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A person can develop or outgrow asthma at any age. In children under ten, asthma is twice as likely to develop in boys. Boys are less likely than girls to outgrow asthma, yet by adolescence the percentage of boys with asthma is about the same as the percentage of girls with asthma because a large number of girls develop asthma in early adolescence.
199306_1-LR1_5_5
[ "a tendency toward asthma is often inherited", "children who develop asthma before two years of age are unlikely to outgrow it", "there are approximately equal numbers of adolescent boys and adolescent girls in the population", "the development of asthma in childhood is not closely related to climate or environment", "the percentage of adults with asthma is lower than the percentage of adolescents with asthma" ]
2
Assuming the truth of the passage, one can conclude from it that the number of adolescent boys with asthma is approximately equal to the number of adolescent girls with asthma, if one also knows that
Harry Trevalga: You and your publication have unfairly discriminated against my poems. I have submitted thirty poems in the last two years and you have not published any of them! It is all because I won the Fenner Poetry Award two years ago and your poetry editor thought she deserved it. Publisher: Ridiculous! Our editorial policy and practice is perfectly fair, since our poetry editor judges all submissions for publication without ever seeing the names of the poets, and hence cannot possibly have known who wrote your poems.
199306_1-LR1_6_6
[ "The poetry editor does not bear a grudge against Harry Trevalga for his winning the Fenner Poetry Award.", "It is not unusual for poets to contribute many poems to the publisher's publication without ever having any accepted for publication.", "The poetry editor cannot recognize the poems submitted by Harry Trevalga as his unless Trevalga's name is attached to them.", "The poetry editor's decisions on which poems to publish are not based strictly on judgments of intrinsic merit.", "Harry Trevalga submitted his poems to the publisher's publication under his pen name." ]
2
The publisher makes which one of the following assumptions in replying to Trevalga's charges of unfair discrimination?
In a study of the effect of radiation from nuclear weapons plants on people living in areas near them, researchers compared death rates in the areas near the plants with death rates in areas that had no such plants. Finding no difference in these rates, the researchers concluded that radiation from the nuclear weapons plants poses no health hazards to people living near them.
199306_1-LR1_7_7
[ "Nuclear power plants were not included in the study.", "The areas studied had similar death rates before and after the nuclear weapons plants were built.", "Exposure to nuclear radiation can cause many serious diseases that do not necessarily result in death.", "Only a small number of areas have nuclear weapons plants.", "The researchers did not study the possible health hazards of radiation on people who were employed at the nuclear weapons plants if those employees did not live in the study areas." ]
2
Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the researchers' argument?
It was once believed that cells grown in laboratory tissue cultures were essentially immortal. That is, as long as all of their needs were met, they would continue dividing forever. However, it has been shown that normal cells have a finite reproductive limit. A human liver cell, for example, divides 60 times and then stops. If such a cell divides 30 times and then is put into a deep freeze for months or even years, it "remembers" where it stopped dividing. After thawing, it divides another 30 times—but no more.
199306_1-LR1_8_8
[ "an abnormal human liver cell", "a normal human liver cell that had been frozen after its first division and afterward thawed", "a normal cell that came from the liver of an individual of a nonhuman species and had never been frozen", "a normal liver cell that came from an individual of a nonhuman species and had been frozen after its first division and afterward thawed", "an abnormal cell from the liver of an individual of a nonhuman species" ]
1
If the information above is accurate, a liver cell in which more than 60 divisions took place in a tissue culture CANNOT be which one of the following?
Complaints that milk bottlers take enormous markups on the bottled milk sold to consumers are most likely to arise when least warranted by the actual spread between the price that bottlers pay for raw milk and the price at which they sell bottled milk. The complaints occur when the bottled-milk price rises, yet these price increases most often merely reflect the rising price of the raw milk that bottlers buy from dairy farmers. When the raw-milk price is rising, the bottlers' markups are actually smallest proportionate to the retail price. When the raw-milk price is falling, however, the markups are greatest.
199306_1-LR1_9_9
[ "Consumers pay more for bottled milk when raw-milk prices are falling than when these prices are rising.", "Increases in dairy farmers' cost of producing milk are generally not passed on to consumers.", "Milk bottlers take substantially greater markups on bottled milk when its price is low for an extended period than when it is high for an extended period.", "Milk bottlers generally do not respond to a decrease in raw-milk prices by straightaway proportionately lowering the price of the bottled milk they sell.", "Consumers tend to complain more about the price they pay for bottled milk when dairy farmers are earning their smallest profits." ]
3
If all of the statements above are true, which one of the following must also be true on the basis of them?
If the public library shared by the adjacent towns of Redville and Glenwood were relocated from the library's current, overcrowded building in central Redville to a larger, available building in central Glenwood, the library would then be within walking distance of a larger number of library users. That is because there are many more people living in central Glenwood than in central Redville, and people generally will walk to the library only if it is located close to their homes.
199306_1-LR1_10_10
[ "The public library was located between Glenwood and Redville before being moved to its current location in central Redville.", "The area covered by central Glenwood is approximately the same size as that covered by central Redville.", "The building that is available in Glenwood is smaller than an alternative building that is available in Redville.", "Many of the people who use the public library do not live in either Glenwood or Redville.", "The distance that people currently walk to get to the library is farther than what is generally considered walking distance." ]
1
Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument?
If the public library shared by the adjacent towns of Redville and Glenwood were relocated from the library's current, overcrowded building in central Redville to a larger, available building in central Glenwood, the library would then be within walking distance of a larger number of library users. That is because there are many more people living in central Glenwood than in central Redville, and people generally will walk to the library only if it is located close to their homes.
199306_1-LR1_10_11
[ "Many more people who currently walk to the library live in central Redville than in central Glenwood.", "The number of people living in central Glenwood who would use the library if it were located there is smaller than the number of people living in central Redville who currently use the library.", "The number of people using the public library would continue to increase steadily if the library were moved to Glenwood.", "Most of the people who currently either drive to the library or take public transportation to reach it would continue to do so if the library were moved to central Glenwood.", "Most of the people who currently walk to the library would remain library users if the library were relocated to central Glenwood." ]
1
Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument?
Light utility trucks have become popular among consumers who buy them primarily for the trucks' rugged appearance. Yet although these trucks are tough-looking, they are exempt from the government's car-safety standards that dictate minimum roof strength and minimum resistance to impact. Therefore, if involved in a serious high-impact accident, a driver of one of these trucks is more likely to be injured than is a driver of a car that is subject to these government standards.
199306_1-LR1_11_12
[ "the government has established safety standards for the construction of light utility trucks", "people who buy automobiles solely for their appearance are more likely than other people to drive recklessly", "light utility trucks are more likely than other kinds of vehicles to be involved in accidents that result in injuries", "the trucks' rugged appearance is deceptive in that their engines are not especially powerful", "light utility trucks are less likely to meet the car-safety standards than are cars that are subject to the standards" ]
4
The argument depends on the assumption that
Five years ago, during the first North American outbreak of the cattle disease CXC, the death rate from the disease was 5 percent of all reported cases, whereas today the corresponding figure is over 18 percent. It is clear, therefore, that during these past 5 years, CXC has increased in virulence.
199306_1-LR1_12_13
[ "Many recent cattle deaths that have actually been caused by CXC have been mistakenly attributed to another disease that mimics the symptoms of CXC.", "During the first North American outbreak of the disease, many of the deaths reported to have been caused by CXC were actually due to other causes.", "An inoculation program against CXC was recently begun after controlled studies showed inoculation to be 70 percent effective in preventing serious cases of the illness.", "Since the first outbreak, farmers have learned to treat mild cases of CXC and no longer report them to veterinarians or authorities.", "Cattle that have contracted and survived CXC rarely contract the disease a second time." ]
3
Which one of the following, if true, most substantially weakens the argument?
Economist: Some policymakers believe that our country's continued economic growth requires a higher level of personal savings than we currently have. A recent legislative proposal would allow individuals to set up savings accounts in which interest earned would be exempt from taxes until money is withdrawn from the account. Backers of this proposal claim that its implementation would increase the amount of money available for banks to loan at a relatively small cost to the government in lost tax revenues. Yet, when similar tax-incentive programs were tried in the past, virtually all of the money invested through them was diverted from other personal savings, and the overall level of personal savings was unchanged.
199306_1-LR1_13_14
[ "Backers of the tax-incentive proposal undoubtedly have some motive other than their expressed aim of increasing the amount of money available for banks to loan.", "The proposed tax incentive is unlikely to attract enough additional money into personal savings accounts to make up for the attendant loss in tax revenues.", "A tax-incentive program that resulted in substantial loss of tax revenues would be likely to generate a large increase in personal savings.", "The economy will be in danger unless some alternative to increased personal savings can be found to stimulate growth.", "The government has no effective means of influencing the amount of money that people are willing to put into savings accounts." ]
1
The passage as a whole provides the most support for which one of the following conclusions?
Economist: Some policymakers believe that our country's continued economic growth requires a higher level of personal savings than we currently have. A recent legislative proposal would allow individuals to set up savings accounts in which interest earned would be exempt from taxes until money is withdrawn from the account. Backers of this proposal claim that its implementation would increase the amount of money available for banks to loan at a relatively small cost to the government in lost tax revenues. Yet, when similar tax-incentive programs were tried in the past, virtually all of the money invested through them was diverted from other personal savings, and the overall level of personal savings was unchanged.
199306_1-LR1_13_15
[ "challenging a premise on which the proposal is based", "pointing out a disagreement among policymakers", "demonstrating that the proposal's implementation is not feasible", "questioning the judgment of the proposal's backers by citing past cases in which they had advocated programs that have proved ineffective", "disputing the assumption that a program to encourage personal savings is needed" ]
0
The author criticizes the proposed tax-incentive program by
Although all birds have feathers and all birds have wings, some birds do not fly. For example, penguins and ostriches use their wings to move in a different way from other birds. Penguins use their wings only to swim under water at high speeds. Ostriches use their wings only to run with the wind by lifting them as if they were sails.
199306_1-LR1_14_16
[ "Ancient philosophers tried to explain not how the world functions but why it functions. In contrast, most contemporary biologists seek comprehensive theories of how organisms function, but many refuse to speculate about purpose.", "Some chairs are used only as decorations, and other chairs are used only to tame lions. Therefore, not all chairs are used for sitting in despite the fact that all chairs have a seat and some support such as legs.", "Some musicians in a symphony orchestra play the violin, and others play the viola, but these are both in the same category of musical instruments, namely string instruments.", "All cars have similar drive mechanisms, but some cars derive their power from solar energy, whereas others burn gasoline. Thus, solar-powered cars are less efficient than gasoline-powered ones.", "Sailing ships move in a different way from steamships. Both sailing ships and steamships navigate over water, but only sailing ships use sails to move over the surface." ]
1
Which one of the following is most parallel in its reasoning to the argument above?
Jones: Prehistoric wooden tools found in South America have been dated to 13,000 years ago. Although scientists attribute these tools to peoples whose ancestors first crossed into the Americas from Siberia to Alaska, this cannot be correct. In order to have reached a site so far south, these peoples must have been migrating southward well before 13,000 years ago. However, no such tools dating to before 13,000 years ago have been found anywhere between Alaska and South America. Smith: Your evidence is inconclusive. Those tools were found in peat bogs, which are rare in the Americas. Wooden tools in soils other than peat bogs usually decompose within only a few years.
