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Process simulation Main principle Process_simulation > Main principle This includes the composition of individual molecular species in the stream; the overall mass flowrate; the streams pressure and temperature. For hydrocarbon systems the Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium Ratios (K-Values) or models that are used to define them are specified by the user. The properties of the column are defined such as the inlet pressure and the number of theoretical plates.
Glossary of artificial intelligence R Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence > R An ensemble learning method for classification, regression and other tasks that operates by constructing a multitude of decision trees at training time and outputting the class that is the mode of the classes (classification) or mean prediction (regression) of the individual trees. Random decision forests correct for decision trees' habit of overfitting to their training set. reasoning system In information technology a reasoning system is a software system that generates conclusions from available knowledge using logical techniques such as deduction and induction.
Hamiltonian complexity Summary Hamiltonian_complexity Hamiltonian complexity or quantum Hamiltonian complexity is a topic which deals with problems in quantum complexity theory and condensed matter physics. It mostly studies constraint satisfaction problems related to ground states of local Hamiltonians; that is, Hermitian matrices that act locally on a system of interest. The constraint satisfaction problems in quantum Hamiltonian complexity have led to the quantum version of the Cook–Levin theorem. Quantum Hamiltonian complexity has helped physicists understand the difficulty of simulating physical systems.
Information processing Information processing model: the working memory Information_processing > In cognitive psychology > Models and theories > Information processing model: the working memory Sensory store is able to hold very limited amounts of information for very limited amounts of time. This phenomenon is very similar to having a picture taken with a flash. For a few brief moments after the flash goes off, the flash it seems to still be there.
Multiprocessor system architecture Tightly-coupled versus loosely-coupled architecture Multiprocessor_system_architecture > Tightly-coupled versus loosely-coupled architecture Both architectures have trade-offs which may be summarized as follows: Loosely-coupled architectures feature high performances of each individual processor but do not enable for easy real-time balancing of the load among processors. Tightly-coupled architectures feature easy load-balancing and distribution among processors but suffer from the bottleneck consisting in the sharing of common resources through one or more buses.
Evolution by natural selection Social and psychological theory Exploitation_competition > Impact > Social and psychological theory The most prominent example of evolutionary psychology, notably advanced in the early work of Noam Chomsky and later by Steven Pinker, is the hypothesis that the human brain has adapted to acquire the grammatical rules of natural language. Other aspects of human behaviour and social structures, from specific cultural norms such as incest avoidance to broader patterns such as gender roles, have been hypothesised to have similar origins as adaptations to the early environment in which modern humans evolved. By analogy to the action of natural selection on genes, the concept of memes—"units of cultural transmission," or culture's equivalents of genes undergoing selection and recombination—has arisen, first described in this form by Richard Dawkins in 1976 and subsequently expanded upon by philosophers such as Daniel Dennett as explanations for complex cultural activities, including human consciousness.
The Fabric of the Cosmos Part II: Time and Experience The_Fabric_of_the_Cosmos > Summary > Part II: Time and Experience The conclusion is that time does not flow, as all things simultaneously exist at the same time. Chapter 6, "Chance and the Arrow", asks, "Does time have an arrow?" The reader discovers that the laws of physics apply moving both forward in time and backward in time.
Facility Information Model Requirements models Facility_Information_Model > Architecture > Requirements models The quality of a facility information model is determined by its completeness, consistency, up-to-dateness and accessibility. To measure that quality it is necessary to define requirements. This is preferably done in a computer interpretable way. These requirements and standard specifications have the nature of relations between kinds of things.
Finitely complete category Summary Finitely_complete_category In mathematics, a complete category is a category in which all small limits exist. That is, a category C is complete if every diagram F: J → C (where J is small) has a limit in C. Dually, a cocomplete category is one in which all small colimits exist. A bicomplete category is a category which is both complete and cocomplete. The existence of all limits (even when J is a proper class) is too strong to be practically relevant.
Pneumolysin Summary Pneumolysin Pneumolysin is a virulence factor of the Gram-positive bacteria Streptococcus pneumoniae.It is a pore-forming toxin of 53 kDa composed of 471 amino acids. It has a range of biological activity, including the ability to lyse and interfere with the function of cells and soluble molecules of the immune system.Released pneumolysin will aid the bacteria during colonization by facilitating adherence to the host, during invasion by damaging host cells, and during infection by interfering with the host immune response.The presence of pneumolysin in sputum, urine, CSF and blood can be indicative of an S. pneumoniae infection.
Factorial function Applications Factorial > Applications For instance the binomial coefficients ( n k ) {\displaystyle {\tbinom {n}{k}}} count the k {\displaystyle k} -element combinations (subsets of k {\displaystyle k} elements) from a set with n {\displaystyle n} elements, and can be computed from factorials using the formula The Stirling numbers of the first kind sum to the factorials, and count the permutations of n {\displaystyle n} grouped into subsets with the same numbers of cycles. Another combinatorial application is in counting derangements, permutations that do not leave any element in its original position; the number of derangements of n {\displaystyle n} items is the nearest integer to n ! / e {\displaystyle n!/e} .
Measure zero A subset of the Cantor set which is not Borel measurable Measure_zero > Uses > A subset of the Cantor set which is not Borel measurable {\displaystyle g(x)=f(x)+x.} Since f ( x ) {\displaystyle f(x)} is strictly monotonic and continuous, it is a homeomorphism. Furthermore, g ( K ) {\displaystyle g(K)} has measure one.
World lines Usage in physics World_lines > Usage in physics The concept may be applied as well to a higher-dimensional space. For easy visualizations of four dimensions, two space coordinates are often suppressed.
Q–Q plot Definition and construction Q–Q_plot > Definition and construction A Q–Q plot is a plot of the quantiles of two distributions against each other, or a plot based on estimates of the quantiles. The pattern of points in the plot is used to compare the two distributions. The main step in constructing a Q–Q plot is calculating or estimating the quantiles to be plotted. If one or both of the axes in a Q–Q plot is based on a theoretical distribution with a continuous cumulative distribution function (CDF), all quantiles are uniquely defined and can be obtained by inverting the CDF.
MoTe2 Reactions MoTe2 > Reactions This property means that it could be used as an electrode in a lithium battery. Up to Li1.6MoTe2 can be formed. This material has a similar X-ray diffraction pattern to α-MoTe2.André Morette, the first to make tellurides of molybdenum, discovered that it would burn in a flame, colouring it blue, and making a white smoke of tellurium dioxide.
