pointless. Technology advances so rapidly that the computers used by today's kindergartners and the computer languages taught in today's high schools would become obsolete by the time these children are adults. | 200110_1-LR1_4_4 | [
"When technology is advancing rapidly, regular training is necessary to keep one's skills at a level proficient enough to deal with the society in which one lives.",
"Throughout history people have adapted to change, and there is no reason to believe that today's children are not equally capable of adapting to technology as it advances.",
"In the process of learning to work with any computer or computer language, children increase their ability to interact with computer technology.",
"Automotive technology is continually advancing too, but that does not result in one's having to relearn to drive cars as the new advances are incorporated into new automobiles.",
"Once people have graduated from high school, they have less time to learn about computers and technology than they had during their schooling years."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, is the strongest logical counter parent P can make to parent Q's objection? |
Proponent: Irradiation of food by gamma rays would keep it from spoiling before it reaches the consumer in food stores. The process leaves no radiation behind, and vitamin losses are comparable to those that occur in cooking, so there is no reason to reject irradiation on the grounds of nutrition or safety. Indeed, it kills harmful Salmonella bacteria, which in contaminated poultry have caused serious illness to consumers. Opponent: The irradiation process has no effect on the bacteria that cause botulism, a very serious form of food poisoning, while those that cause bad odors that would warn consumers of botulism are killed. Moreover, Salmonella and the bacteria that cause botulism can easily be killed in poultry by using a safe chemical dip. | 200110_1-LR1_5_5 | [
"isolating an ambiguity in a crucial term in the proponent's argument",
"showing that claims made in the proponent's argument result in a self-contradiction",
"establishing that undesirable consequences result from the adoption of either one of two proposed remedies",
"shifting perspective from safety with respect to consumers to safety with respect to producers",
"pointing out an alternative way of obtaining an advantage claimed by the proponent without risking a particular disadvantage"
]
| 4 | The opponent's argument proceeds by |
Proponent: Irradiation of food by gamma rays would keep it from spoiling before it reaches the consumer in food stores. The process leaves no radiation behind, and vitamin losses are comparable to those that occur in cooking, so there is no reason to reject irradiation on the grounds of nutrition or safety. Indeed, it kills harmful Salmonella bacteria, which in contaminated poultry have caused serious illness to consumers. Opponent: The irradiation process has no effect on the bacteria that cause botulism, a very serious form of food poisoning, while those that cause bad odors that would warn consumers of botulism are killed. Moreover, Salmonella and the bacteria that cause botulism can easily be killed in poultry by using a safe chemical dip. | 200110_1-LR1_5_6 | [
"After irradiation, food might still spoil if kept in storage for a long time after being purchased by the consumer.",
"Irradiated food would still need cooking, or, if eaten raw, it would not have the vitamin advantage of raw food.",
"Vitamin loss is a separate issue from safety.",
"Vitamins can be ingested in pill form as well as in foods.",
"That food does not spoil before it can be offered to the consumer is primarily a benefit to the seller, not to the consumer."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following could the opponent properly cite as indicating a flaw in the proponent's reasoning concerning vitamin losses? |
Due to wider commercial availability of audio recordings of authors reading their own books, sales of printed books have dropped significantly. | 200110_1-LR1_6_7 | [
"Because of the rising cost of farm labor, farmers began to make more extensive use of machines.",
"Because of the wide variety of new computer games on the market, sales of high-quality computer video screens have improved.",
"Because a new brand of soft drink entered the market, consumers reduced their consumption of an established brand of soft drink.",
"Because a child was forbidden to play until homework was completed, that child did much less daydreaming and focused on homework.",
"Because neither of the two leading word processing programs has all of the features consumers want, neither has been able to dominate the market."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following conforms most closely to the principle illustrated above? |
Lobsters and other crustaceans eaten by humans are more likely to contract gill diseases when sewage contaminates their water. Under a recent proposal, millions of gallons of local sewage each day would be rerouted many kilometers offshore. Although this would substantially reduce the amount of sewage in the harbor where lobsters are caught, the proposal is pointless, because hardly any lobsters live long enough to be harmed by those diseases. | 200110_1-LR1_7_8 | [
"Contaminants in the harbor other than sewage are equally harmful to lobsters.",
"Lobsters, like other crustaceans, live longer in the open ocean than in industrial harbors.",
"Lobsters breed as readily in sewage-contaminated water as in unpolluted water.",
"Gill diseases cannot be detected by examining the surface of the lobster.",
"Humans often become ill as a result of eating lobsters with gill diseases."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument? |
Researcher: The rate of psychological problems is higher among children of divorced parents than among other children. But it would be a mistake to conclude that these problems are caused by the difficulty the children have adjusting to divorce. It is just as reasonable to infer that certain behaviors that increase the likelihood of divorce—hostility, distrust, lack of empathy— are learned by children from their parents, and that it is these learned behaviors, rather than the difficulty of adjusting to divorce, that cause the children's psychological problems. | 200110_1-LR1_8_9 | [
"It is the conclusion of the argument.",
"It is the claim that the argument tries to refute.",
"It is offered as evidence for the claim that divorce is harmful to the children of the divorcing parents.",
"It is offered as evidence for the claim that certain behaviors are often responsible for divorce.",
"It is cited as an established finding for which the argument proposes an explanation."
]
| 4 | The assertion that children of divorced parents have a higher rate of psychological problems than other children figures in the argument in which one of the following ways? |
Although marathons are 26.2 miles (42.2 kilometers) long and take even world-class marathoners over 2 hours to run, athletes who train by running 90 minutes a day fare better in marathons than do those who train by running 120 minutes or more a day. | 200110_1-LR1_9_10 | [
"The longer period of time that one runs daily, the greater the chances of suffering adverse health effects due to air pollution.",
"The longer the period of time that one runs daily, the easier it is to adjust to different race lengths.",
"The longer the run, the more frequent is the occurrence of joint injuries that significantly interfere with overall training.",
"Runners who train over 90 minutes per day grow bored with running and become less motivated.",
"Runners who train over 90 minutes per day deplete certain biochemical energy reserves, leaving them less energy for marathons."
]
| 1 | Each of the following, if true, contributes to an explanation of the difference in marathon performances described above EXCEPT: |
Linguist: Some people have understood certain studies as showing that bilingual children have a reduced "conceptual map" because bilingualism overstresses the child's linguistic capacities. Vocabulary tests taken by bilingual children appear to show that these children tend to have a smaller vocabulary than do most children of the same age group. But these studies are deeply flawed, since the tests were given in only one language. Dual-language tests revealed that the children often expressed a given concept with a word from only one of their two languages. | 200110_1-LR1_10_11 | [
"offering evidence for the advantages of bilingualism over monolingualism",
"pointing out an inconsistency in the view that bilingualism overstresses a child's linguistic capabilities",
"offering evidence that undermines the use of any vocabulary test to provide information about a child's conceptual map",
"providing a different explanation for the apparent advantages of bilingualism from the explanation suggested by the results of certain studies",
"pointing out a methodological error in the technique used to obtain the purported evidence of a problem with bilingualism"
]
| 4 | The linguist's argument proceeds by |
Gene splicing can give rise to new varieties of farm animals that have only a partially understood genetic makeup. In addition to introducing the genes for whichever trait is desired, the technique can introduce genes governing the production of toxins or carcinogens, and these latter undesirable traits might not be easily discoverable. | 200110_1-LR1_11_12 | [
"All toxin production is genetically controlled.",
"Gene splicing to produce new varieties of farm animals should be used cautiously.",
"Gene splicing is not effective as a way of producing new varieties of farm animals.",
"Most new varieties of farm animals produced by gene splicing will develop cancer.",
"Gene splicing will advance to the point where unforeseen consequences are no longer a problem."
]
| 1 | The statements above, if true, most strongly support which one of the following? |
Journal: In several psychological studies, subjects were given statements to read that caused them to form new beliefs. Later, the subjects were told that the original statements were false. The studies report, however, that most subjects persevered in their newly acquired beliefs, even after being told that the original statements were false. This strongly suggests that humans continue to hold onto acquired beliefs even in the absence of any credible evidence to support them. | 200110_1-LR1_12_13 | [
"Regardless of the truth of what the subjects were later told, the beliefs based on the original statements were, for the most part, correct.",
"It is unrealistic to expect people to keep track of the original basis of their beliefs, and to revise a belief when its original basis is undercut.",
"The statements originally given to the subjects would be highly misleading even if true.",
"Most of the subjects had acquired confirmation of their newly acquired beliefs by the time they were told that the original statements were false.",
"Most of the subjects were initially skeptical of the statements originally given to them."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if true, most undermines the journal's argument? |
Novelists cannot become great as long as they remain in academia. Powers of observation and analysis, which schools successfully hone, are useful to the novelist, but an intuitive grasp of the emotions of everyday life can be obtained only by the kind of immersion in everyday life that is precluded by being an academic. | 200110_1-LR1_13_14 | [
"Novelists require some impartiality to get an intuitive grasp of the emotions of everyday life.",
"No great novelist lacks powers of observation and analysis.",
"Participation in life, interspersed with impartial observation of life, makes novelists great.",
"Novelists cannot be great without an intuitive grasp of the emotions of everyday life.",
"Knowledge of the emotions of everyday life cannot be acquired by merely observing and analyzing life."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? |
Statistician: A financial magazine claimed that its survey of its subscribers showed that North Americans are more concerned about their personal finances than about politics. One question was: "Which do you think about more: politics or the joy of earning money?" This question is clearly biased. Also, the readers of the magazine are a self-selecting sample. Thus, there is reason to be skeptical about the conclusion drawn in the magazine's survey. | 200110_1-LR1_14_15 | [
"The credibility of the magazine has been called into question on a number of occasions.",
"The conclusions drawn in most magazine surveys have eventually been disproved.",
"Other surveys suggest that North Americans are just as concerned about politics as they are about finances.",
"There is reason to be skeptical about the results of surveys that are biased and unrepresentative.",
"Other surveys suggest that North Americans are concerned not only with politics and finances, but also with social issues."
