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Integrated solar combined cycle Summary Bottoming_cycle A combined cycle power plant is an assembly of heat engines that work in tandem from the same source of heat, converting it into mechanical energy. On land, when used to make electricity the most common type is called a combined cycle gas turbine (CCGT) plant. The same principle is also used for marine propulsion, where it is called a combined gas and steam (COGAS) plant. Combining two or more thermodynamic cycles improves overall efficiency, which reduces fuel costs.
Exogenous antigen Tumor antigens Antibody_generator > Sources > Neoantigens > Tumor antigens Tumor antigens are those antigens that are presented by MHC class I or MHC class II molecules on the surface of tumor cells. Antigens found only on such cells are called tumor-specific antigens (TSAs) and generally result from a tumor-specific mutation. More common are antigens that are presented by tumor cells and normal cells, called tumor-associated antigens (TAAs). Cytotoxic T lymphocytes that recognize these antigens may be able to destroy tumor cells.Tumor antigens can appear on the surface of the tumor in the form of, for example, a mutated receptor, in which case they are recognized by B cells.For human tumors without a viral etiology, novel peptides (neo-epitopes) are created by tumor-specific DNA alterations.
Cardiac stress test Diagnostic value Cardiopulmonary_exercise_test > Diagnostic value This is because the stress test compares the patient's coronary flow status before and after exercise and is suitable to detecting specific areas of ischemia and lumen narrowing, not a generalized arterial thickening.According to American Heart Association data, about 65% of men and 47% of women present with a heart attack or sudden cardiac arrest as their first symptom of cardiovascular disease. Stress tests, carried out shortly before these events, are not relevant to the prediction of infarction in the majority of individuals tested. Over the past two decades, better methods have been developed to identify atherosclerotic disease before it becomes symptomatic.
Periodic Videos Content Periodic_Videos > Content The intent of the videos is to bring chemistry to a new generation of students and to get them enthused about science and understand how chemists think and what chemists are trying to do. Many school teachers now incorporate these videos into their classes, and the professor has even recorded video responses to some of the students' questions.
Simple Harmonic Motion Energy Simple_Harmonic_Motion > Energy Substituting ω2 with k/m, the kinetic energy K of the system at time t is and the potential energy is In the absence of friction and other energy loss, the total mechanical energy has a constant value
Graph automorphism Algorithms, software and applications Graph_automorphism_problem > Algorithms, software and applications However, this has not been established for a fact, as of March 2012. Practical applications of Graph Automorphism include graph drawing and other visualization tasks, solving structured instances of Boolean Satisfiability arising in the context of Formal verification and Logistics. Molecular symmetry can predict or explain chemical properties.
Einsteinium Isotopes Einsteinium > Characteristics > Isotopes Nineteen isotopes and three nuclear isomers are known for einsteinium, with mass numbers ranging from 240 to 257. All are radioactive and the most stable nuclide, 252Es, has a half-life of 471.7 days. The next most stable isotopes are 254Es (half-life 275.7 days), 255Es (39.8 days), and 253Es (20.47 days). All of the remaining isotopes have half-lives shorter than 40 hours, most shorter than 30 minutes. Of the three nuclear isomers, the most stable is 254mEs with a half-life of 39.3 hours.
COVID-19 drug repurposing research Dexamethasone COVID-19_drug_repurposing_research > Steroids > Dexamethasone Following an analysis of seven randomized trials, the WHO recommends the use of systemic corticosteroids in guidelines for treatment of people with severe or critical illness, and that they not be used in people that do not meet the criteria for severe illness.On 16 June, the Oxford University RECOVERY Trial issued a press release announcing preliminary results that the drug could reduce deaths by about a third in participants on ventilators and by about a fifth in participants on oxygen; it did not benefit patients who did not require respiratory support. The researchers estimated that treating 8 patients on ventilators with dexamethasone saved one life, and treating 25 patients on oxygen saved one life. Several experts called for the full dataset to be published quickly to allow wider analysis of the results.
Concentration measurements Summary Concentration The molar (amount) concentration has variants, such as normal concentration and osmotic concentration. Dilution is reduction of concentration, e.g. by adding solvent to a solution. The verb to concentrate means to increase concentration, the opposite of dilute.
Psychoactive compound Recreation Psychotropic_medication > Uses > Recreation Type of substance was the primary predictor of transition from drug-induced psychosis to schizophrenia, with highest rates associated with cannabis (6 studies, 34%, CI 25%–46%), hallucinogens (3 studies, 26%, CI 14%–43%) and amphetamines (5 studies, 22%, CI 14%–34%). Lower rates were reported for opioid (12%), alcohol (10%) and sedative (9%) induced psychoses. Transition rates were slightly lower in older cohorts but were not affected by sex, country of the study, hospital or community location, urban or rural setting, diagnostic methods, or duration of follow-up.
Social information processing theory Assumptions Social_information_processing_(theory) > Overview > Assumptions Social information processing researchers like Joseph Walther are intrigued by how identities are managed online and how relationships are able to move from one of superficiality to one of intimacy. Three assumptions related to SIP theory are listed below: Computer-mediated communication provides unique opportunities to connect with people.The first assumption rests on the premise that computer-mediated communication is a unique opportunity to build interpersonal relationships with others. CMC systems are vast and almost always text-based.
Capital costs Example Capital_cost > Example For example, a fossil fuel power plant's capital costs include the following: Purchase of the land upon which the plant is built Permits and legal costs Equipment needed to run the plant Costs involving the construction of the plant Financing and commissioning the plant (prior to commercial operation)They do not include the cost of the natural gas, fuel oil or coal used once the plant enters commercial operation or any taxes on the electricity that is produced. They also do not include the labor used to run the plant or the labor and supplies needed for maintenance.
