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Algorithmic method Testing the Euclid algorithms Mathematical_algorithm > Examples > Testing the Euclid algorithms Does an algorithm do what its author wants it to do? A few test cases usually give some confidence in the core functionality. But tests are not enough. For test cases, one source uses 3009 and 884.
Pubertal growth spurt General issues Pubertal_growth_spurt > Culture > Legal issues, rights and privileges > General issues People below this age are considered minors or children. A person below the age of majority may gain adult rights through legal emancipation. The legal working age in Western countries is usually 14 to 16, depending on the number of hours and type of employment under consideration.
GIS vector file format Advantages and disadvantages GIS_vector_file_format > Advantages and disadvantages (Example: a new road is added). Vector data allows much more analysis capability, especially for "networks" such as roads, power, rail, telecommunications, etc. (Examples: Best route, largest port, airfields connected to two-lane highways). Raster data will not have all the characteristics of the features it displays.
Scale (social sciences) Data types Scale_(social_sciences) > Data types Numbers indicate magnitude of difference and there is a fixed zero point. Ratios can be calculated. Examples include: age, income, price, costs, sales revenue, sales volume, and market share.
Fick's laws of diffusion Sorption rate and collision frequency of diluted solute Diffusion_constant > Applications > Sorption rate and collision frequency of diluted solute The adsorption or absorption rate of a dilute solute to a surface or interface in a (gas or liquid) solution can be calculated using Fick's laws of diffusion. The accumulated number of molecules adsorbed on the surface is expressed by the Langmuir-Schaefer equation at the short-time limit by integrating the diffusion flux equation over time: Γ = 2 A C D t π {\displaystyle \Gamma =2AC{\sqrt {\frac {Dt}{\pi }}}} Γ {\displaystyle \Gamma } is number of molecules in unit # molecules adsorbed during the time t {\displaystyle t} . A is the surface area (m2). C is the number concentration of the adsorber molecules in the bulk solution (#/m3).
Chemical buffer Summary PH_buffer A buffer solution (more precisely, pH buffer or hydrogen ion buffer) is an acid or a base aqueous solution consisting of a mixture of a weak acid and its conjugate base, or vice versa. Its pH changes very little when a small amount of strong acid or base is added to it. Buffer solutions are used as a means of keeping pH at a nearly constant value in a wide variety of chemical applications. In nature, there are many living systems that use buffering for pH regulation. For example, the bicarbonate buffering system is used to regulate the pH of blood, and bicarbonate also acts as a buffer in the ocean.
Excision repair Epigenetic DNA repair defects in cancer Translesion_synthesis > Cancer > Epigenetic DNA repair defects in cancer These changes usually remain through cell divisions, last for multiple cell generations, and can be considered to be epimutations (equivalent to mutations). While large numbers of epigenetic alterations are found in cancers, the epigenetic alterations in DNA repair genes, causing reduced expression of DNA repair proteins, appear to be particularly important. Such alterations are thought to occur early in progression to cancer and to be a likely cause of the genetic instability characteristic of cancers.Reduced expression of DNA repair genes causes deficient DNA repair.
Galilean invariance Newton's theory versus special relativity Galilean_relativity > Formulation > Newton's theory versus special relativity Any two frames may be in relative non-uniform motion (as long as it is assumed that this condition of relative motion implies a relativistic dynamical effect – and later, mechanical effect in general relativity – between both frames). Rather than freely allowing all conditions of relative uniform motion between frames of reference, the relative velocity between two inertial frames becomes bounded above by the speed of light. Instead of universal elapsed time, each inertial frame possesses its own notion of elapsed time.
Image gradient Mathematics Image_gradient > Mathematics The gradient of an image is a vector of its partials:: 165 ∇ f = = {\displaystyle \nabla f={\begin{bmatrix}g_{x}\\g_{y}\end{bmatrix}}={\begin{bmatrix}{\frac {\partial f}{\partial x}}\\{\frac {\partial f}{\partial y}}\end{bmatrix}}} ,where: ∂ f ∂ x {\displaystyle \textstyle {\frac {\partial f}{\partial x}}} is the derivative with respect to x (gradient in the x direction) ∂ f ∂ y {\displaystyle \textstyle {\frac {\partial f}{\partial y}}} is the derivative with respect to y (gradient in the y direction).The derivative of an image can be approximated by finite differences. If central difference is used, to calculate ∂ f ∂ y {\displaystyle \textstyle {\frac {\partial f}{\partial y}}} we can apply a 1-dimensional filter to the image A {\displaystyle \mathbf {A} } by convolution: ∂ f ∂ y = ∗ A {\displaystyle {\frac {\partial f}{\partial y}}={\begin{bmatrix}-1\\+1\end{bmatrix}}*\mathbf {A} } where ∗ {\displaystyle *} denotes the 1-dimensional convolution operation. This 2×1 filter will shift the image by half a pixel. To avoid this, the following 3×1 filter {\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}-1\\0\\+1\end{bmatrix}}} can be used. The gradient direction can be calculated by the formula:: 706 θ = t a n - 1 ⁡ {\displaystyle \theta =\operatorname {tan{^{-}}{^{1}}} \left} ,and the magnitude is given by: g y 2 + g x 2 {\displaystyle {\sqrt {g_{y}^{2}+g_{x}^{2}}}}
Elasticity (data store) Clustering elasticity Elasticity_(data_store) > Types > Clustering elasticity Clustering elasticity is the ease of adding or removing nodes from the distributed data store. Usually, this is a difficult and delicate task to be done by an expert in a relational database system. Some NoSQL data stores, like Apache Cassandra have an easy solution, and a node can be added/removed with a few changes in the properties and by adding specifying at least one seed.
Potency (stem cell) Lineage Mother_cell > Lineage These pathways can regulate how the stem cell perform.To ensure self-renewal, stem cells undergo two types of cell division (see Stem cell division and differentiation diagram). Symmetric division gives rise to two identical daughter cells both endowed with stem cell properties. Asymmetric division, on the other hand, produces only one stem cell and a progenitor cell with limited self-renewal potential.