]
| 4 | Each of the following, if true, would strengthen the statistician's argument EXCEPT: |
On the basis of the available evidence, Antarctica has generally been thought to have been covered by ice for at least the past 14 million years. Recently, however, three-million-year-old fossils of a kind previously found only in ocean-floor sediments were discovered under the ice sheet covering central Antarctica. About three million years ago, therefore, the Antarctic ice sheet must temporarily have melted. After all, either severe climatic warming or volcanic activity in Antarctica's mountains could have melted the ice sheet, thus raising sea levels and submerging the continent. | 200110_1-LR1_15_16 | [
"Antarctica is no longer generally thought to have been covered by ice for the past 14 million years.",
"It is not the case that ancient fossils of the kind recently found in Antarctica are found only in ocean-floor sediments.",
"The ice sheet covering Antarctica has not been continuously present throughout the past 14 million years.",
"What caused Antarctica to be submerged under the sea was the melting of the ice sheet that had previously covered the continent.",
"The ice sheet covering Antarctica was melted either as a result of volcanic activity in Antarctica's mountains or as a result of severe climatic warming."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following is the main conclusion of the argument? |
On the basis of the available evidence, Antarctica has generally been thought to have been covered by ice for at least the past 14 million years. Recently, however, three-million-year-old fossils of a kind previously found only in ocean-floor sediments were discovered under the ice sheet covering central Antarctica. About three million years ago, therefore, the Antarctic ice sheet must temporarily have melted. After all, either severe climatic warming or volcanic activity in Antarctica's mountains could have melted the ice sheet, thus raising sea levels and submerging the continent. | 200110_1-LR1_15_17 | [
"That a given position is widely believed to be true is taken to show that the position in question must, in fact, be true.",
"That either of two things could independently have produced a given effect is taken to show that those two things could not have operated in conjunction to produce that effect.",
"Establishing that a certain event occurred is confused with having established the cause of that event.",
"A claim that has a very general application is based entirely on evidence from a narrowly restricted range of cases.",
"An inconsistency that, as presented, has more than one possible resolution is treated as though only one resolution is possible."
]
| 4 | The reasoning in the argument is most vulnerable to which one of the following criticisms? |
The current pattern of human consumption of resources, in which we rely on nonrenewable resources, for example metal ore, must eventually change. Since there is only so much metal ore available, ultimately we must either do without or turn to renewable resources to take its place. | 200110_1-LR1_16_18 | [
"There are renewable resource replacements for all of the nonrenewable resources currently being consumed.",
"We cannot indefinitely replace exhausted nonrenewable resources with other nonrenewable resources.",
"A renewable resource cannot be exhausted by human consumption.",
"Consumption of nonrenewable resources will not continue to increase in the near future.",
"Ultimately we cannot do without nonrenewable resources."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following is an assumption required by the argument? |
Lathyrism, a debilitating neurological disorder caused by the consumption of the legume Lathyrus sativus, is widespread among the domestic animals of some countries. Attempts to use rats to study lathyrism have generally failed. Rats that ingested Lathyrus sativus did not produce the symptoms associated with the disorder. | 200110_1-LR1_17_19 | [
"The physiology of rats is radically different from that of domestic animals.",
"The rats did not consume as much Lathyrus sativus as did the domestic animals that contracted lathyrism.",
"Not all animal species are equally susceptible to lathyrism.",
"Most of the animals that can contract lathyrism are domestic.",
"Laboratory conditions are not conducive to the development of lathyrism."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the information above? |
Columnist: Almost anyone can be an expert, for there are no official guidelines determining what an expert must know. Anybody who manages to convince some people of his or her qualifications in an area—whatever those may be—is an expert. | 200110_1-LR1_18_20 | [
"Almost anyone can convince some people of his or her qualifications in some area.",
"Some experts convince everyone of their qualifications in almost every area.",
"Convincing certain people that one is qualified in an area requires that one actually be qualified in that area.",
"Every expert has convinced some people of his or her qualifications in some area.",
"Some people manage to convince almost everyone of their qualifications in one or more areas."
]
| 0 | The columnist's conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? |
A patient complained of feeling constantly fatigued. It was determined that the patient averaged only four to six hours of sleep per night, and this was determined to contribute to the patient's condition. However, the patient was not advised to sleep more. | 200110_1-LR1_19_21 | [
"The shorter one's sleep time, the easier it is to awaken from sleeping.",
"The first two hours of sleep do the most to alleviate fatigue.",
"Some people required less sleep than the eight hours required by the average person.",
"Most people who suffer from nightmares experience them in the last hour of sleep before waking.",
"Worry about satisfying the need for sufficient sleep can make it more difficult to sleep."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent discrepancy in the information above? |
No chordates are tracheophytes, and all members of Pteropsida are tracheophytes. So no members of Pteropsida belong to the family Hominidae. | 200110_1-LR1_20_22 | [
"All members of the family Hominadae are tracheophytes.",
"All members of the family Hominidae are chordates.",
"All tracheophytes are members of Pteropsida.",
"No members of the family Hominidae are chordates.",
"No chordates are members of Pteropsida."
]
| 1 | The conclusion above follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? |
Some statisticians claim that the surest way to increase the overall correctness of the total set of one's beliefs is: never change that set, except by rejecting a belief when given adequate evidence against it. However, if this were the only rule one followed, then whenever one were presented with any kind of evidence, one would have to either reject some of one's beliefs or else leave one's beliefs unchanged. But then, over time, one could only have fewer and fewer beliefs. Since we need many beliefs in order to survive, the statisticians' claim must be mistaken. | 200110_1-LR1_21_23 | [
"presumes, without providing any justification, that the surest way of increasing the overall correctness of the total set of one's beliefs must not hinder one's ability to survive",
"neglects the possibility that even while following the statisticians' rule, one might also accept new beliefs when presented with some kinds of evidence",
"overlooks the possibility that some large sets of beliefs are more correct overall than are some small sets of beliefs",
"takes for granted that one should accept some beliefs related to survival even when given adequate evidence against them",
"takes for granted that the beliefs we need in order to have many beliefs must all be correct beliefs"
]
| 0 | The argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it |
In every case of political unrest in a certain country, the police have discovered that some unknown person or persons organized and fomented that unrest. Clearly, therefore, behind all the cases of political unrest in that country there has been a single mastermind who organized and fomented them all. | 200110_1-LR1_22_24 | [
"Every Chicago driver has a number on his or her license, so the number on some Chicago driver's license is the exact average of the numbers on all Chicago drivers' licenses.",
"Every telephone number in North America has an area code, so there must be at least as many area codes as telephone numbers in North America.",
"Every citizen of Edmonton has a social insurance number, so there must be one number that is the social insurance number for all citizens of Edmonton.",
"Every loss of a single hair is insignificant, so no one who has a full head of hair at twenty ever becomes bald.",
"Every moment in Vladimir's life is followed by a later moment in Vladimir's life, so Vladimir's life will never end."
]
| 2 | The flawed reasoning in the argument above most closely parallels that in which one of the following? |
A company that produces men's cologne had been advertising the product in general-circulation magazines for several years. Then one year the company decided to advertise its cologne exclusively in those sports magazines with a predominantly male readership. That year the company sold fewer bottles of cologne than it had in any of the three immediately preceding years. | 200110_1-LR1_23_25 | [
"Television advertising reaches more people than does magazine advertising, but the company never advertised its cologne on television because of the high cost.",
"The general-circulation magazines in which the company had placed its advertisements experienced a large rise in circulation recently.",
"Most men do not wear cologne on a regular basis.",
"Women often buy cologne as gifts for male friends or relatives.",
"Successful advertisements for men's cologne often feature well-known athletes."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if true, best helps to explain why the sale of the company's cologne dropped that year? |
Kim: The rapidly growing world population is increasing demands of food producers in ways that threaten our natural resources. With more land needed for both food production and urban areas, less land will be available for forests and wildlife habitats. Hampton: You are overlooking the promise of technology. I am confident that improvements in agriculture will allow us to feed the world population of ten billion predicted for 2050 without significantly increasing the percentage of the world's land now devoted to agriculture. | 200110_1-LR1_24_26 | [
"Efforts should be taken to slow the rate of human population growth and to increase the amount of land committed to agriculture.",
"Continued research into more-efficient agricultural practices and innovative biotechnology aimed at producing more food on less land would be beneficial.",
"Agricultural and wilderness areas need to be protected from urban encroachment by preparing urban areas for greater population density.",
"In the next half century, human population growth will continue to erode wildlife habitats and diminish forests.",
"The human diet needs to be modified in the next half century because of the depletion of our natural resources due to overpopulation."
]
| 1 | Kim's and Hampton's statements most strongly support the claim that both of them would agree with which one of the following? |
The graphical illustrations mathematics teachers use enable students to learn geometry more easily by providing them with an intuitive understanding of geometric concepts, which makes it easier to acquire the ability to manipulate symbols for the purpose of calculation. Illustrating algebraic concepts graphically would be equally effective pedagogically, even though the deepest mathematical understanding is abstract, not imagistic. | 200110_4-LR2_1_1 | [
"Pictorial understanding is not the final stage of mathematical understanding.",
"People who are very good at manipulating symbols do not necessarily have any mathematical understanding.",
"Illustrating geometric concepts graphically is an effective teaching method.",
"Acquiring the ability to manipulate symbols is part of the process of learning geometry.",
"There are strategies that can be effectively employed in the teaching both of algebra and of geometry."
