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Kernel memory Monolithic kernels Kernel_image > Kernel-wide design approaches > Monolithic kernels This ability to miniaturize its kernel has also led to a rapid growth in the use of Linux in embedded systems. These types of kernels consist of the core functions of the operating system and the device drivers with the ability to load modules at runtime. They provide rich and powerful abstractions of the underlying hardware.
End-stage renal disease Summary End-stage_renal_disease Other recommended measures include staying active, and certain dietary changes such as a low-salt diet and the right amount of protein. Treatments for anemia and bone disease may also be required. Severe disease requires hemodialysis, peritoneal dialysis, or a kidney transplant for survival.Chronic kidney disease affected 753 million people globally in 2016 (417 million females and 336 million males.) In 2015, it caused 1.2 million deaths, up from 409,000 in 1990. The causes that contribute to the greatest number of deaths are high blood pressure at 550,000, followed by diabetes at 418,000, and glomerulonephritis at 238,000.
Vision transformer Vision Transformers Vision_transformer > Vision Transformers The result, with the position embedding is fed to the transformer.As in the case of BERT, a fundamental role in classification tasks is played by the class token. A special token that is used as the only input of the final MLP Head as it has been influenced by all the others. The architecture for image classification is the most common and uses only the Transformer Encoder in order to transform the various input tokens. However, there are also other applications in which the decoder part of the traditional Transformer Architecture is also used.
Diffractive optics Summary Diffraction_of_light If there are multiple, closely spaced openings (e.g., a diffraction grating), a complex pattern of varying intensity can result. These effects also occur when a light wave travels through a medium with a varying refractive index, or when a sound wave travels through a medium with varying acoustic impedance – all waves diffract, including gravitational waves, water waves, and other electromagnetic waves such as X-rays and radio waves. Furthermore, quantum mechanics also demonstrates that matter possesses wave-like properties and, therefore, undergoes diffraction (which is measurable at subatomic to molecular levels).The amount of diffraction depends on the size of the gap. Diffraction is greatest when the size of the gap is similar to the wavelength of the wave. In this case, when the waves pass through the gap they become semi-circular.
Monic polynomial Integral elements Monic_polynomial > Integral elements It can be proved that, if two elements of a field F are integral over a subring R of F, then the sum and the product of these elements are also integral over R. It follows that the elements of F that are integral over R form a ring, called the integral closure of R in K. An integral domain that equals its integral closure in its field of fractions is called an integrally closed domain. These concepts are fundamental in algebraic number theory. For example, many of the numerous wrong proofs of the Fermat's Last Theorem that have been written during more than three centuries were wrong because the authors supposed wrongly that the algebraic integers in an algebraic number field have unique factorization.
Neural Engineering Neural networks Neural_Engineering > Research and applications > Neural networks Scientists can use experimental observations of neuronal systems and theoretical and computational models of these systems to create Neural networks with the hopes of modeling neural systems in as realistic a manner as possible. Neural networks can be used for analyses to help design further neurotechnological devices. Specifically, researchers handle analytical or finite element modeling to determine nervous system control of movements and apply these techniques to help patients with brain injuries or disorders.
Pathophysiology of multiple sclerosis Proposed causes Lesion_patterns_in_multiple_sclerosis > Proposed causes These are called Normal Appearing White Matter (NAWM) and Normal Appearing Grey Matter (NAGM). The cause why the normal appearing areas appear in the brain is unknown, but seems clear that they appear mainly in the ventricles and that they predict the course of the disease.Given that MS lesions begin inside the NAWM areas, these areas are expected to be produced by the same underlying condition that produces the lesions, and therefore the ultimate MS underlying condition, whatever it is. Historically, several theories about how these areas appear have been presented:
Bench table Ancient Bench_table > History > Ancient Table is known as used since the ancient period with various materials of wood, metal, and stone. In Egypt, a number of pieces of furniture were found in tombs dating back to the ancient kingdom. Thrones, chairs, stools, and desks were all found in luxurious decorations that represent the status and formality of the ruling class.
Bourbaki–Witt theorem Special case of a finite poset Bourbaki–Witt_theorem > Special case of a finite poset If the poset X is finite then the statement of the theorem has a clear interpretation that leads to the proof. The sequence of successive iterates, x n + 1 = f ( x n ) , n = 0 , 1 , 2 , … , {\displaystyle x_{n+1}=f(x_{n}),n=0,1,2,\ldots ,} where x0 is any element of X, is monotone increasing. By the finiteness of X, it stabilizes: x n = x ∞ , {\displaystyle x_{n}=x_{\infty },} for n sufficiently large.It follows that x∞ is a fixed point of f.
Surveyor's compass Surveying a region Surveyor's_compass > Usage > Surveying a region This will result in a table of the following form: From this table, the field is to be plotted, or protracted. Alternative plotting method: An alternative way to plot the area in Figure 2 is to use several angles and only a few measurements and calculate their positions.
Specific Impulse Summary Effective_exhaust_velocity Specific impulse (usually abbreviated Isp) is a measure of how efficiently a reaction mass engine (a rocket using propellant or a jet engine using fuel) creates thrust. For engines (like cold gas thruster) whose reaction mass is only the fuel they carry, specific impulse is exactly proportional to the effective exhaust gas velocity. A propulsion system with a higher specific impulse uses the mass of the propellant more efficiently.
Effective stress Summary Effective_stress The effective stress can be defined as the stress, depending on the applied tension σ i j {\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\sigma }}_{ij}} and pore pressure p {\displaystyle p} , which controls the strain or strength behaviour of soil and rock (or a generic porous body) for whatever pore pressure value or, in other terms, the stress which applied over a dry porous body (i.e. at p = 0 {\displaystyle p=0} ) provides the same strain or strength behaviour which is observed at p {\displaystyle p} ≠ 0. In the case of granular media it can be viewed as a force that keeps a collection of particles rigid. Usually this applies to sand, soil, or gravel, as well as every kind of rock and several other porous materials such as concrete, metal powders, biological tissues etc. The usefulness of an appropriate ESP formulation consists in allowing to assess the behaviour of a porous body for whatever pore pressure value on the basis of experiments involving dry samples (i.e. carried out at zero pore pressure).
Intuitionistic arithmetic Axiomatization Heyting_arithmetic > Axiomatization (n=0\to P)\land (n\neq 0\to Q)} . This formal elimination of disjunctions was not possible in the quantifier-free primitive recursive arithmetic P R A {\displaystyle {\mathsf {PRA}}} . The theory may be extended with function symbols for any primitive recursive function, making P R A {\displaystyle {\mathsf {PRA}}} also a fragment of this theory. For a total function f {\displaystyle f} , one often considers predicates of the form f ( n ) = 0 {\displaystyle f(n)=0} .
