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Derived category Summary Derived_category The development of the derived category, by Alexander Grothendieck and his student Jean-Louis Verdier shortly after 1960, now appears as one terminal point in the explosive development of homological algebra in the 1950s, a decade in which it had made remarkable strides. The basic theory of Verdier was written down in his dissertation, published finally in 1996 in Astérisque (a summary had earlier appeared in SGA 4½). The axiomatics required an innovation, the concept of triangulated category, and the construction is based on localization of a category, a generalization of localization of a ring.
Plant Virus Summary Crop_virus Plants have specialized mechanisms for transporting mRNAs through plasmodesmata, and these mechanisms are thought to be used by RNA viruses to spread from one cell to another. Plant defenses against viral infection include, among other measures, the use of siRNA in response to dsRNA. Most plant viruses encode a protein to suppress this response. Plants also reduce transport through plasmodesmata in response to injury.
Inhalation Exposure Health impacts of particulate pollutants Inhalation_Exposure > Health impacts of particulate pollutants Insoluble PM, such as lead particles, deposit in the nasal-pharyngeal region and can be cleared by blowing, sniffling, or spitting. However, swallowing can cause the particles to deposit into th GI tract. Particles in the tracheobronchial region can be cleared by the cilia, which will move particles into the mucus. Insoluble particles that enter the pulmonary region cause swelling of the alveoli, coughing, and shortness of breath.
Max Planck Black-body radiation Max_Planck > Life and career > Black-body radiation The Rayleigh–Jeans law, another approach to the problem, agreed with experimental results at low frequencies, but created what was later known as the "ultraviolet catastrophe" at high frequencies, as predicted by classical physics. However, contrary to many textbooks, this was not a motivation for Planck.Planck's first proposed solution to the problem in 1899 followed from what he called the "principle of elementary disorder", which allowed him to derive Wien's law from a number of assumptions about the entropy of an ideal oscillator, creating what was referred to as the Wien–Planck law. Soon, however, it was found that experimental evidence did not confirm the new law at all, to Planck's frustration.
List of limits Asymptotic equivalences List_of_limits > Limiting behavior > Asymptotic equivalences Asymptotic equivalences, f ( x ) ∼ g ( x ) {\displaystyle f(x)\sim g(x)} , are true if lim x → ∞ f ( x ) g ( x ) = 1 {\displaystyle \lim _{x\to \infty }{\frac {f(x)}{g(x)}}=1} . Therefore, they can also be reframed as limits. Some notable asymptotic equivalences include lim x → ∞ x / ln ⁡ x π ( x ) = 1 {\displaystyle \lim _{x\to \infty }{\frac {x/\ln x}{\pi (x)}}=1} , due to the prime number theorem, π ( x ) ∼ x ln ⁡ x {\displaystyle \pi (x)\sim {\frac {x}{\ln x}}} , where π(x) is the prime counting function.
Privacy in education Medical records Privacy_in_education > Privacy in higher education > Medical records Nevertheless, the documentation of patient and caregiver is confidential meaning that medical records will not be disclosed unless consent is given or there is a belief that disclosing records is crucial. Furthermore, generally, health care providers do not disclose information unless they meet a standard that falls above the required FERPA health or safety exception, or consent is given, and thus is limited in providing information within the constraints of the confidentiality among patient and provider.Integration of mental and physical records In some instances, college campuses have begun to integrate physical and mental health needs of patients. This means that medical records are becoming more shared among physicians as well as counselors or psychologists that work with students.
Gene duplication Polyploidy Gene_duplication > Mechanisms of duplication > Polyploidy Polyploidy, or whole genome duplication is a product of nondisjunction during meiosis which results in additional copies of the entire genome. Polyploidy is common in plants, but it has also occurred in animals, with two rounds of whole genome duplication (2R event) in the vertebrate lineage leading to humans. It has also occurred in the hemiascomycete yeasts ~100 mya.After a whole genome duplication, there is a relatively short period of genome instability, extensive gene loss, elevated levels of nucleotide substitution and regulatory network rewiring. In addition, gene dosage effects play a significant role.
Infrared interactance Near-infrared interactance Infrared_interactance > Measurement techniques > Near-infrared interactance A beam of infra-red light is transmitted into a biceps. The light is reflected from the underlying muscle and absorbed by the fat. The method is safe, noninvasive, rapid and easy to use.
Time-evolving block decimation Introducing the decomposition of State Time-evolving_block_decimation > The decomposition of state > Introducing the decomposition of State i N {\displaystyle c_{i_{1}i_{2}..i_{N}}}: c i 1 i 2 . . i N = ∑ α 1 , .
Vacuum ceramic filter Range of applications Vacuum_ceramic_filter > Range of applications Vacuum ceramic filters are to be found in the following industries: paper making metallurgy water treatment chemical ore beneficiation process in mining (iron, gold, nickel, copper and quartz).The process is used during a large continuous process of separating free filtering suspensions where washing is not required. Basically the filter works to separates solid-liquid mixtures by removing the water from mineral concentrates and moulding the feed slurries into pellets. This is accomplished by capillary action under low vacuum pressure. The pelletizing of the slurries is done by adding some solid matter to the sewage sludge so that water can be easily removed from the mixture.
Digital Private Network Signalling System DPNSS and VoIP Digital_Private_Network_Signalling_System > DPNSS and VoIP For a protocol that began life in the 1980s, DPNSS is natively a long way from VoIP. However, many of the hybrid VoIP PBXs available from manufacturers worldwide provide on-board DPNSS trunk cards. Where they do not, a protocol converter is necessary.
Symmetric group Definition and first properties Symmetric_group > Definition and first properties The symmetric group on a finite set X {\displaystyle X} is the group whose elements are all bijective functions from X {\displaystyle X} to X {\displaystyle X} and whose group operation is that of function composition. For finite sets, "permutations" and "bijective functions" refer to the same operation, namely rearrangement. The symmetric group of degree n {\displaystyle n} is the symmetric group on the set X = { 1 , 2 , … , n } {\displaystyle X=\{1,2,\ldots ,n\}} . The symmetric group on a set X {\displaystyle X} is denoted in various ways, including S X {\displaystyle \mathrm {S} _{X}} , S X {\displaystyle {\mathfrak {S}}_{X}} , Σ X {\displaystyle \Sigma _{X}} , X !
Spin lattice Migdal–Kadanoff renormalization Ising_spin > Four dimensions and above > Low dimensions – block spins > Migdal–Kadanoff renormalization This will produce a new free energy function for the remaining even spins, with new adjusted couplings. The even spins are again in a lattice, with axes tilted at 45 degrees to the old ones. Unrotating the system restores the old configuration, but with new parameters.
