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If an external force intervenes to give members of a community political self-determination, then that political community will almost surely fail to be truly free, since it is during the people's struggle to become free by their own efforts that the political virtues necessary for maintaining freedom have the best chance of arising. | 199902_4-LR2_23_24 | [
"Political freedom is a virtue that a community can attain through an external force.",
"Self-determination is not the first political virtue that the members of a community achieve in their struggle to become free.",
"A community cannot remain free without first having developed certain political virtues.",
"Political self-determination is required if a community is to remain truly free.",
"Real freedom should not be imposed on a community by external forces."
]
| 2 | The reasoning above conforms most closely to which one of the following principles? |
Some residents of Midville claim that Midville is generally more expensive to live in than nearby towns are, but these people are mistaken. They focus on Midville's relatively high tax rate while ignoring the services paid for by their taxes. Only Midville provides residents with trash removal, rent- and mortgage-assistance programs, and reasonably priced public transportation. In nearby towns individuals pay for their own trash removal, and housing and transportation costs are high in comparison to Midville. | 199902_4-LR2_24_25 | [
"Midville is generally no more expensive to live in than nearby towns are.",
"Some of the residents of Midville consider their taxes to be too high.",
"Services funded by a municipality are generally less expensive than those services would be if privately funded.",
"Some residents of Midville are unaware of many of the services that Midville provides.",
"Most of the residents of Midville make use of all of the services the town provides."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following is the main point of the argument? |
A student has taken twelve courses and received a B in a majority of them. The student is now taking another course and will probably, given her record, receive a B in it. | 199906_1-LR1_1_1 | [
"The student previously studied alone but is receiving help from several outstanding students during the present course.",
"The twelve courses together covered a broad range of subject matter.",
"The student previously studied in the library and continues to do so.",
"The student received a B in all but one of the twelve courses.",
"The current course is a continuation of one of the twelve courses in which the student received a B."
]
| 0 | Each of the following, if true, strengthens the argument EXCEPT: |
If the government increases its funding for civilian scientific research, private patrons and industries will believe that such research has become primarily the government's responsibility. When they believe that research is no longer primarily their responsibility, private patrons and industries will decrease their contributions toward research. Therefore, in order to keep from depressing the overall level of funding for civilian scientific research, the government should not increase its own funding. | 199906_1-LR1_2_2 | [
"Governments should bear the majority of the financial burden of funding for civilian scientific research.",
"Any increase in government funding would displace more private funding for funding for civilian scientific research than it would provide.",
"Private donations toward research are no longer welcomed by researchers whose work receives government funding.",
"Civilian scientific research cannot be conducted efficiently with more than one source of funding.",
"Funding for civilian scientific research is currently at the highest possible level."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument relies? |
For any given ticket in a 1000-ticket lottery, it is reasonable to believe that that ticket will lose. Hence, it is reasonable to believe that no ticket will win. | 199906_1-LR1_3_3 | [
"It is reasonable to believe for any randomly drawn playing card that it will not be an ace, so it is reasonable to believe that an ace will never be drawn.",
"When the chances of a certain horse winning the race are 999 out of 1000, it is reasonable to believe that that horse will win. So it is reasonable to believe that no one other than that horse can win.",
"It is unreasonable to believe that 1000 consecutive coin flips will turn up heads, so it is reasonable to believe that this never happens.",
"It is reasonable to believe that if the most recent flip of a given coin was tails, the next flip will be heads. So if a coin has turned up tails the last 1000 times it was flipped, it is reasonable to believe that it will turn up heads the next time it is flipped.",
"For any given group of five-year-old children, the average height is one meter, so it is reasonable to believe that if Pat is five years old, she is exactly one meter tall."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following exhibits flawed reasoning most similar to the flawed reasoning in the argument above? |
Dental researcher: Filling a cavity in a tooth is not a harmless procedure: it inevitably damages some of the healthy parts of the tooth. Cavities are harmful only if the decay reaches the nerves inside the tooth, and many cavities, if left untreated, never progress to that point. Therefore, dentists should not fill a cavity unless the nerves inside the tooth are in imminent danger from that cavity. | 199906_1-LR1_4_4 | [
"Dentists should perform any procedure that it likely to be beneficial in the long term, but only if the procedure does not cause immediate damage.",
"Dentists should help their patients to prevent cavities rather than waiting until cavities are present to begin treatment.",
"A condition that is only potentially harmful should not be treated using a method that is definitely harmful.",
"A condition that is typically progressive should not be treated using methods that provide only temporary relief.",
"A condition that is potentially harmful should not be left untreated unless it can be kept under constant surveillance."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following principles, if valid, most strongly supports the researcher's reasoning? |
The number of codfish in the North Atlantic has declined substantially as the population of harp seals has increased from two million to more than three million. Some blame the seal for the shrinking cod population, but cod plays a negligible role in the seal's diet. It is therefore unlikely that the increase in the seal population has contributed significantly to the decline in the cod population. | 199906_1-LR1_5_5 | [
"People who fish for cod commercially are inconvenienced by the presence of large numbers of seals near traditional fishing grounds.",
"Water pollution poses a more serious threat to cod than to the harp seal.",
"The harp seal thrives in water that is too cold to support a dense population of cod.",
"Cod feed almost exclusively on capelin, a fish that is a staple of the harp seal's diet.",
"The cod population in the North Atlantic began to decline before the harp-seal population began to increase."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument? |
Hospital auditor: The Rodríguez family stipulated that the funds they donated to the neurological clinic all be used to minimize patients' suffering. The clinic administration is clearly violating those terms, since it has allocated nearly one fifth of those funds for research into new diagnostic technologies, instead of letting that money flow directly to its patients. Clinic administrator: But the successful development of new technologies will allow early diagnosis of many neurological disorders. In most cases, patients who are treated in the early stages of neurological disorders suffer far less than do patients who are not treated until their neurological disorders reach advanced stages. | 199906_1-LR1_6_6 | [
"whether early treatment of many neurological disorders lessens the suffering associated with those disorders rather than completely eliminating such suffering",
"whether the patients being treated at the neurological clinic are currently receiving adequate treatment for the neurological disorders from which they suffer",
"whether the Rodríguez family clearly stipulated that the funds they donated to the neurological clinic be used to minimize patients' suffering",
"whether the neurological clinic is adhering strictly to the conditions the Rodríguez family placed on the allocation of the funds they donated to the clinic",
"whether the Rodríguez family anticipated that some of the funds they donated to the neurological clinic would be used to pay for research into new diagnostic technologies"
]
| 3 | Which one of the following is the main point at issue between the hospital auditor and the clinic administrator? |
Hospital auditor: The Rodríguez family stipulated that the funds they donated to the neurological clinic all be used to minimize patients' suffering. The clinic administration is clearly violating those terms, since it has allocated nearly one fifth of those funds for research into new diagnostic technologies, instead of letting that money flow directly to its patients. Clinic administrator: But the successful development of new technologies will allow early diagnosis of many neurological disorders. In most cases, patients who are treated in the early stages of neurological disorders suffer far less than do patients who are not treated until their neurological disorders reach advanced stages. | 199906_1-LR1_6_7 | [
"demonstrating that the hospital auditor's conclusion, though broadly correct, stands in need of a minor qualification",
"showing that the hospital auditor's argument fails to separate what is the case from what ought to be the case",
"reminding the hospital auditor that, in the case at issue, being told what to do is tantamount to being told how to do it",
"arguing that, in assessing the severity of a violation, the reasoning motivating the violation needs to be considered",
"reinterpreting a key phrase in the hospital auditor's argument so as to undermine an assumption underlying that argument"
]
| 4 | The clinic administrator responds to the hospital auditor by doing which one of the following? |
Generally speaking, if the same crop is sown in a field for several successive years, growth in the later years is poorer than growth in the earlier years, since nitrogen in the soil becomes depleted. Even though alfalfa is a nitrogen-fixing plant and thus increases the amount of nitrogen in the soil, surprisingly, it too, if planted in the same field year after year, grows less well in the later years than it does in the earlier years. | 199906_1-LR1_7_8 | [
"Some kinds of plants grow more rapidly and are more productive when they are grown among other kinds of plants rather than being grown only among plants of their own kind.",
"Alfalfa increases the amount of nitrogen in the soil by taking nitrogen from the air and releasing it in a form that is usable by most kinds of plants.",
"Certain types of plants, including alfalfa, produce substances that accumulate in the soil and that are toxic to the plants that produce those substances.",
"Alfalfa increases nitrogen in the soil in which it grows only if a certain type of soil bacteria is present in the soil.",
"Alfalfa is very sensitive to juglone, a compound that is exuded from the leaves of black walnut trees."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain the similarity described above between alfalfa and non-nitrogen-fixing plants? |
Political commentators see recent policies of the government toward Country X as appeasement, pure and simple. This view is fundamentally mistaken, for polls show that most people disagree with the political commentators' assessment of government policies toward Country X. | 199906_1-LR1_8_9 | [
"the term \"policies\" is used ambiguously in the argument",
"the political commentators discussed in the passage are not identified",
"a claim is inferred to be false merely because a majority of people believe it to be false",
"the claim that the political commentators are mistaken is both a premise and a conclusion in the argument",
"it is assumed that what is true of persons individually is true of a country as a whole"
]
| 2 | The reasoning in the argument is questionable because |
It is a principle of economics that a nation can experience economic growth only when consumer confidence is balanced with a small amount of consumer skepticism. | 199906_1-LR1_9_10 | [
"Any nation in which consumer confidence is balanced with a small amount of consumer skepticism will experience economic growth.",
"Any nation in which the prevailing attitude of consumers is not skepticism will experience economic growth.",
"Any nation in which the prevailing attitude of consumers is either exclusively confidence or exclusively skepticism will experience economic growth.",
"Any nation in which the prevailing attitude of consumers is exclusively confidence will not experience economic growth.",
"Any nation in which consumer skepticism is balanced with a small amount of consumer confidence will experience economic growth."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following is an application of the economic principle above? |
Sharks have a higher ratio of cartilage mass to body mass than any other organism. They also have a greater resistance to cancer than any other organism. Shark cartilage contains a substance that inhibits tumor growth by stopping the development of a new blood network. In the past 20 years, none of the responses among terminal cancer patients to various therapeutic measures has been more positive than the response among those who consumed shark cartilage. | 199906_1-LR1_10_11 | [
"No organism resists cancer better than sharks do, but some resist cancer as well as sharks.",
"The organism most susceptible to cancer has a higher percentage of cartilage than some organisms that are less susceptible to cancer.",
"The substance in shark cartilage that inhibits tumor growth is found in most organisms.",
"In the past 20 years many terminal cancer patients have improved dramatically following many sorts of therapy.",
"Some organisms have immune systems more efficient than a shark's immune system."