Water features Summary Water_feature In landscape architecture and garden design, a water feature is one or more items from a range of fountains, jeux d'eau, pools, ponds, rills, artificial waterfalls, and streams. Before the 18th century they were usually powered by gravity, though the famous Hanging Gardens of Babylon are described by Strabo as supplied by an Archimedean screw and other examples were supplied with water using hydraulic rams. Ancient water features were powered using gravitational forces, human power or animals to pump in the water. Since the 18th century, the majority of water features have been powered by pumps.
Bourrelet Details Bourrelet > Details The bourrelet has a diameter very slightly smaller than the interior diameter of the barrel through which that projectile is to be propelled. It is typically precisely machined to a specified diameter after the remainder of the cast projectile body has been roughly machined to a smaller diameter. The bourrelet is normally forward of a rotating band or driving band near the aft end of the projectile. The driving band is customarily made of a softer metal than the remainder of the artillery projectile and of a larger diameter than the bourrelet to seal the barrel and be engraved by the rifling to spin-stabilize the projectile in flight.
Rocket staging Tandem vs parallel staging design Parallel_staging > Tandem vs parallel staging design A rocket system that implements tandem staging means that each individual stage runs in order one after the other. The rocket breaks free from the previous stage, then begins burning through the next stage in straight succession. On the other hand, a rocket that implements parallel staging has two or more different stages that are active at the same time.
Photosynthesis On land Photosynthesis > Light-independent reactions > Carbon concentrating mechanisms > On land Plants that do not use PEP-carboxylase in carbon fixation are called C3 plants because the primary carboxylation reaction, catalyzed by RuBisCO, produces the three-carbon 3-phosphoglyceric acids directly in the Calvin-Benson cycle. Over 90% of plants use C3 carbon fixation, compared to 3% that use C4 carbon fixation; however, the evolution of C4 in over 60 plant lineages makes it a striking example of convergent evolution. C2 photosynthesis, which involves carbon-concentration by selective breakdown of photorespiratory glycine, is both an evolutionary precursor to C4 and a useful CCM in its own right.Xerophytes, such as cacti and most succulents, also use PEP carboxylase to capture carbon dioxide in a process called Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM).
CD28 family receptor HIV CD28_family_receptor > Clinical significance > HIV With regards to subjects with both Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) and HIV, levels of CD8 cells are also reduced. CD28 signaling has a large role in the adaptive response to HCV and can increase morbidity for HCV/HIV coinfection within a subject.
Carrier proteins Summary Cellular_transport A membrane transport protein (or simply transporter) is a membrane protein involved in the movement of ions, small molecules, and macromolecules, such as another protein, across a biological membrane. Transport proteins are integral transmembrane proteins; that is they exist permanently within and span the membrane across which they transport substances. The proteins may assist in the movement of substances by facilitated diffusion or active transport. The two main types of proteins involved in such transport are broadly categorized as either channels or carriers.
Stable homotopy group of spheres Summary Homotopy_groups_of_the_spheres The stable homotopy groups form the coefficient ring of an extraordinary cohomology theory, called stable cohomotopy theory. The unstable homotopy groups (for n < k + 2) are more erratic; nevertheless, they have been tabulated for k < 20. Most modern computations use spectral sequences, a technique first applied to homotopy groups of spheres by Jean-Pierre Serre. Several important patterns have been established, yet much remains unknown and unexplained.
Electron diffraction Waves, diffraction and quantum mechanics Electron_diffraction > History > Waves, diffraction and quantum mechanics Alexander Reid, who was Thomson's graduate student, performed the first experiments, but he died soon after in a motorcycle accident and is rarely mentioned. These experiments were rapidly followed by the first non-relativistic diffraction model for electrons by Hans Bethe based upon the Schrödinger equation, which is very close to how electron diffraction is now described. Significantly, Davidsson and Germer noticed that their results could not be interpreted using a Bragg's law approach as the positions were systematically different; the approach of Bethe which includes the refraction due to the average potential yielded more accurate results. These advances in understanding of electron wave mechanics were important for many developments of electron-based analytical techniques in the 1930s such as gas electron diffraction developed by Herman Mark and Raymond Weil, and the first electron microscopes developed by Max Knoll and Ernst Ruska.
Algebraic multiplicity Overview Eigenvalue,_eigenvector_and_eigenspace > Overview Each point on the painting can be represented as a vector pointing from the center of the painting to that point. The linear transformation in this example is called a shear mapping. Points in the top half are moved to the right, and points in the bottom half are moved to the left, proportional to how far they are from the horizontal axis that goes through the middle of the painting.
Data validation and reconciliation Data filtering Data_validation_and_reconciliation > Data validation > Data filtering Data filtering denotes the process of treating measured data such that the values become meaningful and lie within the range of expected values. Data filtering is necessary before the reconciliation process in order to increase robustness of the reconciliation step. There are several ways of data filtering, for example taking the average of several measured values over a well-defined time period.
Transfinite set theory Basic concepts and notation Transfinite_set_theory > Basic concepts and notation A is called a proper subset of B if and only if A is a subset of B, but A is not equal to B. Also, 1, 2, and 3 are members (elements) of the set {1, 2, 3}, but are not subsets of it; and in turn, the subsets, such as {1}, are not members of the set {1, 2, 3}. Just as arithmetic features binary operations on numbers, set theory features binary operations on sets. The following is a partial list of them: Union of the sets A and B, denoted A ∪ B, is the set of all objects that are a member of A, or B, or both.
Toe loop jump Technique Toe_loop_jump > Technique The jump is exited from the back outside edge of the same foot. The skater approaches the right back outside edge of his or her skate from the landing of a previous jump when done in combination, from the right back outside edge from a right forward inside-to-right back outside three turn, or from a left forward outside-left back inside three turn followed by a change of foot. After completing the three turn, the skater reaches their free leg behind them and slightly outside the direction they are traveling, much like a pole-vaulter.
Polynomial ring Definition (univariate case) Free_commutative_algebra > Definition (univariate case) Two polynomials are equal when the corresponding coefficients of each Xk are equal. One can think of the ring K as arising from K by adding one new element X that is external to K, commutes with all elements of K, and has no other specific properties. This can be used for an equivalent definition of polynomial rings.
