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Injection locking Entrainment Injection_locked_oscillator > Entrainment Such mode locking is important for many biological systems including the proper operation of pacemakers.The use of the word entrainment in the modern physics literature most often refers to the movement of one fluid, or collection of particulates, by another (see Entrainment (hydrodynamics)). The use of the word to refer to mode locking of non-linear coupled oscillators appears mostly after about 1980, and remains relatively rare in comparison. A similar coupling phenomenon was characterized in hearing aids when the adaptive feedback cancellation is used. This chaotic artifact (entrainment) is observed when correlated input signals are presented to an adaptive feedback canceller. In recent years, aperiodic entrainment has been identified as an alternative form of entrainment that is of interest in biological rhythms.
Spatially offset Raman spectroscopy Summary Spatially_offset_Raman_spectroscopy The technique usually uses the red-shifted photons produced by monochromatic light losing energy to a vibrational motion within a molecule. The shift in colour and the probability of inelastic scatter is characteristic of the molecule that scatters the photon. A molecule may produce over 10 to 20 major lines, though this is restricted only by the number of bonds and symmetry constraints. Importantly, the spectrum produced by a mixture forms a linear combination of the component spectra, enabling relative chemical content to be determined in a simple spectroscopic measurement using chemometric analysis.
Sea of electrons In 3D Metallic_bonding > The nature of metallic bonding > In 3D In a sense, metallic bonding is not a 'new' type of bonding at all. It describes the bonding only as present in a chunk of condensed matter: be it crystalline solid, liquid, or even glass. Metallic vapors, in contrast, are often atomic (Hg) or at times contain molecules, such as Na2, held together by a more conventional covalent bond.
Conventional current Current density and Ohm's law Electric_polarity > Current density and Ohm's law For negative charges, the sign of the current density is opposite to the velocity of the charges. : 749 In SI units, current density (symbol: j) is expressed in the SI base units of amperes per square metre. : 22 In linear materials such as metals, and under low frequencies, the current density across the conductor surface is uniform. In such conditions, Ohm's law states that the current is directly proportional to the potential difference between two ends (across) of that metal (ideal) resistor (or other ohmic device): where I {\displaystyle I} is the current, measured in amperes; V {\displaystyle V} is the potential difference, measured in volts; and R {\displaystyle R} is the resistance, measured in ohms. For alternating currents, especially at higher frequencies, skin effect causes the current to spread unevenly across the conductor cross-section, with higher density near the surface, thus increasing the apparent resistance.
Methodology of science Uncertainty Scientific_process > Elements of the scientific method > Characterizations > Uncertainty Measurements in scientific work are also usually accompanied by estimates of their uncertainty. The uncertainty is often estimated by making repeated measurements of the desired quantity. Uncertainties may also be calculated by consideration of the uncertainties of the individual underlying quantities used. Counts of things, such as the number of people in a nation at a particular time, may also have an uncertainty due to data collection limitations. Or counts may represent a sample of desired quantities, with an uncertainty that depends upon the sampling method used and the number of samples taken.
Three-center four-electron bond Molecular orbital description 3-center_4-electron_bond > Structure and bonding > Molecular orbital description The σ molecular orbitals (MOs) of triiodide can be constructed by considering the in-phase and out-of-phase combinations of the central atom's p orbital (collinear with the bond axis) with the p orbitals of the peripheral atoms. This exercise generates the diagram at right (Figure 1). Three molecular orbitals result from the combination of the three relevant atomic orbitals, with the four electrons occupying the two MOs lowest in energy – a bonding MO delocalized across all three centers, and a non-bonding MO localized on the peripheral centers. Using this model, one sidesteps the need to invoke hypervalent bonding considerations at the central atom, since the bonding orbital effectively consists of two 2-center-1-electron bonds (which together do not violate the octet rule), and the other two electrons occupy the non-bonding orbital.
Psychoneuroimmunology The immune-brain loop Psychoneuroimmunology > The immune-brain loop Two major pathways are involved in this cross-talk: the Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA axis), and the sympathetic nervous system (SNS), via the sympathetic-adrenal-medullary axis (SAM axis). The activation of SNS during an immune response might be aimed to localize the inflammatory response. The body's primary stress management system is the HPA axis.
Respirometry Mitochondrial metabolic rates Respirometry > Mitochondrial metabolic rates Therefore, chemicals that usually would not be able to cross the cell membrane can directly influence the mitochondria. By the permeabilization of the cellular membrane, the cell stops to exist as a living, defined organism, leaving only the mitochondria as still functional structures. Unlike whole-animal respirometry, mitochondrial respirometry takes place in solution, i.e. the sample is suspended in a medium. Today mitochondrial respirometry is mainly performed with a closed-chamber approach.
Janet basis Generating a Janet basis Janet_basis > Generating a Janet basis the remaining equations of the system it does not vanish it is included as a new equation to the system. It may be shown that repeating these operations always terminates after a finite number of steps with a unique answer which is called the Janet basis for the input system. Janet has organized them in terms of the following algorithm.
Variable scope Naming conventions Variable_(computing) > Naming conventions Some languages reserve certain forms of variable names for their own internal use; in many languages, names beginning with two underscores ("__") often fall under this category. However, beyond the basic restrictions imposed by a language, the naming of variables is largely a matter of style. At the machine code level, variable names are not used, so the exact names chosen do not matter to the computer.
Communication privacy management theory Summary Communication_privacy_management_theory Once a disclosure is made, the negotiation of privacy rules between the two parties is required. A distressing sense of "boundary turbulence" can arise when clashing expectations for privacy management are identified. Having the mental image of protective boundaries is central to understanding the five core principles of Petronio's CPM: People believe they own and have a right to control their private information.
Multidimensional empirical mode decomposition Concept Multidimensional_empirical_mode_decomposition > Boundary processing in bidimensional empirical decomposition > Concept There are some problems in BEMD and boundary extending implementation in the iterative sifting process, including time-consuming, shape and continuity of the edges, decomposition results comparison and so on. In order to fix these problems, the Boundary Processing in Bidimensional Empirical Decomposition (BPBEMD) method was created. The main points of the new method algorithm will be described next.