]
| 0 | If the claims made above are true, then each of the following could be true EXCEPT: |
People who say that Dooney County is flat are clearly wrong. On flat land, soil erosion by water is not a problem. Consequently, farmers whose land is flat do not build terraces to prevent erosion. Yet I hear that the farms in Dooney County are dotted with terraces. | 199906_1-LR1_11_12 | [
"the only cause of soil erosion is water",
"there are terraces on farmland in Dooney County which were built to prevent soil erosion",
"terraces of the kind found on farmland in Dooney County have been shown to prevent soil erosion",
"on flat land there is no soil erosion",
"the only terraces in Dooney County are on farmland"
]
| 1 | The author's conclusion in the passage depends on the assumption that |
People who say that Dooney County is flat are clearly wrong. On flat land, soil erosion by water is not a problem. Consequently, farmers whose land is flat do not build terraces to prevent erosion. Yet I hear that the farms in Dooney County are dotted with terraces. | 199906_1-LR1_11_13 | [
"If we paint the room white, it will get smudged, and we will have to paint it again soon. Therefore, we should paint it dark blue.",
"People with children need more space than those without children. Yet people with no children can usually afford bigger houses.",
"People who get a lot of exercise have no trouble falling asleep; hence, people who get a lot of exercise do not use medication to help them fall asleep. Jack is taking many kinds of medication, so he must not be getting a lot of exercise.",
"If I go grocery shopping when I am hungry, I buy snack foods and cannot resist eating them. Therefore, I cannot lose weight.",
"People who have many friends tend to go out often, so they need cars. Therefore, if Joe wants to have many friends, he must buy a car."
]
| 2 | The reasoning in the passage is most similar to that in which one of the following? |
The axis of Earth's daily rotation is tilted with respect to the plane of its orbit at an angle of roughly 23 degrees. That angle can be kept fairly stable only by the gravitational influence of Earth's large, nearby Moon. Without such a stable and moderate axis tilt, a planet's climate is too extreme and unstable to support life. Mars, for example, has only very small moons, tilts at wildly fluctuating angles, and cannot support life. | 199906_1-LR1_12_14 | [
"If Mars had a sufficiently large nearby moon, Mars would be able to support life.",
"If Earth's Moon were to leave Earth's orbit, Earth's climate would be unable to support life.",
"Any planet with a stable, moderate axis tilt can support life.",
"Gravitational influences other than moons have little or no effect on the magnitude of the tilt angle of either Earth's or Mars's axis.",
"No planet that has more than one moon can support life."
]
| 1 | If the statements above are true, which one of the following must also be true on the basis of them? |
The town of Springhill frequently must declare a water emergency, making it temporarily unlawful to use water for such nonessential purposes as car washing. These emergencies could be avoided if Springhill would introduce permanent economic incentives for water conservation. Actually, Springhill discourages conservation because each household pays a modest monthly flat fee for any amount of water below a certain usage threshold, and a substantial per-liter rate only after the threshold is reached. | 199906_1-LR1_13_15 | [
"The Springhill authorities do a poor job of enforcing its water emergency laws and many people break the laws without incurring a penalty.",
"The town council of Springhill recently refused to raise the threshold.",
"The threshold is kept at a high enough level to exceed the water requirements of most households in Springhill.",
"The threshold is not as high in Springhill as it is in neighboring towns.",
"The threshold remains at the predetermined level specified by law until a change is approved by the Springhill town council."
]
| 2 | Which one the following, if true, most strengthens the argument? |
Poppy petals function to attract pollinating insects. The pollination of a poppy flower triggers the release into that flower of a substance that causes its petals to wilt within one or two days. If the flower is not pollinated, the substance will not be released and the petals will remain fresh for a week or longer, as long as the plant can nourish them. Cutting an unpollinated poppy flower from the plant triggers the release into the flower of the same substance whose release is triggered by pollination. | 199906_1-LR1_14_16 | [
"Pollinating insects are not attracted to wilted poppy flowers.",
"Even if cut poppies are given all necessary nutrients, their petals will tend to wilt within a few days.",
"Flowers of all plants release the substance that causes wilting when they are cut, although the amount released may vary.",
"The pollen on pollinated poppy flowers prevents their petals from absorbing the nutrients carried to them by their stems.",
"Poppy plants are unable to draw nutrients from soil or water after the substance that causes wilting has been released."
]
| 1 | The statement above, if true, most strongly support which one of the following? |
When a community opens a large shopping mall, it often expects a boost to the local economy, and in fact a large amount of economic activity goes on in these malls. Yet the increase in the local economy is typically much smaller than the total amount of economic activity that goes on in the mall. | 199906_1-LR1_15_17 | [
"When large shopping malls are new they attract a lot of shoppers but once the novelty has worn off they usually attract fewer shoppers than does the traditional downtown shopping district.",
"Most of the money spent in a large shopping mall is spent by tourists who are drawn specifically by the mall and who would not have visited the community had that mall not been built.",
"Most of the jobs created by large shopping malls are filled by people who recently moved to the community and who would not have moved had there been no job offer in the community.",
"Most of the money spent in a large shopping mall is money that would have been spent elsewhere in the same community had that mall not been built.",
"Most of the jobs created by the construction of a large shopping mall are temporary, and most of the permanent jobs created are low paying."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain the discrepancy described above? |
Essayist: The way science is conducted and regulated can be changed. But we need to determine whether the changes are warranted, taking into account their price. The use of animals in research could end immediately, but only at the cost of abandoning many kinds of research and making others very expensive. The use of recombinant DNA could be drastically curtailed. Many other restrictions could be imposed, complete with a system of fraud police. But such massive interventions would be costly and would change the character of science. | 199906_1-LR1_16_18 | [
"We should not make changes that will alter the character of science.",
"If we regulate science more closely, we will change the character of science.",
"The regulation of science and the conducting of science can be changed.",
"The imposition of restrictions on the conduct of science would be very costly.",
"We need to be aware of the impact of change in science before changes are made."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main conclusion of the essayist's argument? |
The postmodern view involves the rejection of modern assumptions about order and the universality of truth. The grand theories of the modern era are now seen as limited by the social and historical contexts in which they were elaborated. Also, the belief in order has given way to a belief in the importance of irregularity and chaos. It follows that we inhabit a world full of irregular events, and in which there are no universal truths. | 199906_1-LR1_17_19 | [
"infers that something is the case because it is believed to be the case",
"uses the term \"universal\" ambiguously",
"relies on the use of emotional terms to bolster its conclusion",
"uses the term \"order\" ambiguously",
"fails to cite examples of modern theories that purport to embody universal truths"
]
| 0 | The argument's reasoning is questionable because the argument |
If the economy is weak, then prices remain constant although unemployment rises. But unemployment rises only if investment decreases. Fortunately, investment is not decreasing. | 199906_1-LR1_18_20 | [
"Either the economy is weak or investment is decreasing.",
"If unemployment rises, the prices remain constant.",
"The economy is weak only if investment decreases.",
"Either the economy is weak or prices are remaining constant.",
"Either unemployment is rising or the economy is not weak."
]
| 0 | If the statements above are true, then which one of the following must be false? |
Psychologist: Some astrologers claim that our horoscopes completely determine our personalities, but this claim is false. I concede that identical twins—who are, of course, born at practically the same time—often do have similar personalities. However, birth records were examined to find two individuals who were born 40 years ago on the same day and at exactly the same time—one in a hospital in Toronto and one in a hospital in New York. Personality tests revealed that the personalities of these two individuals are in fact different. | 199906_1-LR1_19_21 | [
"Astrologers have not subjected their claims to rigorous experimentation.",
"The personality differences between the two individuals cannot be explained by the cultural differences between Toronto and New York.",
"The geographical difference between Toronto and New York did not result in the two individuals having different horoscopes.",
"Complete birth records for the past 40 years were kept at both hospitals.",
"Identical twins have identical genetic structures and usually have similar home environments."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the psychologist's argument depends? |
Under the influence of today's computer-oriented culture, publishing for children has taken on a flashy new look that emphasizes illustrations and graphic design; the resulting lack of substance leads to books that are short-lived items covering mainly trendy subjects. The changes also include more humorous content, simplification of difficult material, and a narrower focus on specific topics. | 199906_1-LR1_20_22 | [
"The inclusion of humorous material and a narrower focus detract from the substance of a children's book.",
"The substance of a children's book is important to its longevity.",
"Children of the computer generation cannot concentrate on long, unbroken sections of prose.",
"Children judge books primarily on the basis of graphic design.",
"The lack of substance of a children's book is unlikely to be important to its popularity."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the information above? |
Further evidence of a connection between brain physiology and psychological states has recently been uncovered in the form of a correlation between electroencephalograph patterns and characteristic moods. A study showed that participants who suffered form clinical depression exhibited less left frontal lobe activity than right, while, conversely, characteristically good-natured participants exhibited greater left lobe activity. Thus one's general disposition is a result of the activity of one's frontal lobe. | 199906_1-LR1_21_23 | [
"Many drugs prescribed to combat clinical depression act by causing increased left lobe activity.",
"Excessive sleep, a typical consequence of clinical depression, is known to suppress left lobe activity.",
"Frontal lobe activity is not subject to variation the way general disposition is.",
"Earlier studies indicated that frontal lobe activity and emotive states are both caused by activity in the brain's limbic system.",
"Social interaction of the kind not engaged in by most clinically depressed people is known to stimulate left lobe activity."
]
| 0 | Each of the following, if true, weakens the argument EXCEPT: |
We ought to pay attention only to the intrinsic properties of a work of art. Its other, extrinsic properties are irrelevant to our aesthetic interactions with it. For example, when we look at a painting we should consider only what is directly presented in our experience of it. What is really aesthetically relevant, therefore, is not what a painting symbolizes, but what it directly presents to experience. | 199906_1-LR1_22_24 | [
"What an artwork symbolizes involves only extrinsic properties of that work.",
"There are certain properties of our experiences of artworks that can be distinguished as symbolic properties.",
"Only an artwork's intrinsic properties are relevant to our aesthetic interactions with it.",
"It is possible in theory for an artwork to symbolize nothing.",
"An intrinsic property of an artwork is one that relates the work to itself."