Antimicrobial polymer Primary Characteristics of Antimicrobial Polymers Antimicrobial_polymer > Primary Characteristics of Antimicrobial Polymers There are different primary characteristics of antimicrobial polymers, dependent upon the mechanism of action. The two primary characteristics of contact-active antimicrobial polymers are cationic charge and hydrophobicity. Cationic residues are necessary to induce the interaction with the microbial cell wall. Polycations such as quaternary ammonium, quaternary phosphonium, and guanidinium are frequently found in antimicrobial polymers.
History of general relativity Summary History_of_general_relativity It provides the foundation for the current understanding of black holes, regions of space where gravitational attraction is so strong that not even light can escape. Their strong gravity is thought to be responsible for the intense radiation emitted by certain types of astronomical objects (such as active galactic nuclei or microquasars). General relativity is also part of the framework of the standard Big Bang model of cosmology.
Causality paradox Summary Causality_paradox In other instances, the premise is that the past cannot be changed or that the future is predetermined, and the protagonist's actions turn out to be either inconsequential or intrinsic to events as they originally unfolded. Some stories focus solely on the paradoxes and alternate timelines that come with time travel, rather than time traveling itself. They often provide some sort of social commentary, as time travel provides a "necessary distancing effect" that allows science fiction to address contemporary issues in metaphorical ways.
Black Hole General relativity Black_Holes > History > General relativity In 1915, Albert Einstein developed his theory of general relativity, having earlier shown that gravity does influence light's motion. Only a few months later, Karl Schwarzschild found a solution to the Einstein field equations that describes the gravitational field of a point mass and a spherical mass. A few months after Schwarzschild, Johannes Droste, a student of Hendrik Lorentz, independently gave the same solution for the point mass and wrote more extensively about its properties. This solution had a peculiar behaviour at what is now called the Schwarzschild radius, where it became singular, meaning that some of the terms in the Einstein equations became infinite.
Fatigue Diagnosis Fatigue > Diagnosis A sleep study may be ordered to rule out a sleep disorder. Depression and other psychological conditions can produce fatigue, so people who report fatigue are routinely screened for these conditions, along with substance use disorders, poor diet, and lack of physical exercise, which paradoxically increases fatigue. Basic medical tests may be performed to rule out common causes of fatigue. These include blood tests to check for infection or anemia, a urinalysis to look for signs of liver disease or diabetes mellitus, and other tests to check for kidney and liver function, such as a comprehensive metabolic panel. Other tests may be chosen depending on the patient's social history, such as an HIV test or pregnancy test.
Pulse width modulation Summary Pulse_width_modulation PWM also works well with digital controls, which, because of their on/off nature, can easily set the needed duty cycle. PWM has also been used in certain communication systems where its duty cycle has been used to convey information over a communications channel. In electronics, many modern microcontrollers (MCUs) integrate PWM controllers exposed to external pins as peripheral devices under firmware control by means of internal programming interfaces. These are commonly used for direct current (DC) motor control in robotics, switched-mode power supply regulation, and other applications.
Martin Kay Contributions Martin_Kay > Contributions Here are some unfinished musings on the nature of translation. http://www.stanford.edu/~mjkay/CurrentState.pdf Some half-baked thoughts on language models in statistical NLP on which I need some help. http://www.stanford.edu/~mjkay/language_models.pdf His 1994 paper on "Regular Models of Phonological Rule Systems". Computational Linguistics 20(3):331–378" with Ronald Kaplan. http://www.stanford.edu/~mjkay/Kaplan%26Kay.pdf
Place-permutation action Maps written on the right Place-permutation_action > Maps written on the right Sometimes people like to write maps on the right of their arguments. This is a convenient convention to adopt when working with symmetric groups as diagram algebras, for instance, since then one may read compositions from left to right instead of from right to left. The question is: how does this affect the two interpretations of the place-permutation action of a symmetric group? The answer is simple.
Cosmic Background Explorer Black-body curve of CMB Cosmic_Background_Explorer > Scientific findings > Black-body curve of CMB Second, in 1987 a Japanese-American team led by Andrew E. Lange and Paul Richards of University of California, Berkeley and Toshio Matsumoto of Nagoya University made an announcement that CMB was not that of a true black body. In a sounding rocket experiment, they detected an excess brightness at 0.5 and 0.7 mm (0.028 in) wavelengths.With these developments serving as a backdrop to COBE's mission, scientists eagerly awaited results from FIRAS. The results of FIRAS were startling in that they showed a perfect fit of the CMB and the theoretical curve for a black body at a temperature of 2.7 K, thus proving the Berkeley-Nagoya results erroneous.
Glossary of cell biology Q Glossary_of_cell_biology > Q quiescent culture A cell culture in which there is little or no active cell growth or replication but in which the cells nonetheless continue to survive, as observed with some confluent cultures.
Ventilative cooling IEA EBC Annex 62 Ventilative_cooling > IEA EBC Annex 62 To fulfill the main goal the Annex had the following targets for the research and development work: To develop and evaluate suitable design methods and tools for prediction of cooling need, ventilative cooling performance and risk of overheating in buildings. To develop guidelines for an energy-efficient reduction of the risk of overheating by ventilative cooling solutions and for design and operation of ventilative cooling in both residential and commercial buildings. To develop guidelines for integration of ventilative cooling in energy performance calculation methods and regulations including specification and verification of key performance indicators.
Anomaly detection Datasets Anomaly_detection > Datasets Anomaly detection benchmark data repository with carefully chosen data sets of the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München; Mirror Archived 2022-03-31 at the Wayback Machine at University of São Paulo. ODDS – ODDS: A large collection of publicly available outlier detection datasets with ground truth in different domains. Unsupervised Anomaly Detection Benchmark at Harvard Dataverse: Datasets for Unsupervised Anomaly Detection with ground truth. KMASH Data Repository at Research Data Australia having more than 12,000 anomaly detection datasets with ground truth.
Structured analysis and design technique Diagrams Structured_analysis_and_design_technique > SADT topics > Diagrams Controls enter from the top and represent commands or conditions which influence the execution of an activity but are not consumed. Mechanisms identify the means, components or tools used to accomplish the activity.
Outline (list) Outliners Outline_(list) > Outliners Outliners are used for storing and retrieving textual information, with terms, phrases, sentences, or paragraphs attached to a tree. So rather than being arranged by document, information is arranged by topic or content.