Mitochondrial genes Susceptibility Mitochondrial_DNA > Mutations and disease > Susceptibility Moreover, mitochondria evolved a unique mechanism which maintains mtDNA integrity through degradation of excessively damaged genomes followed by replication of intact/repaired mtDNA. This mechanism is not present in the nucleus and is enabled by multiple copies of mtDNA present in mitochondria. The outcome of mutation in mtDNA may be an alteration in the coding instructions for some proteins, which may have an effect on organism metabolism and/or fitness.
Earthworm Central nervous system Earthworm > Anatomy > Nervous system > Central nervous system This arrangement means the brain, sub-pharyngeal ganglia and the circum-pharyngeal connectives form a nerve ring around the pharynx. The ventral nerve cord (formed by nerve cells and nerve fibers) begins at the sub-pharyngeal ganglia and extends below the alimentary canal to the most posterior body segment.
Iodous acid Iodous acid Iodous_acid > Iodous acid Iodous acid is acid form of the iodite ion, with the formula HIO2.
Locally constant Examples Locally_constant_function > Examples Every constant function is locally constant. The converse will hold if its domain is a connected space. Every locally constant function from the real numbers R {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} } to R {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} } is constant, by the connectedness of R . {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} .}
Reverse-flow cylinder head Advantages Reverse-flow_cylinder_head > Advantages The main advantage of the reverse-flow cylinder head is that both the entering inlet charge and the exiting exhaust gas cause a tendency to swirl in the same direction in the combustion chamber. In a crossflow head the inlet and exhaust gases promote swirl in opposite directions so that during overlap the swirl changes directions. The constant swirl during overlap which results in a reverse-flow cylinder head promotes better mixing, hence better scavenging of the end gas. The fact that the inlet charge must change direction before exiting the exhaust makes it less likely that fresh mixture will exit the exhaust before mixing during overlap.
Glossary of genetics (0–L) E Glossary_of_gene_expression_terms > E A form of gene action, epistasis can be either additive or multiplicative in its effects on specific phenotypic traits. ergosome See polysome. euchromatin Also open chromatin.
State switching Scale-free Networks State_switching > Scale-free Networks Until the 1990s, it was tacitly assumed that most networks adopt a random architecture wherein an edge (connection) between each pair of nodes has equal probability, independent of the other edges (Erdős–Rényi model). However, pioneering work by Barabási and colleagues (Barabási–Albert model) indicated that biological networks, like many other networks they interrogated, adopt an architecture wherein the degree distribution P(k) exhibits a power-law behavior as a function of the degree k. In particular, P(k) ~ k-γ, with only a few nodes (hub nodes) has numerous edges while the majority of the nodes have very few edges. As such, these networks are robust to failure of random nodes but vulnerable to failure of hubs. In light of the scale-free topology of the PIN, Mahmoudabadi et al. set out to elucidate whether perturbation to IDP hub proteins could account for such dramatic changes as state switching in the absence of DNA mutations (changes to the DNA sequence) and whether these changes could be passed onto the progeny.
Bosanquet equation Summary Bosanquet_equation In the theory of capillarity, Bosanquet equation is an improved modification of the simpler Lucas–Washburn theory for the motion of a liquid in a thin capillary tube or a porous material that can be approximated as a large collection of capillaries. In the Lucas–Washburn model, the inertia of the fluid is ignored, leading to the assumption that flow is continuous under constant viscous laminar Poiseuille flow conditions without considering the effects of mass transport undergoing acceleration occurring at the start of flow and at points of changing internal capillary geometry. The Bosanquet equation is a differential equation that is second-order in the time derivative, similar to Newton's Second Law, and therefore takes into account the fluid inertia. Equations of motion, like the Washburn's equation, that attempt to explain a velocity (instead of acceleration) as proportional to a driving force are often described with the term Aristotelian mechanics.
Generalized derivative Fréchet derivative Generalized_derivative > Fréchet derivative The Fréchet derivative defines the derivative for general normed vector spaces V , W {\displaystyle V,W} . Briefly, a function f: U → W {\displaystyle f:U\to W} , U {\displaystyle U} an open subset of V {\displaystyle V} , is called Fréchet differentiable at x ∈ U {\displaystyle x\in U} if there exists a bounded linear operator A: V → W {\displaystyle A:V\to W} such that Functions are defined as being differentiable in some open neighbourhood of x {\displaystyle x} , rather than at individual points, as not doing so tends to lead to many pathological counterexamples. The Fréchet derivative is quite similar to the formula for the derivative found in elementary one-variable calculus, and simply moves A to the left hand side. However, the Fréchet derivative A denotes the function t ↦ f ′ ( x ) ⋅ t {\displaystyle t\mapsto f'(x)\cdot t} .
Adiabatic invariant Summary Adiabatic_invariant A property of a physical system, such as the entropy of a gas, that stays approximately constant when changes occur slowly is called an adiabatic invariant. By this it is meant that if a system is varied between two end points, as the time for the variation between the end points is increased to infinity, the variation of an adiabatic invariant between the two end points goes to zero. In thermodynamics, an adiabatic process is a change that occurs without heat flow; it may be slow or fast. A reversible adiabatic process is an adiabatic process that occurs slowly compared to the time to reach equilibrium.
Ada (programming language) Concurrency Ada_(programming_language) > Language constructs > Concurrency A protected object consists of encapsulated private data (which can only be accessed from within the protected object), and procedures, functions and entries which are guaranteed to be mutually exclusive (with the only exception of functions, which are required to be side effect free and can therefore run concurrently with other functions). A task calling a protected object is blocked if another task is currently executing inside the same protected object, and released when this other task leaves the protected object. Blocked tasks are queued on the protected object ordered by time of arrival.
Section formula Midpoint formula Section_formula > Midpoint formula The midpoint of a line segment divides it internally in the ratio 1: 1 {\textstyle 1:1} . Applying the Section formula for internal division:
Reverse causation Third factor C (the common-causal variable) causes both A and B Reverse_causation > Examples of illogically inferring causation from correlation > Third factor C (the common-causal variable) causes both A and B Ice cream is sold during the hot summer months at a much greater rate than during colder times, and it is during these hot summer months that people are more likely to engage in activities involving water, such as swimming. The increased drowning deaths are simply caused by more exposure to water-based activities, not ice cream.