]
| 0 | The conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is added to the premises? |
McKinley: A double-blind study, in which neither the patient nor the primary researcher knows whether the patient is being given the drug being tested or a placebo, is the most effective procedure for testing the efficacy of a drug. But we will not be able to perform such a study on this new drug, since the drug will have various effects on the patients' bodies, which will make us aware of whether the patients are getting the drug or a placebo. Engle: You cannot draw that conclusion at this point, for you are assuming you know what the outcome of the study will be. | 199906_1-LR1_23_25 | [
"presuming that a double-blind study is the only effective way to test new drugs",
"denying that the drug will be effective",
"presuming that the placebo will produce no effects whatever on the patients' bodies",
"referring to the drug's therapeutic effects rather than to any known side effects",
"based on a confusion about when a drug is efficacious"
]
| 3 | Engle's statement indicates that he is most likely interpreting McKinley's remarks to be |
Modern navigation systems, which are found in most of today's commercial aircraft, are made with low-power circuitry, which is more susceptible to interference than the vacuum-tube circuitry found in older planes. During landing, navigation systems receive radio signals from the airport to guide the plane to the runway. Recently, one plane with low-power circuitry veered off course during landing, its dials dimming, when a passenger turned on a laptop computer. Clearly, modern aircraft navigation systems are being put at risk by the electronic devices that passengers carry on board, such as cassette players and laptop computers. | 199906_1-LR1_24_26 | [
"After the laptop computer was turned off, the plane regained course and its navigation instruments and dials returned to normal.",
"When in use all electronic devices emit electromagnetic radiation, which is known to interfere with circuitry.",
"No problems with navigational equipment or instrument dials have been reported on flights with no passenger-owned electronic devices on board.",
"Significant electromagnetic radiation from portable electronic devices can travel up to eight meters, and some passenger seats on modern aircraft are located within four meters of the navigation systems.",
"Planes were first equipped with low-power circuitry at about the same time portable electronic devices became popular."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following, if true, LEAST strengthens the argument above? |
Flavonoids are a common component of almost all plants, but a specific variety of flavonoid in apples has been found to be an antioxidant. Antioxidants are known to be a factor in the prevention of heart disease. | 199906_3-LR2_1_1 | [
"A diet composed largely of fruits and vegetables will help to prevent heart disease.",
"Flavonoids are essential to preventing heart disease.",
"Eating at least one apple each day will prevent heart disease.",
"At least one type of flavonoid helps to prevent heart disease.",
"A diet deficient in antioxidants is a common cause of heart disease."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following can be properly inferred from the passage? |
A number of Grandville's wealthiest citizens have been criminals. So, since it is of utmost importance that the Grandville Planning Committee be composed solely of individuals whose personal standards of ethics are beyond reproach, no wealthy person should be appointed to that committee. | 199906_3-LR2_2_2 | [
"confuses a result with something that is sufficient for bringing about that result",
"mistakes a temporal relationship for a causal relationship",
"assumes that because a certain action has a certain result the person taking that action intended that result",
"judges only by subjective standards something that can be readily evaluated according to objective standards",
"generalizes on the basis of what could be exceptional cases"
]
| 4 | The argument is most vulnerable to the criticism that it |
Birds startled by potential predators generally try to take cover in nearby vegetation. Yet many birds that feed at bird feeders placed in suburban gardens are killed when, thus startled, they fly away from the vegetation in the gardens and into the windowpanes of nearby houses. | 199906_3-LR2_3_3 | [
"Predator attacks are as likely to occur at bird feeders surrounded by dense vegetation as they are at feeders surrounded by little or no vegetation.",
"The bird feeders in some suburban gardens are placed at a considerable distance from the houses.",
"Large birds are as likely s small birds to fly into windowpanes.",
"Most of the birds startled while feeding at bird feeders placed in suburban gardens are startled by loud noises rather than by predators.",
"The windowpanes of many houses clearly reflect surrounding vegetation."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain the anomalous behavior of the birds that fly into windowpanes? |
Raising the humidity of a room protects furniture, draperies, and computers from damage caused by excessively dry air. Further, it can make people feel warmer, helps the body's defenses against viruses, and alleviates some skin rashes. | 199906_3-LR2_4_4 | [
"Humidity can be bad for computers.",
"A room can be too dry for the optimal maintenance of its furnishings.",
"Dry air can feel cooler than humid air of the same temperature.",
"Increased humidity can be beneficial to the skin.",
"The human immune system can benefit from humidity."
]
| 0 | Each of the following is supported by the information above EXCEPT: |
Jane: Television programs and movies that depict violence among teenagers are extremely popular. Given how influential these media are, we have good reason to believe that these depictions cause young people to engage in violent behavior. Hence, depictions of violence among teenagers should be prohibited from movies and television programs, if only in those programs and movies promoted to young audiences. Maurice: But you are recommending nothing short of censorship! Besides which, your claim that television and movie depictions of violence cause violence is mistaken: violence among young people predates movies and television by centuries. | 199906_3-LR2_5_5 | [
"It presupposes that an unpopular policy cannot possibly achieve its intended purpose.",
"It confuses a subjective judgment of private moral permissibility with an objective description of social fact.",
"It rules out something as a cause of a current phenomenon solely on the ground that the phenomenon used to occur without that thing.",
"It cites purported historical facts that cannot possibly be verified.",
"It relies on an ambiguity in the term \"violence\" to justify a claim."
]
| 2 | Maurice's attempted refutation of Jane's argument is vulnerable to criticism on which one of the following grounds? |
Jane: Television programs and movies that depict violence among teenagers are extremely popular. Given how influential these media are, we have good reason to believe that these depictions cause young people to engage in violent behavior. Hence, depictions of violence among teenagers should be prohibited from movies and television programs, if only in those programs and movies promoted to young audiences. Maurice: But you are recommending nothing short of censorship! Besides which, your claim that television and movie depictions of violence cause violence is mistaken: violence among young people predates movies and television by centuries. | 199906_3-LR2_5_6 | [
"The most violent characters depicted in movies and on television programs are adult characters who are portrayed by adult actors.",
"The movies that have been shown to have the most influence on young people's behavior are those that are promoted to young audiences.",
"The people who make the most profits in the movie and television industry are those who can successfully promote their work to both young and old audiences.",
"Many adolescents who engage in violent behavior had already displayed such behavior before they were exposed to violence in movies.",
"Among the producers who make both movies and television programs, many voluntarily restrict the subject matter of films directed toward young audiences."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens Jane's argument? |
Sam: In a recent survey, over 95 percent of people who purchased a Starlight automobile last year said they were highly satisfied with their purchase. Since people who have purchased a new car in the last year are not highly satisfied if that car has a manufacturing defect, Starlight automobiles are remarkably free from such defects. Tiya: But some manufacturing defects in automobiles become apparent only after several years of use. | 199906_3-LR2_6_7 | [
"It argues that Sam's conclusion is correct, though not for the reasons Sam gives.",
"It provides evidence indicating that the survey results Sam relies on in his argument do not accurately characterize the attitudes of those surveyed.",
"It offers a consideration that undermines the support Sam offers for his conclusion.",
"It points out that Sam's argument presupposes the truth of the conclusion Sam is defending.",
"It presents new information that implies that Sam's conclusion is false."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following most accurately describes how Tiya's response is related to Sam's argument? |
Some environmentalists question the prudence of exploiting features of the environment, arguing that there are no economic benefits to be gained from forests, mountains, or wetlands that no longer exist. Many environmentalists claim that because nature has intrinsic value it would be wrong to destroy such features of the environment, even if the economic costs of doing so were outweighed by the economic costs of not doing so. | 199906_3-LR2_7_8 | [
"It is economically imprudent to exploit features of the environment.",
"Some environmentalists appeal to a noneconomic justification in questioning the defensibility of exploiting features of the environment.",
"Most environmentalists appeal to economic reasons in questioning the defensibility of exploiting features of the environment.",
"Many environmentalists provide only a noneconomic justification in questioning the defensibility of exploiting features of the environment.",
"Even if there is no economic reason for protecting the environment, there is a sound noneconomic justification for doing so."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following can be logically inferred from the passage? |
Market research traditionally entails surveying consumers about why they buy and use particular products and brands. Observational research— actually watching consumers shopping and interacting with products—is now increasingly used by market researchers to supplement surveys. Market researchers claim that observational research yields information about consumer behavior that surveys alone cannot provide. | 199906_3-LR2_8_9 | [
"Even consumers who are unable to explain their preference for or rejection of particular brands reveal which brands they are considering by picking up and putting down products while they are shopping.",
"Market researchers find that consumers are almost always willing to participate in observational research for which the consumer is paid by the hour.",
"Consumers are becoming increasingly self-conscience about their buying habits, and some consumers have stopped buying some items that they normally used to buy.",
"Market researchers say they find data collection more enjoyable in observational research than in survey research, because observational research requires more creative judgment on their part.",
"Consumers are more likely to respond to oral surveys than they are to respond to written questionnaires."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, provides the strongest support for the market researchers' claim? |
Laura: Harold is obviously lonely. He should sell his cabin in the woods and move into town. In town he will be near other people all the time, so he will not be lonely anymore. Ralph: Many very lonely people live in towns. What is needed to avoid loneliness is not only the proximity of other people but also genuine interaction with them. | 199906_3-LR2_9_10 | [
"something needed for a certain result does not necessarily guarantee that result",
"what is appropriate in one case is not necessarily appropriate in all cases",
"what is logically certain is not always intuitively obvious",
"various alternative solutions are possible for a single problem",
"a proposed solution for a problem could actually worsen that problem"
]
| 0 | Ralph responds to Laura by pointing out that |
A rise in the percentage of all 18-year-olds who were recruited by the armed services of a small republic between 1980 and 1986 correlates with a rise in the percentage of young people who dropped out of high school in that republic. Since 18-year-olds in the republic are generally either high school graduates or high school dropouts, the correlation leads to the conclusion that the republic's recruitment rates for 18-year-olds depend substantially on recruitment rates for high school dropouts. | 199906_3-LR2_10_11 | [
"A larger number of 18-year-old high school graduates were recruited for the republic's armed services in 1986 than in 1980.",
"Many of the high-technology systems used by the republic's armed services can be operated only by individuals who have completed a high school education.",
"Between 1980 and 1986 the percentage of high school graduates among 18-year-olds recruited in the republic rose sharply.",
"Personnel of the republic's armed services are strongly encouraged to finish their high school education.",
"The proportion of recruits who had completed at least two years of college education was greater in 1986 than in 1980."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following statements, if true, most weakens the argument? |
Letter to the Editor: Your article on effective cockroach control states that vexone is effective against only one of the more than 4,000 cockroach species that infest North America: the German cockroach. In actuality, vexone has been utilized effectively for almost a decade against all of the species that infest North America. In testing our product, Roach Ender, which contains vexone, we have conducted many well-documented studies that prove this fact. | 199906_3-LR2_11_12 | [
"Vexone is effective against only two species of cockroach that infest North America.",
"Not all of the major species of cockroach that infest North America can be controlled by Roach Ender.",
"Every species of cockroach that infests North America can be controlled by vexone.",
"The cockroach infestations that have been combated with vexone have not included all of the cockroach species that infest North America.",
"Roach Ender was tested against exactly 4,000 cockroach species that infest North America."