Labored breathing Presentations Labored_breathing > Presentations Presentations of labored respiration include: Hyperpnea - faster and/or deeper breathing Tachypnea - increased breathing rate Retractions or recessions – sucking in of the skin, around the ribs and the top of the sternum Use of accessory muscles of respiration rather than only the diaphragm
DnaN Summary DnaN dnaN is the gene that codes for the DNA clamp (also known as β sliding clamp) of DNA polymerase III in prokaryotes. The β clamp physically locks Pol III onto a DNA strand during replication to help increase its processivity. The eukaryotic equivalent to the β clamp is PCNA.
Transcendental number theory Approximation by rational numbers: Liouville to Roth Transcendental_number_theory > History > Approximation by rational numbers: Liouville to Roth This transcendence criterion was not strong enough to be necessary too, and indeed it fails to detect that the number e is transcendental. But his work did provide a larger class of transcendental numbers, now known as Liouville numbers in his honour. Liouville's criterion essentially said that algebraic numbers cannot be very well approximated by rational numbers.
Outline of wind energy What type of thing is wind energy? Outline_of_wind_energy > What type of thing is wind energy? Every man-made product is composed of natural resources (at its fundamental level). A natural resource may exist as a separate entity such as fresh water, and air, as well as a living organism such as a fish, or it may exist in an alternate form which must be processed to obtain the resource such as metal ores, oil, and most forms of energy. Renewable resource – natural resource with the ability to reproduce through biological or natural processes and are replenished with the passage of time.
Blockchain-based database Iterations Blockchain-based_database > Iterations Blockchain relational database – a hybrid database model. Graphchain Database – a standard RDF Graph database protected by a Blockchain. == References ==
Food and Agriculture Organization Corporate Statistical Database FAOSTAT Domains Food_and_Agriculture_Organization_Corporate_Statistical_Database > FAOSTAT Domains This data has been the foundation of Food Balance Sheets ever since they were first constructed. The data is accessed by both business and governments for economic analysis and policy setting, as well as being used by the academic community. Agri-Environmental Indicators Agri-environmental indicators (AEI) are indicators able to describe and assess state and trends in the environmental performance of agriculture to furnish useful indications to scientists and policymakers about the state of the environment, about the effects of different policies, as well as about the efficiency in the use of budgets in terms of environmental outcomes.
Anatomical model Model specs Anatomical_model > Model specs The model may show the anatomy partially dissected, or have removable parts allowing the student to remove and inspect the modelled body parts. Some models may have changeable genital inserts and other interchangeable parts which permit a unisex model to represent an individual of either sex.Although 3D computer models of anatomy now exist as an alternative, physical anatomical models still have advantages in providing insight into anatomy.
Data (computer science) Characteristics Data_(computer_science) > Characteristics So the device records the date, time and temperature together. When the data logger communicates temperatures, it must also report the date and time as metadata for each temperature reading. Fundamentally, computers follow a sequence of instructions they are given in the form of data.
Zero-point field Virtual particles Quantum_vacuum_state > Virtual particles Another issue is the meaning of "time" in this relation, because energy and time (unlike position q and momentum p, for example) do not satisfy a canonical commutation relation (such as = i ħ). Various schemes have been advanced to construct an observable that has some kind of time interpretation, and yet does satisfy a canonical commutation relation with energy. The very many approaches to the energy-time uncertainty principle are a long and continuing subject.
Glossary of chemistry terms U Glossary_of_chemistry_terms > U unit cell The smallest repeating unit of a crystalline lattice. unit factor Statements used in converting between units. unpaired electron
Hypothyroidism Subclinical hypothyroidism Hypothyroidism > Management > Subclinical hypothyroidism There is no evidence of a benefit from treating subclinical hypothyroidism in those who are not pregnant, and there are potential risks of overtreatment. Untreated subclinical hypothyroidism may be associated with a modest increase in the risk of coronary artery disease when the TSH is over 10 mIU/L. A 2007 review found no benefit of thyroid hormone replacement except for "some parameters of lipid profiles and left ventricular function". There is no association between subclinical hypothyroidism and an increased risk of bone fractures, nor is there a link with cognitive decline.Since 2008, consensus American opinion has been that in general people with TSH under 10 to 20 mIU/L do not require treatment.American guidelines recommend that treatment should be considered in people with symptoms of hypothyroidism, detectable antibodies against thyroid peroxidase, a history of heart disease or are at an increased risk for heart disease, if the TSH is elevated but below 10 mIU/L. NICE recommends that those with a TSH above 10 mIU/L should be treated in the same way as overt hypothyroidism. Those with an elevated TSH but below 10 mIU/L who have symptoms suggestive of hypothyroidism should have a trial of treatment but with the aim to stopping this if the symptoms persist despite normalisation of the TSH.A recent meta-analysis, however, found an increased risk for cardiovascular death in subclinical hypothyroidism.
Antituberculosis medication Epidemiology of drug-resistant TB Antitubercular_agents > Drug-resistance > Epidemiology of drug-resistant TB As of 16 March 2007, there were 314 cases reported, with 215 deaths. It is clear that the spread of this strain of TB is closely associated with a high prevalence of HIV and poor infection control; in other countries where XDR-TB strains have arisen, drug-resistance has arisen from mismanagement of cases or poor patient compliance with drug treatment instead of being transmitted from person to person.
Apparent field of view Internal reflection and scatter Eye_piece > Properties > Internal reflection and scatter One solution to scatter is to use thin film coatings over the surface of the element. These thin coatings are only one or two wavelengths deep, and work to reduce reflections and scattering by changing the refraction of the light passing through the element. Some coatings may also absorb light that is not being passed through the lens in a process called total internal reflection where the light incident on the film is at a shallow angle.
Glossary of probability and statistics M Glossary_of_probability_and_statistics > M Markov chain Monte Carlo mathematical statistics maximum likelihood estimation mean 1. The expected value of a random variable. 2.
Preon Attempts Preon > Background > Attempts In his model leptons are elementary particles and each quark is composed of two primons, and thus, all quarks are described by four primons. Therefore, there is no need for the Standard Model Higgs boson and each quark mass is derived from the interaction between each pair of primons by means of three Higgs-like bosons. In his 1989 Nobel Prize acceptance lecture, Hans Dehmelt described a most fundamental elementary particle, with definable properties, which he called the cosmon, as the likely result of a long but finite chain of increasingly more elementary particles.