199306_1-LR1_15_17
[ "whether all prehistoric tools that are 13,000 years or older were made of wood", "whether the scientists' attribution of tools could be correct in light of Jones's evidence", "whether the dating of the wooden tools by the scientists could be correct", "how long ago the peoples who crossed into the Americas from Siberia to Alaska first did so", "whether Smith's evidence entails that the wooden tools have been dated correctly" ]
1
The point at issue between Jones and Smith is
Jones: Prehistoric wooden tools found in South America have been dated to 13,000 years ago. Although scientists attribute these tools to peoples whose ancestors first crossed into the Americas from Siberia to Alaska, this cannot be correct. In order to have reached a site so far south, these peoples must have been migrating southward well before 13,000 years ago. However, no such tools dating to before 13,000 years ago have been found anywhere between Alaska and South America. Smith: Your evidence is inconclusive. Those tools were found in peat bogs, which are rare in the Americas. Wooden tools in soils other than peat bogs usually decompose within only a few years.
199306_1-LR1_15_18
[ "citing several studies that invalidate Jones's conclusion", "accusing Jones of distorting the scientists' position", "disputing the accuracy of the supporting evidence cited by Jones", "showing that Jones's evidence actually supports the denial of Jones's conclusion", "challenging an implicit assumption in Jones's argument" ]
4
Smith responds to Jones by
Editorial: It is clear that if this country's universities were living up to both their moral and their intellectual responsibilities, the best-selling publications in most university bookstores would not be frivolous ones like TV Today and Gossip Review. However, in most university bookstores the only publication that sells better than Gossip Review is TV Today.
199306_1-LR1_16_19
[ "People who purchase publications that are devoted primarily to gossip or to television programming are intellectually irresponsible.", "It is irresponsible for university bookstores to carry publications such as Gossip Review and TV Today.", "Most people who purchase publications at university bookstores purchase either TV Today or Gossip Review.", "Many people who attend this country's universities fail to live up to both their moral and their intellectual responsibilities.", "At least some of this country's universities are not meeting their moral responsibilities or their intellectual responsibilities or both." ]
4
If the statements in the editorial are true, which one of the following must also be true on the basis of them?
Saunders: Everyone at last week's neighborhood association meeting agreed that the row of abandoned and vandalized houses on Carlton Street posed a threat to the safety of our neighborhood. Moreover, no one now disputes that getting the houses torn down eliminated that threat. Some people tried to argue that it was unnecessary to demolish what they claimed were basically sound buildings, since the city had established a fund to help people in need of housing buy and rehabilitate such buildings. The overwhelming success of the demolition strategy, however, proves that the majority, who favored demolition, were right and that those who claimed that the problem could and should be solved by rehabilitating the houses were wrong.
199306_1-LR1_17_20
[ "When what to do about an abandoned neighborhood building is in dispute, the course of action that would result in the most housing for people who need it should be the one adopted unless the building is believed to pose a threat to neighborhood safety.", "When there are two proposals for solving a neighborhood problem, and only one of them would preclude the possibility of trying the other approach if the first proves unsatisfactory, then the approach that does not foreclose the other possibility should be the one adopted.", "If one of two proposals for renovating vacant neighborhood buildings requires government funding whereas the second does not, the second proposal should be the one adopted unless the necessary government funds have already been secured.", "No plan for eliminating a neighborhood problem that requires demolishing basically sound houses should be carried out until all other possible alternatives have been thoroughly investigated.", "No proposal for dealing with a threat to a neighborhood's safety should be adopted merely because a majority of the residents of that neighborhood prefer that proposal to a particular counterproposal." ]
1
Which one of the following principles, if established, would determine that demolishing the houses was the right decision or instead would determine that the proposal advocated by the opponents of demolition should have been adopted?
Saunders: Everyone at last week's neighborhood association meeting agreed that the row of abandoned and vandalized houses on Carlton Street posed a threat to the safety of our neighborhood. Moreover, no one now disputes that getting the houses torn down eliminated that threat. Some people tried to argue that it was unnecessary to demolish what they claimed were basically sound buildings, since the city had established a fund to help people in need of housing buy and rehabilitate such buildings. The overwhelming success of the demolition strategy, however, proves that the majority, who favored demolition, were right and that those who claimed that the problem could and should be solved by rehabilitating the houses were wrong.
199306_1-LR1_17_21
[ "relies on fear rather than on argument to persuade the neighborhood association to reject the policy advocated by Saunders' opponents", "fails to establish that there is anyone who could qualify for city funds who would be interested in buying and rehabilitating the houses", "mistakenly equates an absence of vocal public dissent with the presence of universal public support", "offers no evidence that the policy advocated by Saunders' opponents would not have succeeded if it had been given the chance", "does not specify the precise nature of the threat to neighborhood safety supposedly posed by the vandalized houses" ]
3
Saunders' reasoning is flawed because it
For the writers who first gave feudalism its name, the existence of feudalism presupposed the existence of a noble class. Yet there cannot be a noble class, properly speaking, unless both the titles that indicate superior, noble status and the inheritance of such titles are sanctioned by law. Although feudalism existed in Europe as early as the eighth century, it was not until the twelfth century, when many feudal institutions were in decline, that the hereditary transfer of legally recognized titles of nobility first appeared.
199306_1-LR1_18_22
[ "To say that feudalism by definition requires the existence of a nobility is to employ a definition that distorts history.", "Prior to the twelfth century, the institution of European feudalism functioned without the presence of a dominant class.", "The fact that a societal group has a distinct legal status is not in itself sufficient to allow that group to be properly considered a social class.", "The decline of feudalism in Europe was the only cause of the rise of a European nobility.", "The prior existence of feudal institutions is a prerequisite for the emergence of a nobility, as defined in the strictest sense of the term." ]
0
The statements above, if true, most strongly support which one of the following claims?
Mayor Smith, one of our few government officials with a record of outspoken, informed, and consistent opposition to nuclear power plant construction projects, has now declared herself in favor of building the nuclear power plant at Littletown. If someone with her past antinuclear record now favors building this power plant, then there is good reason to believe that it will be safe and therefore should be built.
199306_1-LR1_19_23
[ "It overlooks the possibility that not all those who fail to speak out on issues of nuclear power are necessarily opposed to it.", "It assumes without warrant that the qualities enabling a person to be elected to public office confer on that person a grasp of the scientific principles on which technical decisions are based.", "It fails to establish that a consistent and outspoken opposition is necessarily an informed opposition.", "It leads to the further but unacceptable conclusion that any project favored by Mayor Smith should be sanctioned simply on the basis of her having spoken out in favor of it.", "It gives no indication of either the basis of Mayor Smith's former opposition to nuclear power plant construction or the reasons for her support for the Littletown project." ]
4
The argument is vulnerable to criticism on which one of the following grounds?
Advertisement: In today's world, you make a statement about the person you are by the car you own. The message of the SKX Mach-5 is unambiguous: Its owner is Dynamic, Aggressive, and Successful. Shouldn't you own an SKX Mach-5?
199306_1-LR1_20_24
[ "Anyone who is dynamic and aggressive is also successful.", "Anyone who is not both dynamic and successful would misrepresent himself or herself by being the owner of an SKX Mach-5.", "People who buy the SKX Mach-5 are usually more aggressive than people who buy other cars.", "No car other than the SKX Mach-5 announces that its owner is successful.", "Almost no one would fail to recognize the kind of person who would choose to own an SKX Mach-5." ]
1
If the claims made in the advertisement are true, which one of the following must also be true on the basis of them?
The great medieval universities had no administrators, yet they endured for centuries. Our university has a huge administrative staff, and we are in serious financial difficulties. Therefore, we should abolish the positions and salaries of the administrators to ensure the longevity of the university.
199306_1-LR1_21_25
[ "No airplane had jet engines before 1940, yet airplanes had been flying since 1903. Therefore, jet engines are not necessary for the operation of airplanes.", "The novelist's stories began to be accepted for publication soon after she started using a computer to write them. You have been having trouble getting your stories accepted for publication, and you do not use a computer. To make sure your stories are accepted for publication, then, you should write them with the aid of a computer.", "After doctors began using antibiotics, the number of infections among patients dropped drastically. Now, however, resistant strains of bacteria cannot be controlled by standard antibiotics. Therefore, new methods of control are needed.", "A bicycle should not be ridden without a helmet. Since a good helmet can save the rider's life, a helmet should be considered the most important piece of bicycling equipment.", "The great cities of the ancient world were mostly built along waterways. Archaeologists searching for the remains of such cities should therefore try to determine where major rivers used to run." ]
1
Which one of the following arguments contains flawed reasoning that most closely parallels the flawed reasoning in the argument above?
The cafeteria at Acme Company can offer only four main dishes at lunchtime, and the same four choices have been offered for years. Recently mushroom casserole was offered in place of one of the other main dishes for two days, during which more people chose mushroom casserole than any other main dish. Clearly, if the cafeteria wants to please its customers, mushroom casserole should replace one of the regular dishes as a permanent part of the menu.
199306_4-LR2_1_1
[ "the proportion of Acme Company employees who regularly eat lunch in the company cafeteria", "whether any of the ingredients used in the cafeteria's recipe for mushroom casserole are included in any of the regular main dishes", "a desire for variety as a reason for people's choice of mushroom casserole during the days it was offered", "what foods other than main dishes are regularly offered at lunchtime by the cafeteria", "whether other meals besides lunch are served in the Acme Company cafeteria" ]
2
The argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it fails to consider
When old-growth forests are cleared of tall trees, more sunlight reaches the forest floor. This results in a sharp increase in the population of leafy shrubs on which the mule deer depend for food. Yet mule deer herds that inhabit cleared forests are less well-nourished than are herds living in old-growth forests.
199306_4-LR2_2_2
[ "Mule deer have enzyme-rich saliva and specialized digestive organs that enable the deer to digest tough plants inedible to other deer species.", "Mule deer herds that inhabit cleared forests tend to have more females with young offspring and fewer adult males than do other mule deer populations.", "Mule deer populations are spread throughout western North America and inhabit hot, sunny climates as well as cool, wet climates.", "As plants receive more sunlight, they produce higher amounts of tannins, compounds that inhibit digestion of the plants' proteins.", "Insect parasites, such as certain species of ticks, that feed primarily on mule deer often dwell in trees, from which they drop onto passing deer." ]
3
Which one of the following, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent paradox?
Genevieve: Increasing costs have led commercial airlines to cut back on airplane maintenance. Also, reductions in public spending have led to air traffic control centers being underfunded and understaffed. For these and other reasons it is becoming quite unsafe to fly, and so one should avoid doing it. Harold: Your reasoning may be sound, but I can hardly accept your conclusion when you yourself have recently been flying on commercial airlines even more than before.
199306_4-LR2_3_3
[ "David says that the new film is not very good, but he has not seen it himself, so I don't accept his opinion.", "A long time ago Maria showed me a great way to cook lamb, but for medical reasons she no longer eats red meat, so I'll cook something else for dinner tonight.", "Susan has been trying to persuade me to go rock climbing with her, claiming that it's quite safe, but last week she fell and broke her collarbone, so I don't believe her.", "Pat has shown me research that proves that eating raw green vegetables is very beneficial and that one should eat them daily, but I don't believe it, since she hardly ever eats raw green vegetables.", "Gabriel has all the qualifications we have specified for the job and has much relevant work experience, but I don't believe we should hire him, because when he worked in a similar position before his performance was mediocre." ]
3
Which one of the following relies on a questionable technique most similar to that used in Harold's reply to Genevieve?
All people residing in the country of Gradara approve of legislation requiring that certain hazardous wastes be disposed of by being burned in modern high-temperature incinerators. However, waste disposal companies planning to build such incinerators encounter fierce resistance to their applications for building permits from the residents of every Gradaran community that those companies propose as an incinerator site.
199306_4-LR2_4_4
[ "High-temperature incineration minimizes the overall risk to the human population of the country from the wastes being disposed of, but it concentrates the remaining risk in a small number of incineration sites.", "High-temperature incineration is more expensive than any of the available alternatives would be, and the higher costs would be recovered through higher product prices.", "High-temperature incineration will be carried out by private companies rather than by a government agency so that the government will not be required to police itself.", "The toxic fumes generated within a high-temperature incinerator can be further treated so that all toxic residues from a properly operating incinerator are solids.", "The substantial cost of high-temperature incineration can be partially offset by revenue from sales of electric energy generated as a by-product of incineration." ]
0
Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain the residents' simultaneously holding both of the positions ascribed to them?
