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Specialized pro-resolving mediators Summary Specialized_pro-resolving_mediators Specialized pro-resolving mediators (SPM, also termed specialized proresolving mediators) are a large and growing class of cell signaling molecules formed in cells by the metabolism of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) by one or a combination of lipoxygenase, cyclooxygenase, and cytochrome P450 monooxygenase enzymes. Pre-clinical studies, primarily in animal models and human tissues, implicate SPM in orchestrating the resolution of inflammation. Prominent members include the resolvins and protectins. SPM join the long list of other physiological agents which tend to limit inflammation (see Inflammation § Resolution) including glucocorticoids, interleukin 10 (an anti-inflammatory cytokine), interleukin 1 receptor antagonist (an inhibitor of the action of pro-inflammatory cytokine, interleukin 1), annexin A1 (an inhibitor of formation of pro-inflammatory metabolites of polyunsaturated fatty acids), and the gaseous resolvins, carbon monoxide (see Carbon monoxide § Physiology), nitric oxide (see Nitric oxide § Biological functions), and hydrogen sulfide (see Hydrogen sulfide § Function in the body and Hydrogen sulfide § Involvement in diseases).The absolute as well as relative roles of the SPM along with other physiological anti-inflammatory agents in resolving human inflammatory responses remain to be defined precisely. However, studies suggest that synthetic SPM that are resistant to being metabolically inactivated hold promise of being clinically useful pharmacological tools for preventing and resolving a wide range of pathological inflammatory responses along with the tissue destruction and morbidity that these responses cause. Based on animal model studies, the inflammation-based diseases which may be treated by such metabolically resistant SPM analogs include not only pathological and tissue damaging responses to invading pathogens but also a wide array of pathological conditions in which inflammation is a contributing factor such as allergic inflammatory diseases (e.g. asthma, rhinitis), autoimmune diseases (e.g. rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus), psoriasis, atherosclerosis disease leading to heart attacks and strokes, type 1 and type 2 diabetes, the metabolic syndrome, and certain dementia syndromes (e.g. Alzheimer's disease, Huntington's disease).Many of the SPM are metabolites of omega-3 fatty acids and have been proposed to be responsible for the anti-inflammatory actions that are attributed to omega-3 fatty acid-rich diets.
Corticobulbar tract Functions Corticobulbar_tract > Functions This allows for the selective attention or inattention towards various stimuli.The corticobulbar tract innervates cranial motor nuclei bilaterally with the exception of the lower facial nuclei (which innervates facial muscles below the eyes) and the genioglossus muscle, which are innervated only unilaterally by the contralateral cortex. Among those nuclei that are bilaterally innervated a slightly stronger connection contralaterally than ipsilaterally is observed. The corticobulbar tract directly innervates the nuclei for cranial nerves V, VII, IX, and XII. The corticobulbar tract also contributes to the motor regions of cranial nerve X in the nucleus ambiguus.
Inverse Ackermann function Table of values Ackermann's_function > Table of values Computing the Ackermann function can be restated in terms of an infinite table. First, place the natural numbers along the top row. To determine a number in the table, take the number immediately to the left. Then use that number to look up the required number in the column given by that number and one row up.
Darboux function Darboux function Darboux's_theorem_(analysis) > Darboux function {\displaystyle x\mapsto {\begin{cases}\sin(1/x)&{\text{for }}x\neq 0,\\0&{\text{for }}x=0.\end{cases}}} By Darboux's theorem, the derivative of any differentiable function is a Darboux function. In particular, the derivative of the function x ↦ x 2 sin ⁡ ( 1 / x ) {\displaystyle x\mapsto x^{2}\sin(1/x)} is a Darboux function even though it is not continuous at one point. An example of a Darboux function that is nowhere continuous is the Conway base 13 function.
Friction drum Regional use in folk music Friction_drum > Regional use in folk music Portugal: sarronca. Romania: buhai (similar to the Ukrainian buhay), made of a wooden tub or bucket open at both ends with an animal skin tightened over the top and pierced in the middle for a horsehair "ox tail". This is rubbed with a wet hand.
Twinless twin Summary Twinless_twin A twinless twin, or lone twin, is a person whose twin has died. Twinless twins around the world unite through organizations and online groups to share support and the status as a twinless twin.Triplets, quadruplets and higher order multiples can also experience this sort of loss.
Risk factors of schizophrenia Fetal growth Risk_factors_of_schizophrenia > Environment > Fetal growth Lower than average birth weight has been one of the most consistent findings, indicating slowed fetal growth possibly mediated by genetic effects. In the first and only prospective study of the low birthweight, schizophrenia, and enlargement of brain ventricles suggestive of cerebral atrophy, Leigh Silverton and colleagues found that low birthweight (measured prospectively with regard to psychopathology) was associated with enlarged ventricles on CT scans in a sample at risk for schizophrenia over 30 years later. These signs suggestive of cerebral atrophy were associated with schizophrenia symptoms. In a follow-up study, Silverton et al. noted an interaction between genetic risk for schizophrenia and low birthweight.
Assistive technology service provider Summary Assistive_technology_service_provider Assistive technology service providers may specialize in several areas of assistive technology, including job accommodations, computer accessibility, vehicle modifications, architectural modifications and home modifications, augmentative and alternative communication, environmental controls, positioning devices, seating and mobility, sensory aids, and learning accommodations. They may be affiliated with hospitals, state vocational rehabilitation programs, schools, assistive technology companies, or disability organizations. Assistive technologies are often used for people who have any type of speech, hearing, or visual impairment.
Quantum heat engines and refrigerators Continuous quantum engines Quantum_absorption_refrigerator > Continuous quantum engines Continuous quantum engines are the quantum analogues of turbines. The work output mechanism is coupling to an external periodic field, typically the electromagnetic field. Thus the heat engine is a model for a laser. The models differ by the choice of their working substance and heat source and sink.
Adenosine diphosphate Citric acid cycle Adenosine_diphosphate > Cellular respiration > Citric acid cycle The citric acid cycle, also known as the Krebs cycle or the TCA (tricarboxylic acid) cycle is an 8-step process that takes the pyruvate generated by glycolysis and generates 4 NADH, FADH2, and GTP, which is further converted to ATP. It is only in step 5, where GTP is generated, by succinyl-CoA synthetase, and then converted to ATP, that ADP is used (GTP + ADP → GDP + ATP).
Amphoterism Summary Amphoteric_(chemistry) For example, amino acids and proteins are amphiprotic molecules because of their amine (−NH2) and carboxylic acid (−COOH) groups. Self-ionizable compounds like water are also amphiprotic. Ampholytes are amphoteric molecules that contain both acidic and basic functional groups.