]
| 1 | The statements above provide some support for each of the following EXCEPT: |
Bureaucratic mechanisms are engineered to resist change. Thus, despite growing dissatisfaction with complex bureaucratic systems, it is unlikely that bureaucracies will be simplified. | 200110_4-LR2_2_2 | [
"It is a premise offered in support of the claim that it is unlikely that bureaucracies will be simplified.",
"It is a conclusion for which the only support offered is the claim that dissatisfaction with complex bureaucratic systems is growing.",
"It is cited as evidence that bureaucratic systems are becoming more and more complex.",
"It is used to weaken the claim that bureaucracies should be simplified.",
"It is a conclusion for which the claim that bureaucracies are unlikely to be simplified is offered as support."
]
| 0 | The claim that bureaucratic mechanisms are engineered to resist change plays which one of the following roles in the argument? |
In speech, when words or sentences are ambiguous, gesture and tone of voice are used to indicate the intended meaning. Writers, of course, cannot use gesture or tone of voice and must rely instead on style; the reader detects the writer's intention from the arrangement of words and sentences. | 200110_4-LR2_3_3 | [
"The primary function of style in writing is to augment the literal meanings of the words and sentences used.",
"The intended meaning of a piece of writing is indicated in part by the writer's arrangement of words and sentences.",
"It is easier for a listener to detect the tone of a speaker than for a reader to detect the style of a writer.",
"A writer's intention will always be interpreted differently by different readers.",
"The writer's arrangement of words and sentences completely determines the aesthetic value of his or her writing."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following statements is most strongly supported by the information above? |
Last year a large firm set a goal of decreasing its workforce by 25 percent. Three divisions, totaling 25 percent of its workforce at that time, were to be eliminated and no new people hired. These divisions have since been eliminated and no new people have joined the firm, but its workforce has decreased by only 15 percent. | 200110_4-LR2_4_4 | [
"The three divisions that were eliminated were well run and had the potential to earn profits.",
"Normal attrition in the retained divisions continued to reduce staff because no new people were added to the firm.",
"Some of the employees in the eliminated divisions were eligible for early retirement and chose that option.",
"As the divisions were being eliminated some of their employees were assigned to other divisions.",
"Employees in the retained divisions were forced to work faster to offset the loss of the eliminated divisions."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if true, contributes most to an explanation of the difference in the planned versus the actual reduction in the workforce? |
One of the advantages of Bacillus thuringiensis (B.t.) toxins over chemical insecticides results from their specificity for pest insects. The toxins have no known detrimental effects on mammals or birds. In addition, the limited range of activity of the toxins toward insects means that often a particular toxin will kill pest species but not affect insects that prey upon the species. This advantage makes B.t. toxins preferable to chemical insecticides for use as components of insect pest management programs. | 200110_4-LR2_5_5 | [
"Chemical insecticides cause harm to a greater number of insect species than do B.t. toxins.",
"No particular B.t. toxin is effective against all insects.",
"B.t. toxins do not harm weeds that do damage to farm crops.",
"Insects build up resistance more readily to B.t. toxins than to chemical insecticides.",
"Birds and rodents often do greater damage to farm crops than do insects."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following statements, if true, most weakens the argument? |
Many people are alarmed about the population explosion. They fail to appreciate that the present rise in population has in fact been followed by equally potent economic growth. Because of this connection between an increase in population and an increase in economic activity, population control measures should not be taken. | 200110_4-LR2_6_6 | [
"Subscribers to newsmagazines are concerned that increased postage costs will be passed on to them in the form of higher subscription rates. But that is a price they have to pay for having the magazines delivered. No group of users of the postal system should be subsidized at the expense of others.",
"Most of the salespeople are concerned with complaints about the sales manager's aggressive behavior. They need to consider that sales are currently increasing. Due to this success, no action should be taken to address the manager's behavior.",
"Parents are concerned about their children spending too much time watching television. Those parents should consider television time as time they could spend with their children. Let the children watch television, but watch it with them.",
"Nutritionists warn people not to eat unhealthy foods. Those foods have been in people's diets for years. Before cutting all those foods out of diets it would be wise to remember that people enjoy culinary variety.",
"Some consumers become concerned when the price of a product increases for several years in a row, thinking that the price will continue to increase. But these consumers are mistaken since a long-term trend of price increases indicates that the price will probably decline in the future."
]
| 1 | The questionable pattern of reasoning in the argument above is most similar to that in which one of the following? |
Attorney: I ask you to find Mr. Smith guilty of assaulting Mr. Jackson. Regrettably, there were no eyewitnesses to the crime, but Mr. Smith has a violent character: Ms. Lopez testified earlier that Mr. Smith, shouting loudly, had threatened her. Smith never refuted this testimony. | 200110_4-LR2_7_7 | [
"aggressive behavior is not a sure indicator of a violent character",
"Smith's testimony is unreliable since he is loud and aggressive",
"since Smith never disproved the claim that he threatened Lopez, he did in fact threaten her",
"Lopez's testimony is reliable since she is neither loud nor aggressive",
"having a violent character is not necessarily associated with the commission of violent crimes"
]
| 2 | The attorney's argument is fallacious because it reasons that |
It is widely believed that by age 80, perception and memory are each significantly reduced from their functioning levels at age 30. However, a recent study showed no difference in the abilities of 80-year-olds and 30-year-olds to play a card game devised to test perception and memory. Therefore, the belief that perception and memory are significantly reduced by age 80 is false. | 200110_4-LR2_8_8 | [
"the study's card game does not test cognitive abilities other than perception and memory",
"card games are among the most difficult cognitive tasks one can attempt to perform",
"perception and memory are interrelated in ways of which we are not currently aware",
"the belief that 80-year-olds' perception and memory are reduced results from prejudice against senior citizens",
"playing the study's card game perfectly requires fairly low levels of perception and memory"
]
| 4 | The reasoning above is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it fails to consider the possibility that |
Moralist: Humans have a natural disposition to altruism—that is, to behavior that serves the needs of others regardless of one's own needs—but that very disposition prevents some acts of altruism from counting as moral. Reason plays an essential role in any moral behavior. Only behavior that is intended to be in accordance with a formal set of rules, or moral code, can be considered moral behavior. | 200110_4-LR2_9_9 | [
"All moral codes prohibit selfishness.",
"All moral behavior is motivated by altruism.",
"Behavior must serve the needs of others in order to be moral behavior.",
"Not all altruistic acts are moral behavior.",
"Altruism develops through the use of reason."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following most accurately states the main conclusion of the moralist's argument? |
A recent study suggests that Alzheimer's disease, which attacks the human brain, may be caused by a virus. In the study, blood from 11 volunteers, each of whom had the disease, was injected into rats. The rats eventually exhibited symptoms of another degenerative neurological disorder, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, which is caused by a virus. This led the scientist who conducted the study to conclude that Alzheimer's disease might be caused by a virus. | 200110_4-LR2_10_10 | [
"Alzheimer's disease in rats is not caused by a virus.",
"Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease affects only motor nerves in rats' limbs, not their brains.",
"The virus that causes Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease in rats has no effect on humans.",
"The symptoms known, respectively, as Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease and Alzheimer's disease are different manifestations of the same disease.",
"Blood from rats with Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease produced no symptoms of the disease when injected into other experimental rats."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following statements, if true, would most strengthen the scientist's hypothesis that Alzheimer's disease is caused by a virus? |
One approach to the question of which objects discussed by a science are real is to designate as real all and only those entities posited by the most explanatorily powerful theory of the science. But since most scientific theories contain entities posited solely on theoretical grounds, this approach is flawed. | 200110_4-LR2_11_11 | [
"Any object that is posited by a scientific theory and that enhances the explanatory power of that theory should be designated as real.",
"Objects posited for theoretical reasons only should never be designated as real.",
"A scientific theory should not posit any entity that does not enhance the explanatory power of the theory.",
"A scientific theory should sometimes posit entities on grounds other than theoretical ones.",
"Only objects posited by explanatorily powerful theories should be designated as real."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the reasoning above? |
Most doctors recommend that pregnant women eat a nutritious diet to promote the health of their babies. However, most babies who are born to women who ate nutritious diets while pregnant still develop at least one medical problem in their first year. | 200110_4-LR2_12_12 | [
"Women who regularly eat a nutritious diet while pregnant tend to eat a nutritious diet while breast-feeding.",
"Most of the babies born to women who did not eat nutritious diets while pregnant develop no serious medical problems later in childhood.",
"Babies of women who did not eat nutritious diets while pregnant tend to have more medical problems in their first year than do other babies.",
"Medical problems that develop in the first year of life tend to be more serious than those that develop later in childhood.",
"Many of the physicians who initially recommended that pregnant women consume nutritious diets have only recently reaffirmed their recommendation."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, does most to resolve the apparent discrepancy in the information above? |
Mayor: The law prohibiting pedestrians from crossing against red lights serves no useful purpose. After all, in order to serve a useful purpose, a law must deter the kind of behavior it prohibits. But pedestrians who invariably violate this law are clearly not dissuaded by it; and those who comply with the law do not need it, since they would never cross against red lights even if there were no law prohibiting pedestrians from crossing against red lights. | 200110_4-LR2_13_13 | [
"takes for granted that most automobile drivers will obey the law that prohibits them from driving through red lights",
"uses the word \"law\" in one sense in the premises and in another sense in the conclusion",
"ignores the possibility that a law might not serve a useful purpose even if it does deter the kind of behavior it prohibits",
"fails to consider whether the law ever dissuades people who sometimes but not always cross against red lights",
"provides no evidence that crossing against red lights is more dangerous than crossing on green lights"
]
| 3 | The mayor's argument is flawed because it |
Marian Anderson, the famous contralto, did not take success for granted. We know this because Anderson had to struggle early in life, and anyone who has to struggle early in life is able to keep a good perspective on the world. | 200110_4-LR2_14_14 | [
"Anyone who succeeds takes success for granted.",
"Anyone who is able to keep a good perspective on the world does not take success for granted.",
"Anyone who is able to keep a good perspective on the world has to struggle early in life.",
"Anyone who does not take success for granted has to struggle early in life.",
"Anyone who does not take success for granted is able to keep a good perspective on the world."