Thermoelastic damping Definition Thermoelastic_damping > Definition In any vibrating structure, the strain field causes a change in the internal energy such that compressed region becomes hotter (assuming a positive coefficient of thermal expansion) and extended region becomes cooler. The mechanism responsible for thermoelastic damping is the resulting lack of thermal equilibrium between various parts of the vibrating structure. Energy is dissipated when irreversible heat flow driven by the temperature gradient occurs. The earliest study of thermoelastic damping can be found in Zener’s classical work, in 1937, in which he studied thermoelastic damping in beams undergoing flexural vibrations.
Glossary of geography terms (N–Z) O Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z) > O ocean trench A long, narrow, very deep depression in the ocean floor where, at the junction of two tectonic plates, one plate is subducted steeply beneath the other, often penetrating the mantle. oceanography Also oceanology. The scientific study of the Earth's oceans and all processes and phenomena relating to them, including their formation and evolution over time; their physical and chemical properties and how these vary within the ocean and across its boundaries; their interactions with landmasses along coasts; the bathymetry and geology of the sea floor; currents, waves, and geophysical fluid dynamics; marine life and ecosystems; and how humans affect and are affected by oceans.
Barker hypothesis Historical overview Barker_hypothesis > Historical overview The term Thrifty Phenotype was first coined by Charles Nicholas Hales and David Barker in a study published in 1992. In their study, the authors reviewed the literature up to and addressed five central questions regarding role of different factors in type 2 diabetes on which they based their hypothesis. These questions included the following: The role of beta cell deficiency in type 2 diabetes. The extent to which beta cell deficiency contributes to insulin intolerance.
Chart Chart software Chart > Chart software While charts can be drawn by hand, computer software is often used to automatically produce a chart based on entered data. For examples of commonly used software tools, see List of charting software.
Rheumatic arthritis Kidneys Rheumatic_arthritis > Signs and symptoms > Other > Kidneys Renal amyloidosis can occur as a consequence of untreated chronic inflammation. Treatment with penicillamine or gold salts such as sodium aurothiomalate are recognized causes of membranous nephropathy.
List of file systems Distributed fault-tolerant file systems List_of_file_systems > Distributed file systems > Distributed fault-tolerant file systems InterMezzo from Cluster File Systems uses synchronization over HTTP. Available for Linux under GPL but no longer in development since the developers are working on Lustre. LizardFS a networking, distributed file system based on MooseFS Moose File System (MooseFS) is a networking, distributed file system.
Surjective map Summary Surjective_function Every surjective function has a right inverse assuming the axiom of choice, and every function with a right inverse is necessarily a surjection. The composition of surjective functions is always surjective. Any function can be decomposed into a surjection and an injection.
Dyson series Summary Dyson_series In scattering theory, a part of mathematical physics, the Dyson series, formulated by Freeman Dyson, is a perturbative expansion of the time evolution operator in the interaction picture. Each term can be represented by a sum of Feynman diagrams. This series diverges asymptotically, but in quantum electrodynamics (QED) at the second order the difference from experimental data is in the order of 10−10. This close agreement holds because the coupling constant (also known as the fine-structure constant) of QED is much less than 1.Notice that in this article Planck units are used, so that ħ = 1 (where ħ is the reduced Planck constant).
Partial molar Gibbs free energy Summary Partial_molar_property In thermodynamics, a partial molar property is a quantity which describes the variation of an extensive property of a solution or mixture with changes in the molar composition of the mixture at constant temperature and pressure. It is the partial derivative of the extensive property with respect to the amount (number of moles) of the component of interest. Every extensive property of a mixture has a corresponding partial molar property.
Low-energy building Lighting and electrical appliances High_performance_building > Technology > Lighting and electrical appliances To minimize total primary energy consumption, passive and active daylighting are the first daytime solutions to employ. For low-light days, non-daylight spaces and nighttime, sustainable lighting design with low-energy sources (such as standard-voltage compact fluorescent lamps and solid-state lighting with LED lamps, OLEDs and polymer light-emitting diodes and low-voltage incandescent light bulbs, compact metal halide, xenon and halogen lamps) can be used. Solar-powered exterior security and landscape lighting, with solar cells on each fixture or connecting to a central solar panel, are available for gardens and outdoor needs. Low-voltage systems can be used for more controlled (or independent) illumination, using less electricity than conventional fixtures and lamps.
Arginine vasopressin Production and secretion Anti-diuretic_hormone > Physiology > Production and secretion The physiological stimulus for secretion of vasopressin is increased osmolality of the plasma, monitored by the hypothalamus. A decreased arterial blood volume, (such as can occur in cirrhosis, nephrosis, and heart failure), stimulates secretion, even in the face of decreased osmolality of the plasma: it supersedes osmolality, but with a milder effect. In other words, vasopressin secretion is also stimulated in the presence of hypoosmolality (hyponatremia) when the arterial blood volume is low by the unloading of baroreceptors.The AVP that is measured in peripheral blood is almost all derived from secretion from the posterior pituitary gland (except in cases of AVP-secreting tumours). Vasopressin is produced by magnocellular neurosecretory neurons in the paraventricular nucleus of hypothalamus (PVN) and supraoptic nucleus (SON).
Minigene History Minigene > History Minigenes were first described as the somatic assembly of DNA segments and consisted of DNA regions known to encode the protein and the flanking regions required to express the protein. The term was first used in a paper in 1977 to describe the cloning of two minigenes that were designed to express a peptide.RNA splicing was discovered in the late 1970s through the study of adenoviruses that invade mammals and replicate inside them. Researchers identified RNA molecules that contained sequences from noncontiguous parts of the virus’s genome. This discovery led to the conclusion that regulatory mechanisms existed which affected mature RNA and the genes it expresses. Using minigenes as a splice reporting vector to explore the effects of RNA splicing regulation naturally followed and remains the major use of minigenes to date.