Open problems in physics High-energy physics/particle physics Open_problems_in_physics > Problems solved since the 1990s > High-energy physics/particle physics Existence of quark-gluon plasma, a new phase of matter was discovered and confirmed in experiments at CERN-SPS (2000), BNL-RHIC (2005) and CERN-LHC (2010). Higgs boson and electroweak symmetry breaking (1963–2012): The mechanism responsible for breaking the electroweak gauge symmetry, giving mass to the W and Z bosons, was solved with the discovery of the Higgs boson of the Standard Model, with the expected couplings to the weak bosons. No evidence of a strong dynamics solution, as proposed by technicolor, has been observed. Origin of mass of most elementary particles: Solved with the discovery of the Higgs boson, which implies the existence of the Higgs field giving mass to these particles.
Direct function History Direct_function > History Of these, the "alternative APL function definition" of Bunda in 1987 came closest to current facilities, but is flawed in conflicts with existing symbols and in error handling which would have caused practical difficulties, and was never implemented. The main distillates from the different proposals were that (a) the function being defined is anonymous, with subsequent naming (if required) being effected by assignment; (b) the function is denoted by a symbol and thereby enables anonymous recursion.In 1996, John Scholes of Dyalog Limited invented direct functions (dfns). The ideas originated in 1989 when he read a special issue of The Computer Journal on functional programming.
Illinois algorithm Example: Growth of a bulrush Illinois_Method > Example: Growth of a bulrush In chapter 7 of The Nine Chapters, a root finding problem can be translated to modern language as follows: Excess And Deficit Problem #11: A bulrush grew 3 units on its first day. At the end of each day, the plant is observed to have grown by 1 /2 of the previous day's growth. A club-rush grew 1 unit on its first day. At the end of each day, the plant has grown by 2 times as much as the previous day's growth.
Molecular sensor Summary Molecular_sensor A molecular sensor or chemosensor is a molecular structure (organic or inorganic complexes) that is used for sensing of an analyte to produce a detectable change or a signal. The action of a chemosensor, relies on an interaction occurring at the molecular level, usually involves the continuous monitoring of the activity of a chemical species in a given matrix such as solution, air, blood, tissue, waste effluents, drinking water, etc. The application of chemosensors is referred to as chemosensing, which is a form of molecular recognition. All chemosensors are designed to contain a signalling moiety and a recognition moiety, that is connected either directly to each other or through a some kind of connector or a spacer. The signalling is often optically based electromagnetic radiation, giving rise to changes in either (or both) the ultraviolet and visible absorption or the emission properties of the sensors.
Triple bond Bonding Triple_bond > Bonding When the carbon atoms approach each other, the sp orbitals overlap to form an sp-sp sigma bond. At the same time the pz-orbitals approach and together they form a pz-pz pi-bond. Likewise, the other pair of py-orbitals form a py-py pi-bond. The result is formation of one sigma bond and two pi bonds. In the bent bond model, the triple bond can also formed by the overlapping of three sp3 lobes without the need to invoke a pi-bond.
Haplogroup Haplogroup formation Haplogroup > Haplogroup formation The overwhelming majority of a human's DNA is contained in the chromosomes in the nucleus of the cell, but mtDNA is an exception. An individual inherits their cytoplasm and the organelles contained by that cytoplasm exclusively from the maternal ovum (egg cell); sperm only pass on the chromosomal DNA, all paternal mitochondria are digested in the oocyte. When a mutation arises in a mtDNA molecule, the mutation is therefore passed in a direct female line of descent.
Presentation layer Description Presentation_layer > Description For example, HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP), generally regarded as an application-layer protocol, has presentation-layer aspects such as the ability to identify character encoding for proper conversion, which is then done in the application layer. The presentation layer is the lowest layer at which application programmers consider data structure and presentation, instead of simply sending data in the form of datagrams or packets between hosts. This layer deals with issues of string representation - whether they use the Pascal method (an integer length field followed by the specified amount of bytes) or the C/C++ method (null-terminated strings, e.g. "thisisastring\0").
Determination of equilibrium constants Equilibrium constant refinement Determination_of_equilibrium_constants > Computational methods > Equilibrium constant refinement . ) λ c p q .
COVID-19 pandemic Signs and symptoms COVID-19_pandemic > Disease > Signs and symptoms Symptoms of COVID-19 are variable, ranging from mild symptoms to severe illness. Common symptoms include headache, loss of smell and taste, nasal congestion and runny nose, cough, muscle pain, sore throat, fever, diarrhoea, and breathing difficulties. People with the same infection may have different symptoms, and their symptoms may change over time. Three common clusters of symptoms have been identified: one respiratory symptom cluster with cough, sputum, shortness of breath, and fever; a musculoskeletal symptom cluster with muscle and joint pain, headache, and fatigue; a cluster of digestive symptoms with abdominal pain, vomiting, and diarrhoea. In people without prior ear, nose, and throat disorders, loss of taste combined with loss of smell is associated with COVID-19 and is reported in as many as 88% of cases.
Weak reference Garbage collection Weak_reference > Garbage collection Groups of mutually referencing objects which are not directly referenced by other objects and are unreachable can thus become permanently resident; if an application continually generates such unreachable groups of unreachable objects this will have the effect of a memory leak. Weak references (references which are not counted in reference counting) may be used to solve the problem of circular references if the reference cycles are avoided by using weak references for some of the references within the group. A very common case of such strong vs. weak reference distinctions is in tree structures, such as the Document Object Model (DOM), where parent-to-child references are strong, but child-to-parent references are weak.
Power law of cache misses Caveats Power_law_of_cache_misses > Caveats The power law can only give an estimate of the miss rate only up to a certain value of cache size. A large enough cache eliminates capacity misses and increasing the cache size further will not reduce the miss rate any further, contrary to the power law's prediction.The validity of the power law of cache misses also depends on the size of the working memory set in a given process and also on the temporal re-reference pattern of cache blocks in a process. If a process has a small working memory set relative to the cache size, capacity misses are unlikely and the power law does not hold. Although conflict misses reduce as associativity increases, Hartstein et al. showed that the power law holds irrespective of set associativity.
