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Higher arithmetic Algebraic number theory Number_theorists > Main subdivisions > Algebraic number theory (For example, the complex numbers C are an extension of the reals R, and the reals R are an extension of the rationals Q.) Classifying the possible extensions of a given number field is a difficult and partially open problem. Abelian extensions—that is, extensions L of K such that the Galois group Gal(L/K) of L over K is an abelian group—are relatively well understood.
360-degree feedback Summary 360-degree_feedback It therefore may be contrasted with "downward feedback" (traditional feedback on work behavior and performance delivered to subordinates by supervisory or management employees only; see traditional performance appraisal), or "upward feedback" delivered to supervisory or management employees by subordinates only. Organizations have most commonly utilized 360-degree feedback for developmental purposes, providing it to employees to assist them in developing work skills and behaviors. However, organizations are increasingly using 360-degree feedback in performance evaluations and employment administrative decisions (e.g., pay; promotions).
Journal of Automata, Languages and Combinatorics Summary Journal_of_Automata,_Languages_and_Combinatorics The Journal of Automata, Languages and Combinatorics (JALC) is a peer-reviewed scientific journal of computer science. It was established in 1965 as the Journal of Information Processing and Cybernetics (German: Elektronische Informationsverarbeitung und Kybernetik) and obtained its current title in 1996 with volume numbering reset to 1. The main focus of the journal is on automata theory, formal language theory, and combinatorics.
Kolmogorov–Smirnov test Summary Kolmogorov–Smirnov_statistic In the two-sample case (see Section 3), the distribution considered under the null hypothesis is a continuous distribution but is otherwise unrestricted. However, the two sample test can also be performed under more general conditions that allow for discontinuity, heterogeneity and dependence across samples.The two-sample K–S test is one of the most useful and general nonparametric methods for comparing two samples, as it is sensitive to differences in both location and shape of the empirical cumulative distribution functions of the two samples. The Kolmogorov–Smirnov test can be modified to serve as a goodness of fit test.
Rock cycle An evolving process Rock_cycle > Forces that drive the rock cycle > Plate tectonics > An evolving process As magma forms, the initial melt is composed of the more silicic phases that have a lower melting point. This leads to partial melting and further segregation of the lithosphere. In addition the silicic continental crust is relatively buoyant and is not normally subducted back into the mantle. So over time the continental masses grow larger and larger.
Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering P Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering > P Peltier–Seebeck effectThe thermoelectric effect, movement of heat due to electric current flow. pentagrid converterA type of self-oscillating vacuum tube used a frequency mixer in superheterodyne receivers. pentodeAny five-electrode electron device, but usually a kind of vacuum tube.
Tetrode transistor Early tetrode transistors Tetrode_transistor > Early tetrode transistors There were two types of tetrode transistor developed in the early 1950s as an improvement over the point-contact transistor and the later grown-junction transistor and alloy-junction transistor. Both offered much higher speed than earlier transistors. Point-contact transistor having two emitters.
List of equations in quantum mechanics Wavefunctions List_of_equations_in_quantum_mechanics > Wavefunctions A fundamental physical constant occurring in quantum mechanics is the Planck constant, h. A common abbreviation is ħ = h/2π, also known as the reduced Planck constant or Dirac constant. The general form of wavefunction for a system of particles, each with position ri and z-component of spin sz i. Sums are over the discrete variable sz, integrals over continuous positions r. For clarity and brevity, the coordinates are collected into tuples, the indices label the particles (which cannot be done physically, but is mathematically necessary). Following are general mathematical results, used in calculations.
Gene families Concerted evolution Multigene_family > Formation > Concerted evolution Gene families have an optimal size range that natural selection acts towards. Contraction deletes divergent gene copies and keeps gene families from becoming too large. Expansion replaces lost gene copies and prevents gene families from becoming too small.
Generative artificial intelligence Molecules Generative_artificial_intelligence > Modalities > Molecules Generative AI systems can be trained on sequences of amino acids or molecular representations such as SMILES representing DNA or proteins. These systems, such as AlphaFold, are used for protein structure prediction and drug discovery. Datasets include various biological datasets.
Use error Summary Use_error The term use error has recently been introduced to replace the commonly used terms human error and user error. The new term, which has already been adopted by international standards organizations for medical devices (see #Use errors in health care below for references), suggests that accidents should be attributed to the circumstances, rather than to the human beings who happened to be there.
Data as a Service Overview Data_as_a_Service > Overview In addition to routine maintenance costs, a cascading amount of software updates are required as the format of the data changes. The existence of this situation contributes to the attractiveness of DaaS to data consumers, because it allows for the separation of data cost and of data usage from the cost of a specific software environment or platform. Sensing as a Service (S2aaS) is a business model that integrates Internet of Things data to create data trading marketplaces. Vendors, such as MuleSoft, Oracle Cloud and Microsoft Azure, undertake development of DaaS that more rapidly computes large volumes of data; integrates and analyzes that data; and publish it in real-time, using Web service APIs that adhere to its REST architectural constraints (RESTful API).
The Limits to Growth Related books The_Limits_to_Growth > Related books Books about humanity's uncertain future have appeared regularly over the years. A few of them, including the books mentioned above for reference, include: An Essay on the Principle of Population by Thomas Malthus (1798); Road to Survival by William Vogt (1948); The Challenge of Man's Future by Harrison Brown (1956); Mirage of Health by Rene Dubos (1959); The Hungry Planet by Georg Bostrom (1965); The Population Bomb by Paul R. Ehrlich (1968); The Limits to Growth (1972); Overshoot by William R. Catton (1980); State of the World reports issued by the Worldwatch Institute (produced annually since 1984); Our Common Future, published by the UN's World Commission on Environment and Development (1987); Earth in the Balance, written by then-US senator Al Gore (1992); Earth Odyssey by journalist Mark Hertsgaard (1999); The Limits to Growth: The 30-Year Update (2004); The Long Emergency by James Howard Kunstler (2005); Storms of My Grandchildren by James Hansen, ISBN 9781608192007 (2009); The Limits to Growth Revisited by Ugo Bardi, Springer Briefs in Energy, ISBN 9781441994158 (2011); 2052: A Global Forecast for the Next Forty Years by Jørgen Randers (2012); 10 Billion by Stephen Emmott (2013); The Bet by Paul Sabin, Yale University Press (2014); The Sixth Extinction by Elizabeth Kolbert (2014); The Uninhabitable Earth by David Wallace-Wells (2017); Limits and Beyond edited by Ugo Bardi and Carlos Alvarez Pereira, Exapt Press, ISBN 9781914549038 (2022). Earth for All – A Survival Guide for Humanity (2022).
