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Boat tail (ballistics) Transonic problem Bullet_drop > Main effects in external ballistics > Transonic problem Though the ambient air density is a variable environmental factor, adverse transonic transition effects can be negated better by a projectile traveling through less dense air, than when traveling through denser air. Projectile or bullet length also affects limit cycle yaw. Longer projectiles experience more limit cycle yaw than shorter projectiles of the same diameter.
Sanitary sewer manhole Sanitary sewer overflow Sanitary_manhole > Maintenance and issues > Sanitary sewer overflow Sanitary sewer overflow is a condition in which untreated sewage is discharged from a sanitary sewer into the environment prior to reaching sewage treatment facilities. Manholes are common locations of sanitary sewer overflows. The causes of overflows may be from excessive infiltration and inflow, or blockages.
Transition metal sulfoxide complex Summary Transition_metal_sulfoxide_complex A transition metal sulfoxide complex is a coordination complex containing one or more sulfoxide ligands. The inventory is large.
Devic's disease Differential diagnosis Neuromyelitis_optica_spectrum_disorder > Diagnosis > Differential diagnosis AQP4-Ab-negative NMO presents problems for differential diagnosis. The behavior of the oligoclonal bands can help to establish a more accurate diagnosis. Oligoclonal bands in NMO are rare and they tend to disappear after attacks, while in MS they are nearly always present and persistent. It is important to notice for differential diagnosis that, though uncommon, it is possible to have longitudinal lesions in MS.Another problem for diagnosis is that AQP4-ab in MOG-ab levels can be too low to be detected.
Sodium thioantimoniate Reactions Sodium_thioantimoniate > Reactions The hydrate dissolves in water to give the tetrahedral SbS3−4 ion. The salt gives "quinsulfide antimony," upon acidification: 2 Na3SbS4 + 6 HCl → Sb2S5 + 6 NaCl + 3 H2S
Catalytic resonance theory Experiments and Evidence Catalytic_resonance_theory > Experiments and Evidence During dark period, adsorption, desorption, and diffusion generally occurs in the absence of photons. After a critical recovery period in the dark, the photocatalyst can efficiently use photons again when photons are reintroduced.
Bonding strength Summary Bond_strength_(chemistry) In chemistry, bond energy (BE), also called the mean bond enthalpy or average bond enthalpy is a measure of bond strength in a chemical bond. IUPAC defines bond energy as the average value of the gas-phase bond-dissociation energy (usually at a temperature of 298.15 K) for all bonds of the same type within the same chemical species.The bond dissociation energy (enthalpy) is also referred to as bond disruption energy, bond energy, bond strength, or binding energy (abbreviation: BDE, BE, or D). It is defined as the standard enthalpy change of the following fission: R - X → R + X. The BDE, denoted by Dº(R - X), is usually derived by the thermochemical equation, D ∘ ( R − X ) = Δ H f ∘ ( R ) + Δ H f ∘ ( X ) − Δ H f ∘ ( R X ) {\displaystyle {\begin{array}{lcl}\mathrm {D^{\circ }(R-} X)\ =\Delta H_{f}^{\circ }\mathrm {(R)} +\Delta H_{f}^{\circ }(X)-\Delta H_{f}^{\circ }(\mathrm {R} X)\end{array}}} The enthalpy of formation ΔHfº of a large number of atoms, free radicals, ions, clusters and compounds is available from the websites of NIST, NASA, CODATA, and IUPAC. Most authors prefer to use the BDE values at 298.15 K.For example, the carbon–hydrogen bond energy in methane BE(C–H) is the enthalpy change (∆H) of breaking one molecule of methane into a carbon atom and four hydrogen radicals, divided by four.
Time in physics Dynamical systems Time_in_physics > Dynamical systems See dynamical systems and chaos theory, dissipative structures One could say that time is a parameterization of a dynamical system that allows the geometry of the system to be manifested and operated on. It has been asserted that time is an implicit consequence of chaos (i.e. nonlinearity/irreversibility): the characteristic time, or rate of information entropy production, of a system. Mandelbrot introduces intrinsic time in his book Multifractals and 1/f noise.
Manual transmission Truck transmissions Constant_mesh_gearbox > Truck transmissions The most common 13-speed has a standard H pattern, and the pattern from the left upper corner is as follows: R, down to L, over and up to 1, down to 2, up and over to 3, down to 4. The "butterfly" range lever in the center front of the knob is flipped up to high range while in 4th, then shifted back to 1. The 1 through 4 positions of the knob is repeated.
Fundamental physical constants External articles Dimensionless_physical_constant > External articles Michael Duff, 2002 "Comment on time-variation of fundamental constants." Marion, H.; Pereira Dos Santos, F.; Abgrall, M.; Zhang, S.; Sortais, Y.; et al. (2003-04-18). "Search for Variations of Fundamental Constants using Atomic Fountain Clocks".
Bayesian inference in marketing Bayes’ theorem Bayesian_inference_in_marketing > Bayes’ theorem Bayesian probability specifies that there is some prior probability. Bayesian statisticians can use both an objective and a subjective approach when interpreting the prior probability, which is then updated in light of new relevant information. The concept is a manipulation of conditional probabilities: P ( A B ) = P ( A | B ) P ( B ) = P ( B | A ) P ( A ) {\displaystyle P(AB)=P(A|B)P(B)=P(B|A)P(A)} Alternatively, a more simple understanding of the formula may be reached by substituting the events A {\displaystyle A} and B {\displaystyle B} to become respectively the hypothesis ( H ) {\displaystyle (H)} and the data ( D ) {\displaystyle (D)} . The rule allows for a judgment of the relative truth of the hypothesis given the data.This is done through the calculation shown below, where P ( D | H ) {\displaystyle P(D|H)} is the likelihood function.
Language of thought Connection to connectionism Language_of_thought > Connection to connectionism A learning algorithm is such that, over time, a change in connection weight is possible, allowing networks to modify their connections. Connectionist neural networks are able to change over time via their activation. An activation is a numerical value that represents any aspect of a unit that a neural network has at any time.
HPG axis Location and regulation Hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal_axis > Location and regulation In males LH stimulates the interstitial cells located in the testes to produce testosterone, and FSH plays a role in spermatogenesis. Only small amounts of estrogen are secreted in males. Recent research has shown that a neurosteroid axis exists, which helps the cortex to regulate the hypothalamus's production of GnRH.In addition, leptin and insulin have stimulatory effects and ghrelin has inhibitory effects on gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) secretion from the hypothalamus. Kisspeptin also influences GnRH secretion.
