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Recyclable waste Collection Recyclable_materials > Recycling consumer waste > Collection A number of systems have been implemented to collect recyclates from the general waste stream, occupying different places on the spectrum of trade-off between public convenience and government ease and expense. The three main categories of collection are drop-off centers, buy-back centers and curbside collection. About two-thirds of the cost of recycling is incurred in the collection phase.
Social cloud computing Applications Social_cloud_computing > Applications Social cloud computing has been highlighted as a potential benefit to large-scale computing, video gaming, and media streaming. The tenets of social cloud computing has been most famously employed in the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC), making the service the largest computing grid in the world. Another service that uses social cloud computing is Subutai. Subutai allows peer-to-peer sharing of computing resources globally or within a select permissioned network.
Relativity priority dispute Elie Zahar (1983) Relativity_priority_dispute > Timeline > Elie Zahar (1983) In his opinion, Poincaré was rather a "structural realist" and from that he concludes, that Poincaré actually adhered to the relativity of time and space, while his allusions to the aether are of secondary importance. He continues, that due to his treatment of gravitation and four-dimensional space, Poincaré's 1905/6 paper was superior to Einstein's 1905 paper. Yet Zahar gives also credit to Einstein, who introduced Mass–Energy equivalence, and also transcended special relativity by taking a path leading to the development of general relativity.
Photoelectrochemical cell Structured materials Photoelectrochemical_cells > Materials for photoelectrolytic cells > Structured materials Structuring of absorbing materials has both positive and negative affects on cell performance. Structuring allows for light absorption and carrier collection to occur in different places, which loosens the requirements for pure materials and helps with catalysis. This allows for the use of non-precious and oxide catalysts that may be stable in more oxidizing conditions. However, these devices have lower open-circuit potentials which may contribute to lower performance.
Roundoff error IEEE standard Round-off_error > Floating-point number system > IEEE standard In the IEEE standard the base is binary, i.e. β = 2 {\displaystyle \beta =2} , and normalization is used. The IEEE standard stores the sign, exponent, and mantissa in separate fields of a floating point word, each of which has a fixed width (number of bits). The two most commonly used levels of precision for floating-point numbers are single precision and double precision.
Mathematical methods of physics Quantum Mathematical_physicist > Prominent mathematical physicists > Quantum This revolutionary theoretical framework is based on a probabilistic interpretation of states, and evolution and measurements in terms of self-adjoint operators on an infinite-dimensional vector space. That is called Hilbert space (introduced by mathematicians David Hilbert (1862–1943), Erhard Schmidt(1876–1959) and Frigyes Riesz (1880–1956) in search of generalization of Euclidean space and study of integral equations), and rigorously defined within the axiomatic modern version by John von Neumann in his celebrated book Mathematical Foundations of Quantum Mechanics, where he built up a relevant part of modern functional analysis on Hilbert spaces, the spectral theory (introduced by David Hilbert who investigated quadratic forms with infinitely many variables. Many years later, it had been revealed that his spectral theory is associated with the spectrum of the hydrogen atom.
Markov partition Motivation Markov_partition > Motivation Let ( M , φ ) {\displaystyle (M,\varphi )} be a discrete dynamical system. A basic method of studying its dynamics is to find a symbolic representation: a faithful encoding of the points of M {\displaystyle M} by sequences of symbols such that the map φ {\displaystyle \varphi } becomes the shift map. Suppose that M {\displaystyle M} has been divided into a number of pieces E 1 , E 2 , … , E r {\displaystyle E_{1},E_{2},\ldots ,E_{r}} which are thought to be as small and localized, with virtually no overlaps. The behavior of a point x {\displaystyle x} under the iterates of φ {\displaystyle \varphi } can be tracked by recording, for each n {\displaystyle n} , the part E i {\displaystyle E_{i}} which contains φ n ( x ) {\displaystyle \varphi ^{n}(x)} .
High level programming language High-level language computer architecture High_level_languages > Execution modes > High-level language computer architecture Alternatively, it is possible for a high-level language to be directly implemented by a computer – the computer directly executes the HLL code. This is known as a high-level language computer architecture – the computer architecture itself is designed to be targeted by a specific high-level language. The Burroughs large systems were target machines for ALGOL 60, for example.
Eigenstate thermalization hypothesis Temporal fluctuations of expectation values Eigenstate_thermalization_hypothesis > Temporal fluctuations of expectation values Notice that this condition allows for the possibility of isolated resurgence times, in which the phases align coherently in order to produce large fluctuations away from the long-time average. The amount of time the system spends far away from the long-time average is guaranteed to be small so long as the above mean squared amplitude is sufficiently small. If a system poses a dynamical symmetry, however, it will periodically oscillate around the long-time average.
Niederreiter cryptosystem Signature scheme Niederreiter_cryptosystem > Signature scheme Courtois, Finiasz and Sendrier showed how the Niederreiter cryptosystem can be used to derive a signature scheme . Hash the document, d, to be signed (with a public hash algorithm). Decrypt this hash value as if it were an instance of ciphertext. Append the decrypted message to the document as a signature.Verification then applies the public encryption function to the signature and checks whether or not this equals the hash value of the document.
Decellularization Summary Decellularization Scientists can use the acquired ECM scaffold to reproduce a functional organ by introducing progenitor cells, or adult stem cells (ASCs), and allowing them to differentiate within the scaffold to develop into the desired tissue. The produced organ or tissue can be transplanted into a patient. In contrast to cell surface antibodies, the biochemical components of the ECM are conserved between hosts, so the risk of a hostile immune response is minimized.
Feature learning Restricted Boltzmann machine Feature_learning > Multilayer/deep architectures > Restricted Boltzmann machine Restricted Boltzmann machines (RBMs) are often used as a building block for multilayer learning architectures. An RBM can be represented by an undirected bipartite graph consisting of a group of binary hidden variables, a group of visible variables, and edges connecting the hidden and visible nodes. It is a special case of the more general Boltzmann machines with the constraint of no intra-node connections. Each edge in an RBM is associated with a weight.
