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Some people have questioned why the Homeowners Association is supporting Cooper's candidacy for mayor. But if the Association wants a mayor who will attract more businesses to the town, Cooper is the only candidate it could support. So, since the Association is supporting Cooper, it must have a goal of attracting more businesses to the town. | 199402_1-LR1_4_5 | [
"the reasons the Homeowners Association should want to attract more businesses to the town are not given",
"the Homeowners Association could be supporting Cooper's candidacy for reasons unrelated to attracting businesses to the town",
"other groups besides the Homeowners Association could be supporting Cooper's candidacy",
"the Homeowners Association might discover that attracting more businesses to the town would not be in the best interest of its members",
"Cooper might not have all of the skills that are needed by a mayor who wants to attract businesses to a town"
]
| 1 | The reasoning in the argument is in error because |
Advertisement: Most power hedge trimmers on the market do an adequate job of trimming hedges, but many power hedge trimmers are dangerous to operate and can cause serious injury when used by untrained operators. Bolter Industries' hedge trimmer has been tested by National Laboratories, the most trusted name in safety testing. So you know, if you buy a Bolter's, you are buying a power hedge trimmer whose safety is assured. | 199402_1-LR1_5_6 | [
"Has National Laboratories performed safety tests on other machines made by Bolter Industries?",
"How important to the average buyer of a power hedge trimmer is safety of operation?",
"What were the results of National Laboratories' tests of Bolter Industries' hedge trimmer?",
"Are there safer ways of trimming a hedge than using a power hedge trimmer?",
"Does any other power hedge trimmer on the market do a better job of trimming hedges than does Bolter Industries' hedge trimmer?"
]
| 2 | The answer to which one of the following questions would be most useful in evaluating the truth of the conclusion drawn in the advertisement? |
Slash-and-burn agriculture involves burning several acres of forest, leaving vegetable ash that provides ample fertilizer for three or four years of bountiful crops. On the cleared land nutrients leach out of the soil, however, and the land becomes too poor to support agriculture. New land is then cleared by burning and the process starts again. Since most farming in the tropics uses this method, forests in this region will eventually be permanently eradicated. | 199402_1-LR1_6_7 | [
"forests in the tropics do not regenerate well enough to restore themselves once they have been cleared by the slash-and-burn method",
"some other methods of agriculture are not as destructive to the environment in tropical regions as the slash-and-burn method is",
"forests in the tropics are naturally deficient in nutrients that are needed to support the growth of plants that are not native to those regions",
"slash-and-burn agriculture is particularly suitable for farming in tropical areas",
"slash-and-burn agriculture produces a more bountiful crop than do other agriculture methods for the first year"
]
| 0 | The argument depends on the assumption that |
Of 2,500 people who survived a first heart attack, those who did not smoke had their first heart attack at a median age of 62. However, of those 2,500, people who smoked two packs of cigarettes a day had their first heart attack at a median age of 51. On the basis of this information, it can be concluded that nonsmokers tend to have a first heart attack eleven years later than do people who smoke two packs of cigarettes a day. | 199402_1-LR1_7_8 | [
"the relative severity of heart attacks suffered by smokers and nonsmokers",
"the nature of the different medical treatments that smokers and nonsmokers received after they had survived their first heart attack",
"how many of the 2,500 people studied suffered a second heart attack",
"the earliest age at which a person who smoked two packs a day had his or her first heart attack",
"data on people who did not survive a first heart attack"
]
| 4 | The conclusion is incorrectly drawn from the information given because this information does not include |
Paleontologists have discovered fossils of centipedes that are 414 million years old. These fossils are at least 20 million years older than the earliest land-dwelling animals previously identified. The paleontologists are confident that these centipedes lived on land, even though the fossilized centipedes were discovered in rock that also contained fossilized remains of animals known to be water-dwelling. | 199402_1-LR1_8_9 | [
"The legs of the fossilized centipedes were particularly suited to being a means of locomotion on land.",
"All of the centipedes that had previously been discovered were land dwellers.",
"The rock in which the fossilized centipedes were found was formed from mud flats that were occasionally covered by river water.",
"Fossils of the earliest land-dwelling animals that had previously been identified were found in rock that did not contain fossilized remains of water-dwelling animals.",
"Fossils of spiders with respiratory systems adapted only to breathing air were found in the same rock as the centipede fossils."
]
| 3 | The paleontologists' view would be LEAST supported by the truth of which one of the following? |
Broadcaster: Our radio station has a responsibility to serve the public interest. Hence, when our critics contend that our recent exposé of events in the private lives of local celebrities was excessively intrusive, we can only reply that the overwhelming public interest in these matters makes it our responsibility to publicize them. | 199402_1-LR1_9_10 | [
"assuming without argument that there is a right to privacy",
"ignoring grounds for criticism of the exposé aside from intrusion into people's private lives",
"intentionally failing to specify what is meant by \"excessively intrusive\"",
"confusing legal responsibility with moral obligation",
"improperly exploiting an ambiguity in the phrase \"public interest\""
]
| 4 | Which one of the following is a flaw in the broadcaster's defense of the radio station's practice? |
The fire that destroyed the Municipal Building started before dawn this morning, and the last fire fighters did not leave until late this afternoon. No one could have been anywhere in the vicinity of a fire like that one and fail to notice it. Thomas must have seen it, whatever he now says to the contrary. He admits that, as usual, he went from his apartment to the library this morning, and there is no way for him to get from his apartment to the library without going past the Municipal Building. | 199402_1-LR1_10_11 | [
"Thomas was in the vicinity of the fire this morning",
"Thomas claimed not to have seen the fire",
"Thomas saw the fire this morning",
"Thomas went directly from his apartment to the library this morning",
"Thomas went by the Municipal Building this morning"
]
| 2 | The main conclusion of the argument is that |
The fire that destroyed the Municipal Building started before dawn this morning, and the last fire fighters did not leave until late this afternoon. No one could have been anywhere in the vicinity of a fire like that one and fail to notice it. Thomas must have seen it, whatever he now says to the contrary. He admits that, as usual, he went from his apartment to the library this morning, and there is no way for him to get from his apartment to the library without going past the Municipal Building. | 199402_1-LR1_10_12 | [
"presenting several different pieces of evidence, each of which by itself would allow the conclusion to be properly drawn",
"establishing that one thing occurred by showing that another thing occurred and that this second thing was enough to ensure the occurrence of the first thing",
"justifying a claim that a view held by someone else is false by explaining why that view, despite its falsity, is a tempting one for that person to hold under the circumstances",
"relying on evidence that a certain kind of event has regularly occurred in the past as a basis for concluding that an event of that kind occurred in the present case",
"drawing a general conclusion about what is possible in a certain kind of situation on the basis of firsthand experience with one such situation"
]
| 1 | The argument employs which one of the following reasoning techniques? |
Editorial: In rejecting the plan proposed by parliament to reform the electoral process, the president clearly acted in the best interests of the nation. Anyone who thinks otherwise should remember that the president made this decision knowing it would be met with fierce opposition at home and widespread disapproval abroad. All citizens who place the nation's well-being above narrow partisan interests will applaud this courageous action. | 199402_1-LR1_11_13 | [
"it confuses a quality that is merely desirable in a political leader with a quality that is essential to effective political decision-making",
"it fails to distinguish between evidence concerning the courage required to make a certain decision and evidence concerning the wisdom of making that decision",
"it ignores the likelihood that many citizens have no narrow partisan interest in the proposed election reform plan",
"it overlooks the possibility that there was strong opposition to the parliament's plan among members of the president's own party",
"it depends on the unwarranted assumption that any plan proposed by a parliament will necessarily serve only narrow partisan interests"
]
| 1 | The reasoning in the editorial is in error because |
Once consumers recognize that a period of inflation has begun, there is generally an increase in consumer spending. This increase can be readily explained by consumers' desire not to postpone purchases that will surely increase in price. But during protracted periods of inflation, consumers eventually begin to put off making even routine purchases, despite the fact that consumers continue to expect prices to rise and despite the fact that salaries also rise during inflationary periods. | 199402_1-LR1_12_14 | [
"During times of inflation consumers save more money than they do in noninflationary periods.",
"There is usually a lag between the leading economic indicators' first signaling the onset of an inflationary period and consumers' recognition of its onset.",
"No generalization that describes human behavior will be true of every type of human behavior.",
"If significant numbers of consumers are unable to make purchases, prices will eventually fall but salaries will not be directly affected.",
"Consumers' purchasing power decreases during periods of protracted inflation since salaries do not keep pace with prices."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain the apparent inconsistency in consumer behavior described above? |
A favored theory to explain the extinction of dinosaurs, together with many other species, has been the globally catastrophic collision of a large asteroid with the Earth. Supporting evidence is an extraterrestrial chemical element in a layer of dust found worldwide at a geological level laid down contemporaneously with the supposed event. A new competing theory contends that any asteroid impact was irrelevant, because it was massive volcanic activity that caused the extinctions by putting enough dust into the atmosphere to cool the planet. The Deccan region of India contains extensive volcanic flows that occurred within the same time period as the supposed asteroid impact and the extinctions. | 199402_1-LR1_13_15 | [
"the massive volcanic activity was not caused by the impact of an asteroid",
"no individual dinosaurs survived the impact of the asteroid, if it occurred",
"the extinctions took place over a longer time period than they would have if caused by the impact of an asteroid",
"other volcanic eruptions were not occurring at the same time as those in the Deccan region",
"it is not possible to determine which would have occurred first, the volcanic flows in the Deccan region or the supposed impact of an asteroid"
]
| 0 | The new theory assumes that |
A favored theory to explain the extinction of dinosaurs, together with many other species, has been the globally catastrophic collision of a large asteroid with the Earth. Supporting evidence is an extraterrestrial chemical element in a layer of dust found worldwide at a geological level laid down contemporaneously with the supposed event. A new competing theory contends that any asteroid impact was irrelevant, because it was massive volcanic activity that caused the extinctions by putting enough dust into the atmosphere to cool the planet. The Deccan region of India contains extensive volcanic flows that occurred within the same time period as the supposed asteroid impact and the extinctions. | 199402_1-LR1_13_16 | [
"Large concentrations of dinosaur nests with fossil eggs found in Alberta indicate that at least some species of dinosaurs congregated in large groups during some part of their lives.",
"Dinosaur remains indicate that some species of dinosaur could have migrated in herds over wide ranges, so that they could have traveled to escape the local effects of certain catastrophes.",
"Legends from many cultures, such as the Greek legend that Cadmus raised an army by sowing dragons' teeth in the ground, show that various ancient peoples worldwide were familiar with the fossils of dinosaurs.",
"In the Gobi desert in China, where now only small animals can eke out an existence, fossil dinosaur skeletons 27 feet long were found in circumstances indicating that the climate there was as dry when the dinosaurs lived as it is now.",
"The fossil record in Montana from below the layer of extraterrestrial dust shows a diminution over time in dinosaur species from 35 to 13, and dinosaur teeth found above the dust layer show a diminution in species from 13 to 5."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following, if true, most strongly indicates that the asteroid-impact theory is at least incomplete, if not false? |
A contract, whether expressed or unexpressed, exists when two parties engage with each other for the reciprocal transfer of benefits. Thus, in accepting support from public funds, an artist creates at least an unexpressed contract between himself or herself and the public, and the public can rightly expect to benefit from the artist's work. | 199402_1-LR1_14_17 | [
"attempting to justify a rule of conduct on the grounds that it confers benefits on all of the parties involved",
"concluding that a definition is fully applicable to a situation when it is known only that the situation conforms partially to that definition",
"speaking only in abstract terms about matters that involve contingencies and that must be judged on a case-by-case basis",
"confusing the type of mental or emotional activity in which an individual can engage with the mental or emotional states that can characterize groups of individuals",
"treating an issue that requires resolution through political processes as if it were merely a matter of opinion"
]
| 1 | Which one of the following most accurately describes an error in reasoning in the passage? |
People cannot be morally responsible for things over which they have no control. Therefore, they should not be held morally responsible for any inevitable consequences of such things, either. Determining whether adults have any control over the treatment they are receiving can be difficult. Hence in some cases it can be difficult to know whether adults bear any moral responsibility for the way they are treated. Everyone, however, sometimes acts in ways that are an inevitable consequence of treatment received as an infant, and infants clearly cannot control, and so are not morally responsible for, the treatment they receive. | 199402_1-LR1_15_18 | [
"An infant should never be held morally responsible for an action that infant has performed.",
"There are certain commonly performed actions for which no one performing those actions should ever be held morally responsible.",
"Adults who claim that they have no control over the treatment they are receiving should often be held at least partially responsible for being so treated.",
"If a given action is within a certain person's control that person should be held morally responsible for the consequences of that action.",
"No adult should be held morally responsible for every action he or she performs."
