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Parametric continuity Differentiability classes Differentiability_classes > Differentiability classes C ω {\displaystyle C^{\omega }} is thus strictly contained in C ∞ {\displaystyle C^{\infty }} . Bump functions are examples of functions in C ∞ {\displaystyle C^{\infty }} but not in C ω {\displaystyle C^{\omega }} . To put it differently, the class C 0 {\displaystyle C^{0}} consists of all continuous functions.
Copper wire and cable Corrosion resistance Copper_conductor > Properties of copper > Corrosion resistance Corrosion is the unwanted breakdown and weakening of a material due to chemical reactions. Copper generally resists corrosion from moisture, humidity, industrial pollution, and other atmospheric influences. However, any corrosion oxides, chlorides, and sulfides that do form on copper are somewhat conductive.Under many application conditions copper is higher on the galvanic series than other common structural metals, meaning that copper wire is less likely to be corroded in wet conditions. However, any more anodic metals in contact with copper will be corroded since they will essentially be sacrificed to the copper.
Reinforcement (speciation) Selection Reinforcement_(speciation) > Models > Selection In other cases, selection may favor multiple and varying phenotypes such as in the case of a mosaic hybrid zone. Natural selection can act on specific alleles both directly or indirectly. In direct selection, the frequency of the selected allele is favored to the extreme. In cases where an allele is indirectly selected, its frequency increases due to a different linked allele experiencing selection (linkage disequilibrium).The condition of the hybrids under selection can play a role in post-zygotic isolation, as hybrid inviability (a hybrid unable to mature into a fit adult) and sterility (the inability to produce offspring entirely) prohibit gene flow between populations. Selection against the hybrids can even be driven by any failure to obtain a mate, as it is effectively indistinguishable from sterility—each circumstance results in no offspring.
Fatigue of welded joints Welding process Fatigue_of_welded_joints > Factors affecting fatigue > Welding process Many welding processes are available for various applications and environments. Stress-cycle curves are not available for all of these processes and still need to be developed so proper fatigue analysis can be performed. The most abundant process found in stress-cycle curves is developed from specimens prepared by arc welding.
Acute stress reaction Sympathetic Acute_stress_disorder > Types > Sympathetic Sympathetic acute stress disorder is caused by the release of excessive adrenaline and norepinephrine into the nervous system. These hormones may speed up a person's pulse and respiratory rate, dilate pupils, or temporarily mask pain. This type of ASD developed as an evolutionary advantage to help humans survive dangerous situations. The "fight or flight" response may allow for temporarily-enhanced physical output, even in the face of severe injury. However, other physical illnesses become more difficult to diagnose, as ASD masks the pain and other vital signs that would otherwise be symptomatic.
Integral geometry Summary Integral_geometry In mathematics, integral geometry is the theory of measures on a geometrical space invariant under the symmetry group of that space. In more recent times, the meaning has been broadened to include a view of invariant (or equivariant) transformations from the space of functions on one geometrical space to the space of functions on another geometrical space. Such transformations often take the form of integral transforms such as the Radon transform and its generalizations.
Crystal systems Crystal classes Crystal_system > Crystal classes Otherwise it is non-centrosymmetric. Still, even in the non-centrosymmetric case, the inverted structure can in some cases be rotated to align with the original structure. This is a non-centrosymmetric achiral structure.
Finkelstein reaction Summary Finkelstein_reaction The Finkelstein reaction named after the German chemist Hans Finkelstein, is an SN2 reaction (Substitution Nucleophilic Bimolecular reaction) that involves the exchange of one halogen atom for another. It is an equilibrium reaction, but the reaction can be driven to completion by exploiting the differential solubility of halide salts, or by using a large excess of the halide salt. R–X + X′− ⇌ R–X′ + X−
Disabilities affecting intellectual abilities Neurodegenerative diseases Disabilities_affecting_intellectual_abilities > Neurodegenerative diseases Neurodegenerative diseases all involve the progressive loss of structure or function of neurons, including the death of neurons. Many neurodegenerative diseases including Parkinson's, Alzheimer's, and Huntington's occur as a result of neurodegenerative processes. As research progresses, many similarities appear which relate these diseases to one another on a sub-cellular level.
Hepatobiliary system Clinical significance Biliary_system > Clinical significance Rather, pain may be caused by luminal distension, which causes stretching of the wall. This is the same mechanism that causes pain in bowel obstructions.Chronic inflammatory conditions of the biliary tract, including Primary Sclerosing Cholangitis (PSC) and Primary Biliary Cirrhosis (PBC), can lead to hardening of the ducts in the biliary tree.An obstruction of the biliary tract can result in jaundice, a yellowing of the skin and whites of the eyes. == References ==
Chemical specificity Absolute specificity Specificity_(biochemistry) > Types > Absolute specificity Absolute specificity can be thought of as being exclusive, in which an enzyme acts upon one specific substrate. Absolute specific enzymes will only catalyze one reaction with its specific substrate. For example, lactase is an enzyme specific for the degradation of lactose into two sugar monosaccharides, glucose and galactose. Another example is Glucokinase, which is an enzyme involved in the phosphorylation of glucose to glucose-6-phosphate. It is primarily active in the liver and is the main isozyme of Hexokinase. Its absolute specificity refers to glucose being the only hexose that is able to be its substrate, as opposed to hexokinase, which accommodates many hexoses as its substrate.
Programming language design and implementation Interpreters Programming_language_design_and_implementation > Implementation > Interpreters An interpreter is a program that reads another program, typically as text, as seen in languages like Python. Interpreters read code, and produces the result directly. Interpreters typically read code line by line, and parses it to convert and execute the code as operations and actions.
Herd behavior Symmetry-breaking Herd_behavior > Animal behavior > Symmetry-breaking Possible mechanisms for this behavior include Hamilton’s selfish herd theory, neighbor copying, or the byproduct of communication by social animals or runaway positive feedback. Characteristics of escape panic include: Individuals attempt to move faster than normal. Interactions between individuals become physical.