Computational neuroanatomy Composition Neuroanatomy > Composition The extracellular matrix also provides support on the molecular level for the brain's cells, vehiculating substances to and from the blood vessels. At the organ level, the nervous system is composed of brain regions, such as the hippocampus in mammals or the mushroom bodies of the fruit fly. These regions are often modular and serve a particular role within the general systemic pathways of the nervous system.
Discrete Element Method Advantages and limitations Discrete_Element_Method > Advantages and limitations DEM is computationally demanding, which is the reason why it has not been so readily and widely adopted as continuum approaches in computational engineering sciences and industry. However, the actual program execution times can be reduced significantly when graphical processing units (GPUs) are utilized to conduct DEM simulations, due to the large number of computing cores on typical GPUs. In addition GPUs tend to be significantly more energy efficient than conventional computing clusters when conducting DEM simulations i.e. a DEM simulation solved on GPUs requires less energy than when it is solved on a conventional computing cluster.
Dirac Delta function Motivation and overview Dirac_distribution > Motivation and overview That is, Then the momentum at any time t is found by integration: Now, the model situation of an instantaneous transfer of momentum requires taking the limit as Δt → 0, giving a result everywhere except at 0: Here the functions F Δ t {\displaystyle F_{\Delta t}} are thought of as useful approximations to the idea of instantaneous transfer of momentum. The delta function allows us to construct an idealized limit of these approximations. Unfortunately, the actual limit of the functions (in the sense of pointwise convergence) lim Δ t → 0 F Δ t {\textstyle \lim _{\Delta t\to 0}F_{\Delta t}} is zero everywhere but a single point, where it is infinite.
Biology Cell signaling Biological_research > Cells > Cell signaling Tumor cells, for example, can reproduce uncontrollably because they release signals that initiate their own self-division. In paracrine signaling, the ligand diffuses to nearby cells and affects them. For example, brain cells called neurons release ligands called neurotransmitters that diffuse across a synaptic cleft to bind with a receptor on an adjacent cell such as another neuron or muscle cell.
Process monitoring Control model Process_monitoring > Control model To determine the fundamental model for any process, the inputs and outputs of the system are defined differently than for other chemical processes. The balance equations are defined by the control inputs and outputs rather than the material inputs. The control model is a set of equations used to predict the behavior of a system and can help determine what the response to change will be. The state variable (x) is a measurable variable that is a good indicator of the state of the system, such as temperature (energy balance), volume (mass balance) or concentration (component balance).
Cell mechanics Eukaryotic Cell_mechanics > Eukaryotic Eukaryotic cells are cells that consist of membrane-bound organelles, a membrane-bound nucleus, and more than one linear chromosome. Being much more complex than prokaryotic cells, cells without a true nucleus, eukaryotes must protect its organelles from outside forces.
White's law Argument synopsis White's_law > Description > Argument synopsis In the second, they use the energy of domesticated animals. In the third, they use the energy of plants (so White refers to agricultural revolution here). In the fourth, they learn to use the energy of natural resources: coal, oil, gas. In the fifth, they harness nuclear energy.
Fatal insomnia Research Fatal_familial_insomnia > Research Still with unclear benefit in humans, a number of treatments have had tentative success in slowing disease progression in animal models, including pentosan polysulfate, mepacrine, and amphotericin B. As of 2016, a study investigating doxycycline is being carried out.In 2009, a mouse model was made for FFI. These mice expressed a humanized version of the PrP protein that also contains the D178N FFI mutation. These mice appear to have progressively fewer and shorter periods of uninterrupted sleep, damage in the thalamus, and early deaths, similar to humans with FFI.The Prion Alliance was established by husband and wife duo Eric Minikel and Sonia Vallabh after Vallabh's mother was diagnosed with the fatal disease. They conduct research at the Broad Institute to develop therapeutics for human prion diseases. Other research interests involve identifying biomarkers to track the progression of prion disease in living people.
Fission product yield Mass vs. yield curve Fission_product_yield > Mass vs. yield curve The curves for the fission of the later actinides tend to make even more shallow valleys. In extreme cases such as 259Fm, only one peak is seen. Yield is usually expressed relative to number of fissioning nuclei, not the number of fission product nuclei, that is, yields should sum to 200%.
Solvent model Explicit models Solvent_model > Explicit models One such method is the Atomic Multipole Optimised Energetics for Biomolecular Applications (AMOEBA) force field. This method has been used to study the solvation dynamics of ions.
Feature scaling Summary Feature_scaling Feature scaling is a method used to normalize the range of independent variables or features of data. In data processing, it is also known as data normalization and is generally performed during the data preprocessing step.
Gleason's theorem History and outline of Gleason's proof Gleason's_theorem > History and outline of Gleason's proof Any such measure that can be written in the standard way, that is, by applying the Born rule to a quantum state, is termed a regular frame function. Gleason derives a sequence of lemmas concerning when a frame function is necessarily regular, culminating in the final theorem. First, he establishes that every continuous frame function on the Hilbert space R 3 {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{3}} is regular.
Higgs Field Nickname Higgs_Field > Public discussion > Naming > Nickname Why God Particle? Two reasons. One, the publisher wouldn't let us call it the Goddamn Particle, though that might be a more appropriate title, given its villainous nature and the expense it is causing. And two, there is a connection, of sorts, to another book, a much older one ... — Lederman & Teresi: 22 Lederman asks whether the Higgs boson was added just to perplex and confound those seeking knowledge of the universe, and whether physicists will be confounded by it as recounted in that story, or ultimately surmount the challenge and understand "how beautiful is the universe made".
Norm of a quaternion Summary Scalar_quaternion Quaternions are generally represented in the form where a, b, c, and d are real numbers; and 1, i, j, and k are the basis vectors or basis elements.Quaternions are used in pure mathematics, but also have practical uses in applied mathematics, particularly for calculations involving three-dimensional rotations, such as in three-dimensional computer graphics, computer vision, and crystallographic texture analysis. They can be used alongside other methods of rotation, such as Euler angles and rotation matrices, or as an alternative to them, depending on the application.
Motion picture content rating system Venezuela Motion_picture_rating_system > Venezuela Age ratings are divided into several categories. The age that corresponds to the category and the level of enforcement is defined by municipality ordinances. In the San Cristóbal municipality the following ratings apply: AA – Aimed at children under 12 years of age. A – Suitable for all ages.
Constructive set theory Set existence Constructive_set_theory > Subtheories of ZF > Set existence Its interplay with the membership relation has a recursive clause, in the sense that ( y ∈ S x ) ↔ ( y ∈ x ∨ y = x ) {\displaystyle (y\in Sx)\leftrightarrow (y\in x\lor y=x)} . By reflexivity of equality, x ∈ S x {\displaystyle x\in Sx} , and in particular S x {\displaystyle Sx} is always inhabited. A sort of blend between pairing and union, an axiom more readily related to the successor is the Axiom of adjunction.