Congenital nephrotic syndrome Prognosis Congenital_nephrotic_syndrome > Prognosis Congenital nephrotic syndrome can be successfully controlled with early diagnosis and aggressive treatment including albumin infusions, nephrectomy, and medications. Affected children have rapid decline in kidney function resulting in end-stage renal disease within the first years of life, and require treatment with dialysis and kidney transplantation. Most children live fairly normal life post-transplant but will spend significant time hospitalised pre-transplant and have numerous surgeries to facilitate treatment.
Hypothyroidism Epidemiology Hypothyroidism > Epidemiology 2–4% of people with subclinical hypothyroidism will progress to overt hypothyroidism each year. The risk is higher in those with antibodies against thyroid peroxidase. Subclinical hypothyroidism is estimated to affect approximately 2% of children; in adults, subclinical hypothyroidism is more common in the elderly, and in White people.
Dead Cells Summary Dead_Cells As the Prisoner, the player must fight their way out of a diseased island in order to slay the island's King. The player gains weapons, treasure and other tools through exploration of the procedurally-generated levels, using them to fight various mutated creatures. Dead Cells features a permadeath system, causing the player to lose all items and other currencies upon dying.
Homeostasis Arterial blood pressure Homeostatic_response > Controls of variables > Arterial blood pressure The brain can regulate blood flow over a range of blood pressure values by vasoconstriction and vasodilation of the arteries.High pressure receptors called baroreceptors in the walls of the aortic arch and carotid sinus (at the beginning of the internal carotid artery) monitor the arterial blood pressure. Rising pressure is detected when the walls of the arteries stretch due to an increase in blood volume. This causes heart muscle cells to secrete the hormone atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) into the blood. This acts on the kidneys to inhibit the secretion of renin and aldosterone causing the release of sodium, and accompanying water into the urine, thereby reducing the blood volume.
Mycobacterial cervical lymphadenitis Disease Tuberculous_cervical_lymphadenitis > Disease Unlike the adult cases, only 8% of cases in children are tuberculous. With the stark decrease of tuberculosis in the second half of the 20th century, scrofula became a less common disease in adults, but remained common in children. With the appearance of HIV/AIDS, however, it has shown a resurgence, and can affect patients at all stages of the disease.
Alloimmunity T-lymphocytes Alloimmunity > Mechanisms of rejection > T-lymphocytes These cells may represent a serious problem after the transplantation. As the effect of being exposed to various infections in the past, antigen-specific T-lymphocytes have developed in patient's body. Part of them is kept in organism as memory cells and these cells could be a reason for "cross-reactivity" – immune response against unrelated but similar graft alloantigens. This immune response is called secondary and is faster, more efficient and more robust.
Privacy by design Full functionality – positive-sum, not zero-sum Privacy_by_design > Foundational principles > Principles in detail > Full functionality – positive-sum, not zero-sum Privacy by design seeks to accommodate all legitimate interests and objectives in a positive-sum “win-win” manner, not through a dated, zero-sum approach, where unnecessary trade-offs are made. Privacy by design avoids the pretense of false dichotomies, such as privacy versus security, demonstrating that it is possible to have both.
Surface area of a sphere Properties of the sphere Sphere > Properties > Properties of the sphere At any point on a surface a normal direction is at right angles to the surface because on the sphere these are the lines radiating out from the center of the sphere. The intersection of a plane that contains the normal with the surface will form a curve that is called a normal section, and the curvature of this curve is the normal curvature. For most points on most surfaces, different sections will have different curvatures; the maximum and minimum values of these are called the principal curvatures.
Market equilibrium computation Definitions Market_equilibrium_computation > Definitions A bundle is represented by a vector x = x 1 , … , x m {\displaystyle \mathbf {x} =x_{1},\dots ,x_{m}} , where x j {\displaystyle x_{j}} is the quantity of resource j {\displaystyle j} . When resources are indivisible, all xj are integers; when resources are divisible, the xj can be arbitrarily real numbers (usually normalized to ). A set of n {\displaystyle n} agents.
Visual attention Multitasking and divided Visual_attention > Multitasking and divided Multitasking can be defined as the attempt to perform two or more tasks simultaneously; however, research shows that when multitasking, people make more mistakes or perform their tasks more slowly. Attention must be divided among all of the component tasks to perform them. In divided attention, individuals attend or give attention to multiple sources of information at once or perform more than one task at the same time.Older research involved looking at the limits of people performing simultaneous tasks like reading stories, while listening and writing something else, or listening to two separate messages through different ears (i.e., dichotic listening). Generally, classical research into attention investigated the ability of people to learn new information when there were multiple tasks to be performed, or to probe the limits of our perception (c.f.
GATA transcription factor Summary GATA_transcription_factor One way that has been suggested is that the GATA transcription factor lowers the level of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in the cell. This creates an unfavorable chemical environment for the breast cancer cells because usually they require high levels of ATP to survive. In addition, research has suggested that there is a specific gene called the TRP1 that is expressed in breast cancer cells and the GATA3 transcription factor plays a role in regulating this gene.
Power series Summary Power_series In mathematics, a power series (in one variable) is an infinite series of the form where an represents the coefficient of the nth term and c is a constant. Power series are useful in mathematical analysis, where they arise as Taylor series of infinitely differentiable functions. In fact, Borel's theorem implies that every power series is the Taylor series of some smooth function.
Kinetic Traction Systems Technology Kinetic_Traction_Systems > Technology Kinetic Traction Systems' main product uses flywheel energy storage technology developed by Pentadyne Power Corp; staff from Pentadyne joined Kinetic. The 36000 RPM flywheels are originally based on uranium centrifuge technology developed by UrencoKTS' rail-side device uses a brushless DC motor/generator to spin up the flywheel to store electrical energy (for instance, from regenerative braking on trains) as kinetic energy; later to be converted back to electrical energy on demand.
Price action trading Opposite twin (down-up or up-down twin) Price_action_trading > Opposite twin (down-up or up-down twin) This is two consecutive trend bars in opposite directions with similar sized bodies and similar sized tails. It is a reversal signal when it appears in a trend. It is equivalent to a single reversal bar if viewed on a time scale twice as long. For the strongest signal, the bars would be shaved at the point of reversal, e.g. a down-up in a bear trend with two trend bars with shaved bottoms would be considered stronger than bars with tails.
