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Carmotetraviridae Life cycle Carmotetraviridae > Life cycle Viral replication is cytoplasmic. Entry into the host cell is achieved by penetration into the host cell. Replication follows the positive stranded RNA virus replication model. Positive stranded RNA virus transcription is the method of transcription.
Ricochet Target material Ricochet_fire > Variables > Target material Comparative hardness and density determine the results of collisions with bullets. Bullets tend to penetrate low density materials like air with little deflection, although friction causes rotated projectiles to drift in the direction of rifling twist as the bullet falls through the atmosphere under the influence of gravity. Ricochets may be similarly deflected in the direction of rotation of the side of a spin-stabilized bullet contacting a resistant surface. Dense objects tend to prevail in collisions with less dense objects; so dense bullets tend to penetrate less dense materials, and dense materials tend to deflect light bullets.
Agent-based models Framework Agent-based_model > Theory > Framework Descriptive Agent-based Modeling (DREAM) for developing descriptions of agent-based models by means of using templates and complex network-based models. Building DREAM models allows model comparison across scientific disciplines. Validated agent-based modeling using Virtual Overlay Multiagent system (VOMAS) for the development of verified and validated models in a formal manner.Other methods of describing agent-based models include code templates and text-based methods such as the ODD (Overview, Design concepts, and Design Details) protocol.The role of the environment where agents live, both macro and micro, is also becoming an important factor in agent-based modelling and simulation work. Simple environment affords simple agents, but complex environments generates diversity of behaviour.
Kepler-47 Planetary system Kepler-47 > Planetary system From dynamical simulations, the orbit of Kepler-47d was shown to precess over time, resulting in a four-year period without transits from Kepler-47d. Later studies of the Kepler-47 system led to the confirmation of Kepler-47d, which was announced in April 2019. The discovery of Kepler-47d was unexpected for Orosz's team, as they had expected to find additional planets with more distant orbits.
Chemical Synthesis Summary Chemical_syntheses Many reactions require some form of processing ("work-up") or purification procedure to isolate the final product.The amount produced by chemical synthesis is known as the reaction yield. Typically, yields are expressed as a mass in grams (in a laboratory setting) or as a percentage of the total theoretical quantity that could be produced based on the limiting reagent. A side reaction is an unwanted chemical reaction occurring which reduces the desired yield. The word synthesis was used first in a chemical context by the chemist Hermann Kolbe.
Cheque clearing Cheque processing Cheque_clearing > Automation > Cheque processing As volume grew, more efficient sorting methods were developed. Approaching the 1940s, two popular methods were Sort-A-Matic and Top Tab Key. Sort-A-Matic involved a set of metal or leather dividers numbered 00 through 99, operated to implement a form of radix sort: cheques would be sorted by hand according to the first two digits. The cheques would be removed, and each stack sorted into the same dividers by the third and fourth digits.
Digital camouflage Scale invariance Digital_camouflage > Principle > Scale invariance The scale of camouflage patterns is related to their function. Large structures need larger patterns than individual soldiers to disrupt their shape. At the same time, large patterns are more effective from afar, while small scale patterns work better up close.
Permanent (mathematics) Cycle covers Van_der_Waerden's_conjecture > Applications > Cycle covers Any square matrix A = ( a i j ) i , j = 1 n {\displaystyle A=(a_{ij})_{i,j=1}^{n}} can be viewed as the adjacency matrix of a weighted directed graph on vertex set V = { 1 , 2 , … , n } {\displaystyle V=\{1,2,\dots ,n\}} , with a i j {\displaystyle a_{ij}} representing the weight of the arc from vertex i to vertex j. A cycle cover of a weighted directed graph is a collection of vertex-disjoint directed cycles in the digraph that covers all vertices in the graph. Thus, each vertex i in the digraph has a unique "successor" σ ( i ) {\displaystyle \sigma (i)} in the cycle cover, and so σ {\displaystyle \sigma } represents a permutation on V. Conversely, any permutation σ {\displaystyle \sigma } on V corresponds to a cycle cover with arcs from each vertex i to vertex σ ( i ) {\displaystyle \sigma (i)} . If the weight of a cycle-cover is defined to be the product of the weights of the arcs in each cycle, then implying that Thus the permanent of A is equal to the sum of the weights of all cycle-covers of the digraph.