Human reproductive ecology Ovarian aging Human_reproductive_ecology > Key topics in reproductive ecology > Ovarian aging Several genes related to mitochondrial function such as mt-Atp6, Sod1, Hspa4, and Nfkbia are also associated with the aging of the ovary. In addition to that, the deletion at mtDNA 4977-bp in the granulosa cells is associated with fertility in older aged women. == References ==
Trumpet interchanges Stack interchange Trumpet_interchanges > System interchange > Four-legged interchanges > Stack interchange A standard stack interchange includes roads on four levels, also known as a four-level stack: including the two perpendicular highways, and one more additional level for each pair of left-turn ramps. These ramps can be stacked (cross) in various configurations above, below, or between the two interchanging highways. This makes them distinct from Turbine interchanges, where pairs of left-turn ramps are separated but at the same level.
Pythagorean mathematics History Pythagorean_mathematics > History Among others Pythagoras was in charge of education in the city. His influence as political reformer reputably extended to other Greek colonies in southern Italy and in Sicily.
Neuroscience of intelligence White matter Neuroscience_of_intelligence > Humans > White matter White matter connects different regions of grey matter in the cerebrum together. These interconnections make transport more seamless and allow us to perform tasks easier. Significant correlations between intelligence and the corpus callosum have been found, as larger callosal areas have been positively correlated with cognitive performance.
Dereference operator Java Pointer_(computer_programming) > Support in various programming languages > Java There is no explicit representation of pointers in Java. Instead, more complex data structures like objects and arrays are implemented using references. The language does not provide any explicit pointer manipulation operators. It is still possible for code to attempt to dereference a null reference (null pointer), however, which results in a run-time exception being thrown. The space occupied by unreferenced memory objects is recovered automatically by garbage collection at run-time.
Decadic antilogarithm Music Logarithm > Applications > Music Logarithms are related to musical tones and intervals. In equal temperament, the frequency ratio depends only on the interval between two tones, not on the specific frequency, or pitch, of the individual tones. For example, the note A has a frequency of 440 Hz and B-flat has a frequency of 466 Hz. The interval between A and B-flat is a semitone, as is the one between B-flat and B (frequency 493 Hz). Accordingly, the frequency ratios agree: Therefore, logarithms can be used to describe the intervals: an interval is measured in semitones by taking the base-21/12 logarithm of the frequency ratio, while the base-21/1200 logarithm of the frequency ratio expresses the interval in cents, hundredths of a semitone. The latter is used for finer encoding, as it is needed for non-equal temperaments.
Aluminum electrolytic capacitor Lifetime, service life Aluminum_electrolytic_capacitor > Reliability, lifetime and failure modes > Lifetime, service life The basic principle for calculating the time under operational conditions is the so-called “10-degree-rule”.This rule is also well known as the Arrhenius rule. It characterizes the change of thermic reaction speed. For every 10 °C lower temperature, evaporation halves.
Swivel (drill rig) Summary Swivel_(drill_rig) A Swivel is a mechanical device used on a drilling rig that hangs directly under the traveling block and directly above the kelly drive, that provides the ability for the kelly (and subsequently the drill string) to rotate while allowing the traveling block to remain in a stationary rotational position (yet allow vertical movement up and down the derrick) while simultaneously allowing the introduction of drilling fluid into the drill string. See Drilling rig (petroleum) for a diagram of a drilling rig.
Semimagic square Moment of inertia Semimagic_square > Properties of magic squares > Moment of inertia For the order-3 case the moment of inertia is always 60, while for the order-4 case the moment of inertia is always 340. In general, for the n×n case the moment of inertia is n 2 ( n 4 − 1 ) / 12. {\displaystyle n^{2}(n^{4}-1)/12.}
Kernel (integral operator) Usage example Integral_kernel > Usage example {\displaystyle \psi (x,t)=\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }\psi (x',t')K(x,t;x',t')dx'.} This states that the total amplitude ψ ( x , t ) {\displaystyle \psi (x,t)} to arrive at ( x , t ) {\displaystyle (x,t)} is the sum (the integral) over all possible values x ′ {\displaystyle x'} of the total amplitude ψ ( x ′ , t ′ ) {\displaystyle \psi (x',t')} to arrive at the point ( x ′ , t ′ ) {\displaystyle (x',t')} multiplied by the amplitude to go from x ′ {\displaystyle x'} to x {\displaystyle x} . It is often referred to as the propagator for a given system. This (physics) kernel is the kernel of the integral transform. However, for each quantum system, there is a different kernel.
LAN party Small LAN parties LAN_party > Small LAN parties Many LAN participants will also bring food or drink to consume over the course of the party—though they can be held at any hour, many LAN parties begin late in the evening and run through the next morning, making energy drinks a popular choice. When some of the participants cannot be present or when merging a few LAN parties together, VPN software such as Hamachi can be used to arrange computers over the Internet so they appear to be on the same LAN. Normally, the host will host the games but sometimes at very small LAN parties (e.g. 2 or 3 people) all participants will connect to an online internet server and add a word in front of their name to tell everyone else that they are a clan or group.
Area of a circle Using polygons Area_of_a_circle > Historical arguments > Using polygons The area of a regular polygon is half its perimeter times the apothem. As the number of sides of the regular polygon increases, the polygon tends to a circle, and the apothem tends to the radius. This suggests that the area of a disk is half the circumference of its bounding circle times the radius.
Phospholipid scramblase Lipid metabolism Phospholipid_scramblase > Biological roles > Lipid metabolism Blood plasma of these mice showed elevated levels of non-high-density lipoproteins, cholesterol, triglycerides, non-esterified fatty acids, and leptin, but low adiponectin content. Abdominal fat accumulation with the formation of enlarged lipid engorged adipocytes has emerged as the key risk factor for the onset of type 2 diabetes, which is often a manifestation of a broader underlying metabolic disorder termed as metabolic syndrome. Further studies on the regulation of lipid metabolism by PLSCRs are required to understand the risk for development of similar diseases in humans when PLSCR genes are mutated, leading to a defective expression and/or function of PLSCR proteins.
Bacterial swimming Other Bacterial_motility > Movement mechanisms > Other Gliding motility is a type of translocation that is independent of propulsive structures such as flagella or pili. Gliding allows microorganisms to travel along the surface of low aqueous films. The mechanisms of this motility are only partially known. Gliding motility uses a highly diverse set of different motor complexes, including e.g., the focal adhesion complexes of Myxococcus. The speed of gliding varies between organisms, and the reversal of direction is seemingly regulated by some sort of internal clock.