Elena: While I was at the dog show, every dog that growled at me was a white poodle, and every white poodle I saw growled at me.
199306_4-LR2_5_5
[ "The only white dogs that Elena saw at the dog show were poodles.", "There were no gray poodles at the dog show.", "At the dog show, no gray dogs growled at Elena.", "All the white dogs that Elena saw growled at her.", "Elena did not see any gray poodles at the dog show." ]
2
Which one of the following can be properly inferred from Elena's statement?
Derek: We must exploit available resources in developing effective anticancer drugs such as the one made from mature Pacific yew trees. Although the yew population might be threatened, the trees should be harvested now, since an effective synthetic version of the yew's anticancer chemical could take years to develop. Lola: Not only are mature yews very rare, but most are located in areas where logging is prohibited to protect the habitat of the endangered spotted owl. Despite our eagerness to take advantage or a new medical breakthrough, we should wait for a synthetic drug rather than threaten the survival of both the yew and the owl, which could have far-reaching consequences for an entire ecosystem.
199306_4-LR2_6_6
[ "whether the harvesting of available Pacific yews would have far-reaching environmental repercussions", "whether the drugs that are effective against potentially deadly diseases should be based on synthetic rather than naturally occurring chemicals", "whether it is justifiable to wait until a synthetic drug can be developed when the capacity for producing the yew-derived drug already exists", "the extent of the environmental disaster that would result if both the Pacific yew and the spotted owl were to become extinct", "whether environmental considerations should ever have any weight when human lives are at stake" ]
2
Which one of the following is the main point at issue between Lola and Derek?
Derek: We must exploit available resources in developing effective anticancer drugs such as the one made from mature Pacific yew trees. Although the yew population might be threatened, the trees should be harvested now, since an effective synthetic version of the yew's anticancer chemical could take years to develop. Lola: Not only are mature yews very rare, but most are located in areas where logging is prohibited to protect the habitat of the endangered spotted owl. Despite our eagerness to take advantage or a new medical breakthrough, we should wait for a synthetic drug rather than threaten the survival of both the yew and the owl, which could have far-reaching consequences for an entire ecosystem.
199306_4-LR2_6_7
[ "Unless people's well-being is threatened, there should be no higher priority than preserving endangered plant and animal populations.", "Medical researchers should work with environmentalists to come to an agreement about the rate of the Pacific yew and the spotted owl.", "Environmental concerns should play a role in decisions concerning medical research only if human lives are not at stake.", "Only medical breakthroughs that could save human lives would justify threatening the environment.", "Avoiding actions that threaten an entire ecosystem takes precedence over immediately providing advantage to a restricted group of people." ]
4
Lola's position most closely conforms to which one of the following principles?
The director of a secondary school where many students were having severe academic problems impaneled a committee to study the matter. The committee reported that these students were having academic problems because they spent large amounts of time on school sports and too little time studying. The director then prohibited all students who were having academic problems from taking part in sports in which they were active. He stated that this would ensure that such students would do well academically.
199306_4-LR2_7_8
[ "some students who spend time on sports do not have academic problems", "all students who do well academically do so because of time saved by not participating in sports", "at least some of the time the students will save by not participating in sports will be spent on solving their academic problems", "no students who do well academically spend time on sports", "the quality of the school's sports program would not suffer as a result of the ban" ]
2
The reasoning on which the director bases his statement is not sound because he fails to establish that
It can safely be concluded that there are at least as many trees in Seclee as there are in Martown.
199306_4-LR2_8_9
[ "More trees were planted in Seclee in the past two years than in Martown.", "Seclee is the region within which Martown is located.", "Martown is suffering from an epidemic of tree-virus infection.", "The average annual rainfall for Seclee is greater than the average annual rainfall for Martown.", "The average number of trees cut down annually in Martown is higher than in Seclee." ]
1
From which one of the following does the conclusion logically follow?
A distemper virus has caused two-thirds of the seal population in the North Sea to die since May 1988. The explanation for the deaths cannot rest here, however. There must be a reason the normally latent virus could prevail so suddenly: clearly the severe pollution of the North Sea waters must have weakened the immune system of the seals so that they could no longer withstand the virus.
199306_4-LR2_9_10
[ "There has been a gradual decline in the seal population of the North Sea during the past two centuries.", "No further sources of pollution have been added since May 1988 to the already existing sources of pollution in the North Sea.", "There was no sudden mutation in the distemper virus which would have allowed the virus successfully to attack healthy North Sea seals by May 1988.", "Pollution in the North Sea is no greater than pollution in the Mediterranean Sea, off the coast of North America, or in the Sea of Japan.", "Some species that provide food for the seals have nearly become extinct as a result of the pollution." ]
2
The argument concerning the immune system of the seals presupposes which one of the following?
A distemper virus has caused two-thirds of the seal population in the North Sea to die since May 1988. The explanation for the deaths cannot rest here, however. There must be a reason the normally latent virus could prevail so suddenly: clearly the severe pollution of the North Sea waters must have weakened the immune system of the seals so that they could no longer withstand the virus.
199306_4-LR2_9_11
[ "At various times during the last ten years, several species of shellfish and seabirds in the North Sea have experienced unprecedentedly steep drops in population.", "By reducing pollution at its source, Northern Europe and Scandinavia have been taking the lead in preventing pollution from reaching the waters of the North Sea.", "For many years, fish for human consumption have been taken from the waters of the North Sea.", "There are two species of seal found throughout the North Sea area, the common seal and the gray seal.", "The distemper caused by the virus was a disease that was new to the population of North Sea seals in May 1988, and so the seals' immune systems were unprepared to counter it." ]
0
Which one of the following, if true, most strongly supports the explanation given in the argument?
It is clear that none of the volleyball players at yesterday's office beach party came to work today since everyone who played volleyball at that party got badly sunburned and no one at work today is even slightly sunburned.
199306_4-LR2_10_12
[ "Since everyone employed by TRF who was given the opportunity to purchase dental insurance did so and everyone who purchased dental insurance saw a dentist, it is clear that no one who failed to see a dentist is employed by TRF.", "Since no one who was promoted during the past year failed to attend the awards banquet, evidently none of the office managers attended the banquet this year since they were all denied promotion.", "Since the Donnely report was not finished on time, no one in John's group could have been assigned to contribute to that report since everyone in John's group has a reputation for getting assignments in on time.", "Everyone with an office on the second floor works directly for the president and, as a result, no one with a second floor office will take a July vacation because no one who works for the president will be able to take time off during July.", "Since all of the people who are now on the MXM Corporation payroll have been employed in the same job for the past five years, it is clear that no one who frequently changes jobs is likely to be hired by MXM." ]
3
Which one of the following exhibits a pattern of reasoning that most closely parallels that in the argument above?
The dean of computing must be respected by the academic staff and be competent to oversee the use of computers on campus. The only deans whom academics respect are those who hold doctoral degrees, and only someone who really knows about computers can competently oversee the use of computers on campus. Furthermore, the board of trustees has decided that the dean of computing must be selected from among this university's staff. Therefore, the dean of computing must be a professor from this university's computer science department.
199306_4-LR2_11_13
[ "Academics respect only people who hold doctoral degrees.", "All of this university's professors have obtained doctoral degrees.", "At this university, every professor who holds a doctoral degree in computer science really knows about computers.", "All academics who hold doctoral degrees are respected by their academic colleagues.", "Among this university's staff members with doctoral degrees, only those in the computer science department really know about computers." ]
4
Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends?
The dean of computing must be respected by the academic staff and be competent to oversee the use of computers on campus. The only deans whom academics respect are those who hold doctoral degrees, and only someone who really knows about computers can competently oversee the use of computers on campus. Furthermore, the board of trustees has decided that the dean of computing must be selected from among this university's staff. Therefore, the dean of computing must be a professor from this university's computer science department.
199306_4-LR2_11_14
[ "There are members of this university's staff who hold doctoral degrees and who are not professors but who really know about computers.", "There are members of this university's philosophy department who do not hold doctoral degrees but who really know about computers.", "Computer science professors who hold doctoral degrees but who are not members of this university's staff have applied for the position of dean of computing.", "Several members of the board of trustees of this university do not hold doctoral degrees.", "Some members of the computer science department at this university are not respected by academics in other departments." ]
0
Which one of the following statements, if true, would weaken the argument?
Consumer advocate: Under the current absence of government standards for food product labeling, manufacturers are misleading or deceiving consumers by their product labeling. For example, a certain brand of juice is labeled "fresh orange juice," yet the product is made from water, concentrate, and flavor enhancers. Since "fresh" as applied to food products is commonly understood to mean pure and unprocessed, labeling that orange juice "fresh" is unquestionably deceptive. Manufacturer: Using words somewhat differently than they are commonly used is not deceptive. After all, "fresh" can also mean never frozen. We cannot be faulted for failing to comply with standards that have not been officially formulated. When the government sets clear standards pertaining to product labeling, we will certainly comply with them.
199306_4-LR2_12_15
[ "In the absence of government standards, common understanding is the arbiter of deceptive labeling practices.", "Truthful labeling practices that reflect common standards of usage can be established by the government.", "The term \"fresh\" when it is applied to food products is commonly understood to mean pure and unprocessed.", "Terms that apply to natural foods can be truthfully applied to packaged foods.", "Clear government standards for labeling food products will ensure truthful labeling practices." ]
0
On the basis of their statements above, the consumer advocate and the manufacturer are committed to disagreeing about the truth of which one of the following statements?
Consumer advocate: Under the current absence of government standards for food product labeling, manufacturers are misleading or deceiving consumers by their product labeling. For example, a certain brand of juice is labeled "fresh orange juice," yet the product is made from water, concentrate, and flavor enhancers. Since "fresh" as applied to food products is commonly understood to mean pure and unprocessed, labeling that orange juice "fresh" is unquestionably deceptive. Manufacturer: Using words somewhat differently than they are commonly used is not deceptive. After all, "fresh" can also mean never frozen. We cannot be faulted for failing to comply with standards that have not been officially formulated. When the government sets clear standards pertaining to product labeling, we will certainly comply with them.
199306_4-LR2_12_16
[ "In the absence of government definitions for terms used in product labeling, common standards of understanding alone should apply.", "Government standards for truthful labeling should always be designed to reflect common standards of understanding.", "People should be free, to the extent that it is legal to do so, to exploit to their advantages the inherent ambiguity and vagueness in language.", "When government standards and common standards for truthful labeling are incompatible with each other, the government standards should always take precedence.", "In their interpretation of language, consumers should never presume that vagueness indicates an attempt to deceive on the part of manufacturers unless those manufacturers would reap large benefits from successful deception." ]
2
Which one of the following principles, if established, would contribute most to a defense of the manufacturer's position against that of the consumer advocate?
Certain items—those with that hard-to-define quality called exclusivity—have the odd property, when they become available for sale, of selling rapidly even though they are extremely expensive. In fact, trying to sell such an item fast by asking too low a price is a serious error, since it calls into question the very thing—exclusivity—that is supposed to be the item's chief appeal. Therefore, given that a price that will prove to be right is virtually impossible for the seller to gauge in advance, the seller should make sure that any error in the initial asking price is in the direction of setting the price too high.