]
| 1 | The conclusion of the argument follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? |
Geneticist: Ethicists have fears, many of them reasonable, about the prospect of cloning human beings, that is, producing exact genetic duplicates. But the horror-movie image of a wealthy person creating an army of exact duplicates is completely unrealistic. Clones must be raised and educated, a long-term process that could never produce adults identical to the original in terms of outlook, personality, or goals. More realistic is the possibility that wealthy individuals might use clones as living "organ banks." | 200110_4-LR2_15_15 | [
"It is a reason for dismissing the various fears raised by ethicists regarding the cloning of human beings.",
"It is evidence that genetic clones will never be produced successfully.",
"It illustrates the claim that only wealthy people would be able to have genetic duplicates made of themselves.",
"It is evidence for the claim that wealthy people might use genetic duplicates of themselves as sources of compatible organs for transplantation.",
"It is a reason for discounting one possible fear concerning the cloning of human beings."
]
| 4 | The claim that cloning will not produce adults with identical personalities plays which one of the following roles in the geneticist's argument? |
Publicity campaigns for endangered species are unlikely to have much impact on the most important environmental problems, for while the ease of attributing feelings to large mammals facilitates evoking sympathy for them, it is more difficult to elicit sympathy for other kinds of organisms, such as the soil microorganisms on which large ecosystems and agriculture depend. | 200110_4-LR2_16_16 | [
"The most important environmental problems involve endangered species other than large mammals.",
"Microorganisms cannot experience pain or have other feelings.",
"Publicity campaigns for the environment are the most effective when they elicit sympathy for some organism.",
"People ignore environmental problems unless they believe the problems will affect creatures with which they sympathize.",
"An organism can be environmentally significant only if it affects large ecosystems or agriculture."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? |
Politician: All nations that place a high tax on income produce thereby a negative incentive for technological innovation, and all nations in which technological innovation is hampered inevitably fall behind in the international arms race. Those nations that, through historical accident or the foolishness of their political leadership, wind up in a strategically disadvantageous position are destined to lose their voice in world affairs. So if a nation wants to maintain its value system and way of life, it must not allow its highest tax bracket to exceed 30 percent of income. | 200110_4-LR2_17_17 | [
"The top level of taxation must reach 45 percent before taxation begins to deter inventors and industrialist from introducing new technologies and industries.",
"Making a great deal of money is an insignificant factor in driving technological innovation.",
"Falling behind in the international arms race does not necessarily lead to a strategically less advantageous position.",
"Those nations that lose influence in the world community do not necessarily suffer from a threat to their value system or way of life.",
"Allowing one's country to lose its technological edge, especially as concerns weaponry, would be foolish rather than merely a historical accident."
]
| 4 | Each of the following, if true, weakens the politician's argument EXCEPT: |
Philosopher: Scientists talk about the pursuit of truth, but, like most people, they are self-interested. Accordingly, the professional activities of most scientists are directed toward personal career enhancement, and only incidentally toward the pursuit of truth. Hence, the activities of the scientific community are largely directed toward enhancing the status of that community as a whole, and only incidentally toward the pursuit of truth. | 200110_4-LR2_18_18 | [
"improperly infers that each and every scientist has a certain characteristic from the premise that most scientists have that characteristic",
"improperly draws an inference about the scientific community as a whole from a premise about individual scientists",
"presumes, without giving justification, that the aim of personal career enhancement never advances the pursuit of truth",
"illicitly takes advantage of an ambiguity in the meaning of \"self-interested\"",
"improperly draws an inference about a cause from premises about its effects"
]
| 1 | The reasoning in the philosopher's argument is flawed because the argument |
Several critics have claimed that any contemporary poet who writes formal poetry—poetry that is rhymed and metered—is performing a politically conservative act. This is plainly false. Consider Molly Peacock and Marilyn Hacker, two contemporary poets whose poetry is almost exclusively formal and yet who are themselves politically progressive feminists. | 200110_4-LR2_19_19 | [
"No one who is a feminist is also politically conservative.",
"No poet who writes unrhymed or unmetered poetry is politically conservative.",
"No one who is politically progressive is capable of performing a politically conservative act.",
"Anyone who sometimes writes poetry that is not politically conservative never writes poetry that is politically conservative.",
"The content of a poet's work, not the work's form, is the most decisive factor in determining what political consequences, if any, the work will have."
]
| 2 | The conclusion drawn above follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? |
Archaeologist: A skeleton of a North American mastodon that became extinct at the peak of the Ice Age was recently discovered. It contains a human-made projectile dissimilar to any found in that part of Eurasia closest to North America. Thus, since Eurasians did not settle in North America until shortly before the peak of the Ice Age, the first Eurasian settlers in North America probably came from a more distant part of Eurasia. | 200110_4-LR2_20_20 | [
"The projectile found in the mastodon does not resemble any that were used in Eurasia before or during the Ice Age.",
"The people who occupied the Eurasian area closest to North America remained nomadic throughout the Ice Age.",
"The skeleton of a bear from the same place and time as the mastodon skeleton contains a similar projectile.",
"Other North American artifacts from the peak of the Ice Age are similar to ones from the same time found in more distant parts of Eurasia.",
"Climatic conditions in North America just before the Ice Age were more conducive to human habitation than were those in the part of Eurasia closest to North America at that time."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the archaeologist's argument? |
All social systems are based upon a division of economic roles. The values of a social system are embodied in the prestige accorded persons who fill various economic roles. It is therefore unsurprising that, for any social system, the introduction of labor-saving technology that makes certain economic roles obsolete will tend to undermine the values in that social system. | 200110_4-LR2_21_21 | [
"Social systems will have unchanging values if they are shielded from technological advancement.",
"No type of technology will fail to undermine the values in a social system.",
"A social system whose values are not susceptible to change would not be one in which technology can eliminate economic roles.",
"A technologically advanced society will place little value on the prestige associated with an economic role.",
"A technological innovation that is implemented in a social system foreign to the one in which it was developed will tend to undermine the foreign social system."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following can most reasonably be concluded on the basis of the information above? |
Multiple sclerosis is an autoimmune disease: white blood cells attack the myelin sheath that protects nerve fibers in the spinal cord and brain. Medical science now has a drug that can be used to successfully treat multiple sclerosis, but the path that led medical researchers to this drug was hardly straightforward. Initially, some scientists believed attacks characteristic of multiple sclerosis might be triggered by chronic viral infections. So in 1984 they began testing gamma interferon, one of the body's own antiviral weapons. To their horror, all the multiple sclerosis patients tested became dramatically worse. The false step proved to be instructive however. | 200110_4-LR2_22_22 | [
"Gamma interferon stops white blood cells from producing myelin-destroying compounds.",
"Administering gamma interferon to those without multiple sclerosis causes an increase in the number of white blood cells.",
"Medical researchers have discovered that the gamma interferon level in the cerebrospinal fluid skyrockets just before and during multiple sclerosis attacks.",
"It has now been established that most multiple sclerosis sufferers do not have chronic viral infections.",
"The drug now used to treat multiple sclerosis is known to inhibit the activity of gamma interferon."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following is LEAST compatible with the results of the gamma interferon experiment? |
The higher the altitude, the thinner the air. Since Mexico City's altitude is higher than that of Panama City, the air must be thinner in Mexico City than in Panama City. | 200110_4-LR2_23_23 | [
"As one gets older one gets wiser. Since Henrietta is older than her daughter, Henrietta must be wiser than her daughter.",
"The more egg whites used and the longer they are beaten, the fluffier the meringue. Since Lydia used more egg whites in her meringue than Joseph used in his, Lydia's meringue must be fluffier than Joseph's.",
"The people who run the fastest marathons these days are faster than the people who ran the fastest marathons ten years ago. Charles is a marathon runner. So Charles must run faster marathons these days than he did ten years ago.",
"The older a tree, the more rings it has. The tree in Lou's yard is older than the tree in Theresa's yard. Therefore, the tree in Lou's yard must have more rings than does the tree in Theresa's yard.",
"The bigger the vocabulary a language has, the harder it is to learn. English is harder to learn than Italian. Therefore, English must have a bigger vocabulary than Italian."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following arguments is most similar in its reasoning to the argument above? |
A recent study of 6,403 people showed that those treated with the drug pravastatin, one of the effects of which is to reduce cholesterol, had about one-third fewer nonfatal heart attacks and one-third fewer deaths from coronary disease than did those not taking the drug. This result is consistent with other studies, which show that those who have heart disease often have higher than average cholesterol levels. This shows that lowering cholesterol levels reduces the risk of heart disease. | 200110_4-LR2_24_24 | [
"neglects the possibility that pravastatin may have severe side effects",
"fails to consider that pravastatin may reduce the risk of heart disease but not as a consequence of its lowering cholesterol levels",
"relies on past findings, rather than drawing its principal conclusion from the data found in the specific study cited",
"draws a conclusion regarding the effects of lowering cholesterol levels on heart disease, when in fact the conclusion should focus on the relation between pravastatin and cholesterol levels",
"fails to consider what percentage of the general population might be taking pravastatin"
]
| 1 | The argument's reasoning is flawed because the argument |
Zachary: The term "fresco" refers to paint that has been applied to wet plaster. Once dried, a fresco indelibly preserves the paint that a painter has applied in this way. Unfortunately, additions known to have been made by later painters have obscured the original fresco work done by Michelangelo in the Sistine Chapel. Therefore, in order to restore Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel paintings to the appearance that Michelangelo intended them to have, everything except the original fresco work must be stripped away. Stephen: But it was extremely common for painters of Michelangelo's era to add painted details to their own fresco work after the frescos had dried. | 200110_4-LR2_25_25 | [
"calling into question an assumption on which Zachary's conclusion depends",
"challenging the definition of a key term in Zachary's argument",
"drawing a conclusion other than the one that Zachary reaches",
"denying the truth of one of the stated premises of Zachary's argument",
"demonstrating the Zachary's conclusion is not consistent with the premises he uses to support it"
]
| 0 | Stephen's response to Zachary proceeds by |
Zachary: The term "fresco" refers to paint that has been applied to wet plaster. Once dried, a fresco indelibly preserves the paint that a painter has applied in this way. Unfortunately, additions known to have been made by later painters have obscured the original fresco work done by Michelangelo in the Sistine Chapel. Therefore, in order to restore Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel paintings to the appearance that Michelangelo intended them to have, everything except the original fresco work must be stripped away. Stephen: But it was extremely common for painters of Michelangelo's era to add painted details to their own fresco work after the frescos had dried. | 200110_4-LR2_25_26 | [
"It is impossible to distinguish the later painted additions made to Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel paintings from the original fresco work.",
"Stripping away everything except Michelangelo's original fresco work from the Sistine Chapel paintings would be unlikely to restore them to the appearance Michelangelo intended them to have.",
"The painted details that painters of Michelangelo's era added to their own fresco work were not an integral part of the completed paintings' overall design.",
"None of the painters of Michelangelo's era who made additions to the Sistine Chapel paintings was an important artist in his or her own right.",
"Michelangelo was rarely satisfied with the appearance of his finished works."