Hamming cube Algorithm example Hamming_cube > Algorithm example The following function, written in Python 3, returns the Hamming distance between two strings: Or, in a shorter expression: The function hamming_distance(), implemented in Python 3, computes the Hamming distance between two strings (or other iterable objects) of equal length by creating a sequence of Boolean values indicating mismatches and matches between corresponding positions in the two inputs, then summing the sequence with True and False values, interpreted as one and zero, respectively. where the zip() function merges two equal-length collections in pairs. The following C function will compute the Hamming distance of two integers (considered as binary values, that is, as sequences of bits). The running time of this procedure is proportional to the Hamming distance rather than to the number of bits in the inputs.
Horticulture Controlling environmental variables Horticulture > Techniques and practices > Controlling environmental variables They can be built out of glass, although they are now primarily made from plastic sheets. More expensive and modern greenhouses can include temperature control through shade and light control or air-conditioning as well as automatic watering. Shade houses provide shading to limit water loss by evapotranspiration.Temperature control can be done through a variety of methods.
Evolutionary approaches to schizophrenia Sexual Selection & Sex Differences in Schizophrenia Evolutionary_approaches_to_schizophrenia > Sexual Selection & Sex Differences in Schizophrenia This could indicate that there was an arrest in the process, potentially early termination of cerebral development. Alternative morphological outlooks, such as CT, MRI, and necroscopy, reported an overall finding of decreased brain size in schizophrenics.
History of tuberculosis Journals History_of_tuberculosis > References > Journals doi:10.1055/s-0028-1137468. Retrieved 23 September 2017. Koch R (10 April 1882).
Vacuum capacitor Applications Vacuum_variable_capacitor > Applications Vacuum variable capacitors are commonly used in high-voltage applications: 5000 volts (5 kV) and above. They are used in equipment such as high-powered broadcast transmitters, amateur radio RF amplifiers and large antenna tuners. Industrially they are used in plasma generating equipment, for dielectric heating, and in semiconductor manufacturing. The main applications today are RF plasmas of 2 to 160 MHz where the vacuum capacitor is used as the impedance variation part in an automatic matching network in the fabrication of chips and flat panel displays. Other variations of vacuum capacitors include fixed-value capacitors, which are designed very much like the variable versions with the exception that the adjustment mechanism is omitted.
Seesaw mechanism Background Seesaw_mechanism > Background {\displaystyle {\mathcal {L}}_{yuk}=y\,\eta L\epsilon H^{*}+...} This means that M is naturally of the order of the vacuum expectation value of the standard model Higgs field, the vacuum expectation value (VEV) v ≈ 246 G e V , | ⟨ H ⟩ | = v / 2 {\displaystyle \quad v\;\approx \;\mathrm {246\;GeV} ,\qquad \qquad |\langle H\rangle |\;=\;v/{\sqrt {2}}} M t = O ( v / 2 ) ≈ 174 G e V , {\displaystyle M_{t}={\mathcal {O}}\left(v/{\sqrt {2}}\right)\;\approx \;\mathrm {174\;GeV} ,} if the dimensionless Yukawa coupling is of order y ≈ 1 {\displaystyle y\approx 1} . It can be chosen smaller consistently, but extreme values y ≫ 1 {\displaystyle y\gg 1} can make the model nonperturbative. The parameter B ′ {\displaystyle B'} on the other hand, is forbidden, since no renormalizable singlet under weak hypercharge and isospin can be formed using these doublet components – only a nonrenormalizable, dimension 5 term is allowed.
Prism-coupling refractometry Configuration Prism_coupler > Configuration A prism coupler is used to couple the power from an incident laser beam into a thin film. The film lies on a substrate such as a glass microscope slide and might have a thickness of the order of the wavelength of the incident light (0.550 μm for green light). The refractive index of the film is made greater than that of the glass slide, the film can serve as a dielectric planar waveguide for light via total internal reflection off the film–glass interface (and film–air interface). The prism coupler consists of a near cube of high–refractive-index glass and a second thin film at the bottom that contacts the waveguide film and serves the function of partially containing the guided wave over the coupling distance.
Inverse kinematics Summary Inverse_kinematics In computer animation and robotics, inverse kinematics is the mathematical process of calculating the variable joint parameters needed to place the end of a kinematic chain, such as a robot manipulator or animation character's skeleton, in a given position and orientation relative to the start of the chain. Given joint parameters, the position and orientation of the chain's end, e.g. the hand of the character or robot, can typically be calculated directly using multiple applications of trigonometric formulas, a process known as forward kinematics. However, the reverse operation is, in general, much more challenging.Inverse kinematics is also used to recover the movements of an object in the world from some other data, such as a film of those movements, or a film of the world as seen by a camera which is itself making those movements. This occurs, for example, where a human actor's filmed movements are to be duplicated by an animated character.
Feedback controller Summary Feedback_control_system Open-loop control systems do not make use of feedback, and run only in pre-arranged ways. Closed-loop controllers have the following advantages over open-loop controllers: disturbance rejection (such as hills in the cruise control example above) guaranteed performance even with model uncertainties, when the model structure does not match perfectly the real process and the model parameters are not exact unstable processes can be stabilized reduced sensitivity to parameter variations improved reference tracking performanceIn some systems, closed-loop and open-loop control are used simultaneously. In such systems, the open-loop control is termed feedforward and serves to further improve reference tracking performance. A common closed-loop controller architecture is the PID controller.
Noisy-storage model Motivation Noisy-storage_model > Motivation What sets these tasks apart from key distribution is that they aim to solve problems between two parties, Alice and Bob, who do not trust each other. That is, there is no outside party like an eavesdropper, only Alice and Bob. Intuitively, it is this lack of trust that makes the problem hard.
Information processing theory Current areas of research Information_processing_theory > Current areas of research This is influenced by many things including: What the information being processed means to the individual The complexity of the stimuli (based partially on background knowledge) Ability to control attention (varies based on age, hyperactivity, etc.)Some research has shown that individuals with a high working memory are better able to filter out irrelevant information. In particular, one study on focusing on dichotic listening, followed participants were played two audio tracks, one in each ear, and were asked to pay attention only to one. It was shown that there was a significant positive relationship between working memory capacity and ability of the participant to filter out the information from the other audio track.
Automated machine Summary Automated_machine An automaton (; PL: automata or automatons) is a relatively self-operating machine, or control mechanism designed to automatically follow a sequence of operations, or respond to predetermined instructions. Some automata, such as bellstrikers in mechanical clocks, are designed to give the illusion to the casual observer that they are operating under their own power or will, like a mechanical robot. The term has long been commonly associated with automated puppets that resemble moving humans or animals, built to impress and/or to entertain people. Animatronics are a modern type of automata with electronics, often used for the portrayal of characters in films and in theme park attractions.
