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Mullen has proposed to raise taxes on the rich, who made so much money during the past decade. Yet Mullen's tax records show heavy investment in business during that time and large profits; so Mullen's proposal does not deserve our consideration. | 200210_4-LR2_15_16 | [
"Do not vote for Smith's proposed legislation to subsidize child care for working parents; Smith is a working parent.",
"Do not put any credence in Dr. Han's recent proposal to ban smoking in all public places; Dr. Han is a heavy smoker.",
"The previous witness's testimony ought to be ignored; he has been convicted of both forgery and mail fraud.",
"Board member Timm's proposal to raise the salaries of the company's middle managers does not deserve to be considered; Timm's daughter is a middle manager at the company's headquarters.",
"Dr. Wasow's analysis of the design of this bridge should not be taken seriously; after all, Dr. Wasow has previously only designed factory buildings."
]
| 1 | The flawed reasoning in the argument above is most similar to the flawed reasoning in which one of the following? |
Anders: The physical structure of the brain plays an important role in thinking. So researchers developing "thinking machines" —computers that can make decisions based on both common sense and factual knowledge—should closely model those machines on the structure of the brain. Yang: Important does not mean essential. After all, no flying machine closely modeled on birds has worked; workable aircraft are structurally very different from birds. So thinking machines closely modeled on the brain are also likely to fail. In developing a workable thinking machine, researchers would therefore increase their chances of success if they focus on the brain's function and simply ignore its physical structure. | 200210_4-LR2_16_17 | [
"the main conclusion of the argument",
"a subsidiary conclusion used in support of the main conclusion",
"a principle of research invoked in support of the conclusion",
"a particular example illustrating a general claim",
"background information providing a context for the argument"
]
| 1 | The statement "thinking machines closely modeled on the brain are also likely to fail" serves which one of the following roles in Yang's argument? |
Anders: The physical structure of the brain plays an important role in thinking. So researchers developing "thinking machines" —computers that can make decisions based on both common sense and factual knowledge—should closely model those machines on the structure of the brain. Yang: Important does not mean essential. After all, no flying machine closely modeled on birds has worked; workable aircraft are structurally very different from birds. So thinking machines closely modeled on the brain are also likely to fail. In developing a workable thinking machine, researchers would therefore increase their chances of success if they focus on the brain's function and simply ignore its physical structure. | 200210_4-LR2_16_18 | [
"studies of the physical structure of birds provided information crucial to the development of workable aircraft",
"researchers currently working on thinking machines take all thinking to involve both common sense and factual knowledge",
"as much time has been spent trying to develop a workable thinking machine as had been spent in developing the first workable aircraft",
"researchers who specialize in the structure of the brain are among those who are trying to develop thinking machines",
"some flying machines that were not closely modeled on birds failed to work"
]
| 0 | In evaluating Yang's argument it would be most helpful to know whether |
Shy adolescents often devote themselves totally to a hobby to help distract them from the loneliness brought on by their shyness. Sometimes they are able to become friends with others who share their hobby. But if they lose interest in that hobby, their loneliness may be exacerbated. So developing an all-consuming hobby is not a successful strategy for overcoming adolescent loneliness. | 200210_4-LR2_17_19 | [
"Eventually, shy adolescents are going to want a wider circle of friends than is provided by their hobby.",
"No successful strategy for overcoming adolescent loneliness ever intensifies that loneliness.",
"Shy adolescents will lose interest in their hobbies if they do not make friends through their engagement in those hobbies.",
"Some other strategy for overcoming adolescent loneliness is generally more successful than is developing an all-consuming hobby.",
"Shy adolescents devote themselves to hobbies mainly because they want to make friends."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following assumptions does the argument depend on? |
Political scientist: As a political system, democracy does not promote political freedom. There are historical examples of democracies that ultimately resulted in some of the most oppressive societies. Likewise, there have been enlightened despotisms and oligarchies that have provided a remarkable level of political freedom to their subjects. | 200210_4-LR2_18_20 | [
"confuses the conditions necessary for political freedom with the conditions sufficient to bring it about",
"fails to consider that a substantial increase in the level of political freedom might cause a society to become more democratic",
"appeals to historical examples that are irrelevant to the causal claim being made",
"overlooks the possibility that democracy promotes political freedom without being necessary or sufficient by itself to produce it",
"bases its historical case on a personal point of view"
]
| 3 | The reasoning in the political scientist's argument is flawed because it |
In humans, ingested protein is broken down into amino acids, all of which must compete to enter the brain. Subsequent ingestion of sugars leads to the production of insulin, a hormone that breaks down the sugars and also rids the bloodstream of residual amino acids, except for tryptophan. Tryptophan then slips into the brain uncontested and is transformed into the chemical serotonin, increasing the brain's serotonin level. Thus, sugars can play a major role in mood elevation, helping one to feel relaxed and anxiety-free. | 200210_4-LR2_19_21 | [
"Elevation of mood and freedom from anxiety require increasing the level of serotonin in the brain.",
"Failure to consume foods rich in sugars results in anxiety and a lowering of mood.",
"Serotonin can be produced naturally only if tryptophan is present in the bloodstream.",
"Increasing the level of serotonin in the brain promotes relaxation and freedom from anxiety.",
"The consumption of protein-rich foods results in anxiety and a lowering of mood."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? |
If an act of civil disobedience—willfully breaking a specific law in order to bring about legal reform—is done out of self-interest alone and not out of a concern for others, it cannot be justified. But one is justified in performing an act of civil disobedience if one's conscience requires one to do so. | 200210_4-LR2_20_22 | [
"Keisha's protest against what she perceived to be a brutal and repressive dictatorship in another country was an act of justified civil disobedience, because in organizing an illegal but peaceful demonstration calling for a return to democratic leadership in that country, she acted purely out of concern for the people of that country.",
"Janice's protest against a law that forbade labor strikes was motivated solely by a desire to help local mine workers obtain fair wages. But her conscience did not require her to protest this law, so Janice did not perform an act of justified civil disobedience.",
"In organizing an illegal protest against the practice in her country of having prison inmates work eighteen hours per day, Georgette performed an act of justified civil disobedience: she acted out of concern for her fellow inmates rather than out of concern for herself.",
"Maria's deliberate violation of a law requiring prepublication government approval of all printed materials was an act of justified civil disobedience: though her interest as an owner of a publishing company would be served by repeal of the law, she violated the law because her conscience required doing so on behalf of all publishers.",
"In organizing a parade of motorcyclists riding without helmets through the capital city, Louise's act was not one of justified civil disobedience: she was willfully challenging a specific law requiring motorcyclists to wear helmets, but her conscience did not require her to organize the parade."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following judgments most closely conforms to the principles stated above? |
Most land-dwelling vertebrates have rotating limbs terminating in digits, a characteristic useful for land movement. Biologists who assume that this characteristic evolved only after animals abandoned aquatic environments must consider the Acanthostega, a newly discovered ancestor of all land vertebrates. It possessed rotating limbs terminating in digits, but its skeleton was too feeble for land movement. It also breathed using only internal gills, indicating that it and its predecessors were exclusively aquatic. | 200210_4-LR2_21_23 | [
"Many anatomical characteristics common to most land animals represent a disadvantage for survival underwater.",
"None of the anatomical characteristics common to most aquatic animals represent an advantage for survival on land.",
"Acanthostega originated as a land-dwelling species, but evolved gills only after moving to an underwater environment.",
"All anatomical characteristics not useful for land movement but common to most land animals represent an advantage for survival underwater.",
"Certain anatomical characteristics common to some aquatic animals represent an advantage for survival on land."
]
| 4 | The statements above, if true, most strongly support which one of the following? |
One reason why European music has had such a strong influence throughout the world, and why it is a sophisticated achievement, is that over time the original function of the music—whether ritual, dance, or worship—gradually became an aspect of its style, not its defining force. Dance music could stand independent of dance, for example, and sacred music independent of religious worship, because each composition has so much internal coherence that the music ultimately depends on nothing but itself. | 200210_4-LR2_22_24 | [
"African music has had a more powerful impact on the world than European music has had.",
"European military and economic expansionism partially explains the global influence of European music.",
"The original functions of many types of Chinese music are no longer their defining forces.",
"Music that is unintelligible when it is presented independently of its original function tends to be the most sophisticated music.",
"Some works of art lose their appeal when they are presented to serve a function other than their original one."