]
| 1 | Stephen's response to Zachary, if true, most strongly supports which one of the following? |
Joanna: The only way for a company to be successful, after emerging from bankruptcy, is to produce the same goods or services that it did before going bankrupt. It is futile for such a company to try to learn a whole new business. Ruth: Wrong. The Kelton Company was a major mining operation that went into bankruptcy. On emerging from bankruptcy, Kelton turned its mines into landfills and is presently a highly successful waste-management concern. | 200112_1-LR1_1_1 | [
"She presents a counterexample to a claim.",
"She offers an alternative explanation for a phenomenon.",
"She supports a claim by offering a developed and relevant analogy.",
"She undermines a claim by showing that it rests on an ambiguity.",
"She establishes a conclusion by excluding the only plausible alternative to that conclusion."
]
| 0 | Ruth uses which one of the following argumentative techniques in countering Joanna's argument? |
Nutritionist: Recently a craze has developed for home juicers, $300 machines that separate the pulp of fruits and vegetables from the juice they contain. Outrageous claims are being made about the benefits of these devices: drinking the juice they produce is said to help one lose weight or acquire a clear complexion, to aid digestion, and even to prevent cancer. But there is no indication that juice separated from the pulp of the fruit or vegetable has any properties that it does not have when unseparated. Save your money. If you want carrot juice, eat a carrot. | 200112_1-LR1_2_2 | [
"Most people find it much easier to consume a given quantity of nutrients in liquid form than to eat solid foods containing the same quantity of the same nutrients.",
"Drinking juice from home juicers is less healthy than is eating fruits and vegetables because such juice does not contain the fiber that is eaten if one consumes the entire fruit or vegetable.",
"To most people who would be tempted to buy a home juicer, $300 would not be a major expense.",
"The nutritionist was a member of a panel that extensively evaluated early prototypes of home juicers.",
"Vitamin pills that supposedly contain nutrients available elsewhere only in fruits and vegetables often contain a form of those compounds that cannot be as easily metabolized as the varieties found in fruits and vegetables."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, most calls into question the nutritionist's argument? |
Finnish author Jaakko Mikkeli was accused by Norwegian author Kirsten Halden of plagiarizing a book that she had written and that had been published 20 years before Mikkeli's. The two books, although set in different periods and regions, contain enough plot similarities to make coincidental resemblance unlikely. Mikkeli's defense rests on his argument that plagiarism was impossible in this case because Halden's book has been published only in Norwegian, a language Mikkeli does not understand, and because no reviews of Halden's book have ever been published. | 200112_1-LR1_3_3 | [
"Mikkeli has never met Halden",
"Halden's book did not become popular in Norway",
"nobody related the plot of Halden's book in detail to Mikkeli before Mikkeli wrote his book",
"there is a common European myth to which both authors referred subconsciously in the books in question",
"Mikkeli is not familiar with Old Icelandic, an extinct language related to an earlier form of Norwegian"
]
| 2 | The argument in Mikkeli's defense depends on the assumption that |
Most antidepressant drugs cause weight gain. While dieting can help reduce the amount of weight gained while taking such antidepressants, some weight gain is unlikely to be preventable. | 200112_1-LR1_4_4 | [
"A physician should not prescribe any antidepressant drug for a patient if that patient is overweight.",
"People who are trying to lose weight should not ask their doctors for an antidepressant drug.",
"At least some patients taking antidepressant drugs gain weight as a result of taking them.",
"The weight gain experienced by patients taking antidepressant drugs should be attributed to lack of dieting.",
"All patients taking antidepressant drugs should diet to maintain their weight."
]
| 2 | The information above most strongly supports which one of the following? |
Company policy: An employee of our company must be impartial, particularly when dealing with family members. This obligation extends to all aspects of the job, including hiring and firing practices and the quality of service the employee provides customers. | 200112_1-LR1_5_5 | [
"refusing to hire any of one's five siblings, even though they are each more qualified than any other applicant",
"receiving over a hundred complaints about the service one's office provides and sending a complimentary product to all those who complain, including one's mother",
"never firing a family member, even though three of one's siblings work under one's supervision and authority",
"repeatedly refusing to advance an employee, claiming that he has sometimes skipped work and that his work has been sloppy, even though no such instances have occurred for over two years",
"promoting a family member over another employee in the company"
]
| 0 | Which one of the following employee behaviors most clearly violates the company policy cited above? |
It is widely believed that eating chocolate can cause acne. Indeed, many people who are susceptible to acne report that, in their own experience, eating large amounts of chocolate is invariably followed by an outbreak of that skin condition. However, it is likely that common wisdom has mistaken an effect for a cause. Several recent scientific studies indicate that hormonal changes associated with stress can cause acne and there is good evidence that people who are fond of chocolate tend to eat more chocolate when they are under stress. | 200112_1-LR1_6_6 | [
"People are mistaken who insist that whenever they eat large amounts of chocolate they invariably suffer from an outbreak of acne,",
"The more chocolate a person eats, the more likely that person is to experience the hormonal changes associated with stress.",
"Eating large amounts of chocolate is more likely to cause stress than it is to cause outbreaks of acne.",
"It is less likely that eating large amounts of chocolate causes acne than that both the chocolate eating and the acne are caused by stress.",
"The more stress a person experiences, the more likely that person is to crave chocolate."
]
| 3 | Of the following, which one most accurately expresses the main point of the argument? |
It is widely believed that eating chocolate can cause acne. Indeed, many people who are susceptible to acne report that, in their own experience, eating large amounts of chocolate is invariably followed by an outbreak of that skin condition. However, it is likely that common wisdom has mistaken an effect for a cause. Several recent scientific studies indicate that hormonal changes associated with stress can cause acne and there is good evidence that people who are fond of chocolate tend to eat more chocolate when they are under stress. | 200112_1-LR1_6_7 | [
"It cites counterevidence that calls into question the accuracy of the evidence advanced in support of the position being challenged.",
"It provides additional evidence that points to an alternative interpretation of the evidence offered in support of the position being challenged.",
"It invokes the superior authority of science over common opinion in order to dismiss out of hand the relevance of evidence based on everyday experience.",
"It demonstrates that the position being challenged is inconsistent with certain well-established facts.",
"It provides counterexamples to show that, contrary to the assumption on which the commonly held position rests, causes do not always precede their effects."