Amorphous computing Documents Amorphous_computing > Documents The Amorphous Computing Home Page A collection of papers and links at the MIT AI lab Amorphous Computing (Communications of the ACM, May 2000) A review article showing examples from Coore's Growing Point Language as well as patterns created from Weiss's rule triggering language. "Amorphous computing in the presence of stochastic disturbances" A paper investigating the ability of Amorphous computers to deal with failing components. Amorphous Computing Slides from DARPA talk in 1998 An overview of ideas and proposals for implementations Amorphous and Cellular Computing PPT from 2002 NASA Lecture Almost the same as above, in PPT format Infrastructure for Engineered Emergence on Sensor/Actuator Networks, Beal and Bachrach, 2006. An amorphous computing language called "Proto".
Biofilter Drinking water Biofilter > Drinking water For drinking water, biological water treatment involves the use of naturally occurring microorganisms in the surface water to improve water quality. Under optimum conditions, including relatively low turbidity and high oxygen content, the organisms break down material in the water and thus improve water quality. Slow sand filters or carbon filters are used to provide a support on which these microorganisms grow.
Mean absolute difference Definition Mean_absolute_difference > Definition The mean absolute difference is defined as the "average" or "mean", formally the expected value, of the absolute difference of two random variables X and Y independently and identically distributed with the same (unknown) distribution henceforth called Q. M D := E . {\displaystyle \mathrm {MD} :=E.}
Nucleophilic aromatic substitution Nucleophilic aromatic substitution reactions Nucleophilic_aromatic_substitution > Nucleophilic aromatic substitution reactions The Smiles rearrangement is the intramolecular version of this reaction type.Nucleophilic aromatic substitution is not limited to arenes, however; the reaction takes place even more readily with heteroarenes. Pyridines are especially reactive when substituted in the aromatic ortho position or aromatic para position because then the negative charge is effectively delocalized at the nitrogen position. One classic reaction is the Chichibabin reaction (Aleksei Chichibabin, 1914) in which pyridine is reacted with an alkali-metal amide such as sodium amide to form 2-aminopyridine.In the compound methyl 3-nitropyridine-4-carboxylate, the meta nitro group is actually displaced by fluorine with cesium fluoride in DMSO at 120 °C.
Temporal Key Integrity Protocol Packet spoofing and decryption Temporal_Key_Integrity_Protocol > Security > Packet spoofing and decryption TKIP is vulnerable to a MIC key recovery attack that, if successfully executed, permits an attacker to transmit and decrypt arbitrary packets on the network being attacked. The current publicly available TKIP-specific attacks do not reveal the Pairwise Master Key or the Pairwise Temporal Keys. On November 8, 2008, Martin Beck and Erik Tews released a paper detailing how to recover the MIC key and transmit a few packets. This attack was improved by Mathy Vanhoef and Frank Piessens in 2013, where they increase the amount of packets an attacker can transmit, and show how an attacker can also decrypt arbitrary packets.The basis of the attack is an extension of the WEP chop-chop attack.
SIR Model Numerical solutions to the SIR model with approximations SIR_Model > The SIR model > The SIR model without birth and death > Numerical solutions to the SIR model with approximations R t {\displaystyle R_{t}} does not tell us whether or not the spreading will speed up or slow down in the latter stages when the fraction of susceptible people in the community has dropped significantly after recovery or vaccination. R e {\displaystyle R_{e}} corrects this dilution effect by multiplying the fraction of the susceptible population over the total population. It corrects the effective/transmissible interaction between an infectious person and the rest of the community when many of the interaction is immune in the middle to late stages of the disease spreading.
Rolling resistance Sound Rolling_resistance > Sound Rolling friction generates sound (vibrational) energy, as mechanical energy is converted to this form of energy due to the friction. One of the most common examples of rolling friction is the movement of motor vehicle tires on a roadway, a process which generates sound as a by-product. The sound generated by automobile and truck tires as they roll (especially noticeable at highway speeds) is mostly due to the percussion of the tire treads, and compression (and subsequent decompression) of air temporarily captured within the treads.
Graph canonization Applications Graph_canonization > Applications Graph canonization is the essence of many graph isomorphism algorithms. One of the leading tools is Nauty.A common application of graph canonization is in graphical data mining, in particular in chemical database applications.A number of identifiers for chemical substances, such as SMILES and InChI use canonicalization steps in their computation, which is essentially the canonicalization of the graph which represents the molecule. These identifiers are designed to provide a standard (and sometimes human-readable) way to encode molecular information and to facilitate the search for such information in databases and on the web. == References ==
Phun Graphical user interface Phun > Graphical user interface Fixate tool (F) - used to weld an object to the object behind it or the background. Gear tool (G) - used to create gears with axles. Axle tool (H) - used to connect an object with an underlying object or the background with an axle.
Interactionist dualism Causal closure Interactionist_dualism > Objections > Causal closure (See quantum mind.) However, Max Tegmark has argued that classical and quantum calculations show that quantum decoherence effects do not play a role in brain activity. David Chalmers has noted (without necessarily endorsing) a second possibility within quantum mechanics, that consciousness' causal role is to collapse the wave function as per the Von Neumann-Wigner interpretation of quantum mechanics.
Barnard's Loop Summary Barnard's_Loop Barnard's Loop (catalogue designation Sh 2-276) is an emission nebula in the constellation of Orion. It is part of the Orion molecular cloud complex which also contains the dark Horsehead and bright Orion nebulae. The loop takes the form of a large arc centered approximately on the Orion Nebula. The stars within the Orion Nebula are believed to be responsible for ionizing the loop.
Substrate-level phosphorylation Oxidative phosphorylation Substrate-level_phosphorylation > Oxidative phosphorylation An alternative method used to create ATP is through oxidative phosphorylation, which takes place during cellular respiration. This process utilizes the oxidation of NADH to NAD+, yielding 3 ATP, and of FADH2 to FAD, yielding 2 ATP. The potential energy stored as an electrochemical gradient of protons (H+) across the inner mitochondrial membrane is required to generate ATP from ADP and Pi (inorganic phosphate molecule), a key difference from substrate-level phosphorylation.
Glossary of computer science I Glossary_of_computer_science > I It is a network of networks that consists of private, public, academic, business, and government networks of local to global scope, linked by a broad array of electronic, wireless, and optical networking technologies. internet bot Also web robot, robot, or simply bot. A software application that runs automated tasks (scripts) over the Internet.