]
| 4 | Anyone making the claims above would be logically committed to which one of the following further claims? |
Fares on the city-run public buses in Greenville are subsidized by city tax revenues, but among the beneficiaries of the low fares are many people who commute from outside the city to jobs in Greenville. Some city councillors argue that city taxes should be used primarily to benefit the people who pay them, and therefore that bus fares should be raised enough to cover the cost of the service. | 199402_1-LR1_16_19 | [
"Many businesses whose presence in the city is beneficial to the city's taxpayers would relocate outside the city if public-transit fares were more expensive.",
"By providing commuters with economic incentives to drive to work, higher transit fares would worsen air pollution in Greenville and increase the cost of maintaining the city's streets.",
"Increasing transit fares would disadvantage those residents of the city whose low incomes make them exempt from city taxes, and all city councilors agree that these residents should be able to take advantage of city-run services.",
"Voters in the city, many of whom benefit from the low transit fares, are strongly opposed to increasing local taxes.",
"People who work in Greenville and earn wages above the nationally mandated minimum all pay the city wage tax of 5 percent."
]
| 3 | Each of the following, if true, would weaken the argument advanced by the city councilors EXCEPT: |
Government official: Clearly, censorship exists if we, as citizens, are not allowed to communicate what we are ready to communicate at our own expense or if other citizens are not permitted access to our communications at their own expense. Public unwillingness to provide funds for certain kinds of scientific, scholarly, or artistic activities cannot, therefore, be described as censorship. | 199402_1-LR1_17_20 | [
"All actions that cause unnecessary harm to others are unjust; so if a just action causes harm to others, that action must be necessary.",
"Since there is more to good manners than simply using polite forms of address, it is not possible to say on first meeting a person whether or not that person has good manners.",
"Acrophobia, usually defined as a morbid fear of heights, can also mean a morbid fear of sharp objects. Since both fears have the same name, they undoubtedly have the same origin.",
"There is no doubt that a deed is heroic if the doer risks his or her own life to benefit another person. Thus an action is not heroic if the only thing it endangers is the reputation of the doer.",
"Perception of beauty in an object is determined by past and present influences on the mind of the beholder. Thus no object can be called beautiful, since not everyone will see beauty in it."
]
| 3 | The flawed reasoning in the government official's argument is most parallel to that in which one of the following? |
The Japanese haiku is defined as a poem of three lines with five syllables in the first line, seven syllables in the second line, and five syllables in the third line. English poets tend to ignore this fact. Disregarding syllable count, they generally call any three-line English poem with a "haiku feel" a haiku. This demonstrates that English poets have little respect for foreign traditions, even those from which some of their own poetry derives. | 199402_1-LR1_18_21 | [
"confuses matters of objective fact with matters of subjective feeling",
"draws a conclusion that is broader in scope than is warranted by the evidence advanced",
"relies on stereotypes instead of presenting evidence",
"overlooks the possibility that the case it cites is not unique",
"fails to acknowledge that ignoring something implies a negative judgment about that thing"
]
| 1 | The reasoning is flawed because it |
No one knows what purposes, if any, dreams serve, although there are a number of hypotheses. According to one hypothesis, dreams are produced when the brain is erasing "parasitic connections" (meaningless, accidental associations between ideas), which accumulate during the day and which would otherwise clog up our memories. Interestingly, the only mammal that does not have rapid eye movement sleep, in which we humans typically have our most vivid dreams, is the spiny anteater, which has been seen as anomalous in that it has a very large brain relative to the animal's size. This fact provides some confirmation for the parasitic-connection hypothesis, since the hypothesis predicts that for an animal that did not dream to have an effective memory that animal would need extra memory space for the parasitic connections. | 199402_1-LR1_19_22 | [
"The animals with the smallest brains spend the most time sleeping.",
"Immediately after a person awakens from normal sleep, her or his memory contains virtually no accidental associations between ideas.",
"When a mammal that would normally dream is prevented from dreaming, the functioning of its memory will be impaired.",
"Insofar as a person's description of a dream involves meaningful associations between ideas, it is an inaccurate description.",
"All animals other than the spiny anteater dream."
]
| 2 | The parasitic-connection hypothesis, if true, most strongly supports which one of the following? |
No one knows what purposes, if any, dreams serve, although there are a number of hypotheses. According to one hypothesis, dreams are produced when the brain is erasing "parasitic connections" (meaningless, accidental associations between ideas), which accumulate during the day and which would otherwise clog up our memories. Interestingly, the only mammal that does not have rapid eye movement sleep, in which we humans typically have our most vivid dreams, is the spiny anteater, which has been seen as anomalous in that it has a very large brain relative to the animal's size. This fact provides some confirmation for the parasitic-connection hypothesis, since the hypothesis predicts that for an animal that did not dream to have an effective memory that animal would need extra memory space for the parasitic connections. | 199402_1-LR1_19_23 | [
"Facts about one species of animal can provide confirmation for hypotheses about all species that are similar in all relevant respects to the particular species in question.",
"A hypothesis from which several predictions can be drawn as logical conclusions is confirmed only when the majority of these predictions turn out to be true.",
"A hypothesis about the purpose of an action or object is confirmed when it is shown that the hypothesized purpose is achieved with the help of the action or object and could not be achieved without that action or object.",
"A hypothesis is partially confirmed whenever a prediction derived from that hypothesis provides an explanation for an otherwise unexplained set of facts.",
"When several competing hypotheses exist, one of them is confirmed only when it makes a correct prediction that its rivals fail to make."
]
| 3 | The reasoning in the argument most closely conforms to which one of the following principles? |
The body of anyone infected by virus X will, after a week, produce antibodies to fight the virus; the antibodies will increase in number for the next year or so. There is now a test that reliably indicates how many antibodies are present in a person's body. If positive, this test can be used during the first year of infection to estimate to within a month how long that person has had the virus. | 199402_1-LR1_20_24 | [
"Antibodies increase in number only until they have defeated the virus.",
"Without the test for antibodies, there is no way of establishing whether a person has virus X.",
"Antibodies are produced only for viral infections that cannot be fought by any other body defenses.",
"If a person remains infected by virus X indefinitely, there is no limit to the number of antibodies that can be present in the person's body.",
"Anyone infected by virus X will for a time fail to exhibit infection if tested by the antibody test."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following conclusions is best supported by the statements above? |
Large inequalities in wealth always threaten the viability of true democracy, since wealth is the basis of political power, and true democracy depends on the equal distribution of political power among all citizens. | 199402_1-LR1_21_25 | [
"Consumer culture and an emphasis on technological innovation are a dangerous combination, since together they are uncontrollable and lead to irrational excess.",
"If Sara went to the bookstore every time her pocket was full, Sara would never have enough money to cover her living expenses, since books are her love and they are getting very expensive.",
"It is very difficult to write a successful science fiction novel that is set in the past, since historical fiction depends on historical accuracy, whereas science fiction does not.",
"Honesty is important in maintaining friendships. But sometimes honesty can lead to arguments, so it is difficult to predict the effect a particular honest act will have on a friendship.",
"Repeated encroachments on one's leisure time by a demanding job interfere with the requirements of good health. The reason is that good health depends on regular moderate exercise, but adequate leisure time is essential to regular exercise."
