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Jim: I hear that the company is considering giving Fred and Dorothy 25 percent raises. That would make their salaries higher than mine. Since I have worked here longer than they have, it would be unfair to raise their salaries unless mine is raised to at least what theirs will be. Tasha: Thirty-five employees have been here the same length of time you have and earn the same salary you earn. It would be unfair to raise your salary without raising theirs. | 200002_3-LR2_22_22 | [
"In order to be fair, a business must pay identical salaries to employees with identical duties.",
"In order to be fair, a business must pay an employee a salary commensurate with his or her experience in the field.",
"In order to be fair, a business must always pay one employee more than another if the first employee has worked for the company longer than the second has.",
"In order to be fair, a business must never pay one employee more than another unless the first employee has worked for the company longer than the second has.",
"In order to be fair, a business must always pay employees a salary commensurate with the amount of time they work every day."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following principles most helps to justify both parties' statements? |
Commentator: A political constitution that provides the framework for the laws of a nation must be interpreted to apply to new situations not envisioned by its authors. Although these interpretations express the moral and political beliefs of the interpreters, they are usually portrayed as embodying the intentions of the authors. This fiction is vital because without it the illusion, so necessary for political stability, that laws are the bequest of a long tradition rather than the preferences of contemporary politicians would vanish. | 200002_3-LR2_23_23 | [
"If the people of a nation do not believe that the laws under which they live express the intentions of their political leaders, that nation will become more politically unstable.",
"Political instability will increase if the people of a nation cease to believe that their constitution is being interpreted consistently with the intentions of its authors.",
"Political instability will ensue if people come to believe there is a divergence between the beliefs of the authors of their constitution and those of their present political leaders.",
"A written constitution preserves the illusion that laws are the bequest of a long tradition rather than the creations of modern politicians.",
"The perceived lack of a long legal tradition in a nation makes the political stability of that nation dependent upon the fiction that its present political leaders share the intentions of the authors of the constitution of that nation."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the commentator's statements, if they are true? |
Only if a family manages its finances wisely will it obtain fiscal security. But without realistic projections of financial obligations, a functional budget cannot be devised. So, if either fiscal security is to be obtained or a workable budget devised, finances must be managed wisely or financial obligations must be projected realistically. | 200002_3-LR2_24_24 | [
"Without continued use of pesticides it is not possible to grow enough food for the world's people. But only when researchers develop pesticides harmless to humans will persistent health problems be reduced. Thus, pesticide use must continue or pesticides harmless to humans must be developed if enough food is to be produced or persistent health problems are to be reduced.",
"Reasonably healthy people who wish to lose weight must alter their balance of caloric intake and caloric burn off. But without benefit of medical supervision, drastic changes in diet or exercise patterns would be harmful. So, one who wishes to lose weight but does not want to risk health problems should seek medical supervision before beginning a diet or exercise program.",
"Many popular, low-maintenance houseplants are available. Yet some of these plants, because they are toxic, are unsuitable for homes where pets are kept indoors. As a result, pet owners should either select nontoxic plants or keep the plants out of a pet's reach if they want low-maintenance houseplants or cannot keep their pets outside.",
"Only employees who work diligently will be retained in this company until they are eligible for retirement. Also, we can retain only those employees who fit the new organizational structure of our proposed redesign process. So, if this redesign process is carried out, any employee who seeks continuing employment here must work diligently and fit the new organizational structure.",
"A successful charity drive requires detailed planning. Volunteers must be recruited and trained, and equipment and facilities must be prepared months before the drive is to begin. Thus, if a group is organizing a charity drive, the group must formulate a detailed plan well ahead of time or it can expect failure."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following arguments is most similar in its pattern of reasoning to that in the argument above? |
Anthropologist: After mapping the complete dominance hierarchy for a troupe of vervet monkeys by examining their pairwise interaction, we successfully predicted more complex forms of their group behavior by assuming that each monkey had knowledge of the complete hierarchy. Since our prediction was so accurate, it follows that the assumption we used to reach it was in fact true. Primatologist: Although I agree that your assumption helped you make those predictions, your conclusion does not follow. You might as well argue that since we can predict the output of some bank cash machines by assuming that these machines actually want to satisfy the customers' requests, these cash machines must really have desires. | 200002_3-LR2_25_25 | [
"citing various facts that could not obtain if the anthropologist's conclusion were correct",
"offering another argument that has as its premise the denial of the thesis that the anthropologist defends",
"applying one of the anthropologist's reasoning steps in another argument in an attempt to show that it leads to an absurd conclusion",
"attacking the anthropologist's expertise by suggesting the anthropologist is ignorant of the analogy that can be drawn between animals and machines",
"suggesting that the anthropologist's argument relies on a misinterpretation of a key scientific term"
]
| 2 | The primatologist uses which one of the following argumentative techniques in countering the anthropologist's argument? |
Anthropologist: After mapping the complete dominance hierarchy for a troupe of vervet monkeys by examining their pairwise interaction, we successfully predicted more complex forms of their group behavior by assuming that each monkey had knowledge of the complete hierarchy. Since our prediction was so accurate, it follows that the assumption we used to reach it was in fact true. Primatologist: Although I agree that your assumption helped you make those predictions, your conclusion does not follow. You might as well argue that since we can predict the output of some bank cash machines by assuming that these machines actually want to satisfy the customers' requests, these cash machines must really have desires. | 200002_3-LR2_25_26 | [
"whether the anthropologist successfully predicted the behavior of individual monkeys by use of the map of the troupe's dominance hierarchy",
"whether the output of a bank cash machine can be accurately predicted on the basis of knowledge of the requests made to it by customers",
"whether vervet monkeys can have knowledge of the complete hierarchy of dominance relations that exists within their own troupe",
"whether the fact that the anthropologist's assumption led to such successful predictions provides sufficient grounds for the claim that the vervet monkeys had knowledge of their dominance hierarchy",
"whether the behavior exhibited by vervet monkeys in experimental situations can be used as the basis for a generalization concerning all vervet monkeys"
]
| 3 | Which one of the following is a point about which the anthropologist and the primatologist are committed to disagreeing? |
Marmosets are the only primates other than humans known to display a preference for using one hand rather than the other. Significantly more marmosets are left-handed than are right-handed. Since infant marmosets engage in much imitative behavior, researchers hypothesize that it is by imitation that infant marmosets learn which hand to use, so that offspring reared by left-handed parents generally share their parents' handedness. | 200012_1-LR1_1_1 | [
"A study conducted on adult marmosets revealed that many were right-handed.",
"Right-handed marmosets virtually all have at least one sibling who is left-handed.",
"According to the study, 33 percent of marmosets are ambidextrous, showing equal facility using either their left hand or their right hand.",
"Ninety percent of humans are right-handed, but those who are left-handed are likely to have at least one left-handed parent.",
"Marmosets raised in captivity with right-handed adult marmosets to whom they are not related are more likely to be right-handed than left-handed."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following, if true, most supports the researchers' hypothesis? |
Sheila: It has been argued that using computer technology to add color to a movie originally filmed in black and white damages the integrity of the original film. But no one argues that we should not base a movie on a novel or a short story because doing so would erode the value of the book or story. The film adaptation of the written work is a new work that stands on its own. Judgments of it do not reflect on the original. Similarly, the colorized film is a new work distinct from the original and should be judged on its own merit. It does not damage the integrity of the original black-and-white film. | 200012_1-LR1_2_2 | [
"It appeals to an analogy between similar cases.",
"It offers a counterexample to a general principle.",
"It appeals to popular opinion on the matter at issue.",
"It distinguishes facts from value judgments.",
"It draws an inference from a general principle and a set of facts."
]
| 0 | Sheila's argument uses which one of the following techniques of argumentation? |
Juan: Unlike the ancient Olympic games on which they are based, the modern Olympics include professional as well as amateur athletes. But since amateurs rarely have the financial or material resources available to professionals, it is unlikely that the amateurs will ever offer a serious challenge to professionals in those Olympic events in which amateurs compete against professionals. Hence, the presence of professional athletes violates the spirit of fairness essential to the games. Michiko: But the idea of the modern Olympics is to showcase the world's finest athletes, regardless of their backgrounds or resources. Hence, professionals should be allowed to compete. | 200012_1-LR1_3_3 | [
"whether the participation of both amateur and professional athletes is in accord with the ideals of the modern Olympics",
"whether both amateur and professional athletes competed in the ancient Olympic games upon which the modern Olympics are based",
"whether the athletes who compete in the modern Olympics are the world's finest",
"whether any amateur athletes have the financial or material resources that are available to professional athletes",
"whether governments sponsor professional as well as amateur athletes in the modern Olympics"
]
| 0 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the point at issue between Juan and Michiko? |
Juan: Unlike the ancient Olympic games on which they are based, the modern Olympics include professional as well as amateur athletes. But since amateurs rarely have the financial or material resources available to professionals, it is unlikely that the amateurs will ever offer a serious challenge to professionals in those Olympic events in which amateurs compete against professionals. Hence, the presence of professional athletes violates the spirit of fairness essential to the games. Michiko: But the idea of the modern Olympics is to showcase the world's finest athletes, regardless of their backgrounds or resources. Hence, professionals should be allowed to compete. | 200012_1-LR1_3_4 | [
"In general, amateur athletes tend to outnumber professional athletes in the modern Olympics.",
"In certain events in the modern Olympics the best few competitors are amateurs; in certain other events the best few competitors are professionals.",
"The concept of \"amateur\" and \"professional\" athletics would have been unfamiliar to the ancient Greeks on whose games the modern Olympics are based.",
"In the modern Olympics there has been no noticeable correlation between the financial or material resources expended on the training of individual athletes and the eventual performance of those athletes.",
"Many amateur athletes who take part in international competitions receive no financial or material support from the governments of the countries that the amateurs represent."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if true, most seriously undermines Juan's argument? |
A recent national study of the trash discarded in several representative areas confirmed that plastics constitute a smaller proportion of all trash than paper products do, whether the trash is measured by weight or by volume. The damage that a given weight or volume of trash does to the environment is roughly the same whether the trash consists of plastics or paper products. Contrary to popular opinion, therefore, the current use of plastics actually does less harm to the environment nationwide than that of paper products. | 200012_1-LR1_4_5 | [
"plastics constitute a smaller proportion of the nation's total trash than do paper products",
"the ratio of weight to volume is the same for plastic trash as it is for paper trash",
"popular opinion regards the use of paper products as less harmful to the environment than the use of products made from plastic",
"contrary to popular opinion, a shift away from the use of paper products to the use of plastics would benefit the environment nationwide",
"at this time more harm is being done to the environment nationwide by the use of paper than by the use of plastics"
]
| 4 | The main conclusion of the argument is that |
A recent national study of the trash discarded in several representative areas confirmed that plastics constitute a smaller proportion of all trash than paper products do, whether the trash is measured by weight or by volume. The damage that a given weight or volume of trash does to the environment is roughly the same whether the trash consists of plastics or paper products. Contrary to popular opinion, therefore, the current use of plastics actually does less harm to the environment nationwide than that of paper products. | 200012_1-LR1_4_6 | [
"A given weight of paper product may increase in volume after manufacture and before being discarded as trash.",
"According to popular opinion, volume is a more important consideration than weight in predicting the impact of a given quantity of trash on the environment.",
"The sum of damage caused to the environment by paper trash and by plastic trash is greater than that caused by any other sort of trash that was studied.",
"The production of any paper product is more harmful to the environment than is the production of an equal weight or volume of any plastic.",
"The proportion of plastic trash to paper trash varies from one part of the country to another."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument? |
Consultant: Most workers do not have every item they produce judged for quality, but each piece a freelance writer authors is evaluated. That is why freelance writers produce such high-quality work. | 200012_1-LR1_5_7 | [
"A piece authored by a freelance writer is generally evaluated more strictly than the majority of items most workers produce.",
"By having every piece of their work evaluated, some workers are caused to produce high-quality work.",
"No other workers produce higher quality work than do freelance writers.",
"Only freelance writers have every item they produce evaluated for quality.",
"Some workers produce high-quality work in spite of the fact that not every item they produce is judged for quality."