Pressure regulators Operation Pressure_regulator > Pressure reducing regulator > Operation This loading can be provided by a weight, a spring, a piston actuator, or the diaphragm actuator in combination with a spring. The measuring element functions to determine when the inlet flow is equal to the outlet flow. The diaphragm itself is often used as a measuring element; it can serve as a combined element.In the pictured single-stage regulator, a force balance is used on the diaphragm to control a poppet valve in order to regulate pressure.
Roger Adams Academic career Roger_Adams > Academic career During this time, Adams made several well-known discoveries. Roger Adams and his students developed the so-called Adams' catalyst, which is one of the most readily-prepared and active catalysts for hydrogenation reactions. The catalyst can be prepared by fusing sodium nitrate with chloroplatinic acid or ammonium chloroplatinate.
Classifier constructions in sign languages Summary Classifier_constructions_in_sign_languages This is because they are often iconic (non-arbitrary). It has also been found that many unrelated sign languages use similar handshapes for specific entities.
Drug Master File DMFs in Europe Drug_Master_File > DMFs in Europe The content and the format for drug master file used in United States differs from that used in European Countries to obtain market authorization (MA). The Main Objective of the EDMF is to support regulatory requirements of a medicinal product to prove its quality, safety and efficacy. This helps to obtain a Marketing Authorisation grant. DMF LISTS IMPORTANT NOTE The current list contains DMFs RECEIVED by March 31, 2012.
Main effect Estimating Main Effects Main_effect > Estimating Main Effects In factorial designs, thus two levels each of factor A and B in a factorial design, the main effects of two factors say A and B be can be calculated. The main effect of A is given by A = 1 2 n {\displaystyle A={1 \over 2n}} The main effect of B is given by B = 1 2 n {\displaystyle B={1 \over 2n}} Where n is total number of replicates. We use factor level 1 to denote the low level, and level 2 to denote the high level. The letter "a" represent the factor combination of level 2 of A and level 1 of B and "b" represents the factor combination of level 1 of A and level 2 of B. "ab" is the represents both factors at level 2. Finally, 1 represents when both factors are set to level 1.
Myelodysplastic syndrome Summary Myelodysplastic_syndromes Problems with blood cell formation result in some combination of low red blood cell, platelet, and white blood cell counts. Some types of MDS cause an increase in the production of immature blood cells (called blasts), in the bone marrow or blood. The different types of MDS are identified based on the specific characteristics of the changes in the blood cells and bone marrow.Treatments may include supportive care, drug therapy, and hematopoietic stem cell transplantation.
Stanley Corrsin Principal works Stanley_Corrsin > Principal works Corrsin worked in both experimental and theoretical fluid dynamics. He made a number of fundamental contributions to the study of turbulence, enhancing the understanding of turbulent mixing and the interfaces between turbulent and nonturbulent fluid. In later years, Corrsin developed an interest in various medical and biological problems, including human locomotion, blood flow in the human body, arterial flutter, and the aerodynamics of the albatross and of formation flying in bird flocks. During his 40 years career, Corrsin had published about a hundred research articles and supervised 25 Ph.D. students.
Paradoxes of infinity Physics Paradoxes_of_infinity > Physics Cool tropics paradox: A contradiction between modelled estimates of tropical temperatures during warm, ice-free periods of the Cretaceous and Eocene, and the lower temperatures that proxies suggest were present. Irresistible force paradox: What would happen if an unstoppable force hit an immovable object? Paradox of place: If everything that exists has a place, that place must have a place, and so on ad infinitum. Paradox of the grain of millet: When a grain of millet falls it makes no sound, but when a thousand grains fall they do, thus many of nothing become something. The moving rows: Suppose two rows are moving past a stationary row in opposite directions. If a member of a moving row moves past a member of the stationary row in an indivisible instant of time, they move past two members of the row that is moving in the other direction in this instant of time.
Eukaryotic DNA replication Elongation Eukaryotic_DNA_replication > Elongation These free nucleotides are added to an exposed 3'-hydroxyl group on the last incorporated nucleotide. In this reaction, a pyrophosphate is released from the free dNTP, generating energy for the polymerization reaction and exposing the 5' monophosphate, which is then covalently bonded to the 3' oxygen. Additionally, incorrectly inserted nucleotides can be removed and replaced by the correct nucleotides in an energetically favorable reaction. This property is vital to proper proofreading and repair of errors that occur during DNA replication.
Force concentration Summary Force_concentration Force concentration is the practice of concentrating a military force so as to bring to bear such overwhelming force against a portion of an enemy force that the disparity between the two forces alone acts as a force multiplier in favour of the concentrated forces.
History of the Church–Turing thesis Breger and problem of tacit axioms History_of_the_Church–Turing_thesis > Breger and problem of tacit axioms He formulated this axiom as follows: "I have the capacity to think of objects, and to denote them by means of simple symbols like a, b,..., x, y,..., so that they can be recognized unambiguously. My thought operates with these objects in a certain way according to certain rules, and my thinking is able to detect these rules by observation of myself, and completely to describe these rules" . "Breger further supports his argument with examples from Giuseppe Veronese (1891) and Hermann Weyl (1930-1). He goes on to discuss the problem of then expression of an axiom-set in a particular language: i.e. a language known by the agent, e.g. German.See more about this at Algorithm characterizations, in particular Searle's opinion that outside any computation there must be an observer that gives meaning to the symbols used.
Bibliography of biology Evolutionary biology Bibliography_of_biology > Evolutionary biology ISBN 978-0-674-63940-9.Critically revisits Haeckel's idea that ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny. Gould presents heterochrony as a concept that allows us to describe the majority of developmental processes in evolution. This book played a significant role at the time by bringing the evolutionary biology community back to examine developmental biology, ignored for many years.Pinker, Steven (1999).