]
| 3 | The claims made above are compatible with each of the following EXCEPT: |
Tony: A short story is little more than a novelist's sketch pad. Only novels have narrative structures that allow writers to depict human lives accurately by portraying characters whose personalities gradually develop through life experience. Raoul: Life consists not of a linear process of personality development, but rather of a series of completely disjointed vignettes, from many of which the discerning observer may catch glimpses of character. Thus, the short story depicts human lives more faithfully than does the novel. | 200210_4-LR2_23_25 | [
"human lives are best understood as series of completely disjointed vignettes",
"novels and short stories employ the same strategies to depict human lives",
"novels usually depict gradual changes in characters' personalities",
"only short stories are used as novelists' sketch pads",
"short stories provide glimpses of facets of character that are usually kept hidden"
]
| 0 | The dialogue most supports the claim that Tony and Raoul disagree about whether |
A distinguished British judge, Justice Upton, said that whether some administrative decision by a government minister is reasonable "is a question that judges, by their training and experience, should be well-equipped to answer, or else there would be something badly wrong with the legal system, and there is little reason to suppose that there is." | 200212_2-LR1_1_1 | [
"There is nothing much wrong with the legal system.",
"Judges should be given a greater part in administrative decision making.",
"Judges are qualified to decide upon the reasonableness of a government minister's administrative decision.",
"If something were badly wrong with the legal system, judges would be ill-equipped to determine whether a government minister's decisions are reasonable.",
"If judges are well-equipped to determine whether an administrative decision is reasonable, there is not anything badly wrong with the legal system."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the conclusion of Justice Upton's argument? |
Any course that teaches students how to write is one that will serve them well in later life. Therefore, since some philosophy courses teach students how to write, any student, whatever his or her major, will be served well in later life by taking any philosophy course. | 200212_2-LR1_2_2 | [
"fails to specify adequately exactly how a course can teach students how to write",
"draws a weaker conclusion than is warranted by the strength of its premises",
"presumes, without providing justification, that what is true of a whole must also be true of each of its constituent parts",
"fails to consider the possibility that some students in certain majors may be required to take a philosophy course",
"draws a conclusion about all cases of a certain kind on the basis of evidence that justifies such a conclusion only about some cases of that kind"
]
| 4 | A flaw in the reasoning of the argument is that the argument |
Letter to the editor: Allowing everyone to voice personal views can have the effect of inhibiting some from voicing their concerns. Thus, allowing unrestricted free speech really inhibits free speech. | 200212_2-LR1_3_3 | [
"When free speech is unrestricted, many people will be shocked by the power of the views of others and thereby become afraid to voice their own concerns.",
"When there is unrestricted free speech, there will be a greater number of diverse views expressed, but the views expressed will be potentially offensive to many people.",
"Since unrestricted free speech can be offensive, free speech should be restricted when the pain that it causes is great.",
"Claiming that unrestricted free speech inhibits free speech is like claiming that increasing someone's salary makes the person poorer.",
"When free speech is unrestricted, people offended by the views of others are likely to voice their disagreement, leading toward a resolution of conflict."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, does most to justify the apparently contradictory conclusion above? |
Marie: I gave the cashier at my local convenience store a 10-dollar bill to pay for my purchase, and he mistakenly gave me change for a 20-dollar bill. I kept the extra 10 dollars. Since I did not trick, threaten, or physically force the cashier into giving me the extra money, it was not morally wrong for me to keep it. Julia: Nonsense. If you mistakenly hand me your coat, thinking it is my coat, then even though I did not get the coat by means of any deception, threats, or violence against you, I am not morally entitled to keep it for myself. | 200212_2-LR1_4_4 | [
"It strongly questions the application of Marie's principle to the case that Marie described, while accepting that principle.",
"It offers an additional reason to accept Marie's conclusion.",
"It challenges Marie's conclusion by claiming that the proper conclusion to draw in a relevantly similar situation would be the opposite of Marie's.",
"It uses Marie's criterion as a means of solving a moral problem Julia herself faces.",
"It proposes a radically different principle by which Marie's action might be judged, but reserves judgment as to whether Marie acted rightly."
]
| 2 | Julia's response functions in which one of the following ways? |
We are taught that pedestrians should cross the street at a corner and that jaywalking, in the sense of crossing other than at a corner, is dangerous and illegal. It also seems true that drivers anticipate people crossing at corners more than drivers anticipate people crossing elsewhere. Thus we might infer that crossing at a corner is safer than jaywalking. Nevertheless, statistics show that more pedestrians die crossing at corners than while jaywalking. | 200212_2-LR1_5_5 | [
"Far more pedestrians cross at corners than jaywalk.",
"Some people jaywalk only when there is little traffic.",
"Drivers are often unfamiliar with the laws concerning jaywalking.",
"Traffic laws in most locations state that the pedestrian always has the right of way, whether or not the pedestrian is crossing at a corner.",
"Good drivers anticipate jaywalkers as much as they anticipate pedestrians crossing at corners."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain the statistical claim cited above? |
Poor writers often express mundane ideas with elaborate syntax and esoteric vocabulary. Inattentive readers may be impressed but may well misunderstand the writing, while alert readers will easily see through the pretentiousness. Thus,a good principle for writers is: ____. | 200212_2-LR1_6_6 | [
"the simpler the style, the better the writing",
"inattentive readers are not worth writing for",
"only the most talented writers can successfully adopt a complex style",
"a writing style should not be more complex than the ideas expressed",
"alert readers are the only readers who are sensitive to writing style"
]
| 3 | Which one of the following completes the passage most logically? |
The kind of thoughts that keep a person from falling asleep can arise in either half of the brain. Therefore, a person being prevented from sleeping solely by such thoughts would be able to fall asleep by closing the eyes and counting sheep, because this activity fully occupies the left half of the brain with counting and the right half of the brain with imagining sheep, thereby excluding the sleep-preventing thoughts. | 200212_2-LR1_7_7 | [
"The person is able to imagine a wide variety of things.",
"The person normally has a difficult time falling asleep.",
"Thoughts of sheep would not keep the person awake at that time.",
"Thoughts of sheep would induce sleep in the person whenever those thoughts arose.",
"Thoughts of sheep rarely, if ever, arise in the person's dreams."
]
| 2 | According to the hypothesis, for a person to use counting imaginary sheep as an effective method of inducing sleep, which one of the following must be true? |
The kind of thoughts that keep a person from falling asleep can arise in either half of the brain. Therefore, a person being prevented from sleeping solely by such thoughts would be able to fall asleep by closing the eyes and counting sheep, because this activity fully occupies the left half of the brain with counting and the right half of the brain with imagining sheep, thereby excluding the sleep-preventing thoughts. | 200212_2-LR1_7_8 | [
"Stucco is a poor insulator but brick and wood are good insulators, so a person who wants to build a house in an area with a cold climate should use brick or wood instead of stucco.",
"Cats can damage furniture with either their claws or their teeth, so such damage can be prevented by providing cats with other objects that they will claw and bite, such as toy mice.",
"This map indicates two roads of equal length each leading to Centreville, so a person who wants to take the shortest route to Centreville could choose either one.",
"These chemicals are harmless by themselves but explosive when mixed together, so in order to be kept in the same laboratory without risk, they should be stored separately.",
"This island has two harbors but one of them is too shallow to permit large ships, so this ship will have to dock in the other harbor in order to unload its cargo."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following most closely parallels the reasoning in the argument above? |
Claude: To introduce greater public accountability into French foreign-policy decisions, France should hold referenda on major foreign-policy issues. Election results are too imprecise to count as a mandate, since elections are decided on multiple issues. Lorraine: The general public, unlike people in government, is unwilling or unable to become informed about foreign-policy issues. Therefore, the introduction of such referenda would lead to foreign-policy disaster. | 200212_2-LR1_8_9 | [
"The mechanics of holding a referendum would not, in the computer age, pose insuperable problems.",
"Some of the information on which foreign-policy decisions are based comes from intelligence sources that must not be compromised by publicity.",
"Foreign proponents and opponents of a particular policy would attempt to sway French public opinion before a referendum.",
"The general public has little desire to become informed about foreign-policy issues precisely because it has little or no power to influence foreign-policy decisions.",
"Foreign governments friendly to France would be reluctant to share information with France if it might become public in a referendum debate."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following responses by Claude would, if true, most strongly counter Lorraine's objection? |
Claude: To introduce greater public accountability into French foreign-policy decisions, France should hold referenda on major foreign-policy issues. Election results are too imprecise to count as a mandate, since elections are decided on multiple issues. Lorraine: The general public, unlike people in government, is unwilling or unable to become informed about foreign-policy issues. Therefore, the introduction of such referenda would lead to foreign-policy disaster. | 200212_2-LR1_8_10 | [
"The public would become better informed about an issue in foreign policy if a referendum were held on it.",
"Not every issue would be subject to referendum, only the major outlines of policy.",
"Decision by referendum would make the overall course of policy unpredictable, and countries friendly to France could not make reasonable decisions based on a consistent French line.",
"Requiring a large minimum number of voters' signatures on a petition for a referendum would ensure that many people would consider the issue and treat it as important.",
"Elections decided mainly on foreign-policy issues have perhaps constituted ratifications by the public of past decisions, but certainly not judgments about future issues posing new problems."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, provides the most support for Lorraine's conclusion? |
A gift is not generous unless it is intended to benefit the recipient and is worth more than what is expected or customary in the situation; a gift is selfish if it is given to benefit the giver or is less valuable than is customary. | 200212_2-LR1_9_11 | [
"Charles, who hates opera, was given two expensive tickets to the opera. He in turn gave them to his cousin, who loves opera, as a birthday gift. Charles's gift was selfish because he paid nothing for the tickets.",
"Emily gives her brother a year's membership in a health club. She thinks that this will allow her brother to get the exercise he needs. However, the gift is selfish because Emily's brother is hurt and offended by it.",
"Amanda gives each of her clients an expensive bottle of wine every year. Amanda's gifts are generous, since they cause the clients to continue giving Amanda business.",
"Olga gives her daughter a computer as a graduation gift. Since this is the gift that all children in Olga's family receive for graduation, it is not generous.",
"Michael gave his nephew $50 as a birthday gift, more than he had ever given before. Michael's nephew, however, lost the money. Therefore, Michael's gift was not generous because it did not benefit the recipient."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following judgments most closely conforms to the principle above? |
Politician: It is wrong for the government to restrict the liberty of individuals, except perhaps in those cases when to fail to do so would allow individuals to cause harm. Yet, to publish something is a liberty, and to offend is not to cause harm. | 200212_2-LR1_10_12 | [
"It is not right for the government to restrict the publication of literature that is only offensive.",
"It is not wrong for the government to restrict individuals' liberty when failing to do so would allow individuals to cause harm.",
"It is offensive for the government to restrict the liberty of individuals to publish, but it is not harmful.",
"It is not wrong for individuals to publish literature that is offensive.",
"It is not right for the government to restrict the publication of literature that does not cause serious harm."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following can be properly inferred from the politician's statements? |