Brittle fracture Brittle Breaking_strain > Types > Brittle In brittle fracture, no apparent plastic deformation takes place before fracture. Brittle fracture typically involves little energy absorption and occurs at high speeds—up to 2,133.6 m/s (7,000 ft/s) in steel. In most cases brittle fracture will continue even when loading is discontinued.In brittle crystalline materials, fracture can occur by cleavage as the result of tensile stress acting normal to crystallographic planes with low bonding (cleavage planes). In amorphous solids, by contrast, the lack of a crystalline structure results in a conchoidal fracture, with cracks proceeding normal to the applied tension.
Pythagorean mean Trivia Pythagorean_means > Trivia The smallest pairs of different natural numbers for which the arithmetic, geometric and harmonic means are all also natural numbers are (5,45) and (10,40).
Causal reasoning Development in humans Causal_reasoning > Development in humans Children develop an ability to understand causality and make inferences based on cause and effect at an early age; some research suggests that children as young as eight months can understand cause and effect. An understanding of mechanism and causality go hand in hand; children need to understand cause and effect to understand the operation of mechanisms, which allows them to understand causal relationships. Children ask "why?" at an early age to understand mechanism and, in turn, causality.
Prime (liturgy) Summary Prime_(liturgy) In the Coptic Church, a denomination of Oriental Orthodox Christianity, the office of Prime is prayed at 6 am in eastward direction of prayer by all members in this denomination, both clergy and laity, being one of the seven fixed prayer times. Latin Catholic clergy under obligation to celebrate the Liturgy of the Hours may still fulfil their obligation by using the edition of the Roman Breviary promulgated by Pope John XXIII in 1962, which contains Prime. Like all the liturgical hours, except the Office of Readings, it consists mainly of Psalms. It is one of the Little Hours.
Central pattern generator Alternate interpretations Central_pattern_generator > Alternate interpretations One theory that reconciles the role of sensory feedback during rhythmic locomotion is to redefine CPGs as "state estimators" as opposed to rhythm generators Through this perspective, CPGs are an intrinsic spinal processor that corrects imperfect sensory feedback and adapts central input to this optimized peripheral input. Models using this framework are able to accomplish rhythmics behavior as well as fictive locomotion without incorporating independent rhythm generators.
Human memory Long-term memory Human_memory > Long-term memory Long-term memory, on the other hand, is maintained by more stable and permanent changes in neural connections widely spread throughout the brain. The hippocampus is essential (for learning new information) to the consolidation of information from short-term to long-term memory, although it does not seem to store information itself. It was thought that without the hippocampus new memories were unable to be stored into long-term memory and that there would be a very short attention span, as first gleaned from patient Henry Molaison after what was thought to be the full removal of both his hippocampi.
Debt-for-nature swap For debtors Debt-for-nature_swap > Benefits > For debtors Additionally, debt-for-nature terms enable long-term planning and funding.If the country is interested in funding conservation, debt-for-nature swaps provide an additional source of funds for that purpose. In contrast to debt-for-equity swaps, debt-for-nature swaps do not compromise national sovereignty since no property exchange takes place.Environmental benefits to the debtor country include but are not limited to: promoting responsible resource use helping to preserve biodiversity maintaining ecosystem services reducing deforestationInvestment in conservation also demonstrates economic returns. For example, Costa Rica has put debt-for-nature funds to good use in establishing and improving parks and preserves, and it has seen marked improvements in tourism, improved water quality, and increased energy output even in the short term.
Newton identities Application to the characteristic polynomial of a matrix Newton's_identities > Mathematical statement > Application to the characteristic polynomial of a matrix When the polynomial above is the characteristic polynomial of a matrix A (in particular when A is the companion matrix of the polynomial), the roots x i {\displaystyle x_{i}} are the eigenvalues of the matrix, counted with their algebraic multiplicity. For any positive integer k, the matrix Ak has as eigenvalues the powers xik, and each eigenvalue x i {\displaystyle x_{i}} of A contributes its multiplicity to that of the eigenvalue xik of Ak. Then the coefficients of the characteristic polynomial of Ak are given by the elementary symmetric polynomials in those powers xik. In particular, the sum of the xik, which is the k-th power sum pk of the roots of the characteristic polynomial of A, is given by its trace: p k = tr ⁡ ( A k ) .
Micropyle (botany) Nucellus, megaspore and perisperm Ovule > Parts and development > Nucellus, megaspore and perisperm In the megasporocyte of Arabidopsis thaliana, meiosis depends on the expression of genes that facilitate DNA repair and homologous recombination.In gymnosperms, three of the four haploid spores produced in meiosis typically degenerate, leaving one surviving megaspore inside the nucellus. Among angiosperms, however, a wide range of variation exists in what happens next. The number (and position) of surviving megaspores, the total number of cell divisions, whether nuclear fusions occur, and the final number, position and ploidy of the cells or nuclei all vary.
List of biological databases Mathematical model databases List_of_biological_databases > Additional databases > Mathematical model databases Biomodels Database: published mathematical models describing biological processes
Hybrid system Bouncing ball Hybrid_dynamical_system > Examples > Bouncing ball A canonical example of a hybrid system is the bouncing ball, a physical system with impact. Here, the ball (thought of as a point-mass) is dropped from an initial height and bounces off the ground, dissipating its energy with each bounce. The ball exhibits continuous dynamics between each bounce; however, as the ball impacts the ground, its velocity undergoes a discrete change modeled after an inelastic collision. A mathematical description of the bouncing ball follows.
Generative grammar Minimalist program (1990–present) Generative_grammar > Frameworks > Historical development of models of transformational grammar > Minimalist program (1990–present) The minimalist program is a line of inquiry that hypothesizes that the human language faculty is optimal, containing only what is necessary to meet humans' physical and communicative needs, and seeks to identify the necessary properties of such a system. It was proposed by Chomsky in 1993.
Heisenberg spin chain Applications Heisenberg_spin_chain > Applications As the temperature increases the logarithmic dependence changes into a linear function. For large temperatures linear dependence follows from the second law of thermodynamics. The Heisenberg model provides an important and tractable theoretical example for applying density matrix renormalisation.
XLDB Summary XLDB XLDB (eXtremely Large DataBases) is a yearly conference about databases, data management and analytics. The definition of extremely large refers to data sets that are too big in terms of volume (too much), and/or velocity (too fast), and/or variety (too many places, too many formats) to be handled using conventional solutions. This conference deals with the high-end of very large databases (VLDB). It was conceived and it is chaired by Jacek Becla.