Stabilization pond Oxygen levels Waste_stabilization_pond > Fundamentals > Oxygen levels The oxygen concentration varies in the liquid column: Close to the surface, concentrations are high and support the growth of aerobic organisms. Close to the pond bottom, sunlight penetration is low, and thus photosynthetic activity is reduced. This causes oxygen concentrations to be low there. Finally, inside the sediments in the bottom layer, there is no oxygen at all. Here, organic matter is removed by digestion undertaken by anaerobic organisms.
Proof of the Euler product formula for the Riemann zeta function Summary Proof_of_the_Euler_product_formula_for_the_Riemann_zeta_function Leonhard Euler proved the Euler product formula for the Riemann zeta function in his thesis Variae observationes circa series infinitas (Various Observations about Infinite Series), published by St Petersburg Academy in 1737.
Fermion condensate Creation of the first fermionic condensates Fermion_condensate > Background > Creation of the first fermionic condensates He speculated that fermionic atoms could be coaxed into pairing up by subjecting them to a strong magnetic field. In 2003, working on Holland's suggestion, Deborah Jin at JILA, Rudolf Grimm at the University of Innsbruck, and Wolfgang Ketterle at MIT managed to coax fermionic atoms into forming molecular bosons, which then underwent Bose–Einstein condensation. However, this was not a true fermionic condensate. On December 16, 2003, Jin managed to produce a condensate out of fermionic atoms for the first time. The experiment involved 500,000 potassium-40 atoms cooled to a temperature of 5×10−8 K, subjected to a time-varying magnetic field.
Adaptive user interface Summary Adaptive_user_interfaces An adaptive user interface (also known as AUI) is a user interface (UI) which adapts, that is changes, its layout and elements to the needs of the user or context and is similarly alterable by each user.These mutually reciprocal qualities of both adapting and being adaptable are, in a true AUI, also innate to elements that comprise the interface's components; portions of the interface might adapt to and affect other portions of the interface. This later mechanism is usually employed to integrate two logically distinct components, such as an interactive document and an application (e.g. a web browser) into one seamless whole. The user adaptation is often a negotiated process, as an adaptive user interface's designers ignore where user interface components ought to go while affording a means by which both the designers and the user can determine their placement, often (though not always) in a semi-automated, if not fully automated manner. An AUI is primarily created based on the features of the system, and the knowledge levels of the users that will utilize it.
Nucleophilic acyl substitution Anhydrides Nucleophilic_acyl_substitution > Reactions of acyl derivatives > Anhydrides The chemistry of acid halides and anhydrides is similar. While anhydrides cannot be converted to acid halides, they can be converted to the remaining acyl derivatives. Anhydrides also participate in Schotten–Baumann-type reactions to furnish esters and amides from alcohols and amines, and water can hydrolyze anhydrides to their corresponding acids. As with acid halides, anhydrides can also react with carbon nucleophiles to furnish ketones and/or tertiary alcohols, and can participate in both the Friedel–Crafts acylation and the Weinreb ketone synthesis.
Pseudo-Nambu–Goldstone boson Nambu-Goldstone bosons Partially_conserved_axial_current > Overview > Nambu-Goldstone bosons These two types of symmetry breaking typically occur separately, and at different energy scales, and are not predicated on each other. The properties of these pNGB's can be calculated from chiral Lagrangians, using chiral perturbation theory, which expands around the exactly symmetric zero-quark mass theory. In particular, the computed mass must be small.Technically, the spontaneously broken chiral symmetry generators comprise the coset space ( S U ( 3 ) L × S U ( 3 ) R ) / S U ( 3 ) V .
Experimental system Summary Experimental_system In many cases, a well-understood experimental system can be "black-boxed" as a standard technique, which can then be a component of other experimental systems. Rheinberger divides experimental systems into two parts: the part under investigation ("epistemic things") and the well-understood part that provides a stable context for experimentation ("technical objects").The development of experimental systems in biology often requires the "domestication" of a particular organism for the laboratory environment, including the creation of relatively homogeneous lines or strains and the tailoring of conditions to highlight the variable aspects that scientists are interested in.
Memory heap Summary Memory_heap Memory pools, also called fixed-size blocks allocation, is the use of pools for memory management that allows dynamic memory allocation. Dynamic memory allocation can, and has been achieved through the use of techniques such as malloc and C++'s operator new; although established and reliable implementations, these suffer from fragmentation because of variable block sizes, it is not recommendable to use them in a real time system due to performance. A more efficient solution is preallocating a number of memory blocks with the same size called the memory pool. The application can allocate, access, and free blocks represented by handles at run time.
Cancer immunology Immunoediting Cancer_immunology > Immunoediting However, some tumor cells may gain more mutations, change their characteristics and evade the immune system. These cells might enter the equilibrium phase, in which the immune system does not recognise all tumor cells, but at the same time the tumor does not grow. This condition may lead to the phase of escape, in which the tumor gains dominance over immune system, starts growing and establishes immunosuppressive environment.As a consequence of immunoediting, tumor cell clones less responsive to the immune system gain dominance in the tumor through time, as the recognized cells are eliminated.
Plankalkül History of programming Plankalkül > History of programming The very first attempt to devise an algorithmic language was undertaken in 1948 by K. Zuse. His notation was quite general, but the proposal never attained the consideration it deserved. Unable to continue building computers – which was also forbidden by the Allied Powers – Zuse devoted his time to the development of a higher-level programming model and language.
Geologic record Summary Geologic_record The geologic record in stratigraphy, paleontology and other natural sciences refers to the entirety of the layers of rock strata. That is, deposits laid down by volcanism or by deposition of sediment derived from weathering detritus (clays, sands etc.). This includes all its fossil content and the information it yields about the history of the Earth: its past climate, geography, geology and the evolution of life on its surface. According to the law of superposition, sedimentary and volcanic rock layers are deposited on top of each other. They harden over time to become a solidified (competent) rock column, that may be intruded by igneous rocks and disrupted by tectonic events.