Jenkins: Research on the properties of snow at the North Pole should be conducted in January and February. The weather is then cold enough to ensure that the snow will not melt. It is important that research money not be wasted; if we wait until a later month, we risk sending researchers when they will be unable to carry out research successfully. Lurano: I disagree. The weather will likely still be quite cold in April and May, and by going later, researchers run less risk of suffering dangerous exposure to the cold. | 200212_2-LR1_11_13 | [
"there is a possibility of snow melting at the North Pole during April and May",
"it is impossible to investigate the properties of snow at the North Pole later than February",
"funding will be wasted if research on snow is carried out at the North Pole later than February",
"the temperatures at the North Pole in January and February are lower than are the temperatures in April and May",
"research funding considerations outweigh the risk to researchers posed by the temperatures at the North Pole in January and February"
]
| 4 | The dialogue lends the most support to the claim that Jenkins and Lurano disagree on whether |
Activist: Although the environmental bill before the legislature is popular with voters, it will have mainly negative economic consequences if it is passed, especially when we try to lure new businesses to our country. Great leaders have the courage to look beyond popularity to what is sound policy; legislators ought to do the same by not voting for this bill. | 200212_2-LR1_12_14 | [
"presumes, without providing justification, that most of the legislators are great leaders",
"presumes, without providing justification, that a bill is less likely to pass if it is deemed to have negative economic consequences",
"fails to consider whether there are noneconomic reasons for supporting the bill that outweigh the reason given for rejecting it",
"fails to specify whether legislators usually consider economic consequences when a bill is before the legislature",
"takes for granted that if a bill is popular, it will not be sound economically"
]
| 2 | The activist's argumentation is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it |
More and more academic institutions are using citation analysis as the main technique for measuring the quality of scientific research. This technique involves a yearly scanning of scientific journals to count the number of references to a researcher's work. Although academic institutions want to encourage good research, use of citation analysis actually works against this goal since scientists seeking to maximize citation counts will avoid multiyear projects in favor of short-term projects in faddish areas. | 200212_2-LR1_13_15 | [
"In general scientific research is not referred to in journals until the research is completed.",
"Areas of science that are faddish at some point are not necessarily lacking in significance.",
"Research that is initially criticized in scientific journals sometimes turns out to be ground-breaking work.",
"Scientists are sometimes hostile to interim assessments of ongoing research, since such assessments might threaten continuity of funding.",
"Scientists often cite their colleagues' work when they think it is unfairly neglected by the scientific establishment."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, provides the strongest support for the argument? |
Biologists agree that human beings evolved from a fish, but they disagree about which species of fish. Since biologists agree that frogs are definitely related to the species of fish from which human beings evolved, on the basis of a close match between the mitochondrial DNA of lungfish and that of frogs Dr. Stevens-Hoyt claims that this ancestor must be lungfish. Dr. Grover, on the other hand, contends that mitochondrial DNA evolves too rapidly to be a reliable indicator of relationships between species over long periods of time, and citing the close chemical match between the hemoglobin of coelacanths (a saltwater fish) and that of tadpoles, claims that human beings must be descended from coelacanths. | 200212_2-LR1_14_16 | [
"Since it implies that human beings are not descended from lungfish, it is cited as evidence against the claim that humans are descended from lungfish.",
"Since it implies that human beings are not descended from coelacanths, it is offered as evidence against the claim that human beings are descended from coelacanths.",
"It is offered as evidence for the contention that human beings must be descended from either lungfish or coelacanths.",
"It is an assumption that both parties to the dispute use as a starting point for their arguments about human evolution.",
"It implies that either a match of mitochondrial DNA or a match of hemoglobin between lungfish and coelacanths would show that human beings evolved from one of these two species."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following most accurately describes the role played in the dispute above by the proposition that frogs are definitely related to the species of fish from which human beings evolved? |
Columnist: Over the last 20 years the demand in North America for Japanese-made automobiles has increased, whereas the Japanese demand for North American-made automobiles has been stagnant. Until recently, this imbalance could plausibly be attributed to Japanese models' superior fuel efficiency and reliability, but now cars made in North America are by these standards the equal of any Japanese model. What North American exporters continue to ignore is that the Japanese drive on the left side of the road. Therefore, one obstacle to reducing the automotive trade imbalance will be removed if North American manufacturers simply produce more cars with right-side steering wheels. | 200212_2-LR1_15_17 | [
"The fuel efficiency and reliability of cars made in North America will continue to increase.",
"If the Japanese drive on the left side of the road, then they are not inclined to buy cars with left-side steering wheels.",
"Japanese automotive safety standards require that all new domestic automobiles have right-side steering wheels.",
"Given a choice between similar Japanese and North American models, all with right-side steering wheels, most Japanese would choose the North American model.",
"The automotive trade imbalance can be lessened only if North American manufacturers produce automobiles that more effectively meet the needs of Japanese buyers."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following is an assumption required by the columnist's argument? |
All historians are able to spot trends. But anyone able to spot trends is able to distinguish the significant from the insignificant. Thus anyone who can distinguish the significant from the insignificant is a historian. | 200212_2-LR1_16_18 | [
"All expressions used for emotional impact are expressions used by poets. All figures of speech are expressions used for emotional impact. So any expression used by poets is a figure of speech.",
"Political systems whose laws originate in elected legislatures are prone to factionalism. Factionalism leads to civil disorder. Thus political systems not run by autocrats have a tendency to fall into civil disorder.",
"Animals that possess horns or antlers use them not to attack prey but for intraspecies combat. In fact, animals so equipped never have the claws or fangs that are possessed by predators. Thus any animal that fights with members of its own species is not a predator.",
"No one without a deep desire to communicate can be a blues musician. So short-story writers, all of whom have that same desire to communicate, could also have become blues musicians.",
"People living in open and democratic countries have customs that are determined at least in part by an inherited past. But no country's past is a product of free choice. Thus people living in open and democratic countries can never be entirely free."
]
| 0 | The flawed reasoning in which one of the following arguments most closely resembles that in the argument above? |
Jeff: Proposed regulations concerning the use of animals in scientific experimentation would prohibit experimentation on those species that humans empathize with: dogs and horses, for example. But extensive neurological research on mammals shows that they are all capable of feeling pain, just as dogs and horses are. Hence, this proposal should be extended to all experimentation on all mammals. Miranda: Yet the issue of pain is not the crux of the matter. Experimentation on any nonhuman animal undermines respect for life itself because only humans are capable of consenting to an experiment. Since any activity that undermines respect for life diminishes the quality of all of our lives, the new regulations should ban all such experimentation. | 200212_2-LR1_17_19 | [
"Regulations on the use of animals in scientific experimentation should be primarily concerned with respecting the feelings of the humans who will perform those experiments.",
"Whatever means are used to determine whether dogs and horses feel pain should also be used to determine whether other animals feel pain.",
"Only those experiments on animals that are known to cause those animals pain should be prohibited.",
"Scientists who perform experiments on animals should empathize with any mammal as much as they empathize with dogs or horses.",
"Scientific experimentation should be prohibited on any creature that is capable of feeling pain."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following is a principle that, if established, would best support Jeff's conclusion? |
Productivity is average output per worker per unit of time. High productivity cannot be achieved without adequate training of workers. So high productivity does not depend on having high-tech equipment. | 200212_2-LR1_18_20 | [
"confuses a stated requirement for having high-tech equipment with a sufficient condition for having high-tech equipment",
"ignores the possibility that having high-tech equipment is required for adequate training of workers",
"overlooks the fact that increases in productivity may not be desirable in some circumstances",
"presumes without giving justification that educating workers always results in an increase in their productivity",
"presumes without giving justification that high-tech equipment cannot contribute to increases in productivity"
]
| 1 | The reasoning in the argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the argument |
Cognitive psychologist: The majority of skilled artists are very creative people, and all people who are very creative are also good at abstract reasoning. However, not all skilled artists are famous. It follows that some people who are good at abstract reasoning are famous. | 200212_2-LR1_19_21 | [
"Most skilled artists are good at abstract reasoning.",
"Most people who are very creative are skilled artists.",
"Some skilled artists are not famous.",
"All people who are good at abstract reasoning are very creative.",
"Most skilled artists are famous."
]
| 4 | The cognitive psychologist's conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? |
The relaxation of regulations governing the manufacture and sale of new medicines to increase their availability should not be accompanied by a lifting of all regulations that restrict industrial activity generally. Unless strict environmental regulations are maintained, endangered species of plants and animals will become extinct. And since a large majority of new medicines are derived from plants and animals, a general deregulatory approach could actually undermine the original intent of the relaxation of regulations governing the manufacture and sale of new medicines. | 200212_2-LR1_20_22 | [
"a reason for not restricting research into the medical usefulness of plants and animals",
"evidence for a point of view that the argument is designed to undermine",
"an illustration of the potential disaster that could result from continued overregulation of industrial activity",
"a link between the extinction of species and the potentially decreased availability of new medicines",
"support for the hypothesis that only very narrowly focused efforts at deregulation of industrial activity actually have beneficial results"
]
| 3 | The statement that a large majority of new medicines are derived from plants and animals plays which one of the following roles in the argument? |
Councilperson X: We have an obligation to help ensure that electricity rates are the lowest possible. Since the proposed design for a new generating station would clearly allow for the lowest rates, it must be the design we endorse if we agree that we have no choice but to approve construction of a new plant. Councilperson Y: Helping to ensure the lowest electricity rates is not the council's only job; we also have an obligation not to lower the quality of life of our community. A plant of the type specified by the design would damage our community's air quality to such an extent that the benefit of lower rates would be outweighed. | 200212_2-LR1_21_23 | [
"The council should recommend the building of a new generating station.",
"It is the council's responsibility to improve the community's quality of life.",
"A plant of the type specified by the design in question would damage the air quality of the community.",
"If a new generating station is to be built, the council should endorse a plant of the type specified by the design in question.",
"A plant of the type specified by the design in question would allow for the lowest electricity rates."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following is an issue about which the two councilpersons disagree? |
Good students learn more than what their parents and teachers compel them to learn. This requires that these students derive pleasure from the satisfaction of their curiosity, and one cannot experience such pleasure unless one is capable of concentrating on a topic so intently that one loses track of one's own identity. | 200212_2-LR1_22_24 | [
"Some people who are capable of becoming so absorbed in a topic that they lose track of their own identities are nevertheless incapable of deriving pleasure from the satisfaction of their curiosity.",
"Most good students do not derive pleasure from the satisfaction of their curiosity.",
"Many people who derive pleasure simply from the satisfaction of their curiosity are not good students.",
"Some people who are not good students derive pleasure from losing track of their own identities.",
"Most people who are capable of becoming so absorbed in a topic that they lose track of their own identities are not good students."