Eigendecomposition (matrix) Numerical computation of eigenvalues Eigenvalue_decomposition > Numerical computations > Numerical computation of eigenvalues In practice, eigenvalues of large matrices are not computed using the characteristic polynomial. Computing the polynomial becomes expensive in itself, and exact (symbolic) roots of a high-degree polynomial can be difficult to compute and express: the Abel–Ruffini theorem implies that the roots of high-degree (5 or above) polynomials cannot in general be expressed simply using nth roots. Therefore, general algorithms to find eigenvectors and eigenvalues are iterative.
First ring isomorphism theorem Note on numbers and names Isomorphism_theorems > Groups > Note on numbers and names Below we present four theorems, labelled A, B, C and D. They are often numbered as "First isomorphism theorem", "Second..." and so on; however, there is no universal agreement on the numbering. Here we give some examples of the group isomorphism theorems in the literature. Notice that these theorems have analogs for rings and modules. It is less common to include the Theorem D, usually known as the lattice theorem or the correspondence theorem, as one of isomorphism theorems, but when included, it is the last one.
Epicureanism Physics Epicureanism > Philosophy > Physics When joined with each other and forming a larger object, atoms can vibrate as they collide into each other while still maintaining the overall shape of the larger object.When not prevented by other atoms, all atoms move at the same speed naturally downwards in relation to the rest of the world. This downwards motion is natural for atoms; however, as their fourth means of motion, atoms can at times randomly swerve out of their usual downwards path. This swerving motion is what allowed for the creation of the universe, since as more and more atoms swerved and collided with each other, objects were able to take shape as the atoms joined together.
Wind generated current Boundary currents Wind_generated_current > Mechanism > Boundary currents Boundary currents are ocean currents with dynamics determined by the presence of a coastline, and fall into two distinct categories: Eastern boundary currents are relatively shallow, broad and slow-flowing currents on the eastern side of oceanic basins along the western coasts of continents. Subtropical eastern boundary currents flow equatorward, transporting cold water from higher latitudes to lower latitudes; examples include the Benguela Current, the Canary Current, the Humboldt Current, and the California Current. Coastal upwelling caused by offshore flow due to Ekman transport where the prevailing wind parallels the shoreline brings nutrient-rich water into eastern boundary current regions, making them highly productive areas. Western boundary currents are warm, deep, narrow, and fast flowing currents that form on the west side of ocean basins due to western intensification.
Closed- loop Model identification and robustness Control_strategy > Topics in control theory > Model identification and robustness A control system must always have some robustness property. A robust controller is such that its properties do not change much if applied to a system slightly different from the mathematical one used for its synthesis. This requirement is important, as no real physical system truly behaves like the series of differential equations used to represent it mathematically. Typically a simpler mathematical model is chosen in order to simplify calculations, otherwise, the true system dynamics can be so complicated that a complete model is impossible.
Hubert Dreyfus's views on artificial intelligence Ignored Hubert_Dreyfus's_views_on_artificial_intelligence > History > Ignored But (as Peter Norvig and Stuart Russell would later explain), an argument of this form cannot be won: just because one cannot imagine formal rules that govern human intelligence and expertise, this does not mean that no such rules exist. They quote Alan Turing's answer to all arguments similar to Dreyfus's:"we cannot so easily convince ourselves of the absence of complete laws of behaviour ... The only way we know of for finding such laws is scientific observation, and we certainly know of no circumstances under which we could say, 'We have searched enough. There are no such laws.
Collocation (remote sensing) Example: Pol-Ice Campaign Collocation_(remote_sensing) > Example: Pol-Ice Campaign The x-axis is along the line of the flight path. EMIRAD footprints are drawn with lines, E-M Bird inductance measurements are represented by circles and LIDAR measurements with dots. == References ==
PH meter Principle of operation PH_meter > Design and use > Principle of operation On immersion in the solution to be tested, hydrogen ions in the test solution exchange for other positively charged ions on the glass bulb, creating an electrochemical potential across the bulb. The electronic amplifier detects the difference in electrical potential between the two electrodes generated in the measurement and converts the potential difference to pH units. The magnitude of the electrochemical potential across the glass bulb is linearly related to the pH according to the Nernst equation.
Modern chemistry Background Modern_chemistry > History > Background Thomson of the University of Cambridge discovered the electron and soon after the French scientist Becquerel as well as the couple Pierre and Marie Curie investigated the phenomenon of radioactivity. In a series of pioneering scattering experiments Ernest Rutherford at the University of Manchester discovered the internal structure of the atom and the existence of the proton, classified and explained the different types of radioactivity and successfully transmuted the first element by bombarding nitrogen with alpha particles. His work on atomic structure was improved on by his students, the Danish physicist Niels Bohr, the Englishman Henry Moseley and the German Otto Hahn, who went on to father the emerging nuclear chemistry and discovered nuclear fission.
Amount of substance History Amount_of_substance > History 1860: The Karlsruhe Congress debates the relation between "physical molecules", "chemical molecules" and atoms, without reaching consensus. 1865: Loschmidt makes the first estimate of the size of gas molecules and hence of number of molecules in a given volume of gas, now known as the Loschmidt constant. 1886: van't Hoff demonstrates the similarities in behaviour between dilute solutions and ideal gases.
Keyed-hash message authentication code Summary Keyed-hash_message_authentication_code In cryptography, an HMAC (sometimes expanded as either keyed-hash message authentication code or hash-based message authentication code) is a specific type of message authentication code (MAC) involving a cryptographic hash function and a secret cryptographic key. As with any MAC, it may be used to simultaneously verify both the data integrity and authenticity of a message. HMAC can provide authentication using a shared secret instead of using digital signatures with asymmetric cryptography. It trades off the need for a complex public key infrastructure by delegating the key exchange to the communicating parties, who are responsible for establishing and using a trusted channel to agree on the key prior to communication.