Evolved EDGE Transmission techniques Enhanced_Data_Rates_for_GSM_Evolution > Technology > Transmission techniques This means it can handle four times as much traffic as standard GPRS. EDGE meets the International Telecommunication Union's requirement for a 3G network, and has been accepted by the ITU as part of the IMT-2000 family of 3G standards. It also enhances the circuit data mode called HSCSD, increasing the data rate of this service.
Rock formations India Rock_formation > Asia > India Jabalpur Marble Rocks, Madhya Pradesh Rock Formations in Rayalseema Andhra Pradesh, Hampi Karnataka Yana
Townsend's mole Summary Townsend's_mole The Townsend's mole (Scapanus townsendii) is a fossorial mammal in the family Talpidae, and is the largest North American mole. It was named after the American naturalist John Kirk Townsend. The name was selected at the request of Thomas Nuttall as a patronym to honor Townsend's contribution.
Multiple factor analysis Conclusion Multiple_factor_analysis > Conclusion The numerical example illustrates the output of the MFA. Besides balancing groups of variables and besides usual graphics of PCA (of MCA in the case of qualitative variables), the MFA provides results specific of the group structure of the set of variables, that is, in particular: A superimposed representation of partial individuals for a detailed analysis of the data; A representation of groups of variables providing a synthetic image more and more valuable as that data include many groups; A representation of factors from separate analyses.The small size and simplicity of the example allow simple validation of the rules of interpretation. But the method will be more valuable when the data set is large and complex. Other methods suitable for this type of data are available. Procrustes analysis is compared to the MFA in.
Water organ The hydraulis of Dion Water_organ > The hydraulis of Dion At a point just before the narrowing part of every pipe there is an opening producing the turbulence of the pressurized air and the sound. The pipes are stabilized by two metal plates. The one facing outwards has decorative motifs.
Research design Non-experimental research designs Research_design > Examples of fixed designs > Non-experimental research designs Since correlation does not imply causation, such studies simply identify co-movements of variables. Correlational designs are helpful in identifying the relation of one variable to another, and seeing the frequency of co-occurrence in two natural groups (see Correlation and dependence). The second type is comparative research.
Reimer–Tiemann reaction Summary Reimer–Tiemann_reaction The Reimer–Tiemann reaction is a chemical reaction used for the ortho-formylation of phenols. with the simplest example being the conversion of phenol to salicylaldehyde. The reaction was first reported by Karl Reimer and Ferdinand Tiemann.
Gear train Torque ratio Reduction_gear > Torque ratio A gear train can be analyzed using the principle of virtual work to show that its torque ratio, which is the ratio of its output torque to its input torque, is equal to the gear ratio, or speed ratio, of the gear train. This means the input torque ΤA applied to the input gear GA and the output torque ΤB on the output gear GB are related by the ratio R = T B T A , {\displaystyle R={\frac {T_{B}}{T_{A}}},} where R is the gear ratio of the gear train. The torque ratio of a gear train is also known as its mechanical advantage M A = T B T A . {\displaystyle {\mathit {MA}}={\frac {T_{B}}{T_{A}}}.}
Binding energies Mass–energy relation Binding_energy > Mass–energy relation When the particles either pass through each other without interaction or elastically repel during the collision, the gained kinetic energy (related to speed) begins to revert into potential energy, driving the collided particles apart. The decelerating particles will return to the initial distance and beyond into infinity, or stop and repeat the collision (oscillation takes place). This shows that the system, which loses no energy, does not combine (bind) into a solid object, parts of which oscillate at short distances.
Robot motion planning Summary Motion_planning Motion planning, also path planning (also known as the navigation problem or the piano mover's problem) is a computational problem to find a sequence of valid configurations that moves the object from the source to destination. The term is used in computational geometry, computer animation, robotics and computer games. For example, consider navigating a mobile robot inside a building to a distant waypoint.
Interprocedural optimization WPO and LTO Interprocedural_optimization > WPO and LTO Once all files have been compiled separately into object files, traditionally, a compiler links (merges) the object files into a single file, the executable. However, in LTO as implemented by the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) and LLVM, the compiler is able to dump its intermediate representation (IR), i.e. GIMPLE bytecode or LLVM bitcode, respectively, so that all the different compilation units that will go to make up a single executable can be optimized as a single module when the link finally happens.
McCarthy 91 function Summary McCarthy_91_function The McCarthy 91 function is a recursive function, defined by the computer scientist John McCarthy as a test case for formal verification within computer science. The McCarthy 91 function is defined as M ( n ) = { n − 10 , if n > 100 M ( M ( n + 11 ) ) , if n ≤ 100 {\displaystyle M(n)={\begin{cases}n-10,&{\mbox{if }}n>100{\mbox{ }}\\M(M(n+11)),&{\mbox{if }}n\leq 100{\mbox{ }}\end{cases}}} The results of evaluating the function are given by M(n) = 91 for all integer arguments n ≤ 100, and M(n) = n − 10 for n > 100. Indeed, the result of M(101) is also 91 (101 - 10 = 91). All results of M(n) after n = 101 are continually increasing by 1, e.g. M(102) = 92, M(103) = 93.
Tax resister Summary Tax_resistance Tax resistance is the refusal to pay tax because of opposition to the government that is imposing the tax, or to government policy, or as opposition to taxation in itself. Tax resistance is a form of direct action and, if in violation of the tax regulations, also a form of civil disobedience. Examples of tax resistance campaigns include those advocating home rule, such as the Salt March led by Mahatma Gandhi, and those promoting women's suffrage, such as the Women's Tax Resistance League. War tax resistance is the refusal to pay some or all taxes that pay for war, and may be practiced by conscientious objectors, pacifists, or those protesting against a particular war.Tax resisters are distinct from "tax protesters", who deny that the legal obligation to pay taxes exists or applies to them. Tax resisters may accept that some law commands them to pay taxes but they still choose to resist taxation.
Vertical take-off and landing Lift jets Vertical_takeoff_and_landing > Powered lift > Lift jets A lift jet is an auxiliary jet engine used to provide lift for VTOL operation, but may be shut down for normal wing-borne flight. The Yak-38 is the only production aircraft to employ lift jets.