Salomon Bochner Mathematical work Salomon_Bochner > Mathematical work Subsequently, he worked on multiple Fourier series, posing the question of the Bochner–Riesz means. This led to results on how the Fourier transform on Euclidean space behaves under rotations.
Trakhtenbrot's theorem Alternative proof Trakhtenbrot's_theorem > Alternative proof Hq(s,t) indicates that at time t the machine is in state q, and its head is in position s.The sentence φM states that (i) <, min, Ti's and Hq's are interpreted as above and (ii) that the machine eventually halts. The halting condition is equivalent to saying that Hq∗(s, t) holds for some s, t and q∗ ∈ Qa ∪ Qr and after that state, the configuration of the machine does not change. Configurations of a halting machine (the nonhalting is not finite) can be represented as a τ (finite) sentence (more precisely, a finite τ-structure which satisfies the sentence).
Limbal stem cell Summary Limbal_stem_cell Limbal stem cells, also known as corneal epithelial stem cells, are unipotent stem cells located in the basal epithelial layer of the corneal limbus. They form the border between the cornea and the sclera. Characteristics of limbal stem cells include a slow turnover rate, high proliferative potential, clonogenicity, expression of stem cell markers, as well as the ability to regenerate the entire corneal epithelium. Limbal stem cell proliferation has the role of maintaining the cornea; for example, by replacing cells that are lost via tears. Additionally, these cells also prevent the conjunctival epithelial cells from migrating onto the surface of the cornea.
Java messaging service Elements Java_Message_Service > Elements JMS consumer/subscriber A JMS client that receives messages. JMS message An object that contains the data being transferred between JMS clients. JMS queue A staging area that contains messages that have been sent and are waiting to be read (by only one consumer).
Logarithmic data transformation Transforming to normality Data_transformation_(statistics) > Common cases > Transforming to normality A linguistic power function is distributed according to the Zipf-Mandelbrot law. The distribution is extremely spiky and leptokurtic, this is the reason why researchers had to turn their backs to statistics to solve e.g. authorship attribution problems. Nevertheless, usage of Gaussian statistics is perfectly possible by applying data transformation.3.
Validity (logic) Satisfiability Validity_(logic) > Satisfiability Model theory analyzes formulae with respect to particular classes of interpretation in suitable mathematical structures. On this reading, formula is valid if all such interpretations make it true. An inference is valid if all interpretations that validate the premises validate the conclusion. This is known as semantic validity.
Antenna combining Vote-lock or vote-and-hold option Antenna_combining > Switched combining two-way radio example > Vote-lock or vote-and-hold option The majority of installations using diversity combining equipment continually evaluate the best received signal against all other signals. Throughout the length of a received transmission, the comparator may switch receivers as often as every few tenths of a second. As a walkie-talkie user causes a signal fade by turning their head, or a passing tractor-trailer rig blocks their signal at the voted receive site, the combining unit rapidly changes to a different receiver.In some installations, diversity combining equipment is configured to lock on a receiver.
Outer join Straight join Inner_join > Implementation > Straight join Some database systems allow the user to force the system to read the tables in a join in a particular order. This is used when the join optimizer chooses to read the tables in an inefficient order. For example, in MySQL the command STRAIGHT_JOIN reads the tables in exactly the order listed in the query.
Oral administration Scope Oral_Medications > Scope Oral administration includes: Buccal, dissolved inside the cheek Sublabial, dissolved under the lip Sublingual administration (SL), dissolved under the tongue, but due to rapid absorption many consider SL a parenteral routeEnteral medications come in various forms, including oral solid dosage (OSD) forms: Tablets to swallow, chew or dissolve in water or under the tongue Capsules and chewable capsules (with a coating that dissolves in the stomach or bowel to release the medication there) Time-release or sustained-release tablets and capsules (which release the medication gradually) Powders or granulesand oral liquid dosage forms: Teas Drops Liquid medications or syrups
Transpirational cooling (biological) Transpiration and cooling Transpirational_cooling_(biological) > Transpiration and cooling The energy required for the surrounding air to move in is readily calculated from the small (one-fifteenth of latent heat) reduction in temperature. A small amount of that water transpired is used for growth and metabolism. Photosynthesis takes place in the cells of plants and other organisms such as algae, that contain chlorophyll.
NAAMES study Mixed Layer Depth Debate NAAMES_study > Background > Physical oceanographic processes > Mixed Layer Depth Debate The SSH in both anticyclonic and cyclonic decreases and increases, respectively, as the distance from the center increases. Upwelling and downwelling processes in the eddies create a cold and warm core. Downwelling in the anticyclonic eddy prevents colder water from entering the surface, thus creating a warm-core in the center.
Multi level feedback queue Algorithm Multilevel_feedback_queue > Process scheduling > Algorithm Only if the highest level queue has become empty will the scheduler take up a process from the next lower level queue. The same policy is implemented for picking up in the subsequent lower level queues. Meanwhile, if a process comes into any of the higher level queues, it will preempt a process in the lower level queue.
Enneagram of Personality Wings Riso–Hudson_Enneagram_Type_Indicator > Nine types > Wings Related to, but not the same, as the wing theory is Ichazo's theory involving the active, attractive, and function forces. According to him, the type is made from a starting point, referred to as the active force. In turn, the type is also led with an attractive force. This ends with the "function", where the result is the formation of a type in between the two. Naranjo said about the wings that a person "can easily see" their primary type as being between its adjacent wings.
Dispersity Overview Polydispersity_index > Overview This is characteristic of man-made polymers. Natural organic matter produced by the decomposition of plants and wood debris in soils (humic substances) also has a pronounced polydispersed character. It is the case of humic acids and fulvic acids, natural polyelectrolyte substances having respectively higher and lower molecular weights.