Thermally stimulated current Summary Thermally_stimulated_current If the driving force adopted is a temperature gradient, electron traps and hole traps can be distinguished by the sign of the current. TSC based on a temperature gradient is also known as "Thermoelectric Effect Spectroscopy" (TEES) according to 2 scientists (Santic and Desnica) from ex-Yugoslavia; they demonstrated their technique on semi-insulating gallium arsenide (GaAs). (Note: TSC based on a temperature gradient was invented before Santic and Desnica and applied to the study of organic plastic materials.
Zero-overhead looping Blackfin Zero-overhead_looping > Implementation > Examples > Blackfin Blackfin offers two zero-overhead loops. The loops can be nested; if both hardware loops are configured with the same "loop end" address, loop 1 will behave as the inner loop and repeat, and loop 0 will behave as the outer loop and repeat only if loop 1 would not repeat. Loops are controlled using the LTx and LBx registers (x either 0 to 1) to set the top and bottom of the loop — that is, the first and last instructions to be executed, which can be the same for a loop with only one instruction — and LCx for the loop count. The loop repeats if LCx is nonzero at the end of the loop, in which case LCx is decremented.
Transition rule Vibrational spectra Transition_rule > Examples > Vibrational spectra However, when anharmonicity is taken into account, the transitions are weakly allowed.In Raman and infrared spectroscopy, the selection rules predict certain vibrational modes to have zero intensities in the Raman and/or the IR. Displacements from the ideal structure can result in relaxation of the selection rules and appearance of these unexpected phonon modes in the spectra. Therefore, the appearance of new modes in the spectra can be a useful indicator of symmetry breakdown.
Human pathogen Bacterial Human_pathogen > Types > Bacterial Although the vast majority of bacteria are harmless or beneficial to one's body, a few pathogenic bacteria can cause infectious diseases. The most common bacterial disease is tuberculosis, caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis, which affects about 2 million people mostly in sub-Saharan Africa. Pathogenic bacteria contribute to other globally important diseases, such as pneumonia, which can be caused by bacteria such as Streptococcus and Pseudomonas, and foodborne illnesses, which can be caused by bacteria such as Shigella, Campylobacter, and Salmonella. Pathogenic bacteria also cause infections such as tetanus, typhoid fever, diphtheria, syphilis, and Hansen's disease. They typically range between 1 and 5 micrometers in length.
Energy hierarchy Energy saving Energy_hierarchy > Energy saving The top priority under the Energy Hierarchy is energy conservation or the prevention of unnecessary use of energy. This category includes eliminating waste by turning off unneeded lights and appliances and by avoiding unnecessary journeys. Heat loss from buildings is a major source of energy wastage, so improvements to building insulation and air-tightness can make a significant contribution to energy conservation.Many countries have agencies to encourage energy saving.
Pumping lemma for context-free languages Usage of the lemma Pumping_lemma_for_context-free_languages > Usage of the lemma v w x = a j b k {\displaystyle vwx=a^{j}b^{k}} for some j and k with j + k ≤ p {\displaystyle j+k\leq p} v w x = b j {\displaystyle vwx=b^{j}} for some j ≤ p {\displaystyle j\leq p} . v w x = b j c k {\displaystyle vwx=b^{j}c^{k}} for some j and k with j + k ≤ p {\displaystyle j+k\leq p} . v w x = c j {\displaystyle vwx=c^{j}} for some j ≤ p {\displaystyle j\leq p} .For each case, it is easily verified that u v i w x i y {\displaystyle uv^{i}wx^{i}y} does not contain equal numbers of each letter for any i ≠ 1 {\displaystyle i\neq 1} .
Point-spread function Summary Point_Spread_Function It is a useful concept in Fourier optics, astronomical imaging, medical imaging, electron microscopy and other imaging techniques such as 3D microscopy (like in confocal laser scanning microscopy) and fluorescence microscopy. The degree of spreading (blurring) in the image of a point object for an imaging system is a measure of the quality of the imaging system. In non-coherent imaging systems, such as fluorescent microscopes, telescopes or optical microscopes, the image formation process is linear in the image intensity and described by a linear system theory.
Lowest common ancestor History Lowest_common_ancestor > History Further simplifications were made by Alstrup et al. (2004) and Fischer & Heun (2006). Sleator and Tarjan (1983) proposed the dynamic LCA variant of the problem in which the data structure should be prepared to handle LCA queries intermixed with operations that change the tree (that is, rearrange the tree by adding and removing edges). This variant can be solved in O ( log ⁡ N ) {\displaystyle O(\log N)} time in the total size of the tree for all modifications and queries. This is done by maintaining the forest using the dynamic trees data structure with partitioning by size; this then maintains a heavy-light decomposition of each tree, and allows LCA queries to be carried out in logarithmic time in the size of the tree.
Equimolar counterdiffusion Diffusion Equimolar_counterdiffusion > Diffusion Heat and mass transfer occurs from areas of higher concentration to areas of lower concentration. A simplistic way to picture diffusion is when ink is put on a paper towel; it spreads from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration. The equation for this is shown below and is similar to the heat equation. N = -D dC/drwhere N is the rate of mass transfer of the diffusing component (moles per second per unit area)D is the diffusivity variabledC/dr is the local concentration gradient of the diffusing component
Domain of discourse Examples Domain_of_discourse > Examples For example, in an interpretation of first-order logic, the domain of discourse is the set of individuals over which the quantifiers range. A proposition such as ∀x (x2 ≠ 2) is ambiguous, if no domain of discourse has been identified. In one interpretation, the domain of discourse could be the set of real numbers; in another interpretation, it could be the set of natural numbers. If the domain of discourse is the set of real numbers, the proposition is false, with x = √2 as counterexample; if the domain is the set of natural numbers, the proposition is true, since 2 is not the square of any natural number.
Severe combined immunodeficiency Summary Severe_combined_immune_deficiency Severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID), also known as Swiss-type agammaglobulinemia, is a rare genetic disorder characterized by the disturbed development of functional T cells and B cells caused by numerous genetic mutations that result in differing clinical presentations. SCID involves defective antibody response due to either direct involvement with B lymphocytes or through improper B lymphocyte activation due to non-functional T-helper cells. Consequently, both "arms" (B cells and T cells) of the adaptive immune system are impaired due to a defect in one of several possible genes. SCID is the most severe form of primary immunodeficiencies, and there are now at least nine different known genes in which mutations lead to a form of SCID.
