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Neonatal herpes simplex Differential diagnosis Neonatal_herpes_simplex > Diagnosis > Differential diagnosis Other skin conditions that may appear similar include erythema toxicum neonatorum, transient neonatal pustular melanosis, infantile acne, miliaria, infantile acropustulosis, and sucking blisters. CNS disease may appear like bacterial or other viral meningitis's. Conjunctivitis due to bacterial infection or other viruses can look like neonatal herpes eye disease. Bacterial sepsis, viral hepatitis, and other infections including cytomegalovirus, toxoplasmosis, syphilis, rubella may mimic the disseminated type.
Extensible Embeddable Language Internals Extensible_Embeddable_Language > Internals EEL source code is compiled into bytecode for a custom VM, which has a relatively high level instruction set designed to minimize instruction count and thus overhead. The EEL VM is register based and "stackless", as in not relying on the C call stack for managing VM contexts. The basic memory management method is reference counting, which allows automatic memory management with deterministic timing, without the need for concurrent garbage collection. The VM uses "limbo lists" to keep track of intermediate objects created inside expressions and the like, which greatly simplifies exception handling, and eliminates the need for active reference counting in every single operation.
Logarithmic algorithm Arithmetic–geometric mean approximation Base_of_a_logarithm > Calculation > Arithmetic–geometric mean approximation m is chosen such that to ensure the required precision. A larger m makes the M(x, y) calculation take more steps (the initial x and y are farther apart so it takes more steps to converge) but gives more precision. The constants π and ln(2) can be calculated with quickly converging series.
Sea Dog Table Summary Sea_Dog_Table The Sea Dog Table is one of the treasures of Hardwick Hall, along with the Eglantine Table. It is an elaborately carved table from around 1570 or 1575, made in Paris, following a design by Jacques Androuet du Cerceau. It is regarded as one of the most important examples of 16th-century furniture in Britain.The table is mainly made of inlaid walnut, with "gilding, fruitwood, tulipwood, and marble" also used. The 'sea dogs' of its name are four fantastical chimera, that support the table top above the stretcher.
Function object Other meanings Function_object > Other meanings In a more theoretical context a function object may be considered to be any instance of the class of functions, especially in languages such as Common Lisp in which functions are first-class objects. The ML family of functional programming languages uses the term functor to represent a mapping from modules to modules, or from types to types and is a technique for reusing code. Functors used in this manner are analogous to the original mathematical meaning of functor in category theory, or to the use of generic programming in C++, Java or Ada. In Haskell, the term functor is also used for a concept related to the meaning of functor in category theory. In Prolog and related languages, functor is a synonym for function symbol.
Coefficient of static friction Coefficient of friction Angle_of_friction > Dry friction > Coefficient of friction Values outside this range are rarer, but teflon, for example, can have a coefficient as low as 0.04. A value of zero would mean no friction at all, an elusive property.
Richard E. Bellman Hamilton–Jacobi–Bellman equation Richard_E._Bellman > Work > Hamilton–Jacobi–Bellman equation The equation is a result of the theory of dynamic programming which was pioneered in the 1950s by Richard Bellman and coworkers. The corresponding discrete-time equation is usually referred to as the Bellman equation. In continuous time, the result can be seen as an extension of earlier work in classical physics on the Hamilton–Jacobi equation by William Rowan Hamilton and Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi.
Torque release technique Activator methods Torque_release_technique > Techniques > Activator methods It was found to give off no more than 0.3 J of kinetic energy in a 3-millisecond pulse. The aim is to produce enough force to move the vertebrae but not enough to cause injury.The AMCT involves having the patient lie in a prone position and comparing the functional leg lengths. Often one leg will seem to be shorter than the other.
Mini PCI PCI bus latency PCI_slot > PCI bus latency Soon after promulgation of the PCI specification, it was discovered that lengthy transactions by some devices, due to slow acknowledgments, long data bursts, or some combination, could cause buffer underrun or overrun in other devices. Recommendations on the timing of individual phases in Revision 2.0 were made mandatory in revision 2.1:: 3 A target must be able to complete the initial data phase (assert TRDY# and/or STOP#) within 16 cycles of the start of a transaction. An initiator must complete each data phase (assert IRDY#) within 8 cycles.Additionally, as of revision 2.1, all initiators capable of bursting more than two data phases must implement a programmable latency timer. The timer starts counting clock cycles when a transaction starts (initiator asserts FRAME#). If the timer has expired and the arbiter has removed GNT#, then the initiator must terminate the transaction at the next legal opportunity. This is usually the next data phase, but Memory Write and Invalidate transactions must continue to the end of the cache line.
Productive and unproductive labour Ecological critique Productive_and_unproductive_labour > Ecological critique The ecological critique focuses on mindless "production for production's sake", attacking both the neoclassical notion and the Marxist concept of "productiveness". It is argued neoclassical economics can understand the value of anything (and therefore the costs and benefits of an activity) only if it has a price, real or imputed. However, physical and human resources may have a value which cannot be expressed in price terms, and to turn them into an object of trade via some legal specification of property rights may be harmful to human life on earth. Activities may have non-priced costs and benefits which never feature on the balance sheet, at most in propaganda and advertising.
Renormalization Divergences in quantum electrodynamics Renormalization > Divergences in quantum electrodynamics The charge of the electron.The second class of divergence called an infrared divergence, is due to massless particles, like the photon. Every process involving charged particles emits infinitely many coherent photons of infinite wavelength, and the amplitude for emitting any finite number of photons is zero. For photons, these divergences are well understood.
Micro-Controller Operating Systems Kernels Micro-Controller_Operating_Systems > μC/OS-II > Kernels A preemptive kernel is used when system responsiveness is more important. Thus, μC/OS-II and most commercial real-time kernels are preemptive. The highest priority task ready to run is always given control of the CPU.