]
| 1 | The consultant's statements, if true, most strongly support which one of the following? |
Few animals brave the midday heat of the Sahara desert. An exception is the silver ant, which chooses this time of day to leave its nest and scout for food, typically the corpses of heat-stricken animals. Even the silver ant, however, must be careful: at such times they can become victims of the heat themselves. | 200012_1-LR1_6_8 | [
"The chief predators of the silver ant must take cover from the sun during midday.",
"The cues that silver ants use to navigate become less reliable as the afternoon progresses.",
"Other scavengers remove any remaining corpses as soon as the temperature begins to drop in the afternoon.",
"The temperature inside the silver ants' nests often exceeds the surface temperature during the hottest times of the day.",
"Silver ants cool themselves by climbing onto small pieces of dried vegetation to take advantage of random light breezes."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following, if true, LEAST helps to explain the silver ant's choice of scavenging times? |
The same task triggers different levels of awareness of one's surroundings, called environmental awareness, in different individuals. Mathematical puzzles, for example, cause most people to increase such an awareness. Some people—those who formulate the answer visually, imagining the numbers in their mind's eye—will, in an attempt to freeze the picture, experience a decrease in environmental awareness while solving the puzzle. Other people's environmental awareness may rise during the exercise, because their brains are signaling a rest at the end of every stage of problem solving. | 200012_1-LR1_7_9 | [
"There are some people for whom mathematical puzzles do not cause an increase in their level of environmental awareness.",
"People who visually formulate answers differ from other problem solvers in that the former are aware of their surroundings.",
"People tend to be more aware of their surroundings when solving mathematical problems than when solving nonmathematical problems.",
"Mathematical problem solvers who rely on visual techniques become aware of their surroundings only during periods of rest.",
"Mathematical problem solving requires frequent periods of rest in the form of increased awareness of the problem solver's surroundings."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the information above? |
Art historian: Great works of art have often elicited outrage when first presented; in Europe, Stravinsky's Rite of Spring prompted a riot, and Manet's Déjeuner sur l'herbe elicited outrage and derision. So, since it is clear that art is often shocking, we should not hesitate to use public funds to support works of art that many people find shocking. | 200012_1-LR1_8_10 | [
"Most art is shocking.",
"Stravinsky and Manet received public funding for their art.",
"Art used to be more shocking than it currently is.",
"Public funds should support art.",
"Anything that shocks is art."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following is an assumption that the art historian's argument requires in order for its conclusion to be properly drawn? |
Researchers have discovered that caffeine can be as physically addictive as other psychoactive substances. Some people find that they become unusually depressed, drowsy, or even irritable if they do not have their customary dose of caffeine. This is significant because as many people consume caffeine as consume any one of the other addictive psychoactive substances. | 200012_1-LR1_9_11 | [
"There is no psychoactive substance to which more people are physically addicted than are addicted to caffeine.",
"A physical addiction to a particular psychoactive substance will typically give rise to diverse psychological symptoms.",
"Not all substances to which people can become physically addicted are psychoactive.",
"If one is physically addicted to a psychoactive substance, one will become unusually depressed when one is no longer ingesting that substance.",
"If alcohol is a physically addictive psychoactive substance, there are not more people who consume alcohol than consume caffeine."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following can be logically concluded from the information above? |
A nationwide poll of students, parents, and teachers showed that over 90 percent believe that an appropriate percentage of their school's budget is being spent on student counseling programs. It seems, then, that any significant increase in a school's budget should be spent on something other than student counseling programs. | 200012_1-LR1_10_12 | [
"The argument confuses a mere coincidence with a causal relationship.",
"The argument confuses the percentage of the budget spent on a program with the overall amount spent on that program.",
"The argument fails to justify its presumption that what is true of a part of the budget is also true of the total budget.",
"The argument fails to consider the possibility that money could be saved by training students as peer counselors.",
"The argument fails to consider that if more money is spent on a program, then more money cannot also be used for other purposes."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following describes a flaw in the reasoning of the argument above? |
Ethicist: Studies have documented the capacity of placebos to reduce pain in patients who believe that they are receiving beneficial drugs. Some doctors say that they administer placebos because medically effective treatment reinforced by the placebo effect sometimes helps patients recover faster than good treatment alone. But administering placebos is nonetheless ethically questionable, for even if a placebo benefits a patient, a doctor might, for example, have prescribed it just to give the patient satisfaction that something was being done. | 200012_1-LR1_11_13 | [
"A patient's psychological satisfaction is not a consideration in administering medical treatment.",
"The motivation for administering a placebo can be relevant to the ethical justification for doing so.",
"Medical treatment that relies on the placebo effect alone is ethically indefensible.",
"The pain relief produced by the placebo effect justifies the deception involved in administering a placebo.",
"Administering a placebo is not ethically justified if that treatment is not prescribed by a doctor."
]
| 1 | The ethicist's argument depends on which one of the following assumptions? |
After the United Nations Security Council authorized military intervention by a coalition of armed forces intended to halt civil strife in a certain country, the parliament of one UN member nation passed a resolution condemning its own prime minister for promising to commit military personnel to the action. A parliamentary leader insisted that the overwhelming vote for the resolution did not imply the parliament's opposition to the anticipated intervention; on the contrary, most members of parliament supported the UN plan. | 200012_1-LR1_12_14 | [
"The UN Security Council cannot legally commit the military of a member nation to armed intervention in other countries.",
"In the parliamentary leader's nation, it is the constitutional prerogative of the parliament, not of the prime minister, to initiate foreign military action.",
"The parliament would be responsible for providing the funding necessary in order to contribute military personnel to the UN intervention.",
"The public would not support the military action unless it was known that the parliament supported the action.",
"Members of the parliament traditionally are more closely attuned to public sentiment, especially with regard to military action, than are prime ministers."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent discrepancy presented above? |
People who are good at playing the game Drackedary are invariably skilled with their hands. Mary is a very competent watchmaker. Therefore, Mary would make a good Drackedary player. | 200012_1-LR1_13_15 | [
"People with long legs make good runners. Everyone in Daryl's family has long legs. Therefore, Daryl would make a good runner.",
"People who write for a living invariably enjoy reading. Julie has been a published novelist for many years. Therefore, Julie enjoys reading.",
"All race car drivers have good reflexes. Chris is a champion table tennis player. Therefore, Chris would make a good race car driver.",
"The role of Santa Claus in a shopping mall is often played by an experienced actor. Erwin has played Santa Claus in shopping malls for years. Therefore, Erwin must be an experienced actor.",
"Any good skier can learn to ice-skate eventually. Erica is a world-class skier. Therefore, Erica could learn to ice-skate in a day or two."
]
| 2 | The flawed pattern of reasoning in the argument above is most similar to that in which one of the following? |
Notice to subscribers: In order for us to provide you with efficient and reliable newspaper service, please note the following policies. You will be billed for home delivery every four weeks, in advance. If you do not receive delivery, call us promptly to receive a replacement copy. Credit can be given only if the missed copy is reported to us within twenty-four hours and only if a replacement copy is unavailable. Request for temporary nondelivery must be made at least three days prior to the first day on which delivery is to stop. No subscription will be canceled unless the subscriber explicitly requests the cancellation beforehand and in writing. | 200012_1-LR1_14_16 | [
"Mr. Rathanan did not send in his advance payment two weeks ago; he states that his inaction was intended as cancellation and requests that he not be charged for the past two weeks of delivery of The Daily Gazette.",
"Dr. Broder called The Daily Gazette Monday morning to report that her Sunday edition had not been delivered; she requests credit instead of the offered replacement copy.",
"The Daily Gazette was delivered to Ms. Herrera during her one-week vacation even though she called on a Wednesday to stop delivery the following Monday for the entire week; she requests credit for the full week's delivery.",
"Although Ms. Jackson telephoned The Daily Gazette at the beginning of June requesting that her subscription be canceled on June 30, delivery was continued until July 3 when she called to complain; she requests that she not be charged for the papers delivered in July.",
"Ms. Silverman was out of town on Sunday and Monday and when she returned on Tuesday she found that her Sunday edition had not been delivered; she called The Daily Gazette on Tuesday afternoon requesting credit for the undelivered copy."
]
| 2 | The Daily Gazette If The Daily Gazette denies each of the following subscriber's requests, each of the denials could be justified solely on the basis of the policy stated above EXCEPT: |
Expert witness: Ten times, and in controlled circumstances, a single drop of the defendant's blood was allowed to fall onto the fabric. And in all ten cases, the stained area was much less than the expected 9.5 cm2.In fact, the stained area was always between 4.5 and 4.8 cm2. I conclude that a single drop of the defendant's blood stains much less than 9.5 cm2 of the fabric. | 200012_1-LR1_15_17 | [
"If similar results had been found after 100 test drops of the defendant's blood, the evidence would be even stronger.",
"Expert witnesses have sometimes been known to fudge their data to accord with the prosecution's case.",
"In an eleventh test drop of the defendant's blood, the area stained was also less than 9.5 cm2—this time staining 9.3 cm2.",
"Another person's blood was substituted, and in otherwise identical circumstances, stained between 9.8 and 10.6 cm2 of the fabric.",
"Not all expert witnesses are the authorities in their fields that they claim to be."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, most undermines the value of the evidence for the expert witness's conclusion? |
The use of space-based satellites to study environmental conditions on Earth is an important development in the conservation movement's history. Environmental problems may now be observed long before they otherwise would be noticed, allowing for intervention before they reach the crisis stage. It is no wonder that environmentalists fail to consider both that spacecraft may damage the ozone layer and that this damage could be serious enough to warrant discontinuing spaceflight. | 200012_1-LR1_16_18 | [
"People tend to ignore possible objectionable consequences of actions that support their activities.",
"A negative consequence of an activity may be outweighed by its great positive consequences.",
"Technology usually has at least some negative impact on the environment, even if it is largely beneficial.",
"Even well-intentioned attempts to solve problems sometimes make them worse.",
"Attempts to employ technology often have unforeseen consequences that may be negative."