Glossary of genetics (M–Z) N Glossary_of_genetics_(M–Z) > N Long sequences of nucleotides are the principal means by which biological systems store genetic information, and therefore the accurate replication, transcription, and translation of such sequences is of the utmost importance, lest the information be lost or corrupted. Nucleic acid sequences may be equivalently referred to as sequences of nitrogenous bases, nucleobases, nucleotides, or base pairs, and they correspond directly to sequences of codons and amino acids. nucleobase Sometimes used interchangeably with nitrogenous base or simply base.
Tarski finiteness Other concepts of finiteness Tarski_finiteness > Set-theoretic definitions of finiteness > Other concepts of finiteness In ZF set theory without the axiom of choice, the following concepts of finiteness for a set S are distinct. They are arranged in strictly decreasing order of strength, i.e. if a set S meets a criterion in the list then it meets all of the following criteria. In the absence of the axiom of choice the reverse implications are all unprovable, but if the axiom of choice is assumed then all of these concepts are equivalent. (Note that none of these definitions need the set of finite ordinal numbers to be defined first; they are all pure "set-theoretic" definitions in terms of the equality and membership relations, not involving ω.)
Carcinoembryonic antigen Diagnostic significance Carcinoembryonic_antigen > Diagnostic significance CEA levels may also be raised in gastric carcinoma, pancreatic carcinoma, lung carcinoma, breast carcinoma, and medullary thyroid carcinoma, as well as some non-neoplastic conditions like ulcerative colitis, pancreatitis, cirrhosis, COPD, Crohn's disease, hypothyroidism as well as in smokers. Elevated CEA levels should return to normal after successful surgical removal of the tumor and can be used in follow up, especially of colorectal cancers.CEA elevation is known to be affected by multiple factors. It varies inversely with tumor grade; well-differentiated tumors secrete more CEA.
Expanded octet Alternative definition Expanded_octet > Alternative definition Durrant has proposed an alternative definition of hypervalency, based on the analysis of atomic charge maps obtained from atoms in molecules theory. This approach defines a parameter called the valence electron equivalent, γ, as “the formal shared electron count at a given atom, obtained by any combination of valid ionic and covalent resonance forms that reproduces the observed charge distribution”. For any particular atom X, if the value of γ(X) is greater than 8, that atom is hypervalent. Using this alternative definition, many species such as PCl5, SO2−4, and XeF4, that are hypervalent by Musher's definition, are reclassified as hypercoordinate but not hypervalent, due to strongly ionic bonding that draws electrons away from the central atom. On the other hand, some compounds that are normally written with ionic bonds in order to conform to the octet rule, such as ozone O3, nitrous oxide NNO, and trimethylamine N-oxide (CH3)3NO, are found to be genuinely hypervalent. Examples of γ calculations for phosphate PO3−4 (γ(P) = 2.6, non-hypervalent) and orthonitrate NO3−4 (γ(N) = 8.5, hypervalent) are shown below.
Acid growth Summary Acid_growth A typical sequence leading up to this would involve the introduction of a plant hormone (auxin, for example) that causes protons (H+ ions) to be pumped out of the cell into the cell wall. As a result, the cell wall solution becomes more acidic. It was suggested by different scientist that the epidermis is a unique target of the auxin but this theory has been disapproved over time.
Universal hashing Hashing integers Universal_hashing > Constructions > Hashing integers As a result, the statistical distance to a uniform family is O ( m / p ) {\displaystyle O(m/p)} , which becomes negligible when p ≫ m {\displaystyle p\gg m} . The family of simpler hash functions h a ( x ) = ( a x mod p ) mod m {\displaystyle h_{a}(x)=(ax~{\bmod {~}}p)~{\bmod {~}}m} is only approximately universal: Pr { h a ( x ) = h a ( y ) } ≤ 2 / m {\displaystyle \Pr\{h_{a}(x)=h_{a}(y)\}\leq 2/m} for all x ≠ y {\displaystyle x\neq y} . Moreover, this analysis is nearly tight; Carter and Wegman show that Pr { h a ( 1 ) = h a ( m + 1 ) } ≥ 2 / ( m − 1 ) {\displaystyle \Pr\{h_{a}(1)=h_{a}(m+1)\}\geq 2/(m-1)} whenever ( p − 1 ) mod m = 1 {\displaystyle (p-1)~{\bmod {~}}m=1} .
Minority carrier lifetime Bipolar junction transistors Carrier_lifetime > Applications > Bipolar junction transistors For other modes of operation, like that of fast switching, a high recombination rate (and thus a short carrier lifetime) is desirable. The desired mode of operation, and the associated properties of the doped base region must be considered in order to facilitate the appropriate carrier lifetime.
Nim (programming language) Compiler options Nim_(programming_language) > Compiler > Compiler options By default, the Nim compiler creates a debug build. With the option -d:release a release build can be created, which is optimized for speed and contains fewer runtime checks. With the option -d:danger all runtime checks can be disabled, if maximum speed is desired.
Geometrical product specification Dimensioning and tolerancing philosophy Geometric_Dimensioning_and_Tolerancing > Dimensioning and tolerancing philosophy According to the ASME Y14.5-2009 standard, the purpose of GD&T is to describe the engineering intent of parts and assemblies. The datum reference frame can describe how the part fits or functions. GD&T can more accurately define the dimensional requirements for a part, allowing over 50% more tolerance zone than coordinate (or linear) dimensioning in some cases. Proper application of GD&T will ensure that the part defined on the drawing has the desired form, fit (within limits) and function with the largest possible tolerances.
Verification and validation of computer simulation models ASME Standards Verification_and_validation_of_computer_simulation_models > ASME Standards Documents and standards involving verification and validation of computational modeling and simulation are developed by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Verification and Validation (V&V) Committee. ASME V&V 10 provides guidance in assessing and increasing the credibility of computational solid mechanics models through the processes of verification, validation, and uncertainty quantification. ASME V&V 10.1 provides a detailed example to illustrate the concepts described in ASME V&V 10. ASME V&V 20 provides a detailed methodology for validating computational simulations as applied to fluid dynamics and heat transfer. ASME V&V 40 provides a framework for establishing model credibility requirements for computational modeling, and presents examples specific in the medical device industry.