]
| 1 | The argument employs which one of the following argumentative strategies? |
It has been claimed that television networks should provide equal time for the presentation of opposing views whenever a television program concerns scientific issues—such as those raised by the claims of environmentalists—about which people disagree. However, although an obligation to provide equal time does arise in the case of any program concerning social issues, it does so because social issues almost always have important political implications and seldom can definitely be settled on the basis of available evidence. If a program concerns scientific issues, that program gives rise to no such equal time obligation. | 200112_1-LR1_7_8 | [
"No scientific issues raised by the claims of environmentalists have important political implications.",
"There are often more than two opposing views on an issue that cannot be definitely settled on the basis of available evidence.",
"Some social issues could be definitely settled on the basis of evidence if the opposing sides would give all the available evidence a fair hearing.",
"Many scientific issues have important political implications and cannot be definitely settled on the basis of the available evidence.",
"Some television networks refuse to broadcast programs on issues that have important political implications and that cannot be definitely settled by the available evidence."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument? |
Raisins are made by drying grapes in the sun. Although some of the sugar in the grapes is caramelized in the process, nothing is added. Moreover, the only thing removed from the grapes is the water that evaporates during the drying, and water contains no calories or nutrients. The fact that raisins contain more iron per calorie than grapes do is thus puzzling. | 200112_1-LR1_8_9 | [
"Since grapes are bigger than raisins, it takes several bunches of grapes to provide the same amount of iron as a handful of raisins does.",
"Caramelized sugar cannot be digested, so its calories do not count toward the calorie content of raisins.",
"The body can absorb iron and other nutrients more quickly from grapes than from raisins because of the relatively high water content of grapes.",
"Raisins, but not grapes, are available year-round, so many people get a greater share of their yearly iron intake from raisins than from grapes.",
"Raisins are often eaten in combination with other iron-containing foods, while grapes are usually eaten by themselves."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain why raisins contain more iron per calorie than do grapes? |
Cotrell is, at best, able to write magazine articles of average quality. The most compelling pieces of evidence for this are those few of the numerous articles submitted by Cotrell that are superior, since Cotrell, who is incapable of writing an article that is better than average, must obviously have plagiarized superior ones. | 200112_1-LR1_9_10 | [
"It simply ignores the existence of potential counterevidence.",
"It generalizes from atypical occurrences.",
"It presupposes what it seeks to establish.",
"It relies on the judgment of experts in a matter to which their expertise is irrelevant.",
"It infers limits on ability from a few isolated lapses in performance."
]
| 2 | The argument is most vulnerable to criticism on which one of the following grounds? |
Any sale item that is purchased can be returned for store credit but not for a refund of the purchase price. Every home appliance and every piece of gardening equipment is on sale along with selected construction tools. | 200112_1-LR1_10_11 | [
"Any item that is not a home appliance or a piece of gardening equipment is returnable for a refund.",
"Any item that is not on sale cannot be returned for store credit.",
"Some construction tools are not returnable for store credit.",
"No piece of gardening equipment is returnable for a refund.",
"None of the things that are returnable for a refund are construction tools."
]
| 3 | If the statements above are true, which one of the following must also be true? |
The consumer price index is a measure that detects monthly changes in the retail prices of goods and services. The payment of some government retirement benefits is based on the consumer price index so that those benefits reflect the change in the cost of living as the index changes. However, the consumer price index does not consider technological innovations that may drastically reduce the cost of producing some goods. Therefore, the value of government benefits is sometimes greater than is warranted by the true change in costs. | 200112_1-LR1_11_12 | [
"fails to consider the possibility that there are years in which there is no change in the consumer price index",
"fails to make explicit which goods and services are included in the consumer price index",
"presumes, without providing warrant, that retirement benefits are not generally used to purchase unusual goods",
"uncritically draws an inference from what has been true in the past to what will be true in the future",
"makes an irrelevant shift from discussing retail prices to discussing production costs"
]
| 4 | The reasoning in the argument is most vulnerable to the criticism that the argument |
When astronomers observed the comet Schwassman-Wachmann 3 becoming 1,000 times brighter in September 1995, they correctly hypothesized that its increased brightness was a result of the comet's breaking up—when comets break up, they emit large amounts of gas and dust, becoming visibly brighter as a result. However, their observations did not reveal comet Schwassman-Wachmann 3 actually breaking into pieces until November 1995, even though telescopes were trained on it throughout the entire period. | 200112_1-LR1_12_13 | [
"Comets often do not emit gas and dust until several weeks after they have begun to break up.",
"The reason comets become brighter when they break up is that the gas and dust that they emit refract light.",
"Gas and dust can be released by cracks in a comet even if the comet is not broken all the way through.",
"The amount of gas and dust emitted steadily increased during the period from September through November.",
"The comet passed close to the sun during this period and the gravitational strain caused it to break up."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent conflict in the statements above? |
If Slater wins the election, McGuinness will be appointed head of the planning commission. But Yerxes is more qualified to head it since she is an architect who has been on the planning commission for fifteen years. Unless the polls are grossly inaccurate, Slater will win. | 200112_1-LR1_13_14 | [
"If the polls are grossly inaccurate, someone more qualified than McGuinness will be appointed head of the planning commission.",
"McGuinness will be appointed head of the planning commission only if the polls are a good indication of how the election will turn out.",
"Either Slater will win the election or Yerxes will be appointed head of the planning commission.",
"McGuinness is not an architect and has not been on the planning commission for fifteen years or more.",
"If the polls are a good indication of how the election will turn out, someone less qualified than Yerxes will be appointed head of the planning commission."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following can be properly inferred from the information above? |
In one study, engineering students who prepared for an exam by using toothpicks and string did no worse than similar students who prepared by using an expensive computer with sophisticated graphics. In another study, military personnel who trained on a costly high-tech simulator performed no better on a practical exam than did similar personnel who trained using an inexpensive cardboard model. So one should not always purchase technologically advanced educational tools. | 200112_1-LR1_14_15 | [
"One should use different educational tools to teach engineering to civilians than are used to train military personnel.",
"High-tech solutions to modern problems are ineffective unless implemented by knowledgeable personnel.",
"Spending large sums of money on educational tools is at least as justified for nonmilitary training as it is for military training.",
"One should not invest in expensive teaching aids unless there are no other tools that are less expensive and at least as effective.",
"One should always provide students with a variety of educational materials so that each student can find the materials that best suit that student's learning style."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the reasoning above? |
A number of measures indicate the viability of a nation's economy. The level and rate of growth of aggregate output are the most significant indicators, but unemployment and inflation rates are also important. Further, Switzerland, Austria, Israel, Ireland, Denmark, and Finland all have viable economics, but none has a very large population. Switzerland and Austria each have populations of about seven million; the other populations are at least one-fourth smaller. | 200112_1-LR1_15_16 | [
"A nation's economic viability is independent of the size of its population.",
"Having a population larger than seven million ensures that a nation will be economically viable.",
"Economic viability does not require a population of at least seven million.",
"A nation's population is the most significant contributor to the level and rate of growth of aggregate output.",
"A nation's population affects the level and rate of growth of aggregate output more than it affects unemployment and inflation rates."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the information above? |
The best way to write a good detective story is to work backward from the crime. The writer should first decide what the crime is and who the perpetrator is, and then come up with the circumstances and clues based on those decisions. | 200112_1-LR1_16_17 | [
"When planning a trip, some people first decide where they want to go and then plan accordingly, but, for most of us, much financial planning must be done before we can choose where we are going.",
"In planting a vegetable garden, you should prepare the soil first, and then decide what kinds of vegetables to plant.",
"Good architects do not extemporaneously construct their plans in the course of an afternoon; an architectural design cannot be divorced from the method of constructing the building.",
"In solving mathematical problems, the best method is to try out as many strategies as possible in the time allotted. This is particularly effective if the number of possible strategies is fairly small.",
"To make a great tennis shot, you should visualize where you want the shot to go. Then you can determine the position you need to be in to execute the shot properly."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following illustrates a principle most similar to that illustrated by the passage? |
Moderate exercise lowers the risk of blockage of the arteries due to blood clots, since anything that lowers blood cholesterol levels also lowers the risk of hardening of the arteries, which in turn lowers the risk of arterial blockage due to blood clots; and, if the data reported in a recent study are correct, moderate exercise lowers blood cholesterol levels. | 200112_1-LR1_17_18 | [
"The recent study investigated the relationship between exercise and blood cholesterol levels.",
"Blockage of the arteries due to blood clots can be prevented.",
"Lowering blood cholesterol levels lowers the risk of blockage of the arteries.",
"The data reported in the recent study are correct.",
"Hardening of the arteries increases the risk of blockage of the arteries due to blood clots."
]
| 3 | The conclusion drawn above follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? |
Although it has been suggested that Arton's plays have a strong patriotic flavor, we must recall that, at the time of their composition, her country was in anything but a patriotic mood. Unemployment was high, food was costly, and crime rates were soaring. As a result, the general morale of her nation was at an especially low point. Realizing this, we see clearly that any apparent patriotism in Arton's work must have been intended ironically. | 200112_1-LR1_18_19 | [
"posits an unstated relationship between unemployment and crime",
"takes for granted that straightforward patriotism is not possible for a serious writer",
"takes for granted that Arton was attuned to the predominant national attitude of her time",
"overlooks the fact that some citizens prosper in times of high unemployment",
"confuses irony with a general decline in public morale"
]
| 2 | The reasoning above is questionable because it |
Editorialist: To ensure justice in the legal system, citizens must be capable of criticizing anyone involved in determining the punishment of criminals. But when the legal system's purpose is seen as deterrence, the system falls into the hands of experts whose specialty is to assess how potential lawbreakers are affected by the system's punishments. Because most citizens lack knowledge about such matters, justice is not then ensured in the legal system. | 200112_1-LR1_19_20 | [
"Most citizens view justice as primarily concerned with the assignment of punishment to those who deserve it.",
"In order to be just, a legal system must consider the effect that punishment will have on individual criminals.",
"The primary concern in a legal system is to administer punishments that are just.",
"In a legal system, a concern for punishment is incompatible with an emphasis on deterrence.",
"Citizens without knowledge about how the legal system's punishments affect potential lawbreakers are incapable of criticizing experts in that area."