Dimensional reduction Summary Dimensional_reduction Therefore, at this limit, with finite energy, zero is the only possible eigenvalue under gradient along the compact dimension, meaning that nothing depends on this dimension. Dimensional reduction also refers to a specific cancellation of divergences in Feynman diagrams. It was put forward by Amnon Aharony, Yoseph Imry, and Shang-keng Ma who proved in 1976 that "to all orders in perturbation expansion, the critical exponents in a d-dimensional (4 < d < 6) system with short-range exchange and a random quenched field are the same as those of a (d–2)-dimensional pure system." Their arguments indicated that the "Feynman diagrams which give the leading singular behavior for the random case are identically equal, apart from combinatorial factors, to the corresponding Feynman diagrams for the pure case in two fewer dimensions." This dimensional reduction was investigated further in the context of supersymmetric theory of Langevin stochastic differential equations by Giorgio Parisi and Nicolas Sourlas who "observed that the most infrared divergent diagrams are those with the maximum number of random source insertions, and, if the other diagrams are neglected, one is left with a diagrammatic expansion for a classical field theory in the presence of random sources... Parisi and Sourlas explained this dimensional reduction by a hidden supersymmetry."
Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics Software Smoothed_Particle_Hydrodynamics > External links > Software It provides C++ APIs for physical accurate simulation and aims to model coupled industrial dynamic systems including fluid, solid, multi-body dynamics and beyond. SPHysics is an open source SPH implementation in Fortran SPLASH is an open source (GPL) visualisation tool for SPH simulations SYMPLER: A freeware SYMbolic ParticLE simulatoR from the University of Freiburg. Nauticle is a general-purpose computational tool for particle-based numerical methods. NDYNAMICS is a commercial fluid simulation software based on implicit SPH developed by CENTROID LAB currently used for internal/external flooding/nuclear/chemical engineering applications.
Lung carcinoma Staging Bronchial_cancer > Diagnosis > Staging Lung cancer staging is an assessment of the degree of spread of the cancer from its original source. It is one of the factors affecting both the prognosis and the treatment of lung cancer.SCLC is typically staged with a relatively simple system: limited stage or extensive stage. Around a third of people are diagnosed at the limited stage, meaning cancer is confined to one side of the chest, within the scope of a single radiotherapy field. The other two thirds are diagnosed at the "extensive stage", with cancer spread to both sides of the chest, or to other parts of the body.NSCLC – and sometimes SCLC – is typically staged with the American Joint Committee on Cancer's Tumor, Node, Metastasis (TNM) staging system.
CTCF Insulation CTCF > Observed activity > Insulation Binding of targeting sequence elements by CTCF can block the interaction between enhancers and promoters, therefore limiting the activity of enhancers to certain functional domains. Besides acting as enhancer blocking, CTCF can also act as a chromatin barrier by preventing the spread of heterochromatin structures.
Information dimension Connection to Differential Entropy Information_dimension > Connection to Differential Entropy {\displaystyle h(X)=\lim _{m\rightarrow \infty }\mathbb {H} _{0}(\langle X\rangle _{m})-\log _{2}(m).} Comparing this with the d {\displaystyle d} -dimensional entropy shows that the differential entropy is exactly the one-dimensional entropy h ( X ) = H 1 ( X ) . {\displaystyle h(X)=\mathbb {H} _{1}(X).} In fact, this can be generalized to higher dimensions. Rényi shows that, if X → {\displaystyle {\vec {X}}} is a random vector in a n {\displaystyle n} -dimensional Euclidean space ℜ n {\displaystyle \Re ^{n}} with an absolutely continuous distribution with a probability density function f X → ( x → ) {\displaystyle f_{\vec {X}}({\vec {x}})} and finite entropy of the integer part ( H 0 ( ⟨ X → ⟩ m ) < ∞ {\displaystyle H_{0}(\langle {\vec {X}}\rangle _{m})<\infty } ), we have d ( X → ) = n {\displaystyle d({\vec {X}})=n} and H n ( X → ) = ∫ ⋯ ∫ f X → ( x → ) log 2 ⁡ 1 f X → ( x → ) d x → , {\displaystyle \mathbb {H} _{n}({\vec {X}})=\int \cdots \int f_{\vec {X}}({\vec {x}})\log _{2}{\frac {1}{f_{\vec {X}}({\vec {x}})}}\mathrm {d} {\vec {x}},} if the integral exists.
Sign value Summary Sign_value In sociology and in economics, the term sign value denotes and describes the value accorded to an object because of the prestige (social status) that it imparts upon the possessor, rather than the material value and utility derived from the function and the primary use of the object. For example, the buyer of a Rolls-Royce limousine might partly value the automobile as transport, yet might also value it as a sign that signifies his or her wealth to a particular community and to society in general. The automobile’s transport-function is primary, from which arises its use-value, whilst the social prestige function is secondary, from which arises its sign-value. The French sociologist Jean Baudrillard proposed the theory of sign value as a philosophic and economic counterpart to the dichotomy of exchange-value vs. use-value, which Karl Marx recognized as a characteristic of capitalism as an economic system. == References ==
Open Connectivity Foundation History Open_Interconnect_Consortium > History The Open Interconnect Consortium (OIC) began as an industry group to develop standards and certification for devices involved in the Internet of Things (IoT) based around the Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP). OIC was created in July 2014 by Intel, Broadcom, and Samsung Electronics. Broadcom left the consortium shortly after it was established, due to a disagreement on how to handle intellectual property.In September 2015 a release candidate of the specification in version 1.0 for the core framework, smart home device, resource type, security and remote access capabilities was released. By November, 2015, "diamond members" included Cisco Systems, GE Software, Intel and Samsung.On February 19, 2016 the OIC changed its name to the Open Connectivity Foundation and added Microsoft, Qualcomm and Electrolux.In November 2018 it was announced version 1 of the standard was ratified by International Organization for Standardization as ISO/IEC 30118-1:2018.In November, 2019, OCF released a draft "cloud API" for cloud computing services in addition to device-to-device and device-to-cloud service specifications. By 2021, "diamond members" were Haier, LG Corporation and Samsung.
Opsonin Adaptive Opsonin > Types > Adaptive Antibody may also tag tumor cells or virally infected cells, with NK cells responding via the FcR; this process is known as antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC).Both IgM and IgG undergo conformational change upon binding antigen that allows complement protein C1q to associate with the Fc region of the antibody. C1q association eventually leads to the recruitment of complement C4b and C3b, both of which are recognized by complement receptor 1, 3, and 4 (CR1, CR3, CR4), which are present on most phagocytes.