]
| 0 | The reasoning above most closely conforms to which one of the following principles? |
Historian: The spread of literacy informs more people of injustices and, in the right circumstances, leads to increased capacity to distinguish true reformers from mere opportunists. However, widespread literacy invariably emerges before any comprehensive system of general education; thus, in the interim, the populace is vulnerable to clever demagogues calling for change. Consequently, some relatively benign regimes may ironically be toppled by their own "enlightened" move to increase literacy. | 200012_1-LR1_17_19 | [
"A demagogue can never enlist the public support necessary to topple an existing regime unless a comprehensive system of general education is in place.",
"Without literacy there can be no general awareness of the injustice in a society.",
"Any comprehensive system of general education will tend to preserve the authority of benign regimes.",
"A lack of general education affects the ability to differentiate between legitimate and illegitimate calls for reform.",
"Any benign regime that fails to provide comprehensive general education will be toppled by a clever demagogue."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the historian's argument depends? |
Recently discovered prehistoric rock paintings on small islands off the northern coast of Norway have archaeologists puzzled. The predominant theory about northern cave paintings was that they were largely a description of the current diets of the painters. This theory cannot be right, because the painters must have needed to eat the sea animals populating the waters north of Norway if they were to make the long journey to and from the islands, and there are no paintings that unambiguously depict such creatures. | 200012_1-LR1_18_20 | [
"Once on these islands, the cave painters hunted and ate land animals.",
"Parts of the cave paintings on the islands did not survive the centuries.",
"The cave paintings that were discovered on the islands depicted many land animals.",
"Those who did the cave paintings that were discovered on the islands had unusually advanced techniques of preserving meats.",
"The cave paintings on the islands were done by the original inhabitants of the islands who ate the meat of land animals."
]
| 2 | Each of the following, if true, weakens the argument against the predominant theory about northern cave paintings EXCEPT: |
Attacks on an opponent's character should be avoided in political debates. Such attacks do not confront the opponent's argument; instead they attempt to cast doubt on the opponent's moral right to be in the debate at all. | 200012_1-LR1_19_21 | [
"Attacks on an opponent's character result from an inability to confront the opponent's argument properly.",
"Attacks on an opponent's character should not impress those watching a political debate.",
"Debating techniques that do not confront every argument should be avoided.",
"Attacking the character of one's opponent does nothing to preserve one's moral right to enter into further political debates.",
"Questions of character should be raised in political debate if they are relevant to the opponent's argument."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the reasoning above? |
Lawyer: Did Congleton assign the best available graphic artist to the project?Witness: Yes.Lawyer: And the best writer?Witness: Yes.Lawyer: In fact everyone she assigned to work on the project was top notch?Witness: That's true.Lawyer: So, you lied to the court when you said, earlier, that Congleton wanted the project to fail? | 200012_1-LR1_20_22 | [
"It takes for granted that Congleton was not forced to assign the people she did to the project.",
"It takes for granted that the project could fail only if Congleton wanted it to fail.",
"It ignores the possibility that Congleton knew that the people assigned to the project would not work well together.",
"It ignores the possibility that the witness failed to infer from known facts what should have been inferred and therefore was not lying.",
"It ignores the possibility that Congleton failed to allot enough time or resources to the project team."
]
| 1 | Each of the following accurately describes a flaw in the lawyer's reasoning displayed above EXCEPT: |
An air traveler in Beijing cannot fly to Lhasa without first flying to Chengdu. Unfortunately, an air traveler in Beijing must fly to Xian before flying to Chengdu. Any air traveler who flies from Beijing to Lhasa, therefore, cannot avoid flying to Xian. | 200012_1-LR1_21_23 | [
"A doctor cannot prescribe porozine for a patient without first prescribing anthroxine for that patient. Unfortunately, anthroxine makes most patients who take it feel either extremely drowsy or else extremely nervous. It is likely, therefore, that a patient who has taken porozine has felt extremely nervous.",
"An ice-sculpture artist cannot reach the yellow level of achievement without first achieving the green level. The green level is impossible to achieve unless the white level has already been achieved. Therefore, an ice-sculpture artist who has reached the yellow level must have previously achieved the white level.",
"One cannot properly identify a mushroom without first examining its spores. A powerful microscope can be used to examine the spores of a mushroom. A powerful microscope, therefore, is necessary for anyone wishing to identify mushrooms properly.",
"It is impossible to be fluent in a language without knowing its grammatical rules. A person who knows the grammatical rules of a language has learned them by means of exhaustive and difficult study or else by growing up in an environment in which the language is spoken. There are two major ways, therefore, for a person to become fluent in a language.",
"In the City Ballet Company any dancer who has danced in Giselle has also danced in Sleeping Beauty, and some dancers who have danced in Sleeping Beauty have also danced in Swan Lake. Therefore, some dancers in the City Ballet Company who have danced in Giselle have also danced in Swan Lake."
]
| 1 | The pattern of reasoning exhibited by the argument above is most similar to that exhibited by which one of the following? |
Supervisor: Our next budget proposal will probably be approved, because normally about half of all budget proposals that the vice president considers are approved, and our last five budget proposals have all been turned down. | 200012_1-LR1_22_24 | [
"the last five budget proposals' having been turned down guarantees that the next five budget proposals will be approved",
"the vice president is required to approve at least half of all budget proposals submitted",
"having the last five budget proposals turned down affects the likelihood that the next budget proposal will be turned down",
"the majority of the last five budget proposals deserved to be turned down",
"the likelihood that a budget proposal will be approved is influenced by the amount of money that budget proposal requests"
]
| 2 | The supervisor's reasoning is flawed because it presumes, without giving warrant, that |
The number of airplanes equipped with a new anticollision device has increased steadily during the past two years. During the same period, it has become increasingly common for key information about an airplane's altitude and speed to disappear suddenly from air traffic controllers' screens. The new anticollision device, which operates at the same frequency as air traffic radar, is therefore responsible for the sudden disappearance of key information. | 200012_1-LR1_23_25 | [
"The new anticollision device has already prevented a considerable number of mid-air collisions.",
"It was not until the new anticollision device was introduced that key information first began disappearing suddenly from controllers' screens.",
"The new anticollision device is scheduled to be moved to a different frequency within the next two to three months.",
"Key information began disappearing from controllers' screens three months before the new anticollision device was first tested.",
"The sudden disappearance of key information from controllers' screens has occurred only at relatively large airports."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument? |
North American eastern white cedars grow both on cliff faces and in forests. Cedars growing on exposed cliff faces receive very few nutrients, and rarely grow bigger than one-tenth the height of cedars growing in forests, where they benefit from moisture and good soil. Yet few eastern white cedars found in forests are as old as four hundred years, while many on cliff faces are more than five hundred years old. | 200012_3-LR2_1_1 | [
"The conditions on cliff faces are similar to those in most other places where there are few tall trees.",
"In areas where eastern white cedars grow, forest fires are relatively frequent, but fires cannot reach cliff faces.",
"Trees that are older than a few hundred years start to lose the protective outer layer of their bark.",
"The roots of cedars on cliff faces lodge in cracks in the cliff, and once the roots are so large that they fill a crack, the tree is unable to grow any taller.",
"Eastern white cedar wood is too soft to be used for firewood or modern buildings, but it is occasionally used to make furniture."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain the difference in the ages of the cedars on cliff faces and those in forests? |
Brewer: All children should be given the opportunity to participate in competitive sports; these activities provide an unsurpassed opportunity to engage children's emotions and so stimulate them to put maximum effort into attaining high athletic standards. Polanski: I disagree. Competitive athletics does, over time, produce a handful of highly motivated children with a desire to excel at an activity, but many children have no taste for competition, and to make them participate would only cause them to develop an antipathy toward athletics. | 200012_3-LR2_2_2 | [
"characteristics acquired by playing competitive sports carry over into the rest of one's life",
"winning at competitive sports is essential to motivation to excel at athletics",
"children should put more effort into athletic activities than any other form of activity",
"children should be required to participate in competitive sports regardless of their interests",
"children cannot be motivated without their emotions being engaged"
]
| 3 | Polanski's response most strongly supports the contention that Polanski misunderstood Brewer to be asserting that |
The most common bird in Stillwater Marsh is a species of marsh hen, yet this species is rarely seen, even by experienced bird-watchers who seek it. In fact, this bird is seen far less frequently than any other bird inhabiting the marsh, including those that are much smaller and much less abundant. | 200012_3-LR2_3_3 | [
"The coloration of the marsh hen blends in particularly well with the marsh grass where the marsh hen nests.",
"The marsh hen's call is harsh and repetitive, whereas the calls of many other marsh birds are pleasant and melodious.",
"Unlike many small marsh birds, which dash along the banks of the marsh, the marsh hen remains completely still for long periods of time.",
"Many marsh birds are most active during daylight hours, but the marsh hen is usually most active at night.",
"Although many small marsh birds fly in groups to several feeding areas each day, the marsh hen tends to be solitary and flies only when it is in danger."