]
| 2 | Each of the following statements conflicts with the letter writer's view EXCEPT: |
A recent study concludes that prehistoric birds, unlike modern birds, were cold-blooded. This challenges a widely held view that modern birds descended from warm-blooded birds. The conclusion is based on the existence of growth rings in prehistoric birds' bodily structures, which are thought to be found only in cold-blooded animals. Another study, however, disputes this view. It concludes that prehistoric birds had dense blood vessels in their bones, which suggests that they were active creatures and therefore had to be warm-blooded. | 199906_3-LR2_12_13 | [
"Some modern warm-blooded species other than birds have been shown to have descended from cold-blooded species.",
"Having growth rings is not the only physical trait of cold-blooded species.",
"Modern birds did not evolve from prehistoric species of birds.",
"Dense blood vessels are not found in all warm-blooded species.",
"In some cold-blooded species the gene that is responsible for growth rings is also responsible for dense blood vessels."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following, if true, would most help to resolve the dispute described above in favor of one party to it? |
If citizens do not exercise their right to vote, then democratic institutions will crumble and, as a consequence, much valuable social cohesion will be lost. Of course, one person's vote can only make an imperceptible difference to the result of an election, but one must consider the likely effects of large numbers of people failing to vote. An act or omission by one person is not right if such an act or omission done by large numbers of people would be socially damaging. Organized society would be impossible if theft were common, though a single dishonest act on the part of a single person is likely to have an insignificant effect upon society. | 199906_3-LR2_13_14 | [
"People in a democracy should not neglect to vote.",
"Dishonest acts and failure to vote are equally damaging.",
"There is a risk that individual antisocial acts will be imitated by others.",
"A single person's vote or wrongful act can in fact make a great deal of difference.",
"Large-scale dishonesty and neglect of public duty will be destructive of democratic and other societies."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main conclusion of the argument? |
Human beings have cognitive faculties that are superior to those of other animals, and once humans become aware of these, they cannot be made happy by anything that does not involve gratification of these faculties. | 199906_3-LR2_14_15 | [
"Certain animals—dolphins and chimpanzees, for example—appear to be capable of rational communication.",
"Many people familiar both with intellectual stimulation and with physical pleasures enjoy the latter more.",
"Someone who never experienced classical music as a child will usually prefer popular music as an adult.",
"Many people who are serious athletes consider themselves to be happy.",
"Many people who are serious athletes love gourmet food."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following statements, if true, most calls into question the view above? |
Historian: We can learn about the medical history of individuals through chemical analysis of their hair. It is likely, for example, that Isaac Newton's psychological problems were due to mercury poisoning; traces of mercury were found in his hair. Analysis is now being done on a lock of Beethoven's hair. Although no convincing argument has shown that Beethoven ever had a venereal disease, some people hypothesize that venereal disease caused his deafness. Since mercury was commonly ingested in Beethoven's time to treat venereal disease, if researchers find a trace of mercury in his hair, we can conclude that this hypothesis is correct. | 199906_3-LR2_15_16 | [
"None of the mercury introduced into the body can be eliminated.",
"Some people in Beethoven's time did not ingest mercury.",
"Mercury is an effective treatment for venereal disease.",
"Mercury poisoning can cause deafness in people with venereal disease.",
"Beethoven suffered from psychological problems of the same severity as Newton's."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the historian's argument depends? |
In 1992, a major newspaper circulated throughout North America paid its reporters an average salary that was much lower than the average salary paid by its principal competitors to their reporters. An executive of the newspaper argued that this practice was justified, since any shortfall that might exist in the reporters' salaries is fully compensated by the valuable training they receive through their assignments. | 199906_3-LR2_16_17 | [
"Senior reporters at the newspaper earned as much as reporters of similar stature who worked for the newspaper's principal competitors.",
"Most of the newspaper's reporters had worked there for more than ten years.",
"The circulation of the newspaper had recently reached a plateau, after it had increased steadily throughout the 1980s.",
"The union that represented reporters at the newspaper was different from the union that represented reporters at the newspaper's competitors.",
"The newspaper was widely read throughout continental Europe and Great Britain as well as North America."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true about the newspaper in 1992, most seriously undermines the justification offered by the executive? |
The human brain and its associated mental capacities evolved to assist self-preservation. Thus, the capacity of make aesthetic judgments is an adaptation to past environments in which humans lived. So an individual's aesthetic judgments must be evaluated in terms of the extent to which they promote the survival of that individual. | 199906_3-LR2_17_18 | [
"All human adaptations to past environments were based on the human brain and its associated mental capacities.",
"Human capacities that do not contribute to the biological success of the human species cannot be evaluated.",
"If something develops to serve a given function, the standard by which it must be judged is how well it serves that function.",
"Judgments that depend on individual preference or taste cannot be evaluated as true or false.",
"Anything that enhances the proliferation of a species is to be valued highly."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following is a principle that would, if valid, provide the strongest justification for the reasoning above? |
On a certain day, nine scheduled flights on Swift Airlines were canceled. Ordinarily, a cancellation is due to mechanical problems with the airplane scheduled for a certain flight. However, since it is unlikely that Swift would have mechanical problems with more than one or two airplanes on a single day, some of the nine cancellations were probably due to something else. | 199906_3-LR2_18_19 | [
"More than one or two airplanes were scheduled for the nine canceled flights.",
"Swift Airlines has fewer mechanical problems than do other airlines of the same size.",
"Each of the canceled flights would have been longer than the average flight on Swift Airlines.",
"Swift Airlines had never before canceled more than one or two scheduled flights on a single day.",
"All of the airplanes scheduled for the canceled flights are based at the same airport."
]
| 0 | The argument depends on which one of the following assumptions? |
Game show host: Humans are no better than apes at investing, that is, they do not attain a better return on their investments than apes do. We gave five stock analysts and one chimpanzee $1,350 each to invest. After one month, the chimp won, having increased its net worth by $210. The net worth of the analyst who came in second increased by only $140. | 199906_3-LR2_19_20 | [
"A conclusion is drawn about apes in general on the basis of an experiment involving one chimpanzee.",
"No evidence is offered that chimpanzees are capable of understanding stock reports and making reasoned investment decisions.",
"A broad conclusion is drawn about the investment skills of humans on the basis of what is known about five humans.",
"Too general a conclusion is made about investing on the basis of a single experiment involving short-term investing but not long-term investing.",
"No evidence is considered about the long-term performance of the chimpanzee's portfolio versus that of the analysts' portfolios."
]
| 1 | Each of the following describes a flaw in the game show host's reasoning EXCEPT: |
If the law punishes littering, then the city has an obligation to provide trash cans. But the law does not punish littering, so the city has no such obligation. | 199906_3-LR2_20_21 | [
"If today is a holiday, then the bakery will not be open. The bakery is not open for business. Thus today is a holiday.",
"Jenny will have lots of balloons at her birthday party. There are no balloons around yet, so today is not her birthday.",
"The new regulations will be successful only if most of the students adhere to them. Since most of the students will adhere to those regulations, the new regulations will be successful.",
"In the event that my flight had been late, I would have missed the committee meeting. Fortunately, my flight is on time. Therefore, I will make it to the meeting.",
"When the law is enforced, some people are jailed. But no one is in jail, so clearly the law is not enforced."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following exhibits a flawed pattern of reasoning most similar to that in the argument above? |
Researcher: The role of chemicals called pheromones in determining the sexual behavior of some animals is well documented. But, even though humans also produce these chemicals, it is clear that psychological factors have taken over this role in us. Whereas for animals these behaviors are involuntary, which is a clear sign of chemical control, humans, by virtue of their free will, choose how they behave, and thus psychological factors take over. So pheromones are merely a vestige of our evolutionary past. | 199906_3-LR2_21_22 | [
"whatever does not have a chemical explanation must have a purely psychological one",
"voluntary action cannot have a chemical explanation",
"free will can be found only in humans",
"voluntary action cannot have an evolutionary explanation",
"there is a psychological explanation for the continuing presence of pheromones in humans"
]
| 1 | The researcher's argument requires the assumption that |
Ethicist: It is widely believed that it is always wrong to tell lies, but this is a rule almost no one fully complies with. In fact, lying is often the morally appropriate thing to do. It is morally correct to lie when telling the truth carries the reasonable expectation of producing considerable physical or psychological harm to others. | 199906_3-LR2_22_23 | [
"When Juan asked Judy if the movie they were going to was North by Northwest, Judy said yes, though she knew that Persona was playing instead. This was the only way Juan would see the film and avoid losing an opportunity for an aesthetically pleasing experience.",
"A daughter asked her father which candidate he supported, McBride or Chang. Though in fact he preferred Chang, the father responded by saying he preferred McBride, in order to avoid discussion.",
"A husband told his wife he felt ready to go on a canoe trip, though he had recently had severe chest pains; his wife had determined a year ago that they would go on this trip, so to ask to cancel now would be inconvenient.",
"A young boy asked his mother if she loved his older sister more than she loved him. The mother said she loved them both to the same degree, even though it was not true.",
"A friend invited Jamal to a party, but Jamal was afraid that he might see his ex-wife and her new husband there. To spare himself emotional pain, as well as the embarrassment of telling his friend why he did not want to go, Jamal falsely claimed he had to work."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following most closely conforms to the principle the ethicist endorses? |
Surviving seventeenth-century Dutch landscapes attributed to major artists now equal in number those attributed to minor ones. But since in the seventeenth century many prolific minor artists made a living supplying the voracious market for Dutch landscapes, while only a handful of major artists painted in the genre, many attributions of seventeenth-century Dutch landscape paintings to major artists are undoubtedly erroneous. | 199906_3-LR2_23_24 | [
"Technically gifted seventeenth-century Dutch landscape artists developed recognizable styles that were difficult to imitate.",
"In the workshops of major seventeenth-century artists, assistants were employed to prepare the paints, brushes, and other materials that the major artists then used.",
"In the eighteenth century, landscapes by minor seventeenth-century artists were often simply thrown away or else destroyed through improper storage.",
"Seventeenth-century art dealers paid minor artists extra money to leave their landscapes unsigned so that the dealers could add phony signatures and pass such works off as valuable paintings.",
"More seventeenth-century Dutch landscapes were painted than have actually survived, and that is true of those executed by minor artists as well as of those executed by major artists."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument? |
The interstitial nucleus, a subregion of the brain's hypothalamus, is typically smaller for male cats than for female cats. A neurobiologist performed autopsies on male cats who died from disease X, a disease affecting no more than .05 percent of male cats, and found that these male cats had interstitial nuclei that were as large as those generally found in female cats. Thus, the size of the interstitial nucleus determines whether or not male cats can contract disease X. | 199906_3-LR2_24_25 | [
"No female cats have been known to contract disease X, which is a subtype of disease Y.",
"Many male cats who contract disease X also contract disease Z, the cause of which is unknown.",
"The interstitial nuclei of female cats who contract disease X are larger than those of female cats who do not contract disease X.",
"Of 1,000 autopsies on male cats who did not contract disease X, 5 revealed interstitial nuclei larger than those of the average male cat.",
"The hypothalamus is known not to be causally linked to disease Y, and disease X is a subtype of disease Y."