Derivation of the Navier–Stokes equations Non-Newtonian fluids Derivation_of_the_Navier–Stokes_equations > Application to different fluids > Non-Newtonian fluids In a Newtonian fluid, the relation between the shear stress and the shear rate is linear, passing through the origin, the constant of proportionality being the coefficient of viscosity. In a non-Newtonian fluid, the relation between the shear stress and the shear rate is different, and can even be time-dependent. The study of the non-Newtonian fluids is usually called rheology. A few examples are given here.
Quine–Morse set theory MK axioms and ontology Morse–Kelley_set_theory > MK axioms and ontology Union: Let s = ⋃ a {\displaystyle s=\bigcup a} be the sum class of the set a, namely the union of all members of a. Then s is a set. ∀ a ∀ s ) → M s ] . {\displaystyle \forall a\,\forall s\,)\rightarrow Ms].}
Low-carbon energy Solar Sustainable_Energy > Sustainable energy sources > Renewable energy sources > Solar The Sun is Earth's primary source of energy, a clean and abundantly available resource in many regions. In 2019, solar power provided around 3% of global electricity, mostly through solar panels based on photovoltaic cells (PV). Solar PV is expected to be the electricity source with the largest installed capacity worldwide by 2027. The panels are mounted on top of buildings or installed in utility-scale solar parks.
Scientific terminology Elementary particles, quasiparticles and chemical elements Scientific_terminology > New concepts > Elementary particles, quasiparticles and chemical elements Progress of particle physics, nuclear physics and atomic physics has resulted in discoveries of new elementary particles and atoms. Their names – quark, gluon, lepton, graviton, neutrino, Higgs boson, mendelevium, etc. – are traditionally given by those people who first discovered them and often include surnames of classical scientists. Fundamental particles are particles that are not made up by any other particles, such as a quark.
Cyber Doctor Data exchange EHealth > Data exchange Systems that deal with these transfers are often referred to as Health Information Exchange (HIE). Of the forms of e-health already mentioned, there are roughly two types; front-end data exchange and back-end exchange. Front-end exchange typically involves the patient, while back-end exchange does not.
Weak supervision Laplacian regularization Weak_supervision > Methods > Laplacian regularization Laplacian regularization has been historically approached through graph-Laplacian. Graph-based methods for semi-supervised learning use a graph representation of the data, with a node for each labeled and unlabeled example. The graph may be constructed using domain knowledge or similarity of examples; two common methods are to connect each data point to its k {\displaystyle k} nearest neighbors or to examples within some distance ϵ {\displaystyle \epsilon } . The weight W i j {\displaystyle W_{ij}} of an edge between x i {\displaystyle x_{i}} and x j {\displaystyle x_{j}} is then set to e − ‖ x i − x j ‖ 2 / ϵ 2 {\displaystyle e^{-\\|x_{i}-x_{j}\\|^{2}/\epsilon ^{2}}} .
Optimal distinctiveness theory Tenets and mechanisms Optimal_distinctiveness_theory > Tenets and mechanisms The optimal level of category distinctiveness or inclusiveness is a function of the relative strength (steepness) of the opposing drives for assimilation and differentiation. For any individual, the relative strength of the two needs is determined by cultural norms, individual socialization, and recent experience. Brewer (1991) continues by stating that an alternative basic tenet of the theory is that "excessive" distinctiveness is detrimental to an individual since it can create stigma, negative self-concept, and an undesirable social identity.
Bhargava factorial Example: Factorials using the set of natural numbers Bhargava_factorial > Example: Factorials using the set of natural numbers 4! Z {\displaystyle \mathbb {Z} } = 8×3×1×1×1×… = 24.
Silicon Labs Internet of Things Silicon_Labs > Products > Internet of Things Wireless: System-on-Chip Mesh Networking Modules Protocols supported include: Bluetooth Proprietary wireless protocols for Sub-GHz and 2.4 GHz frequencies Zigbee Z-Wave for smart home applications Thread networking solutions Amazon Sidewalk Wi-Fi transceivers, transceiver modules, Xpress modules, stand-alone modules Wi-SUN® MCUs EFM8 8-bit MCUs EFM32 32-bit MCUs Sensors
Frequency scaling Summary Frequency_scaling Despite power issues, transistor densities were still doubling every 18 to 24 months. With the end of frequency scaling, new transistors (which are no longer needed to facilitate frequency scaling) are used to add extra hardware, such as additional cores, to facilitate parallel computing - a technique that is being referred to as parallel scaling. The end of frequency scaling as the dominant cause of processor performance gains has caused an industry-wide shift to parallel computing in the form of multicore processors.
Small nucleolar RNA SNORD86 Summary Small_nucleolar_RNA_SNORD86 In molecular biology, Small nucleolar RNA SNORD86 (also known as U86) is a non-coding RNA (ncRNA) that belongs to the C/D family of snoRNAs. It is the human orthologue of Xenopus laevis U86 and has no identified RNA target. The snoRNAs U86, U56, U57 and HBII-55,of the C/D family, and the H/ACA box snoRNA ACA51 share the same host gene (NOL5A) with U86.
Sexual selection in humans Summary Sexual_selection_in_human_evolution Sexual selection is quite different in non-human animals than humans as they feel more of the evolutionary pressures to reproduce and can easily reject a mate. The role of sexual selection in human evolution has not been firmly established although neoteny has been cited as being caused by human sexual selection. It has been suggested that sexual selection played a part in the evolution of the anatomically modern human brain, i.e. the structures responsible for social intelligence underwent positive selection as a sexual ornamentation to be used in courtship rather than for survival itself, and that it has developed in ways outlined by Ronald Fisher in the Fisherian runaway model. Fisher also stated that the development of sexual selection was "more favourable" in humans.
Bohr theory Derivation Sommerfeld–Wilson_quantization > Electron energy levels > Derivation Bohr considered circular orbits. Classically, these orbits must decay to smaller circles when photons are emitted. The level spacing between circular orbits can be calculated with the correspondence formula.
Algorithmic design Summary Algorithmic_design Due to the high complexity of the solution generated, rule-based computational tools, such as finite element method and topology optimisation, are more preferable to evaluate and optimise the generated solution. The iterative process provided by computer software enables the trial-and-error approach in design, and involves architects interfering with the optimisation process. The software then begins iterating, changing things a bit at a time, much like random mutations try out new combinations of animal DNA, and testing it against the necessary performance targets, much like life tests its DNA mutations.