Chemokine receptors Selective pressures on Chemokine receptor 5 (CCR5) Chemokine_receptor > Selective pressures on Chemokine receptor 5 (CCR5) Human Immunodeficiency virus uses CCR5 receptor to target and infect host T-cells in humans. It weakens the immune system by destroying the CD4+ T-helper cells, making the body more susceptible to other infections. CCR5-Δ32 is an allelic variant of CCR5 gene with a 32 base pair deletion that results in a truncated receptor. People with this allele are resistant to AIDS as HIV cannot bind to the non-functional CCR5 receptor.
Axis of rotation Cosmological principle Rotational_axis > Physics > Cosmological principle The laws of physics are currently believed to be invariant under any fixed rotation. (Although they do appear to change when viewed from a rotating viewpoint: see rotating frame of reference.) In modern physical cosmology, the cosmological principle is the notion that the distribution of matter in the universe is homogeneous and isotropic when viewed on a large enough scale, since the forces are expected to act uniformly throughout the universe and have no preferred direction, and should, therefore, produce no observable irregularities in the large scale structuring over the course of evolution of the matter field that was initially laid down by the Big Bang. In particular, for a system which behaves the same regardless of how it is oriented in space, its Lagrangian is rotationally invariant. According to Noether's theorem, if the action (the integral over time of its Lagrangian) of a physical system is invariant under rotation, then angular momentum is conserved.
Edge (graph) B Strongly_perfect_graph > B A bridge of a cycle can also mean a path that connects two vertices of a cycle but is shorter than either of the paths in the cycle connecting the same two vertices. A bridged graph is a graph in which every cycle of four or more vertices has a bridge. bridgeless A bridgeless graph is a graph that has no bridge edges; that is, a 2-edge-connected graph.
Functional verification Types Functional_verification > Types There are three types of functional verification, namely: dynamic functional, hybrid dynamic functional/static, and static verification.Simulation based verification (also called 'dynamic verification') is widely used to "simulate" the design, since this method scales up very easily. Stimulus is provided to exercise each line in the HDL code. A test-bench is built to functionally verify the design by providing meaningful scenarios to check that given certain input, the design performs to specification.
Physical models Properties of models, according to General Model Theory Physical_model > Properties of models, according to General Model Theory 2. Reduction In general, a model will not include all attributes that describe the original but only those that appear as relevant to the model's creator or user. 3.
Residual entropy Summary Residual_entropy A common example is the case of carbon monoxide, which has a very small dipole moment. As the carbon monoxide crystal is cooled to absolute zero, few of the carbon monoxide molecules have enough time to align themselves into a perfect crystal (with all of the carbon monoxide molecules oriented in the same direction). Because of this, the crystal is locked into a state with 2 N {\displaystyle 2^{N}} different corresponding microstates, giving a residual entropy of S = N k ln ⁡ ( 2 ) = n R ln ⁡ ( 2 ) {\displaystyle S=Nk\ln(2)=nR\ln(2)} , rather than zero. Another example is any amorphous solid (glass). These have residual entropy, because the atom-by-atom microscopic structure can be arranged in a huge number of different ways across a macroscopic system.
AP Biology Topic outline AP_Biology > Topic outline The exam covers the following 8 units. The percentage indicates the portion of the multiple-choice section of the exam focused on each content area: The course is based on and tests six skills, called scientific practices which include: In addition to the topics above, students are required to be familiar with general lab procedure. Students should know how to collect data, analyze data to form conclusions, and apply those conclusions.
PI(4,5)P2 Cycle Signalling steps PI(4,5)P2_Cycle > Signalling steps Furthermore, CDP-diacylglycerol synthetase uses CTP to create cytidine diphosphate diacylglycerol from PA. Generated CDP-DAG then condensed to PI by phosphatidylinositol synthase. This PI is then phosphorylated to PI4P and back to PIP2 via action of PI4K and PIP5K == References ==
Secondary imbalance Determination of acceptable hammer blow Primary_balance > Steam locomotives > Determination of acceptable hammer blow Strains measured in a bridge under a passing locomotive also contain a component from piston thrust. This is neglected in the above calculations for allowable overbalance in each wheel. It may need to be taken into account.
Hardware-in-the-loop simulation Uses Hardware-in-the-loop_simulation > Uses Cost 2. Duration 3. Safety 4.
Electric double-layer capacitor Composite electrodes PAS_capacitor > Materials > Electrodes > Electrodes for hybrid capacitors > Composite electrodes This results in a larger voltage of 3.8-4 V that prevents electrolyte oxidation. As of 2007 they had achieved capacitance of 550 F/g. and reach a specific energy up to 14 Wh/kg (50.4 kJ/kg).
Infinite matrix Computational aspects Matrix_(mathematics) > Computational aspects Matrix calculations can be often performed with different techniques. Many problems can be solved by both direct algorithms or iterative approaches. For example, the eigenvectors of a square matrix can be obtained by finding a sequence of vectors xn converging to an eigenvector when n tends to infinity.To choose the most appropriate algorithm for each specific problem, it is important to determine both the effectiveness and precision of all the available algorithms. The domain studying these matters is called numerical linear algebra.
Loss modulus Summary Dynamic_modulus Dynamic modulus (sometimes complex modulus) is the ratio of stress to strain under vibratory conditions (calculated from data obtained from either free or forced vibration tests, in shear, compression, or elongation). It is a property of viscoelastic materials.
Fibromuscular dysplasia Cerebrovascular regions Fibromuscular_dysplasia > Signs and symptoms > Cerebrovascular regions Symptoms of craniocervical involvement include headaches (mostly migraine), pulsatile tinnitus, dizziness, and neck pain, although patients are often asymptomatic. On physical examination, one may detect neurological symptoms secondary to a stroke or transient ischemic attack (TIA), a bruit over an affected artery, and diminished distal pulses. Complications of cerebrovascular FMD include TIA, ischemic stroke, Horner syndrome, or subarachnoid hemorrhage.