Titanium(III) chloride Laboratory use TiCl3 > Applications > Laboratory use TiCl3 is also a specialized reagent in organic synthesis, useful for reductive coupling reactions, often in the presence of added reducing agents such as zinc. It reduces oximes to imines. Titanium trichloride can reduce nitrate to ammonium ion thereby allowing for the sequential analysis of nitrate and ammonia. Slow deterioration occurs in air-exposed titanium trichloride, often resulting in erratic results, such as in reductive coupling reactions.
Java (software platform) Generational heap Java_application > Platform > Similar platforms > Generational heap The Java virtual machine heap is the area of memory used by the JVM for dynamic memory allocation.In HotSpot the heap is divided into generations: The young generation stores short-lived objects that are created and immediately garbage collected. Objects that persist longer are moved to the old generation (also called the tenured generation). This memory is subdivided into (two) Survivors spaces where the objects that survived the first and next garbage collections are stored.The permanent generation (or permgen) was used for class definitions and associated metadata prior to Java 8.
Steam motor Advantages Steam_motor > Principles > Advantages These features give advantages: Higher efficiencyThis is mostly owing to the high speed of the latter-day modern engines and the reduction gearing, but also their other advanced design features. Reduced servicingThe use of oil-bath lubrication reduces the time spent in daily oiling. Reduced maintenanceThe use of oil-bath lubrication reduces the rate of wear, thus reducing the need for periodic maintenance. This is mostly due to the exclusion of dirt, as well as the generous and reliable lubrication.
CDKN1B MicroRNA regulation P27_(gene) > Regulation > MicroRNA regulation Because p27 levels can be moderated at the translational level, it has been proposed that p27 may be regulated by miRNAs. Recent research has suggested that both miR-221 and miR-222 control p27 levels although the pathways are not well understood.
Technical features new to Windows Vista Search Technical_features_new_to_Windows_Vista > Programmability > Search An SQL query can directly refer these tables and index catalogues and use the MSIDXS provider to run queries against them. The search index can also be used via OLE DB, using the CollatorDSO provider. However, OLE DB provider is read-only, supporting only SELECT and GROUP ON SQL statements.
Dispersion staining Oblique illumination dispersion staining Dispersion_staining > Types > Oblique illumination dispersion staining Oblique illumination dispersion staining is the result of refraction and the convex shape of most particles. With oblique illumination the beam of light illuminating the sample is directed at an oblique angle through the sample. This enhances the resolution of structural details in the particle that are oriented at right angles to the incident beam of light while sacrificing some of the resolution of features parallel to the direction of the beam. Because of this orientation of the beam the relative refractive index of the particle and the mounting liquid becomes apparent.
Drug–drug interaction Through enzymatic induction Drug_interactions > Based on pharmacokinetics > Based on metabolism > Through enzymatic induction On occasion, an interaction can be due to just one active ingredient, but this can be absent in some chemical varieties or it can be present in low concentrations, which will not cause an interaction. Counter interactions can even occur. This occurs, for instance, with ginseng, the Panax ginseng variety increases the Prothrombin time, while the Panax quinquefolius variety decreases it.
Energy metabolism Chemiosmotic theory Energy_metabolism > Chemiosmotic theory One of the major triumphs of bioenergetics is Peter D. Mitchell's chemiosmotic theory of how protons in aqueous solution function in the production of ATP in cell organelles such as mitochondria. This work earned Mitchell the 1978 Nobel Prize for Chemistry. Other cellular sources of ATP such as glycolysis were understood first, but such processes for direct coupling of enzyme activity to ATP production are not the major source of useful chemical energy in most cells. Chemiosmotic coupling is the major energy producing process in most cells, being utilized in chloroplasts and several single celled organisms in addition to mitochondria.
Nigrostriatal pathway Substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) Nigrostriatal_pathway > Anatomy > Substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) These dopamine cell bodies are localized to one of two chemically defined layers. Those in the upper layer (or dorsal tier) contain a binding protein called calbindin-D28K which can buffer calcium levels inside the cell when it becomes too high or toxic. Dopamine cells in the lower layer (or ventral tier) lack this protein and are more vulnerable to the effects of neurotoxins (e.g. MPTP) that can cause Parkinson disease-like symptoms. The dorsal tier dopamine cells have dendrites that radiate horizontally across the pars compacta, whereas ventral tier dopamine cells have dendrites that extend ventrally into the pars reticulata.
Fat pointer Summary Dynamic_dispatch Their implementations differ. A program holds a reference to an object which may be either a File object or a Database object. Which it is may have been determined by a run-time setting, and at this stage, the program may not know or care which.
Reproducible builds Summary Reproducible_builds Reproducible builds, also known as deterministic compilation, is a process of compiling software which ensures the resulting binary code can be reproduced. Source code compiled using deterministic compilation will always output the same binary.Reproducible builds can act as part of a chain of trust; the source code can be signed, and deterministic compilation can prove that the binary was compiled from trusted source code. Verified reproducible builds provide a strong countermeasure against attacks where binaries do not match their source code, e.g., because an attacker has inserted malicious code into a binary.
Alum Shale Formation Summary Alum_Shale_Formation The Alum Shale Formation (also known as alum schist and alum slate) is a formation of black shale of Middle Cambrian to Tremadocian (Lower Ordovician) in age found predominantly in southern Scandinavia. It is shale or clay slate containing pyrite. Decomposition of pyrite by weathering forms sulfuric acid, which acts on potash and alumina constituents to form alum, which often occurs as efflorescences on the rock outcrop.
Parity-time symmetry History Non-Hermitian_quantum_mechanics > History PT symmetry has also been applied to classical mechanics, metamaterials, electric circuits, and nuclear magnetic resonance. In 2017, a non-Hermitian PT-symmetric Hamiltonian was proposed by Dorje Brody and Markus Müller that "formally satisfies the conditions of the Hilbert–Pólya conjecture." == References ==
Breakdown point Manual screening for outliers Robust_estimator > Examples > Manual screening for outliers For example, in regression problems, diagnostic plots are used to identify outliers. However, it is common that once a few outliers have been removed, others become visible.