Orchestrated objective reduction Microtubule computation Orchestrated_objective_reduction > Orch OR > Microtubule computation Hameroff reasoned that such condensate behavior would magnify nanoscopic quantum effects to have large scale influences in the brain. Hameroff then proposed that condensates in microtubules in one neuron can link with microtubule condensates in other neurons and glial cells via the gap junctions of electrical synapses. Hameroff proposed that the gap between the cells is sufficiently small that quantum objects can tunnel across it, allowing them to extend across a large area of the brain. He further postulated that the action of this large-scale quantum activity is the source of 40 Hz gamma waves, building upon the much less controversial theory that gap junctions are related to the gamma oscillation.
Extreme learning machine History Extreme_learning_machine > History From 2001-2010, ELM research mainly focused on the unified learning framework for "generalized" single-hidden layer feedforward neural networks (SLFNs), including but not limited to sigmoid networks, RBF networks, threshold networks, trigonometric networks, fuzzy inference systems, Fourier series, Laplacian transform, wavelet networks, etc. One significant achievement made in those years is to successfully prove the universal approximation and classification capabilities of ELM in theory.From 2010 to 2015, ELM research extended to the unified learning framework for kernel learning, SVM and a few typical feature learning methods such as Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Non-negative Matrix Factorization (NMF). It is shown that SVM actually provides suboptimal solutions compared to ELM, and ELM can provide the whitebox kernel mapping, which is implemented by ELM random feature mapping, instead of the blackbox kernel used in SVM. PCA and NMF can be considered as special cases where linear hidden nodes are used in ELM.From 2015 to 2017, an increased focus has been placed on hierarchical implementations of ELM. Additionally since 2011, significant biological studies have been made that support certain ELM theories.From 2017 onwards, to overcome low-convergence problem during training LU decomposition, Hessenberg decomposition and QR decomposition based approaches with regularization have begun to attract attentionIn a 2017 announcement from Google Scholar: "Classic Papers: Articles That Have Stood The Test of Time", two ELM papers have been listed in the "Top 10 in Artificial Intelligence for 2006," taking positions 2 and 7.
Glossary of areas of mathematics C Glossary_of_areas_of_mathematics > C Computability theory a branch of mathematical logic originating in the 1930s with the study of computable functions and Turing degrees, but now includes the study of generalized computability and definability. It overlaps with proof theory and effective descriptive set theory. Computational algebraic geometry Computational complexity theory a branch of mathematics and theoretical computer science that focuses on classifying computational problems according to their inherent difficulty, and relating those classes to each other.
Outline of chemistry Branches Outline_of_chemistry > Branches Physical chemistry is a distinct discipline from chemical physics, but again, there is very strong overlap. Chemical kinetics – study of rates of chemical processes. Chemical physics – investigates physicochemical phenomena using techniques from atomic and molecular physics and condensed matter physics; it is the branch of physics that studies chemical processes.
Cancer systems biology Applications Cancer_systems_biology > Applications Modelling Cancer Growth and DevelopmentMathematical modeling can provide useful context for the rational design, validation and prioritization of novel cancer drug targets and their combinations. Network-based modeling and multi-scale modeling have begun to show promise in facilitating the process of effective cancer drug discovery. Using a systems network modeling approach, Schoerberl et al. identified a previously unknown, complementary and potentially superior mechanism of inhibiting the ErbB receptor signaling network.
Teaching method Classroom Action Research Teaching_method > Methods of teaching > Collaborating > Classroom Action Research Teachers have their strengths and weaknesses, and adopt particular models to complement strengths and contradict weaknesses. Here, the teacher is well aware of the type of knowledge to be constructed. At other times, teachers equip their students with a research method to challenge them to construct new meanings and knowledge. In schools, the research methods are simplified, allowing the students to access the methods at their own levels.
Reality Skeptical hypotheses Reality > Western philosophy > Skeptical hypotheses Skeptical hypotheses in philosophy suggest that reality could be very different from what we think it is; or at least that we cannot prove it is not. Examples include: The "Brain in a vat" hypothesis is cast in scientific terms. It supposes that one might be a disembodied brain kept alive in a vat, and fed false sensory signals. This hypothesis is related to the Matrix hypothesis below.
Harmonic balancer Countering torsional crank motion and harmonic vibration Harmonic_damper > Countering torsional crank motion and harmonic vibration The harmonic balancer helps minimize torsional crankshaft harmonics and resonance. The damper is composed of two elements: an inertia mass and an energy dissipating element. Most often made of rubber, this element may be composed of a synthetic elastomer, a clutch, a spring or fluid. The mass counteracts the torsional crank motions and in concert with the energy dissipating element absorbs the harmonics vibrations.
Searching theory Sequential Search Search_theory > Foundation of Search theory > Simultaneous Search > Sequential Search Sequential search models are used in the field of finance to examine how investors look for information on stocks and other financial assets. The assumption that consumers know what they are looking for and what the standard of the product or service should be is one of the limitations of sequential search models. This presumption might not always be accurate in practical circumstances. Another drawback is that sequential search models don't account for the possibility that customers could find out more about the calibre of a good or service as they search further.
Representative elementary volume Statistical Volume Element (SVE) Representative_elementary_volume > Alternatives for RVE > Statistical Volume Element (SVE) Statistical volume element (SVE), which is also referred to as stochastic volume element in finite element analysis, takes into account the variability in the microstructure. Unlike RVE in which average value is assumed for all realizations, SVE can have a different value from one realization to another. SVE models have been developed to study polycrystalline microstructures.
Price elasticity Summary Price_sensitivity Veblen and Giffen goods are two classes of goods which have positive elasticity, rare exceptions to the law of demand. Demand for a good is said to be inelastic when the elasticity is less than one in absolute value: that is, changes in price have a relatively small effect on the quantity demanded. Demand for a good is said to be elastic when the elasticity is greater than one.