Bayesian inference in marketing Example Bayesian_inference_in_marketing > Example If so, how much needs to be collected and by what means and finally, how does the decision maker revise his prior judgment in light of the results of the new experimental evidence? In this example the advertising manager can use the Bayesian approach to deal with his dilemma and update his prior judgments in light of new information he gains. He needs to take into account the profit (utility) attached to the alternative acts under different events and the value versus cost of information in order to make his optimal decision on how to proceed.
Low carbon society Iceland Low_carbon_society > Actions taken by countries > Iceland Iceland began utilising renewable energy early in the 20th century and so since has been a low-carbon economy. However, since dramatic economic growth, Iceland's emissions have increased significantly per capita. As of 2009, Iceland energy is sourced from mostly geothermal energy and hydropower, renewable energy in Iceland and, since 1999, has provided over 70% of the nation's primary energy and 99.9% of Iceland's electricity. As a result of this, Iceland's carbon emissions per capita are 62% lower than those of the United States despite using more primary energy per capita, due to the fact that it is renewable and low-cost. Iceland seeks carbon neutrality and expects to use 100% renewable energy by 2050 by generating hydrogen fuel from renewable energy sources.
Inertial frame of reference Simple example Inertial_reference_frames > Examples > Simple example Consider a situation common in everyday life. Two cars travel along a road, both moving at constant velocities. See Figure 1. At some particular moment, they are separated by 200 metres.
Foundations of statistics Grounds of disagreement Foundations_of_statistics > Fisher's "significance testing" vs. Neyman–Pearson "hypothesis testing" > Grounds of disagreement The duration of the dispute allowed for a comprehensive discussion of various fundamental issues in the field of statistics. During this exchange, Fisher also discussed the requirements for inductive inference, specifically criticizing cost functions that penalize erroneous judgments. Neyman countered by mentioning the use of such functions by Gauss and Laplace.
Asymmetric cell division In Drosophila neural development Asymmetric_cell_division > In Drosophila neural development Generation of apical and basal myosin flows simultaneously results in symmetric cell division, and delaying of basal myosin flows prevents normal expansion of the basal region of the dividing cell. Although this mechanism is spindle-independent, the spindle is important for setting up the cleavage furrow position, for bringing myosin to the cleavage furrow, and for driving basal myosin clearing.Actomyosin-based cortical flows direct a reorganization of the plasma membrane and cell cortex of the neuroblast, which is needed to generate the size difference between daughter cells. Early in mitosis, cortical flows collect membrane folds and protrusions around the apical pole forming a polarized membrane reservoir. As myosin clears from the apical cortex and cleavage furrow ingression causes hydrostatic pressure to increase, the stores of membrane within the reservoir are used to expand the apical region which becomes the larger daughter cell after division.
Critical flow Wind engineering Froude_Number > Other applications > Wind engineering When considering wind effects on dynamically sensitive structures such as suspension bridges it is sometimes necessary to simulate the combined effect of the vibrating mass of the structure with the fluctuating force of the wind. In such cases, the Froude number should be respected. Similarly, when simulating hot smoke plumes combined with natural wind, Froude number scaling is necessary to maintain the correct balance between buoyancy forces and the momentum of the wind.
Chemoproteomics Context Chemoproteomics > Background > Context The conclusion of the Human Genome Project was followed with hope for a new paradigm in treating disease. Many fatal and intractable diseases were able to be mapped to specific genes, providing a starting point to better understand the roles of their protein products in illness. Drug discovery has made use of animal knock-out models that highlight the impact of a protein's absence, particularly in the development of disease, and medicinal chemists have leveraged computational chemistry to generate high affinity compounds against disease-causing proteins. Yet FDA drug approval rates have been on the decline over the last decade.
Register pressure Overview SIMD_instruction > Overview An instruction set architecture is distinguished from a microarchitecture, which is the set of processor design techniques used, in a particular processor, to implement the instruction set. Processors with different microarchitectures can share a common instruction set. For example, the Intel Pentium and the AMD Athlon implement nearly identical versions of the x86 instruction set, but they have radically different internal designs.
Out-of-bag error Comparison to cross-validation Out-of-bag_error > Comparison to cross-validation Out-of-bag error and cross-validation (CV) are different methods of measuring the error estimate of a machine learning model. Over many iterations, the two methods should produce a very similar error estimate. That is, once the OOB error stabilizes, it will converge to the cross-validation (specifically leave-one-out cross-validation) error. The advantage of the OOB method is that it requires less computation and allows one to test the model as it is being trained.
Quantemol-DB Validation of Individual Chemistry Reactions Quantemol-DB > Quantemol-DB > Validation of Individual Chemistry Reactions Rate coefficients of each reaction are included in the validated chemistry set for a similar range of temperature and pressure. The main validation method for individual reactions is compared with alternative theoretical calculations/estimations and experimental measurements. For unknown reactions different calculation methods are used: Quantemol-N (R-matrix method) calculations for electron molecule scattering reactions Scaling law, mathematical methods of estimation and expert opinion to estimate necessary data Quantum and Transition State Theory for unknown heavy particle reactions
Process Control Types Process_Control > Types Batch processes are generally used to produce a relatively low to intermediate quantity of product per year (a few pounds to millions of pounds). A continuous physical system is represented through variables that are smooth and uninterrupted in time. The control of the water temperature in a heating jacket, for example, is an example of continuous process control.
Abel's functional equation Summary Functional_equation {\displaystyle \log(xy)=\log(x)+\log(y).} If the domain of the unknown function is supposed to be the natural numbers, the function is generally viewed as a sequence, and, in this case, a functional equation (in the narrower meaning) is called a recurrence relation.