Matrix Toolkit Java Capabilities Matrix_Toolkit_Java > Capabilities However, their matrix/vector multiplication methods are optimised for use in iterative solvers. Matrix decompositions of dense and structured sparse matrices: LU and Cholesky. Eigenvalue decompositions for unsymmetrical dense matrices.
D mount Summary D_mount A D-mount is a type of lens mount commonly found on 8mm movie cameras. Throat or thread diameter 15.88 mm (0.625 inch) Mount thread pitch 32 TPI Flange focal distance 12.29 mm D-Mount lenses have found new uses in the Nikon 1 series, Fujifilm X series, Pentax Q series and other modern mirrorless cameras via adapters.
Visual Studio 2008 Visual_Studio > History > 2008 It also includes a multithreaded build engine (MSBuild) to compile multiple source files (and build the executable file) in a project across multiple threads simultaneously. It also includes support for compiling icon resources in PNG format, introduced in Windows Vista. An updated XML Schema designer was released separately some time after the release of Visual Studio 2008.Visual Studio Debugger includes features targeting easier debugging of multi-threaded applications.
Energy storage as a service Components Energy_storage_as_a_service > Components ESaaS is the combination of an energy storage system, a control and monitoring system, and a service contract. The most common energy storage systems used for ESaaS are lithium-ion or flow batteries due to their compact size, non-invasive installation, high efficiencies, and fast reaction times but other storage mediums may be used such as compressed air, flywheels, or pumped hydro. The batteries are sized based on the facility's needs and is paired with a power inverter to convert the DC power to AC power in order to connect directly to the facility’s electricity supply.
Organic polymers Mixing behavior Polymer_main_chain > Properties > Phase behavior > Mixing behavior In general, polymeric mixtures are far less miscible than mixtures of small molecule materials. This effect results from the fact that the driving force for mixing is usually entropy, not interaction energy. In other words, miscible materials usually form a solution not because their interaction with each other is more favorable than their self-interaction, but because of an increase in entropy and hence free energy associated with increasing the amount of volume available to each component. This increase in entropy scales with the number of particles (or moles) being mixed.
Glossary of representation theory R Glossary_of_representation_theory > R A regular representation of a linear algebraic group G is the induced representation on the coordinate ring of G. See also: representation on coordinate rings. representation 1. A linear representation of a group G is a group homomorphism π: G → G L ( V ) {\displaystyle \pi :G\to GL(V)} from G to the general linear group G L ( V ) {\displaystyle GL(V)} .
Debye–Waller factor Summary Debye–Waller_factor The Debye–Waller factor (DWF), named after Peter Debye and Ivar Waller, is used in condensed matter physics to describe the attenuation of x-ray scattering or coherent neutron scattering caused by thermal motion. It is also called the B factor, atomic B factor, or temperature factor. Often, "Debye–Waller factor" is used as a generic term that comprises the Lamb–Mössbauer factor of incoherent neutron scattering and Mössbauer spectroscopy.
Host switch Host receptor binding Host_switch > Case studies > Influenza > Molecular adaptations > Host receptor binding These are the isomers of sialic acid mostly present in the regions of the host that each IAVs infected respectively - i.e. the gastrointestinal tract of birds and the respiratory tract of humans. Therefore, in order to commit to a host switch, the HA specificity must mutate to the substrate receptors of the new host. In the final stages of infection, the HA proteins are cleaved to activate the virus.
Resting membrane potential Resting potentials Resting_membrane_potential > Resting potentials The resting membrane potential is not an equilibrium potential as it relies on the constant expenditure of energy (for ionic pumps as mentioned above) for its maintenance. It is a dynamic diffusion potential that takes this mechanism into account—wholly unlike the pillows equilibrium potential, which is true no matter the nature of the system under consideration. The resting membrane potential is dominated by the ionic species in the system that has the greatest conductance across the membrane. For most cells this is potassium.
Otto cycle engine Processes Otto_cycle > Processes After the expansion is completed in the cylinder, the remaining heat is extracted and finally the gas is exhausted to the environment. Useful mechanical work is produced during the expansion process and some of that used to compress the air mass of the next cycle. The useful mechanical work produced minus that used for the compression process is the net work gained and that can be used for propulsion or for driving other machines. Alternatively the useful work gained is the difference between the heat added and the heat removed.
Quantum contextuality Measurement-based quantum computing Quantum_contextuality > Contextuality as a resource for quantum computing > Measurement-based quantum computing Measurement-based quantum computation (MBQC) is a model for quantum computing in which a classical control computer interacts with a quantum system by specifying measurements to be performed and receiving measurement outcomes in return. The measurement statistics for the quantum system may or may not exhibit contextuality. A variety of results have shown that the presence of contextuality enhances the computational power of an MBQC.
HIV subtype Treatments HIV_subtypes > Major types > HIV-2 > Treatments HIV-1 tends to out compete HIV-2 for disease progression. Co-infection seems to be a growing problem globally as time progresses, with most cases being identified in West African countries, as well as some cases in the USA. A study found that individuals who acquire HIV-2 before HIV-1 have a slower rate of disease progression, indicating that the proliferation of HIV-1 is limited by the immune response to HIV-2.
Language of mathematics Features Language_of_mathematics > Features For example: " E = m c 2 {\displaystyle E=mc^{2}} represents quantitatively the mass–energy equivalence." A formula that is not included in a sentence is generally meaningless, since the meaning of the symbols may depend on the context: in " E = m c 2 {\displaystyle E=mc^{2}} ", this is the context that specifies that E is the energy of a physical body, m is its mass, and c is the speed of light. Use of mathematical jargon that consists of phrases that are used for informal explanations or shorthands. For example, "killing" is often used in place of "replacing with zero", and this led to the use of assassinator and annihilator as technical words.
Domain name services Function DNS_over_QUIC > Function This process of using the DNS to assign proximal servers to users is key to providing faster and more reliable responses on the Internet and is widely used by most major Internet services.The DNS reflects the structure of administrative responsibility on the Internet. Each subdomain is a zone of administrative autonomy delegated to a manager. For zones operated by a registry, administrative information is often complemented by the registry's RDAP and WHOIS services. That data can be used to gain insight on, and track responsibility for, a given host on the Internet.