Zeta Sigma Chi Activities Zeta_Sigma_Chi > Activities The sorority's philanthropies are the Ronald McDonald House Charities and the National Association for Multicultural Education (NAME). The Eastern Michigan University chapter hosts an annual SexapalooZa to encourage positive discussion and education about healthy and safe sex. The University of Michigan chapter held a workshop to discuss homophobia in the Greek system.
Kepler-5 Planetary system Kepler-5 > Planetary system It is, thus, a Hot Jupiter, or a gas giant that orbits near to its host star. To compare, Mercury orbits the sun at .3871 AU every 87.97 days. The planet's eccentricity is assumed to be 0, which is the eccentricity for a circular orbit.
Orthonormal matrix Matrix properties Orthogonal_matrices > Properties > Matrix properties A real square matrix is orthogonal if and only if its columns form an orthonormal basis of the Euclidean space Rn with the ordinary Euclidean dot product, which is the case if and only if its rows form an orthonormal basis of Rn. It might be tempting to suppose a matrix with orthogonal (not orthonormal) columns would be called an orthogonal matrix, but such matrices have no special interest and no special name; they only satisfy MTM = D, with D a diagonal matrix. The determinant of any orthogonal matrix is +1 or −1. This follows from basic facts about determinants, as follows: The converse is not true; having a determinant of ±1 is no guarantee of orthogonality, even with orthogonal columns, as shown by the following counterexample. With permutation matrices the determinant matches the signature, being +1 or −1 as the parity of the permutation is even or odd, for the determinant is an alternating function of the rows. Stronger than the determinant restriction is the fact that an orthogonal matrix can always be diagonalized over the complex numbers to exhibit a full set of eigenvalues, all of which must have (complex) modulus 1.
Evolution as fact and theory Evolution as a collection of theories, not fact Evolution_as_fact_and_theory > Evolution as theory and fact in the literature > Evolution as a collection of theories, not fact Fitzhugh recognizes that the "theory" versus "fact" debate is one of semantics. He nevertheless contends that referring to evolution as a "fact" is technically incorrect and distracts from the primary "goal of science, which is to continually acquire causal understanding through the critical evaluation of our theories and hypotheses." Fitzhugh concludes that the "certainty" of evolution "provides no basis for elevating any evolutionary theory or hypothesis to the level of fact.
Methane functionalization Methane activation Methane_functionalization > Methane activation The four most common methods of transition metal catalyzed methane activation are the Shilov system, sigma bond metathesis, oxidative addition, and 1,2 addition reactions. The Shilov system involves platinum based complexes to produce metal alkyls. It was first discovered when a hydrogen-deuterium exchanged was observed in a deuterated solution with the platinum tetrachloride anion. Shilov et al. then was able to catalytically convert methane into methanol or methyl chloride when a Pt(IV) salt was used as a stoichiometric oxidant.
Bouncing ball dynamics Summary Bouncing_ball The physics of a bouncing ball concerns the physical behaviour of bouncing balls, particularly its motion before, during, and after impact against the surface of another body. Several aspects of a bouncing ball's behaviour serve as an introduction to mechanics in high school or undergraduate level physics courses. However, the exact modelling of the behaviour is complex and of interest in sports engineering.
Social emotional learning Privacy and information collection concerns Social_emotional_learning > Controversies > Privacy and information collection concerns In some school districts, students are asked to enter their current mood or feelings into an app every day, as part of the social-emotional learning curriculum. This has caused some to worry about parents being excluded from the process, as well as about the protection of students' privacy.
Oxide dispersion strengthened alloy Advantages and disadvantages Oxide_dispersion_strengthened_alloy > Advantages and disadvantages Advantages: Can be machined, brazed, formed, cut with available processes. Develops a protective oxide layer that is self-healing. This oxide layer is stable and has a high emission coefficient. Allows the design of thin-walled structures (sandwich).
Glossary of engineering: A–L C Glossary_of_engineering:_A–L > C If both surfaces have the same radius of curvature, the lens is equiconvex. A lens with two concave surfaces is biconcave (or just concave). If one of the surfaces is flat, the lens is plano-convex or plano-concave depending on the curvature of the other surface.
Fumarate reductase (quinol) Enzyme Structure Fumarate_reductase_(quinol) > Enzyme Structure To date, a number of QFR enzymes have been crystalized and the specifics of enzyme structure varies between organisms; however, the overall structure remains similar across different species. Fumarate reductase complexes include four subunits. Subunit A contains the site of fumarate reduction and a covalently bound flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) prosthetic group. It is closely bound to subunit B, which contains three iron-sulfur centers, all placed near to each other and the nearby substrates.
Mathematical ring Category-theoretic description Ring_(mathematics) > Category-theoretic description Conversely, given any ring, (R, +, ⋅ ), (R, +) is an abelian group. Furthermore, for every r in R, right (or left) multiplication by r gives rise to a morphism of (R, +), by right (or left) distributivity. Let A = (R, +).
Static single-assignment form Compilers using SSA form Static_single_assignment_form > Compilers using SSA form SSA form is only eliminated once register allocation occurs, late in the compile process (often at link time). The Open64 compiler uses SSA form in its global scalar optimizer, though the code is brought into SSA form before and taken out of SSA form afterwards. Open64 uses extensions to SSA form to represent memory in SSA form as well as scalar values.
Covalent adaptable network Background Covalent_adaptable_network > Background Historically, polymer materials have always been subdivided in two categories based on their thermomechanical behaviour. Thermoplastic polymer materials melt upon heating and become viscous liquids, whereas thermosetting polymer materials remain solid as a result of cross-linking.Thermoplastics consist of long polymer chains that are stiff at service temperatures but become softer with increasing temperature. At low temperatures, the molecular motion of the polymer chains is limited due to chain-entanglements, resulting in a hard and glassy material. Increasing the temperature will lead to a transition from a hard to a soft material at the glass transition temperature (Tg) yielding a visco-elastic liquid.
Compact operator on Hilbert space Summary Compact_operator_on_Hilbert_space In the mathematical discipline of functional analysis, the concept of a compact operator on Hilbert space is an extension of the concept of a matrix acting on a finite-dimensional vector space; in Hilbert space, compact operators are precisely the closure of finite-rank operators (representable by finite-dimensional matrices) in the topology induced by the operator norm. As such, results from matrix theory can sometimes be extended to compact operators using similar arguments. By contrast, the study of general operators on infinite-dimensional spaces often requires a genuinely different approach. For example, the spectral theory of compact operators on Banach spaces takes a form that is very similar to the Jordan canonical form of matrices.