]
| 1 | If the statements above are true, each of the following could also be true EXCEPT: |
A study comparing infant care revealed that the amount of stimulation babies receive affects their sleep. At six months of age, the babies in the study with a less stimulating daytime routine slept an average of two hours more per day than those with a more stimulating routine. Since sleep plays a very important role in a child's development, parents would be wise to reduce the amount of stimulation their babies receive. | 200212_4-LR2_1_1 | [
"Babies' muscular coordination is unaffected by the amount of stimulation they receive.",
"Babies with less stimulating routines usually get extra sleep during the day.",
"Studies showed no correlation between stimulation and amount of sleep for children three years of age or older.",
"The babies who had a less stimulating routine gained weight at an average rate.",
"The stimulation that babies receive helps them to develop intellectually."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following statements, if true, most seriously weakens the argument? |
Tom: Critics of recent high court decisions claim that judges' willingness to abide by earlier decisions is necessary to avoid legal chaos. Since high courts of the past often repudiated legal precedents and no harm to the legal system ensued, these critics' objections must be politically motivated and ought to be ignored. Mary: High courts have repudiated precedents in the past, but they were careful to do so only when the previous rulings were old and had clearly become outdated. The recently overturned rulings were themselves recent. Overturning any recent legal ruling diminishes the law, which comes to be viewed as unstable and capricious. | 200212_4-LR2_2_2 | [
"whether the overturning of recent high court precedents will harm the legal system",
"whether the overturning of recent high court precedents was politically motivated",
"whether critics of recent high court decisions in fact advanced the claim Tom cites",
"whether a precedent that is clearly outdated is in need of being overturned",
"whether judicial decisions that seem progressive at first can quickly become outdated"
]
| 0 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the point at issue between Tom and Mary? |
Tom: Critics of recent high court decisions claim that judges' willingness to abide by earlier decisions is necessary to avoid legal chaos. Since high courts of the past often repudiated legal precedents and no harm to the legal system ensued, these critics' objections must be politically motivated and ought to be ignored. Mary: High courts have repudiated precedents in the past, but they were careful to do so only when the previous rulings were old and had clearly become outdated. The recently overturned rulings were themselves recent. Overturning any recent legal ruling diminishes the law, which comes to be viewed as unstable and capricious. | 200212_4-LR2_2_3 | [
"She questions Tom's claim about the effects of reversals by high courts of the past.",
"She agrees to Tom's evaluation of certain critics' motives, but introduces evidence to show that it is usually difficult to discern such motives in practice.",
"She defends a practice against Tom's criticisms by citing evidence to show that it has usually been resorted to only after due deliberation.",
"She points out that Tom's conclusion rests on an assumption that is contradicted by the evidence Tom presents.",
"She introduces a distinction between two kinds of situations in which precedents are overturned, in order to argue for a difference that Tom fails to take into account."
]
| 4 | Mary responds to Tom's argument in which one of the following ways? |
Among North American school-age children, there is a strong positive correlation between obesity and the amount of television watched. Therefore, with the arrival of interactive television, obesity among North American school-age children will increase. | 200212_4-LR2_3_4 | [
"a sedentary lifestyle is among the most important causes of childhood obesity",
"obesity among North American school-age children increased as cable television became widely available",
"genetics makes no significant contribution to obesity",
"North American school-age children will increase their television viewing with the arrival of interactive television",
"within a decade of its introduction, interactive television will be almost universally available"
]
| 3 | The argument requires the assumption that |
Lactose, a sugar found in milk, aids in the absorption of calcium, which in turn is required for bone repair. In addition to there being shortages of milk in tropical areas, inhabitants of these areas lose the ability to absorb lactose, unlike people from nontropical areas. Yet inhabitants of tropical areas have no more problems with bone repair than do people who inhabit nontropical areas. | 200212_4-LR2_4_5 | [
"People living in tropical areas periodically take tablets containing lactose when there are shortages of milk.",
"Milk consumption has fallen in both tropical and nontropical areas.",
"The abundant sunlight in tropical areas causes the human body to produce vitamin D naturally, which aids in the absorption of calcium.",
"Consumption of dairy products other than milk has risen slightly in tropical areas.",
"The extent to which people living in tropical areas lose the ability to absorb lactose depends on a genetic predisposition."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent paradox described above? |
A politician can neither be reelected nor avoid censure by his or her colleagues if that politician is known to be involved in any serious scandals. Several prominent politicians have just now been shown to be involved in a conspiracy that turned into a serious scandal. These politicians will therefore not be reelected. | 200212_4-LR2_5_6 | [
"The prominent politicians cannot escape censure by their colleagues.",
"If there had been no scandal, the prominent politicians would be reelected.",
"No politician is censured unless he or she is known to be involved in a serious scandal.",
"The prominent politicians initially benefited from the conspiracy that caused the scandal.",
"Some politicians who are involved in scandalous conspiracies avoid detection and censure."
]
| 0 | If the statements above are all true, which one of the following statements must also be true? |
Jorge: You won't be able to write well about the rock music of the 1960s, since you were just an infant then. Rock music of the 1960s was created by and for people who were then in their teens and early twenties. Ruth: Your reasoning is absurd. There are living writers who write well about ancient Roman culture, even though those writers are obviously not a part of ancient Roman culture. Why should my youth alone prevent me from writing well about the music of a period as recent as the 1960s? | 200212_4-LR2_6_7 | [
"whether only those people who were in their teens or early twenties during the 1960s can be qualified to write about the rock music of that period",
"whether people who were in their teens or early twenties during the 1960s can write well about the rock music of that period",
"whether only people who are past their early twenties can write well about ancient cultures",
"whether people who are not now in their teens or early twenties can write well about the rock music of the 1960s",
"whether Ruth's ideas about the rock music of the 1960s are likely to appeal to people who were in their teens or early twenties during that period"
]
| 0 | Which one of the following most accurately represents what is at issue between Jorge and Ruth? |
Jorge: You won't be able to write well about the rock music of the 1960s, since you were just an infant then. Rock music of the 1960s was created by and for people who were then in their teens and early twenties. Ruth: Your reasoning is absurd. There are living writers who write well about ancient Roman culture, even though those writers are obviously not a part of ancient Roman culture. Why should my youth alone prevent me from writing well about the music of a period as recent as the 1960s? | 200212_4-LR2_6_8 | [
"challenging his claim that she was not in her teens or early twenties during the 1960s",
"clarifying a definition of popular culture that is left implicit in Jorge's argument",
"using the example of classical culture in order to legitimize contemporary culture as an object worthy of serious consideration",
"offering an analogy to counter an unstated assumption of Jorge's argument",
"casting doubt on her opponent's qualification to make judgments about popular culture"
]
| 3 | Ruth responds to Jorge's criticism by |
In each of the last ten years, there have been few complaints to law enforcement agencies of telemarketing fraud. Yet, in the last ten years, fraudulent telemarketing schemes have become a more and more serious problem, bilking victims out of millions of dollars annually. | 200212_4-LR2_7_9 | [
"Telemarketers convicted of fraud tend to be punished more severely than other people convicted of nonviolent crimes.",
"Most complaints of telemarketing fraud that authorities investigate involve the use of credit cards, which makes it extremely difficult for law enforcement agencies to track down the perpetrators.",
"Some fraudulent telemarketers have concocted phony investment schemes which make it unlikely that victims will detect the fraud until a year or two after the fact, by which time their swindlers are long gone.",
"Fraudulent telemarketers typically base their operations outside the legal jurisdiction inhabited by the people they solicit, so they must be prosecuted in higher courts.",
"The majority of those who have been defrauded by telemarketers have been inclined not to seek any legal remedy, out of embarrassment at being duped."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent conflict described above? |
The wholesale price of one bottle of Veritas Vineyards wine, always a profitable brand, is the same today as it was in 1991. The winegrower's profit is equal to the wholesale price minus the costs of producing the bottled wine, which include the cost to the winegrower of the glass bottles themselves and of the corks. Between 1991 and the present, all of the costs to the winegrower of producing a bottle of Veritas Vineyards wine have remained constant, except that of the corks, which cost nearly twice as much today as they did in 1991. | 200212_4-LR2_8_10 | [
"The number of bottles of Veritas Vineyards wine sold has remained unchanged between 1991 and the present.",
"Each bottle of Veritas Vineyards wine that is sold today brings the winegrower less profit than did each bottle sold in 1991.",
"The cost to the cork maker of producing the corks used in bottles of Veritas Vineyards wine has increased since 1991.",
"The aggregate profit generated by the winegrower's sales of Veritas Vineyards wine this year is smaller than the aggregate profit generated in 1991.",
"The cost of each cork used in bottling Veritas Vineyards wine is currently greater than the cost of each glass bottle itself."
]
| 1 | If the statements above are true, which one of the following must also be true on the basis of them? |
Letter to the editor: According to your last edition's anonymous article, we should all be required to carry identification cards and show them on demand. This opinion is wrong. After all, the writers of the article should not have asserted that the right to remain anonymous was trivial, unless they were prepared to put their names to that assertion. | 200212_4-LR2_9_11 | [
"criticizes the editor rather than the writers of the article",
"diverts attention from the content of the article by focusing on the writers' actions",
"commits the same error in reasoning that it accuses the writers of committing",
"attacks the integrity of the writers without knowing anything about them",
"confuses two meanings of the term \"anonymous\""
]
| 1 | The reasoning above is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it |
The higher a dam, the more exposed it is to forces that can cause it to collapse. Of the world's hundreds of arch dams, more than half are over 100 meters high. Yet all six of the arch dam collapses that have occurred during the past 40 years have occurred in arch dams under 100 meters high. | 200212_4-LR2_10_12 | [
"The higher a dam must be, the greater the likelihood that it will be built as an arch dam.",
"Arch dams are generally more complicated and more costly to construct than other types of dams of comparable size.",
"The larger the structure, the more careful the attention it received in design and construction.",
"The basic engineering principles behind the design and construction of arch dams have been known for more than 100 years.",
"Arch dams under 100 meters high are less subject to collapse than are dams of other types also under 100 meters high."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent paradox? |
Nearly every criminal trial includes eyewitness testimony, and cognitive psychologists have hypothesized that misidentification by eyewitnesses is a common reason for mistaken convictions in criminal trials. | 200212_4-LR2_11_13 | [
"Eyewitnesses' reports are the most common reason for conviction.",
"In most crimes, eyewitnesses have seen the perpetrator only briefly, and people are generally poor at remembering the faces of people they have seen only briefly.",
"The shock of witnessing a crime makes it likely that a witness's memory of the perpetrator's face will be distorted.",
"Judges often instruct juries about those circumstances under which testimony of eyewitnesses is fallible.",
"Jurors are very likely to believe eyewitnesses who appear confident, and unreliable witnesses usually appear very confident."