Respiratory rhythm Respiratory rhythm Ventral_respiratory_group > Respiratory rhythm There are three phases of the respiratory cycle: inspiration, post-inspiration or passive expiration, and late or active expiration.The number of cycles per minute is the respiratory rate. The respiratory rate is set in the respiratory center by the dorsal respiratory group, in the medulla, and these neurons are mostly concentrated in the solitary nucleus that extends the length of the medulla.The basic rhythm of respiration is that of quiet, restful breathing known as eupnea. Quiet breathing only requires the activity of the dorsal group which activates the diaphragm, and the external intercostal muscles.
NO2 Hydrolysis Nitrogen_Dioxide > Selected reactions > Hydrolysis NO2 reacts with water to give nitric acid and nitrous acid: 2 NO2 + H2O → HNO2 + HNO3This reaction is one of the steps in the Ostwald process for the industrial production of nitric acid from ammonia. This reaction is negligibly slow at low concentrations of NO2 characteristic of the ambient atmosphere, although it does proceed upon NO2 uptake to surfaces. Such surface reaction is thought to produce gaseous HNO2 (often written as HONO) in outdoor and indoor environments.
ADEOS I Instruments ADEOS_I > Instruments The Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS) was built by CNES to study changes to Earth's ozone layer. The Polarization and Directionality of the Earth's Reflectance (POLDER) device was also developed by CNES, and was also launched on ADEOS II. The Improved Limb Atmospheric Spectrometer (ILAS) was developed by NASDA and the Environment Agency of Japan, and used grating spectrometers to measure the properties of trace gases using solar occultation. The Retroreflector in Space (RIS) and Interferometric Monitor for Greenhouse Gases (IMG) were both developed by Japan, and studied atmospheric trace gases and greenhouse gases respectively.
Inception score Definition Inception_score > Definition Compute p d i s ( ⋅ | x i ) {\displaystyle p_{dis}(\cdot |x_{i})} , the probability distribution over labels conditional on image x i {\displaystyle x_{i}} . Sum up the results to obtain p ^ {\displaystyle {\hat {p}}} , an empirical estimate of ∫ p d i s ( ⋅ | x ) p g e n ( x ) d x {\displaystyle \int p_{dis}(\cdot |x)p_{gen}(x)dx} .
Occupational hearing loss Noise exposure Occupational_hearing_loss > Causes > Noise exposure For example, a person continuously exposed to 85 dB(A) over an 8-hour work shift will reach 100% of their daily noise dose. This dose limit uses a 3-dB time-intensity tradeoff commonly referred to as the exchange rate or equal-energy rule: for every 3-dB increase in noise level, the allowable exposure time is reduced by half. For example, if the exposure level increases to 88 dB(A), workers should only be exposed for four hours.
Leucyl aminopeptidase Enzyme description, structure, and active site Leucyl_aminopeptidase > Enzyme description, structure, and active site These enzymes are also known to have high pH (pH 8) and temperature optima. At pH 8, the highest enzymatic activity is seen at 60 °C.
Zoom lenses Design Zoom_lenses > Design In doing so, the overall angular magnification of the system varies, changing the effective focal length of the complete zoom lens. At each of the three points shown, the three-lens system is afocal (neither diverging or converging the light), and hence does not alter the position of the focal plane of the lens. Between these points, the system is not exactly afocal, but the variation in focal plane position can be small enough (about ±0.01 mm in a well-designed lens) not to make a significant change to the sharpness of the image.
Through-truss bridge Cantilever truss Waddell_truss > Truss types used in bridges > Cantilever truss A central gap, if present, can then be filled by lifting a conventional truss into place or by building it in place using a "traveling support". In another method of construction, one outboard half of each balanced truss is built upon temporary falsework. When the outboard halves are completed and anchored the inboard halves may then be constructed and the center section completed as described above.
Data diplomacy Privacy, human rights protection and ethical standards Data_diplomacy > Risks and limitations > Privacy, human rights protection and ethical standards This can create tensions between groups. In some cases, however, individuals cannot make fair, free or informed choices about how their data is used, which leads to the marginalization of some groups. For example, if one does not agree to the data terms proposed by Google one cannot use its services.
Formal language theory Programming languages Formal_model > Applications > Programming languages A compiler usually has two distinct components. A lexical analyzer, sometimes generated by a tool like lex, identifies the tokens of the programming language grammar, e.g. identifiers or keywords, numeric and string literals, punctuation and operator symbols, which are themselves specified by a simpler formal language, usually by means of regular expressions. At the most basic conceptual level, a parser, sometimes generated by a parser generator like yacc, attempts to decide if the source program is syntactically valid, that is if it is well formed with respect to the programming language grammar for which the compiler was built. Of course, compilers do more than just parse the source code – they usually translate it into some executable format. Because of this, a parser usually outputs more than a yes/no answer, typically an abstract syntax tree. This is used by subsequent stages of the compiler to eventually generate an executable containing machine code that runs directly on the hardware, or some intermediate code that requires a virtual machine to execute.
Pain disorder Signs and symptoms Pain_disorder > Signs and symptoms Common side effects or comorbidities of pain disorder include: depression; anxiety; inactivity; disability; sleep disturbance; fatigue; and disruption of social relationships. Pain conditions are generally considered "acute" if they last less than six months, and "chronic" if they last six or more months. The neurological or physiological basis for chronic pain disorders is currently unknown; they are not explained by, for example, clinically obtainable evidence of disease or of damage to the painful areas.
MO diagram Water MO_diagram > Triatomic molecules > Water For nonlinear molecules, the orbital symmetries are not σ or π but depend on the symmetry of each molecule. Water (H2O) is a bent molecule (105°) with C2v molecular symmetry. The possible orbital symmetries are listed in the table below.
John Henry Michell Publications of J.H. Michell John_Henry_Michell > Publications of J.H. Michell 32 (1900) 247-258. The stress in the web of a plate girder, Quart. J. Pure Appl.
Formal theorem Terminology Mathematical_theorem > Terminology A conjecture is an unproved statement that is believed to be true. Conjectures are usually made in public, and named after their maker (for example, Goldbach's conjecture and Collatz conjecture). The term hypothesis is also used in this sense (for example, Riemann hypothesis), which should not be confused with "hypothesis" as the premise of a proof.
