Split (1)

train · 253k rows

page_content stringlengths 51 3.15k
Glutathione S-transferase Mu 1 Function Glutathione_S-transferase_Mu_1 > Function The mu class of enzymes functions in the detoxification of electrophilic compounds, including carcinogens, therapeutic drugs, environmental toxins, and products of oxidative stress, by conjugation with glutathione. The genes encoding the mu class of enzymes are organized in a gene cluster on chromosome 1p13.3, and are known to be highly polymorphic. These genetic variations can change an individual's susceptibility to carcinogens and toxins, as well as affect the toxicity and efficacy of certain drugs. Null mutations of this class mu gene have been linked with an increase in a number of cancers, likely due to an increased susceptibility to environmental toxins and carcinogens. Multiple protein isoforms are encoded by transcript variants of this gene.
Graph Fourier Transform Properties of the convolution operator Graph_Fourier_Transform > Properties > Generalized convolution operator > Properties of the convolution operator Multiplicative identity: f ∗ g 0 = f {\displaystyle fg_{0}=f} , where g 0 ( i ) = ∑ l = 0 N − 1 μ l ( i ) {\displaystyle g_{0}(i)=\sum _{l=0}^{N-1}\mu _{l}(i)} is an identity for the generalized convolution operator. The sum of the generalized convolution of two signals is a constant times the product of the sums of the two signals: ∑ i = 1 N ( f ∗ g ) ( i ) = N f ^ ( 0 ) g ^ ( 0 ) = 1 N . {\displaystyle \sum _{i=1}^{N}(fg)(i)={\sqrt {N}}{\hat {f}}(0){\hat {g}}(0)={\frac {1}{\sqrt {N}}}\left\left.}
Brittle diabetes Prevention Type_1_diabetes > Prevention Several other immunosuppressive agents – prednisone, azathioprine, anti-thymocyte globulin, mycophenolate, and antibodies against CD20 and IL2 receptor α – have been the subject of research, but none have provided lasting protection from development of type 1 diabetes. There have also been clinical trials attempting to induce immune tolerance by vaccination with insulin, GAD65, and various short peptides targeted by immune cells during type 1 diabetes; none have yet delayed or prevented development of disease.Several trials have attempted dietary interventions with the hope of reducing the autoimmunity that leads to type 1 diabetes. Trials that withheld cow's milk or gave infants formula free of bovine insulin decreased the development of β-cell-targeted antibodies, but did not prevent the development of type 1 diabetes. Similarly, trials that gave high-risk individuals injected insulin, oral insulin, or nicotinamide did not prevent diabetes development.
Predictive modelling Notable failures of predictive modeling Predictive_modelling > Applications > Notable failures of predictive modeling Although not widely discussed by the mainstream predictive modeling community, predictive modeling is a methodology that has been widely used in the financial industry in the past and some of the major failures contributed to the financial crisis of 2007–2008. These failures exemplify the danger of relying exclusively on models that are essentially backward looking in nature. The following examples are by no mean a complete list: Bond rating. S&P, Moody's and Fitch quantify the probability of default of bonds with discrete variables called rating.
Nondimensionalization Statistical analogs Characteristic_units > Statistical analogs In statistics, the analogous process is usually dividing a difference (a distance) by a scale factor (a measure of statistical dispersion), which yields a dimensionless number, which is called normalization. Most often, this is dividing errors or residuals by the standard deviation or sample standard deviation, respectively, yielding standard scores and studentized residuals.
Chemotherapy agent Cytotoxics and targeted therapies Cytotoxic_drug > Cytotoxics and targeted therapies Targeted therapies are designed to affect cellular proteins or processes that are utilised by the cancer cells. This allows a high dose to cancer tissues with a relatively low dose to other tissues. Although the side effects are often less severe than that seen of cytotoxic chemotherapeutics, life-threatening effects can occur.
Statistical correlation Summary Correlated_variables However, when used in a technical sense, correlation refers to any of several specific types of mathematical operations between the tested variables and their respective expected values. Essentially, correlation is the measure of how two or more variables are related to one another. There are several correlation coefficients, often denoted ρ {\displaystyle \rho } or r {\displaystyle r} , measuring the degree of correlation.
Azaborane Summary Azaborane Azaborane usually refers a borane cluster where BH vertices are replaced by N or NR (R = H, organic substituent). Like many of the related boranes, these clusters are polyhedra and can be classified as closo-, nido-, arachno-, etc. Within the context of Wade's rules, NR is a 4-electron vertex, and N is a 3-electron vertex. Prominent examples are the charge-neutral nido-NB10H13 (i.e. (NH)(BH)10) and closo-NB11H12 (i.e. (NH)(BH)11).Azaboranes can also refer to simpler compounds including iminoboranes (formula = RN=NR') and borazines.
Exothermic reactions Exothermic Exothermic_process > Two types of chemical reactions > Exothermic After an exothermic reaction, more energy has been released to the surroundings than was absorbed to initiate and maintain the reaction. An example would be the burning of a candle, wherein the sum of calories produced by combustion (found by looking at radiant heating of the surroundings and visible light produced, including the increase in temperature of the fuel (wax) itself, which is converted to hot CO2 and water vapor) exceeds the number of calories absorbed initially in lighting the flame and in the flame maintaining itself (some energy is reabsorbed and used in melting, then vaporizing the wax, etc. but is far outstripped by the energy released when in CO2 and H2O are produced).
Quantum state Wave function representations Pure_state > Wave function representations Wave functions represent quantum states, particularly when they are functions of position or of momentum. Historically definitions of quantum states used wavefunctions before the more formal methods were developed. : 268 The wave function is a complex-valued function of any complete set of commuting or compatible degrees of freedom. For example, one set could be the x , y , z {\displaystyle x,y,z} spatial coordinates of an electron.
Foundations of geometry Euclid's parallel postulate Foundations_of_geometry > Non-Euclidean geometry > Euclid's parallel postulate (Gerolamo Saccheri, 1733; Adrien-Marie Legendre, early 19th century) There exists a pair of similar, but not congruent, triangles. (Gerolamo Saccheri, 1733) Every triangle can be circumscribed. (Adrien-Marie Legendre, Farkas Bolyai, early 19th century) If three angles of a quadrilateral are right angles, then the fourth angle is also a right angle.
161 (number) In mathematics 161_(number) > In mathematics 161 is the sum of five consecutive prime numbers: 23, 29, 31, 37, and 41 161 is a hexagonal pyramidal number. 161 is a semiprime. Since its prime factors 7 and 23 are both Gaussian primes, 161 is a Blum integer. 161 is a palindromic number 161/72 is a commonly used rational approximation of the square root of 5 and is the closest fraction with denominator <300 to that number.
Condensed structural formula Charges Molecular_structure_diagram > Structures in Structural Formulas > Charges Oftentimes, atoms will have a positive or negative charge as their octet may not be complete. If the atom is missing a pair of electrons or has a proton, it will have a positive charge. If the atom has electrons that are not bonded to another atom, there will be a negative charge. In structural formulas, the positive charge is indicated by ⊕ , and the negative charge is indicated by ⊖ .