Normalised data Objectives Normalised_data > Objectives The same information can be expressed on multiple rows; therefore updates to the relation may result in logical inconsistencies. For example, each record in an "Employees' Skills" relation might contain an Employee ID, Employee Address, and Skill; thus a change of address for a particular employee may need to be applied to multiple records (one for each skill). If the update is only partially successful – the employee's address is updated on some records but not others – then the relation is left in an inconsistent state.
Multivariate calculus Limits and continuity Multivariable_Calculus > Typical operations > Limits and continuity However, when the origin is approached along a parabola y = ± x 2 {\displaystyle y=\pm x^{2}} , the function value has a limit of ± 1 / 2 {\displaystyle \pm 1/2} . Since taking different paths toward the same point yields different limit values, a general limit does not exist there. Continuity in each argument not being sufficient for multivariate continuity can also be seen from the following example.
Systemic inflammatory response syndrome Summary Systemic_inflammatory_response_syndrome In immunology, systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) is an inflammatory state affecting the whole body. It is the body's response to an infectious or noninfectious insult. Although the definition of SIRS refers to it as an "inflammatory" response, it actually has pro- and anti-inflammatory components.
Poiseuille equation Electrical circuits analogy Poiseuille_equation > Electrical circuits analogy The electrical relation for the resistance is R = ρ L S , {\displaystyle R={\frac {\rho L}{S}},} where ρ is the resistivity; i.e. the resistance R is inversely proportional to the cross section area S of the resistor. The reason why Poiseuille's law leads to a different formula for the resistance R is the difference between the fluid flow and the electric current. Electron gas is inviscid, so its velocity does not depend on the distance to the walls of the conductor.
Vector Informatik History Vector_Informatik > History In August 2011 the four owners of Vector Informatik GmbH have transferred their business shares to a family foundation and a non-profit foundation. In September 2011 Vector has welcomed its 1,000th employee. In 2013, a new subsidiary Vector Austria was established, followed 2014 by Vector Brasil and Vector Italy.
Hepatotoxin Summary Hepatotoxin A hepatotoxin (Gr., hepato = liver) is a toxic chemical substance that damages the liver. It can be a side-effect, but hepatotoxins are also found naturally, such as microcystins and pyrrolizidine alkaloids, or in laboratory environments, such as carbon tetrachloride, or far more pervasively in the form of ethanol (drinking alcohol). The effects of hepatotoxins depend on the amount, point of entry and distribution speed of the , and on the health of the person. Intrinsic hepatotoxins (type A) have a predictable, dose-dependent effect.
Energy (psychological) Summary Energy_(psychological) Energy is a concept in some psychological theories or models of a postulated unconscious mental functioning on a level between biology and consciousness.
Entropy monitoring General references Entropy_monitoring > References > General references doi:10.1016/j.bpa.2005.07.009. PMID 16634417. Gao JD, Zhao YJ, Xu CS, Zhao J, Huang YG, Wang TL, Pei L, Wang J, Yao LN, Ding Q, Tan ZM, Zhu ZR, Yue Y (Apr 2012).
1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + ⋯ Generalization 1_−_2_+_3_−_4_+_⋯ > Generalization Finally, in his 1890 Sur la multiplication des séries, Cesàro took a modern approach starting from definitions.The series are also studied for non-integer values of n; these make up the Dirichlet eta function. Part of Euler's motivation for studying series related to 1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + ... was the functional equation of the eta function, which leads directly to the functional equation of the Riemann zeta function. Euler had already become famous for finding the values of these functions at positive even integers (including the Basel problem), and he was attempting to find the values at the positive odd integers (including Apéry's constant) as well, a problem that remains elusive today. The eta function in particular is easier to deal with by Euler's methods because its Dirichlet series is Abel summable everywhere; the zeta function's Dirichlet series is much harder to sum where it diverges. For example, the counterpart of 1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + ... in the zeta function is the non-alternating series 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ..., which has deep applications in modern physics but requires much stronger methods to sum.
Defining equation (physics) Scope of definitions Defining_equation_(physics) > Construction of defining equations > Scope of definitions For vector equations, sometimes the defining quantity is in a cross or dot product and cannot be solved for explicitly as a vector, but the components can. ExamplesElectric current density is an example spanning all of these methods, Angular momentum is an example which doesn't require calculus.
Rømer's determination of the speed of light Order of magnitude Rømer's_determination_of_the_speed_of_light > Rømer's reasoning > Order of magnitude If light travelled at a speed of one Earth-diameter per second, it would take 3½ minutes to travel the distance LK. And if the period of Io's orbit around Jupiter were taken as the time difference between the emergence at L and the emergence at K, the value would be 3½ minutes longer than the true value. Rømer then applies the same logic to observations around the first quadrature (point G), when Earth is moving towards Jupiter.
Markov perfect equilibrium Definition Markov_perfect_equilibrium > Definition In extensive form games, and specifically in stochastic games, a Markov perfect equilibrium is a set of mixed strategies for each of the players which satisfy the following criteria: The strategies have the Markov property of memorylessness, meaning that each player's mixed strategy can be conditioned only on the state of the game. These strategies are called Markov reaction functions. The state can only encode payoff-relevant information.
V1 Saliency Hypothesis Controversy V1_Saliency_Hypothesis > Controversy Since V1 is the only visual cortical area with neurons tuned to eye of origin of visual inputs, this observation strongly supports V1's role in guiding attention. More experiments followed to further investigate V1SH, and supporting data emerged from functional brain imaging, visual psychophysics, and from monkey electrophysiology. V1SH has since become more popular.
PCI bus PCI command codes PCI_Local_Bus > PCI bus transactions > PCI command codes The PCI standard is discouraging the use of I/O space in new devices, preferring that as much as possible be done through main memory mapping.0011: I/O Write This performs a write to I/O space.010x: Reserved A PCI device must not respond to an address cycle with these command codes.0110: Memory Read This performs a read cycle from memory space. Because the smallest memory space a PCI device is permitted to implement is 16 bytes,: §6.5.2.1 the two least significant bits of the address are not needed during the address phase; equivalent information will arrive during the data phases in the form of byte select signals. They instead specify the order in which burst data must be returned.