Orbital angular momentum multiplexing Summary Orbital_angular_momentum_multiplexing As of 2013, although OAM multiplexing promises very significant improvements in bandwidth when used in concert with other existing modulation and multiplexing schemes, it is still an experimental technique, and has so far only been demonstrated in the laboratory. Following the early claim that OAM exploits a new quantum mode of information propagation, the technique has become controversial, with numerous studies suggesting it can be modelled as a purely classical phenomenon by regarding it as a particular form of tightly modulated MIMO multiplexing strategy, obeying classical information theoretic bounds. As of 2020, new evidence from radio telescope observations suggests that radio-frequency orbital angular momentum may have been observed in natural phenomena on astronomical scales, a phenomenon which is still under investigation.
Desktop search Technologies Desktop_search_engine > Technologies An index may also not be up-to-date, when a query is performed. In this case, results returned will not be accurate (that is, a hit may be shown when it is no longer there, and a file may not be shown, when in fact it is a hit). Some products have sought to remedy this disadvantage by building a real-time indexing function into the software.
Primary cilium Extracellular changes Nodal_cilia > Clinical significance > Extracellular changes Reduction of cilia function can also result from infection. Research into biofilms has shown that bacteria can alter cilia. A biofilm is a community of bacteria of either the same or multiple species of bacteria.
Foot–pound–second system Molar units Foot-pound-second_system > Other units > Molar units The unit of substance in the FPS system is the pound-mole (lb-mol) = 273.16×1024. Until the SI decided to adopt the gram-mole, the mole was directly derived from the mass unit as (mass unit)/(atomic mass unit). The unit (lbf⋅s2/ft)-mol also appears in a former definition of the atmosphere.
Mir-11 microRNA precursor family Summary Mir-11_microRNA_precursor_family In molecular biology mir-11 microRNA is a short RNA molecule. MicroRNAs function to regulate the expression levels of other genes by several mechanisms. There is an evidence to suggest that miR-11 plays a role in apoptosis.Alignment has shown that miR-11 shares the same family motif as miR-2b and miR-6, together making up the mir-2 clan. There is however little similarity in the 3' ends between these clan members.
Data buffer Telecommunication buffer Memory_buffer > Telecommunication buffer A buffer routine or storage medium used in telecommunications compensates for a difference in rate of flow of data, or time of occurrence of events, when transferring data from one device to another. Buffers are used for many purposes, including: Interconnecting two digital circuits operating at different rates, Holding data for later use, Allowing timing corrections to be made on a data stream, Collecting binary data bits into groups that can then be operated on as a unit, Delaying the transit time of a signal in order to allow other operations to occur.
Metal physics Summary Metallurgic_engineering A specialist practitioner of metallurgy is known as a metallurgist. The science of metallurgy is further subdivided into two broad categories: chemical metallurgy and physical metallurgy. Chemical metallurgy is chiefly concerned with the reduction and oxidation of metals, and the chemical performance of metals.
Ribet's Theorem Summary Ribet's_Theorem Ribet's theorem (earlier called the epsilon conjecture or ε-conjecture) is part of number theory. It concerns properties of Galois representations associated with modular forms. It was proposed by Jean-Pierre Serre and proven by Ken Ribet.
Coefficient of viscosity In solids Viscosity > In solids The extensional viscosity is a linear combination of the shear and bulk viscosities that describes the reaction of a solid elastic material to elongation. It is widely used for characterizing polymers. In geology, earth materials that exhibit viscous deformation at least three orders of magnitude greater than their elastic deformation are sometimes called rheids.
Transactional interpretation Summary Transactional_interpretation In TIQM, the source emits a usual (retarded) wave forward in time, but it also emits an advanced wave backward in time; furthermore, the receiver, who is later in time, also emits an advanced wave backward in time and a retarded wave forward in time. A quantum event occurs when a "handshake" exchange of advanced and retarded waves triggers the formation of a transaction in which energy, momentum, angular momentum, etc. are transferred. The quantum mechanism behind transaction formation has been demonstrated explicitly for the case of a photon transfer between atoms in Sect.
Diastereomeric pair Summary Diastereomeric_pair Diastereomers have different physical properties (unlike most aspects of enantiomers) and often different chemical reactivity. Diastereomers differ not only in physical properties but also in chemical reactivity — how a compound reacts with others. Glucose and galactose, for instance, are diastereomers.
Heating degree day Example of use Cooling_degree_day > Example of use Say we are given the number of heating degree days D in one year and we wish to calculate the energy required by a building. We know that heat needs to be provided at the rate at which it is being lost to the environment. This can be calculated as the sum of the heat losses per degree of each element of the buildings' thermal envelope (such as windows, walls, and roof) or as the average U-value of the building multiplied by the area of the thermal envelope of the building, or quoted directly for the whole building.
Policy Coherence for Development Policy coherence for development in the post-2015 development goals debate Policy_Coherence_for_Development > Policy coherence for development in the post-2015 development goals debate A paper by ECDPM argues that the various of the ideas and principles of PCD can be mainstreamed in the post-2015 framework without using strong PCD jargon. These include i) targets for Means of Implementation in thematic areas that effectively require strengthened PCD efforts, ii) targets in relation to capacity building for more integrated and evidence-based policy-making and iii) efforts to build a strong accountability framework. The paper further concludes that independent from whether a universal PCD concept will explicitly be part of the language of a new framework, real progress on PCD will have to remain a major, if not the most, important component of OECD and EU MS action in achievement of post-2015 commitments.
Nonlinear regression General Nonlinear_regression > General See Linearization§Transformation, below, for more details. In general, there is no closed-form expression for the best-fitting parameters, as there is in linear regression. Usually numerical optimization algorithms are applied to determine the best-fitting parameters.
Force Electromagnetic Attractive_(force) > Examples of forces in classical mechanics > Electromagnetic These "Maxwell's equations" fully described the sources of the fields as being stationary and moving charges, and the interactions of the fields themselves. This led Maxwell to discover that electric and magnetic fields could be "self-generating" through a wave that traveled at a speed that he calculated to be the speed of light. This insight united the nascent fields of electromagnetic theory with optics and led directly to a complete description of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Gastric ulcer History Stomach_ulcer > History Marshall continues research related to H. pylori and runs a molecular biology lab at UWA in Perth, Western Australia. Some believed that mastic gum, a tree resin extract, actively eliminates the H. pylori bacteria. However, multiple subsequent studies have found no effect of using mastic gum on reducing H. pylori levels.
In-place matrix transposition Accessor transpose In-place_matrix_transposition > Algorithms > Accessor transpose Because physically transposing a matrix is computationally expensive, instead of moving values in memory, the access path may be transposed instead. It is trivial to perform this operation for CPU access, as the access paths of iterators must simply be exchanged, however hardware acceleration may require that still be physically realigned.