]
| 1 | Each of the following, if true, helps to reconcile the statements above EXCEPT: |
Limited research indicates that therapeutic intervention before the onset of mental disorders can mitigate factors identified as major contributors to them. But a much more comprehensive research program is needed to verify these results and allow for the design of specific health care measures. Thus, in order to explore a potential means of cost-effectively helping people prone to mental disorders, we should increase funding for intervention research. | 200012_3-LR2_4_4 | [
"Most minor mental disorders are more expensive to treat than other minor health problems.",
"Prevention research can be coordinated by drawing together geneticists, neurologists, and behavioral scientists.",
"Reducing known risk factors for mental disorders is relatively inexpensive compared to the long-term treatment required.",
"Current funding for intervention research is now higher than it has ever been before.",
"Once a mental disorder disappears, there is a fair chance that it will recur, given that complete cures are rare."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument? |
The radiation absorbed by someone during an ordinary commercial airline flight is no more dangerous than that received during an ordinary dental X-ray. Since a dental X-ray does negligible harm to a person, we can conclude that the radiation absorbed by members of commercial airline flight crews will also do them negligible harm. | 200012_3-LR2_5_5 | [
"there may be many forms of dangerous radiation other than X-rays and the kinds of radiation absorbed by members of commercial airline flight crews",
"receiving a dental X-ray may mitigate other health risks, whereas flying does not",
"exposure to X-rays of higher intensity than dental X-rays may be harmful",
"the longer and the more often one is exposed to radiation, the more radiation one absorbs and the more seriously one is harmed",
"flying at high altitude involves risks in addition to exposure to minor radiation"
]
| 3 | A flaw in the argument is its failure to consider that |
The recent cleaning of frescoes in the Sistine Chapel has raised important asthetic issues. Art historians are now acutely aware that the colors of the works they study may differ from the works' original colors. Art historians have concluded from this that interpretations of the frescoes that seemed appropriate before the frescoes' restoration may no longer be appropriate. | 200012_3-LR2_6_6 | [
"The appropriateness of an interpretation of an artwork is relative to the general history of the period in which the interpretation is made.",
"The restoration of an artwork may alter it such that it will have colors that the artist did not intend for it to have.",
"The colors of an artwork are relevant to an appropriate interpretation of that work.",
"Art historians are the best judges of the value of an artwork.",
"Interpretations of an artwork are appropriate if they originated during the period when the work was created."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the art historians' reasoning? |
Unlike newspapers in the old days, today's newspapers and televised news programs are full of stories about murders and assaults in our city. One can only conclude from this change that violent crime is now out of control, and, to be safe from personal attack, one should not leave one's home except for absolute necessities. | 200012_3-LR2_7_7 | [
"Newspapers and televised news programs have more comprehensive coverage of violent crime than newspapers did in the old days.",
"National data show that violent crime is out of control everywhere, not just in the author's city.",
"Police records show that people experience more violent crimes in their own neighborhoods than they do outside their neighborhoods.",
"Murder comprised a larger proportion of violent crimes in the old days than it does today.",
"News magazines play a more important role today in informing the public about crime than they did in the old days."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, would cast the most serious doubt on the conclusion? |
Most people invest in the stock market without doing any research of their own. Some of these people rely solely on their broker's advice, whereas some others make decisions based merely on hunches. Other people do some research of their own, but just as often rely only on their broker or on hunches. Only a few always do their own research before investing. Nonetheless, a majority of investors in the stock market make a profit. | 200012_3-LR2_8_8 | [
"Some people who make a profit on their investments in the stock market do so without doing any research of their own.",
"Most people who invest in the stock market either rely solely on their broker or make decisions based merely on hunches.",
"Some people who do investment research on their own, while just as often relying on their broker or on hunches, make a profit in the stock market.",
"Most people who invest in the stock market without doing any research of their own make a profit.",
"Most people who rely solely on their broker rather than on hunches make a profit in the stock market."
]
| 0 | If the statements in the passage are true, which one of the following must also be true? |
At some point in any discussion of societal justice, the only possible doctrinal defense seems to be "That is the way we do things here." Different communities that each recognize the dignity and equality of all citizens will, for example, nevertheless settle on somewhat different provisions for the elderly. So we can see that general principles of justice are never sufficient to determine the details of social policies fixed within a particular state. | 200012_3-LR2_9_9 | [
"Although two socialist states each adhered to the same electoral principles, one had a different type of machine for counting ballots in public elections than the other did.",
"Two democratic industrial states, both subscribing to capitalistic economic principles, differed markedly in the respective proportions of land they devoted to forestry.",
"Although each adhered to its own principles, a democracy and a monarchy each had the same distribution of wealth in its population.",
"Two states founded on and adhering to similar principles of justice had different requirements that had to be met in order to be eligible for government-subsidized day care.",
"Two societies based on different principles of justice, each adhering to its own principles, had the same unemployment benefits."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following statements, if true, most strengthens the argument concerning the general principles of justice? |
The importance of the ozone layer to terrestrial animals is that it entirely filters out some wavelengths of light but lets others through. Holes in the ozone layer and the dangers associated with these holes are well documented. However, one danger that has not been given sufficient attention is that these holes could lead to severe eye damage for animals of many species. | 200012_3-LR2_10_10 | [
"All wavelengths of sunlight that can cause eye damage are filtered out by the ozone layer, where it is intact.",
"Few species of animals live on a part of the earth's surface that is not threatened by holes in the ozone layer.",
"Some species of animals have eyes that will not suffer any damage when exposed to unfiltered sunlight.",
"A single wavelength of sunlight can cause severe damage to the eyes of most species of animals.",
"Some wavelengths of sunlight that cause eye damage are more likely to reach the earth's surface where there are holes in the ozone layer than where there are not."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the statements above, if they are true? |
Some people claim that the reason herbs are not prescribed as drugs by licensed physicians is that the medical effectiveness of herbs is seriously in doubt. No drug can be offered for sale, however, unless it has regulatory-agency approval for medicinal use in specific illnesses or conditions. It costs about $200 million to get regulatory-agency approval for a drug, and only the holder of a patent can expect to recover such large expenses. Although methods of extracting particular substances from herbs can be patented, herbs themselves and their medicinal uses cannot be. Therefore, under the current system licensed physicians cannot recommend the medicinal use of herbs. | 200012_3-LR2_11_11 | [
"the medical ineffectiveness of many herbs as treatments for specific illnesses or conditions is well established",
"the only time a substance is properly used as a drug is when it is prescribed as a drug by a licensed physician",
"a licensed physician cannot recommend the medicinal use of an herb unless that herb is offered for sale as a drug.",
"some other substances, besides herbs, are not available as drugs because the illnesses they could effectively treat are too uncommon to allow those substances to be marketed profitably as drugs",
"the cost of medical care would be substantially reduced if faster ways of obtaining regulatory-agency approval for new drugs could be found."
]
| 2 | The argument depends on the assumption that |
Some people claim that the reason herbs are not prescribed as drugs by licensed physicians is that the medical effectiveness of herbs is seriously in doubt. No drug can be offered for sale, however, unless it has regulatory-agency approval for medicinal use in specific illnesses or conditions. It costs about $200 million to get regulatory-agency approval for a drug, and only the holder of a patent can expect to recover such large expenses. Although methods of extracting particular substances from herbs can be patented, herbs themselves and their medicinal uses cannot be. Therefore, under the current system licensed physicians cannot recommend the medicinal use of herbs. | 200012_3-LR2_11_12 | [
"questioning a claim about why something is the case by supplying an alternative explanation",
"attacking the validity of the data on which a competing claim is based",
"revealing an inconsistency in the reasoning used to develop an opposing position",
"identifying all plausible explanations for why something is the case and arguing that all but one of them can be eliminated",
"testing a theory by determining the degree to which a specific situation conforms to the predictions of that theory"
]
| 0 | Which one of the following most accurately describes the argumentative technique used in the argument? |
Editorialist: Some people argue that ramps and other accommodations for people using wheelchairs are unnecessary in certain business areas because those areas are not frequented by wheelchair users. What happens, however, is that once ramps and other accommodations are installed in these business areas, people who use wheelchairs come there to shop and work. | 200012_3-LR2_12_13 | [
"Owners of business areas not frequented by wheelchair users generally are reluctant to make modifications.",
"Businesses that install proper accommodations for wheelchair users have greater profits than those that do not.",
"Many businesses fail to make a profit because they do not accommodate wheelchair users.",
"Most businesses are not modified to accommodate wheelchair users.",
"Some business areas are not frequented by wheelchair users because the areas lack proper accommodations."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the editorialist's statements? |
Many people think that the only way to remedy the problem of crime is by increasing the number of police officers, but recent statistics show that many major cities had similar ratios of police officers to citizens, yet diverged widely in their crime rates. | 200012_3-LR2_13_14 | [
"establish that the number of police officers does not need to be increased",
"illustrate the need for increasing the number of police officers in major cities",
"prove that there are factors other than the number of police officers that are more important in reducing the crime rate",
"demonstrate that there is no relation between the number of police officers and the crime rate",
"suggest that the number of police officers is not the only influence on the crime rate"
]
| 4 | The statistics cited function in the argument to |
Scientists hoping to understand and eventually reverse damage to the fragile ozone layer in the Earth's upper atmosphere used a spacecraft to conduct crucial experiments. These experiments drew criticism from a group of environmentalists who observed that a single trip by the spacecraft did as much harm to the ozone layer as a year's pollution by the average factory, and that since the latter was unjustifiable so must be the former. | 200012_3-LR2_14_15 | [
"treats as similar two cases that are different in a critical respect",
"justifies a generalization on the basis of a single instance",
"fails to distinguish the goal of reversing harmful effects from the goal of preventing those harmful effects",
"attempts to compare two quantities that are not comparable in any way",
"presupposes that experiments always do harm to their subjects"
]
| 0 | The reasoning in the environmentalists' criticism is questionable because it |
Curator: Since ancient times, the fine arts were developed and sustained with the aid of large subsidies from the aristocracies and religious institutions that were the public sectors of their day; it is doubtful that the arts would have survived without these subsidies. Clearly, contemporary societies should fulfill their obligation as stewards of cultural heritage without the assistance of aristocracies or religious institutions, so governments must help finance the maintenance, advancement, and enrichment of the fine arts today. | 200012_3-LR2_15_16 | [
"The fine arts would be more highly developed now if they had been given greater governmental subsidies in the past.",
"If contemporary governments help to maintain and enrich the fine arts, private support for the arts will become unnecessary.",
"In contemporary societies, aristocracies and religious institutions are not willing to help finance the fine arts.",
"Serving as stewards of cultural heritage requires that contemporary societies help to maintain the fine arts.",
"Maintenance, advancement, and enrichment of the fine arts in any era require governmental subsidies."
]
| 3 | The curator's argument depends on assuming which one of the following? |
In a business whose owners and employees all belong to one family, the employees can be paid exceptionally low wages. Hence, general operating expenses are much lower than they would be for other business ventures, making profits higher. So a family business is a family's surest road to financial prosperity. | 200012_3-LR2_16_17 | [
"ignores the fact that businesses that achieve high levels of customer satisfaction are often profitable even if they pay high wages",
"presumes, without providing justification, that businesses that pay the lowest wages have the lowest general operating expenses and thus the highest profits",
"ignores the fact that in a family business, paying family members low wages may itself reduce the family's prosperity",
"presumes, without providing justification, that family members are willing to work for low wages in a family business because they believe that doing so promotes the family's prosperity",
"presumes, without providing justification, that only businesses with low general operating expenses can succeed"
]
| 2 | The reasoning in the argument is flawed because the argument |
Studies have shown that photosynthesis, the process by which plants manufacture life-sustaining proteins from sunlight and carbon, is actually intensified if the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is increased. Since carbon dioxide levels are increased by the burning of fossil fuels and by other human industrial activities, it is obvious that these industrial activities are purely beneficial to agriculture and those of us who depend upon it. | 200012_3-LR2_17_18 | [
"Because a high fiber diet has been shown to be more healthful than a low fiber diet, a diet in which foods with a low fiber content have been entirely replaced by foods with a high fiber content is bound to be even more healthful.",
"Because exercise has been shown to prevent a number of diseases, injuries, and other human ills, clearly no harm, and a lot of good, can come from exercise.",
"Consistently consuming more calories than one expends inevitably leads to excessive weight gain, so if one wishes to avoid the health problems associated with this condition, one ought to fast periodically.",
"It has been shown that one can obtain more vitamins and minerals from fresh fruits and vegetables than from processed fruits and vegetables. One ought, therefore, to completely abandon consumption of the latter in favor of the former.",
"Excessive use of penicillin tends to increase one's susceptibility to penicillin-resistant infections. The best policy, therefore, is to avoid using penicillin, thereby strengthening the body's innate ability to resist disease."