]
| 3 | Each of the following, if true, supports the cognitive psychologists' hypothesis EXCEPT: |
The mathematics of the scientific theory known as "complexity" describes those phenomena that are not quite stable and not quite chaotic. For example, the mathematics of complexity can be used to describe sand dunes: although sand dunes generally retain their shape, the addition of a tiny amount of sand can cause a sandslide. Certain scientists have concluded that there is good evidence that complexity is correct. After entering complexity-based mathematical models of real-world phenomena in computers, they found that the computerized mathematical models evolve much like the real-world phenomena actually evolve. | 200212_4-LR2_12_14 | [
"If computerized models based on a theory behave like their real-world counterparts behave, then that theory is probably correct.",
"If a scientific theory is correct, then computerized mathematical models based on that theory behave like their real-world counterparts.",
"If actual phenomena can be pictured as computerized models, computers themselves will eventually discover the mathematics of the correct theory explaining those phenomena.",
"If they evolve exactly like real-world phenomena, computer models are neither purely stable nor purely chaotic, which is what complexity predicts.",
"If computers verify that there are mathematical errors in the calculations of scientists, then the theories of those scientists are probably incorrect."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following principles, if valid, most justifies the scientists' conclusion? |
Ruth: To become a politician, a person should be required to have a diversity of experience. The more diverse one's experience, the more one will understand the need for compromise. Stephanie: To be worthy of public trust, it is not enough, as you suggest, that one simply have varied experience. Such a person would not necessarily be worthy of public trust. | 200212_4-LR2_13_15 | [
"The response simply asserts a point of view opposite to Ruth's without giving reasons for it.",
"The response fails to provide evidence for its assumption that experience is not beneficial to the practice of politics.",
"The response attributes to Ruth a view that is more vulnerable to criticism than any she actually expresses.",
"The response fails to make a needed distinction between personal experience and relevant professional experience.",
"The response fails to provide evidence for its assumption that flexibility is unimportant in the practice of politics."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following most accurately describes a flaw in the reasoning in Stephanie's response to Ruth's statements? |
Cézanne's art inspired the next generation of artists, twentieth-century modernist creators of abstract art. While most experts rank Cézanne as an early modernist, a small few reject this idea. Françoise Cachin, for example, bluntly states that such an ascription is "overplayed," and says that Cézanne's work is "too often observed from a modern point of view." | 200212_4-LR2_14_16 | [
"Cézanne's work is highly controversial.",
"Cézanne was an early creator of abstract art.",
"Cézanne's work helped to develop modernism.",
"Modern art owes less to Cézanne than many experts believe.",
"Cézanne's work tends to be misinterpreted as modernist."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following statements is most strongly supported by the information above? |
Ecologist: Forest fires, the vast majority of which are started by lightning, are not only a natural phenomenon to which all forest ecosystems are well adapted, but are required for many forests to flourish. Forest fires facilitate the opening and spreading of seed pods, prevent an overabundance of insects, and promote the diversity of forests by preventing certain varieties of aggressive weeds from dominating other species. In view of this, systematic attempts by human beings to prevent or control forest fires are ill-advised and shortsighted; forest fires should be left alone and allowed to burn themselves out naturally. | 200212_4-LR2_15_17 | [
"Human intervention in natural processes tends to reduce the biological diversity of ecosystems.",
"Protection of forests and their ecosystems is the only legitimate reason for attempting to prevent or control forest fires.",
"Forest fires begun by careless campers should be the target of human fire control efforts.",
"Humans tend to view forests as well as other ecosystems as instruments for the satisfaction of human needs.",
"If the health of an ecosystem is threatened by insects or other predators, human beings should not intervene to block that threat."
]
| 1 | The conclusion drawn above follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? |
Foster: Many species of extremely large North American mammals became extinct during the last ice age, which was also the time of the first human migration to North America. These species could not survive the dramatic changes wrought by this human migration. Fisch: Those extinctions were caused by the dramatic shift to a harsher climate. The climate changed so rapidly that the species could not adapt. | 200212_4-LR2_16_18 | [
"Similar species living in parts of the world where there were dramatic changes in climate did not become extinct.",
"Most of the mammals that survived in North America migrated from Asia at the same time as the humans migrated.",
"Human migration to other previously isolated areas has resulted in mammal species becoming extinct.",
"Archaeological evidence reveals that the human migrants had a number of different kinds of large weapons.",
"The huge size of the mammals made it difficult for them to migrate the great distances to milder environments."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens Fisch's argument? |
It is obvious that one ought to have a will stating how one wishes one's estate to be distributed. This can easily be seen from the fact that, according to current laws, in the absence of a legal will distant relatives whom one has never even met have a greater legal right to one's estate than one's beloved friends do. | 200212_4-LR2_17_19 | [
"No one wants his or her estate to go to someone he or she has never met.",
"One's estate should go only to a person who is deserving.",
"Distributions of estates under current inheritance laws are unjust.",
"People are generally not indifferent about how their estates are distributed.",
"One's beloved friends have a greater legal right to one's estate than one's distant relatives do."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? |
Some people believe that good health is due to luck. However, studies from many countries indicate a strong correlation between good health and high educational levels. Thus research supports the view that good health is largely the result of making informed lifestyle choices. | 200212_4-LR2_18_20 | [
"presumes, without providing justification, that only highly educated people make informed lifestyle choices",
"overlooks the possibility that people who make informed lifestyle choices may nonetheless suffer from inherited diseases",
"presumes, without providing justification, that informed lifestyle choices are available to everyone",
"overlooks the possibility that the same thing may causally contribute both to education and to good health",
"does not acknowledge that some people who fail to make informed lifestyle choices are in good health"
]
| 3 | The reasoning in the argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the argument |
In a small town, every complaint filed about a plumber's work was filed against Moore, who has a relatively small business. So there is good evidence that Moore is a poor plumber who cannot be counted on to do a good job. | 200212_4-LR2_19_21 | [
"the interests of Moore's customers who have not filed complaints",
"that there may be few if any other plumbers working in Moore's town",
"whether Moore's business is too small to warrant the kind of generalization drawn",
"the number of complaints filed in Moore's town about tradespeople other than plumbers",
"whether each person who was dissatisfied with Moore's work filed a complaint against Moore"
]
| 1 | The argument is questionable because it fails to consider |
Drama critic: Audiences will enjoy Warner's latest play, about the disintegration of a family, because of the superb acting. The chemistry between the actors could not be more intense, and Ziegler, who plays the child, captures convincingly the guilt and despair experienced as the family members grow more estranged from each other. | 200212_4-LR2_20_22 | [
"Generally, audiences enjoy romantic comedies but find tragedies upsetting.",
"The company staging the play has an unbroken history of dull performances.",
"Insiders with the company staging the play have condemned Ziegler's performance as unexciting.",
"The plot of the play is similar in some respects to plots of Warner's other works.",
"Audiences usually find drama critics' reviews unreliable."
]
| 3 | Each of the following, if true, weakens the argument EXCEPT: |
Editorial: Given the law of supply and demand, maximum total utility is assured only in a pure free market economy, although other types of economies might be able to achieve it. Obviously, then, a country that has a highly controlled economy, and is not trying to bring about a pure free market economy, is not acting in the way that is most likely to bring about maximum total utility. | 200212_4-LR2_21_23 | [
"presumes, without providing justification, that any country that does not have a pure free market economy has a highly controlled economy",
"presumes, without providing justification, that the way in which utility is distributed is less important than the total amount of utility",
"fails to consider that the way most likely to achieve a particular end may not be the only way to achieve that end",
"presumes, without providing justification, that trying to bring about a condition that will ensure the achievement of an end must always be the way most likely to achieve that end",
"ignores the possibility that a pure free market economy will have serious drawbacks that outweigh the benefits of maximum total utility"
]
| 3 | The editorial's argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it |
A park's user fees are employed to maintain the park. When fewer people use the park, it suffers less wear. Thus raising user fees improves park maintenance even if the number of people who stop using the park because of higher fees is great enough to reduce the revenues devoted to maintenance. | 200212_4-LR2_22_24 | [
"To increase its market share, a car company improves the service warranty it provides to those who purchase a new car. Making good on the warranties proves expensive enough that the company's profits decrease even though its market share increases.",
"A grocery store's overall revenues increase even though it no longer remains open 24 hours daily. The manager theorizes that customers find the store more pleasant because it can be cleaned well during the hours it is closed.",
"Road taxes are raised to encourage more people to use mass transit. But since the fee paid by each commuter does not equal the cost of providing transit for that commuter, a mass transit service will deteriorate even as it takes in more money.",
"By spending more on zoo maintenance, a city increases the number of zoo patrons. The extra revenue generated by the sale of memorabilia more than makes up for the extra costs of maintenance.",
"Library fees have been increased to raise money for book repair. Since the library now has fewer patrons, the books are in better repair even though the number of library patrons has decreased to such an extent that the money available for book repair has decreased."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following conforms most closely to the principle illustrated by the statements above? |
Political commentator: Voters tend to elect the candidate whose visual image most evokes positive feelings. Thus, laws designed to increase the fairness of elections should not allow one candidate to buy significantly more media exposure than any rival candidates can afford. | 200212_4-LR2_23_25 | [
"Elections are unfair only if at least one of the candidates has more resources than any rival candidate has.",
"People have positive feelings toward election candidates only when they find the candidates' visual images familiar.",
"The tendency of a candidate's visual image to evoke positive feelings in voters at least sometimes increases as media exposure increases.",
"Candidates invariably buy as much media exposure as they can afford and campaign laws allow.",
"Any candidate whose visual image does not evoke many positive feelings in voters will not be elected."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the political commentator's argument depends? |
Commentator: Because of teacher hiring freezes, the quality of education in that country will not improve. Thus, it will surely deteriorate. | 200212_4-LR2_24_26 | [
"Because Raoul is a vegetarian, he will not have the pepperoni pizza for lunch. It follows that he will have the cheese pizza.",
"Given that over 250 years of attempts to prove the Goldbach conjecture have failed, it will probably never be proved. Hence, it is more likely to be disproved than proved.",
"Since funding levels for social programs are being frozen, our society will not become more harmonious. Thus, it may become more discordant.",
"Since there is a storm moving in, the outside temperature cannot rise this afternoon. Therefore, it must fall.",
"The starter in Mary's car gave out weeks ago, and so it is impossible for the car to start. Therefore, it will not start."