Nucleophilic acyl substitution Amides Nucleophilic_acyl_substitution > Reactions of acyl derivatives > Amides When reacted with carbon nucleophiles, N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF) can be used to introduce a formyl group. Here, phenyllithium 1 attacks the carbonyl group of DMF 2, giving tetrahedral intermediate 3.
Polysubstance dependence Associated cognitive impairments Polysubstance_dependence > Presentation > Associated cognitive impairments Cognition refers to what happens in the mind, such as mental functions like "perception, attention, memory, language, problem solving, reasoning, and decision making." Although many studies have looked at the cognitive impairments of individuals who are dependent on one substance, there are few researchers who have tried to determine the problems with cognitive functioning that are caused by dependence on multiple substances. Therefore, what is known about the effects of polysubstance dependence on mental abilities is based on the results of a few studies.
Hemodynamic response Pulmonary arterial hypertension Hemodynamic_response > Complications > Pulmonary arterial hypertension The increased workload on the heart causes hypertrophy of the right ventricle, which leads less blood being pump through the lungs and decreased blood to the left side of the heart. As a result of all of this, the left side of the heart has a hard time pumping a sufficient supply of oxygen to the rest of the body, which deteriorates the effect of the haemodynamic response. Impaired haemodynamic responses in turn diminish exercise capacity in patients with PAH.
Gersonides Works in mathematics and astronomy/astrology Gersonides > Works in mathematics and astronomy/astrology In 1342, Gersonides wrote On Sines, Chords and Arcs, which examined trigonometry, in particular proving the sine law for plane triangles and giving five-figure sine tables.One year later, at the request of the bishop of Meaux, he wrote The Harmony of Numbers in which he considers a problem of Philippe de Vitry involving so-called harmonic numbers, which have the form 2m·3n. The problem was to characterize all pairs of harmonic numbers differing by 1. Gersonides proved that there are only four such pairs: (1,2), (2,3), (3,4) and (8,9).
Maze generation Recursive implementation Maze_generation > Graph theory based methods > Randomized depth-first search > Recursive implementation The depth-first search algorithm of maze generation is frequently implemented using backtracking. This can be described with a following recursive routine: Given a current cell as a parameter Mark the current cell as visited While the current cell has any unvisited neighbour cells Choose one of the unvisited neighbours Remove the wall between the current cell and the chosen cell Invoke the routine recursively for the chosen cellwhich is invoked once for any initial cell in the area.
Cheletropic reaction Kinetics Cheletropic_reaction > Cheletropic reactions involving SO2 > Kinetics The reaction showed pseudo first-order kinetics. Some interesting results were that electron-withdrawing groups on the diene decreased the rate of reaction. Also, the reaction rate was affected considerably by steric effects of 2-substituents, with more bulky groups increasing the rate of reaction.
Kochen–Specker theorem Overview Kochen–Specker_theorem > Overview The first of these is a considerable weakening compared to von Neumann's assumption that this equality should hold independently of whether A1 and A2 are compatible or incompatible. Kochen and Specker were capable of proving that a value assignment is not possible even on the basis of these weaker assumptions. In order to do so, they restricted the observables to a special class, namely, so-called yes–no observables, having only values 0 and 1, corresponding to projection operators on the eigenvectors of certain orthogonal bases of a Hilbert space.
Interquartile range Use Semi-interquartile_range > Use The median is the corresponding measure of central tendency. The IQR can be used to identify outliers (see below). The IQR also may indicate the skewness of the dataset. The quartile deviation or semi-interquartile range is defined as half the IQR.
Contact force Summary Contact_force A contact force is any force that occurs as a result of two objects making contact with each other. Contact forces are ubiquitous and are responsible for most visible interactions between macroscopic collections of matter. Pushing a car or kicking a ball are some of the everyday examples where contact forces are at work. In the first case the force is continuously applied to the car by a person, while in the second case the force is delivered in a short impulse. Contact forces are often decomposed into orthogonal components, one perpendicular to the surface(s) in contact called the normal force, and one parallel to the surface(s) in contact, called the friction force.Not all forces are contact forces; for example, the weight of an object is the force between the object and the Earth, even though the two do not need to make contact. Gravitational forces, electrical forces and magnetic forces are body forces and can exist without contact occurring.
High Capacity Metro Train Design High_Capacity_Metro_Train > Design As well as 70 passenger information displays (PIDs) in each train, Wi-Fi connection will be available throughout the passenger areas. The PIDs will show the next station, current time, and the train's location on an adapted rail map. Displays on the front and sides of the train will indicate its destination.
Greenhouse Solutions with Sustainable Energy Quotes Greenhouse_Solutions_with_Sustainable_Energy > Quotes All other stages of the nuclear fuel chain -- mining, milling, fuel fabrication, enrichment, reactor construction, decommissioning, and waste management -- use fossil fuels and hence emit CO2..." (p. 252) "Global wind-power capacity continues to expand and, apart from the blip in 2006, its costs continue to decline steadily. Wind power is one of the few energy supply technologies that are ready for wide dissemination today, unlike coal with CO2 capture and sequestration and unlike nuclear power.
Mondrian data analysis Summary Mondrian_data_analysis Currently implemented plots comprise Mosaic Plot, Scatterplots and SPLOM, Maps, Barcharts, Histograms, Missing Value Plot, Parallel Coordinates/Boxplots and Boxplots y by x. Mondrian works with data in standard tab-delimited or comma-separated ASCII files and can load data from R workspaces. There is basic support for working directly on data in databases. Mondrian links to R and offers statistical procedures like interactive density estimation, scatterplot smoothers, multidimensional scaling (MDS) and principal component analysis (PCA).