List of file systems Pseudo file systems List_of_file_systems > Special-purpose file systems > Pseudo file systems devfs – a virtual file system in Unix-like operating systems for managing device nodes on-the-fly procfs – a pseudo-file system, used to access kernel information about processes tmpfs – in-memory temporary file system (on Unix-like platforms) sysfs – a virtual file system in Linux holding information about buses, devices, firmware, filesystems, etc. debugfs – a virtual file system in Linux for accessing and controlling kernel debugging configfs – a writable file system used to configure various kernel components of Linux sysctlfs – allow accessing sysctl nodes via a file system; available on NetBSD via PUFFS, FreeBSD kernel via a 3rd-party module, and Linux as a part of Linux procfs. kernfs – a file system found on some BSD systems (notably NetBSD) that provides access to some kernel state variables; similar to sysctlfs, Linux procfs and Linux sysfs. wikifs – a server application for Plan 9's virtual, wiki, file system
Kalman gain History Unscented_Kalman_filter > History Kalman filters have been vital in the implementation of the navigation systems of U.S. Navy nuclear ballistic missile submarines, and in the guidance and navigation systems of cruise missiles such as the U.S. Navy's Tomahawk missile and the U.S. Air Force's Air Launched Cruise Missile. They are also used in the guidance and navigation systems of reusable launch vehicles and the attitude control and navigation systems of spacecraft which dock at the International Space Station.
Trajectory Catching balls Trajectory > Catching balls If a projectile, such as a baseball or cricket ball, travels in a parabolic path, with negligible air resistance, and if a player is positioned so as to catch it as it descends, he sees its angle of elevation increasing continuously throughout its flight. The tangent of the angle of elevation is proportional to the time since the ball was sent into the air, usually by being struck with a bat. Even when the ball is really descending, near the end of its flight, its angle of elevation seen by the player continues to increase. The player therefore sees it as if it were ascending vertically at constant speed.
Nutrition and cognition Vitamin A Nutritional_neuroscience > Vitamins > Vitamin A Vitamin A is an essential nutrient for mammals which takes form in either retinol or the provitamin beta-Carotene. It helps regulation of cell division, cell function, genetic regulation, helps enhance the immune system, and is required for brain function, chemical balance, growth and development of the central nervous system and vision.
Unaccusative verb Oshita's unaccusative trap hypothesis (1997, 2001) Unaccusative_verb > History of the concept > Oshita's unaccusative trap hypothesis (1997, 2001) Even in this second stage, there is a stage of syntactic confusion with derivations into the sentence structure. Since Unaccusatives have different syntactic rules for their target languages, the non-target interlanguage phenomena for Japanese or other languages, for example, will be different than those observed in English. Oshita mentions that L2 learners must unlearn non-target syntactic operations and reach the third stage.
Functional reactive programming Continuous Functional_reactive_programming > Formulations of FRP > Continuous The earliest formulation of FRP used continuous semantics, aiming to abstract over many operational details that are not important to the meaning of a program. The key properties of this formulation are: Modeling values that vary over continuous time, called "behaviors" and later "signals". Modeling "events" which have occurrences at discrete points in time.
Zero knowledge service Disadvantages Zero-knowledge_service > Disadvantages Most cloud storage services keep a copy of the client's password on their servers, allowing clients who have lost their passwords to retrieve and decrypt their data using alternative means of authentication; but since zero-knowledge services do not store copies of clients' passwords, if a client loses their password then their data cannot be decrypted, making it practically unrecoverable. Most cloud storage services are also able to furnish access requests from law enforcement agencies for similar reasons; zero-knowledge services, however, are unable to do so, since their systems are designed to make clients' data inaccessible without the client's explicit cooperation. == References ==
Neurospora crassa The sexual cycle Neurospora_crassa > The sexual cycle After fusion of the cells, the further fusion of their nuclei is delayed. Instead, a nucleus from the fertilizing cell and a nucleus from the ascogonium become associated and begin to divide synchronously. The products of these nuclear divisions (still in pairs of unlike mating type, i.e. A/a) migrate into numerous ascogenous hyphae, which then begin to grow out of the ascogonium.
Optical pathway Mechanical Optical_pathway > System overview > Mechanical Together, the cornea and lens refract light into a small image and shine it on the retina. The retina transduces this image into electrical pulses using rods and cones. The optic nerve then carries these pulses through the optic canal. Upon reaching the optic chiasm the nerve fibers decussate (left becomes right). The fibers then branch and terminate in three places.
Mechanical drawing Details to include Mechanical_systems_drawing > Details to include Size, type, and layout of ducting Diffusers, heat registers, return air grilles, dampers Turning vanes, ductwork insulation HVAC unit Thermostats Electrical, water, and/or gas connections Ventilation Exhaust fans Symbol legend, general notes and specific key notes Heating and/or cooling load summary Connection to existing systems Demolition of part or all of existing systems Smoke detector and firestat re-ducting Thermostat programming Heat loss and heat gain calculations Special condition
Activation Biochemistry Activation > Biology > Biochemistry In biochemistry, activation, specifically called bioactivation, is where enzymes or other biologically active molecules acquire the ability to perform their biological function, such as inactive proenzymes being converted into active enzymes that are able to catalyze their substrates' reactions into products. Bioactivation may also refer to the process where inactive prodrugs are converted into their active metabolites, or the toxication of protoxins into actual toxins. An enzyme may be reversibly or irreversibly bioactivated. A major mechanism of irreversible bioactivation is where a piece of a protein is cut off by cleavage, producing an enzyme that will then stay active.
Data Structure Implementation Data_Structures > Implementation Data structures are generally based on the ability of a computer to fetch and store data at any place in its memory, specified by a pointer—a bit string, representing a memory address, that can be itself stored in memory and manipulated by the program. Thus, the array and record data structures are based on computing the addresses of data items with arithmetic operations, while the linked data structures are based on storing addresses of data items within the structure itself. The implementation of a data structure usually requires writing a set of procedures that create and manipulate instances of that structure. The efficiency of a data structure cannot be analyzed separately from those operations. This observation motivates the theoretical concept of an abstract data type, a data structure that is defined indirectly by the operations that may be performed on it, and the mathematical properties of those operations (including their space and time cost).