Chloroform Bioremediation of chloroform HCCl3 > Bioremediation of chloroform Some anaerobic bacteria use chloroform for their respiration, termed organohalide respiration, converting it to dichloromethane.
Short interspersed nuclear element Effects on gene expression Short_interspersed_nuclear_element > Effects on gene expression In essence, it is the cumulative effect of many types of interactions that leads to the difference between euchromatin, which is not tightly packed and generally more accessible to transcriptional machinery, and heterochromatin, which is tightly packed and generally not accessible to transcriptional machinery; SINEs seem to play an evolutionary role in this process. In addition to directly affecting chromatin structure, there are a number of ways in which SINEs can potentially regulate gene expression. For example, long non-coding RNA can directly interact with transcriptional repressors and activators, attenuating or modifying their function.
Cancer stem cell De-differentiation Cancer_stem_cell > Origin > Hypotheses > De-differentiation De-differentiation of mutated cells may create stem cell-like characteristics, suggesting that any cell might become a cancer stem cell. In other words, fully differentiated cell undergoes mutations or extracellular signals that drive it back to a stem-like state. This concept has been demonstrated most recently in prostate cancer models, whereby cells undergoing androgen deprivation therapy appear to transiently alter their transcriptome to that of a neural crest stem-like cell, with the invasive and multipotent properties of this class of stem-like cells.
Borland Pascal History Borland_Pascal > History Philippe Kahn first saw an opportunity for Borland, his newly formed software company, in the field of programming tools. Historically, the vast majority of programmers saw their workflow in terms of the edit/compile/link cycle, with separate tools dedicated to each task. Programmers wrote source code using a text editor; the source code was then compiled into object code (often requiring multiple passes), and a linker combined object code with runtime libraries to produce an executable program.
Error Science and engineering Error > Science and engineering In statistics, an error (or residual) is not a "mistake" but rather a difference between a computed, estimated, or measured value and the accepted true, specified, or theoretically correct value. In science and engineering in general, an error is defined as a difference between the desired and actual performance or behavior of a system or object. This definition is the basis of operation for many types of control systems, in which error is defined as the difference between a set point and the process value. An example of this would be the thermostat in a home heating system – the operation of the heating equipment is controlled by the difference (the error) between the thermostat setting and the sensed air temperature.
Perl virtual machine Mark stack Perl_virtual_machine > Implementation > Stacks > Mark stack This stack saves bookmarks to locations in the argument stack usable by each function so the functions doesn't necessarily get the whole argument stack to itself.
Planar symmetry In psychology and neuroscience Symmetry > In science and nature > In psychology and neuroscience Studies of human perception and psychophysics have shown that detection of symmetry is fast, efficient and robust to perturbations. For example, symmetry can be detected with presentations between 100 and 150 milliseconds.More recent neuroimaging studies have documented which brain regions are active during perception of symmetry. Sasaki et al. used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to compare responses for patterns with symmetrical or random dots.
Local energy-based shape histogram Summary Local_energy-based_shape_histogram Local energy-based shape histogram (LESH) is a proposed image descriptor in computer vision. It can be used to get a description of the underlying shape. The LESH feature descriptor is built on local energy model of feature perception, see e.g. phase congruency for more details.
Control (video game) Gameplay Control_(video_game) > Gameplay The player controls Jesse Faden, who has come to the Oldest House seeking answers about her brother after a prior AWE, and becomes involved in the fight against the Hiss.Control is built in the Metroidvania format, with a large world map that can be explored at a nonlinear pace, unlike Remedy's previous titles which were primarily linear. As the player completes the main story missions, they will encounter areas known as Control Points, which can be unlocked after clearing the area of enemies and then used both as save points and for fast travel throughout the building to previously unlocked Control Points. As the player completes missions, they unlock more of the building to explore, along with additional side quests, in addition to various rewards.
Adult respiratory distress syndrome Positive end-expiratory pressure Acute_lung_injury > Treatment > Mechanical ventilation > Positive end-expiratory pressure Positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) is used in mechanically ventilated people with ARDS to improve oxygenation. In ARDS, three populations of alveoli can be distinguished. There are normal alveoli that are always inflated and engaging in gas exchange, flooded alveoli which can never, under any ventilatory regime, be used for gas exchange, and atelectatic or partially flooded alveoli that can be "recruited" to participate in gas exchange under certain ventilatory regimens. The recruitable alveoli represent a continuous population, some of which can be recruited with minimal PEEP, and others can only be recruited with high levels of PEEP.
Large Language Model Understanding and intelligence Large_language_models > Interpretation > Understanding and intelligence Some researchers characterize LLMs as "alien intelligence". For example, Conjecture CEO Connor Leahy considers untuned LLMs to be like inscrutable alien "Shoggoths", and believes that RLHF tuning creates a "smiling facade" obscuring the inner workings of the LLM: "If you don't push it too far, the smiley face stays on. But then you give it prompt, and suddenly you see this massive underbelly of insanity, of weird thought processes and clearly non-human understanding.
Secure information Data masking Secure_information > Technologies > Data masking Data masking of structured data is the process of obscuring (masking) specific data within a database table or cell to ensure that data security is maintained and sensitive information is not exposed to unauthorized personnel. This may include masking the data from users (for example so banking customer representatives can only see the last four digits of a customer's national identity number), developers (who need real production data to test new software releases but should not be able to see sensitive financial data), outsourcing vendors, etc.
PCA3 Discovery PCA3 > Discovery PCA3 was discovered to be highly expressed by prostate cancer cells in 1999.
RDMA over Converged Ethernet RoCE versus iWARP RDMA_over_Converged_Ethernet > RoCE versus iWARP The question of which protocol is better depends on the vendor. Chelsio recommends and exclusively support iWARP. Mellanox, Xilinx, and Broadcom recommend and exclusively support RoCE/RoCEv2.
Area of a circle Generalizations Area_of_a_circle > Generalizations We can stretch a disk to form an ellipse. Because this stretch is a linear transformation of the plane, it has a distortion factor which will change the area but preserve ratios of areas. This observation can be used to compute the area of an arbitrary ellipse from the area of a unit circle. Consider the unit circle circumscribed by a square of side length 2.