Reconstructive memory Summary Reconstructive_memory Reconstructive memory is a theory of memory recall, in which the act of remembering is influenced by various other cognitive processes including perception, imagination, motivation, semantic memory and beliefs, amongst others. People view their memories as being a coherent and truthful account of episodic memory and believe that their perspective is free from an error during recall. However, the reconstructive process of memory recall is subject to distortion by other intervening cognitive functions such as individual perceptions, social influences, and world knowledge, all of which can lead to errors during reconstruction.
Const (computer programming) Other languages Const_(computer_programming) > Other languages However, in Nim, a constant can be declared from any expression that can be evaluated at compile time. In C#, only C# built-in types can be declared as const; user-defined types, including classes, structs, and arrays, cannot be const.Java does not have const – it instead has final, which can be applied to local "variable" declarations and applies to the identifier, not the type. It has a different object-oriented use for object members, which is the origin of the name.
Glossary of engineering: A–L E Glossary_of_engineering:_A–L > E It is the field described by classical electrodynamics and is the classical counterpart to the quantized electromagnetic field tensor in quantum electrodynamics. The electromagnetic field propagates at the speed of light (in fact, this field can be identified as light) and interacts with charges and currents. Its quantum counterpart is one of the four fundamental forces of nature (the others are gravitation, weak interaction and strong interaction.)
Navigational instrument Charts and drafting instruments Nautical_instrument > Charts and drafting instruments Charts are maps of the areas to be navigated with details specific to the marine environment. Computing aids: used in the necessary mathematical calculations. Today electronic computers or calculators are used. Other traditional aids used included tables (trigonometric, logarithms, etc.) and slide rules.
Linear Algebra Relationship with geometry Linear_Algebra > Relationship with geometry There is a strong relationship between linear algebra and geometry, which started with the introduction by René Descartes, in 1637, of Cartesian coordinates. In this new (at that time) geometry, now called Cartesian geometry, points are represented by Cartesian coordinates, which are sequences of three real numbers (in the case of the usual three-dimensional space). The basic objects of geometry, which are lines and planes are represented by linear equations. Thus, computing intersections of lines and planes amounts to solving systems of linear equations.
Bird's wing Summary Bird_wing Bird wings are a paired forelimb in birds. The wings give the birds the ability to fly, creating lift. Terrestrial flightless birds have reduced wings or none at all (for example, moa). In aquatic flightless birds (penguins), wings can serve as flippers.
Trickle-down effect Criticisms Trickle-down_effect > Criticisms The power of fashion depends on communication; the more fashion information is communicated, the more human fashion behaviour is impacted. Fashion information in contemporary society is democratised; it is no longer solely the upper class that has the ability to affect fashion behaviour, but a range of social classes and groups. Mass media exposure through televised fashion information, fashion magazines and editorials have allowed simultaneous adoption of new styles at all levels of society.It is generally accepted among fashion researchers that fashions propagate more across social classes rather than trickle down (or up) as consumers tend to be more influenced by opinion leaders within their own social groups. As a result, each social group has its own fashion innovators who determine fashion trends.Another criticism is that fashion is innately disorderly and complex. Trying to assign order to a complex phenomenon that usually consists of a range of factors including imitation and differentiation, adoptions and rejects all in relation to an individual's social surroundings has restricted the theory.
Key Management Interoperability Protocol Summary Key_Management_Interoperability_Protocol Both symmetric and asymmetric keys are supported, including the ability to sign certificates. KMIP also allows for clients to ask a server to encrypt or decrypt data, without needing direct access to the key. The KMIP standard was first released in 2010.
No-SCAR genome editing Human health No-SCAR_genome_editing > Applications > Human health Subsequent applications built upon simple sequence corrections and successfully repaired a chromosomal inversion abnormality in Hemophilia A. Both applications demonstrate the utility of pairing CRISPR/Cas with stem cell models in the study and treatment of genetic disease. With the advent of patient-derived induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), the applicability of CRISPR/Cas is further strengthened. To date, CRISPR methods have successfully repaired disease-associated genetic mutations in 1) metabolic disorders such as β-thalassemia, 2) immunological deficiencies such as severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) and 3) neuromuscular diseases such as Duchenne muscular dystrophy.
Insulin Physiological effects Insulin > Function > Physiological effects Once insulin enters the human brain, it enhances learning and memory and benefits verbal memory in particular. Enhancing brain insulin signaling by means of intranasal insulin administration also enhances the acute thermoregulatory and glucoregulatory response to food intake, suggesting that central nervous insulin contributes to the co-ordination of a wide variety of homeostatic or regulatory processes in the human body. Insulin also has stimulatory effects on gonadotropin-releasing hormone from the hypothalamus, thus favoring fertility.
Nucleotidyl transferase Summary Nucleotidyl_transferase Nucleotidyltransferases are transferase enzymes of phosphorus-containing groups, e.g., substituents of nucleotidylic acids or simply nucleoside monophosphates. The general reaction of transferring a nucleoside monophosphate moiety from A to B, can be written as: A-P-N + B ⇌ {\displaystyle \rightleftharpoons } A + B-P-NFor example, in the case of polymerases, A is pyrophosphate and B is the nascent polynucleotide. They are classified under EC number 2.7.7 and they can be categorised into: Uridylyltransferases, which transfer uridylyl- groups Adenylyltransferases, which transfer adenylyl- groups Guanylyltransferases, which transfer guanylyl- groups Cytitidylyltransferases, which transfer cytidylyl- groups Thymidylyltransferases, which transfer thymidylyl- groups
Primary hyperaldosteronism Epidemiology Primary_aldosteronism > Epidemiology In the past, the prevalence of primary aldosteronism was considered to be less than 1% of patients with hypertension. More recent studies have reported much higher prevalence of primary aldosteronism, up-to 12.7% in primary care and to 29.8% in referral centers. Very low rates of compliance with screening guidelines lead to the underdiagnoses of primary aldosteronism.