Lebesgue integrable Measurable functions Lebesgue-integrable_function > Introduction > Measurable functions A real-valued function f on E is measurable if the pre-image of every interval of the form (t, ∞) is in X: We can show that this is equivalent to requiring that the pre-image of any Borel subset of R be in X. The set of measurable functions is closed under algebraic operations, but more importantly it is closed under various kinds of point-wise sequential limits: are measurable if the original sequence (fk), where k ∈ N, consists of measurable functions. There are several approaches for defining an integral for measurable real-valued functions f defined on E, and several notations are used to denote such an integral. Following the identification in Distribution theory of measures with distributions of order 0, or with Radon measures, one can also use a dual pair notation and write the integral with respect to μ in the form
Congruence modulo m Applications Modular_math > Applications In cryptography, modular arithmetic directly underpins public key systems such as RSA and Diffie–Hellman, and provides finite fields which underlie elliptic curves, and is used in a variety of symmetric key algorithms including Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), International Data Encryption Algorithm (IDEA), and RC4. RSA and Diffie–Hellman use modular exponentiation. In computer algebra, modular arithmetic is commonly used to limit the size of integer coefficients in intermediate calculations and data.
Dartmouth BASIC List of BASIC statements Dartmouth_BASIC > BASIC language > List of BASIC statements DEF define single line functions DIM (short for dimension) define the size of arrays END define the end of the program STOP stop a program before the textual end FOR / TO / STEP define loops NEXT mark the end of loops GOSUB transfer control to simple subroutines RETURN return control from simple subroutines GOTO transfer control to another statement IF / THEN decision making LET / = assign formula results to a variable PRINT output results DATA store static data within the program READ input data stored in DATA statements REM comment ("REMark")It also implemented floating-point numeric variables and arithmetic.
Hydrophobicity scales Types of amino acid hydrophobicity scales Hydrophobicity_scales > Types of amino acid hydrophobicity scales A number of different hydrophobicity scales have been developed.There are clear differences between the four scales shown in the table. Both the second and fourth scales place cysteine as the most hydrophobic residue, unlike the other two scales. This difference is due to the different methods used to measure hydrophobicity. The method used to obtain the Janin and Rose et al. scales was to examine proteins with known 3-D structures and define the hydrophobic character as the tendency for a residue to be found inside of a protein rather than on its surface.
Kolmogorov's generalized criterion Continuous-time Markov chains Kolmogorov's_generalized_criterion > Continuous-time Markov chains The theorem states that a continuous-time Markov chain with transition rate matrix Q is, under any invariant probability vector, reversible if and only if its transition probabilities satisfy q j 1 j 2 q j 2 j 3 ⋯ q j n − 1 j n q j n j 1 = q j 1 j n q j n j n − 1 ⋯ q j 3 j 2 q j 2 j 1 {\displaystyle q_{j_{1}j_{2}}q_{j_{2}j_{3}}\cdots q_{j_{n-1}j_{n}}q_{j_{n}j_{1}}=q_{j_{1}j_{n}}q_{j_{n}j_{n-1}}\cdots q_{j_{3}j_{2}}q_{j_{2}j_{1}}} for all finite sequences of states j 1 , j 2 , … , j n ∈ S . {\displaystyle j_{1},j_{2},\ldots ,j_{n}\in S.} The proof for continuous-time Markov chains follows in the same way as the proof for discrete-time Markov chains. == References ==
History of experiments Antoine Lavoisier History_of_experiments > Antoine Lavoisier He decided to do the experiment again. This time he measured the mass of the air surrounding the experiment as well. He discovered that the mass gained in the product was lost from the air.
Transformational grammar Deep structure and surface structure Transformational_grammar > Basic mechanisms > Deep structure and surface structure Deep structure was developed largely for technical reasons related to early semantic theory. Chomsky emphasized the importance of modern formal mathematical devices in the development of grammatical theory: But the fundamental reason for inadequacy of traditional grammars is a more technical one. Although it was well understood that linguistic processes are in some sense "creative," the technical devices for expressing a system of recursive processes were simply not available until much more recently. In fact, a real understanding of how a language can (in Humboldt's words) "make infinite use of finite means" has developed only within the last thirty years, in the course of studies in the foundations of mathematics.
Visual attention Cultural variation Visual_attention > Other descriptors for types of attention > Cultural variation Keen attention is both a requirement and result of learning by observing and pitching-in. Incorporating the children in the community gives them the opportunity to keenly observe and contribute to activities that were not directed towards them. It can be seen from different Indigenous communities and cultures, such as the Mayans of San Pedro, that children can simultaneously attend to multiple events.
EQP (complexity) Summary EQP_(complexity) In computational complexity theory, exact quantum polynomial time (EQP or sometimes QP) is the class of decision problems that can be solved by a quantum computer with zero error probability and in guaranteed worst-case polynomial time. It is the quantum analogue of the complexity class P. This is in contrast to bounded-error quantum computing, where quantum algorithms are expected to run in polynomial time, but may not always do so. In the original definition of EQP, each language was computed by a single quantum Turing machine (QTM), using a finite gate set whose amplitudes could be computed in polynomial time. However, some results have required the use of an infinite gate set. The amplitudes in the gate set are typically algebraic numbers.
Critical rationalist The pitfalls of justificationism and positivism Critical_rationalist > The pitfalls of justificationism and positivism If we were really "inducting" theories from particulars, it would be inductively logical to claim that the sun sets because I get up in the morning, or that all buses must have drivers in them (if you've never seen an empty bus). Popper and David Miller showed in 1983 that evidence supposed to partly support a hypothesis can, in fact, only be neutral to, or even be counter-supportive of the hypothesis. Related to the point above, David Miller, attacks the use of "good reasons" in general (including evidence supposed to support the excess content of a hypothesis).
Organizational learning Knowledge transfer Organizational_learning > Processes > Knowledge transfer Researchers investigate the context of various factors and mechanisms affecting knowledge transfer to determine their beneficial and detrimental effects. Factors of knowledge transfer include the dimensions of the knowledge described in the prior section, as well as the contexts in which it occurs and mechanisms through which it can occur: Relational context concerns whether knowledge is interconnected. Cognitive context concerns mental abilities and processes regarding knowledge.
Pass transistor logic Summary Pass_transistor_logic In electronics, pass transistor logic (PTL) describes several logic families used in the design of integrated circuits. It reduces the count of transistors used to make different logic gates, by eliminating redundant transistors. Transistors are used as switches to pass logic levels between nodes of a circuit, instead of as switches connected directly to supply voltages.