Cache Hierarchy AMD Zen 2 microarchitecture (2019) Cache_Hierarchy > Recent implementation models > AMD Zen 2 microarchitecture (2019) L1 cache – 32 kB data & 32 kB instruction per core, 8-way L2 cache – 512 kB per core, 8-way inclusive L3 cache – 16 MB local per 4-core CCX, 2 CCXs per chiplet, 16-way non-inclusive. Up to 64 MB on desktop CPUs and 256 MB on server CPUs
Payment service company Security Payment_service_provider > Security Each merchant remains responsible for his own actions and must accordingly ensure that the selected provider observes the guidelines, e.g. with regard to data protection. Compliance with PCI DSS guidelines is important. There are four levels of PCI compliance, that must be respected by the PSP. Depending on the volume of transactions as well as other details about the level of risk assessed by payment brands, the payment service provider has to follow higher standards. The levels are following: Level 1 – Over 6 million transactions annually; Level 2 – Between 1 and 6 million transactions annually; Level 3 – Between 20,000 and 1 million transactions annually; Level 4 – Less than 20,000 transactions annually.
Info-gap decision theory Invariance theorem Info-gap_decision_theory > Classical decision theory perspective > Invariance property > Invariance theorem The robustness of decision q {\displaystyle \ \displaystyle q\ } is invariant with the size of the total region of uncertainty U {\displaystyle \ \displaystyle {\mathfrak {U}}\ } for all U {\displaystyle \ \displaystyle {\mathfrak {U}}\ } such that In other words, for any given decision, info-gap's analysis yields the same results for all total regions of uncertainty that contain U ( α ∗ , u ~ ) {\displaystyle \ \displaystyle \ {\mathcal {U}}(\alpha ^{*},{\tilde {u}})\ } . This applies to both the robustness and opportuneness models. This is illustrated in the picture: the robustness of a given decision does not change notwithstanding an increase in the region of uncertainty from U {\displaystyle \ \displaystyle {\mathfrak {U}}\ } to U ‴ {\displaystyle \ \displaystyle {\mathfrak {U}}'''\ } . In short, by dint of focusing exclusively on the immediate neighborhood of the estimate u ~ {\displaystyle \ \displaystyle {\tilde {u}}\ } info-gap's robustness/opportuneness models are inherently local.
Geopolymer Ionic coordination vs covalent bonding Geopolymer > Geopolymer synthesis > Ionic coordination vs covalent bonding This results in stronger bond within the latter structure. The American mineralogist and geochemist G. V. Gibbs and his team studied the polymeric bond Si-O-Si-O and stated in 1982-2000:The successful modeling of the properties and structures of silica ... lends credence to the statement that a silica polymorph like quartz can be viewed as a giant molecule bound together by essentially the same forces that bind the atoms of the Si-O-Si skeleton into a small siloxane molecule. The term giant molecule used by G.V. Gibbs is equivalent to the definition of geopolymer and the wording small siloxane molecule describes the actual oligomers of organo-silicon compounds well known as silicone polymer. These siloxane oligomers have the same structure as the silico-aluminate oligomers described below in this article.
Epigenetics in learning and memory Chromatin Remodeling Epigenetics_in_learning_and_memory > Histone Acetylation > Chromatin Remodeling Acetylation is one of the main mechanisms implicated in the process of chromatin remodeling. Chromatin remodeling affects the regulation of gene expression by altering the relationship between nucleosomes and DNA. Acetylation of histones removes positive charge, which reduces the level of interaction between the formerly positively charged histone and the negatively charged phosphate groups of the DNA wrapped around the nucleosome complex. This alteration in charges causes a relaxation of DNA from the nucleosome, this relaxed section is seen to have higher levels of gene expression than non acetylated regions.
Stem Cell Therapy Drug discovery and biomedical research Stem-cell_therapies > Research > Drug discovery and biomedical research The ability to grow up functional adult tissues indefinitely in culture through Directed differentiation creates new opportunities for drug research. Researchers are able to grow up differentiated cell lines and then test new drugs on each cell type to examine possible interactions in vitro before performing in vivo studies. This is critical in the development of drugs for use in veterinary research because of the possibilities of species-specific interactions. The hope is that having these cell lines available for research use will reduce the need for research animals used because effects on human tissue in vitro will provide insight not normally known before the animal testing phase.
Cosmic redshift Blue outliers Spectroscopic_redshift > Blueshift > Gravitational blueshift > Blue outliers There are faraway active galaxies that show a blueshift in their emission lines. One of the largest blueshifts is found in the narrow-line quasar, PG 1543+489, which has a relative velocity of -1150 km/s. These types of galaxies are called "blue outliers".
Brain disease Catalepsy Brain_disease > Diagnosis > Types of CNS disorders > Catalepsy Catalepsy is a nervous disorder characterized by immobility and muscular rigidity, along with a decreased sensitivity to pain. Catalepsy is considered a symptom of serious diseases of the nervous system (e.g., Parkinson's disease, Epilepsy, etc.) rather than a disease by itself. Cataleptic fits can range in duration from several minutes to weeks. Catalepsy often responds to Benzodiazepines (e.g., Lorazepam) in pill and I.V. form.
Emotional health Mental disorders Emotional_health > Mental disorders The ICD-11 is the global standard used to diagnose, treat, research, and report various mental disorders. In the United States, the DSM-5 is used as the classification system of mental disorders.Mental health is associated with a number of lifestyle factors such as diet, exercise, stress, drug abuse, social connections and interactions. Psychiatrists, psychologists, licensed professional clinical counselors, social workers, nurse practitioners, and family physicians can help manage mental illness with treatments such as therapy, counseling, and medication.
Epinephrine (neurotransmitter) Regulation Epinephrine_(neurotransmitter) > Biosynthesis > Regulation The major physiologic triggers of adrenaline release center upon stresses, such as physical threat, excitement, noise, bright lights, and high or low ambient temperature. All of these stimuli are processed in the central nervous system.Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and the sympathetic nervous system stimulate the synthesis of adrenaline precursors by enhancing the activity of tyrosine hydroxylase and dopamine β-hydroxylase, two key enzymes involved in catecholamine synthesis. ACTH also stimulates the adrenal cortex to release cortisol, which increases the expression of PNMT in chromaffin cells, enhancing adrenaline synthesis. This is most often done in response to stress.
Moment distribution method Example Moment_distribution_method > Example The statically indeterminate beam shown in the figure is to be analysed. The beam is considered to be three separate members, AB, BC, and CD, connected by fixed end (moment resisting) joints at B and C. Members AB, BC, CD have the same span L = 10 m {\displaystyle L=10\ m} . Flexural rigidities are EI, 2EI, EI respectively. Concentrated load of magnitude P = 10 k N {\displaystyle P=10\ kN} acts at a distance a = 3 m {\displaystyle a=3\ m} from the support A. Uniform load of intensity q = 1 k N / m {\displaystyle q=1\ kN/m} acts on BC. Member CD is loaded at its midspan with a concentrated load of magnitude P = 10 k N {\displaystyle P=10\ kN} .In the following calculations, clockwise moments are positive.