Fermi surface of superconducting cuprates Yttrium–barium cuprate High_temperature_superconductors > Cuprates > Yttrium–barium cuprate Thus, Y and Ba are stacked in the sequence along the c-axis. All corner sites of the unit cell are occupied by Cu, which has two different coordinations, Cu(1) and Cu(2), with respect to oxygen. There are four possible crystallographic sites for oxygen: O(1), O(2), O(3) and O(4).
Machine Summary Mechanical_systems A machine is a physical system using power to apply forces and control movement to perform an action. The term is commonly applied to artificial devices, such as those employing engines or motors, but also to natural biological macromolecules, such as molecular machines. Machines can be driven by animals and people, by natural forces such as wind and water, and by chemical, thermal, or electrical power, and include a system of mechanisms that shape the actuator input to achieve a specific application of output forces and movement. They can also include computers and sensors that monitor performance and plan movement, often called mechanical systems. Renaissance natural philosophers identified six simple machines which were the elementary devices that put a load into motion, and calculated the ratio of output force to input force, known today as mechanical advantage.Modern machines are complex systems that consist of structural elements, mechanisms and control components and include interfaces for convenient use. Examples include: a wide range of vehicles, such as trains, automobiles, boats and airplanes; appliances in the home and office, including computers, building air handling and water handling systems; as well as farm machinery, machine tools and factory automation systems and robots.
Automated reasoning system Deductive classifier Automated_reasoning_system > Types of reasoning system > Deductive classifier They utilize this semantics to provide input to the deductive classifier. The classifier in turn can analyze a given model (known as an ontology) and determine if the various relations described in the model are consistent. If the ontology is not consistent the classifier will highlight the declarations that are inconsistent.
Vector graphics markup language Vector formats Raster_file_format > Major graphic file formats > Vector formats As opposed to the raster image formats above (where the data describes the characteristics of each individual pixel), vector image formats contain a geometric description which can be rendered smoothly at any desired display size. At some point, all vector graphics must be rasterized in order to be displayed on digital monitors. Vector images may also be displayed with analog CRT technology such as that used in some electronic test equipment, medical monitors, radar displays, laser shows and early video games. Plotters are printers that use vector data rather than pixel data to draw graphics.
Haematopoietic stem cell Repopulation kinetics Myeloid_progenitor_cells > Research > Repopulation kinetics By corollary, this result shows that the hematopoietic stem cell compartment is also heterogeneous by dynamical criteria. It was originally believed that all Hematopoietic stem cells were alike in their self-renewal and differentiation abilities. This view was first challenged by the 2002 discovery by the Muller-Sieburg group in San Diego, who illustrated that different stem cells can show distinct repopulation patterns that are epigenetically predetermined intrinsic properties of clonal Thy-1lo Sca-1+ lin− c-kit+ HSC.
Measuring tape Design Measuring_string > Design Some incorporate a digital screen to give measurement readouts in multiple formats. An early patent for this type of measure was published in 1977.There are also other styles of tape measures that have incorporated lasers and ultrasonic technology to measure the distance of an object with fairly reliable accuracy. Tape measures often have black and red measurements on a yellow background as this is the optimal color combination for readability.
Liquid water pouring puzzles Literature Water_pouring_puzzle > Literature 161. pp. 155–180. doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-6512-7_6. == References ==
DnaA DnaA protein structure DnaA > DnaA protein structure There are four disciplines within the DnaA protein. An initial comparison of Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis proteins led to the discovery of a sphere structure, which revealed a relatively conserved N-terminus and a largely conserved large C-terminus separated by a region that was mostly variable. As an example, the Enterobacterial proteins have nearly identical N- and C-terminal sequences, however they are characterized by numerous amino acid adjustments, elisions, and insertions in the variable regions. There is an AAA+ family ATPase motif and an independent DNA binding sphere in the C-terminal region.
Confirmation bias Biased search for information Confirmation_bias > Types of confirmation bias > Biased search for information They typically attempted to confirm rather than falsify their hypotheses, and were reluctant to consider alternatives. Even after seeing objective evidence that refuted their working hypotheses, they frequently continued doing the same tests. Some of the participants were taught proper hypothesis-testing, but these instructions had almost no effect.
Simultaneous game Symmetric Games Maximin_strategy > Symmetric Games All of the above examples have been symmetric. All players have the same options so if players interchange their moves, they also interchange their payoffs. By design, symmetric games are fair in which every player is given the same chances.
Density-functional theory Applications Density_Functional_Theory > Applications Even more widely used is B3LYP, which is a hybrid functional in which the exchange energy, in this case from Becke's exchange functional, is combined with the exact energy from Hartree–Fock theory. Along with the component exchange and correlation funсtionals, three parameters define the hybrid functional, specifying how much of the exact exchange is mixed in. The adjustable parameters in hybrid functionals are generally fitted to a "training set" of molecules.
Hepatic sinusoids Summary Hepatic_sinusoid They play a part in filtration, endocytosis, and in the regulation of blood flow in the sinusoids.The Kupffer cells can take up and destroy foreign material such as bacteria. Hepatocytes are separated from the sinusoids by the space of Disse.
Lac operon Use in molecular biology Lactose_operon > Use in molecular biology The lac gene and its derivatives are amenable to use as a reporter gene in a number of bacterial-based selection techniques such as two hybrid analysis, in which the successful binding of a transcriptional activator to a specific promoter sequence must be determined. In LB plates containing X-gal, the colour change from white colonies to a shade of blue corresponds to about 20–100 β-galactosidase units, while tetrazolium lactose and MacConkey lactose media have a range of 100–1000 units, being most sensitive in the high and low parts of this range respectively. Since MacConkey lactose and tetrazolium lactose media both rely on the products of lactose breakdown, they require the presence of both lacZ and lacY genes. The many lac fusion techniques which include only the lacZ gene are thus suited to X-gal plates or ONPG liquid broths.