]
| 1 | The flawed reasoning in the argument above is most similar to that in which one of the following? |
Raphaela: Forcing people to help others is morally wrong. Therefore, no government has the right to redistribute resources via taxation. Anyone who wants can help others voluntarily. Edward: Governments do have that right, insofar as they give people the freedom to leave and hence not to live under their authority. | 200012_3-LR2_18_19 | [
"Any government that does not permit emigration would be morally wrong to redistribute resources via taxation.",
"Any government that permits emigration has the right to redistribute resources via taxation.",
"Every government should allow people to help others voluntarily.",
"Any government that redistributes resources via taxation forces people to help others.",
"Any government that forces people to help others should permit emigration."
]
| 1 | Raphaela and Edward disagree about the truth of which one of the following? |
Galanin is a protein found in the brain. In an experiment, rats that consistently chose to eat fatty foods when offered a choice between lean and fatty foods were found to have significantly higher concentrations of galanin in their brains than did rats that consistently chose lean over fatty foods. These facts strongly support the conclusion that galanin causes rats to crave fatty foods. | 200012_3-LR2_19_20 | [
"The craving for fatty foods does not invariably result in a rat's choosing those foods over lean foods.",
"The brains of the rats that consistently chose to eat fatty foods did not contain significantly more fat than did the brains of rats that consistently chose lean foods.",
"The chemical components of galanin are present in both fatty foods and lean foods.",
"The rats that preferred fatty foods had the higher concentrations of galanin in their brains before they were offered fatty foods.",
"Rats that metabolize fat less efficiently than do other rats develop high concentrations of galanin in their brains."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if true, most supports the argument? |
Some government economists view their home countries as immune to outside influence. But economies are always open systems; international trade significantly affects prices and wages. Just as physicists learned the shortcomings of a mechanics based on idealizations such as the postulation of perfectly frictionless bodies, government economists must look beyond national borders if their nations' economies are to prosper. | 200012_3-LR2_20_21 | [
"A national economy cannot prosper unless every significant influence on it has been examined by that nation's government economists.",
"Economics is weakly analogous to the physical sciences.",
"Economic theories relying on idealizations are generally less accurate than economic theories that do not rely on idealizations.",
"International trade is the primary significant variable influencing prices and wages.",
"Some government economists have been ignoring the effects of international trade on prices and wages."
]
| 0 | The argument's conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? |
If relativity theory is correct, no object can travel forward in time at a speed greater than the speed of light. Yet quantum mechanics predicts that the tachyon, a hypothetical subatomic particle, travels faster than light. Thus, if relativity theory is correct, either quantum mechanics' prediction about tachyons is erroneous or tachyons travel backward in time. | 200012_3-LR2_21_22 | [
"According to a magazine article, the view that present-day English is a descendant of the ancient Proto-Indo-European language is incorrect. Rather, English more likely descended from a Finno-Ugric language, judging from the similarities between English and other languages of Finno-Ugric descent.",
"If the defendant committed the crime, then either the defendant had a motive or the defendant is irrational, for only irrational persons act with no motive. If the psychologist is correct, then the defendant is not rational; on the other hand, according to the evidence, the defendant had a strong motive. Thus, since there is no reason to disbelieve the evidence, the defendant is guilty.",
"The human brain can survive without oxygen only for a few minutes, according to modern medicine. Surprisingly, a reliable witness reported that a shaman has survived for an entire week buried five feet underground. Thus, if modern medicine is not wrong, either the witness is mistaken or the shaman's brain did not suffer any lack of oxygen.",
"Alexander the Great was buried either in Alexandria or in Siwa, Egypt. However, the burial place is more likely to be Siwa. A limestone table engraved by Ptolemy, Alexander's lieutenant, was found in Siwa, attesting to Alexander's burial place.",
"If the big bang theory is correct, the universe is currently expanding: the galaxies are moving away from each other and from the center of an original explosion. The same theory also predicts that, eventually, the gravitational forces among galaxies will counterbalance the galaxies' kinetic energy. It follows that, at some point, the universe will stop expanding."
]
| 2 | The pattern of reasoning is which one of the following arguments is most similar to that in the argument above? |
Maria won this year's local sailboat race by beating Sue, the winner in each of the four previous years. We can conclude from this that Maria trained hard. | 200012_3-LR2_22_23 | [
"Sue did not train as hard as Maria trained.",
"If Maria trained hard, she would win the sailboat race.",
"Maria could beat a four-time winner only if she trained hard.",
"If Sue trained hard, she would win the sailboat race.",
"Sue is usually a faster sailboat racer than Maria."
]
| 2 | The conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? |
Dietician: "The French Paradox" refers to the unusual concurrence in the population of France of a low incidence of heart disease and a diet high in fat. The most likely explanation is that the French consume a high quantity of red wine, which mitigates the ill effects of the fat they eat. So North Americans, with nearly the highest rate of heart disease in the world, should take a cue from the French: if you want to be healthier without cutting fat intake, drink more red wine. | 200012_3-LR2_23_24 | [
"French men consume as much red wine as French women do, yet French men have a higher rate of heart disease than do French women.",
"A greater intake of red wine among North Americans would likely lead to a higher incidence of liver problems and other illnesses.",
"Not all French people have a diet that includes large amounts of fat and a high quantity of red wine.",
"All evidence suggests that the healthiest way to decrease the chance of heart disease is to exercise and keep a diet low in fat.",
"Many other regions have much lower rates of heart disease than France, though their populations consume even less red wine than do North Americans."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following statements, if true, most seriously undermines the conclusion of the dietician's argument? |
We are in a new industrial revolution that requires management trainees to develop "action learning" from real experience within business and industry, rather than getting tied up with theory and academia. Business schools seem unable, on their own, to tear themselves away from their largely academic roots and move closer to the realities of today's business and industry; too often, trainees in business schools find themselves studying hypothetical cases instead of real ones. Furthermore, business schools have been slow to respond to the needs of business. Therefore, business schools should allow business executives to set curricula for management trainees that could then be taught by academics. | 200012_3-LR2_24_25 | [
"Academics in business schools have no practical business experience that is valuable.",
"Academics in business schools deal only with hypothetical situations in their business case studies.",
"Academics are not capable of teaching curricula suitable for relevant management training.",
"Academic training outside of business schools is more responsive to the needs of business than is training within business schools.",
"Today's business executives have valuable insight into business that academics in business schools do not have."
]
| 4 | The argument relies on which one of the following assumptions? |
In his new book on his complex scientific research, R frequently imputes bad faith to researchers disagreeing with him. A troubling aspect of R's book is his stated conviction that other investigators' funding sources often determine what "findings" those investigators report. Add to this that R has often shown himself to be arrogant, overly ambitious, and sometimes plain nasty, and it becomes clear that R's book does not merit attention from serious professionals. | 200106_2-LR1_1_1 | [
"using an attack on the character of the writer of the book as evidence that his person is not competent on matters of scientific substance",
"taking it for granted that an investigator is unlikely to report findings that are contrary to the interests of those funding the investigation",
"dismissing a scientific theory by giving a biased account of it",
"presenting as facts several assertions about the book under review that are based only on strong conviction and would be impossible for others to verify",
"failing to distinguish between the criteria of being true and of being sufficiently interesting to merit attention"
]
| 0 | The author of the book review commits which one of the following reasoning errors? |
Having an efficient, attractive subway system makes good economic sense. So, the city needs to purchase new subway cars, since the city should always do what makes good economic sense. | 200106_2-LR1_2_2 | [
"The city should invest in an efficient, attractive subway system.",
"Cost-effective subway cars are an integral part of an efficient subway system.",
"Investment in new subway cars makes better economic sense than many of the other investment options open to the city.",
"New subway cars are financially affordable.",
"New subway cars are required in order for the city to have a subway system that is efficient and attractive."