Coptic language Fayyumic Coptic_language > Dialects > Lower Egypt > Fayyumic Fayyumic (also written as Faiyumic; in older works it is often called Bashmuric) was spoken primarily in the Faiyum west of the Nile Valley. It is attested from the 3rd to the 10th centuries. It is most notable for writing ⲗ (which corresponds to /l/), where other dialects generally use ⲣ /r/ (probably corresponding to a flap ). In earlier stages of Egyptian, the liquids were not distinguished in writing until the New Kingdom, when Late Egyptian became the administrative language.
Gbcast Bi-simulation equivalence to Paxos Gbcast > Bi-simulation equivalence to Paxos Both protocols permit batching of requests: Basic Paxos has a concurrency parameter, alpha: a leader can concurrently run a maximum of alpha instances of the protocol. Gbcast permits the leader to propose multiple events in a single protocol instance, which could be message deliveries or view events. Paxos does not normally require reliable, ordered communication.
Alkalinity Summary Alkalinity Alkalinity (from Arabic: القلوي, romanized: al-qaly, lit. 'ashes of the saltwort') is the capacity of water to resist acidification. It should not be confused with basicity, which is an absolute measurement on the pH scale. Alkalinity is the strength of a buffer solution composed of weak acids and their conjugate bases.
Metaphase I In life cycles Anaphase_I > Occurrence > In life cycles The haploid organism's gamete then combines with another haploid organism's gamete, creating the zygote. The zygote undergoes repeated mitosis and differentiation to become a diploid organism again. The haplodiplontic life cycle can be considered a fusion of the diplontic and haplontic life cycles.
Google Chart API Summary Google_Chart_API Originally the API was Google's internal tool to support rapid embedding of charts within Google's own applications (like Google Finance for example). Google figured it would be a useful tool to open up to web developers. It officially launched on December 6, 2007.
Data diplomacy Database diplomacy Data_diplomacy > Practical applications > Database diplomacy The term "Database Diplomacy" was the title of an article first published by Amy Helen Johnson in 2000 about Metagon Technologies LCC's development of a system to connect disparate databases and allow end users to build reports and queries. The article was about the time when Metagon Technologies LCC used its DQpowersuite system to link disparate databases, provide users with a single view of different databases, and allow end users to build reports and queries. deployment and all other information.Today, the sharing of diplomatic databases has reached new heights. One representative database is the Freedom of Information Archive (FOIArchive), which is the first dataset to combine many machine-readable documents of intrastate communications for analysis.
FADD Inflammation FADD > Functions > Inflammation Activation of nuclear factor kappa B (NFκB) signalling leads to transcription of various proinflammatory cytokines as well as anti-apoptotic genes. It was found that NFκB signalling was inhibited in FADD-deficient cells after stimulation of the TNF-R1 or Fas receptors. This suggests a role of FADD in activation of the NFκB pathway. Conversely, FADD also has a role in inhibition of this pathway.
Emergent evolution Robert G. B. Reid Emergent_evolution > Emergent evolution > Robert G. B. Reid Pigliucci noted a dubious claim in the book is that natural selection has no role in evolution. It was positively reviewed by biologist Alexander Badyaev who commented that "the book succeeds in drawing attention to an under appreciated aspect of the evolutionary process". Others have criticized Reid's unorthodox views on emergence and evolution.
Fixed wing aircraft Free-flying aircraft controls Fixed-wing_aircraft > Characteristics > Aircraft controls > Free-flying aircraft controls Gliders and airplanes have more complex control systems, especially if they are piloted. The main controls allow the pilot to direct the aircraft in the air. Typically these are: The yoke or joystick controls rotation of the plane about the pitch and roll axes. A yoke resembles a steering wheel, and a control stick is a joystick.
Virtual battlefield The simulation spectrum Virtual_battlefield > The simulation spectrum Manual simulations have probably been in use in some form since mankind first went to war. Chess can be regarded as a form of military simulation (although its precise origins are debated). In more recent times, the forerunner of modern simulations was the Prussian game Kriegsspiel, which appeared around 1811 and is sometimes credited with the Prussian victory in the Franco-Prussian War.
Electronically controlled unit injector Summary Electronically_controlled_unit_injector An electronically controlled unit injector (EUI) is a unit injector (UI) with electronic control. It performs the same function as a conventional unit injector in an internal combustion engine, such as in an on-road or off-road vehicle or a diesel-electric locomotive. The pressurized delivery of fuel is camshaft-driven, but the timing of the injector's internal operations are controlled by the engine control unit so as to achieve certain advantages.
Nutrient budgeting Assumptions Nutrient_budgeting > Assumptions Yield history may also help better predict the amount of uptake that will occur with similar crops planted in the future. Previous applications Knowing what's been applied to the field in years past will offer insight into what may already be in the ground or what nutrients may no longer be present. Water Consider what kind of water has been applied to the field.
Dither Usage Dither > Digital audio > Usage In a seminal paper published in the AES Journal, Lipshitz and Vanderkooy pointed out that different noise types, with different probability density functions (PDFs) behave differently when used as dither signals, and suggested optimal levels of dither signal for audio. Gaussian noise requires a higher level of added noise for full elimination of distortion than noise with rectangular or triangular distribution. Triangular distributed noise also minimizes noise modulation – audible changes in the volume level of residual noise behind quiet music that draw attention to the noise.Dither can be useful to break up periodic limit cycles, which are a common problem in digital filters. Random noise is typically less objectionable than the harmonic tones produced by limit cycles.
RAFT (chemistry) Summary RAFT_(chemistry) Reversible addition−fragmentation chain-transfer or RAFT polymerization is one of several kinds of reversible-deactivation radical polymerization. It makes use of a chain-transfer agent (CTA) in the form of a thiocarbonylthio compound (or similar, from here on referred to as a RAFT agent, see Figure 1) to afford control over the generated molecular weight and polydispersity during a free-radical polymerization. Discovered at the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) of Australia in 1998, RAFT polymerization is one of several living or controlled radical polymerization techniques, others being atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) and nitroxide-mediated polymerization (NMP), etc. RAFT polymerization uses thiocarbonylthio compounds, such as dithioesters, thiocarbamates, and xanthates, to mediate the polymerization via a reversible chain-transfer process. As with other controlled radical polymerization techniques, RAFT polymerizations can be performed under conditions that favor low dispersity (narrow molecular weight distribution) and a pre-chosen molecular weight. RAFT polymerization can be used to design polymers of complex architectures, such as linear block copolymers, comb-like, star, brush polymers, dendrimers and cross-linked networks.