199306_4-LR2_13_17
[ "this strategy lacks a counterproductive feature of the rejected alternative", "this strategy has all of the advantages of the rejected alternative, but fewer of its disadvantages", "experience has proven this strategy to be superior, even though the reasons for this superiority elude analysis", "this strategy does not rely on prospective buyers' estimates of value", "the error associated with this strategy, unlike the error associated with the rejected alternative, is likely to go unnoticed" ]
0
The argument recommends a certain pricing strategy on the grounds that
In order to control the deer population, a biologist has proposed injecting female deer during breeding season with 10 milligrams of a hormone that would suppress fertility. Critics have charged that the proposal poses health risks to people who might eat the meat of treated deer and thereby ingest unsafe quantities of the hormone. The biologist has responded to these critics by pointing out that humans can ingest up to 10 milligrams of the hormone a day without any adverse effects, and since no one would eat even one entire deer a day, the treatment would be safe.
199306_4-LR2_14_18
[ "People would be notified of the time when deer in their area were to be treated with the hormone.", "The hormone that would be injected into the deer is chemically similar to hormones used in human contraceptives.", "Hunting season for deer could be scheduled so that it would not coincide with breeding season.", "The hormone in question does not occur naturally in the female deer that would be injected.", "Most people do not consider deer meat to be part of their daily diet and eat it only on rare occasions." ]
3
The biologist's response to critics of the proposal is based on which one of the following assumptions?
A recent survey conducted in one North American city revealed widespread concern about the problems faced by teenagers today. Seventy percent of the adults surveyed said they would pay higher taxes for drug treatment programs, and 60 percent said they were willing to pay higher taxes to improve the city's schools. Yet in a vote in that same city, a proposition to increase funding for schools by raising taxes failed by a narrow margin to win majority approval.
199306_4-LR2_15_19
[ "The survey sample was not representative of the voters who voted on the proposition.", "Many of the people who were surveyed did not respond truthfully to all of the questions put to them.", "The proposition was only part of a more expensive community improvement program that voters had to accept or reject in total.", "A proposition for increasing funds for local drug treatment centers also failed to win approval.", "The proposition to raise taxes for schools was couched in terminology that many of the voters found confusing." ]
3
Which one of the following factors, if true, would LEAST contribute to an explanation of the discrepancy described above?
So-called environmentalists have argued that the proposed Golden Lake Development would interfere with bird-migration patterns. However, the fact that these same people have raised environmental objections to virtually every development proposal brought before the council in recent years indicates that their expressed concern for bird migration patterns is nothing but a mask for their antidevelopment, antiprogress agenda. Their claim, therefore, should be dismissed without further consideration.
199306_4-LR2_16_20
[ "taking the failure of a given argument to establish its conclusion as the basis for claiming that the view expressed by that conclusion is false", "rejecting the conclusion of an argument on the basis of a claim about the motives of those advancing the argument", "using a few exceptional cases as the basis for a claim about what is true in general", "misrepresenting evidence that supports the position the argument is intended to refute", "assuming that what is true of a group as a whole is necessarily true of each member of that group" ]
1
Which one of the following questionable argumentative techniques is employed in the passage?
So-called environmentalists have argued that the proposed Golden Lake Development would interfere with bird-migration patterns. However, the fact that these same people have raised environmental objections to virtually every development proposal brought before the council in recent years indicates that their expressed concern for bird migration patterns is nothing but a mask for their antidevelopment, antiprogress agenda. Their claim, therefore, should be dismissed without further consideration.
199306_4-LR2_16_21
[ "Not every development proposal opposed in recent years by these so-called environmentalists was opposed because they believed it to pose a threat to the environment.", "People whose real agenda is to block development wherever it is proposed always try to disguise their true motives.", "Anyone who opposes unrestricted development is an opponent of progress.", "The council has no reason to object to the proposed Golden Lake Development other than concern about the development's effect on bird-migration patterns.", "When people say that they oppose a development project solely on environmental grounds, their real concern almost always lies elsewhere." ]
0
For the claim that the concern expressed by the so-called environmentalists is not their real concern to be properly drawn on the basis of the evidence cited, which one of the following must be assumed?
Psychologists today recognize childhood as a separate stage of life which can only be understood in its own terms, and they wonder why the Western world took so long to see the folly of regarding children simply as small, inadequately socialized adults. Most psychologists, however, persist in regarding people 70 to 90 years old as though they were 35 year olds who just happen to have white hair and extra leisure time. But old age is as fundamentally different from young adulthood and middle age as childhood is—a fact attested to by the organization of modern social and economic life. Surely it is time, therefore, to acknowledge that serious research into the unique psychology of advanced age has become indispensable.
199306_4-LR2_17_22
[ "Whenever current psychological practice conflicts with traditional attitudes toward people, those traditional attitudes should be changed to bring them in line with current psychological practice.", "Whenever two groups of people are so related to each other that any member of the second group must previously have been a member of the first, people in the first group should not be regarded simply as deviant members of the second group.", "Whenever most practitioners of a given discipline approach a particular problem in the same way, that uniformity is good evidence that all similar problems should also be approached in that way.", "Whenever a society's economic life is so organized that two distinct times of life are treated as being fundamentally different from one another, each time of life can be understood only in terms of its own distinct psychology.", "Whenever psychologists agree that a single psychology is inadequate for two distinct age groups, they should be prepared to show that there are greater differences between the two age groups than there are between individuals in the same age group." ]
3
Which one of the following principles, if established, would provide the strongest backing for the argument?
Sabina: The words used in expressing facts affect neither the facts nor the conclusions those facts will support. Moreover, if the words are clearly defined and consistently used, the actual words chosen make no difference to an argument's soundness. Thus, how an argument is expressed can have no bearing on whether it is a good argument. Emile: Badly chosen words can make even the soundest argument a poor one. After all, many words have social and political connotations that influence people's response to claims expressed in those words, regardless of how carefully and explicitly those words are defined. Since whether people will acknowledge a fact is affected by how the fact is expressed, the conclusions they actually draw are also affected.
199306_4-LR2_18_23
[ "defining words in one way rather than another can alter either the facts or the conclusions the facts will justify", "a word can be defined without taking into account its social and political connotations", "a sound argument in support of a given conclusion is a better argument than any unsound argument for that same conclusion", "it would be a good policy to avoid using words that are likely to lead people either to misunderstand the claims being made or to reason badly about those claims", "a factor that affects neither the truth of an argument's premises nor the logical relation between its premises and its conclusion can cause an argument to be a bad one" ]
4
The point at issue between Emile and Sabina is whether
Most disposable plastic containers are now labeled with a code number (from 1 to 9) indicating the type or quality of the plastic. Plastics with the lowest code numbers are the easiest for recycling plants to recycle and are thus the most likely to be recycled after use rather than dumped in landfills. Plastics labeled with the highest numbers are only rarely recycled. Consumers can make a significant long-term reduction in the amount of waste that goes unrecycled, therefore, by refusing to purchase those products packaged in plastic containers labeled with the highest code numbers.
199306_4-LR2_19_24
[ "The cost of collecting, sorting, and recycling discarded plastics is currently higher than the cost of manufacturing new plastics from virgin materials.", "Many consumers are unaware of the codes that are stamped on the plastic containers.", "A plastic container almost always has a higher code number after it is recycled than it had before recycling because the recycling process causes a degradation of the quality of the plastic.", "Products packaged in plastics with the lowest code numbers are often more expensive than those packaged in the higher-numbered plastics.", "Communities that collect all discarded plastic containers for potential recycling later dump in landfills plastics with higher-numbered codes only when it is clear that no recycler will take them." ]
2
Which one of the following, if true, most seriously undermines the conclusion above?
Despite a steady decrease in the average number of hours worked per person per week, the share of the population that reads a daily newspaper has declined greatly in the past 20 years. But the percentage of the population that watches television daily has shown a similarly dramatic increase over the same period. Clearly, increased television viewing has caused a simultaneous decline in newspaper reading.
199306_4-LR2_20_25
[ "There has been a dramatic increase over the past 20 years in the percentage of people who tell polltakers that television is their primary source of information about current events.", "Of those members of the population who do not watch television, the percentage who read a newspaper every day has also shown a dramatic decrease.", "The time people spend with the books and newspapers they read has increased, on average, from 1 to 3 hours per week in the past 20 years.", "People who spend large amounts of time each day watching television are less able to process and remember printed information than are those who do not watch television.", "A typical television set is on 6 hours a day, down from an average of 6 1/2 hours a day 5 years ago." ]
1
Which one of the following, if true, would be most damaging to the explanation given above for the decline in newspaper reading?
Crimes in which handguns are used are more likely than other crimes to result in fatalities. However, the majority of crimes in which handguns are used do not result in fatalities. Therefore, there is no need to enact laws that address crimes involving handguns as distinct from other crimes.
199310_2-LR1_1_1
[ "Overweight people are at higher risk of developing heart disease than other people. However, more than half of all overweight people never develop heart disease. Hence it is unnecessary for physicians to be more careful to emphasize the danger of heart disease to their overweight patients than to their other patients.", "Many people swim daily in order to stay physically fit. Yet people who swim daily increase their risk of developing ear infections. Hence people who want to remain in good health are better off not following fitness programs that include swimming daily.", "Most physicians recommend a balanced diet for those who want to remain in good health. Yet many people find that nontraditional dietary regimens such as extended fasting do their health no serious harm. Therefore, there is no need for everyone to avoid nontraditional dietary regimens.", "Foods rich in cholesterol and fat pose a serious health threat to most people. However, many people are reluctant to give up eating foods that they greatly enjoy. Therefore, people who refuse to give up rich foods need to spend more time exercising than do other people.", "Many serious health problems are the result of dietary disorders. Yet these disorders are often brought about by psychological factors. Hence people suffering from serious health problems should undergo psychological evaluation." ]
0
The pattern of flawed reasoning displayed in the argument above most closely resembles that in which one of the following?
Tall children can generally reach high shelves easily. Short children can generally reach high shelves only with difficulty. It is known that short children are more likely than are tall children to become short adults. Therefore, if short children are taught to reach high shelves easily, the proportion of them who become short adults will decrease.
199310_2-LR1_2_2
[ "attributes a characteristic of an individual member of a group to the group as a whole", "presupposes that which is to be proved", "refutes a generalization by means of an exceptional case", "assumes a causal relationship where only a correlation has been indicated", "takes lack of evidence for the existence of a state of affairs as evidence that there can be no such state of affairs" ]
3
A reasoning error in the argument is that the argument
Balance is particularly important when reporting the background of civil wars and conflicts. Facts must not be deliberately manipulated to show one party in a favorable light, and the views of each side should be fairly represented. This concept of balance, however, does not justify concealing or glossing over basic injustices in an effort to be even-handed. If all the media were to adopt such a perverse interpretation of balanced reporting, the public would be given a picture of a world where each party in every conflict had an equal measure of justice on its side, contrary to our experience of life and, indeed, our common sense.
199310_2-LR1_3_3
[ "Balanced reporting presents the public with a picture of the world in which all sides to a conflict have equal justification.", "Balanced reporting requires impartially revealing injustices where they occur no less than fairly presenting the views of each party in a conflict.", "Our experience of life shows that there are indeed cases in which conflicts arise because of an injustice, with one party clearly in the wrong.", "Common sense tells us that balance is especially needed when reporting the background of civil wars and conflicts.", "Balanced reporting is an ideal that cannot be realized, because judgments of balance are necessarily subjective." ]
1
Which one of the following best expresses the main point of the argument?
Data from satellite photographs of the tropical rain forest in Melonia show that last year the deforestation rate of this environmentally sensitive zone was significantly lower than in previous years. The Melonian government, which spent millions of dollars last year to enforce laws against burning and cutting of the forest, is claiming that the satellite data indicate that its increased efforts to halt the destruction are proving effective.