Logarithmic strain Summary Tensile_strain Strain can be formulated as the spatial derivative of displacement: where I is the identity tensor. The displacement of a body may be expressed in the form x = F(X), where X is the reference position of material points of the body; displacement has units of length and does not distinguish between rigid body motions (translations and rotations) and deformations (changes in shape and size) of the body. The spatial derivative of a uniform translation is zero, thus strains measure how much a given displacement differs locally from a rigid-body motion.A strain is in general a tensor quantity.
Experimental cancer treatment Electromagnetic treatments Experimental_cancer_treatment > Electromagnetic treatments Tumor Treating Fields is a novel FDA-approved cancer treatment therapy that uses alternating electric field to disturb the rapid cell division exhibited by cancer cells.
Transient modelling Summary Transient_modelling If the season is wet, the garden is getting water from the sky, and the tank is not being emptied sufficiently, so in steady state it will be observed to be always full. If the gardener has a way of observing the level of water in the tank, and a record of daily rainfall and temperatures, and is precisely metering the amount of water being drawn off every day, the numbers and the dates can be recorded in spreadsheet at daily intervals. After enough samples are taken, a chart can be developed to model the rise and fall pattern over a year, or over 2 years.
Mylan New COPD drug Mylan > History > 2010s > New COPD drug In June 2015, the company agreed to work with Pulmatrix, a company with a proprietary inhaled drug delivery platform, to co-develop a product to treat for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; the product was PUR0200, a generic drug in a Pulmatrix device.
Grounded theory Memoing Grounded_theory > Methodology > Memoing Theoretical memoing is "the core stage of grounded theory methodology" (Glaser 1998). "Memos are the theorizing write-up of ideas about substantive codes and their theoretically coded relationships as they emerge during coding, collecting and analyzing data, and during memoing" (Glaser 1998). Memoing is also important in the early phase of a grounded theory study (e.g., during open coding). In memoing, the researcher conceptualizes incidents, helping the process along.
Gaetano Fichera Measure and integration theory Gaetano_Fichera > Work > Research activity > Measure and integration theory His main contributions to those topics and are the papers (Fichera 1943) and (Fichera 1954). In the first one he proves that a condition on a sequence of integrable functions previously introduced by Mauro Picone is both necessary and sufficient in order to assure that limit process and the integration process commute, both in bounded and unbounded domains: the theorem is similar in spirit to the dominated convergence theorem, which however only states a sufficient condition. The second paper contains an extension of the Lebesgue's decomposition theorem to finitely additive measures: this extension required him to generalize the Radon–Nikodym derivative, requiring it to be a set function belonging to a given class and minimizing a particular functional.
Joseph-Louis Lagrange Celestial mechanics Joseph-Louis_Lagrange > Work in France > Celestial mechanics The theory of the planetary motions had formed the subject of some of the most remarkable of Lagrange's Berlin papers. In 1806 the subject was reopened by Poisson, who, in a paper read before the French Academy, showed that Lagrange's formulae led to certain limits for the stability of the orbits. Lagrange, who was present, now discussed the whole subject afresh, and in a letter communicated to the academy in 1808 explained how, by the variation of arbitrary constants, the periodical and secular inequalities of any system of mutually interacting bodies could be determined.
Trichomonas vaginalis Increased susceptibility to HIV Trichomonas_vaginalis > Increased susceptibility to HIV The damage caused by T. vaginalis to the vaginal epithelium increases a woman's susceptibility to an HIV infection. In addition to inflammation, the parasite also causes lysis of epithelial cells and RBCs in the area leading to more inflammation and disruption of the protective barrier usually provided by the epithelium. Having T. vaginalis also may increase the chances of the infected woman transmitting HIV to her sexual partner(s).
Clearwater Formation Lithology Clearwater_Formation > Lithology The Clearwater Formation consists of primarily of black and green shale, with some interbedded grey and green sandstone and siltstone, and ironstone concretions. To the southeast of Cold Lake it includes massive hydrocarbon-bearing, glauconitic salt-and-pepper sandstones with interbedded shales.
Likelihood principle Experimental design arguments on the likelihood principle Likelihood_principle > Arguments for and against > Experimental design arguments on the likelihood principle The following are a simple and more complicated example of those, using a commonly cited example called the optional stopping problem. Example 1 – simple version Suppose I tell you that I tossed a coin 12 times and in the process observed 3 heads. You might make some inference about the probability of heads and whether the coin was fair.
Gauge transformations An example: Scalar O(n) gauge theory Quantum_gauge_theory > Classical gauge theory > An example: Scalar O(n) gauge theory ( ∂ μ Φ ) ↦ ( ∂ μ Φ ) ′ = G ∂ μ Φ {\displaystyle \ (\partial _{\mu }\Phi )\mapsto (\partial _{\mu }\Phi )'=G\partial _{\mu }\Phi } This characterizes the global symmetry of this particular Lagrangian, and the symmetry group is often called the gauge group; the mathematical term is structure group, especially in the theory of G-structures. Incidentally, Noether's theorem implies that invariance under this group of transformations leads to the conservation of the currents J μ a = i ∂ μ Φ T T a Φ {\displaystyle \ J_{\mu }^{a}=i\partial _{\mu }\Phi ^{\mathsf {T}}T^{a}\Phi } where the Ta matrices are generators of the SO(n) group. There is one conserved current for every generator.