Shape Similarity classes Plane_figure > Equivalence of shapes > Similarity classes All similar triangles have the same shape. These shapes can be classified using complex numbers u, v, w for the vertices, in a method advanced by J.A. Lester and Rafael Artzy. For example, an equilateral triangle can be expressed by the complex numbers 0, 1, (1 + i√3)/2 representing its vertices.
Naming of elements Known elements Naming_of_chemical_elements > Known elements All 118 discovered elements are confirmed and have a formal name and symbol, as decided by IUPAC. The last four names and symbols were added on November 28, 2016. Currently there are no unconfirmed discoveries and all seven periods (rows) of the periodic table are completed.
Ascendency Summary Ascendency Almost half a century earlier, Alfred J. Lotka (1922) had suggested that a system's capacity to prevail in evolution was related to its ability to capture useful power. Ascendency can thus be regarded as a refinement of Lotka's supposition that also takes into account how power is actually being channeled within a system.
Ballistic deflection transistor Summary Ballistic_deflection_transistor Ballistic deflection transistors (BDTs) are electronic devices, developed since 2006, for high-speed integrated circuits, which is a set of circuits bounded on semiconductor material. They use electromagnetic forces instead of a logic gate, a device used to perform solely on specified inputs, to switch the forces of electrons. The unique design of this transistor includes individual electrons bouncing from wedge-shaped obstacles called deflectors. Initially accelerated by electric field, electrons are then guided on their respective paths by electromagnetic deflection. Electrons are therefore able to travel without being scattered by atoms or defects, thus resulting in improved speed and reduced power consumption.
Integration using parametric derivatives Statement of the theorem Integration_using_parametric_derivatives > Statement of the theorem By using The Leibniz integral rule with the upper and lower bounds fixed we get that d d t ( ∫ a b f ( x , t ) d x ) = ∫ a b ∂ ∂ t f ( x , t ) d x {\displaystyle {\frac {d}{dt}}\left(\int _{a}^{b}f(x,t)dx\right)=\int _{a}^{b}{\frac {\partial }{\partial t}}f(x,t)dx} It is also true for non-finite bounds.
Higgs potential Standard Model Higgs_mechanism > Standard Model The Higgs mechanism was incorporated into modern particle physics by Steven Weinberg and Abdus Salam, and is an essential part of the Standard Model. In the Standard Model, at temperatures high enough that electroweak symmetry is unbroken, all elementary particles are massless. At a critical temperature, the Higgs field develops a vacuum expectation value; the symmetry is spontaneously broken by tachyon condensation, and the W and Z bosons acquire masses (also called "electroweak symmetry breaking", or EWSB). In the history of the universe, this is believed to have happened about a picosecond (10−12 s) after the hot big bang, when the universe was at a temperature 159.5 ± 1.5 GeV.Fermions, such as the leptons and quarks in the Standard Model, can also acquire mass as a result of their interaction with the Higgs field, but not in the same way as the gauge bosons.
Pythagorean cup Origin Pythagorean_cup > Origin Pythagorean siphons were originally introduced by Pythagoras in 6th century B.C.
Plastic flow Elastic deformation Plastic_deformation_in_solids > Types of deformation > Elastic deformation Engineers often use this calculation in tensile tests. Note that not all elastic materials undergo linear elastic deformation; some, such as concrete, gray cast iron, and many polymers, respond in a nonlinear fashion. For these materials Hooke's law is inapplicable.
Engineered wood Summary Engineered_Lumber The products can be used for joists and beams that replace steel in many building projects. The term mass timber describes a group of building materials that can replace concrete assemblies.Typically, engineered wood products are made from the same hardwoods and softwoods used to manufacture lumber. Sawmill scraps and other wood waste can be used for engineered wood composed of wood particles or fibers, but whole logs are usually used for veneers, such as plywood, medium-density fibreboard (MDF), or particle board.
Continuity test Limitations Continuity_test > Limitations Since continuity testers work by attempting to close an electrical circuit, power must be disconnected before performing any continuity tests.Due to the presence of low-valued resistors, motors, transformers, inductors, speakers, and diodes in electrical circuits, continuity tests can give ambiguous information regarding how the circuit components are connected.
Diagnostic tests Indications Medical_test > Indications Tests are chosen when the expected benefit is greater than the expected harm. The net benefit may roughly be estimated by: b n = Δ p × r i × ( b i − h i ) − h t {\displaystyle b_{n}=\Delta p\times r_{i}\times (b_{i}-h_{i})-h_{t}} , where: bn is the net benefit of performing a test Λp is the absolute difference between pre- and posttest probability of conditions (such as diseases) that the test is expected to achieve. A major factor for such an absolute difference is the power of the test itself, such as can be described in terms of, for example, sensitivity and specificity or likelihood ratio.
V-model Systems engineering and verification V-model > V-model topics > Systems engineering and verification The systems engineering process (SEP) provides a path for improving the cost-effectiveness of complex systems as experienced by the system owner over the entire life of the system, from conception to retirement.It involves early and comprehensive identification of goals, a concept of operations that describes user needs and the operating environment, thorough and testable system requirements, detailed design, implementation, rigorous acceptance testing of the implemented system to ensure it meets the stated requirements (system verification), measuring its effectiveness in addressing goals (system validation), on-going operation and maintenance, system upgrades over time, and eventual retirement.The process emphasizes requirements-driven design and testing. All design elements and acceptance tests must be traceable to one or more system requirements and every requirement must be addressed by at least one design element and acceptance test. Such rigor ensures nothing is done unnecessarily and everything that is necessary is accomplished.
Vegetation-induced sedimentary structures Scratch circles Vegetation-induced_sedimentary_structures > Hydrodynamic structures > Scratch circles Sets of concentric grooves that form in sand or mud by the action of sharp objects anchored at the center of a curvature set. Most likely formed from some sort of free moving plant under water. Plants are bent by the current, causing them to scratch concentric grooves into the adjacent substrate. The grooves are most likely formed in a muddy substrate, which preserved them during deposition of the overlying sediment. These scratch semicircles can record currents in wind or water during ancient deposition.