Dynamic causal modeling Procedure Dynamic_causal_modeling > Procedure Bayesian model comparison is used to compare models based on their evidence, which can then be characterised in terms of parameters. DCM studies typically involve the following stages: Experimental design. Specific hypotheses are formulated and an experiment is conducted.
Deflazacort Adverse effects Deflazacort > Adverse effects Deflazacort carries the risks common to all corticosteroids, including immune suppression, decreased bone density, and endocrine insufficiency. In clinical trials, the most common side effects (>10% above placebo) were Cushing's-like appearance, weight gain, and increased appetite.
Isotopic resonance hypothesis History of formulation Isotopic_resonance_hypothesis > History of formulation Thus chemical and biological effects of heavier isotopes of the “biological” atoms C, N and O are expected to be much smaller since the mass ratios for the normal to heavier isotopes are much closer to unity than the factor two for hydrogen to deuterium. However, it has been reported in 1930s, and then again in 1970s and 1990s, as well as recently, that relatively small changes in the content of the heavy isotope of hydrogen, deuterium, has profound effects on biological systems. These strong nonlinear effects could not be fully rationalized based on the known concepts of the isotopic effects.
Stack frame Description Stack_frame > Description There is usually exactly one call stack associated with a running program (or more accurately, with each task or thread of a process), although additional stacks may be created for signal handling or cooperative multitasking (as with setcontext). Since there is only one in this important context, it can be referred to as the stack (implicitly, "of the task"); however, in the Forth programming language the data stack or parameter stack is accessed more explicitly than the call stack and is commonly referred to as the stack (see below). In high-level programming languages, the specifics of the call stack are usually hidden from the programmer.
Probabilistic reasoning Modern proposals Probabilistic_reasoning > Modern proposals The central concept in the theory of subjective logic is opinions about some of the propositional variables involved in the given logical sentences. A binomial opinion applies to a single proposition and is represented as a 3-dimensional extension of a single probability value to express probabilistic and epistemic uncertainty about the truth of the proposition. For the computation of derived opinions based on a structure of argument opinions, the theory proposes respective operators for various logical connectives, such as e.g. multiplication (AND), comultiplication (OR), division (UN-AND) and co-division (UN-OR) of opinions, conditional deduction (MP) and abduction (MT)., as well as Bayes' theorem.
Photoluminescence Photoexcitation Photo-active_material > Photoluminescence properties of direct-gap semiconductors > Ideal quantum-well structures > Photoexcitation For quasi-resonant conditions, the energy of the excitation is tuned above the ground state but still below the barrier absorption edge, for example, into the continuum of the first subband. The polarization decay for these conditions is much faster than for resonant excitation and coherent contributions to the quantum well emission are negligible. The initial temperature of the carrier system is significantly higher than the lattice temperature due to the surplus energy of the injected carriers. Finally, only the electron-hole plasma is initially created. It is then followed by the formation of excitons.In case of barrier excitation, the initial carrier distribution in the quantum well strongly depends on the carrier scattering between barrier and the well.
Biomolecular Interaction Network Database Introduction Biomolecular_Object_Network_Databank > Biomolecular Interaction Network Database (BIND) > Introduction The idea of a database to document all known molecular interactions was originally put forth by Tony Pawson in the 1990s and was later developed by scientists at the University of Toronto in collaboration with the University of British Columbia. The development of the Biomolecular Interaction Network Database (BIND) has been supported by grants from the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR), Genome Canada, the Canadian Foundation for Innovation and the Ontario Research and Development Fund. BIND was originally designed to be a constantly growing depository for information regarding biomolecular interactions, molecular complexes and pathways. As proteomics is a rapidly advancing field, there is a need to have information from scientific journals readily available to researchers.
Micrometer (device) Testing Micrometer_screw_gauge > Calibration: testing and adjusting > Testing Flatness and parallelism are typically measured with a gauge called an optical flat, a disc of glass or plastic ground with extreme accuracy to have flat, parallel faces, which allows light bands to be counted when the micrometer's anvil and spindle are against it, revealing their amount of geometric inaccuracy. Commercial machine shops, especially those that do certain categories of work (military or commercial aerospace, nuclear power industry, medical, and others), are required by various standards organizations (such as ISO, ANSI, ASME, ASTM, SAE, AIA, the U.S. military, and others) to calibrate micrometers and other gauges on a schedule (often annually), to affix a label to each gauge that gives it an ID number and a calibration expiration date, to keep a record of all the gauges by ID number, and to specify in inspection reports which gauge was used for a particular measurement.
Pooling equilibrium Summary Pooling_equilibrium A pooling equilibrium in game theory is an equilibria result of a signaling game. In a signaling game, players send actions called "signals" to other players in the game. Signaling actions are chosen based on privately held information (not known by other players in the game).
Curse of dimensionality k-nearest neighbor classification Curse_of_dimensionality > Domains > Nearest neighbor search > k-nearest neighbor classification Another effect of high dimensionality on distance functions concerns k-nearest neighbor (k-NN) graphs constructed from a data set using a distance function. As the dimension increases, the indegree distribution of the k-NN digraph becomes skewed with a peak on the right because of the emergence of a disproportionate number of hubs, that is, data-points that appear in many more k-NN lists of other data-points than the average. This phenomenon can have a considerable impact on various techniques for classification (including the k-NN classifier), semi-supervised learning, and clustering, and it also affects information retrieval.
1 Properties 1 > Mathematics > Properties In many mathematical and engineering problems, numeric values are typically normalized to fall within the unit interval from 0 to 1, where 1 usually represents the maximum possible value in the range of parameters. Likewise, vectors are often normalized into unit vectors (i.e., vectors of magnitude one), because these often have more desirable properties. Functions, too, are often normalized by the condition that they have integral one, maximum value one, or square integral one, depending on the application.
Figure-ground diagram Summary Figure-ground_diagram A figure-ground diagram is a two-dimensional map of an urban space that shows the relationship between built and unbuilt space. It is used in analysis of urban design and planning. It is akin to but not the same as a Nolli map which denotes public space both within and outside buildings and also akin to a block pattern diagram that records public and private property as simple rectangular blocks. The earliest advocates of its use were Colin Rowe and Fred Koetter.As well as "fabrics", a figure ground diagram comprises entities called pochés.