Cycloid gear Summary Cycloid_gear A cycloidal gear is a toothed gear with a cycloidal profile. Such gears are used in mechanical clocks and watches, rather than the involute gear form used for most other gears. Cycloidal gears have advantages over involute gears in such applications in being able to be produced flat (making them easier to polish, and thereby reduce friction), and having fewer points of contact (both reducing friction and wear). Their gear tooth profile is based on the epicycloid and hypocycloid curves, which are the curves generated by a circle rolling around the outside and inside of another circle, respectively.
Statistical regression Diagnostics Multiple_regression > Linear regression > Diagnostics Once a regression model has been constructed, it may be important to confirm the goodness of fit of the model and the statistical significance of the estimated parameters. Commonly used checks of goodness of fit include the R-squared, analyses of the pattern of residuals and hypothesis testing. Statistical significance can be checked by an F-test of the overall fit, followed by t-tests of individual parameters. Interpretations of these diagnostic tests rest heavily on the model's assumptions.
Hydrogen isotope biogeochemistry Stable vs radioactive isotopes Hydrogen_isotope_biogeochemistry > Important concepts > Stable vs radioactive isotopes All isotopes of a chemical element contain the same number of protons with varying numbers of neutrons. The element hydrogen has three naturally occurring isotopes, 1H, 2H and 3H, which are sometimes referred to as protium (H), deuterium (D) and tritium (T), respectively. Both 1H and 2H are stable indefinitely, while 3H is unstable and undergoes beta decay to form 3He. While there are some important applications of 3H in geochemistry (such as its use as an ocean circulation tracer) these will not be discussed further here.
Electron diffraction Selected area electron diffraction Electron_diffraction > Types and techniques > In a transmission electron microscope > Selected area electron diffraction Unfortunately the method is limited by the spherical aberration of the objective lens, so is only accurate for large grains with tens of thousands of atoms or more; for smaller regions a focused probe is needed.. If a parallel beam is used to acquire a diffraction pattern from a single-crystal, the result is similar to a two-dimensional projection of the crystal reciprocal lattice. From this one can determine interplanar distances and angles and in some cases crystal symmetry, particularly when the electron beam is down a major zone axis, see for instance the database by Jean-Paul Morniroli. However, projector lens aberrations such as barrel distortion as well as dynamical diffraction effects (e.g.) cannot be ignored.
Twelvefold way Injective functions from N to X Twelvefold_way > Formulas > Details of the different cases > Injective functions from N to X {\displaystyle x^{\underline {n}}=x(x-1)\cdots (x-n+1).} Note that if n > x then one obtains a factor zero, so in this case there are no injective functions N → X at all; this is just a restatement of the pigeonhole principle. Example: X = { a , b , c , d } , N = { 1 , 2 } , then {\displaystyle X=\{a,b,c,d\},N=\{1,2\}{\text{, then }}} \| { ( a , b ) , ( a , c ) , ( a , d ) , ( b , a ) , ( b , c ) , ( b , d ) , ( c , a ) , ( c , b ) , ( c , d ) , ( d , a ) , ( d , b ) , ( d , c ) } \| = 4 2 _ = 4 × 3 = 12 {\displaystyle \left\vert \{(a,b),(a,c),(a,d),(b,a),(b,c),(b,d),(c,a),(c,b),(c,d),(d,a),(d,b),(d,c)\}\right\vert =4^{\underline {2}}=4\times 3=12}
Functional discourse grammar History Functional_discourse_grammar > History Functional grammar (FG) is a model of grammar motivated by functions, as Dik's thesis pointed towards issues with generative grammar and its analysis of coordination back then, and proposed to solve them with a new theory focused on e.g. concepts such as subject and object. The model was originally developed by Simon C. Dik at the University of Amsterdam in the 1970s, and has undergone several revisions since then. The latest standard version under the original name is laid out in the 1997 edition, published shortly after Dik's death. The latest version features the expansion of the model with a pragmatic/interpersonal module by Kees Hengeveld and Lachlan Mackenzie.
Counterpoint (Schenker) The Principles Counterpoint_(Schenker) > The Principles The principles of strict counterpoint constitute one of the fundamental components of Schenker's musical theory (see Schenkerian analysis). For Schenker, the study of counterpoint is the study of voice leading; in particular, contrapuntal theory is separate from and independent of harmonic theory, which is concerned with scale-steps (see Harmony). In "free composition" (Schenker's term for actual music, as opposed to theoretical exercises), both of these two kinds of phenomena interact, together with the principle of repetition.
Divide and conquer algorithms Recursion Decrease_and_conquer_algorithm > Implementation issues > Recursion Divide-and-conquer algorithms are naturally implemented as recursive procedures. In that case, the partial sub-problems leading to the one currently being solved are automatically stored in the procedure call stack. A recursive function is a function that calls itself within its definition.
Roger Lhermitte Contributions to the field of Radar Meteorology Roger_Lhermitte > Contributions to the field of Radar Meteorology From an article on the 30th Conference on Radar Meteorology, Roger Lhermitte's contributions as listed* pioneered the development of weather radar; designed and built the first pulse-pair processor that revolutionized Doppler weather radar research; shared his pulse-pair processor design with NCAR, which made the technology available for the broad community to use; developed unique pulsed Doppler sonar for ocean current measurements; pioneered the development and demonstrated these of 3-mm radar for cloud studies (such radar will now be deployed from satellite); and pioneered multiple-Doppler radar measurements of three-dimensional kinematic fields.
Networked advocacy Electronic networks in free and open-source software Networked_advocacy > The significance of electronic networks > Electronic networks in free and open-source software Open source software is similar in its mission, but the major difference is that there is no obfuscation allowed for any part of a code which is based on open source software and that no open source software can be used as a commercially sold product. The most famous open source code is the Linux operating system, which is used and distributed both non-commercially and commercially (not sold). Free and open source software, however, are not in competition with each other.
Extremal principles in non-equilibrium thermodynamics Speculated thermodynamic extremum principles for energy dissipation and entropy production Extremal_principles_in_non-equilibrium_thermodynamics > Speculated thermodynamic extremum principles for energy dissipation and entropy production On pages 78–80 of their book Glansdorff and Prigogine (1971) consider the stability of laminar flow that was pioneered by Helmholtz; they concluded that at a stable steady state of sufficiently slow laminar flow, the dissipation function was minimum. These advances have led to proposals for various extremal principles for the "self-organized" régimes that are possible for systems governed by classical linear and non-linear non-equilibrium thermodynamical laws, with stable stationary régimes being particularly investigated. Convection introduces effects of momentum which appear as non-linearity in the dynamical equations. In the more restricted case of no convective motion, Prigogine wrote of "dissipative structures". Šilhavý (1997) offers the opinion that "... the extremum principles of thermodynamics ... do not have any counterpart for steady states (despite many claims in the literature)."