Residual network Summary Flow_problem In graph theory, a flow network (also known as a transportation network) is a directed graph where each edge has a capacity and each edge receives a flow. The amount of flow on an edge cannot exceed the capacity of the edge. Often in operations research, a directed graph is called a network, the vertices are called nodes and the edges are called arcs. A flow must satisfy the restriction that the amount of flow into a node equals the amount of flow out of it, unless it is a source, which has only outgoing flow, or sink, which has only incoming flow. A network can be used to model traffic in a computer network, circulation with demands, fluids in pipes, currents in an electrical circuit, or anything similar in which something travels through a network of nodes.
Cane sugar Metabolism of sucrose Cane_sugar > Consumption > Metabolism of sucrose Sucrose is an easily assimilated macronutrient that provides a quick source of energy, provoking a rapid rise in blood glucose upon ingestion. Sucrose, as a pure carbohydrate, has an energy content of 3.94 kilocalories per gram (or 17 kilojoules per gram). If consumed excessively, sucrose may contribute to the development of metabolic syndrome, including increased risk for type 2 diabetes, insulin resistance, weight gain and obesity in adults and children.
Bernoulli trial Definition Bernoulli_trial > Definition Independent repeated trials of an experiment with exactly two possible outcomes are called Bernoulli trials. Call one of the outcomes "success" and the other outcome "failure". Let p {\displaystyle p} be the probability of success in a Bernoulli trial, and q {\displaystyle q} be the probability of failure. Then the probability of success and the probability of failure sum to one, since these are complementary events: "success" and "failure" are mutually exclusive and exhaustive.
Spectrochemical series Summary Crystal-field_splitting_parameter A spectrochemical series is a list of ligands ordered by ligand "strength", and a list of metal ions based on oxidation number, group and element. For a metal ion, the ligands modify the difference in energy Δ between the d orbitals, called the ligand-field splitting parameter in ligand field theory, or the crystal-field splitting parameter in crystal field theory. The splitting parameter is reflected in the ion's electronic and magnetic properties such as its spin state, and optical properties such as its color and absorption spectrum.
T-criterion Limitations T-criterion > Limitations The criterion will not predict any failure due to distortion for elastic-perfectly plastic, rigid-plastic, or strain softening materials. For the case of nonlinear elasticity, appropriate calculations for the integrals in and (12) and (13) accounting for the nonlinear elastic material properties must be performed. The two threshold values for the elastic strain energy T V , 0 {\displaystyle T_{V,0}} and T D , 0 {\displaystyle T_{D,0}} are derived from experimental data.
Renal tubular acidosis Type 1: distal Renal_tubular_acidosis > Types > Type 1: distal Nephrocalcinosis (deposition of calcium in the substance of the kidney) Bone demineralisation (causing rickets in children and osteomalacia in adults) Growth deficiency Medullary cysts Sensorineural hearing loss Hereditary hemolytic anemiaDistal RTA has also been linked to specific genetic mutations that will alter when the disease will present in the patient's life. Patient's with mutations in ATP6V1B1 and ATP6V0A4 will present with symptoms within the first year of life, while those with mutation of the SLC4A1 have delayed onset around 10 years of age. Electrolyte imbalances remain the same, while in severe cases symptoms can advance to amino aciduria and hyperammonemia.
Antigenic determinants T cell epitopes Antigenic_determinant > Function > T cell epitopes T cell epitopes are presented on the surface of an antigen-presenting cell, where they are bound to major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules. In humans, professional antigen-presenting cells are specialized to present MHC class II peptides, whereas most nucleated somatic cells present MHC class I peptides. T cell epitopes presented by MHC class I molecules are typically peptides between 8 and 11 amino acids in length, whereas MHC class II molecules present longer peptides, 13–17 amino acids in length, and non-classical MHC molecules also present non-peptidic epitopes such as glycolipids.
Contact tracing Limitations Contact_tracing > Technology > Limitations Not all countries can provide these services to their residents. Compliance is also a factor.
Variance analysis Assumptions Analysis_of_Variance > Assumptions The analysis of variance has been studied from several approaches, the most common of which uses a linear model that relates the response to the treatments and blocks. Note that the model is linear in parameters but may be nonlinear across factor levels. Interpretation is easy when data is balanced across factors but much deeper understanding is needed for unbalanced data.
Computational phylogenetics Bayesian inference Phylogenetic_inference > Bayesian inference Bayesian inference can be used to produce phylogenetic trees in a manner closely related to the maximum likelihood methods. Bayesian methods assume a prior probability distribution of the possible trees, which may simply be the probability of any one tree among all the possible trees that could be generated from the data, or may be a more sophisticated estimate derived from the assumption that divergence events such as speciation occur as stochastic processes. The choice of prior distribution is a point of contention among users of Bayesian-inference phylogenetics methods.Implementations of Bayesian methods generally use Markov chain Monte Carlo sampling algorithms, although the choice of move set varies; selections used in Bayesian phylogenetics include circularly permuting leaf nodes of a proposed tree at each step and swapping descendant subtrees of a random internal node between two related trees. The use of Bayesian methods in phylogenetics has been controversial, largely due to incomplete specification of the choice of move set, acceptance criterion, and prior distribution in published work.
Data parallel Steps to parallelization Data_parallelism > Steps to parallelization The process of parallelizing a sequential program can be broken down into four discrete steps.
Artificial intelligence in government Risks Artificial_intelligence_in_government > Risks Risks associated with the use of AI in government include AI becoming susceptible to bias, a lack of transparency in how an AI application may make decisions, and the accountability for any such decisions.AI in governance and the economic world might make the market more difficult for companies to keep up with the increases in technology. Large U.S. companies like Apple and Google are able to dominate the market with their latest and most advanced technologies. This gives them an advantage over smaller companies that do not have the means of advancing as far in the digital technology fields with AI.
Basic Linear Algebra Subprograms Implementations Basic_Linear_Algebra_Subprograms > Implementations Part of the AMD Compute Libraries. clBLAST A tuned OpenCL implementation of most of the BLAS api. Eigen BLAS A Fortran 77 and C BLAS library implemented on top of the MPL-licensed Eigen library, supporting x86, x86-64, ARM (NEON), and PowerPC architectures.