Moon Illusion Refraction and distance Moon_Illusion > Possible explanations > Refraction and distance Ptolemy attempted to explain the Moon illusion through atmospheric refraction in the Almagest, and later (in the Optics) as an optical illusion due to apparent distance, or the difficulty of looking upwards, although interpretations of the account in the Optics are disputed. Similarly Cleomedes (about 200 A.D. ), in his book on astronomy, ascribed the illusion both to refraction and to changes in apparent distance.
Electron vortex beam Measurement Electron_vortex_beam > Measurement Interferometric methods borrowed from light optics also work to determine the orbital angular momentum of free electrons in pure states. Interference with a planar reference wave, diffractive filtering and self-interference can serve to characterize a prepared electron orbital angular momentum state. In order to measure the orbital angular momentum of a superposition or of the mixed state that results from interaction with an atom or material, a non-interferometric method is necessary. Wavefront flattening, transformation of an orbital angular momentum state into a planar wave, or cylindrically symmetric Stern-Gerlach-like measurement is necessary to measure the orbital angular momentum mixed or superposition state.
HEPA filter Mechanism High-efficiency_particulate_air > Mechanism These particles are trapped (they stick to a fiber) through a combination of the following three mechanisms: Diffusion; particles below 0.3 μm are captured by diffusion in a HEPA filter. This mechanism is a result of the collision with gas molecules by the smallest particles, especially those below 0.1 μm in diameter. The small particles are effectively blown or bounced around and collide with the filter media fibers.
Alkaline fuel cell Half Reactions Alkaline_fuel_cell > Half Reactions The fuel cell produces power through a redox reaction between hydrogen and oxygen. At the anode, hydrogen is oxidized according to the reaction: H 2 + 2 O H − ⟶ 2 H 2 O + 2 e − {\displaystyle \mathrm {H} _{2}+\mathrm {2OH} ^{-}\longrightarrow \mathrm {2H} _{2}\mathrm {O} +\mathrm {2e} ^{-}} producing water and releasing electrons. The electrons flow through an external circuit and return to the cathode, reducing oxygen in the reaction: O 2 + 2 H 2 O + 4 e − ⟶ 4 O H − {\displaystyle \mathrm {O} _{2}+\mathrm {2H} _{2}\mathrm {O} +\mathrm {4e} ^{-}\longrightarrow \mathrm {4OH} ^{-}} producing hydroxide ions. The net reaction consumes one oxygen molecule and two hydrogen molecules in the production of two water molecules. Electricity and heat are formed as by-products of this reaction.
Rule of the shorter term Summary Rule_of_the_shorter_term The rule of the shorter term, also called the comparison of terms, is a provision in international copyright treaties. The provision allows that signatory countries can limit the duration of copyright they grant to foreign works under national treatment to no more than the copyright term granted in the country of origin of the work.
Group structure Significance of that definition Group_structure > Definition > Social cohesion approach > Significance of that definition The attention of those who use, participate in, or study groups has focused on functioning groups, on larger organizations, or on the decisions made in these organizations. Much less attention has been paid to the more ubiquitous and universal social behaviors that do not clearly demonstrate one or more of the five necessary elements described by Sherif. Some of the earliest efforts to understand these social units have been the extensive descriptions of urban street gangs in the 1920s and 1930s, continuing through the 1950s, which understood them to be largely reactions to the established authority. The primary goal of gang members was to defend gang territory, and to define and maintain the dominance structure within the gang.
Discovery and exploration of the Solar System Pre-telescope Discovery_and_exploration_of_the_Solar_System > Pre-telescope He formulated and published what are now known as Kepler's laws of planetary motion from 1609 to 1615. This became the dominant model among astronomers, though as with celestial sphere models, the physical mechanism by which this motion occurred was somewhat mysterious and theories abounded. It took some time for the new theories to diffuse across the world. For example, with the Age of Discovery already well underway, astronomical thought in America was based on the older Greek theories, but newer western European ideas began to appear in writings by 1659.
Resource-based economy Examples Resource-based_economy > Examples The economies of Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries like Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Qatar are highly dependent on exporting oil and gas. Suriname's exports of bauxite account for more than 15% of GDP and 70% of export earnings.Of Russian exports, more than 80% are oil, natural gas, metals and timber. Since Russia has a resource-based economy, it depends most of all on the fluctuations of oil and gas demand and prices.Norway's export of oil and gas forms 45% of total exports and more than 20% of the GDP.
Out-of-order execution Dispatch and issue decoupling allows out-of-order issue Out_of_order_execution > Dispatch and issue decoupling allows out-of-order issue Furthermore, larger buffers create more heat and use more die space. For this reason processor designers today favour a multi-threaded design approach. Decoupled architectures are generally thought of as not useful for general purpose computing as they do not handle control intensive code well.
Alternative approaches to redefining the kilogram Carbon-12 Alternative_approaches_to_redefining_the_kilogram > Other approaches > Atom-counting approaches > Carbon-12 The number of atoms in a mole, a quantity known as the Avogadro constant, is experimentally determined, and the current best estimate of its value is 6.02214076×1023 entities per mole. This new definition of the kilogram proposed to fix the Avogadro constant at precisely 6.02214X×1023 mol−1 with the kilogram being defined as "the mass equal to that of 1000/12 ⋅ 6.02214X×1023 atoms of 12C". The accuracy of the measured value of the Avogadro constant is currently limited by the uncertainty in the value of the Planck constant.
Glossary of engineering: A–L B Glossary_of_engineering:_A–L > B This special angle of incidence is named after the Scottish physicist Sir David Brewster (1781–1868). BrittlenessA material is brittle if, when subjected to stress, it breaks without significant plastic deformation.
Political power Principles in interpersonal relationships Political_power > Theories > Principles in interpersonal relationships The issue here is often how much relative power a person has in comparison to one's partner. Partners in close and satisfying relationships often influence each other at different times in various arenas. Power as Resource Based: Power usually represents a struggle over resources.
Drugs and sexual desire Adverse effects Drugs_and_sexual_desire > Drugs enhancing sexual desire > Specialized to premenopausal women > Bremelanotide > Adverse effects Mild or moderate adverse events are common, expressing symptoms like nausea, facial flushing, headache, and sunburn. Unlike flibanserin, bremelanotide induces fewer side effects and is not affected nor develops severe complications with alcohol. However, the drug slows down gastric emptying, which can cause an impact on oral drug uptake and the subsequent drug effectiveness. As activation of MC1R gives rise to hyperpigmentation, treatment dosage is at a maximum of eight doses per month. Besides, to minimize the chances of cardiovascular complications, the prescribed daily dosage is at one dose.
Method ringing Plain hunt Method_ringing > Fundamentals > Plain hunt In method ringing, plain hunt is the simplest form of generating changing permutations in a continuous fashion, and is a fundamental building-block of change ringing methods. It consists of a plain undeviating course of a bell between the first and last places in the striking order, with two strikes in the first and last position to enable a turn-around. Thus each bell moves one position at each succeeding change, unless they reach the first or last position, when they remain there for two changes then proceed to the other end of the sequence.This simple rule can be extended to any number of bells.