Sigmoidoscopy Benefits Flexible_sigmoidoscopy > Benefits Several studies have shown the potential benefits of sigmoidoscopy in detecting colorectal cancer. In a 2009 Norwegian study, results were somewhat inconclusive at seven years. We found a trend towards reduced mortality from colorectal cancer for both total colorectal cancer mortality (27% reduction) and rectosigmoidal cancer mortality (37%), but this was not statistically significant in intention to screen analysis.
Technical analysis Prices move in trends Technical_analysis_software > Principles > Prices move in trends Each time the stock rose, sellers would enter the market and sell the stock; hence the "zig-zag" movement in the price. The series of "lower highs" and "lower lows" is a tell tale sign of a stock in a down trend. In other words, each time the stock moved lower, it fell below its previous relative low price.
Small nucleolar RNA R20 Summary Small_nucleolar_RNA_R20 snoRNA R20 belongs to the C/D box class of snoRNAs which contain the conserved sequence motifs known as the C box (UGAUGA) and the D box (CUGA). Most of the members of the box C/D family function in directing site-specific 2'-O-methylation of substrate RNAs. Plant snoRNA R20 was identified in a screen of Arabidopsis thaliana.
Biosynthesis DNA Biological_synthesis > DNA Although there are differences between eukaryotic and prokaryotic DNA synthesis, the following section denotes key characteristics of DNA replication shared by both organisms. DNA is composed of nucleotides that are joined by phosphodiester bonds. DNA synthesis, which takes place in the nucleus, is a semiconservative process, which means that the resulting DNA molecule contains an original strand from the parent structure and a new strand. DNA synthesis is catalyzed by a family of DNA polymerases that require four deoxynucleoside triphosphates, a template strand, and a primer with a free 3'OH in which to incorporate nucleotides.In order for DNA replication to occur, a replication fork is created by enzymes called helicases which unwind the DNA helix.
Bucket sorting Optimizations Histogram_sort > Optimizations A common optimization is to put the unsorted elements of the buckets back in the original array first, then run insertion sort over the complete array; because insertion sort's runtime is based on how far each element is from its final position, the number of comparisons remains relatively small, and the memory hierarchy is better exploited by storing the list contiguously in memory.If the input distribution is known or can be estimated, buckets can often be chosen which contain constant density (rather than merely having constant size). This allows O ( n ) {\displaystyle O(n)} average time complexity even without uniformly distributed input.
Word Classes Word > Classes This class is not present in Japanese, which depends on context to indicate this difference. On the other hand, Japanese has a class of words called particles which are used to mark noun phrases according to their grammatical function or thematic relation, which English marks using word order or prosody. : 21–24 It is not clear if any categories other than interjection are universal parts of human language.
Abnormal Psychology Summary Abnormal_Psychology Abnormal includes three different categories; they are subnormal, supernormal and paranormal.The science of abnormal psychology studies two types of behaviors: adaptive and maladaptive behaviors. Behaviors that are maladaptive suggest that some problem(s) exist, and can also imply that the individual is vulnerable and cannot cope with environmental stress, which is leading them to have problems functioning in daily life in their emotions, mental thinking, physical actions and talks. Behaviors that are adaptive are ones that are well-suited to the nature of people, their lifestyles and surroundings, and to the people that they communicate with, allowing them to understand each other.Clinical psychology is the applied field of psychology that seeks to assess, understand, and treat psychological conditions in clinical practice. The theoretical field known as abnormal psychology may form a backdrop to such work, but clinical psychologists in the current field are unlikely to use the term abnormal in reference to their practice. Psychopathology is a similar term to abnormal psychology, but has more of an implication of an underlying pathology (disease process), and as such, is a term more commonly used in the medical specialty known as psychiatry.
Telephone number mapping Call forwarding Telephone_number_mapping > Uses > Call forwarding Each delegation is normally made to a regulatory body designated by the national government for the country code concerned. What happens at a country level is a National Matter. In general the conventional DNS registry-registrar model is used.
Laser Inertial Fusion Energy Summary Laser_Inertial_Fusion_Energy In the former, the energy generated by the fusion reactions is used directly. In the later, the neutrons given off by the fusion reactions are used to cause fission reactions in a surrounding blanket of uranium or other nuclear fuel, and those fission events are responsible for most of the energy release. In both cases, conventional steam turbine systems are used to extract the heat and produce electricity.
Bismuth antimonide Thermoelectric Bismuth_antimonide > Properties > Thermoelectric Bismuth antimonides are used as the n-type legs in many thermoelectric devices below room temperature. The thermoelectric efficiency, given by its figure of merit zT = σS2T/λ, where S is the Seebeck coefficient, λ is the thermal conductivity, and σ is the electrical conductivity, describes the ratio of the energy provided by the thermoelectric to the heat absorbed by the device. At 80 K, the figure of merit (zT) for Bi1−xSbx peaks at 6.5×10−3 K−1 when x = 0.15. Also, the Seebeck coefficient (the ratio of the potential difference between ends of a material to the temperature difference between the sides) at 80 K of Bi0.9Sb0.1 is −140 μV/K, much lower than the Seebeck coefficient of pure bismuth, −50 μV/K. == References ==
Management of acute coronary syndrome Initial diagnostic approach Management_of_acute_coronary_syndrome > Initial diagnostic approach In patients with symptoms typical of myocardial ischemia an electrocardiogram must be immediately obtained - e.g., within 10 minutes from first contact with medical or paramedical personnel, including prehospital setting; the electrocardiographic findings will guide the subsequent management. Patients with elevation of the ST segment (or presumed new left bundle branch block) are treated based on guidelines for ST elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) and must undergo reperfusion therapy as soon as possible. Serum cardiac biomarkers are routinely obtained and their elevation is necessary for confirming diagnosis of myocardial infarction; however, reperfusion must not be delayed by waiting for the results. Patients without the above findings are initially classified with non ST elevation acute coronary syndrome, and subsequent cardiac biomarker results will differentiate between true non ST elevation myocardial infarction (NSTEMI) and unstable angina.
Path integrals in polymer science Summary Path_integrals_in_polymer_science A polymer is a macromolecule, composed of many similar or identical repeated subunits. Polymers are common in, but not limited to, organic media. They range from familiar synthetic plastics to natural biopolymers such as DNA and proteins. Their unique elongated molecular structure produces unique physical properties, including toughness, viscoelasticity, and a tendency to form glasses and semicrystalline structures.