Pyruvic acid Biochemistry Pyruvic_acid > Biochemistry Pyruvate is an important chemical compound in biochemistry. It is the output of the metabolism of glucose known as glycolysis. One molecule of glucose breaks down into two molecules of pyruvate, which are then used to provide further energy, in one of two ways. Pyruvate is converted into acetyl-coenzyme A, which is the main input for a series of reactions known as the Krebs cycle (also known as the citric acid cycle or tricarboxylic acid cycle).
Classic RISC pipeline Memory access Classic_RISC_pipeline > The classic five stage RISC pipeline > Memory access If data memory needs to be accessed, it is done in this stage. During this stage, single cycle latency instructions simply have their results forwarded to the next stage. This forwarding ensures that both one and two cycle instructions always write their results in the same stage of the pipeline so that just one write port to the register file can be used, and it is always available. For direct mapped and virtually tagged data caching, the simplest by far of the numerous data cache organizations, two SRAMs are used, one storing data and the other storing tags.
Histocompatibility molecule Antigen processing and presentation Major_histocompatibility_complex_2 > Antigen processing and presentation In MHC class I, any nucleated cell normally presents cytosolic peptides, mostly self peptides derived from protein turnover and defective ribosomal products. During viral infection, intracellular microorganism infection, or cancerous transformation, such proteins degraded in the proteosome are as well loaded onto MHC class I molecules and displayed on the cell surface. T lymphocytes can detect a peptide displayed at 0.1–1% of the MHC molecules.
Antoine equation Units Antoine_equation > Units A similarly simple transformation can be used if the common logarithm should be exchanged by the natural logarithm. It is sufficient to multiply the A and B parameters by ln(10) = 2.302585. The example calculation with the converted parameters (for K and Pa): A, 23.7836 B, 3782.89 C, −42.85becomes ln ⁡ P = 23 .
List of equations in classical mechanics General energy definitions Moment_of_mass > Classical mechanics > General energy definitions Every conservative force has a potential energy. By following two principles one can consistently assign a non-relative value to U: Wherever the force is zero, its potential energy is defined to be zero as well. Whenever the force does work, potential energy is lost.
Sampling distribution Summary Sampling_distribution In statistics, a sampling distribution or finite-sample distribution is the probability distribution of a given random-sample-based statistic. If an arbitrarily large number of samples, each involving multiple observations (data points), were separately used in order to compute one value of a statistic (such as, for example, the sample mean or sample variance) for each sample, then the sampling distribution is the probability distribution of the values that the statistic takes on. In many contexts, only one sample is observed, but the sampling distribution can be found theoretically. Sampling distributions are important in statistics because they provide a major simplification en route to statistical inference. More specifically, they allow analytical considerations to be based on the probability distribution of a statistic, rather than on the joint probability distribution of all the individual sample values.
Causal relationship Process theories Causal_relationship > Theories > Process theories A subgroup of the process theories is the mechanistic view on causality. It states that that causal relations supervene on mechanisms. While the notion of mechanism is understood differently, the definition put forward by the group of philosophers referred to as the 'New Mechanists' dominate the literature.
Ionic Framework Summary Ionic_Framework Ionic is a complete open-source SDK for hybrid mobile app development created by Max Lynch, Ben Sperry, and Adam Bradley of Drifty Co. in 2013. The original version was released in 2013 and built on top of AngularJS and Apache Cordova. However, the latest release was re-built as a set of Web Components using StencilJS, allowing the user to choose any user interface framework, such as Angular, React or Vue.js.
Julian Schwinger Schwinger and Feynman Julian_Schwinger > Biography > Schwinger and Feynman The true difference is however deeper, and it was expressed by Schwinger in the following passage, Eventually, these ideas led to Lagrangian or action formulations of quantum mechanics, appearing in two distinct but related forms, which I distinguish as differential and integral. The latter, spearheaded by Feynman has had all the press coverage, but I continue to believe that the differential viewpoint is more general, more elegant, more useful. Despite sharing the Nobel Prize, Schwinger and Feynman had a different approach to quantum electrodynamics and to quantum field theory in general.
Dynamic Systems Development Method Comparison to other development frameworks Dynamic_Systems_Development_Method > Comparison to other development frameworks DSDM can be considered as part of a broad range of iterative and incremental development frameworks, especially those supporting agile and object-oriented methods. These include (but are not limited to) scrum, extreme programming (XP), disciplined agile delivery (DAD), and Rational Unified Process (RUP). Like DSDM, these share the following characteristics: They all prioritise requirements and work though them iteratively, building a system or product in increments. They are tool-independent frameworks.
Scale (geography) Types Scale_(geography) > Types Cartographic scale or map scale: a large-scale map covers a smaller area but embodies more detail, while a small-scale map covers a larger area with less detail. Operational scale: the spatial extent at which a particular phenomenon operates. E.g. orogeny operates at a much larger scale than the formation of a river pothole does.
Purple nonsulfur bacteria Photosynthetic unit Purple_bacteria > Metabolism > Photosynthesis > Photosynthetic unit Purple bacteria use bacteriochlorophyll and carotenoids to obtain the light energy for photosynthesis. Electron transfer and photosynthetic reactions occur at the cell membrane in the photosynthetic unit which is composed by the light-harvesting complexes LHI and LHII and the photosynthetic reaction centre where the charge separation reaction occurs. These structures are located in the intracytoplasmic membrane, areas of the cytoplasmic membrane invaginated to form vesicle sacs, tubules, or single-paired or stacked lamellar sheets which have increased surface to maximize light absorption. Light-harvesting complexes are involved in the energy transfer to the reaction centre.