]
| 4 | Which of the following statements, if true, most seriously weakens the argument? |
It is common to respond to a person who is exhorting us to change our behavior by drawing attention to that person's own behavior. This response, however, is irrational. Whether or not someone in fact heeds his or her own advice is irrelevant to whether that person's advice should be heeded. | 199906_3-LR2_25_26 | [
"Other countries argue that if we are serious about disarming we should go ahead and disarm to show our good intentions, but this is irrational, for we could make the same argument about them.",
"My neighbor urges me to exercise, but I see no good reason to do so; despite his strenuous exercise, he has failed to exhibit any real benefits from it.",
"When one country accuses another country of violating human rights standards, the accused country can reduce the damage to its reputation by drawing attention to the human rights record of its accuser because this tactic distracts critical attention.",
"One should not dismiss the philosopher's argument that matter does not exist by pointing out that the philosopher acts as though matter exists. People's actions have no effect on the strength of their arguments.",
"We should not be too severe in our condemnation of the salesperson; we have all lied at one point or another. It is irrational to condemn a person for wrongs committed by everybody."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following arguments is most similar in its reasoning to the argument above? |
Politician: The funding for the new nationwide health-awareness campaign should come from an increase in taxes on cigarettes. It is well established that cigarette smoking causes many serious health problems, and it is only reasonable that people whose unhealthful habits cause so many health problems should bear the costs of that campaign. Smoker: But it is equally well established that regularly eating high-fat, high-cholesterol foods causes as many serious health problems as does smoking, yet is would be manifestly unreasonable to force those who purchase such foods to bear the burden of financing this campaign. | 199910_1-LR1_1_1 | [
"whether the politician's proposal for financing the health-awareness campaign is an unreasonable one",
"whether smokers are more aware of the harmful effects of their habit than are people who regularly eat high-fat, high-cholesterol foods",
"whether the effects of smoking constitute a greater health hazard than do the effects of regularly eating high-fat, high-cholesterol foods",
"whether it is unreasonable to require people who do not benefit from certain governmental programs to share the costs of those programs",
"whether the proposed increase on cigarette taxes is an efficient means of financing the health-awareness campaign"
]
| 0 | Which one of the following is the point at issue between the politician and the smoker? |
Politician: The funding for the new nationwide health-awareness campaign should come from an increase in taxes on cigarettes. It is well established that cigarette smoking causes many serious health problems, and it is only reasonable that people whose unhealthful habits cause so many health problems should bear the costs of that campaign. Smoker: But it is equally well established that regularly eating high-fat, high-cholesterol foods causes as many serious health problems as does smoking, yet is would be manifestly unreasonable to force those who purchase such foods to bear the burden of financing this campaign. | 199910_1-LR1_1_2 | [
"offers a counterexample that calls into question the politician's reasoning",
"presents an alternative solution to that proposed by the politician",
"argues that the method proposed by the politician would be inadequate for its intended purpose",
"questions the accuracy of the information cited by the politician in reaching a conclusion",
"illustrates how the politician's proposal could aggravate the problem it is intended to solve"
]
| 0 | The smoker's response to the politician's argument |
There should be a greater use of gasohol. Gasohol is a mixture of alcohol and gasoline, and has a higher octane rating and fewer carbon monoxide emissions than straight gasoline. Burning gasohol adds no more carbon dioxide to the atmosphere than plants remove by photosynthesis. | 199910_1-LR1_2_3 | [
"Cars run less well on gasoline than they do on gasohol.",
"Since less gasoline is needed with the use of gasohol, an energy shortage is less likely.",
"Cars burn on the average slightly more gasohol per kilometer than they do gasoline.",
"Gasohol is cheaper to produce and hence costs less at the pump than gasoline.",
"Burning gasoline adds more carbon dioxide to the atmosphere than plants can remove."
]
| 2 | Each of the following, if true, strengthens the argument above EXCEPT: |
Cats spend much of their time sleeping; they seem to awaken only to stretch and yawn. Yet they have a strong, agile musculature that most animals would have to exercise strenuously to acquire. | 199910_1-LR1_3_4 | [
"Cats have a greater physiological need for sleep than other animals.",
"Many other animals also spend much of their time sleeping yet have a strong, agile musculature.",
"Cats are able to sleep in apparently uncomfortable positions.",
"Cats derive ample exercise from frequent stretching.",
"Cats require strength and agility in order to be effective predators."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent paradox described above? |
Barnes: The two newest employees at this company have salaries that are too high for the simple tasks normally assigned to new employees and duties that are too complex for inexperienced workers. Hence, the salaries and the complexity of the duties of these two newest employees should be reduced. | 199910_1-LR1_4_5 | [
"The duties of the two newest employees are not less complex than any others in the company.",
"It is because of the complex duties assigned that the two newest employees are being paid more than is usually paid to newly hired employees.",
"The two newest employees are not experienced at their occupations.",
"Barnes was not hired at a higher-than-average starting salary.",
"The salaries of the two newest employees are no higher than the salaries that other companies pay for workers with a similar level of experience."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which Barnes's argument depends? |
These days, drug companies and health professionals alike are focusing their attention on cholesterol in the blood. The more cholesterol we have in our blood, the higher the risk that we shall die of a heart attack. The issue is pertinent since heart disease kills more North Americans every year than any other single cause. At least three factors—smoking, drinking, and exercise— can each influence levels of cholesterol in the blood. | 199910_1-LR1_5_6 | [
"If a person has low blood cholesterol, then that person's risk of fatal heart disease is low.",
"Smoking in moderation can entail as great a risk of fatal heart disease as does heavy smoking.",
"A high-cholesterol diet is the principal cause of death in North America.",
"The only way that smoking increases one's risk of fatal heart disease is by influencing the levels of cholesterol in the blood.",
"The risk of fatal heart disease can be altered by certain changes in lifestyle."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following can be properly concluded from the passage? |
In Debbie's magic act, a volunteer supposedly selects a card in a random fashion, looks at it without showing it to her, and replaces it in the deck. After several shuffles, Debbie cuts the deck and supposedly reveals the same selected card, A skeptic conducted three trials. In the first, Debbie was videotaped, and no sleight of hand was found. In the second, the skeptic instead supplied a standard deck of cards. For the third trial, the skeptic selected the card. Each time, Debbie apparently revealed the selected card. The skeptic concluded that Debbie uses neither sleight of hand, nor a trick deck, nor a planted "volunteer" to achieve her effect. | 199910_1-LR1_6_7 | [
"The skeptic failed to consider the possibility that Debbie did not always use the same method to achieve her effect.",
"The skeptic failed to consider the possibility that sleight of hand could also be detected by some means other than videotaping.",
"The skeptic failed to consider the possibility that Debbie requires both sleight of hand and a trick deck to achieve her effect.",
"The skeptic failed to consider the possibility that Debbie used something other than sleight of hand, a trick deck, or a planted \"volunteer\" to achieve her effect.",
"The skeptic failed to consider the possibility that Debbie's success in the three trials was something other than a coincidence."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following most accurately describes a flaw in the skeptic's reasoning? |
Nutritionist: Many people claim that simple carbohydrates are a reasonable caloric replacement for the fatty foods forbidden to those on law-fat diets. This is now in doubt. New studies show that, for many people, a high intake of simple carbohydrates stimulates an overproduction of insulin, a hormone that is involved in processing sugars and starches to create energy when the body requires energy, or, when energy is not required, to store the resulting by-products as fat. | 199910_1-LR1_7_8 | [
"People on low-fat diets should avoid consumption of simple carbohydrates if they wish to maintain the energy that their bodies require.",
"People who produce enough insulin to process their intake of simple carbohydrates should not feel compelled to adopt low-fat diets.",
"People who consume simple carbohydrates should limit their intake of foods high in fat.",
"People who wish to avoid gaining body fat should limit their intake of foods high in simple carbohydrates.",
"People who do not produce an excessive amount of insulin when they consume foods high in simple carbohydrates will not lose weight if they restrict only their intake of these foods."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the nutritionist's statements? |
Jean: Our navigational equipment sells for $1,100 and dominates the high end of the market, but more units are sold by our competitors in the $700 to $800 range. We should add a low-cost model, which would allow us to increase our overall sales while continuing to dominate the high end. Tracy: I disagree. Our equipment sells to consumers who associate our company with quality. Moving into the low-cost market would put our competitors in the high-cost market on an equal footing with us, which could hurt our overall sales. | 199910_1-LR1_8_9 | [
"There is a greater potential for profits in the low-cost market than there is in the high-cost market.",
"The proposed cheaper model, if it were made available, would sell to customers who would otherwise be buying the company's present model.",
"The company could dominate the low-cost market in the same way it has dominated the high-cost market.",
"The company would no longer dominate the high-cost market if it began selling a low-cost model.",
"Decreased sales of the high-cost model would result in poor sales for the proposed low-cost model."
]
| 3 | Jean's and Tracy's statements most strongly suggest that they disagree over which one of the following propositions? |
The symptoms of hepatitis A appear no earlier than 60 days after a person has been infected. In a test of a hepatitis A vaccine, 50 people received the vaccine and 50 people received a harmless placebo. Although some people from each group eventually exhibited symptoms of hepatitis A, the vaccine as used in the test is completely effective in preventing infection with the hepatitis A virus. | 199910_1-LR1_9_10 | [
"The placebo did not produce any side effects that resembled any of the symptoms of hepatitis A.",
"More members of the group that had received the placebo recognized their symptoms as symptoms of hepatitis A than did members of the group that had received the vaccine.",
"The people who received the placebo were in better overall physical condition than were the people who received the vaccine.",
"The vaccinated people who exhibited symptoms of hepatitis A were infected with the hepatitis A virus before being vaccinated.",
"Of the people who developed symptoms of hepatitis A, those who received the vaccine recovered more quickly, on average, than those who did not."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps resolve the apparent discrepancy in the information above? |
It is well known that many species adapt to their environment, but it is usually assumed that only the most highly evolved species alter their environment in ways that aid their own survival. However, this characteristic is actually quite common. Certain species of plankton, for example, generate a gas that is converted in the atmosphere into particles of sulfate. These particles cause water vapor to condense, thus forming clouds. Indeed, the formation of clouds over the ocean largely depends on the presence of these particles. More cloud cover means more sunlight is reflected, and so the Earth absorbs less heat. Thus plankton cause the surface of the Earth to be cooler and this benefits the plankton. | 199910_1-LR1_10_11 | [
"The Earth would be far warmer than it is now if certain species of plankton became extinct.",
"By altering their environment in ways that improve their chances of survival, certain species of plankton benefit the Earth as a whole.",
"Improving their own chances of survival by altering the environment is not limited to the most highly evolved species.",
"The extent of the cloud cover over the oceans is largely determined by the quantity of plankton in those oceans.",
"Species such as plankton alter the environment in ways that are less detrimental to the well-being of other species than are the alterations to the environment made by more highly evolved species."