Algorithmically unsolvable problem Examples of undecidable statements Algorithmically_unsolvable_problem > Examples of undecidable statements Whether there exist so-called "absolutely undecidable" statements, whose truth value can never be known or is ill-specified, is a controversial point among various philosophical schools. One of the first problems suspected to be undecidable, in the second sense of the term, was the word problem for groups, first posed by Max Dehn in 1911, which asks if there is a finitely presented group for which no algorithm exists to determine whether two words are equivalent.
Dynamic substructuring History Dynamic_substructuring > History The finite element method proved to be the most efficient method and the invention of the microprocessor made it possible to easily solve a large variety of physical problems. In order to analyse even larger and more complex problems, methods were invented to optimize the efficiency of the discretized calculations. The first step was replacing the direct solvers by iterative solvers such as the conjugate gradient method.
Phenomenology (physics) Theoretical models Phenomenology_(physics) > Applications in particle physics > Theoretical models In Physics beyond the Standard Model, phenomenology addresses the experimental consequences of new models: how their new particles could be searched for, how the model parameters could be measured, and how the model could be distinguished from other, competing models.
Human overpopulation History of world population Human_overpopulation > Overview > History of world population For example, the Black Death is thought to have reduced the world's population, then at an estimated 450 million in 1350, to between 350 and 375 million by 1400.After the start of the Industrial Revolution, during the 18th century, the rate of population growth began to increase. By the end of the century, the world's population was estimated at just under 1 billion. At the turn of the 20th century, the world's population was roughly 1.6 billion.
Mathematics education in Australia Higher School Certificate Mathematics_education_in_Australia > Secondary > New South Wales > Higher School Certificate Computational methods such as the trapezoidal rule are encountered for evaluating integrals. The course includes a brief foray into series and sequences, including an application to basic finance through the modelling of compound interest. The nature of lines, circles and parabolas as loci are investigated however these properties are not exploited by the plane geometry coursework.
Human Proteome Resource Current research methodologies Proteomics > Methods of studying proteins > Current research methodologies The results indicated that these proteins participate in the reproductive process of N. lugens adult females and males.Proteome analysis of Arabidopsis peroxisomes has been established as the major unbiased approach for identifying new peroxisomal proteins on a large scale.There are many approaches to characterizing the human proteome, which is estimated to contain between 20,000 and 25,000 non-redundant proteins. The number of unique protein species likely will increase by between 50,000 and 500,000 due to RNA splicing and proteolysis events, and when post-translational modification also are considered, the total number of unique human proteins is estimated to range in the low millions.In addition, the first promising attempts to decipher the proteome of animal tumors have recently been reported. This method was used as a functional method in Macrobrachium rosenbergii protein profiling.
Philosophy of artificial intelligence Conclusion and Future Directions Artificial_philosophy > Conclusion and Future Directions Artificial Experientialism (AE) provides a comprehensive philosophical and epistemological framework that reshapes our understanding of artificial intelligence and its capabilities. It delves deep into the artificial experience, feelings, and existence of AI, providing innovative perspectives that challenge traditional philosophical views (Floridi, 2019). While recognizing the limitations of AI in terms of human-like consciousness, emotions, and experiences, AE also highlights the unique capabilities of AI in processing data, recognizing patterns, and simulating responses. By redefining concepts such as knowledge, understanding, existence, and being in the context of AI, AE opens up new avenues for the development and utilization of AI systems.
Generalized derivative Summary Derivative_(generalizations) In mathematics, the derivative is a fundamental construction of differential calculus and admits many possible generalizations within the fields of mathematical analysis, combinatorics, algebra, geometry, etc.
Linearity of integration Applications Linearity_of_integration > Applications Integrals are used extensively in many areas. For example, in probability theory, integrals are used to determine the probability of some random variable falling within a certain range. Moreover, the integral under an entire probability density function must equal 1, which provides a test of whether a function with no negative values could be a density function or not.Integrals can be used for computing the area of a two-dimensional region that has a curved boundary, as well as computing the volume of a three-dimensional object that has a curved boundary. The area of a two-dimensional region can be calculated using the aforementioned definite integral.
Traumatic brain injury Signs and symptoms Traumatic_brain_injury > Signs and symptoms Common long-term symptoms of moderate to severe TBI are changes in appropriate social behavior, deficits in social judgment, and cognitive changes, especially problems with sustained attention, processing speed, and executive functioning. Alexithymia, a deficiency in identifying, understanding, processing, and describing emotions occurs in 60.9% of individuals with TBI. Cognitive and social deficits have long-term consequences for the daily lives of people with moderate to severe TBI, but can be improved with appropriate rehabilitation.When the pressure within the skull (intracranial pressure, abbreviated ICP) rises too high, it can be deadly.
End-to-end data protection Overview Silent_data_corruption > Overview Modern systems attempt to detect corruption at many layers and then recover or correct the corruption; this is almost always successful but very rarely the information arriving in the systems memory is corrupted and can cause unpredictable results. Data corruption during transmission has a variety of causes. Interruption of data transmission causes information loss.
Unattended Ground Sensors Summary Unattended_Ground_Sensors The unattended ground sensor (UGS) are a variety of small sensors, generally covert, dedicated to detect and identify activities on the ground such as enemy soldiers or vehicles. UGS come as systems with an integrated communication network and processing capabilities.
Bioorganic chemistry Sub disciplines Bioorganic_chemistry > Sub disciplines Biophysical organic chemistry is a term used when attempting to describe intimate details of molecular recognition by bioorganic chemistry.Natural product chemistry is the process of Identifying compounds found in nature to determine their properties. Compound discoveries have and often lead to medicinal uses, development of herbicides and insecticides. == References ==
Least-squares normal matrix Independent and identically distributed (iid) Least-squares_normal_matrix > Properties > Assumptions > Independent and identically distributed (iid) In some applications, especially with cross-sectional data, an additional assumption is imposed — that all observations are independent and identically distributed. This means that all observations are taken from a random sample which makes all the assumptions listed earlier simpler and easier to interpret. Also this framework allows one to state asymptotic results (as the sample size n → ∞), which are understood as a theoretical possibility of fetching new independent observations from the data generating process. The list of assumptions in this case is: iid observations: (xi, yi) is independent from, and has the same distribution as, (xj, yj) for all i ≠ j; no perfect multicollinearity: Qxx = E is a positive-definite matrix; exogeneity: E = 0; homoscedasticity: Var = σ2.