Mild-slope equation Transformation to an inhomogeneous Helmholtz equation Mild-slope_equation > Transformation to an inhomogeneous Helmholtz equation Through the transformation the mild slope equation can be cast in the form of an inhomogeneous Helmholtz equation: where Δ {\displaystyle \Delta } is the Laplace operator.
Thoracic aortic dissection Signs and symptoms Aortic_dissection > Signs and symptoms About 96% of individuals with AD present with severe pain that had a sudden onset. The pain may be described as a tearing, stabbing, or sharp sensation in the chest, back, or abdomen. About 17% of individuals feel the pain migrate as the dissection extends down the aorta. The location of pain is associated with the location of the dissection.
David S. Touretzky Research David_S._Touretzky > Research Touretzky's research interests lie in the fields of artificial intelligence, computational neuroscience, and learning. This includes machine learning and animal learning, and in particular neural representation of space in rodents (e.g., in the hippocampus) and in robots. In 2006, he was recognized as a Distinguished Scientist by the Association for Computing Machinery.
Photogram Summary Photogram A photogram is a photographic image made without a camera by placing objects directly onto the surface of a light-sensitive material such as photographic paper and then exposing it to light. The usual result is a negative shadow image that shows variations in tone that depends upon the transparency of the objects used. Areas of the paper that have received no light appear white; those exposed for a shorter time or through transparent or semi-transparent objects appear grey, while fully-exposed areas are black in the final print. The technique is sometimes called cameraless photography.
Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol Overview Enhanced_Interior_Gateway_Routing_Protocol > Overview Passive indicates that EIGRP has determined the path for the specific route and has finished processing. Active indicates that EIGRP is still trying to calculate the best path for the specific route. Routes in the topology table are not usable by the router until they are inserted into the routing table.
Chemotherapy Antimetabolites Chemotherapy > Treatment strategies > Types > Antimetabolites Fluorouracil is a nucleobase analogue that is metabolised in cells to form at least two active products; 5-fluourouridine monophosphate (FUMP) and 5-fluoro-2'-deoxyuridine 5'-phosphate (fdUMP). FUMP becomes incorporated into RNA and fdUMP inhibits the enzyme thymidylate synthase; both of which lead to cell death. : 11 Capecitabine is a prodrug of 5-fluorouracil that is broken down in cells to produce the active drug. The deoxynucleoside analogues include cytarabine, gemcitabine, decitabine, azacitidine, fludarabine, nelarabine, cladribine, clofarabine, and pentostatin. The thiopurines include thioguanine and mercaptopurine.
Hilbert space dimension Banach space properties Complex_Hilbert_space > Properties > Banach space properties The open mapping theorem is equivalent to the closed graph theorem, which asserts that a linear function from one Banach space to another is continuous if and only if its graph is a closed set. In the case of Hilbert spaces, this is basic in the study of unbounded operators (see closed operator). The (geometrical) Hahn–Banach theorem asserts that a closed convex set can be separated from any point outside it by means of a hyperplane of the Hilbert space. This is an immediate consequence of the best approximation property: if y is the element of a closed convex set F closest to x, then the separating hyperplane is the plane perpendicular to the segment xy passing through its midpoint.
Maxon excitation Comparison with helium-3 Maxon_excitation > Properties > Comparison with helium-3 In it, Cooper pairing takes place between atoms rather than electrons, and the attractive interaction between them is mediated by spin fluctuations rather than phonons. (See fermion condensate.) A unified description of superconductivity and superfluidity is possible in terms of gauge symmetry breaking.
Cutaneous tuberculosis Seborrheic Cutaneous_tuberculosis > Dermatitis > Seborrheic Seborrheic dermatitis is a chronic, superficial, inflammatory disease characterized by scaling on an erythematous base. Infantile seborrheic dermatitis Leiner's disease Pityriasis simplex capillitii (dandruff) Seborrheic dermatitis (seborrheic eczema)
Blender (software) Fluid simulation Blender_(software) > Features > Simulation > Fluid simulation The fluid simulator can be used for simulating liquids, like water being poured into a cup. It uses Lattice Boltzmann methods (LBM) to simulate fluids and allows for plenty of adjustment of particles and resolution. The particle physics fluid simulation creates particles that follow the smoothed-particle hydrodynamics method.Blender has simulation tools for soft-body dynamics, including mesh collision detection, LBM fluid dynamics, smoke simulation, Bullet rigid-body dynamics, an ocean generator with waves, a particle system that includes support for particle-based hair, and real-time control during physics simulation and rendering. In Blender 2.82, a new fluid simulation system called Mantaflow was added, replacing the old FLIP system. In Blender 2.92, another fluid simulation system called APIC, which builds on Mantaflow, was added. Vortices and more stable calculations are improved from the FLIP system.
Sulfur compounds Electron transfer reactions Sulfur_compounds > Electron transfer reactions S82+ is deep blue, S42+ is yellow and S162+ is red.Reduction of sulfur gives various polysulfides with the formula Sx2-, many of which have been obtained crystalline form. Illustrative is the production of sodium tetrasulfide: 4 Na + S8 → 2 Na2S4Some of these dianions dissociate to give radical anions, such as S3− gives the blue color of the rock lapis lazuli. This reaction highlights a distinctive property of sulfur: its ability to catenate (bind to itself by formation of chains). Protonation of these polysulfide anions produces the polysulfanes, H2Sx where x= 2, 3, and 4. Ultimately, reduction of sulfur produces sulfide salts: 16 Na + S8 → 8 Na2SThe interconversion of these species is exploited in the sodium–sulfur battery.
Benjamin H. Bratton The Stack: On Software and Sovereignty Benjamin_H._Bratton > Publications > The Stack: On Software and Sovereignty The Stack: On Software and Sovereignty was published by MIT Press in late 2015. The book challenges traditional ideas of sovereignty centered around the nation-state and develops a theory of geopolitics that accounts for sovereignty in terms of planetary-scale computation at various scales. Its two core arguments are that planetary-scale computation “distorts and deforms traditional Westphalian logics of political geography” and creates new territories in its own image, and that different scales of computing technology can be understood as forming an “accidental megastructure” that resembles a multi-layer network architecture stack, what Bratton calls “The Stack.” The Stack is described as a platform. Bratton argues that platforms represent a technical and institutional model equivalent to states or markets but reducible to neither. Bratton refers to the book as “a design brief” suggesting that the layers of this structure are modular available to innovation and replacement.