Orbital momentum vector Scalar angular momentum from Lagrangian mechanics Orbital_momentum_vector > Definition in classical mechanics > Scalar angular momentum from Lagrangian mechanics Another approach is to define angular momentum as the conjugate momentum (also called canonical momentum) of the angular coordinate ϕ {\displaystyle \phi } expressed in the Lagrangian of the mechanical system. Consider a mechanical system with a mass m {\displaystyle m} constrained to move in a circle of radius a {\displaystyle a} in the absence of any external force field. The kinetic energy of the system is And the potential energy is Then the Lagrangian is The generalized momentum "canonically conjugate to" the coordinate ϕ {\displaystyle \phi } is defined by
ANOVA Gage R&R Purpose ANOVA_Gage_R&R > Purpose Operators (people), the ability and/or discipline of a person to follow the written or verbal instructions. Test methods, how the devices are set up, the test fixtures, how the data is recorded, etc. Specification, the measurement is reported against a specification or a reference value. The range or the engineering tolerance does not affect the measurement, but is an important factor in evaluating the viability of the measurement system.
Work design History Work_design > History In Ford's assembly lines, each worker was assigned a specific set of tasks, standing stationary while a mechanical conveyor belt brought the assemblies to the worker. While the assembly line made it possible to manufacture complex products at a fast rate, the jobs were extremely repetitive and workers were almost tied to the line.Researchers began to observe that simplified jobs were negatively affecting employees' mental and physical health, while other negative consequences for organizations such as turnover, strikes, and absenteeism began to be documented. Over time, a field of research within industrial and organizational psychology known as job design, and more recently work design, emerged. Empirical work in the field flourished from the 1960s, and has become ever more relevant with modern technological developments that have changed the fundamental nature of work, such as automation, artificial intelligence, and remote work.
Autoantigen History Autoimmmune_response > History In the later 19th century it was believed that the immune system was unable to react against the body's own tissues. Paul Ehrlich, at the turn of the 20th century, proposed the concept of horror autotoxicus. Ehrlich later adjusted his theory to recognize the possibility of autoimmune tissue attacks, but believed certain innate protection mechanisms would prevent the autoimmune response from becoming pathological.In 1904 this theory was challenged by the discovery of a substance in the serum of patients with paroxysmal cold hemoglobinuria that reacted with red blood cells. During the following decades, a number of conditions could be linked to autoimmune responses.
Minimal standard model Higgs sector Minimal_standard_model > Theoretical aspects > Construction of the Standard Model Lagrangian > Higgs sector The scalar potential is given by where μ 2 > 0 {\displaystyle \mu ^{2}>0} , so that φ {\displaystyle \varphi } acquires a non-zero Vacuum expectation value, which generates masses for the Electroweak gauge fields (the Higgs' mechanism), and λ > 0 {\displaystyle \lambda >0} , so that the potential is bounded from below. The quartic term describes self-interactions of the scalar field φ {\displaystyle \varphi } . The minimum of the potential is degenerate with an infinite number of equivalent ground state solutions, which occurs when φ † φ = μ 2 2 λ {\displaystyle \varphi ^{\dagger }\varphi ={\tfrac {\mu ^{2}}{2\lambda }}} .
Muda (Japanese term) Implementation Muda_(Japanese_term) > Implementation Often it is in the operations' area rather than the process area that muda can be eliminated and remove the blockage to the plan. Tools of many types and methodologies can then be employed on these wastes to reduce or eliminate them. The plan is therefore to build a fast, flexible process where the immediate impact is to reduce waste and therefore costs. By ratcheting the process towards this aim with focused muda reduction to achieve each step, the improvements are 'locked in' and become required for the process to function. Without this intent to build a fast, flexible process there is a significant danger that any improvements achieved will not be sustained because they are just desirable and can slip back towards old behaviours without the process stopping.
Euler backward method Extensions and modifications Euler_backward_method > Extensions and modifications The backward Euler method is a variant of the (forward) Euler method. Other variants are the semi-implicit Euler method and the exponential Euler method. The backward Euler method can be seen as a Runge–Kutta method with one stage, described by the Butcher tableau: 1 1 1 {\displaystyle {\begin{array}{c|c}1&1\\\hline &1\\\end{array}}} The method can also be seen as a linear multistep method with one step. It is the first method of the family of Adams–Moulton methods, and also of the family of backward differentiation formulas.
Coin-tossing problem Mathematics Head_and_Tail > Mathematics The mathematical abstraction of the statistics of coin flipping is described by means of the Bernoulli process; a single flip of a coin is a Bernoulli trial. In the study of statistics, coin-flipping plays the role of being an introductory example of the complexities of statistics. A commonly treated textbook topic is that of checking if a coin is fair.
Vehicle speed sensor Rotary speed sensors for motors Vehicle_speed_sensor > Special purpose speed sensors > Rotary speed sensors for motors So they not only provide more precise signals, their signal availability is also significantly better. An alternative to Hall effect sensors with gears are sensors or encoders which use .
Glossary of computer science A Glossary_of_computer_science > A agent-based model (ABM) A class of computational models for simulating the actions and interactions of autonomous agents (both individual or collective entities such as organizations or groups) with a view to assessing their effects on the system as a whole. It combines elements of game theory, complex systems, emergence, computational sociology, multi-agent systems, and evolutionary programming. Monte Carlo methods are used to introduce randomness.
Loop around Summary Loop_around A loop line or loop around is a telephone company test circuit. The circuit has two associated phone numbers. When one side of the loop is called (side A), the caller receives a test tone of approximately 1000 Hz (milliwatt test). When the second number (side B) is called, it produces dead silence, but the party on side A hears the milliwatt test tone drop, and is connected to the person on side B. The purpose of the loop around test is to allow circuit testing to a distant central office without needing a person at the far end.
Frequency responses Summary Response_function The frequency response allows simpler analysis of cascaded systems such as multistage amplifiers, as the response of the overall system can be found through multiplication of the individual stages' frequency responses (as opposed to convolution of the impulse response in the time domain). The frequency response is closely related to the transfer function in linear systems, which is the Laplace transform of the impulse response. They are equivalent when the real part σ {\displaystyle \sigma } of the transfer function's complex variable s = σ + j ω {\displaystyle s=\sigma +j\omega } is zero.