]
| 4 | The reasoning in which one of the following arguments most closely parallels the reasoning in the argument above? |
A physician who is too thorough in conducting a medical checkup is likely to subject the patient to the discomfort and expense of unnecessary tests. One who is not thorough enough is likely to miss some serious problem and therefore give the patient a false sense of security. It is difficult for physicians to judge exactly how thorough they should be. Therefore, it is generally unwise for patients to have medical checkups when they do not feel ill. | 199402_4-LR2_1_1 | [
"Some serious diseases in their early stages have symptoms that physicians can readily detect, although patients are not aware of any problem.",
"Under the pressure of reduced reimbursements, physicians have been reducing the average amount of time they spend on each medical checkup.",
"Patients not medically trained are unable to judge for themselves what degree of thoroughness is appropriate for physicians in conducting medical checkups.",
"Many people are financially unable to afford regular medical checkups.",
"Some physicians sometimes exercise exactly the right degree of thoroughness in performing a medical checkup."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, would most seriously weaken the argument in the passage? |
A physician who is too thorough in conducting a medical checkup is likely to subject the patient to the discomfort and expense of unnecessary tests. One who is not thorough enough is likely to miss some serious problem and therefore give the patient a false sense of security. It is difficult for physicians to judge exactly how thorough they should be. Therefore, it is generally unwise for patients to have medical checkups when they do not feel ill. | 199402_4-LR2_1_2 | [
"Not all medical tests entail significant discomfort.",
"Sometimes, unnecessary medical tests cause healthy people to become ill.",
"Some patients refuse to accept a physician's assurance that the patient is healthy.",
"The more complete the series of tests performed in a medical checkup, the more likely it is that a rare disease, if present, will be discovered.",
"Physicians can eliminate the need to order certain tests by carefully questioning patients and rejecting some possibilities on that basis."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, would provide the most support for the conclusion in the passage? |
People often pronounce a word differently when asked to read written material aloud than when speaking spontaneously. These differences may cause problems for those who develop computers that recognize speech. Usually the developers "train" the computers by using samples of written material read by the people who will be using the computer. | 199402_4-LR2_2_3 | [
"it will be impossible to develop computers that decode spontaneous speech",
"when reading written material, people who have different accents pronounce the same word in the same way as one another",
"computers may be less reliable in decoding spontaneous speech than in decoding samples that have been read aloud",
"a \"trained\" computer never correctly decodes the spontaneous speech of a person whose voice sample was used to train it",
"computers are now able to interpret oral speech without error"
]
| 2 | The observations above provide most evidence for the conclusion that |
One of the requirements for admission to the Lunnville Roller Skating Club is a high degree of skill in roller skating. The club president has expressed concern that the club may have discriminated against qualified women in its admissions this year. Yet half of the applicants admitted to the club this year were women. This proves that there was no discrimination against qualified women applicants in the club's admissions this year. | 199402_4-LR2_3_4 | [
"Only a few applicants were found to be qualified and were admitted to the club this year.",
"No more than half of all the roller skaters in Lunnville are women.",
"No more than half of all the roller skaters in Lunnville are men.",
"This year no more than half of the applicants who met all the qualifications for admission to the club were women.",
"This year no more than half of the members of the club's committee that makes decisions about applicants' qualifications were men."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the conclusion of the argument depends? |
When girls are educated in single-sex secondary schools, they tend to do better academically than girls who attend mixed-sex schools. Since Alice achieved higher grades than any other woman in her first year at the university, she was probably educated at a single-sex school. | 199402_4-LR2_4_5 | [
"When students have individual tutoring in math, they usually get good grades on their final exams. Celia had individual tutoring in math so she will probably get a good grade.",
"When babies are taught to swim, they have more than the average number of ear infections as they grow up. Janice has more ear infections than any other person at the local swimming club, so she probably was taught to swim when she was a baby.",
"When children study music at an early age, they later tend to appreciate a wide variety of music, so the talent of future musicians is best fostered at an early age.",
"When children practice their piano scales for half an hour each day, they usually pass their piano exams. Sally practices scales for less than half an hour each day, so she will probably fail her piano exam.",
"When children have parents who help them with their homework, they usually do well in school. Therefore, having help with homework is probably the cause of high academic achievement."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following most closely parallels the flawed reasoning used in the argument above? |
In the past century, North America has shifted its main energy source first from wood to coal, then from coal to oil and natural gas. With each transition, the newly dominant fuel has had less carbon and more hydrogen than its predecessor had. It is logical to conclude that in the future the main energy source will be pure hydrogen. | 199402_4-LR2_5_6 | [
"If a series of transitions from one state of a system to another state of that system is allowed to continue without interference, the initial state of the series will eventually recur.",
"If each of two desirable attributes belongs to a useful substance, then the most useful form of that substance will have those two attributes in equal amounts.",
"If the second stage of a process has been completed more quickly than the first stage, the third stage of that process will be completed more quickly than the second stage.",
"If each step in a series of changes involves a decrease of one attribute of the thing undergoing the change and an increase of another, the series will terminate with the first attribute eliminated and only the second attribute present.",
"If one substance is better for a certain purpose than another substance is, then the best substance for that purpose is one that includes among its attributes all of the attributes of the first substance and none of the attributes of the second substance."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following expresses a general principle that could underlie the argument? |
X: Since many chemicals useful for agriculture and medicine derive from rare or endangered plant species, it is likely that many plant species that are now extinct could have provided us with substances that would have been a boon to humanity. Therefore, if we want to ensure that chemicals from plants are available for use in the future, we must make more serious efforts to preserve for all time our natural resources. Y: But living things are not our "resources." Yours is a selfish approach to conservation. We should rather strive to preserve living species because they deserve to survive, not because of the good they can do us. | 199402_4-LR2_6_7 | [
"whether the benefits humans derive from exploiting nonhuman species provide a good reason for preserving nonhuman species",
"whether the cost of preserving plant species outweighs the cost of artificially synthesizing chemicals that could otherwise be derived from those species",
"whether it is prudent to conserve natural resources",
"whether humans should make efforts to prevent the extinction of living species",
"whether all nonhuman species are equally valuable as natural resources"
]
| 0 | Which one of the following is an issue about which X and Y disagree? |
X: Since many chemicals useful for agriculture and medicine derive from rare or endangered plant species, it is likely that many plant species that are now extinct could have provided us with substances that would have been a boon to humanity. Therefore, if we want to ensure that chemicals from plants are available for use in the future, we must make more serious efforts to preserve for all time our natural resources. Y: But living things are not our "resources." Yours is a selfish approach to conservation. We should rather strive to preserve living species because they deserve to survive, not because of the good they can do us. | 199402_4-LR2_6_8 | [
"Medicine would now be more advanced than it is if there had been a serious conservation policy in the past.",
"All living things exist to serve humankind.",
"The use of rare and endangered plant species as a source for chemicals will not itself render those species extinct.",
"The only way to persuade people to preserve natural resources is to convince them that it is in their interest to do so.",
"Few, if any, plant species have been saved from extinction through human efforts."
]
| 2 | X's argument relies on which one of the following assumptions? |
There is relatively little room for growth in the overall carpet market, which is tied to the size of the population. Most who purchase carpet do so only once or twice, first in their twenties or thirties, and then perhaps again in their fifties or sixties. Thus as the population ages, companies producing carpet will be able to gain market share in the carpet market only through purchasing competitors, and not through more aggressive marketing. | 199402_4-LR2_7_9 | [
"Most of the major carpet producers market other floor coverings as well.",
"Most established carpet producers market several different brand names and varieties, and there is no remaining niche in the market for new brands to fill.",
"Two of the three mergers in the industry's last ten years led to a decline in profits and revenues for the newly merged companies.",
"Price reductions, achieved by cost-cutting in production, by some of the dominant firms in the carpet market are causing other producers to leave the market altogether.",
"The carpet market is unlike most markets in that consumers are becoming increasingly resistant to new patterns and styles."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if true, casts the most doubt on the conclusion above? |
Decision makers tend to have distinctive styles. One such style is for the decision maker to seek the widest possible input from advisers and to explore alternatives while making up his or her mind. In fact, decision makers of this sort will often argue vigorously for a particular idea, emphasizing its strong points and downplaying its weaknesses, not because they actually believe in the idea but because they want to see if their real reservations about it are idiosyncratic or are held independently by their advisers. | 199402_4-LR2_8_10 | [
"If certain decision makers' statements are quoted accurately and at length, the content of the quote could nonetheless be greatly at variance with the decision eventually made.",
"Certain decision makers do not know which ideas they do not really believe in until after they have presented a variety of ideas to their advisers.",
"If certain decision makers dismiss an idea out of hand, it must be because its weaknesses are more pronounced than any strong points it may have.",
"Certain decision makers proceed in a way that makes it likely that they will frequently decide in favor of ideas in which they do not believe.",
"If certain decision makers' advisers know the actual beliefs of those they advise, those advisers will give better advice than they would if they did not know those beliefs."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the statements above? |
The foreign minister of Zeria announced today that her country was severing diplomatic relations with Nandalo because of Nandalo's flagrant violations of human rights. But Zeria continues to maintain diplomatic relations with many countries that the minister knows to have far worse human-rights records than Nandalo does. Therefore, despite the foreign minister's claim, this latest diplomatic move cannot be explained exclusively by Zeria's commitment to upholding human rights. | 199402_4-LR2_9_11 | [
"The country that currently buys most of Zeria's exports recently suggested that it might severely restrict its imports from Zeria unless Zeria broke off diplomatic relations with Nandalo.",
"Two weeks after the Zerian minister's announcement, several other countries cited human-rights violations as a reason for severing diplomatic relations with Nandalo.",
"More countries have expressed concern over reported human-rights violations in Nandalo than have expressed concern over human-rights violations in Zeria.",
"Nandalo has considered accusing Zeria of violating the human rights of Nandalo citizens living in Zeria.",
"The opposition party in Zeria has long advocated severing trade relations with countries that systematically violate human rights but has opposed severing diplomatic relations."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, provides the most support for the argument in the passage? |
The foreign minister of Zeria announced today that her country was severing diplomatic relations with Nandalo because of Nandalo's flagrant violations of human rights. But Zeria continues to maintain diplomatic relations with many countries that the minister knows to have far worse human-rights records than Nandalo does. Therefore, despite the foreign minister's claim, this latest diplomatic move cannot be explained exclusively by Zeria's commitment to upholding human rights. | 199402_4-LR2_9_12 | [
"Henry's parents insist that he eat breakfast before leaving for school because not doing so would be bad for his health. But his parents themselves almost never eat breakfast, so their insistence cannot be completely explained by their concern for his health.",
"Professor Walsh says that only typed term papers will be accepted because most handwriting is difficult to read. But since she lectures from handwritten notes, her policy cannot be exclusively explained by any difficulty she has with handwritten material.",
"James claims that he stole only because he was hungry. But although hunger could account for stealing if food could not be readily obtained in any other way, in this case food was otherwise readily available, and so James' theft cannot be completely explained by his hunger.",
"Armand declined Helen's invitation to dinner on the grounds that socializing with coworkers is imprudent. But since Armand went to a movie with another coworker, Maria, that same evening, his expressed concern for prudence cannot fully explain his refusal.",
"It is often asserted that there are fewer good teachers than there used to be because teachers' salaries have reached a new low. But teachers have always been poorly paid, so low salaries cannot fully explain this perceived decline in the effectiveness of teachers."
]
| 3 | The argumentative structure of which one of the following most closely parallels that of the argument in the passage? |
Few politicians will support legislation that conflicts with their own self-interest. A case in point is August Frenson, who throughout his eight terms in office consistently opposed measures limiting the advantage incumbents enjoy over their challengers. Therefore, if such measures are to be enacted, they must result from direct popular vote rather than from legislative action. | 199402_4-LR2_10_13 | [
"It provides evidence, the falsity of which would guarantee the falsity of the author's conclusion.",
"It is cited as an example illustrating the generalization that is invoked.",
"It gives essential background information concerning a measure being advocated.",
"It demonstrates the extent to which incumbents have the advantage over challengers.",
"It gives an example of the limits of direct popular vote."
]
| 1 | The case of August Frenson plays which one of the following roles in the argument? |
In a learning experiment a researcher ran rats through a maze. Some of the rats were blind, others deaf, others lacked a sense of smell, and others had no sensory deficiencies; yet all the rats learned the task in much the same amount of time. Of the senses other than sight, hearing, and smell, only kinesthesia had not previously been shown to be irrelevant to maze-learning. The researcher concluded on the basis of these facts that kinesthesia, the sensation of bodily movement, is sufficient for maze-learning. | 199402_4-LR2_11_14 | [
"The small differences in proficiency found by the researcher did not appear to fall into a systematic pattern by group.",
"The possibility that the interaction of kinesthesia with at least one other sense is required for maze-learning cannot be ruled out on the basis of the data above.",
"It can be determined from the data that rats who are deprived of one of their sources of sensory stimulation become more reliant on kinesthesia than they had been, but the data do not indicate how such a transference takes place.",
"It can be determined from the data that rats can learn to run mazes by depending on kinesthesia alone, but the possibility that rats respond to nonkinesthetic stimulation is not ruled out.",
"It can be determined from the data that maze-learning in rats depends on at least two sources of sensory stimulation, one of which is kinesthesia, but which of the remaining sources must also be employed is not determinable."
]
| 1 | The researcher's reasoning is most vulnerable to which one of the following criticisms? |
New legislation would require a seven-day waiting period in the sale of handguns to private individuals, in order that records of prisons could be checked and the sale of handguns to people likely to hurt other people thereby prevented. People opposed to this legislation claim that prison records are so full of errors that the proposed law would prevent as many law-abiding citizens as criminals from having access to handguns. | 199402_4-LR2_12_15 | [
"The rights of law-abiding citizens are more worthy of protection than are the rights of criminals.",
"Nothing should be done to restrict potential criminals at the cost of placing restrictions on law-abiding citizens.",
"Legislation should not be enacted if no benefit could accrue to society as a result of that legislation.",
"No restrictions should be placed on the sale of merchandise unless sale of that merchandise could endanger innocent people.",
"Even citizens who are neither fugitives nor felons should not be permitted to own a handgun unless they have received adequate training."