]
| 3 | The flawed reasoning in which one of the following is most similar to that in the commentator's argument? |
Considering that Mark Twain is Samuel Clemens, I have always found it amazing that very few people know that Samuel Clemens was a writer, since almost everybody knows that Mark Twain was one. | 200306_1-LR1_1_1 | [
"Most people probably have not read anything by Samuel Clemens.",
"Everyone who knows that Samuel Clemens was a writer also knows that Mark Twain was one.",
"Most people do not know that Mark Twain is Samuel Clemens.",
"Many people believe apparently conflicting things about authors.",
"Some people know that \"Mark Twain\" is a pseudonym for Samuel Clemens."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, would most effectively resolve the apparent paradox above? |
Advertisement: The pride the people at Austin Stables take in their work accounts for their success in producing more winning racehorses than any other stable. Such a tradition of pride is not only found in the business of horse racing. For generations we at Barr Motor Company have demonstrated similar pride. You can rely on Barr Motor Company to produce more winning automobiles than our competitors. | 200306_1-LR1_2_2 | [
"demonstrating that Barr Motor Company has more repeat customers than its competitors",
"using an analogy to reach the conclusion that Barr Motor Company is superior to its competitors",
"proving that Barr Motor Company has a long-standing tradition of pride",
"understating the role that pride plays in accounting for the success of Austin Stables",
"asserting that Barr Motor Company has an older tradition of pride than does Austin Stables"
]
| 1 | The advertisement proceeds by |
Having lived through extraordinary childhood circumstances, Robin has no conception of the moral difference between right and wrong, only between what is legally permitted and what is not. When Robin committed an offense, Robin did not recognize the fact that it was a morally wrong act, despite knowing that it was illegal. | 200306_1-LR1_3_3 | [
"Robin committed no offense that was not legally permissible.",
"Robin did something that was morally wrong.",
"Moral ignorance is never excusable in the eyes of the law.",
"Robin's childhood could have provided more adequate moral training even in the circumstances.",
"Robin could now be brought to see the moral difference between right and wrong."
]
| 1 | From the statements above, which one of the following can be properly inferred? |
Anne: Halley's Comet, now in a part of its orbit relatively far from the Sun, recently flared brightly enough to be seen by telescope. No comet has ever been observed to flare so far from the Sun before, so such a flare must be highly unusual. Sue: Nonsense. Usually no one bothers to try to observe comets when they are so far from the Sun. This flare was observed only because an observatory was tracking Halley's Comet very carefully. | 200306_1-LR1_4_4 | [
"pointing out that Anne's use of the term \"observed\" is excessively vague",
"drawing attention to an inconsistency between two of Anne's claims",
"presenting evidence that directly contradicts Anne's evidence",
"offering an alternative explanation for the evidence Anne cites",
"undermining some of Anne's evidence while agreeing with her conclusion"
]
| 3 | Sue challenges Anne's reasoning by |
Psychologist: There are theories that posit completely different causal mechanisms from those posited by Freudian psychological theory and that are more successful at predicting human behavior. Therefore, Freudian theories of behavior, no matter how suggestive or complex they are, ought to be abandoned in favor of these other theories. | 200306_1-LR1_5_5 | [
"Freudian theories have offered interesting suggestions, which have been shown to be false, about the causes of human behavior.",
"A psychological theory with greater predictive success than another is scientifically preferable to it.",
"Freudian theory has had little success in predicting how people will behave in various situations.",
"Measuring the predictive success of a psychological theory involves considering other theories that attempt to explain the same phenomena.",
"Scientific theories become impractical if they posit causal mechanisms beyond a certain level of complexity."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the psychologist's argument depends? |
Skeletal remains of early humans indicate clearly that our ancestors had fewer dental problems than we have. So, most likely, the diet of early humans was very different from ours. | 200306_1-LR1_6_6 | [
"A healthy diet leads to healthy teeth.",
"Skeletal remains indicate that some early humans had a significant number of cavities.",
"The diet of early humans was at least as varied as is our diet.",
"Early humans had a shorter average life span than we do, and the most serious dental problems now tend to develop late in life.",
"Diet is by far the most significant factor contributing to dental health."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument? |
In preagricultural societies, social roles were few and were easily predicted for each phase of a person's life. Accordingly, interpersonal relations, although not always pleasant or fair, were stable and predictable. Modern society, on the other hand, has thousands of different social roles. Technology and consumerism require that each of us fill highly particularized niches, and these niches are differentiating at an astonishing pace. Therefore, ____. | 200306_1-LR1_7_7 | [
"modern society is characterized by greater injustice and unpleasantness than were preagricultural societies",
"interpersonal relations in modern societies are less stable and less predictable than they were in preagricultural societies",
"the most important difference between modern and preagricultural societies is the variety and type of social roles permitted in each",
"in modern societies, people must rely on technology to effectively predict and interpret other people's actions",
"preagricultural societies lacked the complex social system that is needed to provide each person with an appropriate and stable social role or niche"
]
| 1 | Which one of the following most logically completes the argument? |
Some students attending a small university with a well-known choir live off campus. From the fact that all music majors are members of the choir, a professor in the music department concluded that none of the students who live off campus is a music major. | 200306_1-LR1_8_8 | [
"None of the students who live off campus is a member of the choir.",
"None of the students who are music majors has failed to join the choir.",
"Some of the students who do not live off campus are not music majors.",
"All students who live on campus are music majors.",
"All students who are members of the choir are music majors."
]
| 0 | The professor's conclusion is properly drawn if which one of the following is assumed? |
Journalist: A free marketplace of ideas ensures that all ideas get a fair hearing. Even ideas tainted with prejudice and malice can prompt beneficial outcomes. In most countries, however, the government is responsible for over half the information released to the public through all media. For this reason, the power of governments over information needs to be curtailed. Everyone grants that governments should not suppress free expression, yet governments continue to construct near monopolies on the publication and dissemination of enormous amounts of information. | 200306_1-LR1_9_9 | [
"The freedom of the marketplace of ideas is in jeopardy.",
"Preserving a free marketplace of ideas is important.",
"The control that governments have over information needs to be reduced.",
"Ideas that have malicious content or stem from questionable sources can be valuable.",
"Governments have near monopolies on the dissemination of many kinds of information."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the conclusion of the journalist's argument? |
Charlene: Environmental cleanup increasingly relies on microorganisms to metabolize pollutants. This has its limitations, though, since microbes become less active when a region's temperature drops below normal. Olaf: I don't think that's right. Researchers studying oil spills in the Arctic and subtropical regions measured the carbon dioxide output of organisms that digest petroleum pollutants and found that Arctic and subtropical microbes ate oil at nearly the same rate. | 200306_1-LR1_10_10 | [
"relies",
"normal",
"cleanup",
"limitations",
"active"
]
| 1 | Olaf's reply suggests that he misinterprets Charlene's use of the term |
According to the theory of continental drift, in prehistoric times, many of today's separate continents were part of a single huge landmass. As the plates on which this landmass rested began to move, the mass broke apart, and ocean water filled the newly created chasms. It is hypothesized, for example, that South America was once joined on its east coast with what is now the west coast of Africa. | 200306_1-LR1_11_11 | [
"A large band of ancient rock of a rare type along the east coast of South America is of the same type as a band on the west coast of Africa.",
"Many people today living in Brazil are genetically quite similar to many western Africans.",
"The climates of western Africa and of the east coast of South America resemble each other.",
"Some of the oldest tribes of people living in eastern South America speak languages linguistically similar to various languages spoken by certain western African peoples.",
"Several species of plants found in western Africa closely resemble plants growing in South America."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following discoveries, if it were made, would most support the above hypothesis about South America and Africa? |
Several legislators claim that the public finds many current movies so violent as to be morally offensive. However, these legislators have misrepresented public opinion. In a survey conducted by a movie industry guild, only 17 percent of respondents thought that movies are overly violent, and only 3 percent found any recent movie morally offensive. These low percentages are telling, because the respondents see far more current movies than does the average moviegoer. | 200306_1-LR1_12_12 | [
"attempts to undermine the legislators' credibility instead of addressing their argument",
"bases its conclusion on subjective judgments rather than on an objective criterion of moral offensiveness",
"fails to consider the possibility that violent movies increase the prevalence of antisocial behavior",
"generalizes from a sample that is unlikely to be representative of public sentiment",
"presumes, without providing justification, that the people surveyed based their responses on a random sampling of movies"
]
| 3 | The reasoning in the argument is flawed in that the argument |
James: Many people claim that the voting public is unable to evaluate complex campaign issues. The television commercials for Reade in the national campaign, however, discuss complex campaign issues, and Reade is, at present, more popular than any other candidate. Maria: Yes, Reade is the most popular. However, you are incorrect in claiming that this is because of Reade's discussion of complex campaign issues. Reade simply strikes the voters as the most competent and trustworthy candidate. | 200306_1-LR1_13_13 | [
"Reade's opponents are discussing some of the same issues as Reade.",
"Reade's opponents charge that Reade oversimplifies complex campaign issues.",
"Polling data show that Reade's present popularity will probably diminish over time.",
"Polling data show that most voters cannot identify Reade's positions on campaign issues.",
"Polling data show that some voters consider Reade competent and trustworthy."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if true, most supports Maria's counter to James? |
Some critics claim that the power of the media to impose opinions upon people concerning the important issues of the day is too great. But this is not true. It would be true if on major issues the media purveyed a range of opinion narrower than that found among consumers of media. The fact that this assumption is untrue shows the critics' claim to be false. | 200306_1-LR1_14_14 | [
"The argument launches a personal attack against the critics rather than addressing the reasons they present in support of their claim.",
"The argument takes for granted that the media give at least as much exposure as they should to a wide range of opinion on the important issues of the day.",
"The argument takes for granted that if the truth of one claim implies the truth of a second claim, then the falsity of the first claim proves the falsity of the second claim.",
"The argument, instead of providing adequate reasons in support of its conclusion, makes an appeal to popular opinion.",
"The argument takes for granted that it is desirable for a wide range of opinion on the important issues of the day to receive media exposure."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following most accurately describes a reasoning flaw in the argument? |