Self-reproducing program Example Quine_(computing) > Ouroboros programs > Example This Java program outputs the source for a C++ program that outputs the original Java code. Such programs have been produced with various cycle lengths: Haskell → Python → Ruby Python → Bash → Perl C → Haskell → Python → Perl Haskell → Perl → Python → Ruby → C → Java Ruby → Java → C# → Python C → C++ → Ruby → Python → PHP → Perl Ruby → Python → Perl → Lua → OCaml → Haskell → C → Java → Brainfuck → Whitespace → Unlambda Ruby → Scala → Scheme → Scilab → Shell (bash) → S-Lang → Smalltalk → Squirrel3 → Standard ML → ... → Rexx (128 (and formerly 50) programming languages) Web application → C (web application source code consists of HTML, JavaScript, and CSS)
High dimensional data History High-dimensional_statistics > History From an applied perspective, research in high-dimensional statistics was motivated by the realisation that advances in computing technology had dramatically increased the ability to collect and store data, and that traditional statistical techniques such as those described in the examples above were often ill-equipped to handle the resulting challenges. Theoretical advances in the area can be traced back to the remarkable result of Charles Stein in 1956, where he proved that the usual estimator of a multivariate normal mean was inadmissible with respect to squared error loss in three or more dimensions. Indeed, the James-Stein estimator provided the insight that in high-dimensional settings, one may obtain improved estimation performance through shrinkage, which reduces variance at the expense of introducing a small amount of bias.
Monocistronic mRNA Summary Monocistronic_mRNA This exon sequence constitutes mature mRNA. Mature mRNA is then read by the ribosome, and, utilising amino acids carried by transfer RNA (tRNA), the ribosome creates the protein. This process is known as translation.
Corecursion Factorial Corecursion > Examples > Factorial In this example a function returns a single value. This stack unwinding can be explicated, defining the factorial corecursively, as an iterator, where one starts with the case of 1 =: 0 ! {\displaystyle 1=:0!}
Microsoft SQL Full Text Search Service Microsoft_SQL > Services > Full Text Search Service The Search process includes the indexer (that creates the full text indexes) and the full text query processor. The indexer scans through text columns in the database. It can also index through binary columns, and use iFilters to extract meaningful text from the binary blob (for example, when a Microsoft Word document is stored as an unstructured binary file in a database).
Commercial eye tracking Electric potential measurement Commercial_eye_tracking > Tracker types > Electric potential measurement If the eyes move from the centre position towards the periphery, the retina approaches one electrode while the cornea approaches the opposing one. This change in the orientation of the dipole and consequently the electric potential field results in a change in the measured EOG signal.
Wolff–Chaikoff effect Summary Wolff–Chaikoff_effect This becomes evident secondary to elevated levels of circulating iodide. The Wolff–Chaikoff effect is an effective means of rejecting a large quantity of imbibed iodide, and therefore preventing the thyroid from synthesizing large quantities of thyroid hormone. Excess iodide transiently inhibits thyroid iodide organification.
Spherical geometry Properties Spherical_geometry > Properties Spherical geometry has the following properties: Any two great circles intersect in two diametrically opposite points, called antipodal points. Any two points that are not antipodal points determine a unique great circle. There is a natural unit of angle measurement (based on a revolution), a natural unit of length (based on the circumference of a great circle) and a natural unit of area (based on the area of the sphere). Each great circle is associated with a pair of antipodal points, called its poles which are the common intersections of the set of great circles perpendicular to it.
Regulatory mode theory Background Regulatory_mode_theory > Background They then figure out what they need to do to get what they want, and then they do it." People who are geared towards the locomotion mode are focused on moving and getting things done. In contrast, those that are strong in assessment will compare different goals and analyze different options.
Least squares support vector machine From support-vector machine to least-squares support-vector machine Least_squares_support_vector_machine > From support-vector machine to least-squares support-vector machine Given a training set { x i , y i } i = 1 N {\displaystyle \{x_{i},y_{i}\}_{i=1}^{N}} with input data x i ∈ R n {\displaystyle x_{i}\in \mathbb {R} ^{n}} and corresponding binary class labels y i ∈ { − 1 , + 1 } {\displaystyle y_{i}\in \{-1,+1\}} , the SVM classifier, according to Vapnik's original formulation, satisfies the following conditions: { w T ϕ ( x i ) + b ≥ 1 , if y i = + 1 , w T ϕ ( x i ) + b ≤ − 1 , if y i = − 1 , {\displaystyle {\begin{cases}w^{T}\phi (x_{i})+b\geq 1,&{\text{if }}\quad y_{i}=+1,\\w^{T}\phi (x_{i})+b\leq -1,&{\text{if }}\quad y_{i}=-1,\end{cases}}} which is equivalent to y i ≥ 1 , i = 1 , … , N , {\displaystyle y_{i}\left\geq 1,\quad i=1,\ldots ,N,} where ϕ ( x ) {\displaystyle \phi (x)} is the nonlinear map from original space to the high- or infinite-dimensional space.
Specularly reflected Law of reflection Specularly_reflected > Law of reflection When light encounters a boundary of a material, it is affected by the optical and electronic response functions of the material to electromagnetic waves. Optical processes, which comprise reflection and refraction, are expressed by the difference of the refractive index on both sides of the boundary, whereas reflectance and absorption are the real and imaginary parts of the response due to the electronic structure of the material. The degree of participation of each of these processes in the transmission is a function of the frequency, or wavelength, of the light, its polarization, and its angle of incidence. In general, reflection increases with increasing angle of incidence, and with increasing absorptivity at the boundary.
SNOX process Summary SNOX_flue_gas_desulfurisation The SNOX process is a process which removes sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and particulates from flue gases. The sulfur is recovered as concentrated sulfuric acid and the nitrogen oxides are reduced to free nitrogen. The process is based on the well-known wet sulfuric acid process (WSA), a process for recovering sulfur from various process gasses in the form of commercial quality sulfuric acid (H2SO4).The SNOX process is based on catalytic reactions and does not consume water or absorbents.
Weather derivatives Historical pricing (Burn analysis) Weather_derivatives > Valuation > Historical pricing (Burn analysis) The historical payout of the derivative is computed to find the expectation. The method is very quick and simple, but does not produce reliable estimates and could be used only as a rough guideline. It does not incorporate variety of statistical and physical features characteristic of the weather system.