Stoichiometric coefficients Definition Stoichiometric_amount > Definition Elements in their natural state are mixtures of isotopes of differing mass; thus, atomic masses and thus molar masses are not exactly integers. For instance, instead of an exact 14:3 proportion, 17.04 g of ammonia consists of 14.01 g of nitrogen and 3 × 1.01 g of hydrogen, because natural nitrogen includes a small amount of nitrogen-15, and natural hydrogen includes hydrogen-2 (deuterium). A stoichiometric reactant is a reactant that is consumed in a reaction, as opposed to a catalytic reactant, which is not consumed in the overall reaction because it reacts in one step and is regenerated in another step.
Shi epoxidation Dioxirane catalyst formation Shi_epoxidation > Dioxirane catalyst formation The generation of the active catalyst species takes place in the aqueous layer, and is shuttled to the organic layer with the reactants by tetrabutylammonium sulfate. The ketone catalyst is continuously regenerated in a catalytic cycle, and thus can catalyze the epoxidation in small amounts. The first step in the catalytic cycle reaction is the nucleophilic addition reaction of the oxone with the ketone group on the catalyst (intermediate 1).
Proof-of-work system Bitcoin-type proof of work Proof_of_work > Bitcoin-type proof of work In 2009, the Bitcoin network went online. Bitcoin is a proof-of-work digital currency that, like Finney's RPoW, is also based on the Hashcash PoW. But in Bitcoin, double-spend protection is provided by a decentralized P2P protocol for tracking transfers of coins, rather than the hardware trusted computing function used by RPoW. Bitcoin has better trustworthiness because it is protected by computation. Bitcoins are "mined" using the Hashcash proof-of-work function by individual miners and verified by the decentralized nodes in the P2P bitcoin network.The difficulty is periodically adjusted to keep the block time around a target time.
Ecological stoichiometry Summary Ecological_stoichiometry how is consumer physiology and life-history affected by elemental imbalances? and what are the subsequent effects on ecosystem processes?Elemental imbalances arise for a number of physiological and evolutionary reasons related to the differences in the biological make up of organisms, such as differences in types and amounts of macromolecules, organelles, and tissues. Organisms differ in the flexibility of their biological make up and therefore in the degree to which organisms can maintain a constant chemical composition in the face of variations in their resources.
Complex arithmetic Mathematical Complex_Number > Further reading > Mathematical === Historical ===
Strain theory (sociology) Robert Agnew Strain_theory_(sociology) > Other strain theorists > Robert Agnew The resulting behavior patterns will often be characterized by more than their share of unilateral action because an individual will have a natural desire to avoid unpleasant rejections, and these unilateral actions (especially when antisocial) will further contribute to an individual's alienation from society. If particular rejections are generalized into feelings that the environment is unsupportive, more strongly negative emotions may motivate the individual to engage in crime. This is most likely to be true for younger individuals, and Agnew suggested that research focus on the magnitude, recency, duration, and clustering of such strain-related events to determine whether a person copes with strain in a criminal or conforming manner. Temperament, intelligence, interpersonal skills, self-efficacy, the presence of conventional social support, and the absence of association with antisocial (e.g., criminally inclined) age and status peers are chief among the factors Agnew identified as beneficial.
Prion diseases Summary Prion_diseases The word prion is derived from the term "proteinaceous infectious particle". The hypothesized role of a protein as an infectious agent stands in contrast to all other known infectious agents such as viroids, viruses, bacteria, fungi, and parasites, all of which contain nucleic acids (DNA, RNA, or both). Prion isoforms of the major prion protein (PrP), whose specific function is uncertain, are hypothesized as the cause of transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs).
Bioequivalence Bioequivalence Bioequivalence > Bioequivalence In determining bioequivalence between two products such as a commercially available Branded product and a potential to-be-marketed Generic product, pharmacokinetic studies are conducted whereby each of the preparations are administered in a cross-over study to volunteer subjects, generally healthy individuals but occasionally in patients. Serum/plasma samples are obtained at regular intervals and assayed for parent drug (or occasionally metabolite) concentration. Occasionally, blood concentration levels are neither feasible or possible to compare the two products (e.g. inhaled corticosteroids), then pharmacodynamic endpoints rather than pharmacokinetic endpoints (see below) are used for comparison. For a pharmacokinetic comparison, the plasma concentration data are used to assess key pharmacokinetic parameters such as area under the curve (AUC), peak concentration (Cmax), time to peak concentration (Tmax), and absorption lag time (tlag).
Love waves Basic theory Love_wave > Basic theory The function v ^ ( x , z , t ) {\displaystyle {\hat {v}}(x,z,t)} can be expressed as the superposition of harmonic waves with varying wave numbers ( k {\displaystyle k} ) and frequencies ( ω {\displaystyle \omega } ). Consider a single harmonic wave, i.e., v ^ ( x , z , t ) = V ( k , z , ω ) exp ⁡ {\displaystyle {\hat {v}}(x,z,t)=V(k,z,\omega )\,\exp} where i {\displaystyle i} is the imaginary unit, i.e. i 2 = − 1 {\displaystyle i^{2}=-1} . The stresses caused by these displacements are σ x x = 0 , σ y y = 0 , σ z z = 0 , τ z x = 0 , τ y z = μ ( z ) d V d z exp ⁡ , τ x y = i k μ ( z ) V ( k , z , ω ) exp ⁡ .
Molecule viewer Summary Molecule_viewer A molecule editor is a computer program for creating and modifying representations of chemical structures. Molecule editors can manipulate chemical structure representations in either a simulated two-dimensional space or three-dimensional space, via 2D computer graphics or 3D computer graphics, respectively. Two-dimensional output is used as illustrations or to query chemical databases. Three-dimensional output is used to build molecular models, usually as part of molecular modelling software packages.
History of compiler construction Yacc History_of_compiler_construction > Parser generators > Yacc Johnson worked on Yacc in the early 1970s at Bell Labs. He was familiar with TMG and its influence can be seen in Yacc and the design of the C programming language.