Complexification Basic properties Complexification > Basic properties {\displaystyle \dim _{\mathbb {C} }V^{\mathbb {C} }=\dim _{\mathbb {R} }V.} Alternatively, rather than using tensor products, one can use this direct sum as the definition of the complexification: V C := V ⊕ V , {\displaystyle V^{\mathbb {C} }:=V\oplus V,} where V C {\displaystyle V^{\mathbb {C} }} is given a linear complex structure by the operator J defined as J ( v , w ) := ( − w , v ) , {\displaystyle J(v,w):=(-w,v),} where J encodes the operation of “multiplication by i”. In matrix form, J is given by: J = .
Laser accelerometer 2021 Laser_accelerometer > History > 2021 A second pulse reverses the split, while a third allows them to interfere with each other, creating an interference pattern that reflects acceleration the waves underwent while separated. Another laser pulse detects the interference patterns in the various atoms, which reflects the amount of acceleration. Military-grade laser accelerometers, drift (accumulate errors at the rate of) kilometres a day. The new devices reduce drift to 2 km a month.
Yoshimine sort Yoshimine's sorting procedure Yoshimine_sort > Yoshimine's sorting procedure At the start of the 21st century, computer memory is much larger and for small molecules and/or small basis sets it is sometimes possible to hold all two electron integrals in memory. In general however, the Yoshimine algorithm is still required. == References ==
Eigendecomposition of a matrix Useful facts regarding eigenvalues Spectral_decomposition_(Matrix) > Useful facts > Useful facts regarding eigenvalues The product of the eigenvalues is equal to the determinant of A Note that each eigenvalue is raised to the power ni, the algebraic multiplicity. The sum of the eigenvalues is equal to the trace of A Note that each eigenvalue is multiplied by ni, the algebraic multiplicity. If the eigenvalues of A are λi, and A is invertible, then the eigenvalues of A−1 are simply λ−1i. If the eigenvalues of A are λi, then the eigenvalues of f (A) are simply f (λi), for any holomorphic function f.
Neural network models Theory Artificial_Neural_Network > Criticism > Theory In 1997, Alexander Dewdney commented that, as a result, artificial neural networks have a "something-for-nothing quality, one that imparts a peculiar aura of laziness and a distinct lack of curiosity about just how good these computing systems are. No human hand (or mind) intervenes; solutions are found as if by magic; and no one, it seems, has learned anything". One response to Dewdney is that neural networks handle many complex and diverse tasks, ranging from autonomously flying aircraft to detecting credit card fraud to mastering the game of Go.
Paxos algorithm History Paxos_(computer_science) > History This point is elaborated in a paper by Lamport, Malkhi and Zhou.Paxos protocols are members of a theoretical class of solutions to a problem formalized as uniform agreement with crash failures. Lower bounds for this problem have been proved by Keidar and Shraer. Derecho, a C++ software library for cloud-scale state machine replication, offers a Paxos protocol that has been integrated with self-managed virtually synchronous membership. This protocol matches the Keidar and Shraer optimality bounds, and maps efficiently to modern remote DMA (RDMA) datacenter hardware (but uses TCP if RDMA is not available).
Simian foamy virus Replication and transcription Simian_foamy_virus > Replication cycle > Replication and transcription As both ssRNA(+) and dsDNA enter the cell, the remaining ssRNA is copied into dsDNA through reverse transcriptase. Nuclear entry of the viral dsDNA is covalently integrated into the cell's genome by the viral integrase, forming a provirus. The integrated provirus utilizes the promoter elements in the 5'LTR to drive transcription. This gives rise to the unspliced full length mRNA that will serve as genomic RNA to be packaged into virions, or used as a template for translation of gag.
Luminescent solar concentrator Luminescence Luminescent_solar_concentrator > Structure and principles of operation > Luminescence The above description covers a wider class of concentrators (for example simple optical concentrators) than just luminescent solar concentrators. The essential attribute of LSCs is that they incorporate luminescent materials that absorb incoming light with a wide frequency range, and re-emit the energy in the form of light in a narrow frequency range. The narrower the frequency range, (i.e. the higher the saturation) the simpler a photovoltaic cell can be designed to convert it to electricity. Suitable optical designs trap light emitted by the luminescent material in all directions, redirecting it so that little escapes the photovoltaic converters.
Complex system biology Associated disciplines Complex_systems_biology > Associated disciplines It works with the specific data (patient samples, high-throughput data with particular attention to characterizing cancer genome in patient tumour samples) and tools (immortalized cancer cell lines, mouse models of tumorigenesis, xenograft models, high-throughput sequencing methods, siRNA-based gene knocking down high-throughput screenings, computational modeling of the consequences of somatic mutations and genome instability). The long-term objective of the systems biology of cancer is ability to better diagnose cancer, classify it and better predict the outcome of a suggested treatment, which is a basis for personalized cancer medicine and virtual cancer patient in more distant prospective.
Protein transport Mitochondrial matrix Protein_targeting_system > Sorting of proteins > Mitochondria > Mitochondrial matrix As the polypeptide enters the matrix, the signal sequence is cleaved by a processing peptidase and the remaining sequences are bound by mitochondrial chaperones to await proper folding and activity. The push and pull of the polypeptide from the cytosol to the intermembrane space and then the matrix is achieved by an electrochemical gradient that is established by the mitochondrion during oxidative phosphorylation. In which a mitochondrion active in metabolism has generated a negative potential inside the matrix and a positive potential in the intermembrane space. It is this negative potential inside the matrix that directs the positively charged regions of the targeting sequence into its desired location.
Anti-transglutaminase antibodies Summary Anti-transglutaminase_antibodies Antibodies against the body's own products are called autoantibodies. Autoantibodies can sometimes errantly be directed against healthy portions of the organism, causing autoimmune diseases. ATA can be classified according to 2 different schemes: transglutaminase isoform and immunoglobulin reactivity subclass (IgA, IgG) toward transglutaminases.
Climate-friendly gardening From farmland Climate-friendly_gardening > Reducing greenhouse gas emissions > Using gardens to reduce greenhouse gas emissions > From farmland Other sources of greenhouse gases from farmland include: compaction caused by farm machinery or overgrazing by farm animals can make soil anaerobic and produce methane, which is emitted during the production and transport of coal, natural gas, and oil. Methane emissions also result from livestock and other agricultural practices, land use and by the decay of organic wastes in municipal solid waste landfills; farm animals produce methane; and nitrogen fertilizers can be converted to nitrous oxide which is also emitted during agricultural, land use, and industrial activities; combustion of fossil fuels and solid wastes; as well as during treatment of wastewater.