Newton's cradle Summary Newton's_cradle The Newton's cradle is a device that demonstrates the conservation of momentum and the conservation of energy with swinging spheres. When one sphere at the end is lifted and released, it strikes the stationary spheres, transmitting a pressure or sonic wave through the stationary spheres that creates a force that pushes the last sphere upward. The last sphere swings back and strikes the nearly stationary spheres, repeating the effect in the opposite direction. The device is named after 17th-century English scientist Sir Isaac Newton and designed by French scientist Edme Mariotte. It is also known as Newton's pendulum, Newton's balls, Newton's rocker or executive ball clicker (since the device makes a click each time the balls collide, which they do repeatedly in a steady rhythm).
Geometric complexity theory Summary Geometric_complexity_theory The approach is considered by some to be the only viable currently active program to separate P from NP. However, Ketan Mulmuley believes the program, if viable, is likely to take about 100 years before it can settle the P vs. NP problem.The program is pursued by several researchers in mathematics and theoretical computer science. Part of the reason for the interest in the program is the existence of arguments for the program avoiding known barriers such as relativization and natural proofs for proving general lower bounds.
Hemorheology Clinical significance Blood_viscoelasticity > Blood viscosity > Clinical significance Many conventional cardiovascular risk factors have been independently linked to whole blood viscosity. Anemia can reduce blood viscosity, which may lead to heart failure. Furthermore, elevation of plasma viscosity correlates to the progression of coronary and peripheral artery diseases.
Aum (unit) Conversion Aum_(unit) > Conversion 1 aum = 30-32 gallons 1 aum = 0.136-0.145 m3 == References ==
Anchor Modeling Summary Anchor_Modeling The resulting models can be translated to physical database designs using formalized rules. When such a translation is done the tables in the relational database will mostly be in the sixth normal form. Unlike the star schema (dimensional modelling) and the classical relational model (3NF), data vault and anchor modelling are well-suited for capturing changes that occur when a source system is changed or added, but are considered advanced techniques which require experienced data architects. Both data vaults and anchor models are entity-based models, but anchor models have a more normalized approach.
Web Calendar Access Protocol Summary Web_Calendar_Access_Protocol Web Calendar Access Protocol (WCAP) is a protocol for remote client-server calendar access and scheduling based on the XML, HTTP, iCalendar, and vCard Internet standards. WCAP was created for use with the product that eventually became Sun Java System Calendar Server. WCAP uses simple HTTP GET commands for accessing iCalendar, Freebusy, TODO and vCard entries. WCAP responses are either the traditional text form or an XML form of iCalendar/etc. Several plugins exist including those for Mozilla Thunderbird, Novell Evolution and Microsoft Outlook.CalDAV is a competing protocol which as of 2007 underwent standardization.
Water (data page) Water/steam equilibrium properties Steam_table > Water/steam equilibrium properties Data in the table above is given for water–steam equilibria at various temperatures over the entire temperature range at which liquid water can exist. Pressure of the equilibrium is given in the second column in kPa. The third column is the heat content of each gram of the liquid phase relative to water at 0 °C.
Frequency probability Scope Frequentist_interpretation_of_probability > Scope The frequentist interpretation is a philosophical approach to the definition and use of probabilities; it is one of several such approaches. It does not claim to capture all connotations of the concept 'probable' in colloquial speech of natural languages. As an interpretation, it is not in conflict with the mathematical axiomatization of probability theory; rather, it provides guidance for how to apply mathematical probability theory to real-world situations. It offers distinct guidance in the construction and design of practical experiments, especially when contrasted with the Bayesian interpretation.
Noncovalent interaction Polar–π Non-covalent_interactions > π-effects > Polar–π Polar–π interactions involve molecules with permanent dipoles (such as water) interacting with the quadrupole moment of a π-system (such as that in benzene (see figure 5). While not as strong as a cation-π interaction, these interactions can be quite strong (~1-2 kcal/mol), and are commonly involved in protein folding and crystallinity of solids containing both hydrogen bonding and π-systems. In fact, any molecule with a hydrogen bond donor (hydrogen bound to a highly electronegative atom) will have favorable electrostatic interactions with the electron-rich π-system of a conjugated molecule.
Digital right management Encryption Technological_protection_measures > Technologies > Encryption Encryption alters content in a way that means that it cannot be used without first decrypting it. Encryption can ensure that other restriction measures cannot be bypassed by modifying software, so DRM systems typically rely on encryption in addition to other techniques.
Air-Cobot Obstacle avoidance Air-Cobot > Autonomous navigation > Obstacle avoidance In both navigation modes, Air-Cobot is also able to detect, track, identify and avoid obstacles that are in its way. The laser data from laser range sensors and visual data from the cameras can be used for detection, monitoring and identification of the obstacles. The detection and monitoring are better in the two-dimensional laser data, while identification is easier in the images from the cameras; the two methods are complementary.
Explicit Data Graph Execution CISC to RISC Explicit_Data_Graph_Execution > Traditional designs > CISC to RISC As a result, the vast majority of a program's time was being spent in only five instructions. Further, even when the program called one of those five instructions, the microcode required a finite time to decode it, even if it was just to call the internal hardware. On faster machines, this overhead was considerable.
Grid-connected PV system Summary Grid-connected_PV_system A grid-connected photovoltaic system, or grid-connected PV system is an electricity generating solar PV power system that is connected to the utility grid. A grid-connected PV system consists of solar panels, one or several inverters, a power conditioning unit and grid connection equipment. They range from small residential and commercial rooftop systems to large utility-scale solar power stations. When conditions are right, the grid-connected PV system supplies the excess power, beyond consumption by the connected load, to the utility grid.
Software code Kernel Program Computer_programs > Functional categories > Operating system > Kernel Program The kernel program should provide a communication channel between executing processes. For a large software system, it may be desirable to engineer the system into smaller processes. Processes may communicate with one another by sending and receiving signals.Originally, operating systems were programmed in assembly; however, modern operating systems are typically written in higher-level languages like C, Objective-C, and Swift.