Raft (algorithm) Leader election Raft_(algorithm) > Basics > Approach of the consensus problem in Raft > Leader election If a candidate receives a message from another server with a term number larger than the candidate's current term, then the candidate's election is defeated and the candidate changes into a follower and recognizes the leader as legitimate. If a candidate receives a majority of votes, then it becomes the new leader. If neither happens, e.g., because of a split vote, then a new term starts, and a new election begins.Raft uses a randomized election timeout to ensure that split vote problems are resolved quickly. This should reduce the chance of a split vote because servers won't become candidates at the same time: a single server will time out, win the election, then become leader and send heartbeat messages to other servers before any of the followers can become candidates.
Origin of replication Features Origins_of_replication > Features Once replication is complete, specific termination events lead to the disassembly of replisomes. As long as the entire genome is duplicated before cell division, one might assume that the location of replication start sites does not matter; yet, it has been shown that many organisms use preferred genomic regions as origins. The necessity to regulate origin location likely arises from the need to coordinate DNA replication with other processes that act on the shared chromatin template to avoid DNA strand breaks and DNA damage.
Singular spectrum analysis Decomposition and reconstruction Singular_spectrum_analysis > Methodology > Decomposition and reconstruction Projecting the time series onto each EOF yields the corresponding temporal principal components (PCs) A k {\displaystyle {\textbf {A}}_{k}}: A k ( t ) = ∑ j = 1 M X ( t + j − 1 ) E k ( j ) . {\displaystyle A_{k}(t)=\sum _{j=1}^{M}X(t+j-1)E_{k}(j).} An oscillatory mode is characterized by a pair of nearly equal SSA eigenvalues and associated PCs that are in approximate phase quadrature (Ghil et al., 2002). Such a pair can represent efficiently a nonlinear, anharmonic oscillation.
Scientific education Chemistry education Science_education > Fields of science education > Chemistry education As this source states chemistry is a very important subject in school as it teaches students to understand issues in the world. As children are interested by the world around them chemistry teachers can attract interest in turn educating the students further. The subject of chemistry is a very practical based subject meaning most of class time is spent working or completing experiments.
Oligoclonal band Diagnostic value in MS Oligoclonal_bands > Oligoclonal bands in multiple sclerosis > Diagnostic value in MS It is known since long ago that OCB negative MS patients have a slower evolution. Some reports point that the underlying condition that causes the MS lesions in these patients is different. There are four pathological patterns of damage, and in the majority of patients with pattern II and III brain lesions oligoclonal bands are absent or only transiently present.
Observational methods in psychology Participant observation Observational_methods_in_psychology > Direct observational methods > Observation with intervention > Participant observation Firstly, participant research allows researchers to observe behaviors and situations that are not usually open to scientific observation. Furthermore, participant research allows the observer to have the same experiences as the people under study, which may provide important insights and understandings of individuals or groups. However, there are also several drawbacks to doing participant observation.
Short-term memory Capacity Short-term_memory > Capacity A later estimate of short-term memory capacity reported that the capacity was about four pieces, or "chunks", of information. Other notable theories argue against measuring capacity in terms of the number of elements.In the visual domain, several studies report no fixed capacity limit in terms of total number of items that can be retained. Instead, some investigators have argued for a limited resource that can be flexibly shared between items held in short-term memory, with some items (in the focus of attention) being allocated more resource and being recalled with greater fidelity. Many of these experiments have used delayed response tasks that have a continuous, analogue response space, rather than using a binary (correct/incorrect) recall method as is often used in change detection tasks. Instead of asking people to report whether a change occurred between the memory and probe array, delayed reproduction tasks require participants to reproduce the precise quality of a visual feature, e.g. an object’s orientation or colour.
Chinese room Turing test Chinese_room > Computer science > Turing test If the judge cannot reliably tell the machine from the human, the machine is said to have passed the test. Turing then considered each possible objection to the proposal "machines can think", and found that there are simple, obvious answers if the question is de-mystified in this way. He did not, however, intend for the test to measure for the presence of "consciousness" or "understanding".
Sum-free sequence Example Sum-free_sequence > Example The powers of two, 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, ...form a sum-free sequence: each term in the sequence is one more than the sum of all preceding terms, and so cannot be represented as a sum of preceding terms.
Isosceles triangle Radii Isosceles_triangle > Formulas > Radii The inradius and circumradius formulas for an isosceles triangle may be derived from their formulas for arbitrary triangles. The radius of the inscribed circle of an isosceles triangle with side length a {\displaystyle a} , base b {\displaystyle b} , and height h {\displaystyle h} is: 2 a b − b 2 4 h . {\displaystyle {\frac {2ab-b^{2}}{4h}}.} The center of the circle lies on the symmetry axis of the triangle, this distance above the base.
Buffer Strips Edge of field buffers Buffer_strip > Types > Edge of field buffers They are very effective in benefiting spraying operations because they allow for extra room between adjacent fields. They also provide room for farming equipment to turn around. Field borders are effective in reducing wind and water erosion and provide great wildlife habitat.Filter strips are areas of grass or other permanent vegetation that protect riparian areas from sediment runoff, pesticides, pathogens, organics and nutrients.
Mean-field particle methods Applications Mean-field_particle_methods > Applications Boltzmann equations represent the macroscopic evolution of colliding particles in rarefied gases, while McKean Vlasov diffusions represent the macroscopic behavior of fluid particles and granular gases. In computational physics and more specifically in quantum mechanics, the ground state energies of quantum systems is associated with the top of the spectrum of Schrödinger's operators. The Schrödinger equation is the quantum mechanics version of the Newton's second law of motion of classical mechanics (the mass times the acceleration is the sum of the forces).
Yamaha V9938 MSX-specific terminology Yamaha_V9938 > MSX-specific terminology On MSX, the screen modes are often referred to by their assigned number in MSX-Basic. This mapping is as follows:
Job queue Summary Job_queue In system software, a job queue (a.k.a. batch queue, input queue), is a data structure maintained by job scheduler software containing jobs to run.Users submit their programs that they want executed, "jobs", to the queue for batch processing. The scheduler software maintains the queue as the pool of jobs available for it to run. Multiple batch queues might be used by the scheduler to differentiate types of jobs depending on parameters such as: job priority estimated execution time resource requirementsThe use of a batch queue gives these benefits: sharing of computer resources among many users time-shifts job processing to when the computer is less busy avoids idling the compute resources without minute-by-minute human supervision allows around-the-clock high utilization of expensive computing resourcesAny process that comes to the CPU should wait in a queue.
Descriptive complexity theory Elementary functions HO_(complexity) > Elementary functions The time complexity class ELEMENTARY of elementary functions can be characterised by HO, the complexity class of structures that can be recognized by formulas of higher-order logic. Higher-order logic is an extension of first-order logic and second-order logic with higher-order quantifiers. There is a relation between the i {\displaystyle i} th order and non-deterministic algorithms the time of which is bounded by i − 1 {\displaystyle i-1} levels of exponentials.