Cell fate determination Autonomous specification Cell_fate > Modes of specification > Autonomous specification This is normally what occurs in the case of lateral inhibition in which neighboring cells induce specification via inhibitory or inducing signals (see Notch signaling). This kind of positive feedback at the single cell level and tissue level is responsible for symmetry breaking, which is an all-or-none process whereas once the symmetry is broken, the cells involved become very different. Symmetry breaking leads to a bistable or multistable system where the cell or cells involved are determined for different cell fates.
Automated refractor Summary Automated_refractor An autorefractor or automated refractor is a computer-controlled machine used during an eye examination to provide an objective measurement of a person's refractive error and prescription for glasses or contact lenses. This is achieved by measuring how light is changed as it enters a person's eye.
Deepfake Summary Deepfake Deepfakes (portmanteau of "deep learning" and "fake") are synthetic media that have been digitally manipulated to replace one person's likeness convincingly with that of another. Deepfakes are the manipulation of facial appearance through deep generative methods. While the act of creating fake content is not new, deepfakes leverage powerful techniques from machine learning and artificial intelligence to manipulate or generate visual and audio content that can more easily deceive.
Threshold shadow scheme Using the Chinese remainder theorem Secret_splitting > Efficient secret sharing > Using the Chinese remainder theorem The Chinese remainder theorem can also be used in secret sharing, for it provides us with a method to uniquely determine a number S modulo k many pairwise coprime integers m 1 , m 2 , . . . , m k {\displaystyle m_{1},m_{2},...,m_{k}} , given that S < ∏ i = 1 k m i {\displaystyle S<\prod _{i=1}^{k}m_{i}} . There are two secret sharing schemes that make use of the Chinese remainder theorem, Mignotte's and Asmuth-Bloom's Schemes. They are threshold secret sharing schemes, in which the shares are generated by reduction modulo the integers m i {\displaystyle m_{i}} , and the secret is recovered by essentially solving the system of congruences using the Chinese remainder theorem.
Free-fall time Infall to a point source of gravity Freefall_time_scale > Derivation > Infall to a point source of gravity A purely radial trajectory is an example of a degenerate ellipse with an eccentricity of 1 and semi-major axis R / 2 {\displaystyle R/2} . Therefore, the time it would take a body to fall inward, turn around, and return to its original position is the same as the period of a circular orbit of radius R / 2 {\displaystyle R/2} , by Kepler's Third Law: t orbit = 2 π G ( M + m ) ( R 2 ) 3 / 2 = π R 3 / 2 2 G ( M + m ) . {\displaystyle t_{\text{orbit}}={\frac {2\pi }{\sqrt {G(M+m)}}}\left({\frac {R}{2}}\right)^{3/2}={\frac {\pi R^{3/2}}{\sqrt {2G(M+m)}}}.}
Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy of nucleic acids Structure determination Nucleic_acid_NMR > Structure determination Interactions between RNA and metal ions can be probed by a number of methods, including observing changes in chemical shift upon ion binding, observing line broadening for paramagnetic ion species, and observing intermolecular NOE contacts for organometallic mimics of the metal ions. NMR is also useful for probing the binding of nucleic acid molecules to other molecules, such as proteins or drugs. This can be done by chemical-shift mapping, which is seeing which resonances are shifted upon binding of the other molecule, or by cross-saturation experiments where one of the binding molecules is selectively saturated and, if bound, the saturation transfers to the other molecule in the complex.Dynamic properties such as duplex–single strand equilibria and binding rates of other molecules to duplexes can also be determined by its effect on the spin–lattice relaxation time T1, but these methods are insensitive to intermediate rates of 104–108 s−1, which must be investigated with other methods such as solid-state NMR. Dynamics of mechanical properties of a nucleic acid double helix such as bending and twisting can also be studied using NMR. Pulsed field gradient NMR experiments can be used to measure diffusion constants.
Mole fractions Summary Molar_ratio {\displaystyle \sum _{i=1}^{N}n_{i}=n_{\mathrm {tot} };\ \sum _{i=1}^{N}x_{i}=1.} Mole fraction is numerically identical to the number fraction, which is defined as the number of particles (molecules) of a constituent Ni divided by the total number of all molecules Ntot. Whereas mole fraction is a ratio of amounts to amounts (in units of moles per moles), molar concentration is a quotient of amount to volume (in units of moles per litre). Other ways of expressing the composition of a mixture as a dimensionless quantity are mass fraction and volume fraction are others.
Histone acetylation and deacetylation Mechanism of action Histone_acetylation_and_deacetylation > Mechanism of action These functional roles are contributed by the tails of the histone subunits. The histone tails insert themselves in the minor grooves of the DNA and extend through the double helix, which leaves them open for modifications involved in transcriptional activation. Acetylation has been closely associated with increases in transcriptional activation while deacetylation has been linked with transcriptional deactivation.
Rotary variable differential transformer Operation Rotary_variable_differential_transformer > Operation When the rotor is in a position that directs the available flux equally in both the in-phase and out-of-phase coils, the output voltages cancel and result in a zero value signal. This is referred to as the electrical zero position or E.Z. When the rotor shaft is displaced from E.Z., the resulting output signals have a magnitude and phase relationship proportional to the direction of rotation.
Data transfer rate (disk drive) Other Disk-drive_performance_characteristics > Access time > Other The command processing time or command overhead is the time it takes for the drive electronics to set up the necessary communication between the various components in the device so it can read or write the data. This is of the order of 3 μs, very much less than other overhead times, so it is usually ignored when benchmarking hardware.The settle time is the time it takes the heads to settle on the target track and stop vibrating so they do not read or write off track. This time is usually very small, typically less than 100 μs, and modern HDD manufacturers account for it in their seek time specifications.
Conservation equation Differential forms Physical_conservation_law > Differential forms In continuum mechanics, the most general form of an exact conservation law is given by a continuity equation. For example, conservation of electric charge q is where ∇⋅ is the divergence operator, ρ is the density of q (amount per unit volume), j is the flux of q (amount crossing a unit area in unit time), and t is time. If we assume that the motion u of the charge is a continuous function of position and time, then In one space dimension this can be put into the form of a homogeneous first-order quasilinear hyperbolic equation:: 43 where the dependent variable y is called the density of a conserved quantity, and A(y) is called the current Jacobian, and the subscript notation for partial derivatives has been employed. The more general inhomogeneous case: is not a conservation equation but the general kind of balance equation describing a dissipative system.