]
| 4 | The conclusion drawn above follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? |
Restaurant manager:In response to requests from our patrons for vegetarian main dishes, we recently introduced three: an eggplant and zucchini casserole with tomatoes, brown rice with mushrooms, and potatoes baked with cheese. The first two are frequently ordered, but no one orders the potato dish, although it costs less than the other two. Clearly, then, our patrons prefer not to eat potatoes. | 200106_2-LR1_3_3 | [
"concluding that two things that occur at the same time have a common cause",
"drawing a conclusion that is inconsistent with one premise of the argument",
"ignoring possible differences between what people say they want and what they actually choose",
"attempting to prove a claim on the basis of evidence that a number of people hold that claim to be true",
"treating one of several plausible explanations of a phenomenon as the only possible explanation"
]
| 4 | Which one of the following is an error of reasoning in the restaurant manager's argument? |
For newborns of age four to six weeks whose mothers have been the primary caregivers, the following is true: When the newborns are crying due to hunger or other similar discomfort, merely hearing the mother's voice will lead to a temporary halt in crying, while the voices of others do not have this effect. | 200106_2-LR1_4_4 | [
"Babies more easily learn to recognize the voices of their mothers than the voices of other people.",
"A mother's voice is the first thing a baby learns to recognize.",
"Babies associate the voice of the primary caregiver with release from discomfort.",
"Often only a primary caregiver can provide comfort to a newborn.",
"Discomfort in newborns is best relieved by hearing the mother's voice."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following is most reasonably supported by the information above? |
Many elementary schools have recently offered computer-assisted educational programs. Students' reactions after several years have been decidedly mixed. Whereas students have found computers very useful in studying arithmetic, they have found them of little help in studying science, and of no help at all with their reading and writing skills. | 200106_2-LR1_5_5 | [
"Students in these schools began reading and doing arithmetic before learning to use computers.",
"Of the disciplines and skills mentioned, the exactness of arithmetic makes it most suitable to computer-assisted education.",
"Many elementary school teachers are reluctant to use computer technology in their classrooms.",
"Young students are more likely to maintain interest in training programs that use the newest computers and video graphics than in those that do not.",
"The elementary schools have offered more computer-assisted programs in reading and writing than in arithmetic and science."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain the students' mixed reactions? |
The notion that one might be justified in behaving irrationally in the service of a sufficiently worthy end is incoherent. For if such an action is justified, then one would be behaving rationally, not irrationally. | 200106_2-LR1_6_6 | [
"A representative of the law, such as a judge or a police officer, ought not to commit crimes. For if representatives of the law commit crimes, they will be ineffective in preventing crime.",
"One cannot intend to spill a glass of water accidentally. Spilling it accidentally means that the act will not have been done intentionally.",
"One cannot live the good life and be unhappy. If one's own neighbors see that one is unhappy, then they will see that one is not living the good life.",
"Doctors cannot perform self-diagnosis, for they cannot objectively evaluate their own symptoms, and thus will be practicing poor medicine.",
"One ought not to have both a cat and a goldfish. The goldfish is the natural prey of the cat, so it is unethical to place it at the cat's disposal."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following arguments is most similar in its reasoning to the argument above? |
A certain moral system holds that performing good actions is praiseworthy only when one overcomes a powerful temptation in order to perform them. Yet this same moral system also holds that performing good actions out of habit is sometimes praiseworthy. | 200106_2-LR1_7_7 | [
"People who perform good actions out of habit have often acquired this habit after years of having resisted temptation.",
"Most people face strong moral temptation from time to time but few people have to endure it regularly.",
"People virtually always perform actions they think are good, regardless of what other people may think.",
"Since it is difficult to tell what is going on in another person's mind, it is often hard to know exactly how strongly a person is tempted.",
"It is far more common for people to perform good actions out of habit than for them to do so against strong temptation."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, does the most to reconcile the apparent conflict in the moral system described above? |
Conservationist: The risk to airplane passengers from collisions between airplanes using the airport and birds from the wildlife refuge is negligible. In the 10 years since the refuge was established, only 20 planes have been damaged in collisions with birds, and no passenger has been injured as a result of such a collision. The wildlife refuge therefore poses no safety risk. Pilot: You neglect to mention that 17 of those 20 collisions occurred within the past 2 years, and that the number of birds in the refuge is rapidly increasing. As the number of collisions between birds and airplanes increases, so does the likelihood that at least one such collision will result in passenger injuries. | 200106_2-LR1_8_8 | [
"attempting to show that the conservationist's description of the facts is misleading",
"questioning the conservationist's motives for reaching a certain conclusion",
"asserting that dangerous situations inevitably become more dangerous with the passage of time",
"discrediting the moral principle on which the conservationist's argument is based",
"disputing the accuracy of the figures cited by the conservationist"
]
| 0 | The pilot counters the conservationist by |
A university study reported that between 1975 and 1983 the length of the average workweek in a certain country increased significantly. A governmental study, on the other hand, shows a significant decline in the length of the average workweek for the same period. Examination of the studies shows, however, that they used different methods of investigation; thus there is no need to look further for an explanation of the difference in the studies' results. | 200106_2-LR1_9_9 | [
"distinguish between a study produced for the purposes of the operation of government and a study produced as part of university research",
"distinguish between a method of investigation and the purpose of an investigation",
"recognize that only one of the studies has been properly conducted",
"recognize that two different methods of investigation can yield identical results",
"recognize that varying economic conditions result in the average workweek changing in length"
]
| 3 | The argument's reasoning is flawed because the argument fails to |
Although the charter of Westside School states that the student body must include some students with special educational needs, no students with learning disabilities have yet enrolled in the school. Therefore, the school is currently in violation of its charter. | 200106_2-LR1_10_10 | [
"All students with learning disabilities have special educational needs.",
"The school currently has no student with learning disabilities.",
"The school should enroll students with special educational needs.",
"The only students with special educational needs are students with learning disabilities.",
"The school's charter cannot be modified in order to avoid its being violated."
]
| 3 | The conclusion of the argument follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? |
Some psychologists claim that, in theory, the best way to understand another person would be through deep empathy, whereby one would gain a direct and complete grasp of that person's motivations. But suppose they are right; then there would be no way at all to achieve understanding, since it is psychologically impossible to gain a direct and complete grasp of another person's motivations. But obviously one can understand other people; thus these psychologists are wrong. | 200106_2-LR1_11_11 | [
"fails to adequately define the key phrase \"deep empathy\"",
"assumes something that it later denies, resulting in a contradiction",
"confuses a theoretically best way of accomplishing something with the only way of accomplishing it",
"accepts a claim on mere authority, without requiring sufficient justification",
"fails to consider that other psychologists may disagree with the psychologists cited"
]
| 2 | The argument is most vulnerable to the criticism that it |
The five senses have traditionally been viewed as distinct yet complementary. Each sense is thought to have its own range of stimuli that are incapable of stimulating the other senses. However, recent research has discovered that some people taste a banana and claim that they are tasting blue, or see a color and say that it has a specific smell. This shows that such people, called synesthesiacs, have senses that do not respect the usual boundaries between the five recognized senses. | 200106_2-LR1_12_12 | [
"Synesthesiacs demonstrate a general, systematic impairment in their ability to use and understand words.",
"Recent evidence strongly suggests that there are other senses besides sight, touch, smell, hearing, and taste.",
"The particular ways in which sensory experiences overlap in synesthesiacs follow a definite pattern.",
"The synesthetic phenomenon has been described in the legends of various cultures.",
"Synesthesiacs can be temporarily rid of their synesthetic experiences by the use of drugs."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following statements, if true, most seriously weakens the argument? |
Essayist:One of the claims of laissez-faire economics is that increasing the minimum wage reduces the total number of minimum-wage jobs available. In a recent study, however, it was found that after an increase in the minimum wage, fast-food restaurants kept on roughly the same number of minimum-wage employees as before the increase. Therefore, laissez-faire economics is not entirely accurate. | 200106_2-LR1_13_13 | [
"If laissez-faire economics makes an incorrect prediction about the minimum wage, then all the doctrines of laissez-faire economics are inaccurate.",
"Minimum-wage job availability at fast-food restaurants included in the study was representative of minimum-wage job availability in general.",
"No study has ever found that a business has decreased the number of its minimum-wage employees after an increase in the minimum wage.",
"The fast-food restaurants included in the study did not increase the average wage paid to employees.",
"The national unemployment rate did not increase following the increase in the minimum wage."
]
| 1 | The essayist's argument depends on assuming which one of the following? |
Some people claim that every human discovery or invention is an instance of self-expression. But what they seem to ignore is that, trivially, anything we do is self-expressive. So, until they can give us a more interesting interpretation of their claim, we are not obliged to take their claim seriously. | 200106_2-LR1_14_14 | [
"All claims that are trivial are uninteresting.",
"Most people do not take trivial claims seriously.",
"No claims that are trivial are worthy of serious consideration.",
"Every claim is open to both interesting and uninteresting interpretations.",
"Every interpretation is either trivial or uninteresting."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, provides the most support for the reasoning above? |
Camera manufacturers typically advertise their products by citing the resolution of their cameras' lenses, the resolution of a lens being the degree of detail the lens is capable of reproducing in the image it projects onto the film. Differences between cameras in this respect are irrelevant for practical photography, however, since all modern lenses are so excellent that they project far more detail onto the film than any photographic film is capable of reproducing in a developed image. | 200106_2-LR1_15_15 | [
"Camera manufacturers ought to concentrate on building other desirable qualities into their cameras' lenses, rather than concentrating only on the lenses' resolution.",
"Apart from differences in resolution, there is no practical difference among modern cameras in the quality of the images that they produce.",
"Advertised differences among cameras in the resolution of their lenses have no practical bearing on the cameras' relative quality as photographic tools.",
"In concentrating their advertising on the issue of image quality, manufacturers are making a mistake about the interests of potential purchasers of cameras.",
"Differences among photographic films in the amount of detail they reproduce have a more significant effect on the quality of the developed image than do differences in the resolution of camera lenses."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following most accurately states the main point of the argument? |
Camera manufacturers typically advertise their products by citing the resolution of their cameras' lenses, the resolution of a lens being the degree of detail the lens is capable of reproducing in the image it projects onto the film. Differences between cameras in this respect are irrelevant for practical photography, however, since all modern lenses are so excellent that they project far more detail onto the film than any photographic film is capable of reproducing in a developed image. | 200106_2-LR1_15_16 | [
"The definition of the term \"resolution\" does not capture an important determinant of the quality of photographic instruments and materials.",
"In determining the amount of detail reproduced in the developed photographic image, differences in the resolutions of available lenses do not compound the deficiencies of available film.",
"Variations in the method used to process the film do not have any significant effect on the film's resolution.",
"Flawless photographic technique is needed to achieve the maximum image resolution possible with the materials and equipment being used.",
"The only factors important in determining the degree of detail reproduced in the final photographic print are the resolution of the camera's lens and the resolution of the film."