]
| 1 | If the claim made by people opposed to the new legislation is true, which one of the following is a principle that, if established, would do the most to justify opposition to the new legislation on the basis of that claim? |
The Gulches is an area of volcanic rock that is gashed by many channels that lead downhill from the site of a prehistoric glacier to a river. The channels clearly were cut by running water. It was once accepted as fact that the cutting occurred gradually, as the glacier melted. But one geologist theorized that the channels were cut in a short time by an enormous flood. The channels do show physical evidence of having been formed quickly, but the flood theory was originally rejected because scientists knew of no natural process that could melt so much ice so quickly. Paradoxically, today the scientific community accepts the flood theory even though scientists still do not know of a process that can melt so much ice so quickly. | 199402_4-LR2_13_16 | [
"Only running water can cause deep channels in volcanic rock.",
"The river did not exist before the channels were cut.",
"Geologists cannot determine the amount of heat required to melt a glacier quickly.",
"The physical effects of water on rock vary with the speed with which those effects are produced.",
"Geologists are compelled to reject physical evidence when it leads to an unexplainable conclusion."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following is supported by the information in the passage? |
The Gulches is an area of volcanic rock that is gashed by many channels that lead downhill from the site of a prehistoric glacier to a river. The channels clearly were cut by running water. It was once accepted as fact that the cutting occurred gradually, as the glacier melted. But one geologist theorized that the channels were cut in a short time by an enormous flood. The channels do show physical evidence of having been formed quickly, but the flood theory was originally rejected because scientists knew of no natural process that could melt so much ice so quickly. Paradoxically, today the scientific community accepts the flood theory even though scientists still do not know of a process that can melt so much ice so quickly. | 199402_4-LR2_13_17 | [
"Ripples, which indicate that the channels were cut by water, have been discovered in the floors of the channels.",
"The Gulches is known to be similar in certain respects to many other volcanic rock formations.",
"More than one glacier was present in the area during prehistoric times.",
"Volcanic rock is more easily cut by water than are other forms of rock.",
"Scientists now believe that the prehistoric glacier dammed a source of water, created a huge lake in the process, and then retreated."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent paradox in the passage? |
Advertisement: Attention pond owners! Ninety-eight percent of mosquito larvae in a pond die within minutes after the pond has been treated with BTI. Yet BTI is not toxic to fish, birds, animals, plants, or beneficial insects. So by using BTI regularly to destroy their larvae, you can greatly reduce populations of pesky mosquitoes that hatch in your pond, and you can do so without diminishing the populations of fish, frogs, or beneficial insects in and around the pond. | 199402_4-LR2_14_18 | [
"The most effective way to control the numbers of mosquitoes in a given area is to destroy the mosquito larvae in that area.",
"Populations of mosquitoes are not dependent on a single body of water within an area as a place for their larvae to hatch and develop.",
"There are no insect pests besides mosquitoes that pond owners might want to eliminate from in and around their ponds.",
"The effectiveness of BTI in destroying mosquito larvae in a pond does not require the pond owner's strict adherence to specific application procedures.",
"The fish, frogs, and beneficial insects in and around a pond-owner's pond do not depend on mosquito larvae as an important source of food."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? |
Many people change their wills on their own every few years, in response to significant changes in their personal or financial circumstances. This practice can create a problem for the executor when these people are careless and do not date their wills: the executor will then often know neither which one of several undated wills is the most recent, nor whether the will drawn up last has ever been found. Therefore, people should not only date their wills but also state in any new will which will it supersedes, for then there would not be a problem to begin with. | 199402_4-LR2_15_19 | [
"treats a partial solution to the stated problem as though it were a complete solution",
"fails to distinguish between prevention of a problem and successful containment of the adverse effects that the problem might cause",
"proposes a solution to the stated problem that does not actually solve the problem but merely makes someone else responsible for solving the problem",
"claims that a certain action would be a change for the better without explicitly considering what negative consequences the action might have",
"proposes that a certain action be based on information that would be unavailable at the time proposed for that action"
]
| 0 | The reasoning in the argument is flawed because the argument |
Some flowering plant species, entirely dependent on bees for pollination, lure their pollinators with abundant nectar and pollen, which are the only source of food for bees. Often the pollinating species is so highly adapted that it can feed from—and thus pollinate—only a single species of plant. Similarly, some plant species have evolved flowers that only a single species of bee can pollinate—an arrangement that places the plant species at great risk of extinction. If careless applications of pesticides destroy the pollinating bee species, the plant species itself can no longer reproduce. | 199402_4-LR2_16_20 | [
"The earliest species of flowering plants appeared on Earth contemporaneously with the earliest bee species.",
"If the sole pollinator of a certain plant species is in no danger of extinction, the plant species it pollinates is also unlikely to become extinct.",
"Some bees are able to gather pollen and nectar from any species of plant.",
"The blossoms of most species of flowering plants attract some species of bees and do not attract others.",
"The total destruction of the habitat of some plant species could cause some bee species to become extinct."
]
| 4 | The information above, if true, most strongly supports which one of the following? |
The proper way to plan a scientific project is first to decide its goal and then to plan the best way to accomplish that goal. The United States space station project does not conform to this ideal. When the Cold War ended, the project lost its original purpose, so another purpose was quickly grafted onto the project, that of conducting limited-gravity experiments, even though such experiments can be done in an alternative way. It is, therefore, abundantly clear that the space station should not be built. | 199402_4-LR2_17_21 | [
"attacks the proponents of a claim rather than arguing against the claim itself",
"presupposes what it sets out to prove",
"faults planners for not foreseeing a certain event, when in fact that event was not foreseeable",
"contains statements that lead to a self-contradiction",
"concludes that a shortcoming is fatal, having produced evidence only of the existence of that shortcoming"
]
| 4 | The reasoning in the argument is flawed because the argument |
Only an expert in some branch of psychology could understand why Patrick is behaving irrationally. But no expert is certain of being able to solve someone else's problem. Patrick wants to devise a solution to his own behavioral problem. | 199402_4-LR2_18_22 | [
"Patrick does not understand why he is behaving in this way.",
"Patrick is not an expert in psychology.",
"Patrick is not certain of being able to devise a solution to his own behavioral problem.",
"Unless Charles is an expert in some branch of psychology, Charles should not offer a solution to Patrick's behavioral problem.",
"If Charles is certain of being able to solve Patrick's behavioral problem, then Charles does not understand why Patrick is behaving in this way."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following conclusions can be validly drawn from the passage? |
Throughout European history famines have generally been followed by periods of rising wages, because when a labor force is diminished, workers are more valuable in accordance with the law of supply and demand. The Irish potato famine of the 1840s is an exception; it resulted in the death or emigration of half of Ireland's population, but there was no significant rise in the average wages in Ireland in the following decade. | 199402_4-LR2_19_23 | [
"Improved medical care reduced the mortality rate among able-bodied adults in the decade following the famine to below prefamine levels.",
"Eviction policies of the landowners in Ireland were designed to force emigration of the elderly and infirm, who could not work, and to retain a high percentage of able-bodied workers.",
"Advances in technology increased the efficiency of industry and agriculture, and so allowed maintenance of economic output with less demand for labor.",
"The birth rate increased during the decade following the famine, and this compensated for much of the loss of population that was due to the famine.",
"England, which had political control of Ireland, legislated artificially low wages to provide English-owned industry and agriculture in Ireland with cheap labor."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if true, would LEAST contribute to an explanation of the exception to the generalization? |
When the rate of inflation exceeds the rate of return on the most profitable investment available, the difference between those two rates will be the percentage by which, at a minimum, the value of any investment will decline. If in such a circumstance the value of a particular investment declines by more than that percentage, it must be true that ____. | 199402_4-LR2_20_24 | [
"the rate of inflation has risen",
"the investment in question is becoming less profitable",
"the investment in question is less profitable than the most profitable investment available",
"the rate of return on the most profitable investment available has declined",
"there has been a change in which particular investment happens to be the most profitable available"
]
| 2 | Which one of the following logically completes the argument? |
Philosopher: The eighteenth-century thesis that motion is absolute asserts that the change in an object's position over time could be measured without reference to the position of any other object. A well-respected physicist, however, claims that this thesis is incoherent. Since a thesis that is incoherent cannot be accepted as a description of reality, motion cannot be absolute. | 199402_4-LR2_21_25 | [
"attempting to persuade by the mere use of technical terminology",
"using experimental results to justify a change in definition",
"relying on the authority of an expert to support a premise",
"inferring from what has been observed to be the case under experimental conditions to what is in principle true",
"generalizing from what is true in one region of space to what must be true in all regions of space"
]
| 2 | The argument uses which one of the following argumentative techniques? |
Sea turtles nest only at their own birthplaces. After hatching on the beach, the turtles enter the water to begin their far-ranging migration, only returning to their birthplaces to nest some 15 to 30 years later. It has been hypothesized that newborn sea turtles learn the smell of their birth environment, and it is this smell that stimulates the turtles to return to nest. | 199406_2-LR1_1_1 | [
"Beaches on which sea turtles nest tend to be in secluded locations such as on islands.",
"Sea turtles exposed to a variety of environments under experimental conditions preferred the environment that contained sand from their own birthplaces.",
"Electronic tags attached to sea turtles did not alter their nesting patterns.",
"Unlike other types of turtles, sea turtles have a well-developed sense of smell.",
"Sea turtles that had their sense of smell destroyed by exposure to petroleum products returned to nest at their own birthplaces."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following, if true, would cast the most serious doubt on the hypothesis in the passage? |
Sea turtles nest only at their own birthplaces. After hatching on the beach, the turtles enter the water to begin their far-ranging migration, only returning to their birthplaces to nest some 15 to 30 years later. It has been hypothesized that newborn sea turtles learn the smell of their birth environment, and it is this smell that stimulates the turtles to return to nest. | 199406_2-LR1_1_2 | [
"how long the expected life span of sea turtles is",
"what the maximum migratory range of mature sea turtles is",
"whether many beaches on which sea turtles were hatched have since been destroyed by development",
"whether immediately before returning to nest, sea turtles are outside the area where the smell of their birthplace would be perceptible",
"whether both sexes of sea turtles are actively involved in the nesting process"
]
| 3 | Which one of the following would be most important to know in evaluating the hypothesis in the passage? |
For Juanita to get to the zoo she must take either the number 12 bus or else the subway. Everyone knows that the number 12 bus is not running this week; so although Juanita generally avoids using the subway, she must have used it today, since she was seen at the zoo this afternoon. | 199406_2-LR1_2_3 | [
"assert that if something is true, it will be known to be true",
"demonstrate that certain possibilities are not exclusive",
"show that something is the case by ruling out the only alternative",
"explain why an apparent exception to a general rule is not a real exception",
"substitute a claim about what invariably occurs for a claim about what typically occurs"
]
| 2 | The method of the argument is to |
If the regulation of computer networks is to be modeled on past legislation, then its model must be either legislation regulating a telephone system or else legislation regulating a public broadcasting service. If the telephone model is used, computer networks will be held responsible only for ensuring that messages get transmitted. If the public broadcast model is used, computer networks will additionally be responsible for the content of those messages. Yet a computer network serves both these sorts of functions: it can serve as a private message service or as a publicly accessible information service. Thus neither of these models can be appropriate for computer networks. | 199406_2-LR1_3_4 | [
"Regulation of computer networks is required in order to ensure the privacy of the messages transmitted through such networks.",
"The regulation of computer networks should not be modeled on any single piece of past legislation.",
"Computer networks were developed by being modeled on both telephone systems and television networks.",
"Legislators who do not have extensive experience with computers should not attempt to write legislation regulating computer networks.",
"A computer network merely duplicates the functions of a telephone system and a television network."