]
| 2 | Of the following, which one most accurately expresses the main point of the argument? |
It is well known that many species adapt to their environment, but it is usually assumed that only the most highly evolved species alter their environment in ways that aid their own survival. However, this characteristic is actually quite common. Certain species of plankton, for example, generate a gas that is converted in the atmosphere into particles of sulfate. These particles cause water vapor to condense, thus forming clouds. Indeed, the formation of clouds over the ocean largely depends on the presence of these particles. More cloud cover means more sunlight is reflected, and so the Earth absorbs less heat. Thus plankton cause the surface of the Earth to be cooler and this benefits the plankton. | 199910_1-LR1_10_12 | [
"A general principle is used to justify a claim made about a particular case to which that principle has been shown to apply.",
"An explanation of how a controversial phenomenon could have come about is given in order to support the claim that this phenomenon did in fact come about.",
"A generalization about the conditions under which a certain process can occur is advanced on the basis of an examination of certain cases in which that process did occur.",
"A counterexample to a position being challenged is presented in order to show that this position is incorrect.",
"A detailed example is used to illustrate the advantage of one strategy over another."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following accurately describes the argumentative strategy employed? |
The top priority of the school administration should be student attendance. No matter how good the teachers, texts, and facilities are, none of these does any good if few students come to school. | 199910_1-LR1_11_13 | [
"The top priority of a salesperson should be not to alienate customers. Honesty and a good knowledge of the product line are useful to a salesperson only if the customer feels at ease.",
"The top priority of a person lost in the wilderness should be food-gathering. Knowing how to find one's way back or how to build a comfortable shelter does one no good if one does not have enough food to survive.",
"The top priority of a detective should be to gather physical evidence. High-tech crime lab equipment and the most sophisticated criminological analysis are of no use if crucial clues are not gathered.",
"The top priority of a library should be to maintain its collection of books. A knowledgeable staff and beautiful facilities are of no value if there is an inadequate supply of books to lend.",
"The top priority of a criminal defense lawyer should be to ensure that innocent clients are found not guilty. Such clients can justly be released from jail and resume their normal lives if they are found not guilty."
]
| 4 | The pattern of reasoning in the argument above is LEAST similar to that in which one of the following? |
Prosecutor: Dr. Yuge has testified that, had the robbery occurred after 1:50 A.M., then, the moon having set at 1:45 A.M., it would have been too dark for Klein to recognize the perpetrator. But Yuge acknowledged that the moon was full enough to provide considerable light before it set. And we have conclusively shown that the robbery occurred between 1:15 and 1:30 A.M. So there was enough light for Klein to make a reliable identification. | 199910_1-LR1_12_14 | [
"Klein may be mistaken about the time of the robbery and so it may have taken place after the moon had set.",
"The perpetrator may closely resemble someone who was not involved in the robbery.",
"Klein may have been too upset to make a reliable identification even in good light.",
"Without having been there, Dr. Yuge has no way of knowing whether the light was sufficient.",
"During the robbery the moon's light may have been interfered with by conditions such as cloud cover."
]
| 4 | The prosecutor's reasoning is most vulnerable to criticism because it overlooks which one of the following possibilities? |
Ordinary mountain sickness, a common condition among mountain climbers, and one from which most people can recover, is caused by the characteristic shortage of oxygen in the atmosphere at high altitudes. Cerebral edema, a rarer disruption of blood circulation in the brain that quickly becomes life-threatening if not correctly treated from its onset, can also be caused by a shortage of oxygen. Since the symptoms of cerebral edema resemble those of ordinary mountain sickness, cerebral edema is especially dangerous at high altitudes. | 199910_1-LR1_13_15 | [
"The treatment for ordinary mountain sickness differs from the treatment for cerebral edema.",
"Cerebral edema can cause those who suffer from it to slip into a coma within a few hours.",
"Unlike cerebral edema, ordinary mountain sickness involves no disruption of blood circulation in the brain.",
"Shortage of oxygen at extremely high altitudes is likely to affect thinking processes and cause errors of judgment.",
"Most people who suffer from ordinary mountain sickness recover without any special treatment."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? |
We can learn about the living conditions of a vanished culture by examining its language. Thus, it is likely that the people who spoke Proto-Indo-European, the language from which all Indo-European languages descended, lived in a cold climate, isolated from ocean or sea, because Proto-Indo-European lacks a word for "sea," yet contains words for "winter," "snow," and "wolf." | 199910_1-LR1_14_16 | [
"A word meaning \"fish\" was used by the people who spoke Proto-Indo-European.",
"Some languages lack words for prominent elements of the environments of their speakers.",
"There are no known languages today that lack a word for \"sea.\"",
"Proto-Indo-European possesses words for \"heat.\"",
"The people who spoke Proto-Indo-European were nomadic."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument? |
Columnist: It is impossible for there to be real evidence that lax radiation standards that were once in effect at nuclear reactors actually contributed to the increase in cancer rates near such sites. The point is a familiar one: who can say if a particular case of cancer is due to radiation, exposure to environmental toxins, smoking, poor diet, or genetic factors. | 199910_1-LR1_15_17 | [
"The argument fails to recognize that there may be convincing statistical evidence even if individual causes cannot be known.",
"The argument inappropriately presupposes that what follows a certain phenomenon was caused by that phenomenon.",
"The argument inappropriately draws a conclusion about causes of cancer in general from evidence drawn from a particular case of cancer.",
"The argument ignores other possible causes of the increase in cancer rates near the nuclear reactor complexes.",
"The argument concludes that a claim about a causal connection is false on the basis of a lack of evidence for the claim."
]
| 0 | The argument's reasoning is most vulnerable to criticism on which one of the following grounds? |
Some planning committee members—those representing the construction industry—have significant financial interests in the committee's decisions. No one who is on the planning committee lives in the suburbs, although many of them work there. | 199910_1-LR1_16_18 | [
"No persons with significant financial interests in the planning committee's decisions are not in the construction industry.",
"No person who has significant financial interest in the planning committee's decisions lives in the suburbs.",
"Some persons with significant financial interests in the planning committee's decisions work in the suburbs.",
"Some planning committee members who represent the construction industry do not work in the suburbs.",
"Some persons with significant financial interests in the planning committee's decisions do not live in the suburbs."
]
| 4 | If the statements above are true, which one of the following must also be true? |
Arbitrator: The shipping manager admits that he decided to close the old facility on October 14 and to schedule the new facility's opening for October 17, the following Monday. But he also claims that he is not responsible for the business that was lost due to the new facility's failing to open as scheduled. He blames the contractor for not finishing on time, but he too, is to blame, for he was aware of the contractor's typical delays and should have planned for this contingency. | 199910_1-LR1_17_19 | [
"A manager should take foreseeable problems into account when making decisions.",
"A manager should be able to depend on contractors to do their jobs promptly.",
"A manager should see to it that contractors do their jobs promptly.",
"A manager should be held responsible for mistakes made by those whom the manager directly supervises.",
"A manager, and only a manager, should be held responsible for a project's failure."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following principles underlies the arbitrator's argument? |
The price of a full-fare coach ticket from Toronto to Dallas on Breezeway Airlines is the same today as it was a year ago, if inflation is taken into account by calculating prices in constant dollars. However, today 90 percent of the Toronto-to-Dallas coach tickets that Breezeway sells are discount tickets and only 10 percent are full-fare tickets, whereas a year ago half were discount tickets and half were full-fare tickets. Therefore, on average, people pay less today in constant dollars for a Breezeway Toronto-to-Dallas coach ticket than they did a year ago. | 199910_1-LR1_18_20 | [
"A Toronto-to-Dallas full-fare coach ticket on Breezeway Airlines provides ticket-holders with a lower level of service today than such a ticket provided a year ago.",
"A Toronto-to-Dallas discount coach ticket on Breezeway Airlines costs about the same amount in constant dollars today as it did a year ago.",
"All full-fare coach tickets on Breezeway Airlines cost the same in constant dollars as they did a year ago.",
"The average number of coach passengers per flight that Breezeway Airlines carries from Toronto to Dallas today is higher than the average number per flight a year ago.",
"The criteria that Breezeway Airlines uses for permitting passengers to buy discount coach tickets on the Toronto-to-Dallas route are different today than they were a year ago."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if assumed, would allow the conclusion above to be properly drawn? |
Editorial: The government claims that the country's nuclear power plants are entirely safe and hence that the public's fear of nuclear accidents at these plants is groundless. The government also contends that its recent action to limit the nuclear industry's financial liability in the case of nuclear accidents at power plants is justified by the need to protect the nuclear industry from the threat of bankruptcy. But even the government says that unlimited liability poses such a threat only if injury claims can be sustained against the industry; and the government admits that for such claims to be sustained, injury must result from a nuclear accident. The public's fear, therefore, is well founded. | 199910_1-LR1_19_21 | [
"The government's claim about the safety of the country's nuclear power plants is false.",
"The government's position on nuclear power plants is inconsistent.",
"The government misrepresented its reasons for acting to limit the nuclear industry's liability.",
"Unlimited financial liability in the case of nuclear accidents poses no threat to the financial security of the country's nuclear industry.",
"The only serious threat posed by a nuclear accident would be to the financial security of the nuclear industry."