Lorentz Boost Vector transformations Lorentz_transformations > Physical formulation of Lorentz boosts > Vector transformations The use of vectors allows positions and velocities to be expressed in arbitrary directions compactly. A single boost in any direction depends on the full relative velocity vector v with a magnitude |v| = v that cannot equal or exceed c, so that 0 ≤ v < c. Only time and the coordinates parallel to the direction of relative motion change, while those coordinates perpendicular do not. With this in mind, split the spatial position vector r as measured in F, and r′ as measured in F′, each into components perpendicular (⊥) and parallel ( ‖ ) to v, then the transformations are where · is the dot product. The Lorentz factor γ retains its definition for a boost in any direction, since it depends only on the magnitude of the relative velocity.
Regulatory biology Sodium concentration Predictive_homeostasis > Controls of variables > Sodium concentration Here it causes the reabsorption of sodium ions from the renal tubular fluid, in exchange for potassium ions which are secreted from the blood plasma into the tubular fluid to exit the body via the urine. The reabsorption of sodium ions from the renal tubular fluid halts further sodium ion losses from the body, and therefore preventing the worsening of hyponatremia. The hyponatremia can only be corrected by the consumption of salt in the diet.
Sprocket Transportation Sprocket > Transportation The resulting lower gear ratios make the bike easier to pedal up hills while the higher gear ratios make the bike more powerful to pedal on flats and downhills. In a similar way, manually changing the sprockets on a motorcycle can change the characteristics of acceleration and top speed by modifying the final drive gear ratio. The final drive gear ratio can be calculated by dividing the number of teeth on the rear sprocket by the number of teeth on the counter-shaft sprocket. With respect to the stock gearing on a motorcycle, installing a smaller counter-shaft sprocket (fewer teeth), or a larger rear sprocket (more teeth), produces a lower gear ratio, which increases the acceleration of the motorcycle but decreases its top speed. Installing a larger counter-shaft sprocket, or a smaller rear sprocket, produces a higher gear ratio, which decreases the acceleration of the motorcycle but increases its top speed.
Multiple-vehicle collision Effects Multiple-vehicle_collision > Effects Multiple-vehicle collisions are particularly deadly as the mass of crumpled vehicles makes escape for survivors difficult. Even if survivors are able to exit their vehicles, other cars may strike them. Individual vehicles in a multiple-vehicle collision are often hit multiple times at high speed, increasing the risk of injury to passengers who may have survived the first impact with the benefit of now-discharged protective airbags.
Crossover experiment (chemistry) Design Crossover_experiment_(chemistry) > Design In designing a crossover experiment the first task is to propose possible mechanisms for the reaction being studied. Based on these possible mechanisms, the goal is to determine either a traditional crossover experiment or an isotope scrambling experiment that will enable the researcher to distinguish between the two or more possible mechanisms. Often many methods of mechanistic study will have to be employed to support or discount all of the mechanisms proposed. However, in some cases a crossover experiment alone will be able to distinguish between the main possibilities, for example in the case of intramolecular vs. intermolecular organic reaction mechanisms.
Mainstreaming (education) Benefits to students with disabilities Mainstreaming_(education) > Advantages > Benefits to students with disabilities Higher academic achievement: Mainstreaming has shown to be more academically effective than exclusion practices. For instance, the National Center for Learning Disabilities found that the graduation rate for students with learning disabilities was 70.8% for the 2013-2014 year, although this report does not differentiate between students enrolled in mainstreaming, inclusive, or segregated programs. Access to a resource room for direct instruction has shown to be effective in increasing students' academic skills and thus increasing the abilities applied by students in a general education setting. Compared to full-time placement in a special education class or special school, both part-time and full-time placement in the regular classroom have been shown to improve academic achievement in students with mild academic disabilities, as well as to improve their long-term behavior.Better social skills: Any kind of inclusion practice, including mainstreaming, allows students with disabilities to learn social skills through observation, gain a better understanding of the world around them, and become a part of the "regular" community.
Instantaneous rate of change Rules for basic functions Derivative > Rules of computation > Rules for basic functions Here are the rules for the derivatives of the most common basic functions, where a is a real number. Derivatives of powers: d d x x a = a x a − 1 . {\displaystyle {\frac {d}{dx}}x^{a}=ax^{a-1}.} Exponential and logarithmic functions: d d x e x = e x .
Large Language Model Tool use Large_Language_Model > Tool use There are certain tasks that, in principle, cannot be solved by any LLM, at least not without the use of external tools or additional software. An example of such a task is responding to the user's input '354 * 139 = ', provided that the LLM has not already encountered a continuation of this calculation in its training corpus. In such cases, the LLM needs to resort to running program code that calculates the result, which can then be included in its response. Another example is 'What is the time now?
Shape parameter Estimation Shape_parameter > Estimation Many estimators measure location or scale; however, estimators for shape parameters also exist. Most simply, they can be estimated in terms of the higher moments, using the method of moments, as in the skewness (3rd moment) or kurtosis (4th moment), if the higher moments are defined and finite. Estimators of shape often involve higher-order statistics (non-linear functions of the data), as in the higher moments, but linear estimators also exist, such as the L-moments. Maximum likelihood estimation can also be used.
Planar symmetry In psychology and neuroscience Symmetry > In science and nature > In psychology and neuroscience This is known as the Law of Symmetry. The role of symmetry in grouping and figure/ground organization has been confirmed in many studies. For instance, detection of reflectional symmetry is faster when this is a property of a single object.
Economic base analysis Assumptions Economic_base_analysis > Assumptions As H. Craig Davis points out, there are a number of assumptions on which economic base analysis is conducted. These include (1) that exports are the sole source of economic growth (investment, government spending, and household consumption are ignored); (2) that the export industry is homogeneous (i.e., that an increase or decrease of one export does not affect another); (3) the constancy of the export/service ratio; (4) that there is no inter-regional feedback; and (5) that there is a pool of underutilized resources.