199310_2-LR1_4_4
[ "Landowner opposition to the government's antideforestation efforts grew more violent last year in response to the increased enforcement.", "Rainfall during the usually dry 6-month annual burning season was abnormally heavy last year.", "Government agents had to issue fines totaling over $9 million to 3,500 violators of burning-and-cutting regulations.", "The inaccessibility of much of the rain forest has made it impossible to confirm the satellite data by direct observation from the field.", "Much of the money that was designated last year for forest preservation has been spent on research and not on enforcement." ]
1
Which one of the following, if true, most seriously undermines the government's claim?
Advertisement: Northwoods Maple Syrup, made the old-fashioned way, is simply tops for taste. And here is the proof: in a recent market survey, 7 out of every 10 shoppers who expressed a preference said that Northwoods was the only maple syrup for them, no ifs, ands, or buts.
199310_2-LR1_5_5
[ "The proportion of shoppers expressing no preference might have been very small.", "Other brands of maple syrup might also be made the old-fashioned way.", "No market survey covers more than a sizable minority of the total population of consumers.", "The preference for the Northwoods brand might be based on such a factor as an exceptionally low price.", "Shoppers who buy syrup might buy only maple syrup." ]
3
Of the following, which one is the strongest reason why the advertisement is potentially misleading?
In the summer of 1936 a polling service telephoned 10,000 United States voters and asked how they planned to vote in the coming presidential election. The survey sample included a variety of respondents—rural and urban, male and female, from every state. The poll predicted that Alfred Landon would soundly defeat Franklin Roosevelt. Nevertheless, Roosevelt won in a landslide.
199310_2-LR1_6_6
[ "The interviewers did not reveal their own political affiliation to the respondents.", "Only people who would be qualified to vote by election time were interviewed, so the survey sample was not representative of the overall United States population.", "The survey sample was representative only of people who could afford telephones at a time when phone ownership was less common than it is today.", "No effort was made to determine the respondents' political affiliations.", "Because the poll asked only for respondents' candidate preference, it collected no information concerning their reasons for favoring Landon or Roosevelt." ]
2
Which one of the following, if true, best explains why the poll's prediction was inaccurate?
Waste management companies, which collect waste for disposal in landfills and incineration plants, report that disposable plastics make up an ever-increasing percentage of the waste they handle. It is clear that attempts to decrease the amount of plastic that people throw away in the garbage are failing.
199310_2-LR1_7_7
[ "Because plastics create harmful pollutants when burned, an increasing percentage of the plastics handled by waste management companies are being disposed of in landfills.", "Although many plastics are recyclable, most of the plastics disposed of by waste management companies are not.", "People are more likely to save and reuse plastic containers than containers made of heavier materials like glass or metal.", "An increasing proportion of the paper, glass, and metal cans that waste management companies used to handle is now being recycled.", "While the percentage of products using plastic packaging is increasing, the total amount of plastic being manufactured has remained unchanged." ]
0
Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument?
Most of the ultraviolet radiation reaching the Earth's atmosphere from the Sun is absorbed by the layer of stratospheric ozone and never reaches the Earth's surface. Between 1969 and 1986, the layer of stratospheric ozone over North America thinned, decreasing by about 3 percent. Yet, the average level of ultraviolet radiation measured at research stations across North America decreased over the same period.
199310_2-LR1_8_8
[ "Ultraviolet radiation increases the risk of skin cancer and cataracts; the incidence of skin cancer and cataracts increased substantially between 1969 and 1986.", "Between 1969 and 1986, the layer of stratospheric ozone over Brazil thinned, and the average level of ultraviolet radiation reaching the Earth's surface in Brazil increased.", "Manufactured chlorine chemicals thin the layer of stratospheric ozone.", "Ozone pollution, which absorbs ultraviolet radiation, increased dramatically between 1969 and 1986.", "Thinning of the layer of stratospheric ozone varies from one part of the world to another and from year to year." ]
3
Which one of the following, if true, best reconciles the apparently discrepant facts described above?
The number of aircraft collisions on the ground is increasing because of the substantial increase in the number of flights operated by the airlines. Many of the fatalities that occur in such collisions are caused not by the collision itself, but by an inherent flaw in the cabin design of most aircraft, in which seats, by restricting access to emergency exits, impede escape. Therefore, to reduce the total number of fatalities that result annually from such collisions, the airlines should be required to remove all seats that restrict access to emergency exits.
199310_2-LR1_9_9
[ "The number of deaths that occurred in theater fires because theater patrons could not escape was greatly reduced when theaters were required to have aisles leading to each exit.", "Removing the seats that block emergency exits on aircraft will require a costly refitting of aircraft cabins.", "In the event of fire, public buildings equipped with smoke detectors have fewer fatalities than do public buildings not so equipped.", "In the event of collision, passengers on planes with a smaller passenger capacity generally suffer more serious injury than do passengers on planes with a larger passenger capacity.", "The safety belts attached to aircraft seats function to protect passengers from the full force of impact in the event of a collision." ]
0
Which one of the following, if true, provides the most support for the proposal?
The number of aircraft collisions on the ground is increasing because of the substantial increase in the number of flights operated by the airlines. Many of the fatalities that occur in such collisions are caused not by the collision itself, but by an inherent flaw in the cabin design of most aircraft, in which seats, by restricting access to emergency exits, impede escape. Therefore, to reduce the total number of fatalities that result annually from such collisions, the airlines should be required to remove all seats that restrict access to emergency exits.
199310_2-LR1_9_10
[ "The airlines should be required, when buying new planes, to buy only planes with unrestricted access to emergency exits.", "The airlines should not be permitted to increase further the number of flights in order to offset the decrease in the number of seats on each aircraft.", "Airport authorities should be required to streamline their passenger check-in procedures to accommodate the increased number of passengers served by the airlines.", "Airport authorities should be required to refine security precautions by making them less conspicuous without making them less effective.", "The airlines should not be allowed to increase the ticket price for each passenger to offset the decrease in the number of seats on each aircraft." ]
1
Which one of the following proposals, if implemented together with the proposal made in the passage, would improve the prospects for achieving the stated objective of reducing fatalities?
Recently discovered fossil evidence casts doubt on the evolutionary theory that dinosaurs are more closely related to reptiles than to other classes of animals. Fossils show that some dinosaurs had hollow bones—a feature found today only in warm-blooded creatures, such as birds, that have a high metabolic rate. Dinosaurs had well-developed senses of sight and hearing, which is not true of present-day cold-blooded creatures like reptiles. The highly arched mouth roof of some dinosaurs would have permitted them to breathe while eating, as fast-breathing animals, such as birds, need to do. Today, all fast-breathing animals are warm-blooded. Finally, fossils reveal that many dinosaurs had a pattern of growth typical of warm-blooded animals.
199310_2-LR1_10_11
[ "attempting to justify one position by demonstrating that an opposing position is based on erroneous information", "establishing a general principle that it then uses to draw a conclusion about a particular case", "dismissing a claim made about the present on the basis of historical evidence", "assuming that if all members of a category have a certain property then all things with that property belong to the category", "presenting evidence that a past phenomenon is more similar to one rather than the other of two present-day phenomena" ]
4
The argument in the passage proceeds by
Purebred dogs are prone to genetically determined abnormalities. Although such abnormalities often can be corrected by surgery, the cost can reach several thousand dollars. Since nonpurebred dogs rarely suffer from genetically determined abnormalities, potential dog owners who want to reduce the risk of incurring costly medical bills for their pets would be well advised to choose nonpurebred dogs.
199310_2-LR1_11_12
[ "Most genetically determined abnormalities in dogs do not seriously affect a dog's general well-being.", "All dogs, whether purebred or nonpurebred, are subject to the same common nongenetically determined diseases.", "Purebred dogs tend to have shorter natural life spans than do nonpurebred dogs.", "The purchase price of nonpurebred dogs tends to be lower than the purchase price of purebred dogs.", "A dog that does not have genetically determined abnormalities may nevertheless have offspring with such abnormalities." ]
0
Which one of the following if true, most seriously weakens the argument?
Criticism that the press panders to public sentiment neglects to consider that the press is a profit-making institution. Like other private enterprises, it has to make money to survive. If the press were not profit-making, who would support it? The only alternative is subsidy and, with it, outside control. It is easy to get subsidies for propaganda, but no one will subsidize honest journalism.
199310_2-LR1_12_13
[ "not subsidized, it is in no danger of outside control", "not subsidized, it will not produce propaganda", "not to be subsidized, it cannot be a profit-making institution", "to produce honest journalism, it must be a profit-making institution", "to make a profit, it must produce honest journalism" ]
3
It can be properly inferred from the passage that if the press is
Lucien: Public-housing advocates claim that the many homeless people in this city are proof that there is insufficient housing available to them and therefore that more low-income apartments are needed. But that conclusion is absurd. Many apartments in my own building remain unrented and my professional colleagues report similar vacancies where they live. Since apartments clearly are available, homelessness is not a housing problem. Homelessness can, therefore, only be caused by people's inability or unwillingness to work to pay the rent. Maria: On the contrary, all recent studies show that a significant percentage of this city's homeless people hold regular jobs. These are people who lack neither will nor ability.
199310_2-LR1_13_14
[ "It offers no justification for dismissing as absurd the housing advocates' claim that there are many homeless people in the city.", "It treats information acquired through informal conversations as though it provided evidence as strong as information acquired on the basis of controlled scientific studies.", "It responds to a claim in which \"available\" is used in the sense of \"affordable\" by using \"available\" in the sense of \"not occupied.\"", "It overlooks the possibility that not all apartment buildings have vacant apartments for rent.", "It fails to address the issue, raised by the public-housing advocates' argument, of who would pay for the construction of more low-income housing." ]
2
Lucien's argument against the public-housing advocates' position is most vulnerable to which one of the following criticisms?
Lucien: Public-housing advocates claim that the many homeless people in this city are proof that there is insufficient housing available to them and therefore that more low-income apartments are needed. But that conclusion is absurd. Many apartments in my own building remain unrented and my professional colleagues report similar vacancies where they live. Since apartments clearly are available, homelessness is not a housing problem. Homelessness can, therefore, only be caused by people's inability or unwillingness to work to pay the rent. Maria: On the contrary, all recent studies show that a significant percentage of this city's homeless people hold regular jobs. These are people who lack neither will nor ability.
199310_2-LR1_13_15
[ "challenging the accuracy of the personal experiences he offers in support of his position", "showing that a presupposition of his argument is false", "presenting evidence that calls into question his motives for adopting the view he holds", "demonstrating that the evidence he offers supports a conclusion other than the conclusion he draws from it", "offering an alternative explanation for the facts he cites as evidence supporting his conclusion" ]
1
Maria responds to Lucien's argument by
Some people take their moral cues from governmental codes of law; for them, it is inconceivable that something that is legally permissible could be immoral.
199310_2-LR1_14_16
[ "law does not cover all circumstances in which one person morally wrongs another", "a legally impermissible action is never morally excusable", "governmental officials sometimes behave illegally", "the moral consensus of a society is expressed in its laws", "some governmental regulations are so detailed that they are burdensome to the economy" ]
0
Those whose view is described above hold inconsistent beliefs if they also believe that
Certain instruments used in veterinary surgery can be made either of stainless steel or of nylon. In a study of such instruments, 50 complete sterilizations of a set of nylon instruments required 3.4 times the amount of energy used to manufacture that set of instruments, whereas 50 complete sterilizations of a set of stainless steel instruments required 2.1 times the amount of energy required to manufacture that set of instruments.