]
| 1 | The argument depends on assuming which one of the following? |
Dietary researcher: A recent study reports that laboratory animals that were fed reduced-calorie diets lived longer than laboratory animals whose caloric intake was not reduced. In response, some doctors are advocating reduced-calorie diets, in the belief that North Americans' life spans can thereby be extended. However, this conclusion is not supported. Laboratory animals tend to eat much more than animals in their natural habitats, which leads to their having a shorter life expectancy. Restricting their diets merely brings their caloric intake back to natural, optimal levels and reinstates their normal life spans. | 200106_2-LR1_16_17 | [
"North Americans, on average, consume a higher number of calories than the optimal number of calories for a human diet.",
"North Americans with high-fat, low-calorie diets generally have a shorter life expectancy than North Americans with low-fat, low-calorie diets.",
"Not all scientific results that have important implications for human health are based on studies of laboratory animals.",
"Some North Americans who follow reduced-calorie diets are long-lived.",
"There is a strong correlation between diet and longevity in some species of animals."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, would most weaken the dietary researcher's argument? |
Editorialist: The positions advanced by radical environmentalists often contain hypotheses that are false and proposals that are economically infeasible. But there is a positive role to be played even by extremists, for the social and political inertia that attends environmental issues is so stubborn that even small areas of progress can be made only if the populace fears environmental disaster, however untenable the reasons for those fears may be. | 200106_2-LR1_17_18 | [
"The little progress that has been made in improving the environment is mainly due to the fear created by radical environmentalists.",
"Radical environmentalists, by promoting their views, stimulate progress on environmental issues.",
"Social and political inertia is most effectively overcome by an extremely fearful populace, regardless of whether its fears are well-founded.",
"Radical environmentalists often put forth untenable positions in order to produce the fear that is required to bring about moderate reforms.",
"Radical environmentalists advocate positions without regard for factual support or economic feasibility."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main conclusion of the editorialist's argument? |
People should avoid taking the antacid calcium carbonate in doses larger than half a gram, for despite its capacity to neutralize stomach acids, calcium carbonate can increase the calcium level in the blood and thus impair kidney function. Moreover, just half a gram of it can stimulate the production of gastrin, a stomach hormone that triggers acid secretion. | 200106_2-LR1_18_19 | [
"Cessation of gastrin production is a more effective method of controlling excess stomach acid than is direct neutralization of stomach acid.",
"People who avoid taking more than half a gram of calcium carbonate are less likely than average to suffer from impaired kidney function.",
"Doses of calcium carbonate smaller than half a gram can reduce stomach acid more effectively than much larger doses do.",
"Half a gram of calcium carbonate can causally contribute to both the secretion and the neutralization of stomach acids.",
"Impaired kidney function may increase the level of calcium in the blood."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the information above? |
Professor Chan: The literature department's undergraduate courses should cover only true literary works, and not such frivolous material as advertisements. Professor Wigmore: Advertisements might or might not be true literary works but they do have a powerfully detrimental effect on society—largely because people cannot discern their real messages. The literature department's courses give students the critical skills to analyze and understand texts. Therefore, it is the literature department's responsibility to include the study of advertisements in its undergraduate courses. | 200106_2-LR1_19_20 | [
"Advertisements ought to be framed in such a way that their real messages are immediately clear.",
"Any text that is subtly constructed and capable of affecting people's thought and action ought to be considered a form of literature.",
"All undergraduate students ought to take at least one course that focuses on the development of critical skills.",
"The literature department's courses ought to enable students to analyze and understand any text that could have a harmful effect on society.",
"Any professor teaching an undergraduate course in the literature department ought to be free to choose the material to be covered in that course."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following principles most strongly supports Professor Wigmore's argument? |
Professor Chan: The literature department's undergraduate courses should cover only true literary works, and not such frivolous material as advertisements. Professor Wigmore: Advertisements might or might not be true literary works but they do have a powerfully detrimental effect on society—largely because people cannot discern their real messages. The literature department's courses give students the critical skills to analyze and understand texts. Therefore, it is the literature department's responsibility to include the study of advertisements in its undergraduate courses. | 200106_2-LR1_19_21 | [
"Texts that are true literary works never have a detrimental effect on society.",
"Courses offered by the literature department cannot include both true literary works and material such as advertisements.",
"Students who take courses in the literature department do not get from those courses other skills besides those needed to analyze and understand texts.",
"Forms of advertising that convey their message entirely through visual images do not have a detrimental effect on society.",
"The literature department's responsibility is not limited to teaching students how to analyze true literary works."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which Professor Wigmore's argument depends? |
Sociologist: Some people argue that capital punishment for theft was an essential part of the labor discipline of British capitalism. Critics of such a view argue that more people were executed for theft in preindustrial England than were executed in England after industrialization. But such a criticism overlooks the fact that industrialization and capitalism are two very different social phenomena, and that the latter predated the former by several centuries. | 200106_2-LR1_20_22 | [
"It is cited as some evidence against the claim that capital punishment for theft was an essential part of the labor discipline of British capitalism.",
"It is cited as a direct contradiction of the claim that capital punishment for theft was an essential part of the labor discipline of British capitalism.",
"It is an attempt to conclusively prove the claim that capital punishment for theft was an essential part of the labor discipline of British capitalism.",
"It is cited as a fact supporting the critics of the view that capital punishment for theft was an essential part of the labor discipline of British capitalism.",
"It is an attempt to undermine the criticism cited against the claim that capital punishment for theft was an essential part of the labor discipline of British capitalism."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following most accurately describes the role played in the passage by the point that capitalism and industrialization are distinct? |
To be horrific, a monster must be threatening. Whether or not it presents psychological, moral or social dangers, or triggers enduring infantile fears, if a monster is physically dangerous then it is threatening. In fact, even a physically benign monster is horrific if it inspires revulsion. | 200106_2-LR1_21_23 | [
"Any horror-story monster that is threatening is also horrific.",
"A monster that is psychologically dangerous, but that does not inspire revulsion, is not horrific.",
"If a monster triggers infantile fears but is not physically dangerous, then it is not horrific.",
"If a monster is both horrific and psychologically threatening, then it does not inspire revulsion.",
"All monsters that are not physically dangerous, but that are psychologically dangerous and inspire revulsion, are threatening."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following logically follows from the statements above? |
Lawyer: The defendant wanted to clear the snow off his car and in doing so knocked snow on the sidewalk. This same snow melted and refroze, forming ice on which the plaintiff fell, breaking her hip. We argue that the defendant maliciously harmed the plaintiff, because malice is intention to cause harm and the defendant intentionally removed the snow from his car and put it on the sidewalk, which, unbeknownst to the defendant at the time, would subsequently cause the injury suffered by the plaintiff. | 200106_2-LR1_22_24 | [
"Alice asked her sister to lie in court. Unbeknownst to Alice's sister, lying in court is against the law. So what Alice asked her sister to do was illegal.",
"Bruce wanted to eat the mincemeat pie. Unbeknownst to Bruce, the mincemeat pie was poisonous. So Bruce wanted to eat poison.",
"Cheryl denigrated the wine. Cheryl's sister had picked out the wine. So though she may not have realized it, Cheryl indirectly denigrated her sister.",
"Deon had lunch with Ms. Osgood. Unbeknownst to Deon, Ms. Osgood is generally thought to be an industrial spy. So Deon had lunch with an industrial spy.",
"Edwina bought a car from Mr. Yancy, then resold it. Unbeknownst to Edwina, Mr. Yancy had stolen the car. So Edwina sold a stolen car."
]
| 1 | The flawed reasoning in which one of the following is most similar to that in the lawyer's argument? |
Although wood-burning stoves are more efficient than open fireplaces, they are also more dangerous. The smoke that wood-burning stoves release up the chimney is cooler than the smoke from an open flame. Thus it travels more slowly and deposits more creosote, a flammable substance that can clog a chimney—or worse ignite inside it. | 200106_2-LR1_23_25 | [
"The most efficient wood-burning stoves produce less creosote than do many open fireplaces.",
"The amount of creosote produced depends not only on the type of flame but on how often the stove or fireplace is used.",
"Open fireplaces pose more risk of severe accidents inside the home than do wood-burning stoves.",
"Open fireplaces also produce a large amount of creosote residue.",
"Homeowners in warm climates rarely use fireplaces or wood-burning stoves."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument? |
If a doctor gives a patient only a few options for lifestyle modification, the patient is more likely to adhere to the doctor's advice than if the doctor gives the patient many options. | 200106_3-LR2_1_1 | [
"People are especially likely to ignore the advice they get from doctors if they are confused about that advice.",
"People dislike calculating the best of a variety of choices unless they can see a clear difference among the benefits that would result from each choice.",
"The tendency people have to alter their behavior varies inversely with the number of alternatives available to them for behavior modification.",
"Most people are unlikely to follow their doctor's advice unless they can vividly imagine the consequences of not following the advice.",
"In getting good results, the clarity with which a doctor instructs a patient is of equal importance to the accuracy of the doctor's diagnosis on which that instruction is based."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the principle illustrated above? |
To acquire a better understanding of the structure and development of the human personality, some psychologists study the personalities of animals. | 200106_3-LR2_2_2 | [
"The actions of humans and animals are believed to be motivated by similar instincts, but these instincts are easier to discern in animals.",
"The law forbids certain experiments on humans but permits them on animals.",
"It is generally less expensive to perform experiments on animals than it is to perform them on humans.",
"Proper understanding of human personality is thought to provide a model for better understanding the personality of animals.",
"Field observations of the behavior of young animals often inspire insightful hypotheses about human personality development."
]
| 3 | Each of the following, if true, contributes to an explanation of the practice mentioned above EXCEPT: |
Sigatoka disease drastically reduces the yield of banana trees and is epidemic throughout the areas of the world where bananas are grown. The fungus that causes the disease can be controlled with fungicides, but the fungicides can pose a health hazard to people living nearby. The fungicides are thus unsuitable for small banana groves in populated areas. Fortunately, most large banana plantations are in locations so isolated that fungicides can be used safely there. Therefore, most of the world's banana crop is not seriously threatened by Sigatoka disease. | 200106_3-LR2_3_3 | [
"It will eventually be possible to breed strains of bananas that are resistant to Sigatoka disease.",
"Large plantations produce most or all of the world's bananas.",
"Sigatoka disease spreads more slowly on large plantations than in small banana groves.",
"Sigatoka disease is the only disease that threatens bananas on a worldwide scale.",
"Most of the banana trees that have not been exposed to the Sigatoka fungus grow in small banana groves."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? |
A group of 1,000 students was randomly selected from three high schools in a medium-sized city and asked the question, "Do you plan to finish your high school education?" More than 89 percent answered "Yes." This shows that the overwhelming majority of students want to finish high school, and that if the national dropout rate among high school students is high, it cannot be due to a lack of desire on the part of the students. | 200106_3-LR2_4_4 | [
"fails to justify its presumption that 89 percent is an overwhelming majority",
"attempts to draw two conflicting conclusions from the results of one survey",
"overlooks the possibility that there may in fact not be a high dropout rate among high school students",
"contradicts itself by admitting that there may be a high dropout rate among students while claiming that most students want to finish high school",
"treats high school students from a particular medium-sized city as if they are representative of high school students nationwide"
]
| 4 | The reasoning of the argument above is questionable because the argument |
Columnist: A democratic society cannot exist unless its citizens have established strong bonds of mutual trust. Such bonds are formed and strengthened only by a participation in civic organizations, political parties, and other groups outside the family. It is obvious then that widespread reliance on movies and electronic media for entertainment has an inherently corrosive effect on democracy. | 200106_3-LR2_5_5 | [
"Anyone who relies on movies and electronic media for entertainment is unable to form a strong bond of mutual trust with a citizen.",
"Civic organizations cannot usefully advance their goals by using electronic media.",
"Newspapers and other forms of print media strengthen, rather than weaken, democratic institutions.",
"Relying on movies and electronic media for entertainment generally makes people less likely to participate in groups outside their families.",
"People who rely on movies and electronic media for entertainment are generally closer to their families than are those who do not."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the columnist's argument depends? |