Gravitational constant Definition Newtonian_constant_of_gravitation > Definition According to Newton's law of universal gravitation, the magnitude of the attractive force (F) between two bodies each with a spherically symmetric density distribution is directly proportional to the product of their masses, m1 and m2, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance, r, directed along the line connecting their centres of mass: The constant of proportionality, G, in this non-relativistic formulation is the gravitational constant. Colloquially, the gravitational constant is also called "Big G", distinct from "small g" (g), which is the local gravitational field of Earth (equivalent to the free-fall acceleration). Where M ⊕ {\displaystyle M_{\oplus }} is the mass of the Earth and r ⊕ {\displaystyle r_{\oplus }} is the radius of the Earth, the two quantities are related by: The gravitational constant appears in the Einstein field equations of general relativity, where Gμν is the Einstein tensor, Λ is the cosmological constant, gμν is the metric tensor, Tμν is the stress–energy tensor, and κ is the Einstein gravitational constant, a constant originally introduced by Einstein that is directly related to the Newtonian constant of gravitation:
Prostate cancer staging Risk groups Prostate_cancer_staging > Risk groups While TNM staging is important, systems based just on anatomic features are not well suited for deciding what treatment is best for a patient with prostate cancer, as there is still considerable heterogeneity of prognosis within the stage categories. A more refined prognosis can be established by consideration of prostate-specific antigen, and grade (i.e. Gleason score in the Gleason grading system). For example, it is now common to classify patients into high, intermediate and low-risk groups on the basis of these three factors (TNM stage, PSA and Gleason score). Currently, there is no clear division between stage, which is historically a statement of anatomic extent of disease at diagnosis, and prognostic models that may include many features that contribute to clinical outcome.If treated, patients with low-risk disease are usually treated with active surveillance, prostatectomy, or radiotherapy alone.
Apolipoprotein B Role in lipoproteins and atherosclerosis Apolipoprotein_B > Clinical significance > Adverse effects > Role in lipoproteins and atherosclerosis Since such competition will prolong the residence time of LDL particles in the circulation, it may lead to greater opportunity for them to undergo oxidation and/or other chemical modifications. Such modifications may lessen the particles' ability to be cleared by the classic LDL receptor and/or increase their ability to interact with so-called "scavenger" receptors. The net result is the shunting of LDL particles to these scavenger receptors.
Chest pain Summary Chest_pain Determining the cause of chest pain is based on a person's medical history, a physical exam and other medical tests. About 3% of heart attacks, however, are initially missed.Management of chest pain is based on the underlying cause. Initial treatment often includes the medications aspirin and nitroglycerin.
Macrophage activation Role in wound healing Macrophage > Function > Role in wound healing Macrophages are essential for wound healing. They replace polymorphonuclear neutrophils as the predominant cells in the wound by day two after injury. Attracted to the wound site by growth factors released by platelets and other cells, monocytes from the bloodstream enter the area through blood vessel walls. Numbers of monocytes in the wound peak one to one and a half days after the injury occurs.
Non-linear Schrödinger equation The nonlinear Schrödinger equation in water waves Non-linear_Schrödinger_equation > The nonlinear Schrödinger equation in water waves So its modulus \|ψ\| is the wave amplitude a, and its argument arg(ψ) is the phase θ. The relation between the physical coordinates (x0, t0) and the (x, t) coordinates, as used in the nonlinear Schrödinger equation given above, is given by: x = k 0 , t = k 0 2 t 0 {\displaystyle x=k_{0}\left,\quad t=k_{0}^{2}\left\;t_{0}} Thus (x, t) is a transformed coordinate system moving with the group velocity Ω'(k0) of the carrier waves, The dispersion-relation curvature Ω"(k0) – representing group velocity dispersion – is always negative for water waves under the action of gravity, for any water depth. For waves on the water surface of deep water, the coefficients of importance for the nonlinear Schrödinger equation are: κ = − 2 k 0 2 , Ω ( k 0 ) = g k 0 = ω 0 {\displaystyle \kappa =-2k_{0}^{2},\quad \Omega (k_{0})={\sqrt {gk_{0}}}=\omega _{0}\,\!} so Ω ′ ( k 0 ) = 1 2 ω 0 k 0 , Ω ″ ( k 0 ) = − 1 4 ω 0 k 0 2 , {\displaystyle \Omega '(k_{0})={\frac {1}{2}}{\frac {\omega _{0}}{k_{0}}},\quad \Omega ''(k_{0})=-{\frac {1}{4}}{\frac {\omega _{0}}{k_{0}^{2}}},\,\!}
E-Science Comparison with traditional science E-Science > Comparison with traditional science This is because within the last 20 years, people have been grappling with how to handle changes in high performance computing and simulation." As such, e-science aims at combining both empirical and theoretical traditions, while computer simulations can create artificial data, and real-time big data can be used to calibrate theoretical simulation models.
Permutation matrices Linear algebraic properties Permutation_matrix > Linear algebraic properties l t {\displaystyle l_{1},l_{2}...l_{t}} , and let R i ( 1 ≤ i ≤ t ) {\displaystyle R_{i}(1\leq i\leq t)} be the set of complex solutions of x l i = 1 {\displaystyle x^{l_{i}}=1} . The union of all R i {\displaystyle R_{i}} s is the set of eigenvalues of the corresponding permutation matrix. The geometric multiplicity of each eigenvalue equals the number of R i {\displaystyle R_{i}} s that contain it.From group theory we know that any permutation may be written as a product of transpositions. Therefore, any permutation matrix P factors as a product of row-interchanging elementary matrices, each having determinant −1. Thus, the determinant of a permutation matrix P is the signature of the corresponding permutation.
Electron spectroscopy Basic theory Electron_spectroscopy > Basic theory As the electron in the shell of a higher energy level fills the hole, a fluorescent photon is emitted (figure 1 (b)). In the Auger phenomenon, the electron in the shell of the higher energy level fills the hole that causes the adjacent or nearby electron to emit, forming the Auger electron (figure 1 (c)). As can be seen from discussed above and figure 1, Auger electrons and photoelectrons are different in their physical origin, however, both types of electrons carry similar information about the chemical elements in material surfaces.
Kolmogorov scaling Summary Kolmogorov_microscales In fluid dynamics, Kolmogorov microscales are the smallest scales in the turbulent flow of fluids. At the Kolmogorov scale, viscosity dominates and the turbulence kinetic energy is dissipated into thermal energy. They are defined by where ε is the average rate of dissipation of turbulence kinetic energy per unit mass, and ν is the kinematic viscosity of the fluid.Typical values of the Kolmogorov length scale, for atmospheric motion in which the large eddies have length scales on the order of kilometers, range from 0.1 to 10 millimeters; for smaller flows such as in laboratory systems, η may be much smaller.In 1941, Andrey Kolmogorov introduced the hypothesis that the smallest scales of turbulence are universal (similar for every turbulent flow) and that they depend only on ε and ν. The definitions of the Kolmogorov microscales can be obtained using this idea and dimensional analysis. Since the dimension of kinematic viscosity is length2/time, and the dimension of the energy dissipation rate per unit mass is length2/time3, the only combination that has the dimension of time is τ η = ν ε {\displaystyle \tau _{\eta }={\sqrt {\tfrac {\nu }{\varepsilon }}}} which is the Kolmorogov time scale.