199310_2-LR1_15_17
[ "The 50 complete sterilizations of the nylon instruments used more energy than did the 50 complete sterilizations of the stainless steel instruments.", "More energy was required for each complete sterilization of the nylon instruments than was required to manufacture the nylon instruments.", "More nylon instruments than stainless steel instruments were sterilized in the study.", "More energy was used to produce the stainless steel instruments than was used to produce the nylon instruments.", "The total cost of 50 complete sterilizations of the stainless steel instruments was greater than the cost of manufacturing the stainless steel instruments." ]
1
If the statements above are true, each of the following could be true EXCEPT:
A local group had planned a parade for tomorrow, but city hall has not yet acted on its application for a permit. The group had applied for the permit well in advance, had made sure their application satisfied all the requirements, and was clearly entitled to a permit. Although the law prohibits parades without a permit, the group plans to proceed with its parade. The group's leader defended its decision by appealing to the principle that citizens need not refrain from actions that fail to comply with the law if they have made a good-faith effort to comply but are prevented from doing so by government inaction.
199310_2-LR1_16_18
[ "A chemical-processing company commissioned an environmental impact report on its plant. The report described foul odors emanating from the plant but found no hazardous wastes being produced. Consequently, the plant did not alter its processing practices.", "A city resident applied for rezoning of her property so that she could build a bowling alley in a residential community. She based her application on the need for recreational facilities in the community. Her application was turned down by the zoning board, so she decided to forego construction.", "The law requires that no car be operated without a certain amount of insurance coverage. But since the authorities have been unable to design an effective procedure for prosecuting owners of cars that are driven without insurance, many car owners are allowing their insurance to lapse.", "A real-estate developer obtained a permit to demolish a historic apartment building that had not yet been declared a governmentally protected historic landmark. Despite the protests of citizens' groups, the developer then demolished the building.", "A physician who had been trained in one country applied for a license to practice medicine in another country. Although he knew he met all the qualifications for this license, he had not yet received it one year after he applied for it. He began to practice medicine without the license in the second country despite the law's requirement for a license." ]
4
Which one of the following actions would be justified by the principle to which the leader of the group appealed in defending the decision to proceed?
A university should not be entitled to patent the inventions of its faculty members. Universities, as guarantors of intellectual freedom, should encourage the free flow of ideas and the general dissemination of knowledge. Yet a university that retains the right to patent the inventions of its faculty members has a motive to suppress information about a potentially valuable discovery until the patent for it has been secured. Clearly, suppressing information concerning such discoveries is incompatible with the university's obligation to promote the free flow of ideas.
199310_2-LR1_17_19
[ "Universities are the only institutions that have an obligation to guarantee intellectual freedom.", "Most inventions by university faculty members would be profitable if patented.", "Publication of reports on research is the only practical way to disseminate information concerning new discoveries.", "Universities that have a motive to suppress information concerning discoveries by their faculty members will occasionally act on that motive.", "If the inventions of a university faculty member are not patented by that university, then they will be patented by the faculty member instead." ]
3
Which one of the following is an assumption that the argument makes?
A university should not be entitled to patent the inventions of its faculty members. Universities, as guarantors of intellectual freedom, should encourage the free flow of ideas and the general dissemination of knowledge. Yet a university that retains the right to patent the inventions of its faculty members has a motive to suppress information about a potentially valuable discovery until the patent for it has been secured. Clearly, suppressing information concerning such discoveries is incompatible with the university's obligation to promote the free flow of ideas.
199310_2-LR1_17_20
[ "It is the conclusion of the argument.", "It is a principle from which the conclusion is derived.", "It is an explicit assumption.", "It is additional but nonessential information in support of one of the premises.", "It is a claim that must be demonstrated to be false in order to establish the conclusion." ]
0
The claim that a university should not be entitled to patent the inventions of its faculty members plays which one of the following roles in the argument?
English and the Austronesian language Mbarbaram both use the word "dog" for canines. These two languages are unrelated, and since speakers of the two languages only came in contact with one another long after the word "dog" was first used in this way in either language, neither language could have borrowed the word from the other. Thus this case shows that sometimes when languages share words that are similar in sound and meaning the similarity is due neither to language relatedness nor to borrowing.
199310_2-LR1_18_21
[ "English and Mbarbaram share no words other than \"dog.\"", "Several languages besides English and Mbarbaram use \"dog\" as the word for canines.", "Usually when two languages share a word, those languages are related to each other.", "There is no third language from which both English and Mbarbaram borrowed the word \"dog.\"", "If two unrelated languages share a word, speakers of those two languages must have come in contact with one another at some time." ]
3
The argument requires that which one of the following be assumed?
Politician: From the time our party took office almost four years ago the number of people unemployed city-wide increased by less than 20 percent. The opposition party controlled city government during the four preceding years, and the number of unemployed city residents rose by over 20 percent. Thus, due to our leadership, fewer people now find themselves among the ranks of the unemployed, whatever the opposition may claim.
199310_2-LR1_19_22
[ "the claims made by the opposition are simply dismissed without being specified", "no evidence has been offered to show that any decline in unemployment over the past four years was uniform throughout all areas of the city", "the issue of how much unemployment in the city is affected by seasonal fluctuations is ignored", "the evidence cited in support of the conclusion actually provides more support for the denial of the conclusion", "the possibility has not been addressed that any increase in the number of people employed is due to programs supported by the opposition party" ]
3
The reasoning in the politician's argument is most vulnerable to the criticism that
A poor farmer was fond of telling his children: "In this world, you are either rich or poor, and you are either honest or dishonest. All poor farmers are honest. Therefore, all rich farmers are dishonest."
199310_2-LR1_20_23
[ "every honest farmer is poor", "every honest person is a farmer", "everyone who is dishonest is a rich farmer", "everyone who is poor is honest", "every poor person is a farmer" ]
0
The farmer's conclusion is properly drawn if the argument assumes that
Journalist: Can you give me a summary of the novel you are working on? Novelist: Well, I assume that by "summary" you mean something brief and not a version of the novel itself. The reason I write novels is that what I want to communicate can be communicated only in the form of a novel. So I am afraid I cannot summarize my novel for you in a way that would tell you what I am trying to communicate with this novel.
199310_2-LR1_21_24
[ "Only if a drawing can be used as a guide by the builder can it be considered a blueprint. This drawing of the proposed building can be used as a guide by the builder, so it can be considered a blueprint.", "Only a statement that does not divulge company secrets can be used as a press release. This statement does not divulge company secrets, but it is uninformative and therefore cannot be used as a press release.", "Watching a travelog is not the same as traveling. But a travelog confers some of the benefits of travel without the hardships of travel. So many people just watch travelogs and do not undergo the hardships of travel.", "Only a three-dimensional representation of a landscape can convey the experience of being in that landscape. A photograph taken with a traditional camera is not three-dimensional. Therefore a photograph taken with a traditional camera can never convey the experience of being in a landscape.", "A banquet menu foretells the content of a meal, but some people collect menus in order to remind themselves of great meals they have eaten. Thus a banquet menu has a function not only before, but also after, a meal has been served." ]
3
Which one of the following exhibits a pattern of reasoning that is most parallel to that used by the novelist?
Medical research findings are customarily not made public prior to their publication in a medical journal that has had them reviewed by a panel of experts in a process called peer review. It is claimed that this practice delays public access to potentially beneficial information that, in extreme instances, could save lives. Yet prepublication peer review is the only way to prevent erroneous and therefore potentially harmful information from reaching a public that is ill equipped to evaluate medical claims on its own. Therefore, waiting until a medical journal has published the research findings that have passed peer review is the price that must be paid to protect the public from making decisions based on possibly substandard research.
199310_2-LR1_22_25
[ "unless medical research findings are brought to peer review by a medical journal, peer review will not occur", "anyone who does not serve on a medical review panel does not have the necessary knowledge and expertise to evaluate medical research findings", "the general public does not have access to the medical journals in which research findings are published", "all medical research findings are subjected to prepublication peer review", "peer review panels are sometimes subject to political and professional pressures that can make their judgments less than impartial" ]
0
The argument assumes that
People who accuse the postal service of incompetence and inefficiency while complaining of the proposed five-cent increase in postal rates do not know a bargain when they see one. Few experiences are more enjoyable than reading a personal letter from a friend. Viewed in this way, postal service is so underpriced that a five-cent increase is unworthy of serious debate.
199310_4-LR2_1_1
[ "suggests that the postal service is both competent and efficient, but does not establish how competence and efficiency should be measured", "claims that the proposed increase is insignificant but does not say at what level the increase would be worthy of serious debate", "confuses the value of the object delivered with the value of delivering that object", "appeals to an outside authority for support of a premise that should be established by argument", "fails to establish whether or not the critics of the postal service are employees of the postal service" ]
2
The reasoning in the argument is flawed because the argument
When a study of aspirin's ability to prevent heart attacks in humans yielded positive results, researchers immediately submitted those results to a medical journal, which published them six weeks later. Had the results been published sooner, many of the heart attacks that occurred during the delay could have been prevented.
199310_4-LR2_2_2
[ "the medical journal's staff worked overtime in order to publish the study's results as soon as possible", "studies of aspirin's usefulness in reducing heart attacks in laboratory animals remain inconclusive", "people who take aspirin regularly suffer a higher-than-average incidence of stomach ulcers", "the medical journal's official policy is to publish articles only after an extensive review process", "a person's risk of suffering a heart attack drops only after that person has taken aspirin regularly for two years" ]
4
The conclusion drawn above would be most undermined if it were true that
It might seem that an airline could increase profits by reducing airfares on all its flights in order to encourage discretionary travel and thus fill planes. Offers of across-the-board discount fares have, indeed, resulted in the sale of large numbers of reduced-price tickets. Nevertheless such offers have, in the past, actually cut the airline's profits.
199310_4-LR2_3_3
[ "Fewer than 10 percent of all air travelers make no attempt to seek out discount fares.", "Fares for trips between a large city and a small city are higher than those for trips between two large cities even when the distances involved are the same.", "Across-the-board discounts in fares tend to decrease revenues on flights that are normally filled, but they fail to attract passengers to unpopular flights.", "Only a small number of people who have never before traveled by air are persuaded to do so on the basis of across-the-board discount fares.", "It is difficult to devise an advertising campaign that makes the public aware of across-the-board discount fares while fully explaining the restrictions applied to those discount fares." ]
2
Which one of the following, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent discrepancy described above?
Only if the electorate is moral and intelligent will a democracy function well.
199310_4-LR2_4_4
[ "If the electorate is moral and intelligent, then a democracy will function well.", "Either a democracy does not function well or else the electorate is not moral or not intelligent.", "If the electorate is not moral or not intelligent, then a democracy will not function well.", "If a democracy does not function well, then the electorate is not moral or not intelligent.", "It cannot, at the same time, be true that the electorate is moral and intelligent and that a democracy will not function well." ]
2
Which one of the following can be logically inferred from the claim above?
Infants younger than six months who have normal hearing can readily distinguish between acoustically similar sounds that are used as part of any language— not only those used in the language spoken by the people who raise them. Young adults can readily distinguish between such sounds only in languages that they regularly use. It is known that the physiological capacity to hear begins to deteriorate after infancy. So the observed difference in the abilities of infants and young adults to distinguish between acoustically similar speech sounds must be the result of the physiological deterioration of hearing.
199310_4-LR2_5_5
[ "sets an arbitrary cutoff point of six months for the age below which infants are able to distinguish acoustically similar speech sounds", "does not explain the procedures used to measure the abilities of two very different populations", "ignores the fact that certain types of speech sounds occur in almost all languages", "assumes that what is true of a group of people taken collectively is also true of any individual within that group", "takes a factor that might contribute to an explanation of the observed difference as a sufficient explanation for that difference" ]
4
The reasoning in the argument is flawed because the argument
The economies of some industrialized countries face the prospect of large labor shortages in the decades ahead. Meanwhile, these countries will have a vast number of experienced and productive older workers who, as things stand, will be driven from the work force upon reaching the age of sixty-five by the widespread practice of requiring workers to retire at that age. Therefore, if the discriminatory practice of mandatory retirement at age sixty-five were eliminated, the labor shortages facing these economies would be averted.