Coordinative definition Summary Coordinative_definition A coordinative definition is a postulate which assigns a partial meaning to the theoretical terms of a scientific theory by correlating the mathematical objects of the pure or formal/syntactical aspects of a theory with physical objects in the world. The idea was formulated by the logical positivists and arises out of a formalist vision of mathematics as pure symbol manipulation.
Constraint-logic programming Finite domains Constraint-logic_programming > Terms and conditions > Finite domains If the domain of a variable becomes a singleton, the variable can be assigned the unique value in its domain. The forms of consistency typically enforced are arc consistency, hyper-arc consistency, and bound consistency. The current domain of a variable can be inspected using specific literals; for example, dom(X,D) finds out the current domain D of a variable X. As for domains of reals, functors can be used with domains of integers. In this case, a term can be an expression over integers, a constant, or the application of a functor over other terms. A variable can take an arbitrary term as a value, if its domain has not been specified to be a set of integers or constants.
Bohr theory Derivation Sommerfeld–Wilson_quantization > Electron energy levels > Derivation {\displaystyle r_{n}={\frac {n^{2}\hbar ^{2}}{Zk_{\mathrm {e} }e^{2}m_{\mathrm {e} }}}.} The smallest possible value of r in the hydrogen atom (Z = 1) is called the Bohr radius and is equal to: r 1 = ℏ 2 k e e 2 m e ≈ 5.29 × 10 − 11 m . {\displaystyle r_{1}={\frac {\hbar ^{2}}{k_{\mathrm {e} }e^{2}m_{\mathrm {e} }}}\approx 5.29\times 10^{-11}~\mathrm {m} .}
Francis Crick Molecular biology Francis_Crick > Research > Molecular biology However, Crick was quickly drifting away from continued work related to his expertise in the interpretation of X-ray diffraction patterns of proteins. George Gamow established a group of scientists interested in the role of RNA as an intermediary between DNA as the genetic storage molecule in the nucleus of cells and the synthesis of proteins in the cytoplasm (the RNA Tie Club). It was clear to Crick that there had to be a code by which a short sequence of nucleotides would specify a particular amino acid in a newly synthesised protein.
Michael Bühl Summary Michael_Bühl Michael Bühl is a professor of Computational and Theoretical Chemistry in the School of Chemistry, University of St. Andrews. He has published work on the performance of various density functionals, modelling thermal and medium effects, transition-metal NMR of metalloenzymes, modelling of homogeneous catalysis, and molecular dynamics of transition metal complexes.
Immunomics Summary Immunomics Immunomics is the study of immune system regulation and response to pathogens using genome-wide approaches. With the rise of genomic and proteomic technologies, scientists have been able to visualize biological networks and infer interrelationships between genes and/or proteins; recently, these technologies have been used to help better understand how the immune system functions and how it is regulated. Two thirds of the genome is active in one or more immune cell types and less than 1% of genes are uniquely expressed in a given type of cell. Therefore, it is critical that the expression patterns of these immune cell types be deciphered in the context of a network, and not as an individual, so that their roles be correctly characterized and related to one another.
Absolute Temperature Relationship to ideal gas law Thermodynamic_temperature > Relationship to ideal gas law Thus the efficiency depends only on |qC| / |qH|. Carnot's theorem states that all reversible engines operating between the same heat reservoirs are equally efficient. Thus, any reversible heat engine operating between temperatures T1 and T2 must have the same efficiency, that is to say, the efficiency is the function of only temperatures In addition, a reversible heat engine operating between a pair of thermal reservoirs at temperatures T1 and T3 must have the same efficiency as one consisting of two cycles, one between T1 and another (intermediate) temperature T2, and the second between T2 andT3.
Abstract Algebra History Abstract_Algebra > History Most theories that are now recognized as parts of abstract algebra started as collections of disparate facts from various branches of mathematics, acquired a common theme that served as a core around which various results were grouped, and finally became unified on a basis of a common set of concepts. This unification occurred in the early decades of the 20th century and resulted in the formal axiomatic definitions of various algebraic structures such as groups, rings, and fields. This historical development is almost the opposite of the treatment found in popular textbooks, such as van der Waerden's Moderne Algebra, which start each chapter with a formal definition of a structure and then follow it with concrete examples.
Daughter chromosomes Telophase Cell_division > Phases of eukaryotic cell division > Telophase Telophase is the last stage of the cell cycle in which a cleavage furrow splits the cells cytoplasm (cytokinesis) and chromatin. This occurs through the synthesis of a new nuclear envelope that forms around the chromatin gathered at each pole. The nucleolus reforms as the chromatin reverts back to the loose state it possessed during interphase. The division of the cellular contents is not always equal and can vary by cell type as seen with oocyte formation where one of the four daughter cells possess the majority of the duckling.
Network Sovereignty Impact of VPNs Network_Sovereignty > Impact of VPNs Virtual Private Networks (VPNs) are a significant tool to allow private citizens to get around network sovereignty and any restrictions their government may place on their access to the internet. VPNs allow a computer to route its Internet connection from one location to another. For example one would connect from a connection at point A to a connection at point B, and to others, it would appear that they are accessing the Internet from point B even if they are in point A. For example, in China, VPNs are used to access otherwise-blocked content. Yang gives the example of pornography stating that with VPN, "smut that's banned in the US can wind its way into American homes through electrical impulses in, say, Amsterdam."
Pullback attractor Summary Pullback_attractor In mathematics, the attractor of a random dynamical system may be loosely thought of as a set to which the system evolves after a long enough time. The basic idea is the same as for a deterministic dynamical system, but requires careful treatment because random dynamical systems are necessarily non-autonomous. This requires one to consider the notion of a pullback attractor or attractor in the pullback sense.