Buckingham pi theorem Other examples Buckingham_pi_theorem > Examples > Other examples An example of dimensional analysis can be found for the case of the mechanics of a thin, solid and parallel-sided rotating disc. There are five variables involved which reduce to two non-dimensional groups. The relationship between these can be determined by numerical experiment using, for example, the finite element method.The theorem has also been used in fields other than physics, for instance in sports science.
Uridine diphosphate Summary Uridine_diphosphate Before glucose can be stored as glycogen in the liver and muscles, the enzyme UDP-glucose pyrophosphorylase forms a UDP-glucose unit by combining glucose 1-phosphate with uridine triphosphate, cleaving a pyrophosphate ion in the process. Then, the enzyme glycogen synthase combines UDP-glucose units to form a glycogen chain. The UDP molecule is cleaved from the glucose ring during this process and can be reused by UDP-glucose pyrophosphorylase.
Variance functions Application – weighted least squares Variance_functions > Types > Generalized linear model > Application – weighted least squares A very important application of the variance function is its use in parameter estimation and inference when the response variable is of the required exponential family form as well as in some cases when it is not (which we will discuss in quasi-likelihood). Weighted least squares (WLS) is a special case of generalized least squares. Each term in the WLS criterion includes a weight that determines that the influence each observation has on the final parameter estimates. As in regular least squares, the goal is to estimate the unknown parameters in the regression function by finding values for parameter estimates that minimize the sum of the squared deviations between the observed responses and the functional portion of the model.
Linear speedup Summary Parallel_speedup In computer architecture, speedup is a number that measures the relative performance of two systems processing the same problem. More technically, it is the improvement in speed of execution of a task executed on two similar architectures with different resources. The notion of speedup was established by Amdahl's law, which was particularly focused on parallel processing. However, speedup can be used more generally to show the effect on performance after any resource enhancement.
Fractional factorial designs Generation Fractional_factorial_designs > Generation In practice, experimenters typically rely on statistical reference books to supply the "standard" fractional factorial designs, consisting of the principal fraction. The principal fraction is the set of treatment combinations for which the generators evaluate to + under the treatment combination algebra. However, in some situations, experimenters may take it upon themselves to generate their own fractional design. A fractional factorial experiment is generated from a full factorial experiment by choosing an alias structure.
Edwin R. Fellows Early life Edwin_R._Fellows > Early life "By 1896 Fellows had fully developed a new approach to gear cutting. Previously, gears had been milled, using cutters that were formed to the shape of the individual teeth. Upon the completion of each gear tooth, the gear blank was indexed to a new position to mill the next tooth, which could lead to problems in accurate spacing of gear teeth and the shaping of the individual teeth. Fellows conceived a method whereby the gear cutter, which was itself a gear with hardened cutting edges, and gear blank revolved together as if they were a pair of gears. This process required no intermediate template or other type of mechanical guide for shaping the gear.
Uromodulin Protein Tamm-Horsfall_protein > Protein THP is a GPI-anchored glycoprotein. It is not derived from blood plasma but is produced by the thick ascending limb of the loop of Henle of the mammalian kidney. While the monomeric molecule has a MW of approximately 85 kDa, it is physiologically present in urine in large aggregates of up to several million Da. When this protein is concentrated at low pH, it forms a gel. Uromodulin represents the most abundant protein in normal human urine (results based on MSMS determinations). It is the matrix of urinary casts derived from the secretion of renal tubular cells.
Gravity (alcoholic beverage) Original gravity (OG); original extract (OE) Gravity_(alcoholic_beverage) > Terms related to gravity > Original gravity (OG); original extract (OE) The original gravity is the specific gravity measured before fermentation. From it the analyst can compute the original extract which is the mass (grams) of sugar in 100 grams (3.5 oz) of wort (°P) by use of the Plato scale. The symbol p {\displaystyle p} will denote OE in the formulas which follow.
Biology of depression Neurocircuits Biology_of_depression > Animal Models > Neurocircuits Silencing GABAergic projections from the NAc to the LHb reduces conditioned place preference induced in social aggression, and activation of these terminals induces CPP. Ventral pallidum firing is also elevated by stress induced depression, an effect that is pharmacologically valid, and silencing of these neurons alleviates behavioral correlates of depression. Tentative in vivo evidence from people with MDD suggests abnormalities in dopamine signalling.
In-place matrix transposition Background In-place_matrix_transposition > Background On a computer, one can often avoid explicitly transposing a matrix in memory by simply accessing the same data in a different order. For example, software libraries for linear algebra, such as BLAS, typically provide options to specify that certain matrices are to be interpreted in transposed order to avoid data movement. However, there remain a number of circumstances in which it is necessary or desirable to physically reorder a matrix in memory to its transposed ordering. For example, with a matrix stored in row-major order, the rows of the matrix are contiguous in memory and the columns are discontiguous.
Ideal transformer Polarity Ideal_transformer > Principles > Polarity A dot convention is often used in transformer circuit diagrams, nameplates or terminal markings to define the relative polarity of transformer windings. Positively increasing instantaneous current entering the primary winding's ‘dot’ end induces positive polarity voltage exiting the secondary winding's ‘dot’ end. Three-phase transformers used in electric power systems will have a nameplate that indicate the phase relationships between their terminals. This may be in the form of a phasor diagram, or using an alpha-numeric code to show the type of internal connection (wye or delta) for each winding.
128 (number) In other fields 128_(number) > In other fields One hundred twenty-eight is also: The year AD 128 or 128 BC 128 AH, a year in the Islamic calendar that corresponds to 745 – 746 CE 128 Nemesis, a main-belt asteroid Ross 128, a red dwarf star, the eleventh closest star system to the Solar System 128P/Shoemaker-Holt, a periodic comet in the Solar system The atomic number of unbioctium, an element yet to be discovered The number of musical instruments specified in General MIDI. Sometimes they are numbered 0 to 127 and sometimes they are numbered 1 to 128 128 film, a film format Sonnet 128 by William Shakespeare In music, a hundred twenty-eighth note is a note played for 1/128 of the duration of a whole note The number of US fluid ounces in a US gallon
Mechanical integrity Summary Mechanical_integrity Technical Integrity Engineering/Asset Integrity: is a term applied to the engineering disciplines associated with the design, assurance, and verification functions that ensure a product, process, or system meets its appropriate and intended requirements under stated operating conditions. Application of these disciplines minimizes the cost, schedule, technical, and legal risks of a program and improves the overall life cycle cost. is a term that relates to the process that improves operational reliability, safety, and asset protection while helping to maximize plant performance and mitigate the constant challenges and hazards facing heavy industries such as the Oil and Gas, Power Generation, and Nuclear Power industries. It is also considered the discipline and profession of acquiring and applying scientific, mathematical, economic, social, legal, and practical knowledge to the assurance and verification functions that ensure a product, process, or system meets (and is meeting) its appropriate and intended safety, legal, and business requirement(s). Typical responsibilities for an Integrity Engineer include coordinating the efficient and cost-effective implementation of inspections and integrity management programs and ensuring the integrity of plant facilities, including all onshore and offshore structures, pipelines, stationary equipment, piping systems, etc. In the scope of Integrity Management, it is essential that this role is independent so that unbiased and forthright decisions are made to ensure that equipment is designed, maintained, operated, and decommissioned in a responsible manner that complies with the industry's best practices.