Marta: There have been complaints about the lack of recreational areas in our city. Some people favor turning the old railway land into walking trails, but there may be more productive ways of using that land. Arthur: But the old railway land is ideal for walking trails. Our citizens have gone too long with inadequate recreational areas; we should not dismiss this proposal for walking trails without further consideration. | 200306_1-LR1_15_15 | [
"maintaining that converting the old railway land into walking trails would be an entirely unproductive use of that land",
"favoring the development of recreational areas other than walking trails",
"assuming that the complaints concerning a shortage of recreational areas are ill founded",
"recommending that the proposal for converting the old railway land into walking trails should be promptly dismissed",
"asserting that it may not be possible to convert the old railway land into adequate walking trails"
]
| 3 | Arthur's criticism suggests that he interpreted Marta to be |
In countries where government officials are neither selected by free elections nor open to criticism by a free press, the lives of citizens are controlled by policies they have had no role in creating. This is why such countries are prone to civil disorder, in spite of the veneer of calm such countries often present to a visitor. When people do not understand the purpose of the restrictions placed on their behavior they have a greater tendency to engage in civil disorder as an expression of their frustration. | 200306_1-LR1_16_16 | [
"People who have had a role in making the laws that govern their own behavior act more rationally than those who have not.",
"A free press is better able to convey to citizens the purpose of government policy than is a press controlled by the government.",
"Civil disorder cannot be prevented by security forces alone, however great the powers granted them by the government.",
"People tend not to understand the purpose of restrictions unless they participate in their formulation.",
"Civil disorder does not generally occur in countries that have either free elections or a free press."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? |
Researcher: Hard water contains more calcium and magnesium than soft water contains. Thus, those who drink mostly soft water incur an increased risk of heart disease, stroke, and hypertension, for people being treated for these conditions tend to have lower levels of magnesium in their blood. | 200306_1-LR1_17_17 | [
"Magnesium deficiency is not uncommon, even in relatively prosperous countries with an otherwise generally adequate diet.",
"Magnesium is needed to prevent sodium from increasing blood pressure.",
"As people age, their ability to metabolize magnesium deteriorates.",
"The ingestion of magnesium supplements inhibits the effectiveness of many medicines used to treat high blood pressure and heart disease.",
"Compounds commonly used to treat hypertension and heart disease diminish the body's capacity to absorb and retain magnesium."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following, if true, most undermines the researcher's argument? |
Bookstore owner: Consumers should buy books only from an independent bookstore, not from a bookstore that belongs to a bookstore chain. An independent bookstore tends to carry a much wider variety of books than does a chain bookstore, so because chains often threaten the existence of independent bookstores, they tend to reduce the variety of books available to consumers. | 200306_1-LR1_18_18 | [
"Chain bookstores should not force independent bookstores out of business when doing so would reduce the variety of books available to consumers.",
"Consumers should buy books from only those bookstores whose existence does not tend to reduce the variety of books available to consumers.",
"The best interest of the bookselling business is not served when consumers purchase books from businesses whose existence tends to reduce the variety of books available to consumers.",
"Consumers should not make purchases from any bookstore that deliberately forces competing bookstores out of business.",
"If consumers have no access to any independent bookstore, they should buy books from the chain bookstore with the greatest diversity of books."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the bookstore owner's argumentation? |
Anger in response to insults is unreasonable, for insults are merely assertions that someone has undesirable characteristics. If such an assertion is false, the insulted party ought to pity the ignorance prompting the insult. If it is true, the insulted party should be grateful for such useful information. | 200306_1-LR1_19_19 | [
"Actions prompted by ignorance do not warrant hostile reactions.",
"Anger is an unreasonable response to useful information.",
"Anger is an unreasonable response to any action that should prompt pity or gratitude.",
"Gratitude and pity are reasonable responses to some forms of hostile or insensitive behavior.",
"Pity is the only reasonable reaction to people with undesirable characteristics."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if assumed, enables the argument's conclusion to be properly drawn? |
Evidence suggests that we can manufacture a car with twice the fuel efficiency of a normal car, and it has been shown that we can produce a car that meets safety standards for side-impact crashes. So we can make a car that does both. | 200306_1-LR1_20_20 | [
"Since there is no dishwasher currently available that uses energy efficiently and there is no dishwasher currently available that effectively cleans pans, no dishwasher currently available is well engineered. For, to be well engineered, a dishwasher must use energy efficiently and clean pans effectively.",
"Kameko might catch a cold this winter and she might go outside without a hat this winter. Therefore, it is possible that Kameko will catch a cold because she goes outside without a hat this winter.",
"Susan says that it is cold outside, and Nathan says that it is snowing; therefore, it is both cold and snowing outside.",
"It is possible to write a best-selling novel and it is possible to write one that appeals to the critics. Therefore, an author could write a critically acclaimed novel that gains a large readership.",
"There are machines that brew coffee and there are machines that toast bread. And it is possible to make a machine that does both. So there will someday be a machine that does both."
]
| 3 | The flawed reasoning in the argument above is most similar to that in which one of the following? |
Pizzerias are the only restaurants that routinely record the names, addresses, and menu selections of their customers. Simply by organizing these data, they can easily identify regular, average, and infrequent customers. Therefore, pizzerias utilize direct-mail marketing more effectively than do other restaurants. | 200306_1-LR1_21_21 | [
"Restaurants other than pizzerias cannot easily identify regular, average, and infrequent customers.",
"For restaurants, utilizing direct-mail marketing requires the names, addresses, and menu selections of at least some customers.",
"For restaurants, the identification of regular, average, and infrequent customers generally involves recording the names, addresses, and menu selections of at least some customers.",
"Utilizing direct-mail marketing is rarely beneficial for restaurants that cannot identify regular, average, and infrequent customers.",
"Restaurants that routinely record names, addresses, and menu selections of their customers always utilize direct-mail marketing more effectively than do any other restaurants."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following, if assumed, enables the argument's conclusion to be properly inferred? |
All highly successful salespersons are both well organized and self-motivated, characteristics absent from many salespersons who are not highly successful. Further, although only those who are highly successful are well known among their peers, no salespersons who are self-motivated regret their career choices. | 200306_1-LR1_22_22 | [
"No self-motivated salespersons who are not highly successful are well organized.",
"All salespersons who are well organized but not highly successful are self-motivated.",
"No salespersons who are well known among their peers regret their career choices.",
"All salespersons who are not well organized regret their career choices.",
"All salespersons who do not regret their career choices are highly successful."
]
| 2 | If all of the statements above are true, which one of the following must be true? |
The fact that people who exercise vigorously are sick less often than average does not prove that vigorous exercise prevents illness, for whether one exercises vigorously or not depends in part on one's preexisting state of health. | 200306_1-LR1_23_23 | [
"Having strong verbal skills encourages people to read more, so the fact that habitual readers tend to be verbally skilled does not prove that reading produces verbal skill.",
"Musical and mathematical skills are often produced by the same talent for perceiving abstract patterns, so the fact that some mathematicians are not skilled musicians does not prove that they lack the talent that can produce musical skill.",
"Since how people choose to dress often depends on how their friends dress, the fact that a person chooses a style of dress does not prove that he or she truly prefers that style to any other.",
"The fact that taller children often outperform other children at basketball does not show that height is a decisive advantage in basketball, for taller children tend to play basketball more frequently than do other children.",
"The fact that two diseases have similar symptoms does not establish that they have the same underlying cause, for dissimilar causes can have similar effects."
]
| 0 | The reasoning in which one of the following arguments is most similar to that in the argument above? |
Biologist: We know the following things about plant X. Specimens with fuzzy seeds always have long stems but never have white flowers. Specimens with curled leaves always have white flowers, and specimens with thorny seedpods always have curled leaves. A specimen of plant X in my garden has a long stem and curled leaves. | 200306_1-LR1_24_24 | [
"It has white flowers and thorny seedpods.",
"It has white flowers but lacks thorny seedpods.",
"It has white flowers but lacks fuzzy seeds.",
"It has fuzzy seeds and thorny seedpods.",
"It lacks both white flowers and fuzzy seeds."
]
| 2 | From the biologist's statements, which one of the following can be properly inferred about the specimen of plant X in the biologist's garden? |
Unquestionably, inventors of useful devices deserve credit for their ingenuity, but the engineers who help develop an invention get too little recognition. Although inventors sometimes serve as their own engineers, more often, engineers must translate an inventor's insight into something workable and useful. Therefore, engineers also deserve credit for their contribution. | 200306_1-LR1_25_25 | [
"It separates the practical and theoretical aspects of the argument.",
"It indicates that the problem identified in the argument does not arise in every instance.",
"It supports an earlier statement regarding what is at issue in the argument.",
"It concedes that a distinction on which the argument relies is unclear.",
"It introduces an alternative solution to the problem the argument is addressing."
]
| 1 | The claim that inventors sometimes serve as their own engineers plays which one of the following roles in the argument? |
Big-budget movies often gross two or three times the cost of their production and marketing. However, most of the movie industry's total revenue comes from low-budget movies. | 200306_3-LR2_1_1 | [
"Big-budget movies need to sell many more tickets than do low-budget movies, just to recoup their production costs.",
"There are many more low-budget movies produced than there are big- and medium- budget movies.",
"The movie industry's revenues, when adjusted for inflation, have declined sharply in the last 30 years.",
"Big-budget movies, because of their elaborate special effects, cost more in insurance premiums than low-budget movies do.",
"The more time a company spends on making a movie the more expensive the movie is."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent discrepancy above? |
Dr. Theresa Pagano, a biologist, has found that the checkerspot butterfly is becoming more prevalent in regions farther north than before and less prevalent in regions farther south. The northward shift of the butterflies is almost perfectly correlated with the northward shift of the warm zones in the global climate, and Dr. Pagano has therefore concluded that the changing climate is responsible for the northward movement of the butterflies. | 200306_3-LR2_2_2 | [
"Checkerspot butterfly colonies observed under laboratory conditions are critically affected by small temperature changes.",
"Climate does not affect checkerspot butterflies themselves directly, but the plants they depend on thrive best in warm climates.",
"Experimental evidence suggests that the checkerspot butterfly can adapt easily to a wide range of temperatures and geographic conditions.",
"In recent years, abnormally low average temperatures have been correlated with a reduced checkerspot butterfly population.",
"Several studies have shown that several other species of butterfly closely related to the checkerspot butterfly survive only in warm climates."