Polar homology Definition Polar_homology > Definition Let M be a complex projective manifold. The space C k {\displaystyle C_{k}} of polar k-chains is a vector space over C {\displaystyle {\mathbb {C} }} defined as a quotient A k / R k {\displaystyle A_{k}/R_{k}} , with A k {\displaystyle A_{k}} and R k {\displaystyle R_{k}} vector spaces defined below.
Laplace operators in differential geometry Conformal Laplacian Laplace_operators_in_differential_geometry > Conformal Laplacian On a Riemannian manifold, one can define the conformal Laplacian as an operator on smooth functions; it differs from the Laplace–Beltrami operator by a term involving the scalar curvature of the underlying metric. In dimension n ≥ 3, the conformal Laplacian, denoted L, acts on a smooth function u by where Δ is the Laplace-Beltrami operator (of negative spectrum), and R is the scalar curvature. This operator often makes an appearance when studying how the scalar curvature behaves under a conformal change of a Riemannian metric. If n ≥ 3 and g is a metric and u is a smooth, positive function, then the conformal metric has scalar curvature given by More generally, the action of the conformal Laplacian of g̃ on smooth functions φ can be related to that of the conformal Laplacian of g via the transformation rule
Interval tree Naive approach Interval_tree > Naive approach In a simple case, the intervals do not overlap and they can be inserted into a simple binary search tree and queried in O ( log ⁡ n ) {\displaystyle O(\log n)} time. However, with arbitrarily overlapping intervals, there is no way to compare two intervals for insertion into the tree since orderings sorted by the beginning points or the ending points may be different. A naive approach might be to build two parallel trees, one ordered by the beginning point, and one ordered by the ending point of each interval.
Michael Elowitz Peer-reviewed publications Michael_Elowitz > Peer-reviewed publications "Tunability and Noise Dependence in Differentiation Dynamics" (PDF). Science. 315 (5819): 1716–1719.
38 (number) In mathematics 38_(number) > In mathematics 38! − 1 yields 523022617466601111760007224100074291199999999 which is the 16th factorial prime. There is no answer to the equation φ(x) = 38, making 38 a nontotient.
Von Neumann Universal Constructor Evolution of Complexity Von_Neumann_Universal_Constructor > Purpose > Evolution of Complexity This insight is all the more remarkable because the model preceded the discovery of the structure of the DNA molecule as discussed above. It is also noteworthy that Von Neumann's design considers that mutations towards greater complexity need to occur in the (descriptions of) subsystems not involved in self-reproduction itself, as conceptualized by the additional automaton D he considered to perform all functions not directly involved in reproduction (see Figure above with Von Neumann's System of Self-Replication Automata with the ability to evolve.) Indeed, in biological organisms only very minor variations of the genetic code have been observed, which matches Von Neumann's rationale that the universal constructor (A) and Copier (B) would not themselves evolve, leaving all evolution (and growth of complexity) to automaton D. In his unfinished work, Von Neumann also briefly considers conflict and interactions between his self-reproducing machines, towards understanding the evolution of ecological and social interactions from his theory of self-reproducing machines. : 147
Composite construction Structural engineering Composite_construction > Structural engineering However, if the slab is connected positively to the beam with studs, then a portion of the slab can be assumed to act compositely with the beam. In effect, this composite creates a larger and stronger beam than would be provided by the steel beam alone. The structural engineer may calculate a transformed section as one step in analyzing the load carry capability of the composite beam.
Cassette mutagenesis Usage Cassette_mutagenesis > Usage The use of synthetic gene cassette allows total control over the type of mutation that can be generated. When studying protein functions, cassette mutagenesis can allow a scientist to change individual amino acids by introducing different codons or omitting codons.By including the SD sequence and the first few codons of a gene, a scientist can easily and dramatically affect the expression level of a protein by altering these regulatory sequences.
Block-matching algorithm New Three Step Search Block-matching_algorithm > Algorithms > New Three Step Search TSS uses a uniformly allocated checking pattern and is prone to miss small motions. NTSS is an improvement over TSS as it provides a center biased search scheme and has provisions to stop halfway to reduce the computational cost. It was one of the first widely accepted fast algorithms and frequently used for implementing earlier standards like MPEG 1 and H.261. The algorithm runs as follows: Start with search location at center Search 8 locations +/- S pixels with S = 4 and 8 locations +/- S pixels with S = 1 around location (0,0) Pick among the 16 locations searched, the one with minimum cost function If the minimum cost function occurs at origin, stop the search and set motion vector to (0,0) If the minimum cost function occurs at one of the 8 locations at S = 1, set the new search origin to this location Check adjacent weights for this location, depending on location it may check either 3 or 5 points The one that gives lowest weight is the closest match, set the motion vector to that location If the lowest weight after the first step was one of the 8 locations at S = 4, the normal TSS procedure follows Pick among the 9 locations searched, the one with minimum cost function Set the new search origin to the above picked location Set the new step size as S = S/2 Repeat the search procedure until S = 1Thus this algorithm checks 17 points for each macro-block and the worst-case scenario involves checking 33 locations, which is still much faster than TSS
Catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia Sympathetic denervation Catecholaminergic_polymorphic_ventricular_tachycardia > Treatment > Sympathetic denervation Some persons with CPVT continue to experience life-threatening arrhythmias despite pharmaceutical therapy. In this case a surgical procedure can be used to affect nerves supplying the heart that communicate using catecholamines. A collection of nerves known as the sympathetic nervous system supply the heart as well as other organs. These nerves, when activated, encourage the heart to beat harder and faster.
Forward osmosis Desalination Forward_osmosis > Applications > Desalination Desalinated water can be produced from the diluted draw / osmotic agent solution, using a second process. This may be by membrane separation, thermal method, physical separation or a combination of these processes. The process has the feature of inherently low fouling because of the forward osmosis first step, unlike conventional reverse osmosis desalination plants where fouling is often a problem. Modern Water has deployed forward osmosis based desalination plants in Gibraltar and Oman. In March 2010, National Geographic magazine cited forward osmosis as one of three technologies that promised to reduce the energy requirements of desalination.