Correlation matrix Correlation and independence Positive_correlation > Pearson's product-moment coefficient > Correlation and independence The closer the coefficient is to either −1 or 1, the stronger the correlation between the variables. If the variables are independent, Pearson's correlation coefficient is 0, but the converse is not true because the correlation coefficient detects only linear dependencies between two variables. For example, suppose the random variable X {\displaystyle X} is symmetrically distributed about zero, and Y = X 2 {\displaystyle Y=X^{2}} .
Curvilinear coordinate system Jacobian of the transformation Lamé_coefficients > Integration > Jacobian of the transformation For any specific location there can only exist one and only one set of basis vectors (else the basis is not well defined at that point). This condition is satisfied if and only if the equation system has a single solution. In linear algebra, a linear equation system has a single solution (non-trivial) only if the determinant of its system matrix is non-zero: det ( J − 1 ) ≠ 0 {\displaystyle \det(\mathbf {J} ^{-1})\neq 0} which shows the rationale behind the above requirement concerning the inverse Jacobian determinant.
Smart materials Types Smart_materials > Types Thermoelectric materials are used to build devices that convert temperature differences into electricity and vice versa. Chemoresponsive materials change size or volume under the influence of external chemical or biological compound.Smart materials have properties that react to changes in their environment. This means that one of their properties can be changed by an external condition, such as temperature, light, pressure, electricity, voltage, pH, or chemical compounds.
Inversion transformation Invariants Inversion_transformation > Invariants The invariants for this symmetry in 4 dimensions is unknown however it is known that the invariant requires a minimum of 4 space-time points. In one dimension, the invariant is the well known cross-ratio from Möbius transformations: ( x − X ) ( y − Y ) ( x − Y ) ( y − X ) . {\displaystyle {\frac {(x-X)(y-Y)}{(x-Y)(y-X)}}.} Because the only invariants under this symmetry involve a minimum of 4 points, this symmetry cannot be a symmetry of point particle theory.
Linux adoption Summary Linux_adoption In August 2010, Jeffrey Hammond, principal analyst at Forrester Research, declared, "Linux has crossed the chasm to mainstream adoption," a statement attested by the large number of enterprises that had transitioned to Linux during the late-2000s recession. In a company survey completed in the third quarter of 2009, 48% of surveyed companies reported using an open-source operating system.The Linux Foundation regularly releases publications regarding the Linux kernel, Linux OS distributions, and related themes. One such publication, "Linux Adoption Trends: A Survey of Enterprise End Users," is freely available upon registration.Traditionally, the term Linux adoption refers to adoption of a Linux OS made for "desktop" computers, the original intended use (or adoption on servers, that is essentially the same form of OS). Adoption of that form on personal computers is still low relatively, while adoption of the Android operating system is very high. The term Linux adoption, often overlooks that operating system or other uses such as in ChromeOS that also use the Linux kernel (but have almost nothing else in common, not even the name – Linux – usually applied; while Android is the most popular variant – in fact the most popular operating system in the world).
Virology Molecular biology Virology > Molecular biology Molecular virology is the study of viruses at the level of nucleic acids and proteins. The methods invented by molecular biologists have all proven useful in virology. Their small sizes and relatively simple structures make viruses an ideal candidate for study by these techniques.
Pythagoras's theorem Differential geometry Pythagoras's_theorem > Generalizations > Differential geometry The Pythagorean theorem applies to infinitesimal triangles seen in differential geometry. In three dimensional space, the distance between two infinitesimally separated points satisfies d s 2 = d x 2 + d y 2 + d z 2 , {\displaystyle ds^{2}=dx^{2}+dy^{2}+dz^{2},} with ds the element of distance and (dx, dy, dz) the components of the vector separating the two points. Such a space is called a Euclidean space. However, in Riemannian geometry, a generalization of this expression useful for general coordinates (not just Cartesian) and general spaces (not just Euclidean) takes the form: d s 2 = ∑ i , j n g i j d x i d x j {\displaystyle ds^{2}=\sum _{i,j}^{n}g_{ij}\,dx_{i}\,dx_{j}} which is called the metric tensor.
Chapman–Enskog theory Comparison with experiment Chapman–Enskog_theory > Predictions > Comparison with experiment For instance, rigid elastic spheres have f ≈ 2.522 {\displaystyle f\approx 2.522} , and molecules with repulsive force ∝ r − 13 {\displaystyle \propto r^{-13}} have f ≈ 2.511 {\displaystyle f\approx 2.511} (the latter deviation is ignored in table 1). The special case of Maxwell molecules (repulsive force ∝ r − 5 {\displaystyle \propto r^{-5}} ) has f = 2.5 {\displaystyle f=2.5} exactly. Since λ {\displaystyle \lambda } , μ {\displaystyle \mu } , and c v {\displaystyle c_{v}} can be measured directly in experiments, a simple experimental test of Chapman–Enskog theory is to measure f {\displaystyle f} for the spherically symmetric noble gases. Table 2 shows that there is reasonable agreement between theory and experiment.
Liouville's theorem (differential algebra) Summary Liouville's_theorem_(differential_algebra) Other examples include the functions sin ⁡ ( x ) x {\displaystyle {\frac {\sin(x)}{x}}} and x x . {\displaystyle x^{x}.} Liouville's theorem states that elementary antiderivatives, if they exist, are in the same differential field as the function, plus possibly a finite number of applications of the logarithm function.
Factoring a quadratic expression Quadratic formula and its derivation Factoring_a_quadratic_expression > Solving the quadratic equation > Quadratic formula and its derivation Completing the square can be used to derive a general formula for solving quadratic equations, called the quadratic formula. The mathematical proof will now be briefly summarized. It can easily be seen, by polynomial expansion, that the following equation is equivalent to the quadratic equation: ( x + b 2 a ) 2 = b 2 − 4 a c 4 a 2 . {\displaystyle \left(x+{\frac {b}{2a}}\right)^{2}={\frac {b^{2}-4ac}{4a^{2}}}.}
L. Gary Leal Honors and awards L._Gary_Leal > Honors and awards and Biochemical Eng., Rutgers University, April, 2000. George K. Batchelor Lecturer in Fluid Mechanics, Department of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics, University of Cambridge, UK, May, 2000. NCE Cullimore Memorial Lecturer, NJIT, October 2001 David M. Mason Lecturer, Dept.
Hammond's postulate Summary Hammond_postulate This type of comparison is especially useful because most transition states cannot be characterized experimentally.Hammond's postulate also helps to explain and rationalize the Bell–Evans–Polanyi principle. Namely, this principle describes the experimental observation that the rate of a reaction, and therefore its activation energy, is affected by the enthalpy of that reaction.