Automated bot History Automated_bot > Impact of software agents > History The concept of an agent can be traced back to Hewitt's Actor Model (Hewitt, 1977) - "A self-contained, interactive and concurrently-executing object, possessing internal state and communication capability. "To be more academic, software agent systems are a direct evolution of Multi-Agent Systems (MAS). MAS evolved from Distributed Artificial Intelligence (DAI), Distributed Problem Solving (DPS) and Parallel AI (PAI), thus inheriting all characteristics (good and bad) from DAI and AI.
Descriptive statistics Bivariate and multivariate analysis Descriptive_statistic > Use in statistical analysis > Bivariate and multivariate analysis When a sample consists of more than one variable, descriptive statistics may be used to describe the relationship between pairs of variables. In this case, descriptive statistics include: Cross-tabulations and contingency tables Graphical representation via scatterplots Quantitative measures of dependence Descriptions of conditional distributionsThe main reason for differentiating univariate and bivariate analysis is that bivariate analysis is not only a simple descriptive analysis, but also it describes the relationship between two different variables. Quantitative measures of dependence include correlation (such as Pearson's r when both variables are continuous, or Spearman's rho if one or both are not) and covariance (which reflects the scale variables are measured on). The slope, in regression analysis, also reflects the relationship between variables.
Human herpesvirus 6 Clinical significance Human_herpesvirus-6 > Clinical significance The classical presentation of primary HHV-6b infection is as exanthema subitum (ES) or "roseola", featuring a high temperature followed by a rash. However, one study (1997) indicated that a rash is not a distinguishing feature of HHV-6 infection, with rates similar to non-HHV-6 infections (10–20% of febrile children in both groups). HHV-6 infections more frequently present with high temperatures (over 40C), at a rate of around two thirds compared to less than half in the non-HHV-6 patients. Similarly significant differences were seen in malaise, irritability, and tympanic membrane inflammation.Primary infection in adults tend to be more severe.Diagnosis for the virus, particularly HHV-6B, is vital for the patient because of the infection's adverse effects.
JIT spraying Summary JIT_spraying The attacker is usually not even limited to the expected instruction boundaries; it is possible to jump into the middle of an intended instruction to have the CPU interpret it as something else. As with non-JIT ROP attacks, this may be enough operations to usefully take control of the computer. Continuing the above example, jumping to the second byte of the "mov" instruction results in an "inc" instruction: 1: 44 inc %esp inc esp 2: 33 22 xor (%edx),%esp xor esp,DWORD PTR 4: 11 35 11 22 33 44 adc %esi,0x44332211 adc DWORD PTR ds:0x44332211,esi a: 35 11 22 33 44 xor $0x44332211,%eax xor eax,0x44332211 x86 and x86-64 allow jumping into the middle of an instruction, but not fixed-length architectures like ARM. To protect against JIT spraying, the JIT code can be disabled or made less predictable for the attacker. == References ==
Novikov self-consistency principle Time-loop logic Time_loop_logic > Time-loop logic As soon as the machine is activated, a so-called "fixed-point" of F, an input which produces an identical output, usually signaling a perfect answer, appears (by an extraordinary coincidence!) immediately and steadily. If the iteration does not converge, that is, if F has no fixed point, the computer outputs and inputs will shut down or hover in an unlikely intermediate state.
HERG Summary HERG Conversely, genetic mutations that increase the current through these channels can lead to the related inherited heart rhythm disorder Short QT syndrome. A number of clinically successful drugs in the market have had the tendency to inhibit hERG, lengthening the QT and potentially leading to a fatal irregularity of the heartbeat (a ventricular tachyarrhythmia called torsades de pointes). This has made hERG inhibition an important antitarget that must be avoided during drug development.hERG has also been associated with modulating the functions of some cells of the nervous system and with establishing and maintaining cancer-like features in leukemic cells.
Telomeres in the cell cycle Cell cycle enablers and regulators Telomeres_in_the_cell_cycle > Cell cycle enablers and regulators POT1 protein binds to ssDNA, prevents checkpoint activation through inhibiting ATR recruitment, and prevents HR; RAP1, a GTPase, binds to dsDNA and prevents HR; and TRF2 protein (also known as TERF2) binds to dsDNA, prevents checkpoint activation through inhibiting ATM recruitment, and prevents NHEJ. TRF2 is unique among these proteins in its role in the formation and maintenance of T-loops: lariat structures formed by the folding of the ssDNA overhang back onto the dsDNA. T-loops may further inhibit the binding of checkpoint activation proteins.
Genotyping Tuberculosis Genotyping > Applications > Human genotyping > Tuberculosis This rapid detection method is used to prevent TB. The addition of whole genome sequencing (WGS) allowed for identification of strains of TB which could then be put in a chronological cluster map. These cluster maps show the origin of cases and the time in which those cases arose.
Megaminx Number of combinations Megaminx > Number of combinations For the larger size variations (gigaminx, teraminx, petaminx etc.), the general number of combinations is 30 ! × 20 ! × 60 !
Weak sustainability Weak sustainability in practice Strong_vs_Weak_sustainability > Weak sustainability in practice This example shows how weak sustainability and substitution can be cleverly applied on a national scale, although it is recognised that its applications are very restricted on a global scale. In this application, Hartwick's rule would state that the pension fund was sufficient capital to offset the depletion of the oil resources. A less positive case is that of the small Pacific nation of Nauru.
Computational power Recent trends Computational_power > Major enabling factors > Recent trends Other approaches are being investigated, which do not rely on physical scaling. These include the spin state of electron spintronics, tunnel junctions, and advanced confinement of channel materials via nano-wire geometry. Spin-based logic and memory options are being developed actively in labs.
Anelasticity Static response functions Anelasticity > Static response functions Experiments can be made where either the stress or strain is held constant for a certain time. These are called quasi-static, and in this case, anelastic materials exhibit creep, elastic aftereffect, and stress relaxation. In these experiments a stress applied and held constant while the strain is observed as a function of time. This response function is called creep defined by J ( t ) ≡ ϵ ( t ) / σ 0 {\displaystyle J(t)\equiv \epsilon (t)/\sigma _{0}} and characterizes the properties of the solid.