]
| 1 | If all of the statements offered in support of the editorial's conclusion correctly describe the government's position, which one of the following must also be true on the basis of those statements? |
Editorial: The government claims that the country's nuclear power plants are entirely safe and hence that the public's fear of nuclear accidents at these plants is groundless. The government also contends that its recent action to limit the nuclear industry's financial liability in the case of nuclear accidents at power plants is justified by the need to protect the nuclear industry from the threat of bankruptcy. But even the government says that unlimited liability poses such a threat only if injury claims can be sustained against the industry; and the government admits that for such claims to be sustained, injury must result from a nuclear accident. The public's fear, therefore, is well founded. | 199910_1-LR1_19_22 | [
"If the government claims that something is unsafe then, in the absence of overwhelming evidence to the contrary, that thing should be assumed to be unsafe.",
"Fear that a certain kind of event will occur is well founded if those who have control over the occurrence of events of that kind stand to benefit financially from such an occurrence.",
"If a potentially dangerous thing is safe only because the financial security of those responsible for its operation depends on its being safe, then eliminating that dependence is not in the best interests of the public.",
"The government sometimes makes unsupported claims about what situations will arise, but it does not act to prevent a certain kind of situation from arising unless there is a real danger that such a situation will arise.",
"If a real financial threat to a major industry exists, then government action to limit that threat is justified."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the editorial's argumentation? |
Linda says that, as a scientist, she knows that no scientist appreciates poetry. And, since most scientists are logical, at least some of the people who appreciate poetry are illogical. | 199910_1-LR1_20_23 | [
"Ralph says that, as an expert in biology, he knows that no marsupial lays eggs. And, since most marsupials are native to Australia, at least some of the animals native to Australia do not lay eggs.",
"Franz says that, as a father of four children, he knows that no father wants children to eat candy at bedtime. And, since most fathers are adults, at least some of the people who want children to eat candy at bedtime are children.",
"Yuri says that, as a wine connoisseur, he knows that no wine aged in metal containers is equal in quality to the best wine aged in oak. And, since most California wine is aged in metal containers, California wine is inferior to at least the best French wine aged in oak.",
"Xi says that, as an experienced photographer, she knows that no color film produces images as sharp as the best black-and-white film. And, since most instant film is color film, at least some instant film produces images less sharp than the best black-and-white film.",
"Betty says that, as a corporate executive, she knows that no corporate executives like to pay taxes. And, since most corporate executives are honest people, at least some people who like to pay taxes are honest people."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following is most parallel in its reasoning to the flawed reasoning above? |
Automobile-emission standards are enforced through annual inspection. At those inspections cars are tested while idling; that is, standing still with their engines running. Testing devices measure the levels of various pollutants as exhaust gases leave the tail pipe. | 199910_1-LR1_21_24 | [
"As an emission-control technology approaches its limits, any additional gains in effectiveness become progressively more expensive.",
"The testing devices used must be recalibrated frequently to measure pollutant levels with acceptable accuracy.",
"The adjustments needed to make a car idle cleanly make it likely that the car will emit high levels of pollutants when moving at highway speeds.",
"Most car owners ask their mechanics to make sure that their cars are in compliance with emission standards.",
"When emission standards are set, no allowances are made for older cars."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, most strongly indicates that current enforcement of automobile-emission standards might be ineffective in controlling overall pollutant levels? |
The indigenous people of Tasmania are clearly related to the indigenous people of Australia, but were separated from them when the land bridge between Australia and Tasmania disappeared approximately 10,000 years ago. Two thousand years after the disappearance of the land bridge, however, there were major differences between the culture and technology of the indigenous Tasmanians and those of the indigenous Australians. The indigenous Tasmanians, unlike their Australian relatives, had no domesticated dogs, fishing nets, polished stone tools, or hunting implements like the boomerang and the spear-thrower. | 199910_1-LR1_22_25 | [
"After the disappearance of the land bridge the indigenous Tasmanians simply abandoned certain practices and technologies that they had originally shared with their Australian relatives.",
"Devices such as the spear-thrower and the boomerang were developed by the indigenous Tasmanians more than 10,000 years ago.",
"Technological innovations such as fishing nets, polished stone tools, and so on, were imported to Australia by Polynesian explorers more recently than 10,000 years ago.",
"Indigenous people of Australia developed hunting implements like the boomerang and the spear-thrower after the disappearance of the land bridge.",
"Although the technological and cultural innovations were developed in Australia more than 10,000 years ago, they were developed by groups in northern Australia with whom the indigenous Tasmanians had no contact prior to the disappearance of the land bridge."
]
| 1 | Each of the following, if true, would contribute to an explanation of differences described above EXCEPT: |
Combustion of gasoline in automobile engines produces benzene, a known carcinogen. Environmentalists propose replacing gasoline with methanol, which does not produce significant quantities of benzene when burned. However, combustion of methanol produces formaldehyde, also a known carcinogen. Therefore the environmentalists' proposal has little merit. | 199910_4-LR2_1_1 | [
"The engines of some automobiles now on the road burn diesel fuel rather than gasoline.",
"Several large research efforts are underway to formulate cleaner-burning types of gasoline.",
"In some regions, the local economy is largely dependent on industries devoted to the production and distribution of automobile fuel.",
"Formaldehyde is a less potent carcinogen than benzene.",
"Since methanol is water soluble, methanol spills are more damaging to the environment than gasoline spills."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if true, most supports the environmentalists' proposal? |
Economist: To the extent that homelessness arises from a lack of available housing, it should not be assumed that the profit motive is at fault. Private investors will, in general, provide housing if the market allows them to make a profit; it is unrealistic to expect investors to take risks with their property unless they get some benefit in return. | 199910_4-LR2_2_2 | [
"It limits the application of the argument to a part of the problem.",
"It suggests that the primary cause of homelessness is lack of available housing.",
"It is offered as evidence crucial to the conclusion.",
"It expresses the conclusion to be argued for.",
"It suggests a possible solution to the problem of homelessness."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following most accurately describes the role played in the economist's argument by the phrase "To the extent that homelessness arises from a lack of available housing" ? |
Physical education should teach people to pursue healthy, active lifestyles as they grow older. But the focus on competitive sports in most schools causes most of the less competitive students to turn away from sports. Having learned to think of themselves as unathletic, they do not exercise enough to stay healthy. | 199910_4-LR2_3_3 | [
"Physical education should include noncompetitive activities.",
"Competition causes most students to turn away from sports.",
"People who are talented at competitive physical endeavors exercise regularly.",
"The mental aspects of exercise are as important as the physical ones.",
"Children should be taught the dangers of a sedentary lifestyle."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the statements above, if they are true? |
Political opinion and analysis outside the mainstream rarely are found on television talk shows, and it might be thought that this state of affairs is a product of the political agenda of the television stations themselves. In fact, television stations are driven by the same economic forces as sellers of more tangible goods. Because they must attempt to capture the largest possible share of the television audience for their shows, they air only those shows that will appeal to large numbers of people. As a result, political opinions and analyses aired on television talk shows are typically bland and innocuous. | 199910_4-LR2_4_4 | [
"most television viewers cannot agree on which elements of a particular opinion or analysis are most disturbing",
"there are television viewers who might refuse to watch television talk shows that they knew would be controversial and disturbing",
"each television viewer holds some opinion that is outside the political mainstream, but those opinions are not the same for everyone",
"there are television shows on which economic forces have an even greater impact than they do on television talk shows",
"the television talk shows of different stations resemble one another in most respects"
]
| 1 | An assumption made in the explanation offered by the author of the passage is that |
Political opinion and analysis outside the mainstream rarely are found on television talk shows, and it might be thought that this state of affairs is a product of the political agenda of the television stations themselves. In fact, television stations are driven by the same economic forces as sellers of more tangible goods. Because they must attempt to capture the largest possible share of the television audience for their shows, they air only those shows that will appeal to large numbers of people. As a result, political opinions and analyses aired on television talk shows are typically bland and innocuous. | 199910_4-LR2_4_5 | [
"television station executives usually lack a political agenda of their own",
"bland and innocuous political opinions and analyses are generally in the mainstream",
"political analysts outside the mainstream are relatively indifferent to the effect their analyses have on television viewers",
"most television viewers are prepared to argue against allowing the expression of political opinions and analyses with which they disagree",
"the political opinions of television station executives are not often reflected in the television shows their stations produce"
]
| 1 | The explanation offered by the author of the passage makes the assumption that |
Some judges complain about statutes that specify mandatory minimum sentences for criminal offenses. These legal restrictions, they complain, are too mechanical and prevent judges from deciding when a given individual can or cannot be rehabilitated. But that is precisely why mandatory minimum sentences are necessary. History amply demonstrates that when people are free to use their own judgment they invariably believe themselves to act wisely when in fact they are often arbitrary and irrational. There is no reason to think that judges are an exception to this rule. | 199910_4-LR2_5_6 | [
"People believe that they have good judgment but never do.",
"Mandatory minimum sentences are too mechanical and reduce judicial discretion.",
"Judges should be free to exercise their own judgment.",
"Judges are often arbitrary and irrational.",
"Mandatory minimum sentences are needed to help prevent judicial arbitrariness."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following sentences most accurately expresses the main point of the passage? |
Conservationist: The population of a certain wildflower is so small that the species is headed for extinction. However, this wildflower can cross-pollinate with a closely related domesticated daisy, producing viable seeds. Such cross-pollination could result in a significant population of wildflower-daisy hybrids. The daisy should therefore be introduced into the wildflower's range, since although the hybrid would differ markedly from the wildflower, hybridization is the only means of preventing total loss of the wildflower in its range. | 199910_4-LR2_6_7 | [
"It is better to take measures to preserve a valued type of organism, even if those measures are drastic, than to accept a less valuable substitute for the organism.",
"It is better to preserve a type of organism that is in danger of extinction, even if surviving organisms of that type are not vigorous, than to allow something more vigorous to replace it.",
"It is better to change a type of organism that would otherwise be lost, even if the changes are radical, than to lose it entirely.",
"It is better to destroy one of two competing types of organisms, even if both are irreplaceable, than to allow both of them to be lost.",
"It is better to protect an endangered type of organism, even if doing so has some negative effects on another type of organism, than to do nothing at all."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the conservationist's reasoning? |
Conservationist: The population of a certain wildflower is so small that the species is headed for extinction. However, this wildflower can cross-pollinate with a closely related domesticated daisy, producing viable seeds. Such cross-pollination could result in a significant population of wildflower-daisy hybrids. The daisy should therefore be introduced into the wildflower's range, since although the hybrid would differ markedly from the wildflower, hybridization is the only means of preventing total loss of the wildflower in its range. | 199910_4-LR2_6_8 | [
"The wildflower currently reproduces only by forming seeds.",
"The domesticated daisy was bred from wild plants that once grew in the wildflower's range.",
"Increasing the population of the wildflower will also expand its range.",
"Wildflower-daisy hybrids will be able to reproduce.",
"The domesticated daisy will cross-pollinate with any daisylike plant."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the conservationist's reasoning depends? |
Because of increases in the price of oil and because of government policies promoting energy conservation, the use of oil to heat homes fell by 40 percent from to natural gas for heating. Because switching to natural gas involved investing in equipment, a significant switch back to oil in the near future is unlikely. | 199910_4-LR2_7_9 | [
"the price of natural gas to heat homes has remained constant, while the cost of equipment to heat homes with natural gas has fallen sharply",
"the price of home heating oil has remained constant, while the cost of equipment to heat homes with natural gas has risen sharply",
"the cost of equipment to heat homes with natural gas has fallen sharply, while the price of home heating oil has fallen to 1970 levels",
"the cost of equipment to heat homes with oil has fallen sharply, while the price of heating with oil has fallen below the price of heating with natural gas",
"the use of oil to heat homes has continued to decline, while the price of heating oil has fallen to 1970 levels"
]
| 3 | The prediction that ends the passage would be most seriously called into question if it were true that in the last few years |
Parents should not necessarily raise their children in the ways experts recommend, even if some of those experts are themselves parents. After all, parents are the ones who directly experience which methods are successful in raising their own children. | 199910_4-LR2_8_10 | [
"Although music theory is intrinsically interesting and may be helpful to certain musicians, it does not distinguish good music from bad: that is a matter of taste and not of theory.",
"One need not pay much attention to the advice of automotive experts when buying a car if those experts are not interested in the mundane factors that concern the average consumer.",
"In deciding the best way to proceed, a climber familiar with a mountain might do well to ignore the advice of mountain climbing experts unfamiliar with that mountain.",
"A typical farmer is less likely to know what types of soil are most productive than is someone with an advanced degree in agricultural science.",
"Unlike society, one's own conscience speaks with a single voice; it is better to follow the advice of one's own conscience than the advice of society."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following most closely conforms to the principle that the passage above illustrates? |
Sometimes when their trainer gives the hand signal for "Do something creative together," two dolphins circle a pool in tandem and then leap through the air simultaneously. On other occasions the same signal elicits synchronized backward swims or tail-waving. These behaviors are not simply learned responses to a given stimulus. Rather, dolphins are capable of higher cognitive functions that may include the use of language and forethought. | 199910_4-LR2_9_11 | [
"Mammals have some resemblance to one another with respect to bodily function and brain structure.",
"The dolphins often exhibit complex new responses to the hand signal.",
"The dolphins are given food incentives as part of their training.",
"Dolphins do not interact with humans the way they interact with one another.",
"Some of the behaviors mentioned are exhibited by dolphins in their natural habitat."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument? |
Editorialist: Drivers with a large number of demerit points who additionally have been convicted of a serious driving-related offense should either be sentenced to jail or be forced to receive driver re-education, since to do otherwise would be to allow a crime to go unpunished. Only if such drivers are likely to be made more responsible drivers should driver re-education be recommended for them. Unfortunately, it is always almost impossible to make drivers with a large number of demerit points more responsible drivers. | 199910_4-LR2_10_12 | [
"Drivers with a large number of demerit points who have been convicted of a serious driving-related offense should be sent to jail.",
"Driver re-education offers the best chance of making drivers with a large number of demerit points responsible drivers.",
"Driver re-education is not harsh enough punishment for anyone convicted of a serious driving-related offense who has also accumulated a large number of demerit points.",
"Driver re-education should not be recommended for those who have committed no serious driving-related offenses.",
"Drivers with a large number of demerit points but no conviction for a serious driving-related offense should receive driver re-education rather than jail."