Basket cell Cerebellum Basket_cell > Cerebellum In the cerebellum, the multipolar basket cells have branching dendrites, which are dilated and knotty. Basket cells synapse on the cell bodies of Purkinje cells and make inhibitory synapses with Purkinje cells. Cerebellar basket cell axons fire inhibitory neurotransmitters such as GABA to Purkinje cell axons, and inhibits the Purkinje cell. Purkinje cells send inhibitory messages to the deep cerebellar nuclei and are responsible for the sole output of motor coordination from the cerebellar cortex. With the work of the basket cell, Purkinje cells do not send the inhibitory response for motor coordination and motor movement occurs.
Quantity equation Orientation and frame of reference Quantity_equation > Geometry: position vs. displacement > Orientation and frame of reference Similar to the issue of a point of reference is the issue of orientation: a displacement in 2 or 3 dimensions is not just a length, but is a length together with a direction. (This issue does not arise in 1 dimension, or rather is equivalent to the distinction between positive and negative.) Thus, to compare or combine two dimensional quantities in a multi-dimensional space, one also needs an orientation: they need to be compared to a frame of reference. This leads to the extensions discussed below, namely Huntley's directed dimensions and Siano's orientational analysis.
Anthropogenic impact Climate change Anthropogenic_impact > Impacts on climate > Climate change Contemporary climate change is the result of increasing atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations, which is caused primarily by combustion of fossil fuel (coal, oil, natural gas), and by deforestation, land use changes, and cement production. Such massive alteration of the global carbon cycle has only been possible because of the availability and deployment of advanced technologies, ranging in application from fossil fuel exploration, extraction, distribution, refining, and combustion in power plants and automobile engines and advanced farming practices. Livestock contributes to climate change both through the production of greenhouse gases and through destruction of carbon sinks such as rain-forests. According to the 2006 United Nations/FAO report, 18% of all greenhouse gas emissions found in the atmosphere are due to livestock.
Infinite recursion Mathematical errors Infinite_loops > Examples of unintentional infinite loops > Mathematical errors In some languages, programmer confusion about the mathematical symbols may lead to an unintentional infinite loop. For example, here is a snippet in C: The expected output is the numbers 0 through 9, with an interjected "a equals 5!" between 5 and 6.
Parity transformation Molecules P_symmetry > Many-particle systems: atoms, molecules, nuclei > Molecules For centrosymmetric molecules, the point group contains the operation i which is not to be confused with the parity operation. The operation i involves the inversion of the electronic and vibrational displacement coordinates at the nuclear centre of mass. For centrosymmetric molecules the operation i commutes with the rovibronic (rotation-vibration-electronic) Hamiltonian and can be used to label such states.
Value at risk VaR risk management Value_at_risk > VaR risk management Anything that affects profit and loss that is left out of other reports will show up either in inflated VaR or excessive VaR breaks. "A risk-taking institution that does not compute VaR might escape disaster, but an institution that cannot compute VaR will not. "The second claimed benefit of VaR is that it separates risk into two regimes.
Satellite demisability Summary Satellite Some imaging satellites chose a Sun-synchronous orbit because they can scan the entire globe with similar lighting. As the number of satellites and space debris around Earth increases, the threat of collision has become more severe. A small number of satellites orbit other bodies (such as the Moon, Mars, and the Sun) or many bodies at once (two for a halo orbit, three for a Lissajous orbit).
Variable resistor Audio control Potentiometer > Applications > Audio control Low-power potentiometers, both slide and rotary, are used to control audio equipment, changing loudness, frequency attenuation, and other characteristics of audio signals. The 'log pot', that is, a potentiometer has a resistance, taper, or, "curve" (or law) of a logarithmic (log) form, is used as the volume control in audio power amplifiers, where it is also called an "audio taper pot", because the amplitude response of the human ear is approximately logarithmic. It ensures that on a volume control marked 0 to 10, for example, a setting of 5 sounds subjectively half as loud as a setting of 10. There is also an anti-log pot or reverse audio taper which is simply the reverse of a logarithmic potentiometer.
Data universalism Criticism Data_universalism > Criticism Data universalism has been critiqued by many scholars concerned about data privacy and data justice, claiming that it conceals cultural specifications and diversity. Datafication ought to be viewed through the lens of epistemic diversity and justice to achieve data obedience. So, people are encouraged to critically examine the impacts of datafication by reimagining people and places.
Free molecular flow Summary Knudsen_flow Free molecular flow describes the fluid dynamics of gas where the mean free path of the molecules is larger than the size of the chamber or of the object under test. For tubes/objects of the size of several cm, this means pressures well below 10−3 mbar. This is also called the regime of high vacuum, or even ultra-high vacuum. This is opposed to viscous flow encountered at higher pressures.
Ureteropelvic junction Anatomical and surgical abnormalities Ureteropelvic_junction > Clinical significance > Anatomical and surgical abnormalities Associated symptoms may include recurrent infections, pain or blood in the urine; and when tested, kidney function might be seen to decrease. These are considered situations when surgery is needed.
Molecular sequence data DNA sequencing Molecular_sequencing > DNA sequencing Because of the key importance DNA has to living things, knowledge of DNA sequences is useful in practically any area of biological research. For example, in medicine it can be used to identify, diagnose, and potentially develop treatments for genetic diseases. Similarly, research into pathogens may lead to treatments for contagious diseases.
Dynamic scoping Global scope Dynamic_scoping > Levels of scope > Global scope The scope of a name binding is an entire program, which is known as global scope. Variable names with global scope—called global variables—are frequently considered bad practice, at least in some languages, due to the possibility of name collisions and unintentional masking, together with poor modularity, and function scope or block scope are considered preferable. However, global scope is typically used (depending on the language) for various other sorts of names, such as names of functions, names of classes and names of other data types. In these cases mechanisms such as namespaces are used to avoid collisions.
Free return trajectory Earth–Moon Free-return_trajectory > Earth–Moon It then falls back toward the Earth, goes around to the other side, and goes through another perigee close to where the first perigee had taken place. By this time the Moon has moved almost half an orbit and is again directly over the craft at perigee.