(Ca,U)2(Ti,Nb,Ta)2O6(OH) Structure (Ca,U)2(Ti,Nb,Ta)2O6(OH) > Structure The pyrochlore supergroup minerals conform to the general formula, A2−mB2X6−wY1−n, where the m, w, and n variables represent the parameters that indicate incomplete occupancy of the A, Y, and X sites. They crystallize isometric system with a space group of Fd3m or its subgroups where Betafite has a hexoctahedral class. Site A is generally an 8-coordinated cation with a ~1.0 Å radius, B site is generally a 6-coordinated cation, which contains the elements Ti, Nb, and Ta usually for betafite, site X is generally O but can subjugate to OH and F, and site Y is typically an anion but can also be a vacancy, H2O, or a very large monovalent cation, like Cs, K, and Rb.
Key authentication Authentication using Public Key Cryptography Key_authentication > Authentication using Public Key Cryptography The most common solution to this problem is the use of public key certificates and certificate authorities (CAs) for them in a public-key infrastructure (PKI) system. The certificate authority (CA) acts as a 'trusted third party' for the communicating users and, using cryptographic binding methods (e.g., digital signatures) represents to both parties involved that the public keys each holds which allegedly belong to the other, actually do so. A digital notary service, if you will.
Gbcast Liveness comparison Gbcast > Liveness comparison In Gbcast, progress will never resume if a circle of mutual suspicions arises, as noted above: once a quorum of mutually shunning processes arises, the shunning mechanism makes it impossible for any leader to obtain a quorum of promises. With an (unmodified) Paxos protocol, this problem will not arise: once the excessive level of mutual suspicions ends, progress resumes. Thus Paxos makes progress with any failure-detection mechanism satisfying the <>W condition, even if periods arise during which more than a quorum of mutual suspicions occur.
Universal one-way hash function Summary Universal_one-way_hash_function In contrast, UOWHFs require that it be hard to find a collision where one preimage is chosen independently of the hash function parameters. The primitive was suggested by Moni Naor and Moti Yung and is also known as "target collision resistant" hash functions; it was employed to construct general digital signature schemes without trapdoor functions, and also within chosen-ciphertext secure public key encryption schemes. The UOWHF family contains a finite number of hash functions with each having the same probability of being used.
Progressive wave Single waves Traveling_wave > Mathematical description > Single waves The time t {\displaystyle t} , on the other hand, is always assumed to be a scalar; that is, a real number. The value of F ( x , t ) {\displaystyle F(x,t)} can be any physical quantity of interest assigned to the point x {\displaystyle x} that may vary with time. For example, if F {\displaystyle F} represents the vibrations inside an elastic solid, the value of F ( x , t ) {\displaystyle F(x,t)} is usually a vector that gives the current displacement from x {\displaystyle x} of the material particles that would be at the point x {\displaystyle x} in the absence of vibration.
Axiom of Choice Quotations Axiom_of_Choice > Quotations The axiom of choice is obviously true, the well-ordering principle obviously false, and who can tell about Zorn's lemma? This is a joke: although the three are all mathematically equivalent, many mathematicians find the axiom of choice to be intuitive, the well-ordering principle to be counterintuitive, and Zorn's lemma to be too complex for any intuition. The Axiom of Choice is necessary to select a set from an infinite number of pairs of socks, but not an infinite number of pairs of shoes. The observation here is that one can define a function to select from an infinite number of pairs of shoes, for example by choosing the left shoe from each pair.
Chandy–Lamport algorithm Definition Chandy–Lamport_algorithm > Definition The assumptions of the algorithm are as follows: There are no failures and all messages arrive intact and only once The communication channels are unidirectional and FIFO ordered There is a communication path between any two processes in the system Any process may initiate the snapshot algorithm The snapshot algorithm does not interfere with the normal execution of the processes Each process in the system records its local state and the state of its incoming channelsThe algorithm works using marker messages. Each process that wants to initiate a snapshot records its local state and sends a marker on each of its outgoing channels. All the other processes, upon receiving a marker, record their local state, the state of the channel from which the marker just came as empty, and send marker messages on all of their outgoing channels.
History of probability Origins History_of_probability > Origins At face value there are the same number of combinations that sum to 9 as those that sum to 10. For a 9:(621) (531) (522) (441) (432) (333) and for 10: (631) (622) (541) (532) (442) (433). However, there are more ways of obtaining some of these combinations than others.
Damped wave Viscous drag Damping_ratio > Examples and applications > Viscous drag When an object is falling through the air, the only force opposing its freefall is air resistance. An object falling through water or oil would slow down at a greater rate, until eventually reaching a steady-state velocity as the drag force comes into equilibrium with the force from gravity. This is the concept of viscous drag, which for example is applied in automatic doors or anti-slam doors.
Cloud computing architecture Client platforms Cloud_computing_architecture > Client platforms Cloud computing architectures consist of front-end platforms called clients or cloud clients. These clients are servers, fat (or thick) clients, thin clients, zero clients, tablets and mobile devices that users directly interact with. These client platforms interact with the cloud data storage via an application (middle ware), via a web browser, or through a virtual session. Virtual sessions in particular require secure encryption algorithm frame working which spans the entire interface.
Mathematical modelling of infectious diseases Infectious disease dynamics Infectious_disease_modelling > Infectious disease dynamics Mathematical models need to integrate the increasing volume of data being generated on host-pathogen interactions. Many theoretical studies of the population dynamics, structure and evolution of infectious diseases of plants and animals, including humans, are concerned with this problem.Research topics include: antigenic shift epidemiological networks evolution and spread of resistance immuno-epidemiology intra-host dynamics Pandemic pathogen population genetics persistence of pathogens within hosts phylodynamics role and identification of infection reservoirs role of host genetic factors spatial epidemiology statistical and mathematical tools and innovations Strain (biology) structure and interactions transmission, spread and control of infection virulence
Single-entry vector Properties Matrix_unit > Properties A E 23 = . {\displaystyle AE_{23}=\left.} == References ==