Standard archaeological techniques make it possible to determine the age of anything containing vegetable matter, but only if the object is free of minerals containing carbon. Prehistoric artists painted on limestone with pigments composed of vegetable matter, but it is impossible to collect samples of this prehistoric paint without removing limestone, a mineral containing carbon, with the paint. Therefore, it is not possible to determine the age of prehistoric paintings on limestone using standard archaeological techniques. | 200106_3-LR2_6_6 | [
"There exist several different techniques for collecting samples of prehistoric pigments on limestone.",
"Laboratory procedures exist that can remove all the limestone from a sample of prehistoric paint on limestone.",
"The age of the limestone itself can be determined from samples that contain no vegetable-based paint.",
"Prehistoric artists did not use anything other than vegetable matter to make their paints.",
"The proportion of carbon to other elements in limestone is the same in all samples of limestone."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument? |
Dr. Jones: The new technology dubbed "telemedicine" will provide sustained improvement in at least rural patient care since it allows rural physicians to televise medical examinations to specialists who live at great distances—specialists who will thus be able to provide advice the rural patient would otherwise not receive. Dr. Carabella: Not so. Telemedicine might help rural patient care initially. However, small hospitals will soon realize that they can minimize expenses by replacing physicians with technicians who can use telemedicine to transmit examinations to large medical centers, resulting in fewer patients being able to receive traditional, direct medical examination. Eventually, it will be the rare individual who ever gets truly personal attention. Hence, rural as well as urban patient care will suffer. | 200106_3-LR2_7_7 | [
"whether medical specialists in general offer better advice than rural physicians",
"whether telemedicine technology will be installed only in rural hospitals and rural medical centers",
"whether telemedicine is likely to be widely adopted in rural areas in future years",
"whether the patients who most need the advice of medical specialists are likely to receive it through telemedicine",
"whether the technology of telemedicine will benefit rural patients in the long run"
]
| 4 | Which one of the following is a point at issue between Dr. Jones and Dr. Carabella? |
Dr. Jones: The new technology dubbed "telemedicine" will provide sustained improvement in at least rural patient care since it allows rural physicians to televise medical examinations to specialists who live at great distances—specialists who will thus be able to provide advice the rural patient would otherwise not receive. Dr. Carabella: Not so. Telemedicine might help rural patient care initially. However, small hospitals will soon realize that they can minimize expenses by replacing physicians with technicians who can use telemedicine to transmit examinations to large medical centers, resulting in fewer patients being able to receive traditional, direct medical examination. Eventually, it will be the rare individual who ever gets truly personal attention. Hence, rural as well as urban patient care will suffer. | 200106_3-LR2_7_8 | [
"listing a set of considerations to show that a prescribed treatment that seems to be benefiting a patient in fact harms that patient",
"describing the application of the technology discussed by Dr. Jones as one step that initiates a process that leads to an undesirable end",
"citing evidence that Dr. Jones lacks the professional training to judge the case at issue",
"invoking medical statistics that cast doubt on the premises used in Dr. Jones's argument",
"providing grounds for dismissing Dr. Jones's interpretation of a key term in medical technology"
]
| 1 | Dr. Carabella uses which one of the following strategies in responding to Dr. Jones? |
Lines can be parallel in a Euclidean system of geometry. But the non-Euclidean system of geometry that has the most empirical verification is regarded by several prominent physicists as correctly describing the universe we inhabit. If these physicists are right, in our universe there are no parallel lines. | 200106_3-LR2_8_9 | [
"There are no parallel lines in the non-Euclidean system of geometry that has the most empirical verification.",
"Most physicists have not doubted the view that the universe is correctly described by the non-Euclidean system of geometry that has the most empirical verification.",
"There are no parallel lines in every non-Euclidean system of geometry that has any empirical verification.",
"The universe is correctly described by the non-Euclidean system of geometry that has the most empirical verification if prominent physicists maintain that it is.",
"Only physicists who are not prominent doubt the view that the universe is correctly described by the non-Euclidean system of geometry that has the most empirical verification."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following is an assumption that is required by the argument? |
Philosopher: People are not intellectually well suited to live in large bureaucratic societies. Therefore, people can find happiness, if at all, only in smaller political units such as villages. | 200106_3-LR2_9_10 | [
"no one can ever be happy living in a society in which she or he is not intellectually well suited to live",
"the primary purpose of small political units such as villages is to make people happy",
"all societies that are plagued by excessive bureaucracy are large",
"anyone who lives in a village or other small political unit that is not excessively bureaucratic can find happiness",
"everyone is willing to live in villages or other small political units"
]
| 0 | The reasoning in the philosopher's argument is flawed because the argument takes for granted that |
The present goal of the field of medicine seems to be to extend life indefinitely. Increasingly, the ability to transplant such organs as hearts, lungs, livers, and kidneys will allow us to live longer. But we can never achieve brain transplants. There are, for a start, ten million nerves running from the brain down the neck, not to mention the millions joining the brain to the sensing organs. Clearly, then, as the transplantation of organs allows more and more people to live longer, those with degenerative brain disorders will form an ever-increasing proportion of the population. | 200106_3-LR2_10_11 | [
"Degenerative brain disorders will increasingly strike younger and younger patients.",
"It is still quite rare for people to live long enough to need more than one transplant of any given organ.",
"There are degenerative brain disorders that will not be curable without brain transplants.",
"Degenerative brain disorders account for a very small proportion of deaths in the population at large.",
"More is being spent on research into degenerative brain disorders than on research into transplantation."
]
| 2 | The argument above is based on which one of the following assumptions? |
Politician: My opponents argue that the future of our city depends on compromise—that unless the city's leaders put aside their differences and work together toward common goals, the city will suffer. However, the founders of this city based the city's charter on definite principles, and anyone who compromises those principles betrays the city founders' goals. What my opponents are advocating, therefore, is nothing less than betraying the goals of the city's founders. Critic: I'm afraid your argument is flawed. Unless you're assuming that the differences among the city's leaders are differences of principle, your argument depends on a misleading use of the term ____. | 200106_3-LR2_11_12 | [
"betray",
"common",
"compromise",
"principles",
"opponents"
]
| 2 | Which one of the following provides the most logical completion of the critic's statement? |
Though many insects die soon after reproducing for the first time, some may live for years after the survival of the next generation has been secured. Among the latter are some insects that work for the benefit of the ecosystem—for example, bees. | 200106_3-LR2_12_13 | [
"Survival of the species, rather than of the individual, is the goal of most insect populations.",
"Insects that do not play a vital role in the ecosystem are more likely to die after reproducing for the first time.",
"Most bees live well beyond the onset of the generation that follows them.",
"Those bees that reproduce do not always die soon after reproducing for the first time.",
"Most insects are hatched self-sufficient and do not need to be cared for by adult insects."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following can be properly inferred from the information above? |
People's political behavior frequently does not match their rhetoric. Although many complain about government intervention in their lives, they tend not to reelect inactive politicians. But a politician's activity consists largely in the passage of laws whose enforcement affects voters' lives. Thus, voters often reelect politicians whose behavior they resent. | 200106_3-LR2_13_14 | [
"It describes a phenomenon for which the argument's conclusion is offered as an explanation.",
"It is a premise offered in support of the conclusion that voters often reelect politicians whose behavior they resent.",
"It is offered as an example of how a politician's activity consists largely in the passage of laws whose enforcement interferes with voters' lives.",
"It is a generalization based on the claim that people complain about government intervention in their lives.",
"It is cited as evidence that people's behavior never matches their political beliefs."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following most accurately describes the role played in the argument by the claim that people tend not to reelect inactive politicians? |
Lea: Contemporary art has become big business. Nowadays art has less to do with self-expression than with making money. The work of contemporary artists is utterly bereft of spontaneity and creativity, as a visit to any art gallery demonstrates. Susan: I disagree. One can still find spontaneous, innovative new artwork in most of the smaller, independent galleries. | 200106_3-LR2_14_15 | [
"large galleries contain creative artwork",
"most galleries contain some artwork that lacks spontaneity and creativity",
"contemporary art has become big business",
"some smaller art galleries still exhibit creative new artwork",
"contemporary art, in general, is much less concerned with self-expression than older art is"
]
| 3 | Lea's and Susan's remarks provide the most support for holding that they disagree about whether |
Ethicist: In a recent judicial decision, a contractor was ordered to make restitution to a company because of a bungled construction job, even though the company had signed a written agreement prior to entering into the contract that the contractor would not be financially liable should the task not be adequately performed. Thus, it was morally wrong for the company to change its mind and seek restitution. | 200106_3-LR2_15_16 | [
"It is morally wrong for one party not to abide by its part of an agreement only if the other party abides by its part of the agreement.",
"It is morally wrong to seek a penalty for an action for which the agent is unable to make restitution.",
"It is morally wrong for one person to seek to penalize another person for an action that the first person induced the other person to perform.",
"It is morally wrong to ignore the terms of an agreement that was freely undertaken only if there is clear evidence that the agreement was legally permissible.",
"It is morally wrong to seek compensation for an action performed in the context of a promise to forgo such compensation."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the ethicist's reasoning? |
Zoologist: Animals can certainly signal each other with sounds and gestures. However, this does not confirm the thesis that animals possess language, for it does not prove that animals possess the ability to use sounds or gestures to refer to concrete objects or abstract ideas. | 200106_3-LR2_16_17 | [
"Animals do not have the cognitive capabilities to entertain abstract ideas.",
"If an animal's system of sounds or gestures is not a language, then that animal is unable to entertain abstract ideas.",
"When signaling each other with sounds or gestures, animals refer neither to concrete objects nor abstract ideas.",
"If a system of sounds or gestures contains no expressions referring to concrete objects or abstract ideas, then that system is not a language.",
"Some animals that possess a language can refer to both concrete objects and abstract ideas."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the zoologist's argument depends? |
A person is more likely to become disabled as that person ages. Among adults in the country of East Wendell, however, the proportion receiving disability benefit payments shrinks from 4 percent among 55 to 64 year olds to 2 percent for those aged 65 to 74 and 1 percent for those aged 75 and older. The explanation of this discrepancy is that the proportion of jobs offering such a disability benefit has greatly increased in recent years. | 200106_3-LR2_17_18 | [
"The treatment of newly incurred disabilities is more successful now than in the past in restoring partial function in the affected area within six months.",
"Some people receive disability benefit payments under employers' insurance plans, and some receive them from the government.",
"Medical advances have prolonged the average lifespan beyond what it was 20 years ago.",
"For persons receiving disability benefit payments, those payments on average represent a smaller share of their predisability income now than was the case 20 years ago.",
"Under most employers' plans, disability benefit payments stop when an employee with a disability reaches the usual retirement age of 65."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following, if true about East Wendell, shows that the explanation above is at best incomplete? |
Light is registered in the retina when photons hit molecules of the pigment rhodopsin and change the molecules' shape. Even when they have not been struck by photons of light, rhodopsin molecules sometimes change shape because of normal molecular motion, thereby introducing error into the visual system. The amount of this molecular motion is directly proportional to the temperature of the retina. | 200106_3-LR2_18_19 | [
"The temperature of an animal's retina depends on the amount of light the retina is absorbing.",
"The visual systems of animals whose body temperature matches that of their surroundings are more error-prone in hot surroundings than in cold ones.",
"As the temperature of the retina rises, rhodopsin molecules react more slowly to being struck by photons.",
"Rhodopsin molecules are more sensitive to photons in animals whose retinas have large surface areas than in animals whose retinas have small surface areas.",
"Molecules of rhodopsin are the only pigment molecules that occur naturally in the retina."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following conclusions is most strongly supported by the information above? |
Critic: Political utility determines the popularity of a metaphor. In authoritarian societies, the metaphor of society as a human body governed by a head is pervasive. Therefore, the society-as-body metaphor, with its connection between society's proper functioning and governance by a head, promotes greater acceptance of authoritarian repression than do other metaphors, such as likening society to a family. | 200106_3-LR2_19_20 | [
"In authoritarian societies, the metaphor of society as a family is just as pervasive as the society-as-body metaphor.",
"Every society tries to justify the legitimacy of its government through the use of metaphor.",
"The metaphor of society as a human body is sometimes used in nonauthoritarian societies.",
"Authoritarian leaders are always searching for new metaphors for society in their effort to maintain their power.",
"The metaphor of society as a human body governed by a head is rarely used in liberal democracies."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following statements, if true, most weakens the critic's argument? |
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