]
| 4 | The editorialist's argument requires assuming which one of the following? |
Kostman's original painting of Rosati was not a very accurate portrait. Therefore, your reproduction of Kostman's painting of Rosati will not be a very accurate production of the painting. | 200112_1-LR1_20_21 | [
"George's speech was filled with half-truths and misquotes. So the tape recording made of it cannot be of good sound quality.",
"An artist who paints a picture of an ugly scene must necessarily paint an ugly picture, unless the picture is a distorted representation of the scene.",
"If a child's eyes resemble her mother's, then if the mother's eyes are brown the child's eyes also must be brown.",
"Jo imitated Layne. But Jo is different from Layne, so Jo could not have imitated Layne very well.",
"Harold's second novel is similar to his first. Therefore, his second novel must be enthralling, because his first novel won a prestigious literary prize."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following is most similar in its flawed reasoning to the flawed reasoning in the argument above? |
Any writer whose purpose is personal expression sometimes uses words ambiguously. Every poet's purpose is personal expression. Thus no poetry reader's enjoyment depends on attaining a precise understanding of what the poet means. | 200112_1-LR1_21_22 | [
"Writers who sometimes use words ambiguously have no readers who try to attain a precise understanding of what the writer means.",
"Writers whose purpose is personal expression are unconcerned with whether anyone enjoys reading their works.",
"No writer who ever uses words ambiguously has any reader whose enjoyment depends on attaining a precise understanding of what the writer means.",
"Most writers whose readers' enjoyment does not depend on attaining a precise understanding of the writers' words are poets.",
"Readers who have a precise understanding of what a writer has written derive their enjoyment from that understanding."
]
| 2 | The conclusion can be properly inferred if which one of the following is assumed? |
It is clear that humans during the Upper Paleolithic period used lamps for light in caves. Though lamps can be dated to the entire Upper Paleolithic, the distribution of known lamps from the period is skewed, with the greatest number being associated with the late Upper Paleolithic period, when the Magdalenian culture was dominant. | 200112_1-LR1_22_23 | [
"Artifacts from early in the Upper Paleolithic period are harder to identify than those that originated later in the period.",
"More archaeological sites have been discovered from the Magdalenian culture than from earlier cultures.",
"More efficient lamp-making techniques were developed by the Magdalenian culture than by earlier cultures.",
"Fire pits were much more common in caves early in the Upper Paleolithic period than they were later in that period.",
"More kinds of lamps were produced by the Magdalenian culture than by earlier cultures."
]
| 4 | Each of the following, if true, contributes to an explanation of the skewed distribution of lamps EXCEPT: |
Columnist: George Orwell's book 1984 has exercised much influence on a great number of this newspaper's readers. One thousand readers were surveyed and asked to name the one book that had the most influence on their lives. The book chosen most often was the Bible; 1984 was second. | 200112_1-LR1_23_24 | [
"How many books had each person surveyed read?",
"How many people chose books other than 1984?",
"How many people read the columnist's newspaper?",
"How many books by George Orwell other than 1984 were chosen?",
"How many of those surveyed had actually read the books they chose?"
]
| 1 | The answer to which one of the following questions would most help in evaluating the columnist's argument? |
A 1991 calculation was made to determine what, if any, additional health-care costs beyond the ordinary are borne by society at large for people who live a sedentary life. The figure reached was a lifetime average of $1,650. Thus people's voluntary choice not to exercise places a significant burden on society. | 200112_1-LR1_24_25 | [
"Many people whose employment requires physical exertion do not choose to engage in regular physical exercise when they are not at work.",
"Exercise is a topic that is often omitted from discussion between doctor and patient during a patient's visit.",
"Physical conditions that eventually require medical or nursing-home care often first predispose a person to adopt a sedentary lifestyle.",
"Individuals vary widely in the amount and kind of exercise they choose, when they do exercise regularly.",
"A regular program of moderate exercise tends to increase circulation, induce a feeling of well-being and energy, and decrease excess weight."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true and not taken into account by the calculation, most seriously weakens the argument? |
In the paintings by seventeenth-century Dutch artist Vermeer, we find several recurrent items: a satin jacket, a certain Turkish carpet, and wooden chairs with lion's head finials. These reappearing objects might seem to evince a dearth of props. Yet we know that many of the props Vermeer used were expensive. Thus, while we might speculate about exactly why Vermeer worked with a small number of familiar objects, it was clearly not for lack of props that the recurrent items were used. | 200112_1-LR1_25_26 | [
"Vermeer often borrowed the expensive props he represented in his paintings.",
"The props that recur in Vermeer's paintings were always available to him.",
"The satin jacket and wooden chairs that recur in the paintings were owned by Vermeer's sister.",
"The several recurrent items that appeared in Vermeer's paintings had special sentimental importance for him.",
"If a dearth of props accounted for the recurrent objects in Vermeer's paintings, we would not see expensive props in any of them."
]
| 4 | The conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? |
Scientists agree that ingesting lead harms young children. More lead paint remains in older apartment buildings than newer ones because the use of lead paint was common until only two decades ago. Yet these same scientists also agree that laws requiring the removal of lead paint from older apartment buildings will actually increase the amount of lead that children living in older apartment buildings ingest. | 200112_3-LR2_1_1 | [
"Lead-free paints contain substances that make them as harmful to children as lead paint is.",
"The money required to finance the removal of lead paint from apartment walls could be spent in ways more likely to improve the health of children.",
"Other sources of lead in older apartment buildings are responsible for most of the lead that children living in these buildings ingest.",
"Removing lead paint from walls disperses a great deal of lead dust, which is more easily ingested by children than is paint on walls.",
"Many other environmental hazards pose greater threats to the health of children than does lead paint."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent discrepancy in the scientists' beliefs? |
Several companies will soon offer personalized electronic news services, delivered via cable or telephone lines and displayed on a television. People using these services can view continually updated stories on those topics for which they subscribe. Since these services will provide people with the information they are looking for more quickly and efficiently than printed newspapers can, newspaper sales will decline drastically if these services become widely available. | 200112_3-LR2_2_2 | [
"In reading newspapers, most people not only look for stories on specific topics but also like to idly browse through headlines or pictures for amusing stories on unfamiliar or unusual topics.",
"Companies offering personalized electronic news services will differ greatly in what they charge for access to their services, depending on how wide a range of topics they cover.",
"Approximately 30 percent of people have never relied on newspapers for information but instead have always relied on news programs broadcast on television and radio.",
"The average monthly cost of subscribing to several channels on a personalized electronic news service will approximately equal the cost of a month's subscription to a newspaper.",
"Most people who subscribe to personalized electronic news services will not have to pay extra costs for installation since the services will use connections installed by cable and telephone companies."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument? |
Muscular strength is a limited resource, and athletic techniques help to use this resource efficiently. Since top athletes do not differ greatly from each other in muscular strength, it follows that a requirement for an athlete to become a champion is a superior mastery of athletic techniques. | 200112_3-LR2_3_3 | [
"Only champion athletes have a superior mastery of athletic techniques.",
"Superior muscular strength is a requirement for an athlete to become a champion.",
"No athlete can become a champion without a superior mastery of athletic techniques.",
"The differences in muscular strength between top athletes are not great.",
"Athletic techniques help athletes use limited resources efficiently."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the conclusion of the argument? |
Mary: Computers will make more information available to ordinary people than was ever available before, thus making it easier for them to acquire knowledge without consulting experts. Joyce: As more knowledge became available in previous centuries, the need for specialists to synthesize and explain it to nonspecialists increased. So computers will probably create a greater dependency on experts. | 200112_3-LR2_4_4 | [
"computers will contribute only negligibly to the increasing dissemination of knowledge in society",
"computers will increase the need for ordinary people seeking knowledge to turn to experts",
"computers will make more information available to ordinary people",
"dependency on computers will increase with the increase of knowledge",
"synthesizing knowledge and explaining it to ordinary people can be accomplished only by computer experts"
]
| 1 | The dialogue most strongly supports the claim that Mary and Joyce disagree with each other about whether |
Solicitor: Loux named Zembaty executor of her will. Her only beneficiary was her grandson, of whom she was very fond. Prior to distributing the remainder to the beneficiary, Zembaty was legally required to choose which properties in the estate should be sold to clear the estate's heavy debts. Loux never expressed any particular desire about the Stoke Farm, which includes the only farmland in her estate. Thus, it is unlikely that Loux would have had any objection to Zembaty's having sold it rather than having transferred it to her grandson. | 200112_3-LR2_5_5 | [
"The estate's debts could not have been cleared without selling the Stoke Farm.",
"Loux repeatedly told her grandson that she would take care of him in her will.",
"Loux was well aware of the legal requirements the executor of her will would have to satisfy.",
"The Stoke Farm was the main cause of the estate's debts.",
"Loux's grandson had repeatedly expressed his desire to own a farm."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following, if true, most weakens the solicitor's argument? |
Government official: A satisfactory way of eliminating chronic food shortages in our country is not easily achievable. Direct aid from other countries in the form of food shipments tends to undermine our prospects for long-term agricultural self-sufficiency. If external sources of food are delivered effectively by external institutions, local food producers and suppliers are forced out of business. On the other hand, foreign capital funneled to long-term development projects would inject so much cash into our economy that inflation would drive the price of food beyond the reach of most of our citizens. | 200112_3-LR2_6_6 | [
"It supports the claim that the official's country must someday be agriculturally self-sufficient.",
"It supports the claim that there is no easy solution to the problem of chronic food shortages in the official's country.",
"It is supported by the claim that the official's country must someday be agriculturally self-sufficient.",
"It supports the claim that donations of food from other countries will not end the chronic food shortages in the official's country.",
"It is supported by the claim that food producers and suppliers in the official's country may be forced out of business by donations of food from other countries."