C data types Size and pointer difference types C_data_types > Basic types > Size and pointer difference types The operator sizeof yields a value of the type size_t. The maximum size of size_t is provided via SIZE_MAX, a macro constant which is defined in the header (cstdint header in C++). size_t is guaranteed to be at least 16 bits wide.
Name servers Domain name server Name_server > Domain name server The Internet maintains two principal namespaces: the domain name hierarchy and the IP address system. The Domain Name System maintains the domain namespace and provides translation services between these two namespaces. Internet name servers implement the Domain Name System. The top hierarchy of the Domain Name System is served by the root name servers maintained by delegation by the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN).
Toxic Shock Syndrome Treatment Toxic_Shock_Syndrome > Treatment The severity of this disease frequently warrants hospitalization. Admission to the intensive care unit is often necessary for supportive care (for aggressive fluid management, ventilation, renal replacement therapy and inotropic support), particularly in the case of multiple organ failure. Treatment includes removal or draining of the source of infection—often a tampon—and draining of abscesses. Outcomes are poorer in patients who do not have the source of infection removed.Antibiotic treatment should cover both S. pyogenes and S. aureus.
Off-target genome editing Schaefer et al. 2017 Off-target_genome_editing > Controversy > Schaefer et al. 2017 On May 30, 2017, a two-page correspondence article was published in Nature Methods that reported an unusually high number of off-target SNVs and indels after sequencing mice that were previously involved in an in vivo gene repair experiment. The previous experiment, completed by the same group, successfully restored the vision of blind mouse strain (rd1) by correcting the Y347X mutation in the Pde6b gene using a CRISPR-cas9 system. After completing the experiment two genetically corrected mice were whole genome sequenced and compared to control and known mouse strain genomes. Greater than 1,600 SNVs, and 128 indels were discovered, of which 1,397 SNVs and 117 indels were shared between the two edited mice, suggesting that the off-target effects were not random.
Discretionary access control With owner DACL > Implementation > With owner The term DAC is commonly used in contexts that assume that every object has an owner that controls the permissions to access the object, probably because many systems do implement DAC using the concept of an owner. But the TCSEC definition does not say anything about owners, so technically an access control system doesn't have to have a concept of ownership to meet the TCSEC definition of DAC. Users (owners) have under this DAC implementation the ability to make policy decisions and/or assign security attributes. A straightforward example is the Unix file mode which represent write, read, and execute in each of the 3 bits for each of User, Group and Others. (It is prepended by another bit that indicates additional characteristics).
Signal gain Summary Gain_(electronics) In the field of audio and general purpose amplifiers, especially operational amplifiers, the term usually refers to voltage gain, but in radio frequency amplifiers it usually refers to power gain. Furthermore, the term gain is also applied in systems such as sensors where the input and output have different units; in such cases the gain units must be specified, as in "5 microvolts per photon" for the responsivity of a photosensor. The "gain" of a bipolar transistor normally refers to forward current transfer ratio, either hFE ("beta", the static ratio of Ic divided by Ib at some operating point), or sometimes hfe (the small-signal current gain, the slope of the graph of Ic against Ib at a point).
Biological mathematics Model example: the cell cycle Biological_mathematics > Model example: the cell cycle The eukaryotic cell cycle is very complex and has been the subject of intense study, since its misregulation leads to cancers. It is possibly a good example of a mathematical model as it deals with simple calculus but gives valid results. Two research groups have produced several models of the cell cycle simulating several organisms.
Vector cross product Conversion to matrix multiplication Xyzzy_(mnemonic) > Alternative ways to compute > Conversion to matrix multiplication In three dimensions bivectors are dual to vectors so the product is equivalent to the cross product, with the bivector instead of its vector dual. In higher dimensions the product can still be calculated but bivectors have more degrees of freedom and are not equivalent to vectors.This notation is also often much easier to work with, for example, in epipolar geometry. From the general properties of the cross product follows immediately that and and from fact that × is skew-symmetric it follows that The above-mentioned triple product expansion (bac–cab rule) can be easily proven using this notation.
Infrared communication Visible limit Infrared_sources > Regions within the infrared > Visible limit Infrared radiation is generally considered to begin with wavelengths longer than visible by the human eye. However there is no hard wavelength limit to what is visible, as the eye's sensitivity decreases rapidly but smoothly, for wavelengths exceeding about 700 nm. Therefore wavelengths just longer than that can be seen if they are sufficiently bright, though they may still be classified as infrared according to usual definitions. Light from a near-IR laser may thus appear dim red and can present a hazard since it may actually be quite bright. And even IR at wavelengths up to 1,050 nm from pulsed lasers can be seen by humans under certain conditions.
Hypervitaminosis E Summary Hypervitaminosis_E Vitamin E is a group of eight fat soluble compounds that include four tocopherols and four tocotrienols. Vitamin E deficiency, which is rare and usually due to an underlying problem with digesting dietary fat rather than from a diet low in vitamin E, can cause nerve problems. Vitamin E is a fat-soluble antioxidant which may help protect cell membranes from reactive oxygen species. Worldwide, government organizations recommend adults consume in the range of 3 to 15 mg per day.
Derivation of the Navier–Stokes equations The material derivative Derivation_of_the_Navier–Stokes_equations > The material derivative The first term on the right-hand side of the equation is the ordinary Eulerian derivative (the derivative on a fixed reference frame, representing changes at a point with respect to time) whereas the second term represents changes of a quantity with respect to position (see advection). This "special" derivative is in fact the ordinary derivative of a function of many variables along a path following the fluid motion; it may be derived through application of the chain rule in which all independent variables are checked for change along the path (which is to say, the total derivative). For example, the measurement of changes in wind velocity in the atmosphere can be obtained with the help of an anemometer in a weather station or by observing the movement of a weather balloon. The anemometer in the first case is measuring the velocity of all the moving particles passing through a fixed point in space, whereas in the second case the instrument is measuring changes in velocity as it moves with the flow.