Coordinate surface Summary Coordinate_axis In geometry, a coordinate system is a system that uses one or more numbers, or coordinates, to uniquely determine the position of the points or other geometric elements on a manifold such as Euclidean space. The order of the coordinates is significant, and they are sometimes identified by their position in an ordered tuple and sometimes by a letter, as in "the x-coordinate". The coordinates are taken to be real numbers in elementary mathematics, but may be complex numbers or elements of a more abstract system such as a commutative ring. The use of a coordinate system allows problems in geometry to be translated into problems about numbers and vice versa; this is the basis of analytic geometry.
Anaerobic digestate Standards for digestate Anaerobic_digestate > Standards for digestate The standard of digestate produced by anaerobic digestion can be assessed on three criteria, chemical, biological and physical aspects. Chemical quality needs to be considered in terms of heavy metals and other inorganic contaminant, persistent organic compounds and the content of macro-elements such as nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. Depending on their source, biowastes can contain pathogens, which can lead to the spreading of human, animal or plant diseases if not appropriately managed. The physical standards of composts includes mainly appearance and odor factors.
Hoist controller Summary Hoist_controller A hoist controller is the controller for a hoist. The term is used primarily in the context of electrically operated hoists, but it is apparent that the control systems of many 20th century steam hoists also incorporated controllers of significant complexity. Consider the control system of the Quincy Mine No. 2 Hoist. This control system included interlocks to close the throttle valve at the end of trip and to prevent opening the throttle again until the winding engine was reversed.
Electrical injury Skin Electrical_injury > Pathophysiology > Skin Skin conductance can increase by several orders of magnitude in milliseconds. This should not be confused with dielectric breakdown, which occurs at hundreds of volts. For these reasons, current flow cannot be accurately calculated by simply applying Ohm's law using a fixed resistance model.
Randomized experiment Overview Randomized_trial > Overview Randomization also produces ignorable designs, which are valuable in model-based statistical inference, especially Bayesian or likelihood-based. In the design of experiments, the simplest design for comparing treatments is the "completely randomized design". Some "restriction on randomization" can occur with blocking and experiments that have hard-to-change factors; additional restrictions on randomization can occur when a full randomization is infeasible or when it is desirable to reduce the variance of estimators of selected effects. Randomization of treatment in clinical trials pose ethical problems. In some cases, randomization reduces the therapeutic options for both physician and patient, and so randomization requires clinical equipoise regarding the treatments.
Checkpoint inhibition CISH Checkpoint_inhibition > Types > Intracellular checkpoint inhibitors > CISH More recently, CISH (cytokine-inducible SH2-containing protein), another molecule with ubiquitin ligase activity, was found to be induced by T cell receptor ligation (TCR) and negatively regulate it by targeting the critical signaling intermediate PLC-gamma-1 for degradation. The deletion of CISH in effector T cells has been shown to dramatically augment TCR signaling and subsequent effector cytokine release, proliferation and survival. The adoptive transfer of tumor-specific effector T cells knocked out or knocked down for CISH resulted in a significant increase in functional avidity and long-term tumor immunity.
Episodic memories Neural network models Episodic_memory > Neural network models These structures work harmoniously to produce different cognitions within the brain. One of the largest proposals for this ideology is that of Diffusion Tensor Imaging. This technique traces the differing pathways of nerve fibres that further create communication throughout differing structures.
Deep sulcus sign Summary Deep_sulcus_sign In radiology, the deep sulcus sign on a supine chest radiograph is an indirect indicator of a pneumothorax. In a supine film, it appears as a deep, lucent, ipsilateral costophrenic angle within the nondependent portions of the pleural space as opposed to the apex (of the lung) when the patient is upright. The costophrenic angle is abnormally deepened when the pleural air collects laterally, producing the deep sulcus sign.Patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) may exhibit deepened lateral costophrenic angles due to hyperinflation of the lungs and cause a false deep sulcus sign.
Structure group (Jordan algebra) Spectral decomposition for an idempotent Jordan_frame_(Jordan_algebra) > Spectral decomposition in a Euclidean Jordan algebra > Spectral decomposition for an idempotent There is a corresponding orthogonal eigenspace decomposition of E E = E 0 ( e ) ⊕ E 1 / 2 ( e ) ⊕ E 1 ( e ) , {\displaystyle \displaystyle {E=E_{0}(e)\oplus E_{1/2}(e)\oplus E_{1}(e),}} where, for a in E, Eλ(a) denotes the λ-eigenspace of L(a). In this decomposition E1(e) and E0(e) are Jordan algebras with identity elements e and 1 − e. Their sum E1(e) ⊕ E0(e) is a direct sum of Jordan algebras in that any product between them is zero. It is the centralizer subalgebra of e and consists of all a such that L(a) commutes with L(e).
Evolution as fact and theory Theory Evolution_as_fact_and_theory > Evolution, fact and theory > Theory He discussed this widely with many of his intellectual companions, and conducted further research in the background to his other writings and work. After years of development, he finally published his evidence and theory in On the Origin of Species in 1859.The "theory of evolution" is actually a network of theories that created the research program of biology. Darwin, for example, proposed five separate theories in his original formulation, which included mechanistic explanations for: populations changing over generations gradual change speciation natural selection common descentSince Darwin, evolution has become a well-supported body of interconnected statements that explains numerous empirical observations in the natural world.
Shape analysis (digital geometry) Shape descriptors Shape_analysis_(digital_geometry) > Shape descriptors Their advantage is that they can be applied nicely to deformable objects (e.g. a person in different body postures) as these deformations do not involve much stretching but are in fact near-isometric. Such descriptors are commonly based on geodesic distances measures along the surface of an object or on other isometry invariant characteristics such as the Laplace–Beltrami spectrum (see also spectral shape analysis).
Ablative brain surgery Parkinson's disease Ablative_brain_surgery > Uses > Parkinson's disease Common indications for referral are motor fluctuations and/or dyskinesias that are not adequately controlled with optimised medical therapy, medication-refractory tremor, and intolerance to medical therapy. Early referral for consideration of DBS is recommended as soon as optimised medical therapy fails to offer satisfactory motor control.The thalamus is another potential target for treating a tremor; in some countries, so is the subthalamic nucleus, although not in the United States due to its severe side effects. Stimulation of portions of the thalamus or lesioning has been used for various psychiatric and neurological conditions, and when practiced for movement disorders the target is in the motor nuclei of the thalamus.