Acquired resistance Naming Adaptive_immune_system > Naming The term "adaptive" as used in immunology is problematic as acquired immune responses can be both adaptive and maladaptive in the physiological sense. Indeed, both acquired and innate immune responses can be both adaptive and maladaptive in the evolutionary sense. Most textbooks today, following the early use by Janeway, use "adaptive" almost exclusively and noting in glossaries that the term is synonymous with "acquired".The classic sense of "acquired immunity" came to mean, since Tonegawa's discovery, "antigen-specific immunity mediated by somatic gene rearrangements that create clone-defining antigen receptors".
Funding bias Selection of subjects or comparators Funding_bias > Causes > Selection of subjects or comparators Selection bias may result in a non-representative population of test subjects in spite of best efforts to obtain a representative sample. Even a double-blind study may be subject to biased selection of dependent variables, population (via inclusion and exclusion criteria), sample size, statistical methods, or inappropriate comparators, any of which can bias the outcome of a study to favor a particular conclusion.
Matter waves General matter waves DeBroglie_hypothesis > General matter waves The preceding sections refer specifically to free particles for which the wavefunctions are plane waves. There are significant numbers of other matter waves, which can be broadly split into three classes: single-particle matter waves, collective matter waves and standing waves.
Β1-adrenergic receptors Structure Beta-1_adrenergic_receptor > General Information > Structure The extracellular loops also contain several sites for post-translational modification and are involved in ligand binding. The third intracellular loop is the largest and contains phosphorylation sites for signaling regulation.
Evolutionary art Overview Evolutionary_art > Overview In common with biological evolution through natural selection or animal husbandry, the members of a population undergoing artificial evolution modify their form or behavior over many reproductive generations in response to a selective regime. In interactive evolution the selective regime may be applied by the viewer explicitly by selecting individuals which are aesthetically pleasing. Alternatively a selection pressure can be generated implicitly, for example according to the length of time a viewer spends near a piece of evolving art. Equally, evolution may be employed as a mechanism for generating a dynamic world of adaptive individuals, in which the selection pressure is imposed by the program, and the viewer plays no role in selection, as in the Black Shoals project.
Kernel methods for vector output History Kernel_methods_for_vector_output > History Much of the initial research in multitask learning in the machine learning community was algorithmic in nature, and applied to methods such as neural networks, decision trees and k-nearest neighbors in the 1990s. The use of probabilistic models and Gaussian processes was pioneered and largely developed in the context of geostatistics, where prediction over vector-valued output data is known as cokriging. Geostatistical approaches to multivariate modeling are mostly formulated around the linear model of coregionalization (LMC), a generative approach for developing valid covariance functions that has been used for multivariate regression and in statistics for computer emulation of expensive multivariate computer codes. The regularization and kernel theory literature for vector-valued functions followed in the 2000s. While the Bayesian and regularization perspectives were developed independently, they are in fact closely related.
Wee1 Role in cancer Wee1 > Role in cancer The mitosis promoting factor MPF also regulates DNA-damage induced apoptosis. Negative regulation of MPF by WEE1 causes aberrant mitosis and thus resistance to DNA-damage induced apoptosis. Kruppel-like factor 2 (KLF2) negatively regulates human WEE1, thus increasing sensitivity to DNA-damage induced apoptosis in cancer cells.
Gaspard Monge Career Gaspard_Monge > Biography > Career "I was a thousand times tempted," he said long afterwards, "to tear up my drawings in disgust at the esteem in which they were held, as if I had been good for nothing better. "After a year at the École Royale, Monge was asked to produce a plan for a fortification in such a way as to optimise its defensive arrangement. There was an established method for doing this which involved lengthy calculations but Monge devised a way of solving the problems by using drawings.
Component (UML) Summary Component_(UML) Typically the classifiers related to a component are owned by it.Components of a system are modeled by means of component diagrams throughout the development life cycle and successively refined into deployment and run-time.In diagrams, components are shown as a rectangle with the keyword «component». Optionally, in the right hand corner a component icon can be displayed. This is a rectangle with two smaller rectangles protruding from its left hand side. If the icon symbol is shown, the keyword «component» may be hidden as seen to the side.
Path integral formulation of quantum mechanics Summary Sum_over_histories The complete method was developed in 1948 by Richard Feynman. Some preliminaries were worked out earlier in his doctoral work under the supervision of John Archibald Wheeler. The original motivation stemmed from the desire to obtain a quantum-mechanical formulation for the Wheeler–Feynman absorber theory using a Lagrangian (rather than a Hamiltonian) as a starting point.
Glossary of quantum computing Summary Glossary_of_quantum_computing This means that if a quantum computer did generate those samples, then the quantum computer is too noisy and thus has no chance of performing beyond-classical computations. Since it takes an exponential amount of resources to classically simulate a quantum circuit, there comes a point when the biggest supercomputer that runs the best classical algorithm for simulating quantum circuits can't compute the XEB. Crossing this point is known as achieving quantum supremacy; and after entering the quantum supremacy regime, XEB can only be estimated.
Lebesgue measure Summary Lebesgue_measurable In measure theory, a branch of mathematics, the Lebesgue measure, named after French mathematician Henri Lebesgue, is the standard way of assigning a measure to subsets of n-dimensional Euclidean space. For n = 1, 2, or 3, it coincides with the standard measure of length, area, or volume. In general, it is also called n-dimensional volume, n-volume, or simply volume. It is used throughout real analysis, in particular to define Lebesgue integration.
Jacobian elliptic function Notation Jacobi_elliptic_cosine > Notation The elliptic functions can be given in a variety of notations, which can make the subject unnecessarily confusing. Elliptic functions are functions of two variables. The first variable might be given in terms of the amplitude φ {\displaystyle \varphi } , or more commonly, in terms of u {\displaystyle u} given below. The second variable might be given in terms of the parameter m {\displaystyle m} , or as the elliptic modulus k {\displaystyle k} , where k 2 = m {\displaystyle k^{2}=m} , or in terms of the modular angle α {\displaystyle \alpha } , where m = sin 2 ⁡ α {\displaystyle m=\sin ^{2}\alpha } .