Obstacle problem Summary Obstacle_problem In addition to satisfying Dirichlet boundary conditions corresponding to the fixed boundary of the membrane, the functions u {\displaystyle u} are in addition constrained to be greater than some given obstacle function ϕ {\displaystyle \phi } ( x ) {\displaystyle (x)} . The solution breaks down into a region where the solution is equal to the obstacle function, known as the contact set, and a region where the solution is above the obstacle.
Bayesian confirmation theory In the courtroom Confirmation_theory > Applications > In the courtroom Bayesian inference can be used by jurors to coherently accumulate the evidence for and against a defendant, and to see whether, in totality, it meets their personal threshold for 'beyond a reasonable doubt'. Bayes' theorem is applied successively to all evidence presented, with the posterior from one stage becoming the prior for the next. The benefit of a Bayesian approach is that it gives the juror an unbiased, rational mechanism for combining evidence. It may be appropriate to explain Bayes' theorem to jurors in odds form, as betting odds are more widely understood than probabilities.
Brian (software) Comparison to other simulators Brian_(software) > Comparison to other simulators Brian is primarily, although not solely, aimed at single compartment neuron models. Simulators focused on multi-compartmental models include Neuron, GENESIS, and its derivatives. The focus of Brian is on flexibility and ease of use, and only supports simulations running on a single machine. The NEST simulator includes facilities for distributing simulations across a cluster.
Human brain Cerebrum Human_brain > Structure > Gross anatomy > Cerebrum Beneath the lateral ventricles is the thalamus and to the front and below is the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus leads on to the pituitary gland. At the back of the thalamus is the brainstem.The basal ganglia, also called basal nuclei, are a set of structures deep within the hemispheres involved in behaviour and movement regulation.
Arithmetical transfinite recursion Summary Constructive_reverse_mathematics In higher-order reverse mathematics, the focus is on subsystems of higher-order arithmetic, and the associated richer language.The program was founded by Harvey Friedman (1975, 1976) and brought forward by Steve Simpson. A standard reference for the subject is Simpson (2009), while an introduction for non-specialists is Stillwell (2018). An introduction to higher-order reverse mathematics, and also the founding paper, is Kohlenbach (2005).
Chemical energetics Overview Chemical_energetics > Overview 2. In any spontaneous process, there is always an increase in entropy of the universe. 3. The entropy of a perfect crystal (well ordered) at 0 Kelvin is zero.
Out of order execution Out-of-order processors In-order_processor > Basic concept > Out-of-order processors This new paradigm breaks up the processing of instructions into these steps: Instruction fetch. Instruction dispatch to an instruction queue (also called instruction buffer or reservation stations). The instruction waits in the queue until its input operands are available. The instruction can leave the queue before older instructions.
Interference (wave motion) Quantum interference Light_interference > Complex valued wave functions > Quantum interference In this experiment, matter waves from electrons, atoms or molecules approach a barrier with two slits in it. One slit becomes Ψ A ( x , t ) {\displaystyle \Psi _{A}(x,t)} and the other becomes Ψ B ( x , t ) {\displaystyle \Psi _{B}(x,t)} . The interference pattern occurs on the far side, observed by detectors suitable to the particles originating the matter wave. The pattern matches the optical double slit pattern.
Photosynthesis system Calculations used in 'closed system' systems; Photosynthesis_system > Calculating photosynthetic rate and related parameters > Calculations used in 'closed system' systems; A leaf is placed in the leaf-chamber, with a known area of leaf enclosed. Once the chamber is closed, carbon dioxide concentration gradually declines. When the concentration decreases past a certain point a timer is started, and is stopped as the concentration passes at a second point.
Linnett Double-Quartet Theory Consequences of electron correlation effects Linnett_Double-Quartet_Theory > Formulation of Linnett double-quartet theory > Consequences of electron correlation effects An octet is any arrangement which results in a given nucleus having a total of eight valence electrons around it. In Lewis' bonding model, the electrons tend to pair up in bonds such that an atom has a total of four chemical bonds and lone pairs associated with it: thus, the atom can satisfy its octet. LDQ theory also acknowledges that the elements in the ‘first short period’ of the periodic table tend to attain an octet of electrons surrounding them. However, in contrast with Lewis' view, Linnett argued that due to the combined effects of charge correlation and spin correlation, it is physically more meaningful to consider the octet as the sum of two tetrahedral quartets of electrons.
Timed automaton Deterministic timed automaton Timed_automaton > Formal definition > Deterministic timed automaton As in the case of finite and Büchi automaton, a timed automaton may be deterministic or non-deterministic. Intuitively, being deterministic has the same meaning in each of those case. It means that the set of start locations is a singleton, and that, given a state s {\displaystyle s} , and a letter a {\displaystyle a} , there is only one possible state which can be reached from s {\displaystyle s} by reading a {\displaystyle a} . However, in the case of timed automaton the formal definition is slightly more complex. Formally, a timed automaton is deterministic if: L 0 {\displaystyle L_{0}} is a singleton for each pair of transitions ( ℓ , σ , g , r , ℓ ′ ) {\displaystyle (\ell ,\sigma ,g,r,\ell ')} and ( ℓ , σ , g ′ , r ′ , ℓ ″ ) {\displaystyle (\ell ,\sigma ,g',r',\ell '')} , the set of clocks valuations satisfying g {\displaystyle g} is disjoint from the set of clocks valuations satisfying g ′ {\displaystyle g'} .
Motor learning Feedback given during practice Motor_learning > Behavioural approach > Feedback given during practice Extrinsic feedback is sometimes categorized as knowledge of performance or knowledge of results. Several studies have manipulated the presentation features of feedback information (e.g., frequency, delay, interpolated activities, and precision) in order to determine the optimal conditions for learning. See Figure 4, Figure 6, and summary Table 1 for a detailed explanation of feedback manipulation and knowledge of results (see below).
Artificial Neural Networks History Parameter_(machine_learning) > History Excellent image quality is achieved by Nvidia's StyleGAN (2018) based on the Progressive GAN by Tero Karras, Timo Aila, Samuli Laine, and Jaakko Lehtinen. Here the GAN generator is grown from small to large scale in a pyramidal fashion.