Specific ion Interaction Theory Determination and application SIT_theory > Determination and application It is not limited to monobasic acids. and can also be applied to metal complexes. The SIT and Pitzer approaches have been compared recently. The Bromley equation has also been compared to both SIT and Pitzer equations.
Annualized return Annualization of logarithmic return Rate_of_return_on_investment > Calculation > Single-period > Annualization of logarithmic return Under an assumption of reinvestment, the relationship between a logarithmic return R l o g {\displaystyle R_{\mathrm {log} }} and a logarithmic rate of return r l o g {\displaystyle r_{\mathrm {log} }} over a period of time of length t {\displaystyle t} is: R l o g = r l o g t {\displaystyle R_{\mathrm {log} }=r_{\mathrm {log} }t} so r l o g = R l o g t {\displaystyle r_{\mathrm {log} }={\frac {R_{\mathrm {log} }}{t}}} is the annualized logarithmic rate of return for a return R l o g {\displaystyle R_{\mathrm {log} }} , if t {\displaystyle t} is measured in years. For example, if the logarithmic return of a security per trading day is 0.14%, assuming 250 trading days in a year, then the annualized logarithmic rate of return is 0.14%/(1/250) = 0.14% x 250 = 35%
Apple–Intel architecture Differences from standard PCs Apple–Intel_architecture > Differences from standard PCs Rudimentary pre-boot GUI framework, including support for image drawing, mouse cursor and events. This is used by FileVault 2 to present the login screen before loading the operating system. Other non-standard EFI services for managing various firmware features such as the computer's NVRAM and boot arguments.Some of these differences can pose as obstacles both to running macOS on non-Apple hardware and booting alternative operating systems on Mac computers – Apple only provides drivers for its custom hardware for macOS and Microsoft Windows (as part of Boot Camp); drivers for other operating systems such as Linux need to be written by third parties, usually volunteer free software enthusiasts.
Hydrogen power Energy Hydrogen_power > Energy Hydrogen is locked up in enormous quantities in water, hydrocarbons, and other organic matter. One of the challenges of using hydrogen as a fuel comes from being able to extract hydrogen efficiently from these compounds.
Resistance spot welding Characteristics Resistance_spot_welding > Characteristics The open circuit voltage from the transformer is higher than this, typically in the 5 to 22 volt range.The resistance of the weld spot changes as it flows and liquefies. Modern welding equipment can monitor and adjust the weld in real time to ensure a consistent weld. The equipment may seek to control different variables during the weld, such as current, voltage, power, or energy.
Analogy Science Analogy > Applications and types > Science To enlighten pupils on the relations that happen between or inside certain things or phenomena, a teacher may refer to other things or phenomena that pupils are more familiar with. It may help in creating or clarifying one theory (theoretical model) via the workings of another theory (theoretical model). Thus it can be used in theoretical and applied sciences in the form of models or simulations which can be considered as strong analogies.
Lisp programming language Evaluation and the read–eval–print loop Lisp_programming_language > Syntax and semantics > Evaluation and the read–eval–print loop This done, a basic REPL is one line of code: (loop (print (eval (read)))). The Lisp REPL typically also provides input editing, an input history, error handling and an interface to the debugger. Lisp is usually evaluated eagerly. In Common Lisp, arguments are evaluated in applicative order ('leftmost innermost'), while in Scheme order of arguments is undefined, leaving room for optimization by a compiler.
Drug Discovery Structural elucidation Drug_Discovery > Nature as source > Structural elucidation Databases of mass spectra for known compounds are available and can be used to assign a structure to an unknown mass spectrum. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy is the primary technique for determining chemical structures of natural products. NMR yields information about individual hydrogen and carbon atoms in the structure, allowing detailed reconstruction of the molecule's architecture.
Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agent Contraindications Nonsteroidal_anti-inflammatory_agent > Contraindications NSAIDs may be used with caution by people with the following conditions: Persons who are over age 50, and who have a family history of gastrointestinal (GI) problems Persons who have had previous gastrointestinal problems from NSAID useNSAIDs should usually be avoided by people with the following conditions:
Root nameservers Root domain Root_DNS_servers > Root domain This is generally implied rather than explicit, as modern DNS software does not actually require that the terminating dot be included when attempting to translate a domain name to an IP address. The root domain contains all top-level domains of the Internet.
Digital sculpting Uses Digital_sculpting > Uses Sculpting can often introduce details to meshes that would otherwise have been difficult or impossible to create using traditional 3D modeling techniques. This makes it preferable for achieving photorealistic and hyperrealistic results, though, many stylized results are achieved as well. Sculpting is primarily used in high poly organic modeling (the creation of 3D models which consist mainly of curves or irregular surfaces, as opposed to hard surface modeling). It is also used by auto manufacturers in their design of new cars.It can create the source meshes for low poly game models used in video games.
Sum of squares Number theory Sum_of_squares > Number theory Pythagorean triples are sets of three integers such that the sum of the squares of the first two equals the square of the third. A Pythagorean prime is a prime that is the sum of two squares; Fermat's theorem on sums of two squares states which primes are Pythagorean primes. Pythagorean triangles with integer altitude from the hypotenuse have the sum of squares of inverses of the integer legs equal to the square of the inverse of the integer altitude from the hypotenuse.
Orbital stationkeeping Summary Orbital_stationkeeping For a sun-synchronous orbit, the precession of the orbital plane caused by the oblateness of the Earth is a desirable feature that is part of mission design but the inclination change caused by the gravitational forces of the Sun and Moon is undesirable. For geostationary spacecraft, the inclination change caused by the gravitational forces of the Sun and Moon must be counteracted by a rather large expense of fuel, as the inclination should be kept sufficiently small for the spacecraft to be tracked by non-steerable antennae. For spacecraft in a low orbit, the effects of atmospheric drag must often be compensated for, often to avoid re-entry; for missions requiring the orbit to be accurately synchronized with the earth’s rotation, this is necessary to prevent a shortening of the orbital period.