199310_4-LR2_6_6
[ "older workers have acquired skills that are extremely valuable and that their younger colleagues lack", "workers in industrialized countries are often unprepared to face the economic consequences of enforced idleness", "a large number of workers in some industrialized countries would continue working beyond the age of sixty-five if workers in those countries were allowed to do so", "mandatory retirement at age sixty-five was first instituted when life expectancy was considerably lower than it is today", "a substantial proportion of the population of officially retired workers is actually engaged in gainful employment" ]
2
The argument assumes that
The incidence in Japan of most types of cancer is remarkably low compared to that in North America, especially considering that Japan has a modern life-style, industrial pollution included. The cancer rates, however, for Japanese people who immigrate to North America and adopt the diet of North Americans approximate the higher cancer rates prevalent in North America.
199310_4-LR2_7_7
[ "The greater the level of industrial pollution in a country, the higher that country's cancer rate will tend to be.", "The stress of life in North America is greater than that of life in Japan and predisposes to cancer.", "The staple foods of the Japanese diet contain elements that cure cancer.", "The relatively low rate of cancer among people in Japan does not result from a high frequency of a protective genetic trait among Japanese people.", "The higher cancer rates of Japanese immigrants to North America are caused by fats in the North American diet." ]
3
If the statements above are true, they provide the most support for which one of the following?
A translation invariably reflects the writing style of the translator. Sometimes when a long document needs to be translated quickly, several translators are put to work on the job, each assigned to translate part of the document. In these cases, the result is usually a translation marked by different and often incompatible writing styles. Certain computer programs for language translation that work without the intervention of human translators can finish the job faster than human translators and produce a stylistically uniform translation with an 80 percent accuracy rate. Therefore, when a long document needs to be translated quickly, it is better to use a computer translation program than human translators.
199310_4-LR2_8_8
[ "whether the problem of stylistic variety in human translation could be solved by giving stylistic guidelines to human translators", "whether numerical comparisons of the accuracy of translations can reasonably be made", "whether computer translation programs, like human translators, each have their own distinct writing style", "whether the computer translation contains errors of grammar and usage that drastically alter the meaning of the text", "how the accuracy rate of computer translation programs compares with that of human translators in relation to the users' needs" ]
2
Which one of the following issues would be LEAST important to resolve in evaluating the argument?
Myrna: People should follow diets in which fat represents no more than 30 percent of total calories, not the 37 percent the average diet in this country contains. Roland: If everyone in the country followed your recommendation during his or her entire life, just 0.2 percent would lengthen their lives at all, and then only by an average of 3 months. Modifying our diet is not worthwhile. A lifetime of sacrifice spent eating an unappealing low-fat diet is too high a price to pay for the chance of extending that sacrifice for 3 months. Myrna: But for everyone who dies early from a high-fat diet, many more people suffer from serious chronic diseases because they followed such diets.
199310_4-LR2_9_9
[ "disputing the correctness of the facts cited by Roland and offering facts that she considers correct", "showing that the factors considered by Roland are not the only ones relevant in evaluating her recommendation", "demonstrating that the statistics used by Roland to dispute her recommendation are inaccurate", "suggesting that Roland's evidence derives from unreliable sources", "pointing out that Roland's argument assumes the very proposition it sets out to prove" ]
1
Myrna responds to Roland by
Myrna: People should follow diets in which fat represents no more than 30 percent of total calories, not the 37 percent the average diet in this country contains. Roland: If everyone in the country followed your recommendation during his or her entire life, just 0.2 percent would lengthen their lives at all, and then only by an average of 3 months. Modifying our diet is not worthwhile. A lifetime of sacrifice spent eating an unappealing low-fat diet is too high a price to pay for the chance of extending that sacrifice for 3 months. Myrna: But for everyone who dies early from a high-fat diet, many more people suffer from serious chronic diseases because they followed such diets.
199310_4-LR2_9_10
[ "it is desirable to live in such a way as to lengthen life as much as possible", "a low-fat diet cannot readily be made appealing and satisfying to a person who follows it regularly", "diet is the only relevant factor to consider in computing influences on length of life", "the difference in tastiness between a diet in which fat represents 30 percent of total calories and one in which it represents 37 percent is not noticeable", "not everyone in the country eats the average diet" ]
1
Roland's argument assumes that
Some critics claim that it is unfair that so many great works of art are housed in huge metropolitan museums, since the populations served by these museums already have access to a wide variety of important artwork. But this criticism is in principle unwarranted because the limited number of masterpieces makes wider distribution of them impractical. Besides, if a masterpiece is to be fully appreciated, it must be seen alongside other works that provide a social and historical context for it.
199310_4-LR2_10_11
[ "In providing facilities to the public, the goal should be to ensure that as many as possible of those people who could benefit from the facilities are able to do so.", "In providing facilities to the public, the goal should be to ensure that the greatest possible number of people gain the greatest benefit possible from them.", "It is unreasonable to enforce a redistribution of social goods that involves depriving some members of society of these goods in order to supply others.", "For it to be reasonable to criticize an arrangement as unfair, there must be a more equitable arrangement that is practically attainable.", "A work of art should be displayed in conditions resembling as closely as possible those in which the work was originally intended to be displayed." ]
3
Which one of the following, if established, could most logically serve as the principle appealed to in the argument countering the critics' claim?
Some accountants calculate with simple adding machines, and some use complex computers. One can perform more calculations in less time with a computer than with an adding machine. Therefore, assuming the costs of using the two types of machines are equal, an accountant who uses a computer generally can earn more per hour than an accountant who uses an adding machine.
199310_4-LR2_11_12
[ "More accountants use computers than use adding machines.", "The more hours an accountant spends on the job, the more money he or she will earn.", "The more calculations an accountant performs, the more money he or she will earn.", "An accountant who uses an adding machine can charge a higher hourly rate than one who uses a computer.", "In general, accountants vary in terms of the number of calculations they make and the amount of money they earn." ]
2
Which one of the following is an assumption that would make the conclusion in the passage a logical one?
This summer, Jennifer, who has worked at KVZ Manufacturing for just over three years, plans to spend with her family the entire four weeks of paid vacation to which she is entitled this year. Anyone who has worked at KVZ Manufacturing for between one and four years is automatically entitled to exactly three weeks paid vacation each year but can apply up to half of any vacation time that remains unused at the end of one year to the next year's vacation.
199310_4-LR2_12_13
[ "Jennifer did not use two weeks of the paid vacation time to which she was entitled last year.", "If Jennifer continues to work for KVZ Manufacturing, she will only be entitled to three weeks paid vacation next year.", "The majority of KVZ's employees use each year all of the paid vacation time to which they are entitled.", "Last year Jennifer took only one week of the paid vacation time to which she was entitled.", "KVZ Manufacturing sometimes allows extra vacation time to employees who need to spend more time with their families." ]
0
If the statements above are all true, which one of the following must also be true on the basis of them?
A careful review of hospital fatalities due to anesthesia during the last 20 years indicates that the most significant safety improvements resulted from better training of anesthetists. Equipment that monitors a patient's oxygen and carbon dioxide levels was not available in most operating rooms during the period under review. Therefore, the increased use of such monitoring equipment in operating rooms will not significantly cut fatalities due to anesthesia.
199310_4-LR2_13_14
[ "the evidence cited to show that one factor led to a certain result is not sufficient to show that a second factor will not also lead to that result", "the reasons given in support of the conclusion presuppose the truth of that conclusion", "the evidence cited to show that a certain factor was absent when a certain result occurred does not show that the absence of that factor caused that result", "the evidence cited in support of the conclusion is inconsistent with other information that is provided", "the reason indicated for the claim that one event caused a second more strongly supports the claim that both events were independent effects of a third event" ]
0
A flaw in the argument is that
New types of washing machines designed to consume less energy also extract less water from laundry during their final spin cycles than do washing machines that consume somewhat more energy. The wetter the laundry, the more energy required to dry it in an automatic dryer. Thus using these new types of washing machines could result in an overall increase in the energy needed to wash and dry a load of laundry.
199310_4-LR2_14_15
[ "The more skill required to operate a machine, the harder it is to find people able to do it, and thus the more those people must be paid. Therefore, if a factory installs machines that require highly skilled operators, it must be prepared to pay higher wages.", "There are two routes between Centerville and Mapletown, and the scenic route is the longer route. Therefore, a person who is not concerned with how long it will take to travel between Centerville and Mapletown will probably take the scenic route.", "The more people who work in the library's reading room, the noisier the room becomes; and the noisier the working environment, the less efficiently people work. Therefore, when many people are working in the reading room, those people are working less efficiently.", "Pine is a less expensive wood than cedar but is more susceptible to rot. Outdoor furniture made from wood susceptible to rot must be painted with more expensive paint. Therefore, building outdoor furniture from pine rather than cedar could increase the total cost of building and painting the furniture.", "The more weights added to an exercise machine, the greater the muscle strength needed to work out on the machine. Up to a point, using more muscle strength can make a person stronger. Thus an exercise machine with more weights can, but does not necessarily, make a person stronger." ]
3
In which one of the following is the pattern of reasoning most parallel to that in the argument above?
G: The group of works exhibited in this year's Metropolitan Art Show reveals a bias in favor of photographers. Equal numbers of photographers, sculptors, and painters submitted works that met the traditional criteria for the show, yet more photographs were exhibited than either sculptures or paintings. As you know, each artist was allowed to submit work in one medium only. H: How could there have been bias? All submitted works that met the traditional criteria—and only those works—were exhibited in the show.
199310_4-LR2_15_16
[ "More photographers than sculptors or painters submitted works to be considered for exhibition in the Metropolitan Art Show.", "All the works submitted for the Metropolitan Art Show met the traditional criteria for the show.", "The quality of photographs exhibited in the Metropolitan Art Show was inferior to the quality of the sculptures or paintings exhibited.", "Some of the photographs submitted for the Metropolitan Art Show did not meet the traditional criteria for the show.", "More works that met the traditional criteria for the Metropolitan Art Show were submitted by photographers than by sculptors or painters." ]
4
If both G's assertions and H's assertion are true, which one of the following must also be true?
G: The group of works exhibited in this year's Metropolitan Art Show reveals a bias in favor of photographers. Equal numbers of photographers, sculptors, and painters submitted works that met the traditional criteria for the show, yet more photographs were exhibited than either sculptures or paintings. As you know, each artist was allowed to submit work in one medium only. H: How could there have been bias? All submitted works that met the traditional criteria—and only those works—were exhibited in the show.
199310_4-LR2_15_17
[ "If an artist has had one of his or her works exhibited in the Metropolitan Art Show, that artist has an advantage in getting commissions and selling works over artists who have never had a work exhibited in the show.", "The fee for entering photographs in the Metropolitan Art Show was $25 per work submitted, while the fee for each painting or sculpture submitted was $75.", "The committee that selected from the submitted works the ones to be exhibited in this year's Metropolitan Art Show had four members: one photographer, one sculptor, one painter, and one who works in all three media but is the least known of the four members.", "Reviews of this year's Metropolitan Art Show that appeared in major newspapers and magazines tended to give more coverage to the photographs in the show than to the sculptures and paintings that were exhibited.", "In previous years, it has often happened that more paintings or more sculptures were exhibited in the Metropolitan Art Show than photographs, even though the total number of works exhibited each year does not vary widely." ]
1
Which one of the following, if true, most strongly supports G's allegation of bias?
Marcus: For most ethical dilemmas the journalist is likely to face, traditional journalistic ethics is clear, adequate, and essentially correct. For example, when journalists have uncovered newsworthy information, they should go to press with it as soon as possible. No delay motivated by the journalists' personal or professional interests is permissible. Anita: Well, Marcus, of course interesting and important information should be brought before the public— that is a journalist's job. But in the typical case, where a journalist has some information but is in a quandary about whether it is yet important or "newsworthy," this guidance is inadequate.