B unit Conversions B_unit > Conversions In some cases, a B unit is converted from an already existing A unit. The cab is either removed or has its windows blanked out (such as on CSX GE BQ23-7 units), and all non-essential equipment is removed. The degree to which this equipment is removed depends on the railroad, but may (and usually does) include the removal of the speedometer, event recorder, horn, headlights, toilet, and cab heaters. This conversion was sometimes performed when the A unit had been in a collision and rebuilding the cab was not cost-effective.
Genome-wide CRISPR-Cas9 knockout screens Host dependency factors for viral infection Genome-wide_CRISPR-Cas9_knockout_screens > Applications > Host dependency factors for viral infection Due to their small genomes and limited number of encoded proteins, viruses exploit host proteins for entry, replication, and transmission. Identification of such host proteins, also termed host dependency factors (HDFs), is particularly important for identifying therapeutic targets. Over recent years, many groups have successfully used genome-wide CRISPR/Cas9 as a screening strategy for HDFs in viral infections.One example is provided by Marceau et al. (2017), who aimed to dissect the host factors associated with dengue and hepatitis C (HCV) infection (two viruses in family Flaviviridae). ELAVL1, an RNA-binding protein encoded by the ELAVL1 gene, was found to be a critical receptor for HCV entry, and a remarkable divergence in host dependency factors was demonstrated between the two flaviviridae.
Linear search problem The problem Linear_search_problem > The problem Their minimax trajectory is to double the distance on each step and the optimal strategy is a mixture of trajectories that increase the distance by some fixed constant. This solution gives search strategies that are not sensitive to assumptions concerning the distribution of the target. Thus, it also presents an upper bound for a worst-case scenario.
TBX3 Role in stem cells TBX3 > Role in stem cells Embryonic stem cells (ESCs) and adult stem cells, are undifferentiated cells which when they divide have the potential to either remain a stem cell or to differentiate into other specialized cells. Adult stem cells are multipotent progenitor cells found in numerous adult tissues and, as part of the body repair system, they can develop into more than one cell type but they are more limited than ESCs. TBX3 is highly expressed in mouse ESCs (mESCs) and appears to have a dual role in these cells.
Intrusion Detection System Anomaly-based Network_Intrusion_Prevention_System > Intrusion detection category > Detection method > Anomaly-based Most of the existing IDSs suffer from the time-consuming during detection process that degrades the performance of IDSs. Efficient feature selection algorithm makes the classification process used in detection more reliable.New types of what could be called anomaly-based intrusion detection systems are being viewed by Gartner as User and Entity Behavior Analytics (UEBA) (an evolution of the user behavior analytics category) and network traffic analysis (NTA). In particular, NTA deals with malicious insiders as well as targeted external attacks that have compromised a user machine or account. Gartner has noted that some organizations have opted for NTA over more traditional IDS.
Shot peening Coverage Shot_peening > Coverage Coverage and intensity (measured by Almen strips) can have a profound effect on fatigue life. This can affect a variety of materials typically shot peened. Incomplete or excessive coverage and intensity can result in reduced fatigue life.
Curse of dimensionality Data mining Curse_of_dimensionality > Domains > Data mining The growth is depicted in the permutation table (see right). As we can see from the permutation table above, one of the major problems data miners face regarding the curse of dimensionality is that the space of possible parameter values grows exponentially or factorially as the number of features in the data set grows. This problem critically affects both computational time and space when searching for associations or optimal features to consider.
Polymer characterization Summary Polymer_characterization Polymer characterization is the analytical branch of polymer science. The discipline is concerned with the characterization of polymeric materials on a variety of levels. The characterization typically has as a goal to improve the performance of the material. As such, many characterization techniques should ideally be linked to the desirable properties of the material such as strength, impermeability, thermal stability, and optical properties.Characterization techniques are typically used to determine molecular mass, molecular structure, morphology, thermal properties, and mechanical properties.
KCDSA Hash Function KCDSA > Hash Function h {\displaystyle h}: a collision resistant hash function with \|q\|-bit digests.
Bio-inspired computing Artificial intelligence Biologically-inspired_computing > Artificial intelligence Over time, these organisms evolve within simple constraints. This method could be considered bottom-up or decentralized. In traditional artificial intelligence, intelligence is often programmed from above: the programmer is the creator, and makes something and imbues it with its intelligence.
Visual scanning Guided search model Visual_scanning > Theory > Guided search model A second main function of preattentive processes is to direct focal attention to the most "promising" information in the visual field. There are two ways in which these processes can be used to direct attention: bottom-up activation (which is stimulus-driven) and top-down activation (which is user-driven). In the guided search model by Jeremy Wolfe, information from top-down and bottom-up processing of the stimulus is used to create a ranking of items in order of their attentional priority. In a visual search, attention will be directed to the item with the highest priority.
Telecommunications satellite Geostationary orbit (GEO) Communications_satellite > Satellite orbits > Geostationary orbit (GEO) To an observer on Earth, a satellite in a geostationary orbit appears motionless, in a fixed position in the sky. This is because it revolves around the Earth at Earth's own angular velocity (one revolution per sidereal day, in an equatorial orbit). A geostationary orbit is useful for communications because ground antennas can be aimed at the satellite without their having to track the satellite's motion. This is relatively inexpensive. In applications that require many ground antennas, such as DirecTV distribution, the savings in ground equipment can more than outweigh the cost and complexity of placing a satellite into orbit.
Misuse of p-values Representing probabilities of hypotheses Misuse_of_p-values > Representing probabilities of hypotheses A frequentist approach rejects the validity of representing probabilities of hypotheses: hypotheses are true or false, not something that can be represented with a probability.Bayesian statistics actively models the likelihood of hypotheses. The p-value does not in itself allow reasoning about the probabilities of hypotheses, which requires multiple hypotheses or a range of hypotheses, with a prior distribution of likelihoods between them, in which case Bayesian statistics could be used. There, one uses a likelihood function for all possible values of the prior instead of the p-value for a single null hypothesis. The p-value describes a property of data when compared to a specific null hypothesis; it is not a property of the hypothesis itself. For the same reason, p-values do not give the probability that the data were produced by random chance alone.
Locally flat spacetime Real Minkowski spacetime Minkowski_tensor > History > Real Minkowski spacetime In the English translation of Minkowski's paper, the Minkowski metric as defined below is referred to as the line element. The Minkowski inner product of below appears unnamed when referring to orthogonality (which he calls normality) of certain vectors, and the Minkowski norm squared is referred to (somewhat cryptically, perhaps this is translation dependent) as "sum". Minkowski's principal tool is the Minkowski diagram, and he uses it to define concepts and demonstrate properties of Lorentz transformations (e.g. proper time and length contraction) and to provide geometrical interpretation to the generalization of Newtonian mechanics to relativistic mechanics.

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