SN2 reaction Summary SN2_reaction The SN2 reaction is a type of reaction mechanism that is common in organic chemistry. In this mechanism, one bond is broken and one bond is formed in a concerted way, i.e., in one step. The name SN2 refers to the Hughes-Ingold symbol of the mechanism: "SN" indicates that the reaction is a nucleophilic substitution, and "2" that it proceeds via a bi-molecular mechanism, which means both the reacting species are involved in the rate-determining step. The other major type of nucleophilic substitution is the SN1, but many other more specialized mechanisms describe substitution reactions. The SN2 reaction can be considered as an analogue of the associative substitution in the field of inorganic chemistry.
OS/2 subsystem Executive Windows_NT_kernel > Kernel mode > Executive LPC ports are used by user-mode subsystems to communicate with their clients, by Executive subsystems to communicate with user-mode subsystems, and as the basis for the local transport for Microsoft RPC. Memory Manager Manages virtual memory, controlling memory protection and the paging of memory in and out of physical memory to secondary storage, and implements a general-purpose allocator of physical memory. It also implements a parser of PE executables that lets an executable be mapped or unmapped in a single, atomic step.
Mechanics' institute Origins and history Mechanics'_institute > Origins and history This new model of technical educational institution gave classes for working men, and included libraries as well as apparatus to be used for experiments and technical education. Its purpose was to "address societal needs by incorporating fundamental scientific thinking and research into engineering solutions". The school revolutionised access to education in science and technology for ordinary people.
Chirp spectrum Via the discrete Fourier transform Chirp_spectrum > Non-linear chirps > Via numerical methods > Via the discrete Fourier transform Consequently, more efficient algorithms have been developed, especially Fast Fourier Transforms (FFT). Computer programs which implement the FFT are widely available in the literature: 54: 119, 412 and in proprietary CAD programs such as Mathcad, MATLAB, and Mathematica. In the following example a linear chirp with time bandwidth product of 25 is sampled at 128 points (i.e. N = 128).
Wind-assisted propulsion Summary Wind_assisted_propulsion Wind assisted propulsion is the practice of decreasing the fuel consumption of a merchant vessel through the use of sails or some other wind capture device. Sails used to be the primary means of propelling ships, but with the advent of the steam engine and the diesel engine, sails came to be used for recreational sailing only. In recent years with increasing fuel costs and an increased focus on reducing emissions, there has been increased interest in harnessing the power of the wind to propel commercial ships.
Acute lung injury Epidemiology Adult_respiratory_distress_syndrome > Epidemiology The annual rate of ARDS is generally 13–23 people per 100,000 in the general population. It is more common in people who are mechanically ventilated with acute lung injury (ALI) occurring in 16% of ventilated people. Rates increased in 2020 due to COVID-19, with some cases also appearing similar to HAPE.Worldwide, severe sepsis is the most common trigger causing ARDS. Other triggers include mechanical ventilation, sepsis, pneumonia, Gilchrist's disease, drowning, circulatory shock, aspiration, trauma—especially pulmonary contusion—major surgery, massive blood transfusions, smoke inhalation, drug reaction or overdose, fat emboli and reperfusion pulmonary edema after lung transplantation or pulmonary embolectomy.
Zigbee Security architecture Zigbee > Security services > Security architecture Key distribution is one of the most important security functions of the network. A secure network will designate one special device, the trust center, which other devices trust for the distribution of security keys. Ideally, devices will have the trust center address and initial master key preloaded; if a momentary vulnerability is allowed, it will be sent as described above.
Glossary of artificial intelligence M Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence > M In mathematics, computer science, and operations research, the selection of a best element (with regard to some criterion) from some set of available alternatives. machine learning (ML) The scientific study of algorithms and statistical models that computer systems use in order to perform a specific task effectively without using explicit instructions, relying on patterns and inference instead. machine listening Also computer audition (CA).
Information cascade Explicit model assumptions Information_cascade > Basic model > Explicit model assumptions The original model makes several assumptions about human behavior and the world in which humans act, some of which are relaxed in later versions or in alternate definitions of similar problems, such as the diffusion of innovations. Boundedly Rational Agents: The original Independent Cascade model assumes humans are boundedly rational – that is, they will always make rational decisions based on the information they can observe, but the information they observe may not be complete or correct. In other words, agents do not have complete knowledge of the world around them (which would allow them to make the correct decision in any and all situations). In this way, there is a point at which, even if a person has correct knowledge of the idea or action cascading, they can be convinced via social pressures to adopt some alternate, incorrect view of the world.
Parasympathetic nerve Summary Parasympathetic_nervous_system The parasympathetic nervous system (PSNS) is one of the three divisions of the autonomic nervous system, the others being the sympathetic nervous system and the enteric nervous system. The enteric nervous system is sometimes considered part of the autonomic nervous system, and sometimes considered an independent system.The autonomic nervous system is responsible for regulating the body's unconscious actions. The parasympathetic system is responsible for stimulation of "rest-and-digest" or "feed and breed" activities that occur when the body is at rest, especially after eating, including sexual arousal, salivation, lacrimation (tears), urination, digestion, and defecation. Its action is described as being complementary to that of the sympathetic nervous system, which is responsible for stimulating activities associated with the fight-or-flight response.
Granulation tissue Immunity Granulation_tissue > Structure > Immunity The main immune cells active in the tissue are macrophages and neutrophils, although other leukocytes are also present. These work to phagocytize old or damaged tissue, and protect the healing tissue from pathogenic infection. This is necessary both to aid the healing process and to protect against invading pathogens, as the wound often does not have an effective skin barrier to act as a first line of defense.
Programming bugs Summary Anomaly_in_software A program with many, or serious, bugs is often described as buggy. Bugs can trigger errors that may have ripple effects.