Buffer zone Wildlife food and habitat Buffer_zone > Ecological functions of conservation > Wildlife food and habitat Riparian buffer zones have been used in many areas to protect the habitats of many animals which are being devastated by increased human activity. The areas around the buffer zone can form the habitat of many animals, and plants can become food for small aquatic animals. The buffer zone itself can also support the life activities of various amphibians and birds. Plants and animals can migrate or spread in response to these buffer zones, thus increasing the biodiversity in the area.
Multiple Sclerosis Relapsing remitting multiple sclerosis Multiple_Sclerosis > Management > Chronic management > Relapsing remitting multiple sclerosis Multiple disease-modifying medications were approved by regulatory agencies for RRMS; they are modestly effective at decreasing the number of attacks. Interferons and glatiramer acetate are first-line treatments and are roughly equivalent, reducing relapses by approximately 30%. Early-initiated long-term therapy is safe and improves outcomes.Treatment of CIS with interferons decreases the chance of progressing to clinical MS. Efficacy of interferons and glatiramer acetate in children has been estimated to be roughly equivalent to that of adults.
Surfer Wave formation Surfer > The physics of surfing > Wave formation The bottom exerts a frictional drag on the bottom of the wave, which decreases the celerity (or the speed of the waveform), and causes refraction. Slowing the wave forces it to shorten which increases the height and steepness, and the top (crest) falls because the velocity of the top of the wave becomes greater than the velocity of the bottom of the wave where the drag occurs.The surf zone is the place of convergence of multiple waves types creating complex wave patterns. A wave suitable for surfing results from maximum speeds of 5 metres per second (16 ft/s).
Parkinson disease Dopamine agonists Parkinson's_disease > Management > Medications > Dopamine agonists Agonists have been related to impulse-control disorders (such as increased sexual activity, eating, gambling, and shopping) more strongly than other antiparkinson medications. They tend to be more expensive than levodopa.Apomorphine, a dopamine agonist, may be used to reduce off periods and dyskinesia in late PD. It is administered only by intermittent injections or continuous subcutaneous infusions.
Biological species Speciation Theory_of_species > Change > Speciation This occurs most easily in allopatric speciation, where populations are separated geographically and can diverge gradually as mutations accumulate. Reproductive isolation is threatened by hybridisation, but this can be selected against once a pair of populations have incompatible alleles of the same gene, as described in the Bateson–Dobzhansky–Muller model. A different mechanism, phyletic speciation, involves one lineage gradually changing over time into a new and distinct form, without increasing the number of resultant species.
L-amino-acid oxidase Activity L-amino-acid_oxidase > Biological Function > Activity This enzyme participates in 8 metabolic pathways: alanine and aspartate metabolism, methionine metabolism, valine, leucine and isoleucine degradation, tyrosine metabolism, phenylalanine metabolism, tryptophan metabolism, phenylalanine, tyrosine and tryptophan biosynthesis, and alkaloid biosynthesis. It employs one cofactor, flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD). The enzyme binds to FAD in the first step of the catalytic process, thereby reducing FAD to FADH2. The FAD is regenerated from FADH2 by oxidation as a result of O2 being reduced to H2O2.
Structural formulae Stereochemistry (Skeletal Formula) Chemical_structure_diagram > Structures in Structural Formulas > Stereochemistry (Skeletal Formula) A dashed wedge indicates that the atom is behind the molecule; it is pointing below the plane of the paper. When a straight, un-dashed line is used, the atom is in the plane of the paper. This spatial arrangement provides an idea of the molecule in a 3-dimensional space and there are constraints as to how the spatial arrangements can be arranged.
Turing equivalence (recursion theory) Structure of the Turing degrees Recursively_enumerable_Turing_degree > Structure of the Turing degrees A great deal of research has been conducted into the structure of the Turing degrees. The following survey lists only some of the many known results. One general conclusion that can be drawn from the research is that the structure of the Turing degrees is extremely complicated.
Responsibility assignment matrix RACI-VS RACI_matrix > Alternatives > RACI-VS This is an expanded version of the standard RACI, with two additional participation types:Verifier Those who check whether the product meets the acceptance criteria set forth in the product description.Signatory Those who approve the verify decision and authorize the product hand-off. The signatory should be the party being accountable for its success.
Medical ethics Healthcare reform and lifestyle Medical_ethics > Cultural concerns > Healthcare reform and lifestyle Leading causes of death in the United States and around the world are highly related to behavioral consequences over genetic or environmental factors. This leads some to believe true healthcare reform begins with cultural reform, habit and overall lifestyle. Lifestyle, then, becomes the cause of many illnesses and the illnesses themselves are the result or side-effect of a larger problem. Some people believe this to be true and think that cultural change is needed in order for developing societies to cope and dodge the negative effects of drugs, food and conventional modes of transportation available to them.
Arc-trench complex Earthquakes and tsunamis Mantle_cell > Effects > Earthquakes and tsunamis These included the 1960 Great Chilean earthquake which at M 9.5 was the largest earthquake ever recorded, the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami, and the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami. The subduction of cold oceanic lithosphere into the mantle depresses the local geothermal gradient and causes a larger portion of Earth's crust to deform in a more brittle fashion than it would in a normal geothermal gradient setting. Because earthquakes can occur only when a rock is deforming in a brittle fashion, subduction zones can cause large earthquakes.
Hemopoietic growth factor Clinical implications Hemopoietic_growth_factor > Clinical implications Some athletes use synthetic erythropoetin as a performance-enhancing drug to increase RBC counts and subsequently increase oxygen delivery to tissues throughout the body. Erythropoietin is a banned substance in most organized sports, but it is also used medically in the treatment of certain anemia, specifically those triggered by certain types of cancer, and other disorders in which increased erythrocyte counts and oxygen levels are desirable. Synthetic forms of colony stimulating factors are often administered to patients with various forms of cancer who are receiving chemotherapy to revive their WBC counts. == References ==
Loop (biochemistry) Summary Loop_(biochemistry) A turn is an element of secondary structure in proteins where the polypeptide chain reverses its overall direction.