Materiality (law) In contract law Materiality_(law) > In contract law In the law of contracts, a material term in a contract is a term or provision that concerns significant issues, such as subject matter, price, quantity, type of work to be done, and terms of payment or performance.
Zero-knowledge proofs History Zero-knowledge_proof > History This is surprising as no efficient algorithm for deciding quadratic residuosity mod m is known when m’s factorization is not given. Moreover, all known NP proofs for this problem exhibit the prime factorization of m. This indicates that adding interaction to the proving process, may decrease the amount of knowledge that must be communicated in order to prove a theorem. The quadratic nonresidue problem has both an NP and a co-NP algorithm, and so lies in the intersection of NP and co-NP.
Liver transplantation Graft rejection Liver_transplant > Risks/complications > Graft rejection It involves direct cytotoxicity and cytokine mediated pathways. Acute rejection is the most common and the primary target of immunosuppressive agents. Acute rejection is usually seen within days or weeks of the transplant. Chronic rejection is the presence of any sign and symptom of rejection after one year. The cause of chronic rejection is still unknown, but an acute rejection is a strong predictor of chronic rejections.
Parallel programming language Instruction-level parallelism Parallel_programming > Types of parallelism > Instruction-level parallelism This is known as instruction-level parallelism. Advances in instruction-level parallelism dominated computer architecture from the mid-1980s until the mid-1990s. All modern processors have multi-stage instruction pipelines.
Mesoscale eddies Reynolds number and turbulence Eddy_motion > Reynolds number and turbulence In 1883, scientist Osborne Reynolds conducted a fluid dynamics experiment involving water and dye, where he adjusted the velocities of the fluids and observed the transition from laminar to turbulent flow, characterized by the formation of eddies and vortices. Turbulent flow is defined as the flow in which the system's inertial forces are dominant over the viscous forces. This phenomenon is described by Reynolds number, a unit-less number used to determine when turbulent flow will occur.
CEA-LIST: Laboratory for Integration of Systems and Technology Research programmes CEA-LIST:_Laboratory_for_Integration_of_Systems_and_Technology > Research programmes CEA LIST is involved in various research programs, including:
GalP (protein) Summary GalP_(protein) The galactose permease or GalP found in Escherichia coli is an integral membrane protein involved in the transport of monosaccharides, primarily hexoses, for utilization by E. coli in glycolysis and other metabolic and catabolic pathways (3,4). It is a member of the Major Facilitator Super Family (MFS) and is homologue of the human GLUT1 transporter (4). Below you will find descriptions of the structure, specificity, effects on homeostasis, expression, and regulation of GalP along with examples of several of its homologues.
Johann Bernoulli Adult life Johann_Bernoulli > Biography > Adult life Bernoulli had planned on becoming the professor of Greek at Basel University upon returning but instead was able to take over as professor of mathematics, his older brother's former position. As a student of Leibniz's calculus, Bernoulli sided with him in 1713 in the Leibniz–Newton debate over who deserved credit for the discovery of calculus. Bernoulli defended Leibniz by showing that he had solved certain problems with his methods that Newton had failed to solve.
Statistical method Null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis Business_Statistics > Methods > Inferential statistics > Terminology and theory of inferential statistics > Null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis However, "failure to reject H0" in this case does not imply innocence, but merely that the evidence was insufficient to convict. So the jury does not necessarily accept H0 but fails to reject H0. While one can not "prove" a null hypothesis, one can test how close it is to being true with a power test, which tests for type II errors. What statisticians call an alternative hypothesis is simply a hypothesis that contradicts the null hypothesis.
Phonemic principle Case 1: Regular Phonemic_principle > Deviations from phonemic orthography > Case 1: Regular Pronunciation and spelling still correspond in a predictable way A phoneme may be represented by a sequence of letters, called a multigraph, rather than by a single letter (as in the case of the digraph ch in French and the trigraph sch in German). That only retains predictability if the multigraph cannot be broken down into smaller units. Some languages use diacritics to distinguish between a digraph and a sequence of individual letters, and others require knowledge of the language to distinguish them; compare goatherd and loather in English.Examples: sch versus s-ch in Romansch ng versus n + g in Welsh ch versus çh in Manx Gaelic: this is a slightly different case where the same digraph is used for two different single phonemes.
Patient derived tumor xenografts Colorectal cancer Patient-derived_xenograft > Clinical relevance > Colorectal cancer Drug resistance studies have been conducted using colorectal PDX models. In one study, researchers found that the models predicted patient responsiveness to cetuximab with 90% accuracy. Another study identified the amplification of ERBB2 as another mechanism of resistance, and a putative new actionable target in treatments.
Ulosonic acid Examples Sugar_acid > Examples Examples of sugar acids include: Aldonic acids Glyceric acid (3C) Xylonic acid (5C) Gluconic acid (6C) Ascorbic acid (6C, unsaturated lactone) Ulosonic acids Neuraminic acid (5-amino-3,5-dideoxy-D-glycero-D-galacto-non-2-ulosonic acid) Ketodeoxyoctulosonic acid (KDO or 3-deoxy-D-manno-oct-2-ulosonic acid) Uronic acids Glucuronic acid (6C) Galacturonic acid (6C) Iduronic acid (6C) Aldaric acids Tartaric acid (4C) meso-Galactaric acid (Mucic acid) (6C) D-Glucaric acid (Saccharic acid) (6C)