Thermoacoustic engine Practical efficiency Thermoacoustic_refrigeration > Practical efficiency The most efficient thermoacoustic devices have an efficiency approaching 40% of the Carnot limit, or about 20% to 30% overall (depending on the heat engine temperatures).Higher hot-end temperatures may be possible with thermoacoustic devices because they have no moving parts, thus allowing the Carnot efficiency to be higher. This may partially offset their lower efficiency, compared to conventional heat engines, as a percentage of Carnot. The ideal Stirling cycle, approximated by traveling wave devices, is inherently more efficient than the ideal Brayton cycle, approximated by standing wave devices. However, the narrower pores required to give good thermal contact in a travelling wave device, as compared to a standing wave stack which requires deliberately imperfect thermal contact, also gives rise to greater frictional losses, reducing practical efficiency. The toroidal geometry often used in traveling wave devices, but not required for standing wave devices, can also boost losses due to Gedeon streaming around the loop.
Multivector Area and volume Multivector > Area and volume The k-vector obtained from the exterior product of k separate vectors in an n-dimensional space has components that define the projected (k − 1)-volumes of the k-parallelotope spanned by the vectors. The square root of the sum of the squares of these components defines the volume of the k-parallelotope.The following examples show that a bivector in two dimensions measures the area of a parallelogram, and the magnitude of a bivector in three dimensions also measures the area of a parallelogram. Similarly, a three-vector in three dimensions measures the volume of a parallelepiped. It is easy to check that the magnitude of a three-vector in four dimensions measures the volume of the parallelepiped spanned by these vectors.
Architecture tradeoff analysis method Summary Architecture_tradeoff_analysis_method In software engineering, architecture tradeoff analysis method (ATAM) is a risk-mitigation process used early in the software development life cycle. ATAM was developed by the Software Engineering Institute at the Carnegie Mellon University. Its purpose is to help choose a suitable architecture for a software system by discovering trade-offs and sensitivity points. ATAM is most beneficial when done early in the software development life-cycle, when the cost of changing architectures is minimal.
Embodied cognition Theory Embodied_psychology > Theory Margaret Wilson argues that the general outlook of embodied cognition "displays an interesting co-variation of multiple observations and houses a number of different claims: (1) cognition is situated; (2) cognition is time-pressured; (3) we off-load cognitive work onto the environment; (4) the environment is part of the cognitive system; (5) cognition is for action; (6) offline cognition is bodily-based". According to Wilson, the first three and the fifth claim appear to be at least partially true, while the fourth claim is deeply problematic in that all things that have an impact on the elements of a system are not necessarily considered part of the system. The sixth claim has received the least attention in the literature on embodied cognition, yet it might be the most significant of the six claims as it shows how certain human cognitive capabilities, that previously were thought to be highly abstract, now appear to be leaning towards an embodied approach for their explanation. Wilson also describes at least five main (abstract) categories that combine both sensory and motor skills (or sensorimotor functions). The first three are working memory, episodic memory, and implicit memory; the fourth is mental imagery, and finally, the fifth concerns reasoning and problem—solving.
Fossil fuel divestment Toronto Principle Fossil_fuel_divestment > Motivations for divestment > Acting on the Paris Agreement > Toronto Principle "Franta identified this response as the Toronto Principle, which, as he argues, "aligns rhetoric and action. It suggests that it is all institutions' responsibility to give life to the Paris agreement.
Evolutionary strategy Motivation Evolutionarily_stable_strategies > Motivation Individuals have no control over their strategy and need not be aware of the game. They reproduce and are subject to the forces of natural selection, with the payoffs of the game representing reproductive success (biological fitness). It is imagined that alternative strategies of the game occasionally occur, via a process like mutation.
Perturbative expansion Effects of degeneracy Time-dependent_perturbation_theory > Time-independent perturbation theory > Effects of degeneracy These perturbed eigenstates in D are now the basis for the perturbation expansion, For the first-order perturbation, we need solve the perturbed Hamiltonian restricted to the degenerate subspace D, simultaneously for all the degenerate eigenstates, where ϵ k {\displaystyle \epsilon _{k}} are first-order corrections to the degenerate energy levels, and "small" is a vector of O ( λ ) {\displaystyle O(\lambda )} orthogonal to D. This amounts to diagonalizing the matrix This procedure is approximate, since we neglected states outside the D subspace ("small"). The splitting of degenerate energies ϵ k {\displaystyle \epsilon _{k}} is generally observed. Although the splitting may be small, O ( λ ) {\displaystyle O(\lambda )} , compared to the range of energies found in the system, it is crucial in understanding certain details, such as spectral lines in Electron Spin Resonance experiments.
Product analysis Technology analysis Product_analysis > Technology analysis They can also be used for the creation of standardized system designs that integrate a variety of technologies as their components. Other applications include risk assessment and research of defense applications. They can also be used or created for determining the hypothetical or existing optimal solution/s and to identify challenges, innovation directions and applications.
Valence orbital Summary Valence_shell In this way, a given element's reactivity is highly dependent upon its electronic configuration. For a main-group element, a valence electron can exist only in the outermost electron shell; for a transition metal, a valence electron can also be in an inner shell. An atom with a closed shell of valence electrons (corresponding to a noble gas configuration) tends to be chemically inert.
TRH test Process and interpretation TRH_test > Process and interpretation The TRH test involves administration of a small amount of TRH intravenously, following which levels of TSH will be measured at several subsequent time points using samples of blood taken from a peripheral vein.The test is used in the differential diagnosis of secondary and tertiary hypothyroidism. First, blood is drawn and a baseline TSH level is measured. Then, TRH is administered via a vein. After 30 minutes blood is drawn again and the levels of TSH are measured and compared to the baseline.
Molecular phylogeny Limitations Molecular_phylogeny > Limitations Molecular systematics is an essentially cladistic approach: it assumes that classification must correspond to phylogenetic descent, and that all valid taxa must be monophyletic. This is a limitation when attempting to determine the optimal tree(s), which often involves bisecting and reconnecting portions of the phylogenetic tree(s). The recent discovery of extensive horizontal gene transfer among organisms provides a significant complication to molecular systematics, indicating that different genes within the same organism can have different phylogenies. In addition, molecular phylogenies are sensitive to the assumptions and models that go into making them.
Phenylalanine—tRNA ligase Summary Phenylalanine—tRNA_ligase In enzymology, a phenylalanine—tRNA ligase (EC 6.1.1.20) is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction ATP + L-phenylalanine + tRNAPhe ⇌ {\displaystyle \rightleftharpoons } AMP + diphosphate + L-phenylalanyl-tRNAPheThe 3 substrates of this enzyme are ATP, L-phenylalanine, and tRNAPhe, whereas its 3 products are AMP, diphosphate, and L-phenylalanyl-tRNAPhe. This enzyme belongs to the family of ligases, to be specific those forming carbon-oxygen bonds in aminoacyl-tRNA and related compounds. The systematic name of this enzyme class is L-phenylalanine:tRNAPhe ligase (AMP-forming). Other names in common use include phenylalanyl-tRNA synthetase, phenylalanyl-transfer ribonucleate synthetase, phenylalanine-tRNA synthetase, phenylalanyl-transfer RNA synthetase, phenylalanyl-tRNA ligase, phenylalanyl-transfer RNA ligase, L-phenylalanyl-tRNA synthetase, and phenylalanine translase.