Miliary tuberculosis Signs and symptoms Miliary_tuberculosis > Signs and symptoms Patients with miliary tuberculosis often experience non-specific signs, such as coughing and enlarged lymph nodes. Miliary tuberculosis can also present with enlarged liver (40% of cases), enlarged spleen (15%), inflammation of the pancreas (<5%), and multiple organ dysfunction with adrenal insufficiency (adrenal glands do not produce enough steroid hormones to regulate organ function). Stool may also be diarrheal in nature and appearance.Other symptoms include fever, hypercalcemia, choroidal tubercles, and cutaneous lesions. Firstly, many patients can experience a fever lasting several weeks with daily spikes in morning temperatures.Secondly, hypercalcemia prevails in 16–51% of tuberculosis cases.
Automatic Identification System Applications Automatic_Identification_System > Applications Additionally, AIS can be applied to freshwater river systems and lakes. Aids to navigation The AIS aids to navigation (AtoN) product standard was developed with the ability to broadcast the positions and names of objects other than vessels, such as navigational aid and marker positions and dynamic data reflecting the marker's environment (e.g., currents and climatic conditions). These aids can be located on shore, such as in a lighthouse, or on water, platforms, or buoys.
Vector space Related concepts and properties Coordinate_vector_space > Related concepts and properties The scalars a 1 , … , a n {\displaystyle a_{1},\ldots ,a_{n}} are called the coordinates of v on the basis. They are also said to be the coefficients of the decomposition of v on the basis. One also says that the n-tuple of the coordinates is the coordinate vector of v on the basis, since the set F n {\displaystyle F^{n}} of the n-tuples of elements of F is a vector space for componentwise addition and scalar multiplication, whose dimension is n. The one-to-one correspondence between vectors and their coordinate vectors maps vector addition to vector addition and scalar multiplication to scalar multiplication.
Fuel economy-maximizing behaviors Acceleration and deceleration (braking) Pulse_and_glide > Techniques > Acceleration and deceleration (braking) Fuel efficiency varies with the vehicle. Fuel efficiency during acceleration generally improves as RPM increases until a point somewhere near peak torque (brake specific fuel consumption). However, accelerating to a greater than necessary speed without paying attention to what is ahead may require braking and then after that, additional acceleration.
Apprenticeship learning Inverse reinforcement learning approach Apprenticeship_learning > Mapping function approach > Inverse reinforcement learning approach The scenario can be modeled as a "cooperative inverse reinforcement learning game", where a "person" player and a "robot" player cooperate to secure the person's implicit goals, despite these goals not being explicitly known by either the person nor the robot.In 2017, OpenAI and DeepMind applied deep learning to the cooperative inverse reinforcement learning in simple domains such as Atari games and straightforward robot tasks such as backflips. The human role was limited to answering queries from the robot as to which of two different actions were preferred. The researchers found evidence that the techniques may be economically scalable to modern systems.Apprenticeship via inverse reinforcement learning (AIRP) was developed by in 2004 Pieter Abbeel, Professor in Berkeley's EECS department, and Andrew Ng, Associate Professor in Stanford University's Computer Science Department.
Center for Molecular and Biomolecular Informatics Summary Center_for_Molecular_and_Biomolecular_Informatics The Center for Molecular and Biomolecular Informatics (CMBI) is an academic computational biology (bioinformatics) research department based in Nijmegen (the Netherlands), and is part of the Radboudumc University Medical Center. Most of the research topics at the CMBI focus strongly on (in silico) biomedical data analysis of biomolecules, and with - because of the department's embedding in a leading Dutch hospital - a strong interest in medical and clinical scientific research lines, both fundamental and translational in nature. Specific topics of interest involve protein (structure), (meta)genomics as well as the analysis of various other types of omics data (transcriptomics, proteomics, metabolomics, amongst others), and small (bio)molecules and their drug, protein or other molecular interaction partners. Furthermore, especially machine learning (including the application of artificial neural networks), personalized medicine and FAIR data research have a lot of interest and attention by the department. As of 2023, the CMBI has become part of the Radboudumc Medical BioSciences department.
Blondel's Experiments Conclusions Blondel's_Experiments > Conclusions From here Blondel deduces that: 1) When the magnetic field is constant, there is an e.m.f. only if the circuit cuts through the lines of force of the field, as in the first experiment (rotational axis-drum edge section). If this does not happen, even varying the total flux through the circuit, there is no e.m.f., as in the second experiment. 2) The case in which the closing line of the circuit (axis-edge section) moves within a solid conductor (but the conductor remains stationary), as in the third experiment, is not equivalent to the case in which the entire conductor moves, as in the fourth experiment (in this case the Lorentz force acts). Thus "one must reject as inaccurate the too general statements of the law of induction" and to the statement that "An electromotive force originates in a closed circuit when the number of magnetic lines passing through it varies...." should be added "and when the variation is produced either by the conductor sweeping the lines of force or by a variation in the field of the inductor itself".Basically experiments show how Faraday's basic law, that is the one that takes into account only flux variation, cannot be the general law of induction. In fact it is necessary to include also the contribution due to Lorentz force to obtain the general formula.
Thermal-neutron reactor Summary Thermal_reactor A thermal-neutron reactor is a nuclear reactor that uses slow or thermal neutrons. ("Thermal" does not mean hot in an absolute sense, but means in thermal equilibrium with the medium it is interacting with, the reactor's fuel, moderator and structure, which is much lower energy than the fast neutrons initially produced by fission.) Most nuclear power plant reactors are thermal reactors and use a neutron moderator to slow neutrons until they approach the average kinetic energy of the surrounding particles, that is, to reduce the speed of the neutrons to low-velocity, thermal neutrons. Neutrons are uncharged, this allows them to penetrate deep in the target and close to the nuclei, thus scattering neutrons by nuclear forces, some nuclides are scattered large.The nuclear cross section of uranium-235 for slow thermal neutrons is about 1000 barns, while for fast neutrons it is in the order of 1 barn.
Friction modifier Summary Friction_modifier OFMs are important additives in modern engine oils and are also employed in fuels. They adsorb on metal surfaces and self-assemble to form incompressible monolayers which prevent asperity contact and reduce friction and wear. Organo-molybdenum compounds, were initially developed as antiwear additives but were later recognized to be very effective in reducing boundary friction.