Bitcoin wallet Software wallets Bitcoin > Wallets > Software wallets Forks of Bitcoin Core exist, such as Bitcoin XT, Bitcoin Unlimited, and Parity Bitcoin.There are several modes in which wallets can operate. They have an inverse relationship with regard to trustlessness and computational requirements. Full clients verify transactions directly by downloading a full copy of the blockchain (over 150 GB as of January 2018).
Flame front Laminar burning velocity Premixed_flames > Premixed flame propagation > Laminar > Laminar burning velocity Here λ {\displaystyle \lambda } is the thermal conductivity, c p {\displaystyle c_{p}} is the specific heat at constant pressure and L e {\displaystyle \mathrm {Le} } is the Lewis number. Similarly one can write the formula for lean ϕ < 1 {\displaystyle \phi <1} mixtures. This result is first obtained by T. Mitani in 1980. Second order correction to this formula with more complicated transport properties were derived by Forman A. Williams and co-workers in the 80s.Variations in local propagation speed of a laminar flame arise due to what is called flame stretch. Flame stretch can happen due to the straining by outer flow velocity field or the curvature of flame; the difference in the propagation speed from the corresponding laminar speed is a function of these effects and may be written as: U L = S L − S L M c δ L κ + M a δ L n ⋅ ∇ n ⋅ n {\displaystyle U_{L}=S_{L}-S_{L}{\mathcal {M}}_{c}\delta _{L}\kappa +{\mathcal {M}}_{a}\delta _{L}\mathbf {n} \cdot \nabla \mathbf {n} \cdot \mathbf {n} } where δ L {\displaystyle \delta _{L}} is the laminar flame thickness, κ {\displaystyle \kappa } is the flame curvature, n {\displaystyle \mathbf {n} } is the unit normal on the flame surface pointing towards the unburnt gas side, v {\displaystyle \mathbf {v} } is the flow velocity and M c & M a {\displaystyle {\mathcal {M}}_{c}\ \&\ {\mathcal {M}}_{a}} are the respective Markstein numbers of curvature and strain.
Quantum artificial intelligence Implementations and experiments Quantum_artificial_intelligence > Implementations and experiments The earliest experiments were conducted using the adiabatic D-Wave quantum computer, for instance, to detect cars in digital images using regularized boosting with a nonconvex objective function in a demonstration in 2009. Many experiments followed on the same architecture, and leading tech companies have shown interest in the potential of quantum machine learning for future technological implementations. In 2013, Google Research, NASA, and the Universities Space Research Association launched the Quantum Artificial Intelligence Lab which explores the use of the adiabatic D-Wave quantum computer. A more recent example trained a probabilistic generative models with arbitrary pairwise connectivity, showing that their model is capable of generating handwritten digits as well as reconstructing noisy images of bars and stripes and handwritten digits.Using a different annealing technology based on nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), a quantum Hopfield network was implemented in 2009 that mapped the input data and memorized data to Hamiltonians, allowing the use of adiabatic quantum computation.
Invariant interval Transverse Doppler effect Space-time_continuum > Basic mathematics of spacetime > Doppler effect > Transverse Doppler effect The subtleties are these:: 541–543 In scenario (a), the point of closest approach is frame-independent and represents the moment where there is no change in distance versus time (i.e. dr/dt = 0 where r is the distance between receiver and source) and hence no longitudinal Doppler shift. The source observes the receiver as being illuminated by light of frequency f′, but also observes the receiver as having a time-dilated clock. In frame S, the receiver is therefore illuminated by blueshifted light of frequency f = f ′ γ = f ′ / 1 − β 2 {\displaystyle f=f'\gamma =f'/{\sqrt {1-\beta ^{2}}}} In scenario (b) the illustration shows the receiver being illuminated by light from when the source was closest to the receiver, even though the source has moved on.
Acute respiratory failure Summary Respiratory_paralysis In clinical trials, the definition of respiratory failure usually includes increased respiratory rate, abnormal blood gases (hypoxemia, hypercapnia, or both), and evidence of increased work of breathing. Respiratory failure causes an altered mental status due to ischemia in the brain. The typical partial pressure reference values are oxygen Pa O2 more than 80 mmHg (11 kPa) and carbon dioxide Pa CO2 less than 45 mmHg (6.0 kPa).
Nuclear gene Summary Nuclear_genes A nuclear gene is a gene whose physical DNA nucleotide sequence is located in the cell nucleus of a eukaryote. The term is used to distinguish nuclear genes from genes found in mitochondria or chloroplasts. The vast majority of genes in eukaryotes are nuclear.
Split-phase electric power Balanced power Split-phase_electric_power > Balanced power In a so-called balanced power system, sometimes called "technical power", an isolation transformer with a center tap is used to create a separate supply with conductors at balanced voltages with respect to ground. The purpose of a balanced power system is to minimize the noise coupled into sensitive equipment from the power supply. Unlike a three-wire distribution system, the grounded neutral is not distributed to the loads; only line-to-line connections at 120 V are used. A balanced power system is used only for specialized distribution in audio and video production studios, sound and television broadcasting, and installations of sensitive scientific instruments.
Fibroblast growth factor receptor 1 Other types of cancers Fibroblast_growth_factor_receptor_1 > Clinical significance > Cancers > Other types of cancers Acquired abnormalities if the FGFR1 gene are found in: ~14% of urinary bladder Transitional cell carcinomas (almost all are amplifications); ~10% of squamous cell Head and neck cancers (~80% amplifications, 20% other mutations); ~7% of endometrial cancers (half amplifications, half other types of mutations); ~6% of prostate cancers (half amplifications, half other mutations); ~5% of ovarian Papillary serous cystadenocarcinoma (almost all amplifications); ~5% of colorectal cancers (~60 amplifications, 40% other mutations); ~4% of sarcomas (mostly amplifications); <3% of Glioblastomas (Fusion of FGFR1 and TACC1 (8p11) gene); <3% of Salivary gland cancer (all amplifications); and <2% in certain other cancers.
Minkowski Space Complex Minkowski spacetime Timelike_vector > History > Complex Minkowski spacetime He reformulated Maxwell equations as a symmetrical set of equations in the four variables (x, y, z, ict) combined with redefined vector variables for electromagnetic quantities, and he was able to show directly and very simply their invariance under Lorentz transformation. He also made other important contributions and used matrix notation for the first time in this context. From his reformulation he concluded that time and space should be treated equally, and so arose his concept of events taking place in a unified four-dimensional spacetime continuum.