]
| 1 | The passage is structured to lead to which one of the following conclusions? |
The government has proposed a plan requiring young people to perform services to correct various current social ills, especially those in education and housing. Government service, however, should be compelled only in response to a direct threat to the nation's existence. For that reason, the proposed program should not be implemented. | 199406_2-LR1_4_5 | [
"Government-required service by young people cannot correct all social ills.",
"The nation's existence is directly threatened only in times of foreign attack.",
"Crises in education and housing constitute a threat to the nation's existence.",
"The nation's young people believe that current social ills pose no direct threat to the nation's existence.",
"Some of the social ills that currently afflict the nation do not pose a direct threat to the nation's existence."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? |
Cigarette smoking has been shown to be a health hazard; therefore, governments should ban all advertisements that promote smoking. | 199406_2-LR1_5_6 | [
"Advertisements should not be allowed to show people doing things that endanger their health.",
"Advertisers should not make misleading claims about the healthfulness of their products.",
"Advertisements should disclose the health hazards associated with the products they promote.",
"All products should conform to strict government health and safety standards.",
"Advertisements should promote only healthful products."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following principles, if established, most strongly supports the argument? |
Every adult male woolly monkey is larger than even the largest female woolly monkey. In colonies of woolly monkeys, any adult male will dominate any female. | 199406_2-LR1_6_7 | [
"Size is the primary determinant of relations of dominance among woolly monkeys.",
"Some large adolescent male woolly monkeys dominate some smaller females of the species.",
"If a male woolly monkey is larger than a female of the species, that male will dominate that female.",
"If a female woolly monkey dominates a male of the species, the dominated male monkey is not an adult.",
"An adult male woolly monkey can dominate a female of the species only if that female is also an adult."
]
| 3 | If the statements above are true, which one of the following must on the basis of them be true of woolly monkeys in colonies? |
S: Our nation is becoming too averse to risk. We boycott any food reported to contain a toxic chemical, even though the risk, as a mathematical ratio, might be minimal. With this mentality, Columbus would never have sailed west. T: A risk-taker in one context can be risk-averse in another: the same person can drive recklessly, but refuse to eat food not grown organically. | 199406_2-LR1_7_8 | [
"a distinction should be made between avoidable and unavoidable risks",
"to risk cannot be reliably assessed without reference to context",
"there is confusion about risk in the minds of many members of the public",
"mathematical odds concerning risk give an unwarranted impression of precision",
"risk cannot be defined in relation to perceived probable benefit"
]
| 1 | T responds to S by showing that |
Any announcement authorized by the head of the department is important. However, announcements are sometimes issued, without authorization, by people other than the head of the department, so some announcements will inevitably turn out not to be important. | 199406_2-LR1_8_9 | [
"does not specify exactly which communications are to be classified as announcements",
"overlooks the possibility that people other than the head of the department have the authority to authorize announcements",
"leaves open the possibility that the head of the department never, in fact, authorizes any announcements",
"assumes without warrant that just because satisfying a given condition is enough to ensure an announcement's importance, satisfying that condition is necessary for its importance",
"fails to distinguish between the importance of the position someone holds and the importance of what that person may actually be announcing on a particular occasion"
]
| 3 | The reasoning is flawed because the argument |
The labeling of otherwise high-calorie foods as "sugar-free," based on the replacement of all sugar by artificial sweeteners, should be prohibited by law. Such a prohibition is indicated because many consumers who need to lose weight will interpret the label "sugar-free" as synonymous with "low in calories" and harm themselves by building weight-loss diets around foods labeled "sugar-free." Manufacturers of sugar-free foods are well aware of this tendency on the part of consumers. | 199406_2-LR1_9_10 | [
"Product labels that are literally incorrect should be prohibited by law, even if reliance on those labels is not likely to cause harm to consumers.",
"Product labels that are literally incorrect, but in such an obvious manner that no rational consumer would rely on them, should nevertheless be prohibited by law.",
"Product labels that are literally correct but cannot be interpreted by the average buyer of the product without expert help should be prohibited by law.",
"Product labels that are literally correct but will predictably be misinterpreted by some buyers of the product to their own harm should be prohibited by law.",
"Product labels that are literally correct, but only on one of two equally accurate interpretations, should be prohibited by law if buyers tend to interpret the label in the way that does not match the product's actual properties."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following principles, if established, most helps to justify the conclusion in the passage? |
The labeling of otherwise high-calorie foods as "sugar-free," based on the replacement of all sugar by artificial sweeteners, should be prohibited by law. Such a prohibition is indicated because many consumers who need to lose weight will interpret the label "sugar-free" as synonymous with "low in calories" and harm themselves by building weight-loss diets around foods labeled "sugar-free." Manufacturers of sugar-free foods are well aware of this tendency on the part of consumers. | 199406_2-LR1_9_11 | [
"Food manufacturers would respond to a ban on the label \"sugar-free\" by reducing the calories in sugar-free products by enough to be able to promote those products as diet foods.",
"Individuals who are diabetic need to be able to identify products that contain no sugar by reference to product labels that expressly state that the product contains no sugar.",
"Consumers are sometimes slow to notice changes in product labels unless those changes are themselves well advertised.",
"Consumers who have chosen a particular weight-loss diet tend to persist with this diet if they have been warned not to expect very quick results.",
"Exactly what appears on a product label is less important to consumer behavior than is the relative visual prominence of the different pieces of information that the label contains."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, provides the strongest basis for challenging the conclusion in the passage? |
In the Centerville Botanical Gardens, all tulip trees are older than any maples. A majority, but not all, of the garden's sycamores are older than any of its maples. All the garden's maples are older than any of its dogwoods. | 199406_2-LR1_10_12 | [
"Some dogwoods are as old as the youngest tulip trees.",
"Some dogwoods are as old as the youngest sycamores.",
"Some sycamores are not as old as the oldest dogwoods.",
"Some tulip trees are not as old as the oldest sycamores.",
"Some sycamores are not as old as the youngest tulip trees."
]
| 4 | If the statements above are true, which one of the following must also be true of trees in the Centerville Botanical Gardens? |
Emissions from automobiles that burn gasoline and automobiles that burn diesel fuel are threatening the quality of life on our planet, contaminating both urban air and global atmosphere. Therefore, the only effective way to reduce such emissions is to replace the conventional diesel fuel and gasoline used in automobiles with cleaner-burning fuels, such as methanol, that create fewer emissions. | 199406_2-LR1_11_13 | [
"Reducing the use of automobiles would not be a more effective means to reduce automobile emissions than the use of methanol.",
"There is no fuel other than methanol that is cleaner-burning than both diesel fuel and gasoline.",
"If given a choice of automobile fuels, automobile owners would not select gasoline over methanol.",
"Automobile emissions constitute the most serious threat to the global environment.",
"At any given time there is a direct correlation between the level of urban air pollution and the level of contamination present in the global atmosphere."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? |
Dr. Libokov: Certain islands near New Zealand are home to the tuatara, reptiles that are the sole surviving members of the sphenodontidans. Sphenodontidans were plentiful throughout the world during the age of the dinosaurs. But the survival of sphenodontidans near New Zealand, and their total disappearance elsewhere, is no mystery. New Zealand and nearby islands have no native land mammals. Land mammals, plentiful elsewhere, undoubtedly became major predators of sphenodontidans and their eggs, leading to their extinction. Dr. Santos: In fact, the tuatara thrive only on a few islands near New Zealand. On all those where land mammals, such as rats, dogs, or cats, have been introduced in recent years, the tuatara are now extinct or nearly so. | 199406_2-LR1_12_14 | [
"It identifies a flaw in Dr. Libokov's reasoning.",
"It restates Dr. Libokov's major hypothesis and thus adds nothing to it.",
"It contradicts one of Dr. Libokov's assertions.",
"It offers a hypothesis that is incompatible with Dr. Libokov's position.",
"It provides additional evidence in support of Dr. Libokov's hypothesis."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following most accurately characterizes Dr. Santos' response to the hypothesis advanced by Dr. Libokov? |
A standard problem for computer security is that passwords that have to be typed on a computer keyboard are comparatively easy for unauthorized users to steal or guess. A new system that relies on recognizing the voices of authorized users apparently avoids this problem. In a small initial trial, the system never incorrectly accepted someone seeking access to the computer's data. Clearly, if this result can be repeated in an operational setting, then there will be a way of giving access to those people who are entitled to access and to no one else. | 199406_2-LR1_13_15 | [
"makes a faulty comparison, in that a security system based on voice recognition would not be expected to suffer from the same problems as one that relied on passwords entered from a keyboard",
"bases a general conclusion on a small amount of data",
"fails to recognize that a security system based on voice recognition could easily have applications other than computer security",
"ignores the possibility that the system sometimes denies access to people who are entitled to access",
"states its conclusion in a heavily qualified way"
]
| 3 | The reasoning above is flawed because it |
Body temperature varies over a 24-hour period, with a low point roughly between 4 a.m. and 5 a.m. Speed of reaction varies in line with body temperature, such that whenever body temperature is low, speed of reaction is low. If low body temperature caused slow reaction, the speed of reaction should increase if we artificially raised body temperature during the period 4 a.m. to 5 a.m. But the speed of reaction does not increase. | 199406_2-LR1_14_16 | [
"Low speeds of reaction cause low body temperature.",
"Low speeds of reaction do not cause low body temperature.",
"Low body temperatures do not cause low speeds of reaction.",
"Low body temperatures cause low speeds of reaction.",
"Artificially raising body temperature causes increased speed of reaction."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following conclusions can properly be drawn from the above statements? |
Of the two proposals for solving the traffic problems on Main Street, Chen's plan is better for the city as a whole, as is clear from the fact that the principal supporter of Ripley's plan is Smith Stores. Smith Stores, with its highly paid consultants, knows where its own interest lies and, moreover, has supported its own interests in the past, even to the detriment of the city as a whole. | 199406_2-LR1_15_17 | [
"Surely Centreville should oppose adoption of the regional planning commission's new plan since it is not in Centreville's interest, even though it might be in the interest of some towns in the region.",
"The school board should support the plan for the new high school since this plan was recommended by the well-qualified consultants whom the school board hired at great expense.",
"Of the two budget proposals, the mayor's is clearly preferable to the city council's, since the mayor's budget addresses the needs of the city as a whole, whereas the city council is protecting special interests.",
"Nomura is clearly a better candidate for college president than Miller, since Nomura has the support of the three deans who best understand the president's job and with whom the president will have to work most closely.",
"The planned light-rail system will clearly serve suburban areas well, since its main opponent is the city government, which has always ignored the needs of the suburbs and sought only to protect the interests of the city."