Introduction to angular momentum Collection of particles Angular_momentum > Solid bodies > Collection of particles Similar to § Single particle, below, it is the angular momentum of one particle of mass M at the center of mass moving with velocity V. The second term is the angular momentum of the particles moving relative to the center of mass, similar to § Fixed center of mass, below. The result is general—the motion of the particles is not restricted to rotation or revolution about the origin or center of mass. The particles need not be individual masses, but can be elements of a continuous distribution, such as a solid body. Rearranging equation (2) by vector identities, multiplying both terms by "one", and grouping appropriately, gives the total angular momentum of the system of particles in terms of moment of inertia I {\displaystyle I} and angular velocity ω {\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\omega }}} ,
Community acquired pneumonia Pathophysiology Community-acquired_bacterial_pneumonia > Pathophysiology The symptoms of CAP are the result of lung infection by microorganisms and the response of the immune system to the infection. Mechanisms of infection are different for viruses and other microorganisms.
ACE Encrypt Implementation, Utilization and Performance ACE_Encrypt > Implementation, Utilization and Performance ACE Encryption scheme is recommended by NESSIE (New European Schemes for Signatures, Integrity and Encryption) as asymmetric encryption scheme. Press-release is dated by February 2003. Both schemes were implemented in ANSI C, with the use of GNU GMP library. Tests were done on two platforms: Power PC 604 model 43P under AIX system and 266 MHz Pentium under Windows NT system. Result tables:
Hexagram Usage in occultism Hexagram > Usage in occultism Water is symbolized as a downwards pointing triangle, while Earth (its elemental opposite) is also a downwards pointing triangle, but with a horizontal line through its center. When you combine the symbols of Fire and Water, a hexagram (six-pointed star) is created. The same follows for when you combine the symbols of Air and Earth.
Sloshing bucket model of evolution Summary Sloshing_bucket_model_of_evolution The sloshing bucket model of evolution is a theory in evolutionary biology that describes how environmental disturbances varying in magnitude will affect the species present. The theory emphasizes the causal relationship between environmental factors that impinge and affect genealogical systems, providing an overarching view that determines the relationship between the variety of biological systems. This theory was developed by Niles Eldredge, a U.S. biologist and paleontologist, and published in the journal 'Evolutionary Dynamics: Exploring the Interplay of Selection, Accident, Neutrality and Function ' where Eldredge introduces his sloshing bucket model in the article titled: 'The Sloshing Bucket: How the Physical Realm Controls Evolution'.
George S. Hammond E2 reactions George_S._Hammond > Scientific career > Structure of transition states > E2 reactions A theory, for an E2 reaction, by Joseph Bunnett suggests the lowest pass through the energy barrier between reactants and products is gained by an adjustment between the degrees of Cβ-H and Cα-X rupture at the transition state. The adjustment involves much breaking of the bond more easily broken, and a small amount of breaking of the bond which requires more energy. This conclusion by Bunnett is a contradiction from the Hammond postulate.
Spindle fibre Centrosomes Spindle_fibre > Mitosis > Centrosomes The centrosome is the main MTOC (microtubule organizing center) of the cell during mitosis. Each centrosome is made up of two cylinders called centrioles, oriented at right angles to each other. The centriole is formed from 9 main microtubules, each having two partial microtubules attached to it. Each centriole is approximately 400 nm long and around 200 nm in circumference.The centrosome is critical to mitosis as most microtubules involved in the process originate from the centrosome.
History of speciation Contemporary work History_of_speciation > Contemporary work Research on the influence of natural selection on speciation, including the process of reinforcement, has grown.Researchers have long debated the roles of sexual selection, natural selection, and genetic drift in speciation. : 383 Darwin extensively discussed sexual selection, with his work greatly expanded on by Ronald Fisher; however, it was not until 1983 that the biologist Mary Jane West-Eberhard recognized the importance of sexual selection in speciation. : 3 Natural selection plays a role in that any selection towards reproductive isolation can result in speciation — whether indirectly or directly.
DNA strand Nucleases and ligases Deoxyribonucleic_Acid > Interactions with proteins > DNA-modifying enzymes > Nucleases and ligases Nucleases are enzymes that cut DNA strands by catalyzing the hydrolysis of the phosphodiester bonds. Nucleases that hydrolyse nucleotides from the ends of DNA strands are called exonucleases, while endonucleases cut within strands. The most frequently used nucleases in molecular biology are the restriction endonucleases, which cut DNA at specific sequences. For instance, the EcoRV enzyme shown to the left recognizes the 6-base sequence 5′-GATATC-3′ and makes a cut at the horizontal line.
Antecedent variable Summary Antecedent_variable In statistics and social sciences, an antecedent variable is a variable that can help to explain the apparent relationship (or part of the relationship) between other variables that are nominally in a cause and effect relationship. In a regression analysis, an antecedent variable would be one that influences both the independent variable and the dependent variable.
Promoter based genetic algorithm Results Promoter_based_genetic_algorithm > Results The PBGA was originally presented within the field of autonomous robotics, in particular in the real time learning of environment models of the robot. It has been used inside the Multilevel Darwinist Brain (MDB) cognitive mechanism developed in the GII for real robots on-line learning. In another paper it is shown how the application of the PBGA together with an external memory that stores the successful obtained world models, is an optimal strategy for adaptation in dynamic environments. Recently, the PBGA has provided results that outperform other neuroevolutionary algorithms in non-stationary problems, where the fitness function varies in time.
Pulsus paradoxus Mechanism Pulsus_paradoxus > Mechanism Similarly, with tamponade, the degree of diastolic dysfunction is inversely proportional to the LV end-diastolic volume. So during inspiration, since LV filling is lesser relative to that during expiration, the diastolic dysfunction is also proportionally greater, so the systolic pressure drops >10 mmHg. This mechanism is also likely with pericarditis, where diastolic function is chastened.
Asynchronous Processor Petri nets Clockless_CPU > Theoretical foundation > Petri nets Petri nets are an attractive and powerful model for reasoning about asynchronous circuits (see Subsequent models of concurrency). A particularly useful type of interpreted Petri nets, called Signal Transition Graphs (STGs), was proposed independently in 1985 by Leonid Rosenblum and Alex Yakovlev and Tam-Anh Chu. Since then, STGs have been studied extensively in theory and practice, which has led to the development of popular software tools for analysis and synthesis of asynchronous control circuits, such as Petrify and Workcraft.Subsequent to Petri nets other models of concurrency have been developed that can model asynchronous circuits including the Actor model and process calculi.
OBIX Background OBIX > Background Because oBIX integrates with the enterprise, it enables mechanical and electrical control systems to provide continuous visibility of operational status and performance. By exposing these operations using web services, it enables owners and tenants to use the full array of standard databases and OLAP tools to analyse their performance. oBIX enables facilities operators, owners and tenants to make decisions based on a fully integrated consideration of all life-cycle, environmental, cost, and performance factors.