Baltimore classification RNA editing Negative-sense_ssRNA_virus > Multi-group characteristics > RNA editing Editing of a genomic template would impair gene expression, so RNA editing is only done during and after transcription. For ebola viruses, RNA editing improves the ability to adapt to their hosts.Alternative splicing differs from RNA editing in that alternative splicing does not change the mRNA sequence like RNA editing but instead changes the coding capacity of an mRNA sequence as a result of alternative splicing sites. The two mechanisms otherwise have the same result: multiple proteins are expressed from a single gene.
Model Theory Minimality Model-theoretic_approach > Definability > Minimality A structure is called strongly minimal if the theory of that structure is strongly minimal. Equivalently, a structure is strongly minimal if every elementary extension is minimal. Since the theory of algebraically closed fields has quantifier elimination, every definable subset of an algebraically closed field is definable by a quantifier-free formula in one variable.
Metadata Data warehousing Metadata > Creation > Data warehousing The purpose of a data warehouse is to house standardized, structured, consistent, integrated, correct, "cleaned" and timely data, extracted from various operational systems in an organization. The extracted data are integrated in the data warehouse environment to provide an enterprise-wide perspective. Data are structured in a way to serve the reporting and analytic requirements.
Determinant of a matrix Eigenvalues and characteristic polynomial Determinant > Properties of the determinant in relation to other notions > Eigenvalues and characteristic polynomial The determinant is closely related to two other central concepts in linear algebra, the eigenvalues and the characteristic polynomial of a matrix. Let A {\displaystyle A} be an n × n {\displaystyle n\times n} -matrix with complex entries. Then, by the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra, A {\displaystyle A} must have exactly n eigenvalues λ 1 , λ 2 , … , λ n {\displaystyle \lambda _{1},\lambda _{2},\ldots ,\lambda _{n}} . (Here it is understood that an eigenvalue with algebraic multiplicity μ occurs μ times in this list.)
Chemically modified mRNA Significance of untranslated regions Nucleoside-modified_messenger_RNA > Significance of untranslated regions A normal mRNA starts and ends with sections that do not code for amino acids of the actual protein. These sequences at the 5′ and 3′ ends of an mRNA strand are called untranslated regions (UTRs). The two UTRs at their strand ends are essential for the stability of an mRNA and also of a modRNA as well as for the efficiency of translation, i.e. for the amount of protein produced. By selecting suitable UTRs during the synthesis of a modRNA, the production of the target protein in the target cells can be optimised.
Biology of depression Hippocampus Biology_of_depression > Neuroanatomy > Brain regions > Hippocampus Atrophy of the hippocampus has been observed during depression, consistent with animal models of stress and neurogenesis.Stress can cause depression and depression-like symptoms through monoaminergic changes in several key brain regions as well as suppression in hippocampal neurogenesis. This leads to alteration in emotion and cognition related brain regions as well as HPA axis dysfunction. Through the dysfunction, the effects of stress can be exacerbated including its effects on 5-HT. Furthermore, some of these effects are reversed by antidepressant action, which may act by increasing hippocampal neurogenesis.
Periodontal abscess Treatment Periodontal_abscess > Treatment Since periodontal abscesses frequently involve anaerobic bacteria, oral antibiotics such as amoxicillin, clindamycin (in penicillin allergy or pregnancy) and/or metronidazole are given (although metronidazole should be used in conjunction with a penicillin given its lack of aerobic gram positive coverage).. Ideally, the choice of antibiotic is dictated by the results of microbiological culture and sensitivity testing of a sample of the pus aspirated at the start of any treatment, but this rarely occurs outside the hospital setting. Other measures that are taken during management of the acute phase might include reducing the height of the tooth with a dental drill, so it no longer contacts the opposing tooth when biting down; and regular use of hot salt water mouth washes (antiseptic) that encourages further drainage of the infection. The management following the acute phase involves removing any residual infection, and correcting the factors that lead to the formation of the periodontal abscess. Usually, this will be therapy for periodontal disease, such as oral hygiene instruction and periodontal scaling.
R4000 Models R4000 > Models There are three configurations of the R4000: the R4000PC, an entry-level model with no support for a secondary cache; the R4000SC, a model with secondary cache but no multiprocessor capability; and the R4000MC, a model with secondary cache and support for the cache coherency protocols required by multiprocessor systems.
Biomolecular computing Biomechanical computers Biomolecular_computing > Scientific background > Biomechanical computers Biomechanical computers are similar to biochemical computers in that they both perform a specific operation that can be interpreted as a functional computation based upon specific initial conditions which serve as input. They differ, however, in what exactly serves as the output signal. In biochemical computers, the presence or concentration of certain chemicals serves as the input signal. In biomechanical computers, however, the mechanical shape of a specific molecule or set of molecules under a set of initial conditions serves as the output. Biomechanical computers rely on the nature of specific molecules to adopt certain physical configurations under certain chemical conditions. The mechanical, three-dimensional structure of the product of the biomechanical computer is detected and interpreted appropriately as a calculated output.
Lithium gluconate Kidney damage Lithium_(medication) > Adverse effects > Kidney damage Lithium has been associated with several forms of kidney injury. It is estimated that impaired urinary concentrating ability is present in at least half of individuals on chronic lithium therapy, a condition called lithium-induced nephrogenic diabetes insipidus. Continued use of lithium can lead to more serious kidney damage in an aggravated form of diabetes insipidus. Chronic kidney disease caused by lithium has not been proven with various contradicting results presented by a 2018 review. In rare cases, some forms of lithium-caused kidney damage may be progressive and lead to end-stage kidney failure with a reported incidence of 0.2% to 0.7%.
Theoretical motivation for general relativity The geodesic equation in a local coordinate system Theoretical_motivation_for_general_relativity > Geodesic equation for circular orbits > The geodesic equation in a local coordinate system The front of the craft is in the x ´ {\displaystyle {\acute {\mathbf {x} }}} direction, and the y ´ {\displaystyle {\acute {\mathbf {y} }}} direction is to the left of the craft. The spacecraft is small compared with the size of the orbit so that the local frame is a local Lorentz frame. The 4-separation of the two particles is given by x ´ μ {\displaystyle {\acute {x}}^{\mu }} . In the local frame of the spacecraft the geodesic equation is given by d 2 x ´ μ d τ 2 + R μ ´ α ν β u ´ α x ´ ν u ´ β = 0 {\displaystyle {{d^{2}{\acute {x}}^{\mu }} \over {d\tau ^{2}}}+{\acute {{R}^{\mu }}}_{\alpha \nu \beta }{\acute {u}}^{\alpha }{\acute {x}}^{\nu }{\acute {u}}^{\beta }=0} where u ´ μ = d x ´ μ d τ {\displaystyle {\acute {u}}^{\mu }={{d{\acute {x}}^{\mu }} \over {d\tau }}} and R μ ´ α ν β {\displaystyle {\acute {{R}^{\mu }}}_{\alpha \nu \beta }} is the curvature tensor in the local frame.