Quantitative research Use of statistics Quantitative_research > Use of statistics Statistics is the most widely used branch of mathematics in quantitative research outside of the physical sciences, and also finds applications within the physical sciences, such as in statistical mechanics. Statistical methods are used extensively within fields such as economics, social sciences and biology. Quantitative research using statistical methods starts with the collection of data, based on the hypothesis or theory.
Strain rate The strain-rate tensor Strain_rate > The strain-rate tensor With a chosen coordinate system, the strain rate tensor can be represented by a symmetric 3×3 matrix of real numbers. The strain rate tensor typically varies with position and time within the material, and is therefore a (time-varying) tensor field. It only describes the local rate of deformation to first order; but that is generally sufficient for most purposes, even when the viscosity of the material is highly non-linear.
Group development Morgan, Salas & Glickman's TEAM model Group_development > Theories and models > Morgan, Salas & Glickman's TEAM model Here, individuals exit from the group (separately or simultaneously) and the team loses its identity and ceases to exist. The TEAM model also postulates the existence of two distinguishable activity tracks present throughout all the stages. The first of these tracks involves activities that are tied to the specific task(s) being performed.
Cycle sort Algorithm Cycle_sort > Algorithm To illustrate the idea of cycle sort, consider a list with distinct elements. Given an element x {\displaystyle x} , we can find the index at which it will occur in the sorted list by simply counting the number of elements in the entire list that are smaller than x {\displaystyle x} . Now If the element is already at the correct position, do nothing. If it is not, we will write it to its intended position.
Thunk (object-oriented programming) Related concepts Thunk_(functional_programming) > See also > Related concepts Anonymous function Futures and promises Remote procedure call Shim (computing) Trampoline (computing) Reducible expression
Equalisation (audio) Filter types Parametric_equalization > Filter types An example of this is a low-cut or rumble filter, which is used to remove infrasonic energy from a program that may consume undue amplifier power and cause excessive diaphragm excursions in (or even damage to) loudspeakers. A low-pass filter only modifies the audio signal by removing high frequencies. An example of this is a high-cut or hiss filter, which is used to remove annoying white noise at the expense of the crispness of the program material.
Dirac large numbers hypothesis Later developments and interpretations Dirac_large_numbers_hypothesis > Later developments and interpretations Dirac's theory has inspired and continues to inspire a significant body of scientific literature in a variety of disciplines. In the context of geophysics, for instance, Edward Teller seemed to raise a serious objection to LNH in 1948 when he argued that variations in the strength of gravity are not consistent with paleontological data. However, George Gamow demonstrated in 1962 how a simple revision of the parameters (in this case, the age of the Solar System) can invalidate Teller's conclusions. The debate is further complicated by the choice of LNH cosmologies: In 1978, G. Blake argued that paleontological data is consistent with the "multiplicative" scenario but not the "additive" scenario.
Emitter follower Derivations Emitter_follower > Characteristics > Derivations Using Ohm's law, various currents have been found, as indicated on the diagram. Collecting the terms for the base current, the base current is found as ( β + 1 ) i b = i x − v x R E , {\displaystyle (\beta +1)i_{\text{b}}=i_{\text{x}}-{\frac {v_{\text{x}}}{R_{\text{E}}}},} where R E {\displaystyle R_{\text{E}}} is defined above. Using this value for base current, Ohm's law provides v x = i b ( R S + r π ) .
Alcoholic lung disease Mechanism Alcoholic_lung_disease > Mechanism The mechanisms of alcoholic lung disease are: Metabolism of alcohol reduces glutathione anti-oxidant levels in the lungs. Oxidation damage to the cells impairs the ability of the lungs to remove fluid. Oxidative damage to cells reduces immune response. Oxidative damage to cells results in a reduced ability to recover from injury.These chemical changes compound the negative mechanical and microbiological effects of alcoholism on the respiratory system. These include impaired gag reflex and cilia function and greater likelihood of colonies of pneumococcal bacteria in the upper respiratory system.
Algorithmic cooling Compression step Algorithmic_cooling > Heat-bath algorithmic cooling (irreversible algorithmic cooling) > Compression step In the above notations, the state after compression is ( 2 ε b , ε b , 0 ) {\displaystyle (2\varepsilon _{b},\varepsilon _{b},0)} . This sort operation is used for the rearrangement of the qubits in descending order of bias. As in the example, for some cases the sort operation can be described by a simpler operation, such as swap.
Internet Governance Background Internet_Governance > Background Department of Commerce could unilaterally terminate the Affirmation of Commitments with ICANN, the authority of DNS administration was likewise seen as revocable and derived from a single State, namely the United States. The involvement of NTIA started in 1998 and was supposed to be temporal, but it wasn't until April 2014 in an ICANN meeting held in Brazil, partly heated after Snowden revelations, that this situation changed resulting in an important shift of control transitioning administrative duties of the DNS root zones from NTIA to the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) during a period that ended in September 2016.The technical underpinning and standardization of the Internet's core protocols (IPv4 and IPv6) is an activity of the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), a non-profit organization of loosely affiliated international participants that anyone may associate with by contributing technical expertise. On 23 November 1995, the United Nations-sponsored World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS), held in Tunis, established the Internet Governance Forum (IGF) to open an ongoing, non-binding conversation among multiple stakeholders about the future of Internet governance. Since WSIS, the term "Internet governance" has been broadened beyond narrow technical concerns to include a wider range of Internet-related policy issues.
Katharina Boll-Dornberger Research Katharina_Boll-Dornberger > Research Her research focused on the crystallographic investigation of order-disorder structures. She introduced groupoids to crystallography to describe disordered structures. Roughly 2/3 of her 60 publications focused on order-disorder. The other publications dealt with structure determination of organic and inorganic crystals, methods development in single-crystal diffraction, and the development of equipment for this purpose.
Vectorial Mechanics Summary of reviews Vectorial_Mechanics > Summary of reviews If this position can be successfully refuted, this has been done in the present work, the most novel feature of which is to solve the vector differential equations by vector methods without ever writing down the corresponding scalar differential equations obtained by taking components. The author has certainly been successful in showing that this can be done in fairly simple, though nontrivial, cases. To give an example of a definitely nontrivial problem solved in this way, one might mention the nonholonomic problem afforded by the motion of a sphere rolling on a rough inclined plane or on a rough spherical surface. The author's methods are interesting and aesthetically satisfying and therefore deserve the widest publication even if they partake of the nature of a tour de force.