Chandrasekhar friction Chandrasekhar dynamical friction formula Dynamical_friction > Chandrasekhar dynamical friction formula The full Chandrasekhar dynamical friction formula for the change in velocity of the object involves integrating over the phase space density of the field of matter and is far from transparent. The Chandrasekhar dynamical friction formula reads as where G {\displaystyle G} is the gravitational constant M {\displaystyle M} is the mass under consideration m {\displaystyle m} is the mass of each star in the star distribution v M {\displaystyle {v_{M}}} is the velocity of the object under consideration, in a frame where the center of gravity of the matter field is initially at rest ln ( Λ ) {\displaystyle {\mbox{ln}}(\Lambda )} is the "Coulomb logarithm" f ( v ) {\displaystyle f(v)} is the number density distribution of the starsThe result of the equation is the gravitational acceleration produced on the object under consideration by the stars or celestial bodies, as acceleration is the ratio of velocity and time.
Crystal structure of boron-rich metal borides Summary Crystal_structure_of_boron-rich_metal_borides Scandium is distinguished among the rare-earth elements by that it forms numerous borides with uncommon structure types; this property of scandium is attributed to its relatively small atomic and ionic radii. Crystals of the specific rare-earth boride YB66 are used as X-ray monochromators for selecting X-rays with certain energies (in the 1–2 keV range) out of synchrotron radiation. Other rare-earth borides may find application as thermoelectric materials, owing to their low thermal conductivity; the latter originates from their complex, "amorphous-like", crystal structure.
Taylor polynomial Third example Maclaurin_series > Calculation of Taylor series > Third example + ∑ n = 0 ∞ x n + 1 n ! = 1 + ∑ n = 1 ∞ x n n ! + ∑ n = 0 ∞ x n + 1 n !
Quantum Logic Standard semantics Quantum_Logic > Quantum logic as the logic of observables > Standard semantics The standard semantics of quantum logic is that quantum logic is the logic of projection operators in a separable Hilbert or pre-Hilbert space, where an observable p is associated with the set of quantum states for which p (when measured) has eigenvalue 1. From there, ¬p is the orthogonal complement of p (since for those states, the probability of observing p, P(p) = 0), p∧q is the intersection of p and q, and p∨q = ¬(¬p∧¬q) refers to states that superpose p and q.This semantics has the nice property that the pre-Hilbert space is complete (i.e., Hilbert) if and only if the propositions satisfy the orthomodular law, a result known as the Solèr theorem. Although much of the development of quantum logic has been motivated by the standard semantics, it is not the characterized by the latter; there are additional properties satisfied by that lattice that need not hold in quantum logic.
Spasmodic torticollis Deep brain stimulation Spasmodic_torticollis > Treatment > Deep brain stimulation Deep brain stimulation to the basal ganglia and thalamus has recently been used as a successful treatment for tremors of patients with Parkinson's disease. This technique is currently, as of 2007, being trialed in patients with spasmodic torticollis. Patients are subjected to stimulation of the globus pallidus internus, or the subthalamic nucleus. The device is analogous to a pacemaker: an external battery is placed subcutaneously, with wires under the skin which enter the skull and a region of the brain.
Context awareness Computer science Context_awareness > Computer science Perera, Zaslavsky, Christen, & Georgakopoulos have performed a comprehensive survey on context-aware computing from Internet of Things perspective by reviewing over 50 leading projects in the field. Further, Perera has also surveyed a large number of industrial products in the existing IoT marketplace from context-aware computing perspective. Their survey is intended to serve as a guideline and a conceptual framework for context-aware product development and research in the IoT paradigm.
TNFSF12 Clinical significance TNFSF12 > Clinical significance Excessive activation of the TWEAK pathway in chronic injury has been described to promote pathological tissue changes including chronic inflammation, fibrosis and angiogenesis. In chronic liver disease, for example, TWEAK expression is enhanced and causes hepatic stellate cells, which are key regulators of liver fibrosis, to proliferate.
Glossary of artificial intelligence T Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence > T The test results do not depend on the machine's ability to give correct answers to questions, only how closely its answers resemble those a human would give. type system In programming languages, a set of rules that assigns a property called type to the various constructs of a computer program, such as variables, expressions, functions, or modules. These types formalize and enforce the otherwise implicit categories the programmer uses for algebraic data types, data structures, or other components (e.g. "string", "array of float", "function returning boolean").
Rigid-frame bridge Recent advances Rigid-frame_bridge > Recent advances Prestressed concrete is a major advance in concrete engineering and has effectively been used in rigid frame bridge construction. This is notable because it was already challenging to place standard reinforcing in a concrete rigid frame bridge. Prestressing the rebars is more difficult but was proven to still be feasible. Prestressed concrete is useful in bridge construction because it has higher tensile strength than traditional reinforced concrete, allowing for longer bridge spans. == References ==
Input queue Round-robin scheduling Input_queue > Operating system > Round-robin scheduling Round-robin scheduling method will give a same amount of time for each process and cycle through them. This method is heavily bases on a lot of time consuming to each process. Too short a lot time will fragment the processes, and too long a lot time will increase waiting time for each process to be executed. Choosing right a lot time is the foundation for this method.
Temporal Key Integrity Protocol Technical details Temporal_Key_Integrity_Protocol > Technical details TKIP and the related WPA standard implement three new security features to address security problems encountered in WEP protected networks. First, TKIP implements a key mixing function that combines the secret root key with the initialization vector before passing it to the RC4 cipher initialization. WEP, in comparison, merely concatenated the initialization vector to the root key, and passed this value to the RC4 routine. This permitted the vast majority of the RC4 based WEP related key attacks.
Ladder paradox Paradox Ladder_paradox > Paradox We could, if we liked, simultaneously close both doors for a brief time, to demonstrate that the ladder fits. So far, this is consistent. The apparent paradox comes when we consider the symmetry of the situation.
Lacustrine sediment Summary Lacustrine_sediment Lacustrine deposits are sedimentary rock formations which formed in the bottom of ancient lakes. A common characteristic of lacustrine deposits is that a river or stream channel has carried sediment into the basin. Lacustrine deposits form in all lake types including rift graben lakes, oxbow lakes, glacial lakes, and crater lakes.