Complex square root Geometric construction of the square root Square_root > Geometric construction of the square root 300 BC) gave the construction of the geometric mean of two quantities in two different places: Proposition II.14 and Proposition VI.13. Since the geometric mean of a and b is a b {\displaystyle {\sqrt {ab}}} , one can construct a {\displaystyle {\sqrt {a}}} simply by taking b = 1. The construction is also given by Descartes in his La Géométrie, see figure 2 on page 2.
Aortic valve area calculation Summary Aortic_valve_area_calculation In cardiology, aortic valve area calculation is an indirect method of determining the area of the aortic valve of the heart. The calculated aortic valve orifice area is currently one of the measures for evaluating the severity of aortic stenosis. A valve area of less than 1.0 cm2 is considered to be severe aortic stenosis.There are many ways to calculate the valve area of aortic stenosis. The most commonly used methods involve measurements taken during echocardiography. For interpretation of these values, the area is generally divided by the body surface area, to arrive at the patient's optimal aortic valve orifice area.
Homeostatic response Core temperature Human_homeostasis > Controls of variables > Core temperature The metabolic rate is increased, initially by non-shivering thermogenesis, followed by shivering thermogenesis if the earlier reactions are insufficient to correct the hypothermia. When core temperature rises are detected by thermoreceptors, the sweat glands in the skin are stimulated via cholinergic sympathetic nerves to secrete sweat onto the skin, which, when it evaporates, cools the skin and the blood flowing through it. Panting is an alternative effector in many vertebrates, which cools the body also by the evaporation of water, but this time from the mucous membranes of the throat and mouth.
Bleeder (resistor) Failure Bleeder_resistor > Failure Safe design suggests mounting a bleeder close to a dangerous capacitor, ideally directly to the capacitor terminals, and not through any connectors, so that it is difficult to disconnect the bleeder accidentally. Some safety capacitors have built-in capacitor discharge resistors. Despite the presence of a bleeder, it is wise to prove that any potentially dangerous capacitors are discharged, perhaps by shorting their terminals (or through a suitable low discharge resistance for high energy capacitors), before working on any circuit.
Chemical state Closely related nomenclature Chemical_state > Closely related nomenclature A functional group is very similar to a chemical species and a chemical group. A chemical group or chemical species exhibits a distinctive reaction behavior or a distinctive spectral signal when analyzed by various spectroscopic methods. These three groupings are often used to describe the groups of elements that exist within an organic molecule.
Cell components Summary Living_cells The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all forms of life. Every cell consists of cytoplasm enclosed within a membrane, and contains many macromolecules such as proteins, DNA and RNA, as well as many small molecules of nutrients and metabolites. The term comes from the Latin word cellula meaning 'small room'.Cells can acquire specified function and carry out various tasks within the cell such as replication, DNA repair, protein synthesis, and motility. Cells are capable of specialization and mobility within the cell.
Binary classification Evaluation of binary classifiers Binary_classification > Evaluation of binary classifiers There are many metrics that can be used to measure the performance of a classifier or predictor; different fields have different preferences for specific metrics due to different goals. In medicine sensitivity and specificity are often used, while in information retrieval precision and recall are preferred. An important distinction is between metrics that are independent of how often each category occurs in the population (the prevalence), and metrics that depend on the prevalence – both types are useful, but they have very different properties. Given a classification of a specific data set, there are four basic combinations of actual data category and assigned category: true positives TP (correct positive assignments), true negatives TN (correct negative assignments), false positives FP (incorrect positive assignments), and false negatives FN (incorrect negative assignments). These can be arranged into a 2×2 contingency table, with columns corresponding to actual value – condition positive or condition negative – and rows corresponding to classification value – test outcome positive or test outcome negative.
Parallel running Examples of parallel running implementation Parallel_running > Examples of parallel running implementation Another example is a publishing firm which is producing textbooks. They decide to run the accounts part of the business by investing in a new computerized system. The existing account system is outdated and is not suitable for use with new hardware.
Prospective search Summary Prospective_search Prospective search, or persistent search, is a method of searching which determines which of a set of queries matches content in a corpus. Other names include document routing and percolate queries. It is sometimes called reverse search, but that can also refer to finding documents similar to a given document. This differs from traditional, or "retrospective", search such as search engines, where the information for the results is acquired and then queried.
Asymptotic safety in quantum gravity Theory space Asymptotic_safety_in_quantum_gravity > Asymptotic safety: The main idea > Theory space Each point in this theory space thus represents one possible action. Often one may think of the space as spanned by all suitable field monomials. In this sense any action in theory space is a linear combination of field monomials, where the corresponding coefficients are the coupling constants, { g α } {\displaystyle \{g_{\alpha }\}} . (Here all couplings are assumed to be dimensionless. Couplings can always be made dimensionless by multiplication with a suitable power of the RG scale.)
Twin-to-twin transfusion syndrome Effects to the surviving fetus Twin-to-twin_transfusion_syndrome > Cause > Effects to the surviving fetus The fetal demise of one of the twins during the second trimester of a monochorionic pregnancy can result in serious complications to the surviving fetus. Complications include gangrenous limbs, hands and feet, cerebral palsy and IQ deficits, constriction rings of limbs and digits, reduced digits, skin defects, brain cysts, hydranencephaly, multicystic encephalomalacia, microencephaly, renal agenesis and bowel atresia. There are three hypotheses explaining these complications. Embolic Theory: The demise of the donor twin allows necrotic tissue, presumably thrombosis-plastin like material, to pass through the vasculature of the surviving twin via the placental vessels.
Motorcycle stunt riding Wheelies Motorcycle_stunt_riding > Common stunts > Wheelies A basic wheelie is the lifting of the front of the motorcycle off the ground by means of either power or use of clutching. There are many variations of the basic wheelie... Power Wheelies - This wheelie can be done by either accelerating rapidly in a low gear, or by reaching the power band and then chopping the throttle. The Clutch-up Is done by either slipping the clutch lever as you accelerate, or by completely pulling in the clutch, riding up the rpm's, and then quickly releasing, or 'dumping' the clutch. The "circle" is a wheelie performed traveling entirely within a circle, which is very difficult to do.