Coherent effects in semiconductor optics The semiconductor Bloch equations (SBEs) Coherent_effects_in_semiconductor_optics > The semiconductor Bloch equations (SBEs) Due to this coupling among the excitations for all values of the crystal momentum ℏ k {\displaystyle \hbar {\mathbf {k} }} , the optical excitations in semiconductor cannot be described on the level of isolated optical transitions but have to be treated as an interacting many-body quantum system. A prominent and important result of the Coulomb interaction among the photoexcitations is the appearance of strongly absorbing discrete excitonic resonances which show up in the absorption spectra of semiconductors spectrally below the fundamental band gap frequency. Since an exciton consists of a negatively charged conduction band electron and a positively charged valence band hole (i.e., an electron missing in the valence band) which attract each other via the Coulomb interaction, excitons have a hydrogenic series of discrete absorption lines.
Extensional stress Thin beams Normal_stress > Cauchy tensor > Thin beams The analysis of stress can be considerably simplified also for thin bars, beams or wires of uniform (or smoothly varying) composition and cross-section that are subjected to moderate bending and twisting. For those bodies, one may consider only cross-sections that are perpendicular to the bar's axis, and redefine a "particle" as being a piece of wire with infinitesimal length between two such cross sections. The ordinary stress is then reduced to a scalar (tension or compression of the bar), but one must take into account also a bending stress (that tries to change the bar's curvature, in some direction perpendicular to the axis) and a torsional stress (that tries to twist or un-twist it about its axis).
Glossary of Unified Modeling Language terms A Glossary_of_Unified_Modeling_Language_terms > A Asynchronous - The sender of an asynchronous message does not wait for a response. Attribute - a significant piece of data owned by a Class, often containing values describing each instance of the class. Besides the attribute name and a slot for the attribute value, an attribute may have specified Visibility, Type, Multiplicity, Default value, and Property-string.
MIL-STD-1553 Conceptual description MIL-STD-1553 > Conceptual description Figure 1 shows a sample MIL-STD-1553B system that consists of: redundant MIL-STD-1553B buses a Bus Controller a Backup Bus Controller a Bus Monitor a standalone Remote Terminal with one or more subsystems communicating with it a subsystem with an embedded Remote Terminal
Potentiometer Logarithmic potentiometer Rotary_potentiometer > Construction > Resistance–position relationship: "taper" > Logarithmic potentiometer This results in a device where output voltage is a logarithmic function of the slider position. Most (cheaper) "log" potentiometers are not accurately logarithmic, but use two regions of different resistance (but constant resistivity) to approximate a logarithmic law.
Black hole information loss paradox Small-corrections resolution to the paradox Black_hole_information_loss_paradox > Solutions > Small-corrections resolution to the paradox It is the dominant idea in, what might broadly be termed, the string-theory approach to quantum gravity. More precisely, this line of resolution suggests that Hawking's computation is corrected so that the two point correlator computed by Hawking and described above becomes and higher-point correlators are similarly corrected The equations above utilize a concise notation and the correction factors ϵ i {\displaystyle \epsilon _{i}} may depend on the temperature, the frequencies of the operators that enter the correlation function and other details of the black hole. Such corrections were initially explored by Maldacena in a simple version of the paradox.
Corepressor (genetics) Prokaryotes Corepressor_(genetics) > Function > Prokaryotes In prokaryotes, the term corepressor is used to denote the activating ligand of a repressor protein. For example, the E. coli tryptophan repressor (TrpR) is only able to bind to DNA and repress transcription of the trp operon when its corepressor tryptophan is bound to it. TrpR in the absence of tryptophan is known as an aporepressor and is inactive in repressing gene transcription.
Stability Augmentation System Modern autopilots Autopilot > Modern autopilots The autopilot in a modern large aircraft typically reads its position and the aircraft's attitude from an inertial guidance system. Inertial guidance systems accumulate errors over time. They will incorporate error reduction systems such as the carousel system that rotates once a minute so that any errors are dissipated in different directions and have an overall nulling effect.
Storage virtualization Host-based Storage_virtualization > Block virtualization > Implementation approaches > Host-based Host-based virtualization requires additional software running on the host, as a privileged task or process. In some cases volume management is built into the operating system, and in other instances it is offered as a separate product. Volumes (LUN's) presented to the host system are handled by a traditional physical device driver. However, a software layer (the volume manager) resides above the disk device driver intercepts the I/O requests, and provides the meta-data lookup and I/O mapping. Most modern operating systems have some form of logical volume management built-in (in Linux called Logical Volume Manager or LVM; in Solaris and FreeBSD, ZFS's zpool layer; in Windows called Logical Disk Manager or LDM), that performs virtualization tasks. Note: Host based volume managers were in use long before the term storage virtualization had been coined.
Simplicial map Geometric simplicial complexes Simplicial_map > Definitions > Geometric simplicial complexes This \|f\| is a simplicial map of \|K\| into \|L\|; it is a continuous function. If f is injective, then \|f\| is injective; if f is an isomorphism between K and L, then \|f\| is a homeomorphism between \|K\| and \|L\|. : 15, Prop.1.5.4
Zeroth order approximation Zeroth-order First_order_approximation > Usage in science and engineering > Zeroth-order If only three data points are available, one has no knowledge about the rest of the interval, which may be a large part of it. This means that y could have another component which equals 0 at the ends and in the middle of the interval. A number of functions having this property are known, for example y = sin πx. Taylor series is useful and helps predict an analytic solution, but the approximation alone does not provide conclusive evidence.
Helium compounds Silicates Helium_compounds > Known solid phases > Silicates The presence of guest hydrocarbons does not prevent this happening. Neon requires a higher pressure, 4.5 GPa to penetrate, and unlike helium shows hysteresis. Linde-type A zeolites are also rendered less compressible when penetrated by helium between 2 and 7 GPa.