Waste separation Mechanisms for automated sorting Waste_sorting > Methods > Mechanisms for automated sorting Automation of municipal solid waste sorting process is an active research area. Notable mechanisms for automated sorting include: Standardization of products, especially of packaging which are often composed of different materials, in particular materials hard or currently impossible to either separate or recycle together in an automated way.Laws related to recyclability, waste management, domestic materials recovery facilities, product composition, biodegradability and prevention of import/export of specific wastes. Since around 2017, China, Turkey, Malaysia, Cambodia, and Thailand have banned certain waste imports. It has been suggested that such bans may increase automation and recycling, decreasing negative impacts on the environment. Optical sorting Spectral imaging based sortingSystems that use hyperspectral imaging and algorithms developed via machine learning Near infrared spectroscopy X-ray based sorting Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy Eddy current based sorting
Antarctic circumpolar current Structure Antarctic_circumpolar_current > Structure The ACC connects the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans, and serves as a principal pathway of exchange among them. The current is strongly constrained by landform and bathymetric features. To trace it starting arbitrarily at South America, it flows through the Drake Passage between South America and the Antarctic Peninsula and then is split by the Scotia Arc to the east, with a shallow warm branch flowing to the north in the Falkland Current and a deeper branch passing through the Arc more to the east before also turning to the north. Passing through the Indian Ocean, the current first retroflects the Agulhas Current to form the Agulhas Return Current before it is split by the Kerguelen Plateau, and then moving northward again. Deflection is also seen as it passes over the mid-ocean ridge in the Southeast Pacific.
Propulsive efficiency Cycle efficiency Propulsive_efficiency > Cycle efficiency η c = − d W − d Q h = − d Q h − d Q c − d Q h = 1 − d Q c − d Q h {\displaystyle \eta _{c}={\frac {-dW}{-dQ_{h}}}={\frac {-dQ_{h}-dQ_{c}}{-dQ_{h}}}=1-{\frac {dQ_{c}}{-dQ_{h}}}} The theoretical maximum efficiency of a heat engine, the Carnot efficiency, depends only on its operating temperatures. Mathematically, this is because in reversible processes, the cold reservoir would gain the same amount of entropy as that lost by the hot reservoir (i.e., d S c = − d S h {\displaystyle dS_{c}=-dS_{h}} ), for no change in entropy. Thus: η cmax = 1 − T c d S c − T h d S h = 1 − T c T h {\displaystyle \eta _{\text{cmax}}=1-{\frac {T_{c}dS_{c}}{-T_{h}dS_{h}}}=1-{\frac {T_{c}}{T_{h}}}} where T h {\displaystyle T_{h}} is the absolute temperature of the hot source and T c {\displaystyle T_{c}} that of the cold sink, usually measured in kelvins. Note that d S c {\displaystyle dS_{c}} is positive while d S h {\displaystyle dS_{h}} is negative; in any reversible work-extracting process, entropy is overall not increased, but rather is moved from a hot (high-entropy) system to a cold (low-entropy one), decreasing the entropy of the heat source and increasing that of the heat sink.
Disk mirroring Overview Mirrored_server > Overview Typically, mirroring is provided in either hardware solutions such as disk arrays, or in software within the operating system (such as Linux mdadm and device mapper). Additionally, file systems like Btrfs or ZFS provide integrated data mirroring. There are additional benefits from Btrfs and ZFS, which maintain both data and metadata integrity checksums, making themselves capable of detecting bad copies of blocks, and using mirrored data to pull up data from correct blocks.There are several scenarios for what happens when a disk fails. In a hot swap system, in the event of a disk failure, the system itself typically diagnoses a disk failure and signals a failure.
Chemical bonding of water Isovalent hybridization and Bent's rule Chemical_bonding_of_water > Isovalent hybridization and Bent's rule For molecules containing lone pairs, the true hybridization of these molecules depends on the amount of s and p characters of the central atom which is related to its electronegativity. "According to Bent's rule, as the substituent electronegativies increase, orbitals of greater p character will be directed towards those groups. By the above discussion, this will decrease the bond angle. In predicting the bond angle of water, Bent's rule suggests that hybrid orbitals with more s character should be directed towards the very electropositive lone pairs, while that leaves orbitals with more p character directed towards the hydrogens. This increased p character in those orbitals decreases the bond angle between them to less than the tetrahedral 109.5°."
Evolutionary thought Summary Mutationism-biometrics_debate In the late 20th-century, DNA sequencing led to molecular phylogenetics and the reorganization of the tree of life into the three-domain system by Carl Woese. In addition, the newly recognized factors of symbiogenesis and horizontal gene transfer introduced yet more complexity into evolutionary theory. Discoveries in evolutionary biology have made a significant impact not just within the traditional branches of biology, but also in other academic disciplines (for example: anthropology and psychology) and on society at large.
Beta adrenergic receptor antagonist Congestive heart failure Beta-adrenergic_antagonist > Medical uses > Congestive heart failure Although beta blockers were once contraindicated in congestive heart failure, as they have the potential to worsen the condition due to their effect of decreasing cardiac contractility, studies in the late 1990s showed their efficacy at reducing morbidity and mortality.Bisoprolol, carvedilol, and sustained-release metoprolol are specifically indicated as adjuncts to standard ACE inhibitor and diuretic therapy in congestive heart failure, although at doses typically much lower than those indicated for other conditions. Beta blockers are only indicated in cases of compensated, stable congestive heart failure; in cases of acute decompensated heart failure, beta blockers will cause a further decrease in ejection fraction, worsening the patient's current symptoms. Beta blockers are known primarily for their reductive effect on heart rate, although this is not the only mechanism of action of importance in congestive heart failure. Beta blockers, in addition to their sympatholytic β1 activity in the heart, influence the renin–angiotensin system at the kidneys.
Aggressive behavior Glucocorticoids Childhood_aggression > Physiology > Glucocorticoids Glucocorticoid hormones have an important role in regulating aggressive behavior. In adult rats, acute injections of corticosterone promote aggressive behavior and acute reduction of corticosterone decreases aggression; however, a chronic reduction of corticosterone levels can produce abnormally aggressive behavior. In addition, glucocorticoids affect development of aggression and establishment of social hierarchies. Adult mice with low baseline levels of corticosterone are more likely to become dominant than are mice with high baseline corticosterone levels.Glucocorticoids are released by the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis in response to stress, of which cortisol is the most prominent in humans.
Transgenerational trauma Epigenetic mechanisms Transgenerational_trauma > Transmission > Epigenetic mechanisms Acetyl and phosphate groups, which are modifiers typically associated with an upregulation of gene expression, attach onto lysine, serine, threonine, and tyrosine residues of histones. Methylation (on lysine or arginine residues) and ubiquitylation (on lysine residues of histones H2A and H2B) are associated with both activating and repressing genes. SUMO stands for small ubiquitin-like modifier and it binds to lysine residues.