Unilateral contact Smooth contact dynamics Unilateral_contact > Modelling of the unilateral constraints > Smooth contact dynamics In this method, normal forces generated by the unilateral constraints are modelled according to the local material properties of bodies. In particular, contact force models are derived from continuum mechanics, and expressed as functions of the gap and the impact velocity of bodies. As an example, an illustration of the classic Hertz contact model is shown in the figure on the right. In such model, the contact is explained by the local deformation of bodies. More contact models can be found in some review scientific works or in the article dedicated to contact mechanics.
V Speeds V1 definitions Overspeed_(aeronautics) > V1 definitions In addition to this reaction time, a safety margin equivalent to 2 seconds at V1 is added to the accelerate-stop distance. Transport Canada defines it as: "Critical engine failure recognition speed" and adds: "This definition is not restrictive. An operator may adopt any other definition outlined in the aircraft flight manual (AFM) of TC type-approved aircraft as long as such definition does not compromise operational safety of the aircraft."
Graphic design occupations Package designer Layout_artist > Hands-on graphic designer > Layout artist > Package designer A package designer or packaging technician may utilize technical skills aside from graphic design. Knowledge of cuts, crease, folding, nature and behavior of the packaging material such as paper, corrugated sheet, synthetic or other type of materials may also be required. A customer may see the top/outside of a package at first, but may also be drawn to other package design features. A packaging design may require three-dimensional space layout skills in addition to visual communication to consider how well a design works at multiple angles. CAD software applications specifically for packaging design may be utilized
Tree measurement Summary Tree_measurement Other parameters also measured include trunk and branch volume, canopy structure, canopy volume, and overall tree shape. Overviews of some of these more advanced measurements are discussed in Blozan above and in "Tsuga Search Measurement Protocols" by Will Blozan and Jess Riddle, September 2006, and tree trunk modeling by Robert Leverett and Leverett and others. The appropriate measurement protocols for multi-trunk trees and other more exotic forms are less well-defined, but some general guidelines are presented below.
Speed limit Speed limit derestriction Speed_sign > Signage > Speed limit derestriction In some countries, derestriction signs are used to mark where a speed zone ends. The speed limit beyond the sign is the prevailing limit for the general area; for example, the sign might be used to show the end of an urban area. In the United Kingdom, the sign means that the national speed limit applies (60 mph on open roads and 70 mph on dual carriageways and motorways). In New Zealand it means you are on an open road, but the maximum legal speed of 100 km/h still applies. On roads without general speed limits, such as the German Autobahn, a portion of the Stuart Highway, and rural areas on the Isle of Man, it means the end of all quantitative speed limits.
Point Spread Function Introduction Point_Spread_Function > Introduction This imaging process is usually formulated by a convolution equation. In microscope image processing and astronomy, knowing the PSF of the measuring device is very important for restoring the (original) object with deconvolution. For the case of laser beams, the PSF can be mathematically modeled using the concepts of Gaussian beams. For instance, deconvolution of the mathematically modeled PSF and the image, improves visibility of features and removes imaging noise.
Johannes Kepler Works Johannes_Kepler > Works F. Hammer. 1969. ISBN 3-406-01656-1.
Liquid resistor Liquid neutral earthing resistor Liquid_resistor > Liquid neutral earthing resistor A permanently installed current transformer (CT) fixed around the neutral leg feeder to the LNER senses the current. The CT sends a signal current to an external sensing circuit (the protection system) which then sends a signal to the relevant circuit breaker to open and disconnect the supply or isolate the generator (or transformer) from the fault. The ohmic value of the resistor is calculated as a function of the permissible fault current and the system voltage to earth.
Voltage sensor Sensor deviations Sensor > Classification of measurement errors > Sensor deviations Nonlinearity is deviation of a sensor's transfer function from a straight line transfer function. Usually, this is defined by the amount the output differs from ideal behavior over the full range of the sensor, often noted as a percentage of the full range. Deviation caused by rapid changes of the measured property over time is a dynamic error.
Metaclass (Semantic Web) Examples Metaclass_(Semantic_Web) > Examples Following the type-token distinction, real world objects such as Abraham Lincoln or the planet Mars are regrouped into classes of similar objects. Abraham Lincoln is said to be an instance of human, and Mars is an instance of planet. This is a kind of is-a relationship. Metaclasses are class of classes, such as for example the nuclide concept.
Wave Equation Introduction Spherical_wave > Introduction This property is called the superposition principle in physics. The wave equation alone does not specify a physical solution; a unique solution is usually obtained by setting a problem with further conditions, such as initial conditions, which prescribe the amplitude and phase of the wave.
Sedimentary organic matter Summary Sedimentary_organic_matter Sedimentary organic matter includes the organic carbon component of sediments and sedimentary rocks. The organic matter is usually a component of sedimentary material even if it is present in low abundance (usually lower than 1%). Petroleum (or oil) and natural gas are particular examples of sedimentary organic matter. Coals and bitumen shales are examples of sedimentary rocks rich in sedimentary organic matter.
Data preprocessing Summary Data_preprocessing Thus, representation and quality of data is necessary before running any analysis. Often, data preprocessing is the most important phase of a machine learning project, especially in computational biology. If there is a high proportion of irrelevant and redundant information present or noisy and unreliable data, then knowledge discovery during the training phase may be more difficult. Data preparation and filtering steps can take a considerable amount of processing time. Examples of methods used in data preprocessing include cleaning, instance selection, normalization, one-hot encoding, data transformation, feature extraction and feature selection.
Convolutional layer Distinguishing features Max_pooling > Distinguishing features Where each neuron inside a convolutional layer is connected to only a small region of the layer before it, called a receptive field. Distinct types of layers, both locally and completely connected, are stacked to form a CNN architecture. Local connectivity: following the concept of receptive fields, CNNs exploit spatial locality by enforcing a local connectivity pattern between neurons of adjacent layers.