Direct policy search Introduction Inverse_reinforcement_learning > Introduction If the agent only has access to a subset of states, or if the observed states are corrupted by noise, the agent is said to have partial observability, and formally the problem must be formulated as a Partially observable Markov decision process. In both cases, the set of actions available to the agent can be restricted. For example, the state of an account balance could be restricted to be positive; if the current value of the state is 3 and the state transition attempts to reduce the value by 4, the transition will not be allowed.
Machine vision glossary T Glossary_of_machine_vision > T Telecentric lens. Compound lens with an unusual property concerning its geometry of image-forming rays. In machine vision systems telecentric lenses are usually employed in order to achieve dimensional and geometric invariance of images within a range of different distances from the lens and across the whole field of view. Telephoto lens.
Fluid-Structure Interaction Numerical simulation Fluid_structure_interaction > Numerical simulation The Newton–Raphson method or a different fixed-point iteration can be used to solve FSI problems. Methods based on Newton–Raphson iteration are used in both the monolithic and the partitioned approach. These methods solve the nonlinear flow equations and the structural equations in the entire fluid and solid domain with the Newton–Raphson method. The system of linear equations within the Newton–Raphson iteration can be solved without knowledge of the Jacobian with a matrix-free iterative method, using a finite difference approximation of the Jacobian-vector product.
Lebesgue integrable Simple functions Lebesgue-integrable_function > Definition > Via simple functions > Simple functions A finite linear combination of indicator functions where the coefficients ak are real numbers and Sk are disjoint measurable sets, is called a measurable simple function. We extend the integral by linearity to non-negative measurable simple functions. When the coefficients ak are positive, we set whether this sum is finite or +∞. A simple function can be written in different ways as a linear combination of indicator functions, but the integral will be the same by the additivity of measures.
Strain partitioning Superposition of individual strain components Strain_partitioning > Superposition of individual strain components The superposition of individual strain components can be expressed at the tectonic scale involving oblique convergent margins and transpression / transtension tectonic regimes.
Nebivolol Summary Nebivolol Nebivolol is a beta blocker used to treat high blood pressure and heart failure. As with other β-blockers, it is generally a less preferred treatment for high blood pressure. It may be used by itself or with other blood pressure medication.
Energy development Sustainability Energy_source > History > Sustainability The environmental movement has emphasized sustainability of energy use and development. Renewable energy is sustainable in its production; the available supply will not be diminished for the foreseeable future - millions or billions of years. "Sustainability" also refers to the ability of the environment to cope with waste products, especially air pollution. Sources which have no direct waste products (such as wind, solar, and hydropower) are brought up on this point.
Normalizable wave function Ontology Normalized_wavefunction > Ontology Whether the wave function really exists, and what it represents, are major questions in the interpretation of quantum mechanics. Many famous physicists of a previous generation puzzled over this problem, such as Schrödinger, Einstein and Bohr. Some advocate formulations or variants of the Copenhagen interpretation (e.g. Bohr, Wigner and von Neumann) while others, such as Wheeler or Jaynes, take the more classical approach and regard the wave function as representing information in the mind of the observer, i.e. a measure of our knowledge of reality. Some, including Schrödinger, Bohm and Everett and others, argued that the wave function must have an objective, physical existence. Einstein thought that a complete description of physical reality should refer directly to physical space and time, as distinct from the wave function, which refers to an abstract mathematical space.
Natriuretic peptide Summary Natriuretic_peptide Since they are activated during heart failure, they are important for the protection of the heart and its tissues.Additionally, there are three natriuretic peptide receptors: Natriuretic Peptide Receptor-A (NPR-A), Natriuretic Peptide Receptor-B (NPR-B), and Natriuretic Peptide Receptor-C (NPR-C). NPR-A and NPR-B use cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) as its intracellular messenger. NPR-A binds selectively to ANP and BNP while NPR-B binds selectively to CNP.
Digital forensics Limitations Digital_forensics > Application > Limitations One major limitation to a forensic investigation is the use of encryption; this disrupts initial examination where pertinent evidence might be located using keywords. Laws to compel individuals to disclose encryption keys are still relatively new and controversial. But always more frequently there are solutions to brute force passwords or bypass encryption, such as in smartphones or PCs where by means of bootloader techniques the content of the device can be first acquired and later forced in order to find the password or encryption key.
Spring force General application to elastic materials Spring_Constant > General application to elastic materials Objects that quickly regain their original shape after being deformed by a force, with the molecules or atoms of their material returning to the initial state of stable equilibrium, often obey Hooke's law. Hooke's law only holds for some materials under certain loading conditions. Steel exhibits linear-elastic behavior in most engineering applications; Hooke's law is valid for it throughout its elastic range (i.e., for stresses below the yield strength). For some other materials, such as aluminium, Hooke's law is only valid for a portion of the elastic range.
Explosive force Evolution of heat Chemical_explosion > Properties > Evolution of heat Heats of formations for solids and gases found in explosive reactions have been determined for a temperature of 25 °C and atmospheric pressure, and are normally given in units of kilojoules per gram-molecule. A positive value indicates that heat is absorbed during the formation of the compound from its elements; such a reaction is called an endothermic reaction. In explosive technology only materials that are exothermic—that have a net liberation of heat and have a negative heat of formation—are of interest. Reaction heat is measured under conditions either of constant pressure or constant volume. It is this heat of reaction that may be properly expressed as the "heat of explosion."
GetFEM++ Components GetFEM++ > Components Combining so called brick objects, is the standard way of representing mathematical equations in GetFEM++. Such predefined bricks corresponding to common equation terms like elasticity, Helmholtz, Dirichlet condition and Neumann source terms are included in the software. Among other there is also a number of elaborated bricks related to contact mechanics, corresponding to different formulations of contact with or without friction. The assembling procedures included in GetFEM++ aim at efficiently calculating the contribution of each brick to the global tangent matrix and right hand side term of the linearized system of equations.