199310_4-LR2_16_18
[ "Marcus' claim that traditional journalistic ethics is clear for most ethical dilemmas in journalism is incorrect.", "A typical case illustrates that Marcus is wrong in claiming that traditional journalistic ethics is essentially correct for most ethical dilemmas in journalism.", "The ethical principle that Marcus cites does not help the journalist in a typical kind of situation in which a decision needs to be made.", "There are common situations in which a journalist must make a decision and in which no principle of journalistic ethics can be of help.", "Traditional journalistic ethics amounts to no more than an unnecessarily convoluted description of the journalist's job." ]
2
The point made by Anita's statements is most accurately expressed by which one of the following?
Marcus: For most ethical dilemmas the journalist is likely to face, traditional journalistic ethics is clear, adequate, and essentially correct. For example, when journalists have uncovered newsworthy information, they should go to press with it as soon as possible. No delay motivated by the journalists' personal or professional interests is permissible. Anita: Well, Marcus, of course interesting and important information should be brought before the public— that is a journalist's job. But in the typical case, where a journalist has some information but is in a quandary about whether it is yet important or "newsworthy," this guidance is inadequate.
199310_4-LR2_16_19
[ "whether a piece of information is or is not newsworthy can raise ethical dilemmas for journalists", "there are circumstances in which it would be ethically wrong for a journalist to go to press with legitimately acquired, newsworthy information", "the most serious professional dilemmas that a journalist is likely to face are not ethical dilemmas", "there are no ethical dilemmas that a journalist is likely to face that would not be conclusively resolved by an adequate system of journalistic ethics", "for a system of journalistic ethics to be adequate it must be able to provide guidance in every case in which a journalist must make a professional decision" ]
0
In order to conclude properly from Anita's statements that Marcus' general claim about traditional journalistic ethics is incorrect, it would have to be assumed that
Of every 100 burglar alarms police answer, 99 are false alarms. This situation causes an enormous and dangerous drain on increasingly scarce public resources. Each false alarm wastes an average of 45 minutes of police time. As a result police are consistently taken away from responding to other legitimate calls for service, and a disproportionate share of police service goes to alarm system users, who are mostly businesses and affluent homeowners. However, burglar alarm systems, unlike car alarm systems, are effective in deterring burglaries, so the only acceptable solution is to fine burglar alarm system owners the cost of 45 minutes of police time for each false alarm their systems generate.
199310_4-LR2_17_20
[ "It justifies placing more restrictions on owners of burglar alarms than on owners of car alarms.", "It provides background information needed to make plausible the claim that the number of burglar alarms police are called on to answer is great enough to be a drain on public resources.", "It provides a basis for excluding as unacceptable one obvious alternative to the proposal of fining owners of burglar alarm systems for false alarms.", "It gives a reason why police might be more inclined to respond to burglar alarms than to car alarms.", "It explains why a disproportionate number of the burglar alarms responded to by police come from alarm systems owned by businesses." ]
2
The statement that burglar alarm systems, unlike car alarm systems, are effective in deterring burglaries plays which one of the following roles in the argument?
Of every 100 burglar alarms police answer, 99 are false alarms. This situation causes an enormous and dangerous drain on increasingly scarce public resources. Each false alarm wastes an average of 45 minutes of police time. As a result police are consistently taken away from responding to other legitimate calls for service, and a disproportionate share of police service goes to alarm system users, who are mostly businesses and affluent homeowners. However, burglar alarm systems, unlike car alarm systems, are effective in deterring burglaries, so the only acceptable solution is to fine burglar alarm system owners the cost of 45 minutes of police time for each false alarm their systems generate.
199310_4-LR2_17_21
[ "No segment of a community should be permitted to engage in a practice that has been shown to result in a disproportionate share of police service being devoted to that segment of the community.", "When public resources are in short supply, any individual who wants special services from public agencies such as police and fire departments should be required to pay for those services if he or she can afford to do so.", "Police departments are not justified in improving service to one segment of the community at the expense of other segments of the community unless doing so reduces the crime level throughout the entire area served.", "Anyone who directly benefits from a service provided by public employees should be required to reimburse the general public fund an amount equivalent to the average cost of providing that service.", "If receipt of a service results in the waste of scarce public resources and people with other legitimate needs are disadvantaged in consequence, the recipient of that service should compensate the public for the resources wasted." ]
4
On the basis of the premises advanced, which one of the following principles, if established, would provide the most justification for the concluding recommendation?
When butterfat was considered nutritious and healthful, a law was enacted requiring that manufacturers use the term "imitation butter" to indicate butter whose butterfat content had been diminished through the addition of water. Today, it is known that the high cholesterol content of butterfat makes it harmful to human health. Since the public should be encouraged to eat foods with lower rather than higher butterfat content and since the term "imitation" with its connotations of falsity deters many people from purchasing products so designated, manufacturers who wish to give reduced-butterfat butter the more appealing name of "lite butter" should be allowed to do so.
199310_4-LR2_18_22
[ "The manufacturers who prefer to use the word \"lite\" instead of \"imitation\" are motivated principally by the financial interest of their stockholders.", "The manufacturers who wish to call their product \"lite butter\" plan to change the composition of the product so that it contains more water than it now does.", "Some individuals who need to reduce their intake of cholesterol are not deterred from using the reduced-butterfat product by the negative connotations of the term \"imitation.\"", "Cholesterol is only one of many factors that contribute to the types of health problems with which the consumption of excessive amounts of cholesterol is often associated.", "Most people deterred from eating \"imitation butter\" because of its name choose alternatives with a lower butterfat content than this product has." ]
4
Which one of the following, if true, most seriously undermines the argument?
Farm animals have certain behavioral tendencies that result from the evolutionary history of these species. By imposing on these animals a type of organization that conflicts with their behavioral tendencies, current farm-management practices cause the animals more pain and distress than do practices that more closely conform to the animals' behavioral tendencies. Because the animals tend to resist this type of organization, current practices can also be less efficient than those other farm-management practices.
199310_4-LR2_19_23
[ "Some of the behavioral tendencies of farm animals can be altered by efficient farm-management practices.", "In order to implement efficient farm-management practices, it is necessary to be familiar with the evolutionary history of farm animals.", "In order to create farm-management practices that cause less pain and distress to farm animals, a significant loss of efficiency will be required.", "Farm-management practices that cause the least amount of pain and distress to farm animals are also the most efficient management practices.", "Some changes in farm-management practices that lessen the pain and distress experienced by farm animals can result in gains in efficiency." ]
4
If the statements above are true, which one of the following can be properly inferred from them?
It now seems clear that the significant role initially predicted for personal computers in the classroom has not become fact. One need only look to the dramatic decline in sales of computers for classroom use in the past year for proof that the fad has passed.
199310_4-LR2_20_24
[ "Clearly, government legislation mandating the reduction of automobile emissions has been at least partially successful, as is demonstrated by the fact that the air of the 20 largest cities now contains smaller amounts of the major pollutants mentioned in the legislation than it did before the legislation was passed.", "Mechanical translation from one language into another, not merely in narrow contexts such as airline reservations but generally, is clearly an idea whose time has come. Since experts have been working on the problem for 40 years, it is now time for the accumulated expertise to achieve a breakthrough.", "Sales of computers for home use will never reach the levels optimistically projected by manufacturers. The reason is that home use was envisioned as encompassing tasks, such as menu planning and checkbook reconciliation, that most homemakers perform in much simpler ways than using a computer would require.", "It is apparent that consumers have tired of microwave ovens as quickly as they initially came to accept this recent invention. In contrast to several years of increasing sales following the introduction of microwave ovens, sales of microwave ovens flattened last year, indicating that consumers have found relatively little use for these devices.", "Creating incentives for a particular kind of investment inevitably engenders boom-and-bust cycles. The evidence is in the recent decline in the value of commercial real estate, which shows that, although the government can encourage people to put up buildings, it cannot guarantee that those buildings will be fully rented or sold." ]
3
Which one of the following arguments contains flawed reasoning parallel to that in the argument above?
Scientists attempting to replicate certain controversial results reported by a group of experienced researchers failed to get the same results as those reported. The conclusion drawn from this by the scientists who conducted the replication experiments was that the originally reported results had been due to faulty measurements.
199310_4-LR2_21_25
[ "the original experiments had not been described in sufficient detail to make an exact replication possible", "the fact that the originally reported results aroused controversy made it highly likely that they were in error", "the theoretical principles called into question by the originally reported results were themselves based on weak evidence", "the replication experiments were not so likely as the original experiments to be marred by faulty measurements", "the researchers who originally reported the controversial results had themselves observed those results only once" ]
3
The argument of the scientists who conducted the replication experiments assumes that
Educational television is a contradiction in terms. While a classroom encourages social interaction, television encourages solitude. School is centered on the development of language, but television depends upon constantly changing visual images. And in a classroom, fun is merely a means to an end, but on television it is the end in itself.
199402_1-LR1_1_1
[ "The classroom should not be a place where anyone has fun.", "Only experiences that closely resemble what takes place in the school environment can be educational.", "Television programs reinforce some of the values of the school environment.", "Educational television programs are qualitatively better than most other television programs.", "The potential of television as a powerful learning tool has not yet been realized." ]
1
Upon which one of the following assumptions does the author rely in the passage?
Switching to "low-yield" cigarettes, those that yield less nicotine, tar, and carbon monoxide than regular cigarettes when tested on a standard machine, does not, in general, reduce the incidence of heart attack. This result is surprising, since nicotine and carbon monoxide have been implicated as contributing to heart disease.
199402_1-LR1_2_2
[ "Smoking low-yield cigarettes has become fashionable, as relatively healthier styles of life have become more popular than those that have been identified as risky.", "For those who are themselves smokers, inhaling the smoke of others is not generally a significant factor contributing to an increased risk of heart disease.", "Nicotine does not contribute as much to heart disease as does carbon monoxide.", "Carbon monoxide and cigarette tar are not addictive substances.", "People who switch from high-yield to low-yield cigarettes often compensate by increasing the number and depth of puffs in order to maintain their accustomed nicotine levels." ]
4
Which one of the following, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent discrepancy?
Sally: I cannot study at a university where there is an alcohol problem, so unless something is done about the alcohol problem at this university, I'll have to transfer to a university where there are no fraternities. Yolanda: I don't agree that fraternities are responsible for the alcohol problem at this university. Alcohol problems exist at all universities, including those where there are no fraternities. We all should become more aware of alcohol abuse. It's not simply a fraternity problem; it's a cultural problem.
199402_1-LR1_3_3
[ "Most universities have fraternities.", "Nothing will be done about the alcohol problem at Sally's university.", "Alcohol problems are becoming more widespread at universities.", "Some fraternity members who drink alcoholic beverages are too young to do so legally.", "There could be universities that have no alcohol problems." ]
4
Which one of the following is an assumption on which Sally's argument depends?
Sally: I cannot study at a university where there is an alcohol problem, so unless something is done about the alcohol problem at this university, I'll have to transfer to a university where there are no fraternities. Yolanda: I don't agree that fraternities are responsible for the alcohol problem at this university. Alcohol problems exist at all universities, including those where there are no fraternities. We all should become more aware of alcohol abuse. It's not simply a fraternity problem; it's a cultural problem.
199402_1-LR1_3_4
[ "She argues that if people become more aware of alcohol abuse, fewer people will themselves abuse alcohol.", "She makes an overly broad generalization from one university to all universities.", "She concludes that because alcohol problems are cultural problems, they cannot be fraternity problems.", "She tries to undermine what she supposes to be Sally's position by pointing out that alcohol problems occur even at universities where there are no fraternities.", "She suggests that even if alcohol problems existed only at universities with fraternities, she would still conclude that alcoholism is a cultural rather than a fraternity problem." ]
3
In the conversation, Yolanda does which one of the following?