]
| 4 | The faulty reasoning in which one of the following is most parallel to that in the argument above? |
The format of network television news programs generally allows advocates of a point of view only 30 seconds to convey their message. Consequently, regular watchers become accustomed to thinking of issues in terms only of slogans and catch phrases, and so the expectation of careful discussion of public issues gradually disappears from their awareness. The format of newspaper stories, on the other hand, leads readers to pursue details of stories headed by the most important facts and so has the opposite effect on regular readers—that of maintaining the expectation of careful discussion of public issues. Therefore, in contrast to regular newspaper reading, regular watching of network television news programs increases the tendency to think of public issues in oversimplified terms. | 199406_2-LR1_16_18 | [
"Viewers of network television news programs would be interested in seeing advocates of opposing views present their positions at length.",
"Since it is not possible to present striking images that would symbolize events for viewers, and since images hold sway over words in television, television must oversimplify.",
"It is not possible for television to present public issues in a way that allows for the nuanced presentation of diverse views and a good-faith interchange between advocates of opposing views.",
"In network television news reports, it is not usual for a reporter to offer additional factual evidence and background information to develop a story in which opposing views are presented briefly by their advocates.",
"Television news reporters introduce more of their own biases into news stories than do newspaper reporters."
]
| 3 | The argument assumes which one of the following? |
The format of network television news programs generally allows advocates of a point of view only 30 seconds to convey their message. Consequently, regular watchers become accustomed to thinking of issues in terms only of slogans and catch phrases, and so the expectation of careful discussion of public issues gradually disappears from their awareness. The format of newspaper stories, on the other hand, leads readers to pursue details of stories headed by the most important facts and so has the opposite effect on regular readers—that of maintaining the expectation of careful discussion of public issues. Therefore, in contrast to regular newspaper reading, regular watching of network television news programs increases the tendency to think of public issues in oversimplified terms. | 199406_2-LR1_16_19 | [
"Regular watchers of network television news programs are much more likely than other people to be habitual readers of newspapers.",
"Including any 30-second quotations from proponents of diverse views, the total amount of time devoted to a single topic on regular network television news programs averages less than one and a half minutes.",
"The format of network television news programs does not include roundtable discussion of issues among informed proponents of diverse views.",
"Television news reports tend to devote equal time to discussion of opposing views.",
"People who watch the most television, measured in average number of hours of watching per week, tend not to be regular readers of newspapers."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument? |
A recent report on an environmental improvement program was criticized for focusing solely on pragmatic solutions to the large number of significant problems that plague the program instead of seriously trying to produce a coherent vision for the future of the program. In response the report's authors granted that the critics had raised a valid point but explained that, to do anything at all, the program needed continued government funding, and that to get such funding the program first needed to regain a reputation for competence. | 199406_2-LR1_17_20 | [
"addressing the critics' concern now would be premature",
"the critics' motives are self-serving",
"the notion of a coherent vision would be inappropriate to a program of the sort at issue",
"the authors of the report are more knowledgeable than its critics",
"giving the report a single focus is less desirable than the critics claim"
]
| 0 | The basic position taken by the report's authors on the criticism leveled against the report is that |
A recent report on an environmental improvement program was criticized for focusing solely on pragmatic solutions to the large number of significant problems that plague the program instead of seriously trying to produce a coherent vision for the future of the program. In response the report's authors granted that the critics had raised a valid point but explained that, to do anything at all, the program needed continued government funding, and that to get such funding the program first needed to regain a reputation for competence. | 199406_2-LR1_17_21 | [
"The government does not actually provide a full 100 percent of the program's funding.",
"The program will continue to have numerous serious problems precisely because it lacks a coherent vision for its future.",
"The program had a coherent vision at its inception, but that vision has proved impossible to sustain.",
"The government has threatened to cut off funding for the program but has not acted yet on this threat.",
"The program has acquired a worse reputation for incompetence than it deserves."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, would best serve the critics of the report in their attempt to undermine the position taken by the report's authors? |
Oil company representative: We spent more money on cleaning the otters affected by our recent oil spill than has been spent on any previous marine mammal rescue project. This shows our concern for the environment. Environmentalist: You have no such concern. Your real concern is evident in your admission to the press that news photographs of oil-covered otters would be particularly damaging to your public image, which plays an important role in your level of sales. | 199406_2-LR1_18_22 | [
"oil company cannot have more than one motive for cleaning the otters affected by the oil spill",
"otter population in the area of the oil spill could not have survived without the cleaning project",
"oil company has always shown a high regard for its profits in choosing its courses of action",
"government would have spent the money to clean the otters if the oil company had not agreed to do it",
"oil company's efforts toward cleaning the affected otters have been more successful than have such efforts in previous projects to clean up oil spills"
]
| 0 | The environmentalist's conclusion would be properly drawn if it were true that the |
A group of scientists studying calcium metabolism in laboratory rats discovered that removing the rats' parathyroid glands resulted in the rats' having substantially lower than normal levels of calcium in their blood. This discovery led the scientists to hypothesize that the function of the parathyroid gland is to regulate the level of calcium in the blood by raising that level when it falls below the normal range. In a further experiment, the scientists removed not only the parathyroid gland but also the adrenal gland from rats. They made the surprising discovery that the level of calcium in the rats' blood decreased much less sharply than when the parathyroid gland alone was removed. | 199406_2-LR1_19_23 | [
"The adrenal gland acts to lower the level of calcium in the blood.",
"The adrenal gland and the parathyroid gland play the same role in regulating calcium blood levels.",
"The absence of a parathyroid gland causes the adrenal gland to increase the level of calcium in the blood.",
"If the adrenal gland, and no other gland, of a rat were removed, the rat's calcium level would remain stable.",
"The only function of the parathyroid gland is to regulate the level of calcium in the blood."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, explains the surprising discovery in a way most consistent with the scientists' hypothesis? |
Since Mayor Drabble always repays her political debts as soon as possible, she will almost certainly appoint Lee to be the new head of the arts commission. Lee has wanted that job for a long time, and Drabble owes Lee a lot for his support in the last election. | 199406_2-LR1_20_24 | [
"Mayor Drabble has no political debt that is both of longer standing than the one she owes to Lee and could as suitably be repaid by an appointment to be the new head of the arts commission.",
"There is no one to whom Mayor Drabble owes a greater political debt for support in the last election than the political debt she owes to Lee.",
"Lee is the only person to whom Mayor Drabble owes a political debt who would be willing to accept an appointment from her as the new head of the arts commission.",
"Whether Lee is qualified to head the arts commission is irrelevant to Mayor Drabble's decision.",
"The only way that Mayor Drabble can adequately repay her political debt to Lee is by appointing him to head the arts commission."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? |
The fact that tobacco smoke inhaled by smokers harms the smokers does not prove that the much smaller amount of tobacco smoke inhaled by nonsmokers who share living space with smokers harms the nonsmokers to some degree. Many substances, such as vitamin A, are toxic in large quantities but beneficial in small quantities. | 199406_2-LR1_21_25 | [
"The fact that a large concentration of bleach will make fabric very white does not prove that a small concentration of bleach will make fabric somewhat white. The effect of a small concentration of bleach may be too slight to change the color of the fabric.",
"Although a healthful diet should include a certain amount of fiber, it does not follow that a diet that includes large amounts of fiber is more healthful than one that includes smaller amounts of fiber. Too much fiber can interfere with proper digestion.",
"The fact that large amounts of chemical fertilizers can kill plants does not prove that chemical fertilizers are generally harmful to plants. It proves only that the quantity of chemical fertilizer used should be adjusted according to the needs of the plants and the nutrients already in the soil.",
"From the fact that five professional taste testers found a new cereal product tasty, it does not follow that everyone will like it. Many people find broccoli a tasty food, but other people have a strong dislike for the taste of broccoli.",
"Although watching television for half of every day would be a waste of time, watching television briefly every day is not necessarily even a small waste of time. After all, it would be a waste to sleep half of every day, but some sleep every day is necessary."
]
| 4 | In which one of the following is the pattern of reasoning most similar to that in the argument above? |
Why should the government, rather than industry or universities, provide the money to put a network of supercomputers in place? Because there is a range of problems that can be attacked only with the massive data-managing capacity of a supercomputer network. No business or university has the resources to purchase by itself enough machines for a whole network, and no business or university wants to invest in a part of a network if no mechanism exists for coordinating establishment of the network as a whole. | 199406_2-LR1_22_26 | [
"It does not furnish a way in which the dilemma concerning the establishment of the network can be resolved.",
"It does not establish the impossibility of creating a supercomputer network as an international network.",
"It fails to address the question of who would maintain the network if the government, rather than industry or universities, provides the money for establishing it.",
"It takes for granted and without justification that it would enhance national preeminence in science for the government to provide the network.",
"It overlooks the possibility that businesses or universities, or both, could cooperate to build the network."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following indicates a weakness in the argument? |
Megatrash Co., the country's largest waste-disposal company, has been sued by environmental groups who have accused the firm of negligent handling of hazardous waste. The fines and legal fees that have resulted from the legal attacks against Megatrash have cost the company substantial amounts of money. Surprisingly, as successful lawsuits against the company have increased in number, the company has grown stronger and more profitable. | 199406_4-LR2_1_1 | [
"Although waste-disposal firms merely handle but do not generate toxic waste, these firms have been held legally responsible for environmental damage caused by this waste.",
"Megatrash has made substantial contributions to environmental causes, as have other large waste-disposal companies.",
"Some of the judgments against Megatrash have legally barred it from entering the more profitable areas of the waste-management business.",
"The example of Megatrash's legal entanglements has driven most of the company's competitors from the field and deterred potential rivals from entering it.",
"In cases in which Megatrash has been acquitted of charges of negligence, the company has paid more in legal fees than it would have been likely to pay in fines."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if true, does the most to resolve the apparent paradox? |
Lewis: Those who do not learn from past mistakes-their own and those of others-are condemned to repeat them. In order to benefit from the lessons of history, however, we first have to know history. That is why the acquisition of broad historical knowledge is so important. Morris: The trouble is that the past is infinitely various. From its inexhaustible storehouse of events it is possible to prove anything or its contrary. | 199406_4-LR2_2_2 | [
"there are any uncontested historical facts",
"historical knowledge can be too narrow to be useful",
"history teaches any unequivocal lessons",
"there are conventional criteria for calling a past action a mistake",
"events in the present are influenced by past events"
]
| 2 | The issue that Morris raises in objecting to Lewis' view is whether |
A group of scientists who have done research on the health effects of food irradiation has discovered no evidence challenging its safety. Supporters of food irradiation have cited this research as certain proof that food irradiation is a safe practice. | 199406_4-LR2_3_3 | [
"assume that the scientists doing the research set out to prove that food irradiation is an unsafe practice",
"are motivated by a biased interest in proving the practice to be safe",
"overlook the possibility that objections about safety are not the only possible objections to the practice",
"neglect to provide detailed information about the evidence used to support the conclusion",
"use the lack of evidence contradicting a claim as conclusive evidence for that claim"
]
| 4 | A flaw in the reasoning of the supporters of food irradiation is that they |
Cooking teacher: Lima beans generally need about an hour of boiling to reach the proper degree of doneness. The precise amount of time it takes depends on size: larger beans require a longer cooking time than smaller beans do. It is important that lima beans not be overcooked since overcooking robs beans of many of their nutrients. Undercooking should also be avoided, since undercooked beans cannot be completely digested. | 199406_4-LR2_4_4 | [
"Lima beans that are completely digestible have lost many of their nutrients in cooking.",
"The nutrients that are lost when lima beans are overcooked are the same as those that the body fails to assimilate when lima beans are not completely digested.",
"Large lima beans, even when fully cooked, are more difficult to digest than small lima beans.",
"Lima beans that are added to the pot together should be as close to the same size as possible if they are to yield their full nutritional value.",
"From the standpoint of good nutrition, it is better to overcook than to undercook lima beans."