.htaccess Common usage .htaccess > Common usage MIME types Instruct the server how to treat different varying file types. Cache control .htaccess files allow a server to control caching by web browsers and proxies to speed up websites, reduce bandwidth usage, server load, and perceived lag. .htaccess also adds the cache age to the webpage resources so that on revisiting the page, the elements are reloaded from browser cache till the age mentioned expires, instead of requesting the resource again from the server. HTTPS & HSTS Implementation of both HTTPS and HSTS on Apache servers is largely dependent on correct URL rewriting & header information mentioned in .htaccess file. Any incorrect syntax in the file while deploying HTTPS or HSTS leads to a failure in implementation.
Vitamin B 12 Chemistry Vitamin_B-12 > Chemistry The sixth coordination site, the reactive center, is variable, being a cyano group (–CN), a hydroxyl group (–OH), a methyl group (–CH3) or a 5′-deoxyadenosyl group. Historically, the covalent carbon–cobalt bond is one of the first examples of carbon–metal bonds to be discovered in biology. The hydrogenases and, by necessity, enzymes associated with cobalt utilization, involve metal–carbon bonds. Animals have the ability to convert cyanocobalamin and hydroxocobalamin to the bioactive forms adenosylcobalamin and methylcobalamin by means of enzymatically replacing the cyano or hydroxyl groups.
Sievers's law Extension to other branches Sievers's_law > History > Extension to other branches After Sievers, scholars would find similar alternations in Greek and Latin, and alternation between *uw and *u, though the evidence is poor for all of these. Through time, evidence was announced regarding similar alternations of syllabicity in the nasal and liquid consonants, though the evidence is extremely poor for these, despite the fact that such alternations would have left permanent, indeed irreversible, traces. For example, the Sanskrit "tool-suffix" -tra- (e.g. pā-tra- "drinking cup, vessel") almost always follows a consonant or long vowel and should have therefore been -tira-; but no such form as **pōtira-, either written as such or scanned thus, is actually attested in the Rigveda or any other Indic text. How a nearly universal suffix **-tira- would have been, or even could have been, uniformly replaced by -tra- is unobvious.
Autonomous vehicle Trucks Automated_Driving > Ground vehicles > Trucks The concept for autonomous vehicles has been applied for commercial uses, such as autonomous or nearly autonomous trucks. Companies such as Suncor Energy, a Canadian energy company, and Rio Tinto Group were among the first to replace human-operated trucks with driverless commercial trucks run by computers. In April 2016, trucks from major manufacturers including Volvo and the Daimler Company completed a week of autonomous driving across Europe, organized by the Dutch, in an effort to get self-driving trucks on the road. With developments in self-driving trucks progressing, U.S.
Port Control Protocol Summary Port_Control_Protocol Port Control Protocol (PCP) is a computer networking protocol that allows hosts on IPv4 or IPv6 networks to control how the incoming IPv4 or IPv6 packets are translated and forwarded by an upstream router that performs network address translation (NAT) or packet filtering. By allowing hosts to create explicit port forwarding rules, handling of the network traffic can be easily configured to make hosts placed behind NATs or firewalls reachable from the rest of the Internet (so they can also act as network servers), which is a requirement for many applications.Additionally, explicit port forwarding rules available through PCP allow hosts to reduce the amount of generated traffic by eliminating workarounds in form of outgoing NAT keepalive messages, which are required for maintaining connections to servers and for various NAT traversal techniques such as TCP hole punching. At the same time, less generated traffic reduces the power consumption, directly improving the battery runtime for mobile devices.PCP was standardized in 2013 as a successor to the NAT Port Mapping Protocol (NAT-PMP), with which it shares similar protocol concepts and packet formats. PCP adds support for IPv6 and additional NAT scenarios.
RNA therapeutics miRNA RNA_therapeutics > RNAi > miRNA In vitro assays assist in determining the phenotypic effects of miRNAs, but due to the complex nature of gene regulation not all identified miRNAs have the expected effect. Additionally, several miRNAs have been found to act as either tumor suppressors or oncogenes in vivo, such as the oncogenic miR-155 and miR-17-92.In clinical trials, miRNA are commonly used as biomarkers for a variety of diseases, potentially providing earlier diagnosis as well as disease progression, stage, and genetic links. Phase 1 and 2 trials currently test miRNA mimics (to express genes) and miRNA (to repress genes) in patients with cancers and other diseases.
F. C. S. Schiller Opposition to logic F._C._S._Schiller > Philosophy > Opposition to logic ... Whenever ... it becomes biologically important to notice differences in roughly similar situations, and to adjust action more closely to the peculiarities of a particular case, the guidance of life by habit, instinct, and impulse breaks down. A new expedient has somehow to be devised for effecting such exact and delicate adjustments.
Hazards of synthetic biology Background Hazards_of_synthetic_biology > Background This work has been driven by the development of genome synthesis and editing tools, as well as pools of standardized synthetic biological circuits with defined functions. The availability of these tools has spurred the expansion of a do-it-yourself biology movement. : 5 Synthetic biology has potential commercial applications in energy, agriculture, medicine, and the production of chemicals including pharmaceuticals. Biosynthetic applications are often distinguished as either for "contained use" within laboratories and manufacturing facilities, or for "intentional release" outside of the laboratory for medical, veterinary, cosmetic, or agricultural applications. : 24 As synthetic biology applications become increasingly used in industry, the number and variety of workers exposed to synthetic biology risk is expected to increase.
Johnson thermoelectric energy converter Mechanism of action Johnson_thermoelectric_energy_converter > Mechanism of action As the high-temperature, high pressure hydrogen is forced through the PEM it is ionized, producing protons and electrons. The protons pass through the membrane while the electrodes expel the electrons through a load. After passing through the PEM, the protons recombine with the electrons to produce low pressure hydrogen gas that flows out to the compression stage.
Information theory and measure theory Multivariate mutual information Information_theory_and_measure_theory > Multivariate mutual information The multivariate mutual information (same as interaction information but for a change in sign) of three or more random variables can be negative as well as positive: Let X and Y be two independent fair coin flips, and let Z be their exclusive or. Then I ⁡ ( X ; Y ; Z ) = − 1 {\displaystyle \operatorname {I} (X;Y;Z)=-1} bit. Many other variations are possible for three or more random variables: for example, I ⁡ ( X , Y ; Z ) {\displaystyle \operatorname {I} (X,Y;Z)} is the mutual information of the joint distribution of X and Y relative to Z, and can be interpreted as μ ( ( X ~ ∪ Y ~ ) ∩ Z ~ ) .