Metal carbonyl complex Photolysis and thermolysis Infrared_spectroscopy_of_metal_carbonyls > Synthesis > Photolysis and thermolysis Photolysis or thermolysis of mononuclear carbonyls generates di- and polymetallic carbonyls such as diiron nonacarbonyl (Fe2(CO)9). On further heating, the products decompose eventually into the metal and carbon monoxide. 2 Fe(CO)5 → Fe2(CO)9 + COThe thermal decomposition of triosmium dodecacarbonyl (Os3(CO)12) provides higher-nuclear osmium carbonyl clusters such as Os4(CO)13, Os6(CO)18 up to Os8(CO)23.Mixed ligand carbonyls of ruthenium, osmium, rhodium, and iridium are often generated by abstraction of CO from solvents such as dimethylformamide (DMF) and 2-methoxyethanol. Typical is the synthesis of IrCl(CO)(PPh3)2 from the reaction of iridium(III) chloride and triphenylphosphine in boiling DMF solution.
Principles of grouping Summary Principles_of_grouping The principles of grouping (or Gestalt laws of grouping) are a set of principles in psychology, first proposed by Gestalt psychologists to account for the observation that humans naturally perceive objects as organized patterns and objects, a principle known as Prägnanz. Gestalt psychologists argued that these principles exist because the mind has an innate disposition to perceive patterns in the stimulus based on certain rules. These principles are organized into five categories: Proximity, Similarity, Continuity, Closure, and Connectedness.Irvin Rock and Steve Palmer, who are acknowledged as having built upon the work of Max Wertheimer and others and to have identified additional grouping principles, note that Wertheimer's laws have come to be called the "Gestalt laws of grouping" but state that "perhaps a more appropriate description" is "principles of grouping." Rock and Palmer helped to further Wertheimer's research to explain human perception of groups of objects and how whole objects are formed from parts which are perceived.
Nutritional neuroscience Protein Nutritional_neuroscience > Protein When protein is consumed, it is broken down into amino acids. These amino acids are used to produce many things like neurotransmitters, enzymes, hormones, and chromosomes. Proteins known as complete proteins contain all eight of the essential amino acids. Meat, cheese, eggs, and yogurt are all examples of complete proteins.
Bucket sorting Comparison with other sorting algorithms Postman_sort > Comparison with other sorting algorithms The n-way mergesort algorithm also begins by distributing the list into n sublists and sorting each one; however, the sublists created by mergesort have overlapping value ranges and so cannot be recombined by simple concatenation as in bucket sort. Instead, they must be interleaved by a merge algorithm. However, this added expense is counterbalanced by the simpler scatter phase and the ability to ensure that each sublist is the same size, providing a good worst-case time bound.
Paraptosis Mitochondria proteins Paraptosis > Proteome profile > Mitochondria proteins ATP synthase is composed of multiple subunits and found in the mitochondria. When undergoing paraptosis, higher amounts of ATP synthase ß-subunit were demonstrated in P20.Mitochondrial staining reveals that rounded paraptotic cells with elevated levels of prohibitin appear to be undergoing reorganization of the mitochondrial network.Paraptotic cells demonstrated a 3.4 fold increased in prohibitin. Increased levels of prohibitin in conjugation with a paraptotic stimulus can result in cell death that is unable to be inhibited by caspase inhibitors.
Human population planning Types Human_population_planning > Types Three types of population planning policies pursued by governments can be identified: Increasing or decreasing the overall population growth rate. Increasing or decreasing the relative population growth of a subgroup of people, such as those of high or low intelligence or those with special abilities or disabilities. Policies that aim to boost relative growth rates are known as positive eugenics; those that aim to reduce relative growth rates are known as negative eugenics. Attempts to ensure that all population groups of a certain type (e.g. all social classes within a society) have the same average rate of population growth.
Power stealing Ocean energy Energy_Harvesting > Energy sources > Ocean energy As of 2018, efforts are underway to harvest energy this way. United States Navy recently was able to generate electricity using difference in temperatures present in the ocean.One method to use the temperature difference across different levels of the thermocline in the ocean is by using a thermal energy harvester that is equipped with a material that changes phase while in different temperatures regions. This is typically a polymer-based material that can handle reversible heat treatments.
Dynamometer Electric motor/generator dynamometer Dynamometer > Types of dynamometers > Electric motor/generator dynamometer Electric motor/generator dynamometers are a specialized type of adjustable-speed drive. The absorption/driver unit can be either an alternating current (AC) motor or a direct current (DC) motor. Either an AC motor or a DC motor can operate as a generator that is driven by the unit under test or a motor that drives the unit under test. When equipped with appropriate control units, electric motor/generator dynamometers can be configured as universal dynamometers.
Vitamin D receptor Summary Calcitriol_receptor The vitamin D receptor (VDR also known as the calcitriol receptor) is a member of the nuclear receptor family of transcription factors. Calcitriol (the active form of vitamin D, 1,25-(OH)2vitamin D3) binds to VDR, which then forms a heterodimer with the retinoid-X receptor. The VDR heterodimer then enters the nucleus and binds to Vitamin D responsive elements (VDRE) in genomic DNA. VDR binding results in expression or transrepression of many specific gene products.
Terahertz spectroscopy and technology Background Terahertz_spectroscopy_and_technology > Background Besides the strength and duration of ETHz(t), the THz field's photon energy plays a vital role in semiconductor investigations because it can be made resonant with several intriguing many-body transitions. For example, electrons in conduction band and holes, i.e., electronic vacancies, in valence band attract each other via the Coulomb interaction. Under suitable conditions, electrons and holes can be bound to excitons that are hydrogen-like states of matter.
Blood poisoning Research Blood_poisoning > Research Some authors suggest that initiating sepsis by the normally mutualistic (or neutral) members of the microbiome may not always be an accidental side effect of the deteriorating host immune system. Rather it is often an adaptive microbial response to a sudden decline of host survival chances. Under this scenario, the microbe species provoking sepsis benefit from monopolizing the future cadaver, utilizing its biomass as decomposers, and then transmitted through soil or water to establish mutualistic relations with new individuals.
Intermittent Explosive Disorder History Intermittent_Explosive_Disorder > History In the first edition of the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM-I), a disorder of impulsive aggression was referred to as a passive-aggressive personality type (aggressive type). This construct was characterized by a "persistent reaction to frustration are "generally excitable, aggressive, and over-responsive to environmental pressures" with "gross outbursts of rage or of verbal or physical aggressiveness different from their usual behavior".In the third edition (DSM-III), this was for the first time codified as intermittent explosive disorder and assigned clinical disorder status under Axis I. However, some researchers saw the criteria as poorly operationalized. About 80% of individuals who would now be diagnosed with the disorder would have been excluded.In the DSM-IV, the criteria were improved but still lacked objective criteria for the intensity, frequency, and nature of aggressive acts to meet criteria for IED. This led some researchers to adopt alternate criteria set with which to conduct research, known as the IED-IR (Integrated Research).