]
| 0 | If the editorialist's statements are true, they provide the most support for which one of the following? |
Plant Manager: We could greatly reduce the amount of sulfur dioxide our copper-smelting plant releases into the atmosphere by using a new process. The new process requires replacing our open furnaces with closed ones and moving the copper from one furnace to the next in solid, not molten, form. However, not only is the new equipment expensive to buy and install, but the new process also costs more to run than the current process, because the copper must be reheated after it has cooled. So overall, adopting the new process will cost much but bring the company no profit. Supervisor: I agree with your overall conclusion, but disagree about one point you make, since the latest closed furnaces are extremely fuel-efficient. | 199910_4-LR2_11_13 | [
"whether the new copper-smelting process releases less sulfur dioxide gas into the atmosphere than the current process",
"whether the new copper-smelting process is more expensive to run than the current process",
"whether the new process should be adopted in the copper-smelting plant",
"whether closed copper-smelting furnaces are more fuel-efficient than open furnaces",
"whether cooling and reheating the copper will cost more than moving it in molten form"
]
| 1 | The point about which the supervisor expresses disagreement with the plant manager is |
Plant Manager: We could greatly reduce the amount of sulfur dioxide our copper-smelting plant releases into the atmosphere by using a new process. The new process requires replacing our open furnaces with closed ones and moving the copper from one furnace to the next in solid, not molten, form. However, not only is the new equipment expensive to buy and install, but the new process also costs more to run than the current process, because the copper must be reheated after it has cooled. So overall, adopting the new process will cost much but bring the company no profit. Supervisor: I agree with your overall conclusion, but disagree about one point you make, since the latest closed furnaces are extremely fuel-efficient. | 199910_4-LR2_11_14 | [
"The overall conclusion is about a net effect but is based solely on evidence about only some of the factors that contribute to the effect.",
"The support for the overall conclusion is the authority of the plant manager rather than any independently verifiable evidence.",
"The overall conclusion reached merely repeats the evidence offered.",
"Evidence that is taken to be only probably true is used as the basis for a claim that something is definitely true.",
"Facts that are not directly relevant to the argument are treated as if they supported the overall conclusion."
]
| 0 | The plant manager's argument is most vulnerable to criticism on which one of the following grounds? |
Ambiguity inspires interpretation. The saying, "We are the measure of all things," for instance, has been interpreted by some people to imply that humans are centrally important in the universe, while others have interpreted it to mean simply that, since all knowledge is human knowledge, humans must rely on themselves to find the truth. | 199910_4-LR2_12_15 | [
"It is used to support the argument's conclusion.",
"It is an illustration of the claim that we are the measure of all things.",
"It is compatible with either accepting or rejecting the argument's conclusion.",
"It is a view that other statements in the argument are intended to support.",
"It sets out a difficulty the argument is intended to solve."
]
| 3 | The claim that ambiguity inspires interpretation figures in the argument in which one of the following ways? |
Franklin: It is inconsistent to pay sports celebrities ten times what Nobel laureates are paid. Both have rare talents and work hard. Tomeka: What you've neglected to consider is that unlike Nobel laureates, sports celebrities earn millions of dollars for their employers in the form of gate receipts and TV rights. | 199910_4-LR2_13_16 | [
"Nobel laureates should be taken more seriously.",
"Nobel laureates should be paid more than sports celebrities.",
"Sports celebrities and Nobel laureates work equally hard for their employers.",
"There is no rational basis for the salary difference between sports celebrities and Nobel laureates.",
"The social contributions made by sports celebrities should be greater than they currently are."
]
| 3 | Franklin's and Tomeka's statements provide the most support for holding that they disagree about the truth of which one of the following? |
Studies of the reliability of eyewitness identifications show little correlation between the accuracy of a witness's account and the confidence the witness has in the account. Certain factors can increase or undermine witness's confidence without altering the accuracy of the identification. Therefore, police officers are advised to disallow suspect lineups in which witnesses can hear one another identifying suspects. | 199910_4-LR2_14_17 | [
"The confidence people have in what they remember having seen is affected by their awareness of what other people claim to have seen.",
"Unless an eyewitness is confronted with more than one suspect at a time, the accuracy of his or her statements cannot be trusted.",
"If several eyewitnesses all identify the same suspect in a lineup, it is more likely that the suspect committed the crime than if only one eyewitness identifies the suspect.",
"Police officers are more interested in the confidence witnesses have when testifying than in the accuracy of that testimony.",
"The accuracy of an eyewitness account is doubtful if the eyewitness contradicts what other eyewitnesses claim to have seen."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following is a principle underlying the advice given to police officers? |
All actions are motivated by self-interest, since any action that is apparently altruistic can be described in terms of self-interest. For example, helping someone can be described in terms of self-interest: the motivation is hope for a reward or other personal benefit to be bestowed as a result of the helping action. | 199910_4-LR2_15_18 | [
"The term \"self-interest\" is allowed to shift in meaning over the course of the argument.",
"The argument takes evidence showing merely that its conclusion could be true to constitute evidence showing that the conclusion is in fact true.",
"The argument does not explain what is meant by \"reward\" and \"personal benefit.\"",
"The argument ignores the possibility that what is taken to be necessary for a certain interest to be a motivation actually suffices to show that that interest is a motivation.",
"The argument depends for its appeal only on the emotional content of the example cited."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following most accurately describes an error in the argument's reasoning? |
In the decade from the mid-1980s to the mid-1990s, large corporations were rocked by mergers, reengineering, and downsizing. These events significantly undermined employees' job security. Surprisingly, however, employees' perception of their own job security hardly changed over that period. Fifty-eight percent of employees surveyed in 1984 and 55 percent surveyed in 1994 stated that their own jobs were very secure. | 199910_4-LR2_16_19 | [
"A large number of the people in both surveys work in small companies that were not affected by mergers, reengineering, and downsizing.",
"Employees who feel secure in their jobs tend to think that the jobs of others are secure.",
"The corporate downsizing that took place during this period had been widely anticipated for several years before the mid-",
"Most of the major downsizing during this period was completed within a year after the first survey.",
"In the mid-1990s, people were generally more optimistic about their lives, even in the face of hardship, than they were a decade before."
]
| 1 | Each of the following contributes to an explanation of the surprising survey results described above EXCEPT: |
Amphibian populations are declining in numbers worldwide. Not coincidentally, the earth's ozone layer has been continuously depleted throughout the last 50 years. Atmospheric ozone blocks UV-B, a type of ultraviolet radiation that is continuously produced by the sun, and which can damage genes. Because amphibians lack hair, hide, or feathers to shield them, they are particularly vulnerable to UV-B radiation. In addition, their gelatinous eggs lack the protection of leathery or hard shells. Thus, the primary cause of the declining amphibian population is the depletion of the ozone layer. | 199910_4-LR2_17_20 | [
"Of the various types of radiation blocked by atmospheric ozone, UV-B is the only type that can damage genes.",
"Amphibian populations are declining far more rapidly than are the populations of nonamphibian species whose tissues and eggs have more natural protection from UV-B.",
"Atmospheric ozone has been significantly depleted above all the areas of the world in which amphibian populations are declining.",
"The natural habitat of amphibians has not become smaller over the past century.",
"Amphibian populations have declined continuously for the last 50 years."
]
| 0 | Each of the following, if true, would strengthen the argument EXCEPT: |
All too many weaklings are also cowards, and few cowards fail to be fools. Thus there must be at least one person who is both a weakling and a fool. | 199910_4-LR2_18_21 | [
"All weasels are carnivores and no carnivores fail to be nonherbivores, so some weasels are nonherbivores.",
"Few moralists have the courage to act according to the principles they profess, and few saints have the ability to articulate the principles by which they live, so it follows that few people can both act like saints and speak like moralists.",
"Some painters are dancers, since some painters are musicians, and some musicians are dancers.",
"If an act is virtuous, then it is autonomous, for acts are not virtuous unless they are free, and acts are not free unless they are autonomous.",
"A majority of the voting population favors a total ban, but no one who favors a total ban is opposed to stiffer tariffs, so at least one voter is not opposed to stiffer tariffs."
]
| 2 | The flawed pattern of reasoning in the argument above is most similar to that in which one of the following? |
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