Artificial metalloenzyme An evolvable aqueous asymmetric catalysts Artificial_metalloenzyme > Function > An evolvable aqueous asymmetric catalysts In some structure, the hydrophobic cavity would protect some labile bond (like many carbene or nitrene-metal complex in Arnold ArMs). The backbone itself in ArM is a asymmetric environment. In some cases, the enantioselective synthesis can be tuned by changing one or two amino acid residues around the metal catalytic center.So far, ArMs can catalyze a lot of chemical reactions, such as: allylic alkylation, allylic amination, aldol reaction, alcohol oxidation, C-H activation, click reaction, catechol oxidation, CO2 reduction, cyclopropanation, Diels-Alder reaction, epoxidation, epoxide ring opening, Friedel-Crafts alkylation, hydrogenation, hydroformylation, Heck reaction, metathesis, Michael addition, nitrite reduction, NO reduction, Suzuki reaction, Si-H insertion, polymerization (atom transfer radical polymerization). == References ==
Circadian oscillator Vertebrate anatomy Circadian_oscillator > Vertebrate anatomy Through intercellular signalling mechanisms such as vasoactive intestinal peptide, the SCN signals other hypothalamic nuclei and the pineal gland to modulate body temperature and production of hormones such as cortisol and melatonin; these hormones enter the circulatory system, and induce clock-driven effects throughout the organism. It is not, however, clear precisely what signal (or signals) enacts principal entrainment to the many biochemical clocks contained in tissues throughout the body. See section "regulation of circadian oscillators" below for more details.
Tomographic imaging Summary Tomography Tomography is imaging by sections or sectioning that uses any kind of penetrating wave. The method is used in radiology, archaeology, biology, atmospheric science, geophysics, oceanography, plasma physics, materials science, astrophysics, quantum information, and other areas of science. The word tomography is derived from Ancient Greek τόμος tomos, "slice, section" and γράφω graphō, "to write" or, in this context as well, "to describe." A device used in tomography is called a tomograph, while the image produced is a tomogram.
Mean value theorem for divided differences Summary Mean_value_theorem_(divided_differences) In mathematical analysis, the mean value theorem for divided differences generalizes the mean value theorem to higher derivatives.
De Broglie-Bohm theory Overview Bohmian_quantum_mechanics > Overview Here, ψ ( q , t ) {\displaystyle \psi (q,t)} is the standard complex-valued wavefunction known from quantum theory, which evolves according to Schrödinger's equation This already completes the specification of the theory for any quantum theory with Hamilton operator of type H = ∑ 1 2 m i p ^ i 2 + V ( q ^ ) {\textstyle H=\sum {\frac {1}{2m_{i}}}{\hat {p}}_{i}^{2}+V({\hat {q}})} . The configuration is distributed according to \| ψ ( q , t ) \| 2 {\displaystyle \|\psi (q,t)\|^{2}} at some moment of time t {\displaystyle t} , and this consequently holds for all times. Such a state is named quantum equilibrium. With quantum equilibrium, this theory agrees with the results of standard quantum mechanics.Even though this latter relation is frequently presented as an axiom of the theory, in Bohm's original papers of 1952 it was presented as derivable from statistical-mechanical arguments. This argument was further supported by the work of Bohm in 1953 and was substantiated by Vigier and Bohm's paper of 1954, in which they introduced stochastic fluid fluctuations that drive a process of asymptotic relaxation from quantum non-equilibrium to quantum equilibrium (ρ → \|ψ\|2).
Response spectrum Seismic response spectra Response_spectrum > Seismic response spectra Response spectra are very useful tools of earthquake engineering for analyzing the performance of structures and equipment in earthquakes, since many behave principally as simple oscillators (also known as single degree of freedom systems). Thus, if you can find out the natural frequency of the structure, then the peak response of the building can be estimated by reading the value from the ground response spectrum for the appropriate frequency. In most building codes in seismic regions, this value forms the basis for calculating the forces that a structure must be designed to resist (seismic analysis). As mentioned earlier, the ground response spectrum is the response plot done at the free surface of the earth.
Storm flood Effect of the Earth's rotation Hurricane_storm_surge > Mechanics > Effect of the Earth's rotation The Earth's rotation causes the Coriolis effect, which bends currents to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. When this bend brings the currents into more perpendicular contact with the shore, it can amplify the surge, and when it bends the current away from the shore it has the effect of lessening the surge.
Substrate presentation Inflammation Substrate_presentation > Examples > Inflammation (ADAM17), also called TACE, is sequestered into lipid rafts away from its substrate, membrane bound tumor necrosis factor (mTNF). Cholesterol causes mTNF to cluster with ADAM17 in lipid rafts and shed soluble TNF (sTNF) which is an inflammatory cytokine.
Reynolds Number Complex systems Reynolds_Number > Complex systems Reynolds number interpretation has been extended into the area of arbitrary complex systems. Such as financial flows, nonlinear networks, etc. In the latter case, an artificial viscosity is reduced to a nonlinear mechanism of energy distribution in complex network media. Reynolds number then represents a basic control parameter which expresses a balance between injected and dissipated energy flows for an open boundary system. It has been shown that Reynolds critical regime separates two types of phase space motion: accelerator (attractor) and decelerator. High Reynolds number leads to a chaotic regime transition only in frame of strange attractor model.
Gravitational well Potential energy Rubber_Sheet_Model > Potential energy The gravitational potential (V) at a location is the gravitational potential energy (U) at that location per unit mass: where m is the mass of the object. Potential energy is equal (in magnitude, but negative) to the work done by the gravitational field moving a body to its given position in space from infinity. If the body has a mass of 1 kilogram, then the potential energy to be assigned to that body is equal to the gravitational potential. So the potential can be interpreted as the negative of the work done by the gravitational field moving a unit mass in from infinity.
Mixed/dual cycle Summary Mixed/dual_cycle The dual cycle consists of following operations: Process 1-2: Isentropic compression Process 2-3: Addition of heat at constant volume. Process 3-4: Addition of heat at constant pressure. Process 4-5: Isentropic expansion. Process 5-1: Rejection of heat at constant volume.
Higgs phases Summary Coulomb_phase Because U(1) describes electromagnetism including the Coulomb field, the corresponding phase is called a Coulomb phase. If the Higgs fields that induce the spontaneous symmetry breaking transform in other representations, the Higgs mechanism often breaks the gauge group completely and no U(1) factors are left. In this case, the corresponding vacuum expectation values describe a Higgs phase.Using the representation of a gauge theory in terms of a D-brane, for example D4-brane combined with D0-branes, the Coulomb phase describes D0-branes that have left the D4-branes and carry their own independent U(1) symmetries. The Higgs phase describes D0-branes dissolved in the D4-branes as instantons. == References ==

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