Virtual dressing room Size recommendation services Virtual_dressing_room > Size recommendation services Some recommendation systems use existing garments to recommend a size, while others use measurements taken by the customer. Recommendation systems have been developed for products beyond garments, such as ring sizers. Examples of these recommendation systems include Find My Ring Size. Others still take a combination of both measurements and existing garments (aka biometric sizing) and yet others add in style preference-related questions. Those that take existing measurements either do this from their own brand goods, or use databases of design measurements of supplier garments.
Glossary of engineering: M–Z T Glossary_of_engineering:_M–Z > T The most common scales are the Celsius scale (formerly called centigrade, denoted °C), the Fahrenheit scale (denoted °F), and the Kelvin scale (denoted K), the last of which is predominantly used for scientific purposes by conventions of the International System of Units (SI). Tempering (metallurgy)Heat treatment to alter the crystal structure of a metal such as steel. Tensile forcePulling force, tending to lengthen an object.
Subgranular zone Neural stem cells and neurons Subgranular_zone > Structure > Neural stem cells and neurons Neuroblasts represent the last stage of precursor cell development before cells exit the cell cycle and assume their identity as neurons. Proliferation of these cells is more limited, although cerebral ischemia can induce proliferation at this stage. Postmitotic neurons.
H-theorem Gibbs' H-theorem Boltzmann's_H-theorem > Gibbs' H-theorem Josiah Willard Gibbs described another way in which the entropy of a microscopic system would tend to increase over time. Later writers have called this "Gibbs' H-theorem" as its conclusion resembles that of Boltzmann's. Gibbs himself never called it an H-theorem, and in fact his definition of entropy—and mechanism of increase—are very different from Boltzmann's. This section is included for historical completeness.
Cumulative mass function Summary Cumulative_distribution_functions In probability theory and statistics, the cumulative distribution function (CDF) of a real-valued random variable X {\displaystyle X} , or just distribution function of X {\displaystyle X} , evaluated at x {\displaystyle x} , is the probability that X {\displaystyle X} will take a value less than or equal to x {\displaystyle x} .Every probability distribution supported on the real numbers, discrete or "mixed" as well as continuous, is uniquely identified by a right-continuous monotone increasing function (a càdlàg function) F: R → {\displaystyle F\colon \mathbb {R} \rightarrow } satisfying lim x → − ∞ F ( x ) = 0 {\displaystyle \lim _{x\rightarrow -\infty }F(x)=0} and lim x → ∞ F ( x ) = 1 {\displaystyle \lim _{x\rightarrow \infty }F(x)=1} . In the case of a scalar continuous distribution, it gives the area under the probability density function from minus infinity to x {\displaystyle x} . Cumulative distribution functions are also used to specify the distribution of multivariate random variables.
Weil–Felix test Tube method Weil–Felix_test > Procedure > Tube method The titer corresponds to the most dilute tube in the series that still shows positivity. Generally, a titer of ≥1:320 is considered diagnostic. == References ==
Semiconductor-semiconductor junction Manufacture and applications Heterojunction > Manufacture and applications This device is called a heterojunction bipolar transistor (HBT). Field effect transistors: Heterojunctions are used in high electron mobility transistors (HEMT) which can operate at significantly higher frequencies (over 500 GHz). The proper doping profile and band alignment gives rise to extremely high electron mobilities by creating a two dimensional electron gas within a dopant free region where very little scattering can occur.
Computer architecture simulator Categories Full_system_simulation > Categories They can be simulated faster if timing is not considered. Timing simulators are functional simulators that also reproduce timing. Timing simulators can be further categorized into digital cycle-accurate and analog sub-cycle simulators. Workload: Trace-driven simulators (also called event-driven simulators) react to pre-recorded streams of instructions with some fixed input. Execution-driven simulators allow dynamic change of instructions to be executed depending on different input data.
PET plastic Copolymers PET_plastic > Copolymers PET is copolymerized with other diols or diacids to optimize the properties for particular applications. For example, cyclohexanedimethanol (CHDM) can be added to the polymer backbone in place of ethylene glycol. Since this building block is much larger (six additional carbon atoms) than the ethylene glycol unit it replaces, it does not fit in with the neighboring chains the way an ethylene glycol unit would. This interferes with crystallization and lowers the polymer's melting temperature.
Agroinfiltration Summary Agroinfiltration The Agrobacterium suspension is then injected into the airspaces inside the leaf through stomata, or sometimes through a tiny incision made to the underside of the leaf. Vacuum infiltration is another way to introduce Agrobacterium deep into plant tissue. In this procedure, leaf disks, leaves, or whole plants are submerged in a beaker containing the solution, and the beaker is placed in a vacuum chamber.
Experimental home Summary Experimental_home An experimental home is a home with new design or function in order to improve living conditions.
Brachistochrone curve Introduction Brachistochrone_curve > Newton's solution > Introduction The letter in French has ‘ex ungue Leonem’ preceded by the French word ‘comme’. The much quoted version ‘tanquam ex ungue Leonem’ is due to David Brewster’s book on the life and works of Newton in 1855. Bernoulli's intention was simply that he could tell the anonymous solution was Newton’s, just as it was possible to tell that an animal was a lion given its claw.
Least squares support vector machine Bayesian interpretation for LS-SVM Least_squares_support_vector_machine > Bayesian interpretation for LS-SVM The third level of inference in the evidence framework ranks different models by examining their posterior probabilities p ( M \| D ) ∝ p ( D \| M ) p ( M ) . {\displaystyle p(\mathbb {M} \|D)\propto p(D\|\mathbb {M} )p(\mathbb {M} ).} We can see that Bayesian evidence framework is a unified theory for learning the model and model selection.
Sexagenary cycle History Sexagesimal_cycle > History For example, the first year of the reign of Qin Shi Huang (秦始皇), 246 BC, is noted on the diagram next to the position of the 60-cycle term yǐ-mǎo (乙卯, 52 of 60), corresponding to that year. Use of the cycle to record years became widespread for administrative time-keeping during the Western Han dynasty (202 BC – 8 AD). The count of years has continued uninterrupted ever since: the year 1984 began the present cycle (a 甲子—jiǎ-zǐ year), and 2044 will begin another.
Seismic station Summary Seismometer A seismometer is an instrument that responds to ground noises and shaking such as caused by quakes, volcanic eruptions, and explosions. They are usually combined with a timing device and a recording device to form a seismograph. The output of such a device—formerly recorded on paper (see picture) or film, now recorded and processed digitally—is a seismogram. Such data is used to locate and characterize earthquakes, and to study the Earth's internal structure.
Social anxiety disorder Summary Social_phobia According to ICD-10 guidelines, the main diagnostic criteria of social phobia are fear of being the focus of attention, or fear of behaving in a way that will be embarrassing or humiliating, avoidance and anxiety symptoms. Standardized rating scales can be used to screen for social anxiety disorder and measure the severity of anxiety. The first line of treatment for social anxiety disorder is cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT).

Subsets and Splits

No community queries yet

The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.