]
| 1 | The claim that foreign capital funneled into the economy would cause inflation plays which one of the following roles in the government official's argument? |
Medical doctor: Sleep deprivation is the cause of many social ills, ranging from irritability to potentially dangerous instances of impaired decision making. Most people today suffer from sleep deprivation to some degree. Therefore we should restructure the workday to allow people flexibility in scheduling their work hours. | 200112_3-LR2_7_7 | [
"The primary cause of sleep deprivation is overwork.",
"Employees would get more sleep if they had greater latitude in scheduling their work hours.",
"Individuals vary widely in the amount of sleep they require.",
"More people would suffer from sleep deprivation today than did in the past if the average number of hours worked per week had not decreased.",
"The extent of one's sleep deprivation is proportional to the length of one's workday."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, would most strengthen the medical doctor's argument? |
Essayist: Knowledge has been defined as a true belief formed by a reliable process. This definition has been criticized on the grounds that if someone had a reliable power of clairvoyance, we would not accept that person's claim to know certain things on the basis of this power. I agree that we would reject such claims, but we would do so because we really do not believe in clairvoyance as a reliable process. Were we to believe in clairvoyance, we would accept knowledge claims made on the basis of it. | 200112_3-LR2_8_8 | [
"asserting that the objection is based on a belief about the reliability of clairvoyance rather than on the nature of knowledge or its definition",
"asserting that the case of clairvoyance is one of knowledge even though we do not really believe in clairvoyance as a reliable process",
"arguing against the assumption that clairvoyance is unreliable",
"explaining that the definition of knowledge is a matter of personal choice",
"demonstrating that the case of clairvoyance is not a case of knowledge and does not fit the definition of knowledge"
]
| 0 | Which one of the following most accurately describes the essayist's method of defending the definition against the objection? |
I agree that Hogan's actions resulted in grievous injury to Winters. And I do not deny that Hogan fully realized the nature of his actions and the effects that they would have. Indeed, I would not disagree if you pointed out that intentionally causing such effects is reprehensible, other things being equal. But in asking you to concur with me that Hogan's actions not be wholly condemned I emphasize again that Hogan mistakenly believed Winters to be the robber who had been terrorizing west-side apartment buildings for the past several months. | 200112_3-LR2_9_9 | [
"Hogan should not be considered responsible for the injuries sustained by Winters.",
"The robber who had been terrorizing west-side apartment buildings should be considered to be as responsible for Winters's injuries as Hogan.",
"The actions of Hogan that seriously injured Winters are not completely blameworthy.",
"Hogan thought that Winters was the person who had been terrorizing west-side apartment buildings for the last few months.",
"The actions of Hogan that seriously injured Winters were reprehensible, other things being equal."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the conclusion of the argument? |
Peter: Because the leaves of mildly drought-stressed plants are tougher in texture than the leaves of abundantly watered plants, insects prefer to feed on the leaves of abundantly watered plants. Therefore, to minimize crop damage, farmers should water crops only just enough to ensure that there is no substantial threat, from a lack of water, to either the growth or the yield of the crops. Jennifer: Indeed. In fact, a mildly drought-stressed plant will divert a small amount of its resources from normal growth to the development of pesticidal toxins, but abundantly watered plants will not. | 200112_3-LR2_10_10 | [
"It offers information that supports each of the claims that Peter makes in his argument.",
"It supports Peter's argument by supplying a premise without which Peter's conclusion cannot properly be drawn.",
"It supports Peter's argument by offering an explanation of all of Peter's premises.",
"It supports one of Peter's premises although it undermines Peter's conclusion.",
"It supports the conclusion of Peter's argument by offering independent grounds for that conclusion."
]
| 4 | Jennifer's comment is related to Peter's argument in which one of the following ways? |
Peter: Because the leaves of mildly drought-stressed plants are tougher in texture than the leaves of abundantly watered plants, insects prefer to feed on the leaves of abundantly watered plants. Therefore, to minimize crop damage, farmers should water crops only just enough to ensure that there is no substantial threat, from a lack of water, to either the growth or the yield of the crops. Jennifer: Indeed. In fact, a mildly drought-stressed plant will divert a small amount of its resources from normal growth to the development of pesticidal toxins, but abundantly watered plants will not. | 200112_3-LR2_10_11 | [
"The leaves of some crop plants are much larger, and therefore absorb more water, than the leaves of some other crop plants.",
"In industrialized nations there are more crops that are abundantly watered than there are crops grown under mild drought stress.",
"Insect damage presents a greater threat to crop plants than does mild drought stress.",
"Farmers are not always able to control the amount of water that their crops receive when, for instance, there are rainstorms in the areas where their crops are growing.",
"Mexican bean beetles are more likely to feed on the leaves of slightly drought-stressed soybeans than oak lace bugs are to feed on the leaves of abundantly watered soybeans."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens Peter's argument? |
Vague laws set vague limits on people's freedom, which makes it impossible for them to know for certain whether their actions are legal. Thus, under vague laws people cannot feel secure. | 200112_3-LR2_11_12 | [
"People can feel secure only if they know for certain whether their actions are legal.",
"If people do not know for certain whether their actions are legal, then they might not feel secure.",
"If people know for certain whether their actions are legal, they can feel secure.",
"People can feel secure if they are governed by laws that are not vague.",
"Only people who feel secure can know for certain whether their actions are legal."
]
| 0 | The conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? |
While it was once believed that the sort of psychotherapy appropriate for the treatment of neuroses caused by environmental factors is also appropriate for schizophrenia and other psychoses, it is now known that these latter, more serious forms of mental disturbance are best treated by biochemical— that is, medicinal—means. This is conclusive evidence that psychoses, unlike neuroses, have nothing to do with environmental factors but rather are caused by some sort of purely organic condition, such as abnormal brain chemistry or brain malformations. | 200112_3-LR2_12_13 | [
"the organic conditions that result in psychoses can be caused or exacerbated by environmental factors",
"the symptoms of mental disturbance caused by purely organic factors can be alleviated with medicine",
"organic illnesses that are nonpsychological in nature may be treatable without using biochemical methods",
"the nature of any medical condition can be inferred from the nature of the treatment that cures that condition",
"organic factors having little to do with brain chemistry may be at least partially responsible for neuroses"
]
| 0 | The argument is vulnerable to criticism because it ignores the possibility that |
We learn to use most of the machines in our lives through written instructions, without knowledge of the machines' inner workings, because most machines are specifically designed for use by nonexperts. So, in general, attaining technological expertise would prepare students for tomorrow's job market no better than would a more traditional education stressing verbal and quantitative skills. | 200112_3-LR2_13_14 | [
"Fewer people receive a traditional education stressing verbal and quantitative skills now than did 20 years ago.",
"Facility in operating machines designed for use by nonexperts is almost never enhanced by expert knowledge of the machines' inner workings.",
"Most jobs in tomorrow's job market will not demand the ability to operate many machines that are designed for use only by experts.",
"Students cannot attain technological expertise and also receive an education that does not neglect verbal and quantitative skills.",
"When learning to use a machine, technological expertise is never more important than verbal and quantitative skills."
]
| 2 | The argument depends on assuming which one of the following? |
Environmentalists who seek stricter governmental regulations controlling water pollution should be certain to have their facts straight. For if it turns out, for example, that water pollution is a lesser threat than they proclaimed, then there will be a backlash and the public will not listen to them even when dire threats exist. | 200112_3-LR2_14_15 | [
"Middle-level managers who ask their companies to hire additional employees should have strong evidence that doing so will benefit the company; otherwise, higher-level managers will refuse to follow their suggestions to hire additional employees even when doing so really would benefit the company.",
"Politicians who defend the rights of unpopular constituencies ought to see to it that they use cool, dispassionate rhetoric in their appeals. Even if they have their facts straight, inflammatory rhetoric can cause a backlash that results in more negative reactions to these constituencies, whether or not they are deserving of more rights.",
"People who are trying to convince others to take some sort of action should make every effort to present evidence that is emotionally compelling. Such evidence is invariably more persuasive than dry, technical data, even when the data strongly support their claims.",
"Whoever wants to advance a political agenda ought to take the time to convince legislators that their own political careers are at stake in the matter at hand; otherwise, the agenda will simply be ignored.",
"Activists who want to prevent excessive globalization of the economy should assign top priority to an appeal to the economic self-interest of those who would be adversely affected by it, for if they fail in such an appeal, extreme economic globalization is inevitable."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following best illustrates the principle illustrated by the argument above? |
Herpetologist: Some psychologists attribute complex reasoning to reptiles, claiming that simple stimulus-response explanations of some reptiles' behaviors, such as food gathering, cannot account for the complexity of such behavior. But since experiments show that reptiles are incapable of making major alterations in their behavior, for example, when faced with significant changes in their environment, these animals must be incapable of complex reasoning. | 200112_3-LR2_15_16 | [
"Animals could make major changes in their behavior only if they were capable of complex reasoning.",
"Simple stimulus-response explanations can in principle account for all reptile behaviors.",
"Reptile behavior appears more complex in the field than laboratory experiments reveal it to be.",
"If reptiles were capable of complex reasoning, they would sometimes be able to make major changes in their behavior.",
"Complex reasoning and responses to stimuli cannot both contribute to the same behavior."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following is an assumption required by the herpetologist's argument? |
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