Isothermal microcalorimetry (IMC) Development history Isothermal_microcalorimetry > Overview > Development history They realized that when they placed a heat-producing specimen on the ice (e.g. a live animal), the mass of liquid water produced by the melting ice was directly proportional to the heat produced by the specimen.Many modern IMC instrument designs stem from work done in Sweden in the late 1960s and early 1970s (Wadsö 1968, Suurkuusk & Wadsö 1974). This work took advantage of the parallel development of solid-state electronic devices—particularly commercial availability of small thermoelectric effect (Peltier-Seebeck) devices for converting heat flow into voltage—and vice versa.In the 1980s, multi-channel designs emerged (Suurkuusk 1982), which allow parallel evaluation of multiple specimens. This greatly increased the power and usefulness of IMC and led to efforts to fine-tune the method (Thorén et al. 1989).
Multibody dynamics Quadratic velocity vector Multibody_system > Equations of motion > Quadratic velocity vector In the case of rigid bodies, the so-called quadratic velocity vector Q v {\displaystyle \mathbf {Q} _{v}} is used to describe Coriolis and centrifugal terms in the equations of motion. The name is because Q v {\displaystyle \mathbf {Q} _{v}} includes quadratic terms of velocities and it results due to partial derivatives of the kinetic energy of the body.
Skolem paradox Reception by the mathematical community Skolem's_paradox > Reception by the mathematical community Zermelo published a second-order axiomatisation in 1930 and proved several categoricity results in that context. Zermelo's further work on the foundations of set theory after Skolem's paper led to his discovery of the cumulative hierarchy and formalisation of infinitary logic (van Dalen and Ebbinghaus, 2000, note 11).
Simple public key infrastructure History and overview Simple_public_key_infrastructure > History and overview As a result of that, SPKI/SDSI is deployed primarily in closed solutions and in demonstration projects of academic interest. Another side-effect of this design element is that it is difficult to monetize SPKI/SDSI by itself. It can be a component of some other product, but there is no business case for developing SPKI/SDSI tools and services except as part of some other product. The most prominent general deployments of SPKI/SDSI are E-speak, a middleware product from HP that used SPKI/SDSI for access control of web methods, and UPnP Security, that uses an XML dialect of SPKI/SDSI for access control of web methods, delegation of rights among network participants, etc.
Primary oocyte Abnormalities Primary_oocytes > Abnormalities Nondisjunction—a failure of proper homolog separation in meiosis I, or sister chromatid separation in meiosis II can lead to aneuploidy, in which the oocyte has the wrong number of chromosomes, for example 22,X or 24,X. This is the cause of conditions like Down syndrome and Edwards syndrome in humans. It is more likely with advanced maternal age. Some oocytes have multiple nuclei, although it is thought they never mature.
Nucleosome remodeling factor Function Nucleosome_remodeling_factor > Function NURF interacts with chromatin by binding to modified histones or interacting with various transcription factors. NURF catalyzes nucleosome sliding in either direction on DNA without any apparent modifications to the histone octamer itself. NURF is essential for the expression of homeotic genes. The ISWI ATPase specifically recognizes intact N-terminal histone tails.
HTTP Strict Transport Security HSTS mechanism overview HTTP_Strict_Transport_Security > HSTS mechanism overview A server implements an HSTS policy by supplying a header over an HTTPS connection (HSTS headers over HTTP are ignored). For example, a server could send a header such that future requests to the domain for the next year (max-age is specified in seconds; 31,536,000 is equal to one non-leap year) use only HTTPS: Strict-Transport-Security: max-age=31536000. When a web application issues HSTS Policy to user agents, conformant user agents behave as follows (RFC 6797): Automatically turn any insecure links referencing the web application into secure links (e.g. http://example.com/some/page/ will be modified to https://example.com/some/page/ before accessing the server). If the security of the connection cannot be ensured (e.g. the server's TLS certificate is not trusted), the user agent must terminate the connection (RFC 6797 section 8.4, Errors in Secure Transport Establishment) and should not allow the user to access the web application (section 12.1, No User Recourse).The HSTS Policy helps protect web application users against some passive (eavesdropping) and active network attacks. A man-in-the-middle attacker has a greatly reduced ability to intercept requests and responses between a user and a web application server while the user's browser has HSTS Policy in effect for that web application.
Automatic and controlled processes Flow Automatic_and_controlled_processes > Characteristics > Flow On the other hand, situations in which autonomy is encroached upon (for example, if the individual must always control his/her actions to abide by rules imposed by the task) are thought to inhibit flow. This implies that another requirement of flow is to be free from constraints that force controlled processes to be used. Additionally, several areas of research indicate that during a state of flow an otherwise-controlled process becomes automatic allowing it to behave dominant over all other automatic processes.
Expressed protein ligation Summary Expressed_protein_ligation Protein splicing is an intramolecular reaction of a particular protein in which an internal protein segment (called an intein) is removed from a precursor protein with a ligation of C-terminal and N-terminal external proteins (called exteins) on both sides. The splicing junction of the precursor protein is mainly a cysteine or a serine, which are amino acids containing a nucleophilic side chain. The protein splicing reactions which are known now do not require exogenous cofactors or energy sources such as adenosine triphosphate (ATP) or guanosine triphosphate (GTP). Normally, splicing is associated only with pre-mRNA splicing. This precursor protein contains three segments—an N-extein followed by the intein followed by a C-extein. After splicing has taken place, the resulting protein contains the N-extein linked to the C-extein; this splicing product is also termed an extein.
Hydrogeology Aquifers Hydrogeology > Subjects > Aquifers An aquifer is a collection of water underneath the surface, large enough to be useful in a spring or a well. Aquifers can be unconfined, where the top of the aquifer is defined by the water table, or confined, where the aquifer exists underneath a confining bed.There are three aspects that control the nature of aquifers: stratigraphy, lithology, and geological formations and deposits. The stratigraphy relates the age and geometry of the many formations that compose the aquifer.
Epitranscriptome Transfer RNA (tRNA) Epitranscriptome > Modifications specific to different types of RNA > Transfer RNA (tRNA) A primary example of this is the methylation of guanosine at junctions within the tRNA structure. These methylguanosine impact the overall tertiary structure by disrupting any potential canonical hydrogen bonding (hydrogen bonds that are conventional Watson-Crick base pairs), thus creating a loop at the core of the tRNA. Other modifications are integral for creating and maintaining the extreme bends in the structure.