]
| 3 | If the statements above are true, they most strongly support which one of the following? |
Large quantities of lead dust can be released during renovations in houses with walls painted with lead-based paint. Because the dust puts occupants at high risk of lead poisoning, such renovations should be done only in unoccupied houses by contractors who are experienced in removing all traces of lead from houses and who have the equipment to protect themselves from lead dust. Even when warned, however, many people will not pay to have someone else do renovations they believe they could do less expensively themselves. Therefore, Homeowners' Journal should run an article giving information to homeowners on how to reduce the risk of lead poisoning associated with do-it-yourself renovation. | 199406_4-LR2_5_5 | [
"Most homeowners know whether or not the walls of their houses are painted with lead-based paint, even if the walls were painted by previous owners.",
"Most people who undertake do-it-yourself renovation projects do so for the satisfaction of doing the work themselves and so are unlikely to hire a professional to do that sort of work.",
"Whenever information on do-it-yourself home renovation is published, many people who would otherwise hire professionals decide to perform the renovations themselves, even when there are risks involved.",
"In many areas, it is difficult to find professional renovators who have the equipment and qualifications to perform safely renovations involving lead dust.",
"When professionally done home renovations are no more expensive than do-it-yourself renovations, most people choose to have their homes renovated by professionals."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, argues most strongly against the passage's recommendation about an article? |
Large quantities of lead dust can be released during renovations in houses with walls painted with lead-based paint. Because the dust puts occupants at high risk of lead poisoning, such renovations should be done only in unoccupied houses by contractors who are experienced in removing all traces of lead from houses and who have the equipment to protect themselves from lead dust. Even when warned, however, many people will not pay to have someone else do renovations they believe they could do less expensively themselves. Therefore, Homeowners' Journal should run an article giving information to homeowners on how to reduce the risk of lead poisoning associated with do-it-yourself renovation. | 199406_4-LR2_5_6 | [
"Potentially dangerous jobs should always be left to those who have the training and experience to perform them safely, even if additional expense results.",
"If people refuse to change their behavior even when warned that they are jeopardizing their health, information that enables them to minimize the risks of that behavior should be made available to them.",
"A journal for homeowners should provide its readers with information on do-it-yourself projects only if such projects do not entail substantial risks.",
"No one should be encouraged to perform a potentially dangerous procedure if doing so could place any other people at risk.",
"People who are willing to do work themselves be discouraged from doing that work."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following principles most helps to justify the passage's recommendation about an article? |
The scientific theory of evolution has challenged the view of human origin as divine creation and sees us as simply descended from the same ancestors as the apes. While science and technology have provided brilliant insights into our world and eased our everyday life, they have simultaneously deprived us of a view in which our importance is assured. Thus, while science has given us many things, it has taken away much that is also greatly valued. | 199406_4-LR2_6_7 | [
"Science and technology are of less value than religion.",
"People have resisted the advances of science and technology.",
"The assurance that people are important is highly valued.",
"The world was a better place before the advent of science and technology.",
"The need of people to feel important is now met by science and technology."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following is assumed in the passage? |
That long-term cigarette smoking can lead to health problems including cancer and lung disease is a scientifically well-established fact. Contrary to what many people seem to believe, however, it is not necessary to deny this fact in order to reject the view that tobacco companies should be held either morally or legally responsible for the poor health of smokers. After all, excessive consumption of candy undeniably leads to such health problems as tooth decay, but no one seriously believes that candy eaters who get cavities should be able to sue candy manufacturers. | 199406_4-LR2_7_8 | [
"no one should feel it necessary to deny the scientifically well-established fact that long-term cigarette smoking can lead to health problems",
"people who get cavities should not be able to sue candy manufacturers",
"the fact that smokers' health problems can be caused by their smoking is not enough to justify holding tobacco companies either legally or morally responsible for those problems",
"excessive consumption of candy will lead to health problems just as surely as long-term cigarette smoking will",
"if candy manufacturers were held responsible for tooth decay among candy eaters then tobacco companies should also be held responsible for health problems suffered by smokers"
]
| 2 | The main point of the argument is that |
That long-term cigarette smoking can lead to health problems including cancer and lung disease is a scientifically well-established fact. Contrary to what many people seem to believe, however, it is not necessary to deny this fact in order to reject the view that tobacco companies should be held either morally or legally responsible for the poor health of smokers. After all, excessive consumption of candy undeniably leads to such health problems as tooth decay, but no one seriously believes that candy eaters who get cavities should be able to sue candy manufacturers. | 199406_4-LR2_7_9 | [
"fails to establish that the connection between tooth decay and candy eating is as scientifically well documented as that between smoking and the health problems suffered by smokers",
"depends on the obviously false assumption that everyone who gets cavities does so only as a result of eating too much candy",
"leaves undefined such critical qualifying terms as \"excessive\" and \"long-term\"",
"attributes certain beliefs to \"many people\" without identifying the people who allegedly hold those beliefs",
"fails to address the striking differences in the nature of the threat to health posed by tooth decay on the one hand and cancer and lung disease on the other"
]
| 4 | The reasoning in the argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it |
Lydia: Each year, thousands of seabirds are injured when they become entangled in equipment owned by fishing companies. Therefore, the fishing companies should assume responsibility for funding veterinary treatment for the injured birds. Jonathan: Your feelings for the birds are admirable. Your proposal, however, should not be adopted because treatment of the most seriously injured birds would inhumanely prolong the lives of animals no longer able to live in the wild, as all wildlife should. | 199406_4-LR2_8_10 | [
"He directs a personal attack against her rather than addressing the argument she advances.",
"He suggests that her proposal is based on self-interest rather than on real sympathy for the injured birds.",
"He questions the appropriateness of interfering with wildlife in any way, even if the goal of the interference is to help.",
"He attempts to discredit her proposal by discussing its implications for only those birds that it serves least well.",
"He evades discussion of her proposal by raising the issue of whether her feelings about the birds are justified."
]
| 3 | Jonathan uses which one of the following techniques in his response to Lydia? |
Logging industry official: Harvesting trees from old-growth forests for use in manufacture can reduce the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, since when large old trees die in the forest they decompose, releasing their stored carbon dioxide. Harvesting old-growth forests would, moreover, make room for rapidly growing young trees, which absorb more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere than do trees in old-growth forests. | 199406_4-LR2_9_11 | [
"Many old-growth forests are the home of thousands of animal species that would be endangered if the forests were to be destroyed.",
"Much of the organic matter from old-growth trees, unusable as lumber, is made into products that decompose rapidly.",
"A young tree contains less than half the amount of carbon dioxide that is stored in an old tree of the same species.",
"Much of the carbon dioxide present in forests is eventually released when wood and other organic debris found on the forest floor decompose.",
"It can take many years for the trees of a newly planted forest to reach the size of those found in existing old-growth forests."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the official's argument? |
A survey of a group of people between the ages of 75 and 80 found that those who regularly played the card game bridge tended to have better short-term memory than those who did not play bridge. It was originally concluded from this that playing bridge can help older people to retain and develop their memory. However, it may well be that bridge is simply a more enjoyable game for people who already have good short-term memory and who are thus more inclined to play. | 199406_4-LR2_10_12 | [
"challenging the representativeness of the sample surveyed",
"conceding the suggested relationship between playing bridge and short-term memory, but questioning whether any conclusion about appropriate therapy can be drawn",
"arguing that the original conclusion relied on an inaccurate understanding of the motives that the people surveyed have for playing bridge",
"providing an alternative hypothesis to explain the data on which the original conclusion was based",
"describing a flaw in the reasoning on which the original conclusion was based"
]
| 3 | In countering the original conclusion the reasoning above uses which one of the following techniques? |
There are tests to detect some of the rare genetic flaws that increase the likelihood of certain diseases. If these tests are performed, then a person with a rare genetic flaw that is detected can receive the appropriate preventive treatment. Since it costs the health-care system less to prevent a disease than to treat it after it has occurred, widespread genetic screening will reduce the overall cost of health care. | 199406_4-LR2_11_13 | [
"The cost of treating patients who would, in the absence of screening, develop diseases that are linked to rare genetic flaws would be more than the combined costs of widespread screening and preventive treatment.",
"Most diseases linked to rare genetic flaws are preventable.",
"The resources allocated by hospitals to the treatment of persons with diseases linked to genetic flaws will increase once screening is widely available.",
"Even if the genetic tests are performed, many people whose rare genetic flaws are detected will develop diseases linked to the flaws as a consequence of not receiving the appropriate preventive treatment.",
"If preventive treatment is given to patients with rare genetic flaws, additional funds will be available for treating the more common diseases."