]
| 2 | Each of the following, if true, supports Dr. Pagano's reasoning EXCEPT: |
Professor: The best users of a language are its great authors. However, these authors often use language in ways that are innovative and idiosyncratic, and are therefore less respectful of the strictures of proper usage than most of us are. | 200306_3-LR2_3_3 | [
"People who want to become great writers should not imitate great authors' use of language.",
"Writers who do not observe proper language usage risk developing a peculiar or idiosyncratic style.",
"Those most talented at using a language are not as likely as most other people to observe proper language usage.",
"People who use an innovative or idiosyncratic writing style often incur criticism of their language usage.",
"The standard for what constitutes proper language usage should be set by the best users of a language."
]
| 2 | The Professor's statements, if true, most support which one of the following? |
The purpose of the physical sciences is to predict the order in which events will succeed one another. Human behavior, also, can sometimes be successfully predicted. However, even successful predictions of human behavior do not provide an understanding of it, for understanding a human action requires knowing its goal, even though such knowledge of goals either cannot or need not be obtained in the case of nonhuman behavior. | 200306_3-LR2_4_4 | [
"Successful predictions of human behavior do not constitute an understanding of that behavior.",
"One cannot predict an instance of human behavior without an understanding of the agent's purpose in engaging in that behavior.",
"In some cases, but not in others, understanding an event consists in the ability to predict the occurrence of that event.",
"The goal of the physical sciences is to predict the order in which events will occur.",
"The methods used to predict human behavior must involve reference to the psychological states of human agents."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the argument's conclusion? |
Sickles found at one archaeological site had scratched blades, but those found at a second site did not. Since sickle blades always become scratched whenever they are used to harvest grain, this evidence shows that the sickles found at the first site were used to harvest grain, but the sickles found at the second site were not. | 200306_3-LR2_5_5 | [
"Some sickles that have not yet been found at the first site do not have scratched blades.",
"The scratches on the blades of the sickles found at the first site resulted from something other than harvesting grain.",
"Sickles at both sites had ritual uses whether or not those sickles were used to harvest grain.",
"At the second site tools other than sickles were used to harvest grain.",
"The sickles found at the first site were made by the same people who made the sickles found at the second site."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if shown to be a realistic possibility, would undermine the argument? |
Pain perception depends only partly on physiology. During World War II a significantly lower percentage of injured soldiers requested morphine than did civilians recuperating from surgery. The soldier's response to injury was relief, joy at being alive, even euphoria; to the civilians, surgery was a depressing, calamitous event. So it would seem that the meaning one attaches to a wound can affect the amount of pain one perceives. | 200306_3-LR2_6_6 | [
"It is an assumption on which the argument depends.",
"It undermines the argument's main conclusion.",
"It summarizes a position that the argument is meant to discredit.",
"It is information that the argument takes for granted.",
"It is the main conclusion of the argument."
]
| 4 | The claim that pain perception depends only partly on physiology figures in the argument in which one of the following ways? |
If cold fusion worked, it would provide almost limitless power from very inexpensive raw materials, materials far cheaper than coal or oil. But replacing all the traditional electric generators that use these fuels with cold-fusion power plants would result in a reduction of no more than 25 percent in the average residential electric bill. | 200306_3-LR2_7_7 | [
"Cold-fusion power plants would be more expensive to build and maintain than traditional electric generators are.",
"Environmental regulations now placed on burning coal or fuel oil are less costly than the regulations that would be placed on cold fusion.",
"Most electric companies would be willing to incorporate cold-fusion technology into their power plants.",
"Only a relatively small portion of any residential electric bill is determined by the electric company's expenses for fuel.",
"Personnel costs for the distribution of power to consumers are unrelated to the type of raw materials an electric company uses."
]
| 2 | Each of the following, if true, would help to resolve the apparent discrepancy between the predictions above EXCEPT: |
Everyone likes repertory theater. Actors like it because playing different roles each night decreases their level of boredom. Stagehands like it because changing sets every night means more overtime and, thus, higher pay. Theater managers like it because, if plays that reflect audience demand are chosen for production, most performances generate large revenues. It is evident, therefore, that more theaters should change to repertory. | 200306_3-LR2_8_8 | [
"In a repertory theater, a large capital outlay is required at the beginning of each season.",
"In a repertory theater, patrons need to pay overly close attention to the schedule in order to make their theater plans.",
"In a repertory theater, storage space for sets for more than one production must be available.",
"In a repertory theater, plays can be rescheduled to meet audience demand.",
"In a repertory theater, some actors who change roles from night to night find it difficult to master all of the roles they play."
]
| 3 | The argument above would be strengthened if which one of the following were true? |
Writer: I collaborated with another writer on my last book, instead of writing alone as I usually do. Because the book sold so well as a result of this joint effort, I should collaborate with a writer on my next book so that book will sell well too. | 200306_3-LR2_9_9 | [
"If a person's book sells well because of a collaboration, that person's next book will sell well, if he or she collaborates with the same writer.",
"A book sells well only if its author collaborated on the book with another writer.",
"If a person's book sells well because of a collaboration, future collaborations on the part of that person will produce other books that sell well.",
"Writers who do not collaborate on books have a smaller chance of writing a book that will sell well.",
"Writers who collaborate on books, if they are good writers, usually produce books that sell well."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the reasoning above? |
Researcher: All defects in short-term memory are caused by a malfunction of a part of the brain called the hippocampus. In short-term memory, the mind holds a piece of information for only a few moments, after which it is either stored in long-term memory or forgotten. Learning is the accumulation of new information in long-term memory. Thus, whenever a child exhibits a learning deficit, the hippocampus is malfunctioning. | 200306_3-LR2_10_10 | [
"draws a general conclusion based on too small a sample of learning deficits",
"presumes, without giving justification, that all learning deficits in children involve short-term memory",
"presumes, without giving justification, that short-term memory is disabled whenever the hippocampus is disabled",
"fails to quantify precisely the length of time during which the mind holds a piece of information in short-term memory",
"takes for granted that learning deficits in adults have a cause unrelated to the cause of learning deficits in children"
]
| 1 | The reasoning in the researcher's argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that this argument |
Historian: One traditional childrearing practice in the nineteenth century was to make a child who misbehaved sit alone outside. Anyone passing by would conclude that the child had misbehaved. Nowadays, many child psychologists would disapprove of this practice because they believe that such practices damage the child's self-esteem and that damage to children's self-esteem makes them less confident as adults. However, no one disagrees that adults raised under that traditional practice were, on average, as confident as adults not so raised. | 200306_3-LR2_11_11 | [
"The beliefs of many present-day child psychologists about the consequences of loss of self-esteem are incorrect.",
"Some of the most confident adults, as well as some of the least confident adults, were raised under the traditional practice in question.",
"With the traditional childrearing practice, passersby did not always make correct inferences about children's behavior by observing them outdoors.",
"The most confident adults are those who developed the highest level of self-esteem in childhood.",
"If children's loss of self-esteem makes them less confident as adults, then the traditional childrearing practice in question did not tend to cause significant loss of self-esteem."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following can be properly inferred from the historian's statements? |
Novelist: Any author who thinks a sentence is ungrammatical will not write it down in the first place, and thus will have no need to use a grammar book. On the other hand, any author who is sure a sentence she or he has written is grammatical will not feel a need to consult a grammar book. Thus, grammar books are useless as reference sources for authors. | 200306_3-LR2_12_12 | [
"infers, from the claim that authors should not consult grammar books, that they will not in fact do so",
"infers, from the claim that an author does not mistakenly think that a sentence is ungrammatical, that the author will feel sure that it is grammatical",
"overlooks the possibility that grammar books are useful as reference sources for people who are not authors",
"presumes, without providing justification, that grammar books cannot have any use except as reference sources",
"ignores the possibility that there is a middle ground between being sure that a sentence is grammatical and thinking that it is ungrammatical"
]
| 4 | The reasoning in the novelist's argument is flawed because the argument |
Britain is now rabies free. Nevertheless, Britain's strict quarantine of imported domesticated animals, designed to prevent widespread outbreaks of rabies there, cannot succeed indefinitely in preventing such outbreaks. Bats, which are very susceptible to rabies, fly into Britain from continental Europe. Since wild bats cannot be quarantined, this policy cannot control rabies spread by wild bats. | 200306_3-LR2_13_13 | [
"trying to undermine support for a certain policy by pointing out that factors other than the policy itself could account for the results attributed to that policy",
"raising a possible objection to a certain policy in order to show that the objection is in fact irrelevant to the particular situation the policy was designed to address",
"providing evidence that because the officials charged with enforcing a certain policy often fail to perform their duty that policy is sure to have little effect",
"showing that because a certain policy is not universally adopted that policy cannot accomplish what it was designed to do",
"arguing that a certain policy is bound to fail because an event that is likely to defeat the aim of the policy falls outside the policy's influence"
]
| 4 | Which one of the following is an argumentative strategy employed in the argument? |
Franklin: The only clue I have as to the identity of the practical joker is the handwriting on the note. Ordinarily I would suspect Miller, who has always been jealous of me, but the handwriting is not hers. So the joker is apparently someone else. | 200306_3-LR2_14_14 | [
"It fails to consider the possibility that there was more than one practical joker.",
"It fails to indicate the degree to which handwriting samples should look alike in order to be considered of the same source.",
"It provides no explanation for why Miller should be the prime suspect.",
"It provides no explanation for why only one piece of evidence was obtained.",
"It takes for granted that if the handwriting on the note had been Miller's, then the identity of the joker would have been ascertained to be Miller."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following provides the strongest grounds for criticizing Franklin's reasoning? |
People who have doctorates in the liberal arts are interested in improving their intellects. Companies, however, rarely hire people who are not concerned with the financial gain that can be obtained by hard work in the business world. As a result, companies rarely hire people who have doctorates in the liberal arts. | 200306_3-LR2_15_15 | [
"Companies would hire people with doctorates in the liberal arts if such people were interested in the money available in the business world.",
"Some people who are interested in the liberal arts do not care about money.",
"The only people not interested in making money in the business world are people who are interested in improving their intellects.",
"People with doctorates in the liberal arts are interested in employment in the business world.",
"Only people not concerned with making money in the business world are interested in improving their intellects."
]
| 4 | The conclusion of the argument follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? |
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