Bird's wing High aspect ratio wings Bird's_wing > Wing shape > High aspect ratio wings High aspect ratio (elongated) wings confer high flight efficiency for flights of long duration. When combined with a low wing loading, they are used for slow flight. This may take the form of almost hovering (as used by kestrels, terns and nightjars) or in soaring and gliding flight, particularly the dynamic soaring used by seabirds, which takes advantage of wind speed variation at different altitudes (wind shear) above ocean waves to provide lift. Low-speed flight is also important for birds that plunge-dive for fish.
Logic family Transistor–transistor logic (TTL) Logic_family > Transistor–transistor logic (TTL) The German physicist Walter H. Schottky formulated a theory predicting the Schottky effect, which led to the Schottky diode and later Schottky transistors. For the same power dissipation, Schottky transistors have a faster switching speed than conventional transistors because the Schottky diode prevents the transistor from saturating and storing charge; see Baker clamp. Gates built with Schottky transistors use more power than normal TTL and switch faster.
Structural engineering theory Euler–Bernoulli beam equation Structural_engineering_theory > Euler–Bernoulli beam equation Successive derivatives of w {\displaystyle w} have important meanings: w {\displaystyle \textstyle {w}\,} is the deflection. d w d x {\displaystyle \textstyle {\frac {dw}{dx}}\,} is the slope of the beam. − E I d 2 w d x 2 {\displaystyle \textstyle {-EI{\frac {d^{2}w}{dx^{2}}}}\,} is the bending moment in the beam.
Hyperelastic material Summary Hyperelastic_material Filled elastomers and biological tissues are also often modeled via the hyperelastic idealization. Ronald Rivlin and Melvin Mooney developed the first hyperelastic models, the Neo-Hookean and Mooney–Rivlin solids. Many other hyperelastic models have since been developed. Other widely used hyperelastic material models include the Ogden model and the Arruda–Boyce model.
Physical simulation Euler model Physical_simulation > Euler model The inertial model is much more complex than we typically need but it is the most simple to use. In this model, we do not need to change our forces or constrain our system. However, if we make a few intelligent changes to our system, simulation will become much easier, and our calculation time will decrease. The first constraint will be to put each torque in terms of the principal axes.
Law of reciprocal proportions Summary Law_of_reciprocal_proportions The law of reciprocal proportions, also called law of equivalent proportions or law of permanent ratios, is one of the basic laws of stoichiometry. It relates the proportions in which elements combine across a number of different elements. It was first formulated by Jeremias Richter in 1791.
Anthropic units In measurement Anthropic_units > In measurement Following the coinage of the term "anthropic principle" by Brandon Carter in 1973–4, units of measurement that are on a human scale are occasionally referred to as "anthropic units", as for example here: "… the metre and kilogram occupy a reasonably central position as far as symmetry in positive and negative powers of ten is concerned, emphasising that the SI units are natural anthropic units …"
Local system Applications Homology_with_local_coefficients > Applications The cohomology with local coefficients in the module corresponding to the orientation covering can be used to formulate Poincaré duality for non-orientable manifolds: see Twisted Poincaré duality.
Strings theory Background independence String_theorist > Criticism > Background independence New physical theories are often discovered using a mathematical language that is not the most suitable for them... In string theory, it has always been clear that the physics is background-independent even if the language being used is not, and the search for a more suitable language continues. Indeed, as Smolin belatedly notes, provides a solution to this problem, one that is unexpected and powerful. Polchinski notes that an important open problem in quantum gravity is to develop holographic descriptions of gravity which do not require the gravitational field to be asymptotically anti-de Sitter. Smolin has responded by saying that the AdS/CFT correspondence, as it is currently understood, may not be strong enough to resolve all concerns about background independence.
Water-repellent glass Mechanical durability Water-repellent_glass > Properties > Mechanical durability Additionally, films formed on top of silica were more durable than films formed on soda-lime glass.The WRG's mechanical durability can also be increased by a larger density of reaction sites per surface area. An increased density of reaction sites on the film is also a result of a higher surface roughness. This works to increase durability since a higher density means more rigid chemical bonds. For instance, forming a WRG film out of polyfluoroalkyl isocyanate creates a surface with siloxane bonding. There exists a direct correlation between the density of silanol groups on the film surface and the adhesion density of the film.
Spacetime geometry Time dilation and length contraction Spacetime_geometry > Spacetime in special relativity > Time dilation and length contraction This illustrates the phenomenon known as time dilation. Clocks that travel faster take longer (in the observer frame) to tick out the same amount of proper time, and they travel further along the x–axis within that proper time than they would have without time dilation.
Periodic table of elements Atomic radius Periodic_table_of_chemical_elements > Periodic trends > Atomic radius The 4p and 5d atoms, coming immediately after new types of transition series are first introduced, are smaller than would have been expected, because the added core 3d and 4f subshells provide only incomplete shielding of the nuclear charge for the outer electrons. Hence for example gallium atoms are slightly smaller than aluminium atoms. Together with kainosymmetry, this results in an even-odd difference between the periods (except in the s-block) that is sometimes known as secondary periodicity: elements in even periods have smaller atomic radii and prefer to lose fewer electrons, while elements in odd periods (except the first) differ in the opposite direction.
Gab operon Summary Gab_operon The gab operon has been characterized in Escherichia coli and significant homologies for the enzymes have been found in organisms such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae, rats and humans.Limited nitrogen conditions activate the gab genes. The enzymes produced by these genes convert GABA to succinate, which then enters the TCA cycle, to be used as a source of energy. The gab operon is also known to contribute to polyamine homeostasis during nitrogen-limited growth and to maintain high internal glutamate concentrations under stress conditions.