]
| 0 | The argument assumes which one of the following? |
In the 1960s paranoia was viewed by social scientists as ungrounded fear of powerlessness, and the theme of paranoia as it relates to feelings of powerlessness was dominant in films of that period. In the 1970s paranoia instead was viewed by social scientists as a response to real threats from society. Films of this period portray paranoia as a legitimate response to a world gone mad. | 199406_4-LR2_12_14 | [
"Images of paranoia presented in films made in a period reflect trends in social science of that period.",
"Responses to real threats can, and often do, degenerate into groundless fears.",
"The world is becoming more and more threatening.",
"Paranoia is a condition that keeps changing along with changes in society.",
"The shift in perception by social scientists from the 1960s to the 1970s resulted from an inability to find a successful cure for paranoia."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following is a conclusion that the statements above, if true, most strongly support? |
A certain experimental fungicide causes no harm to garden plants, though only if it is diluted at least to ten parts water to one part fungicide. Moreover, this fungicide is known to be so effective against powdery mildew that it has the capacity to eliminate it completely from rose plants. Thus this fungicide, as long as it is sufficiently diluted, provides a means of eliminating powdery mildew from rose plants that involves no risk of harming the plants. | 199406_4-LR2_13_15 | [
"There is not an alternative method, besides application of this fungicide, for eliminating powdery mildew from rose plants without harming the plants.",
"When the fungicide is sufficiently diluted, it does not present any risk of harm to people, animals, or beneficial insects.",
"Powdery mildew is the only fungal infection that affects rose plants.",
"If a fungicide is to be effective against powdery mildew on rose plants, it must eliminate the powdery mildew completely.",
"The effectiveness of the fungicide does not depend on its being more concentrated than one part in ten parts of water."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? |
When glass products are made from recycled glass, the resulting products can be equal in quality to glass products made from quartz sand, the usual raw material. When plastics are recycled, however, the result is inevitably a plastic of a lower grade than the plastic from which it is derived. Moreover, no applications have been found for grades of plastic that are lower than the currently lowest commercial grade. | 199406_4-LR2_14_16 | [
"Products cannot presently be made out of plastic recycled entirely from the currently lowest commercial grade.",
"It is impossible to make glass products from recycled glass that are equal in quality to the best glass products made from the usual raw material.",
"Glass products made from recycled glass are less expensive than comparable products made from quartz sand.",
"Unless recycled plastic bears some symbol revealing its origin, not even materials scientists can distinguish it from virgin plastic.",
"The difference in quality between different grades of glass is not as great as that between different grades of plastic."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following is a conclusion that can be properly drawn from the statements above? |
Teacher: Journalists who conceal the identity of the sources they quote stake their professional reputations on what may be called the logic of anecdotes. This is so because the statements reported by such journalists are dissociated from the precise circumstances in which they were made and thus will be accepted for publication only if the statements are high in plausibility or originality or interest to a given audience—precisely the properties of a good anecdote. Student: But what you are saying, then, is that the journalist need not bother with sources in the first place. Surely, any reasonably resourceful journalist can invent plausible, original, or interesting stories faster than they can be obtained from unidentified sources. | 199406_4-LR2_15_17 | [
"confusing a marginal journalistic practice with the primary work done by journalists",
"ignoring the possibility that the teacher regards as a prerequisite for the publication of an unattributed statement that the statement have actually been made",
"confusing the characteristics of reported statements with the characteristics of the situations in which the statements were made",
"judging the merits of the teacher's position solely by the most extreme case to which the position applies",
"falsely concluding that if three criteria, met jointly, assure an outcome, then each criterion, met individually, also assures that outcome"
]
| 1 | The student's response contains which one of the following reasoning flaws? |
Teacher: Journalists who conceal the identity of the sources they quote stake their professional reputations on what may be called the logic of anecdotes. This is so because the statements reported by such journalists are dissociated from the precise circumstances in which they were made and thus will be accepted for publication only if the statements are high in plausibility or originality or interest to a given audience—precisely the properties of a good anecdote. Student: But what you are saying, then, is that the journalist need not bother with sources in the first place. Surely, any reasonably resourceful journalist can invent plausible, original, or interesting stories faster than they can be obtained from unidentified sources. | 199406_4-LR2_15_18 | [
"A journalist undermines his or her own professional standing by submitting for publication statements that, not being attributed to a named source, are rejected for being implausible, unoriginal, or dull.",
"Statements that are attributed to a fully identified source make up the majority of reported statements included by journalists in stories submitted for publication.",
"Reported statements that are highly original will often seem implausible unless submitted by a journalist who is known for solid, reliable work.",
"Reputable journalists sometimes do not conceal the identity of their sources from their publishers but insist that the identity of those sources be concealed from the public.",
"Journalists who have special access to sources whose identity they must conceal are greatly valued by their publishers."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the teacher's argument? |
The proposal to extend clinical trials, which are routinely used as systematic tests of pharmaceutical innovations, to new surgical procedures should not be implemented. The point is that surgical procedures differ in one important respect from medicinal drugs: a correctly prescribed drug depends for its effectiveness only on the drug's composition, whereas the effectiveness of even the most appropriate surgical procedure is transparently related to the skills of the surgeon who uses it. | 199406_4-LR2_16_19 | [
"does not consider that new surgical procedures might be found to be intrinsically more harmful than the best treatment previously available",
"ignores the possibility that the challenged proposal is deliberately crude in a way designed to elicit criticism to be used in refining the proposal",
"assumes that a surgeon's skills remain unchanged throughout the surgeon's professional life",
"describes a dissimilarity without citing any scientific evidence for the existence of that dissimilarity",
"rejects a proposal presumably advanced in good faith without acknowledging any such good faith"
]
| 0 | The reasoning in the argument is flawed because the argument |
If the majority of the residents of the apartment complex complain that their apartments are infested with ants, then the management of the complex will have to engage the services of an exterminator. But the majority of the residents of the complex indicate that their apartments are virtually free of ants. Therefore, the management of the complex will not have to engage the services of an exterminator. | 199406_4-LR2_17_20 | [
"A theater will be constructed in the fall if funds collected are at least sufficient to cover its cost. To date, the funds collected exceed the theater's cost, so the theater will be constructed in the fall.",
"The number of flights operated by the airlines cannot be reduced unless the airlines can collect higher airfares. But people will not pay higher airfares, so it is not the case that the number of flights will be reduced.",
"In order for the company to start the proposed building project, both the town council and the mayor must approve. Since the mayor has already approved, the building project will be started soon.",
"Most employees will attend the company picnic if the entertainment committee is successful in getting a certain band to play at the picnic. But that band will be out of the country on the day of the picnic, so it is not true that most employees will attend.",
"Either the school's principal or two-thirds of the parent council must approve a change in the school dress code in order for the code to be changed. Since the principal will not approve a change in the dress code, the code will not be changed."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following arguments contains a flawed pattern of reasoning parallel to that contained in the argument above? |
When the supply of a given resource dwindles, alternative technologies allowing the use of different resources develop, and demand for the resource that was in short supply naturally declines. Then the existing supplies of that resource satisfy whatever demand remains. Among the once-dwindling resources that are now in more than adequate supply are flint for arrowheads, trees usable for schooner masts, and good mules. Because new technologies constantly replace old ones, we can never run out of important natural resources. | 199406_4-LR2_18_21 | [
"The masts and hulls of some sailing ships built today are still made of wood.",
"There are considerably fewer mules today than there were 100 years ago.",
"The cost of some new technologies is often so high that the companies developing them might actually lose money at first.",
"Dwindling supplies of a natural resource often result in that resource's costing more to use.",
"The biological requirements for substances like clean air and clean water are unaffected by technological change."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following, if true, most seriously undermines the conclusion? |
Paulsville and Longtown cannot both be included in the candidate's itinerary of campaign stops. The candidate will make a stop in Paulsville unless Salisbury is made part of the itinerary. Unfortunately, a stop in Salisbury is out of the question. Clearly, then, a stop in Longtown can be ruled out. | 199406_4-LR2_19_22 | [
"The chef never has both fresh radishes and fresh green peppers available for the chef's salad at the same time. If she uses fresh radishes, she also uses spinach. But currently there is no spinach to be had. It can be inferred, then, that she will not be using fresh green peppers.",
"Tom will definitely support Parker if Mendoza does not apply; and Tom will not support both Parker and Chung. Since, as it turns out, Mendoza will not apply, it follows that Chung will not get Tom's support.",
"The program committee never selects two plays by Shaw for a single season. But when they select a play by Coward, they do not select any play by Shaw at all. For this season, the committee has just selected a play by Shaw, so they will not select any play by Coward.",
"In agricultural pest control, either pesticides or the introduction of natural enemies of the pest, but not both, will work. Of course, neither will be needed if pest-resistant crops are planted. So if pesticides are in fact needed, it must be that there are no natural enemies of the pest.",
"The city cannot afford to build both a new stadium and the new road that would be needed to get there. But neither of the two projects is worth doing without the other. Since the city will not undertake any but worthwhile projects, the new stadium will not be constructed at this time."
]
| 1 | The reasoning in the argument above most closely parallels that in which one of the following arguments? |
A study of adults who suffer from migraine headaches revealed that a significant proportion of the study participants suffer from a complex syndrome characterized by a set of three symptoms. Those who suffer from the syndrome experienced excessive anxiety during early childhood. As adolescents, these people began experiencing migraine headaches. As these people approached the age of 20, they also began to experience recurring bouts of depression. Since this pattern is invariant, always with excessive anxiety at its beginning, it follows that excessive anxiety in childhood is one of the causes of migraine headaches and depression in later life. | 199406_4-LR2_20_23 | [
"It does not specify the proportion of those in the general population who suffer from the syndrome.",
"It fails to rule out the possibility that all of the characteristic symptoms of the syndrome have a common cause.",
"It makes a generalization that is inconsistent with the evidence.",
"It fails to demonstrate that the people who participated in the study are representative of migraine sufferers.",
"It does not establish why the study of migraine sufferers was restricted to adult participants."
]
| 1 | The reasoning in the argument is vulnerable to criticism on which one of the following grounds? |
Mainstream economic theory holds that manufacturers, in deciding what kinds of products to manufacture and what form those products should have, simply respond to the needs and desires of consumers. However, most major manufacturers manipulate and even create consumer demand, as anyone who watches television knows. Since even mainstream economic theorists watch television, their motive in advancing this theory must be something other than disinterested concern for scientific truth. | 199406_4-LR2_21_24 | [
"It is one of the claims on which the conclusion is based.",
"It is the conclusion of the argument.",
"It states the position argued against.",
"It states a possible objection to the argument's conclusion.",
"It provides supplementary background information."
]
| 0 | The claim that manufacturers manipulate and create consumer demand plays which one of the following roles in the argument? |
It is probably within the reach of human technology to make the climate of Mars inhabitable. It might be several centuries before people could live there, even with breathing apparatuses, but some of the world's great temples and cathedrals took centuries to build. Research efforts now are justified if there is even a chance of making another planet inhabitable. Besides, the intellectual exercise of understanding how the Martian atmosphere might be changed could help in understanding atmospheric changes inadvertently triggered by human activity on Earth. | 199410_1-LR1_1_1 | [
"it is probably technologically possible for humankind to alter the climate of Mars",
"it would take several centuries to make Mars even marginally inhabitable",
"making Mars inhabitable is an effort comparable to building a great temple or cathedral",
"research efforts aimed at discovering how to change the climate of Mars are justified",
"efforts to change the climate of Mars could facilitate understanding of the Earth's climate"
]
| 3 | The main point of the argument is that |
Adults have the right to vote; so should adolescents. Admittedly, adolescents and adults are not the same. But to the extent that adolescents and adults are different, adults cannot be expected to represent the interests of adolescents. If adults cannot represent the interests of adolescents, then only by giving adolescents the vote will these interests be represented. | 199410_1-LR1_2_2 | [
"The right to vote is a right that all human beings should have.",
"Adolescents and adults differ in most respects that are important.",
"Adolescents should have their interests represented.",
"Anyone who has the right to vote has all the rights an adult has.",
"Adolescents have never enjoyed the right to vote."
]
| 2 | The argument relies on which one of the following assumptions? |
Adults have the right to vote; so should adolescents. Admittedly, adolescents and adults are not the same. But to the extent that adolescents and adults are different, adults cannot be expected to represent the interests of adolescents. If adults cannot represent the interests of adolescents, then only by giving adolescents the vote will these interests be represented. | 199410_1-LR1_2_3 | [
"It presents the conclusion of the argument.",
"It makes a key word in the argument more precise.",
"It illustrates a consequence of one of the claims that are used to support the conclusion.",
"It distracts attention from the point at issue.",
"It concedes a point that is then used to support the conclusion."
]
| 4 | The statement that adolescents and adults are not the same plays which one of the following roles in the argument? |
When deciding where to locate or relocate, businesses look for an educated work force, a high level of services, a low business-tax rate, and close proximity to markets and raw materials. However, although each of these considerations has approximately equal importance, the lack of proximity either to markets or to raw materials often causes municipalities to lose prospective businesses, whereas having a higher-than-average business-tax rate rarely has this effect. | 199410_1-LR1_3_4 | [
"Taxes paid by businesses constitute only a part of the tax revenue collected by most municipalities.",
"In general, the higher the rate at which municipalities tax businesses, the more those municipalities spend on education and on providing services to businesses.",
"Businesses sometimes leave a municipality after that municipality has raised its taxes on businesses.",
"Members of the work force who are highly educated are more likely to be willing to relocate to secure work than are less highly educated workers.",
"Businesses have sometimes tried to obtain tax reductions from municipalities by suggesting that without such a reduction the business might be forced to relocate elsewhere."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent discrepancy in the statements above? |
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