Forward–backward algorithm Performance Forward-backward_algorithm > Performance The forward–backward algorithm runs with time complexity O ( S 2 T ) {\displaystyle O(S^{2}T)} in space O ( S T ) {\displaystyle O(ST)} , where T {\displaystyle T} is the length of the time sequence and S {\displaystyle S} is the number of symbols in the state alphabet. The algorithm can also run in constant space with time complexity O ( S 2 T 2 ) {\displaystyle O(S^{2}T^{2})} by recomputing values at each step. For comparison, a brute-force procedure would generate all possible S T {\displaystyle S^{T}} state sequences and calculate the joint probability of each state sequence with the observed series of events, which would have time complexity O ( T ⋅ S T ) {\displaystyle O(T\cdot S^{T})} .
Integer polynomial Solving equations Zero_polynomial > Equations > Solving equations See System of polynomial equations. The special case where all the polynomials are of degree one is called a system of linear equations, for which another range of different solution methods exist, including the classical Gaussian elimination. A polynomial equation for which one is interested only in the solutions which are integers is called a Diophantine equation.
Evolutionary Bioinformatics Summary Evolutionary_Bioinformatics Evolutionary Bioinformatics is a peer-reviewed open access scientific journal focusing on computational biology in the study of evolution. The journal was established in 2005 by Allen Rodrigo and is currently edited by Dennis Wall (Stanford University). It was originally published by Libertas Academica, but SAGE Publications became the publisher in September 2016.
Secure Erase Association rule mining Secure_Erase > Applications of data sanitization > Association rule mining This effort to maintain privacy while dating important data is referred to as privacy-preserving data mining. Machine learning develops methods that are more adapted to different types of attacks and can learn to face a broader range of situations. Deep learning is able to simplify the data sanitization methods and run these protective measures in a more efficient and less time consuming way. There have also been hybrid models that utilize both rule based and machine deep learning methods to achieve a balance between the two techniques.
Salicylate synthase Summary Salicylate_synthase Salicylate synthase is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction: chorismate → salicylic acidMbtI is the responsible enzyme from Mycobacterium tuberculosis. == References ==
Stressor Biological responses to stressors Stressor > Biological responses to stressors There are two ways that the body responds biologically in order to reduce the amount of stress an individual is experiencing. One thing that the body does to combat stressors is to create stress hormones, which in turn create energy reservoirs that are there in case a stressful event were to occur. The second way our biological components respond is through an individual's cells. Depending on the situation our cells obtain more energy in order to combat any negative stressor and any other activity those cells are involved in seize.
DnaB helicase Summary DnaB_helicase The N-terminal has a multi-helical structure that forms an orthogonal bundle. The C-terminal domain contains an ATP-binding site and is therefore probably the site of ATP hydrolysis. In eukaryotes, helicase function is provided by the MCM (Minichromosome maintenance) complex.
Introduction to entropy Information entropy and statistical mechanics Introduction_to_entropy > Alternate explanations of entropy > Information entropy and statistical mechanics and instead of expressing the entropy as ln(2) one could say, equivalently, that it is Log2(2) which equals the number of questions we would need to ask: One. When measuring entropy using the natural logarithm (ln), the unit of information entropy is called a "nat", but when it is measured using the base-2 logarithm, the unit of information entropy is called a "bit".
Artificial Intelligence Existential risk Artificial_Intelligence > Future > Existential risk Personalities such as Stephen Hawking, Bill Gates, Elon Musk have expressed concern about existential risk from AI. In 2023, AI pioneers including Geoffrey Hinton, Yoshua Bengio, Demis Hassabis, and Sam Altman issued the joint statement that "Mitigating the risk of extinction from AI should be a global priority alongside other societal-scale risks such as pandemics and nuclear war"; some others such as Yann LeCun consider this to be unfounded. Mark Zuckerberg said that AI will "unlock a huge amount of positive things", including curing diseases and improving the safety of self-driving cars. Some experts have argued that the risks are too distant in the future to warrant research, or that humans will be valuable from the perspective of a superintelligent machine. Rodney Brooks, in particular, said in 2014 that "malevolent" AI is still centuries away.
Abstract harmonic analysis Summary Abstract_harmonic_analysis For instance, if we impose some requirements on a distribution f, we can attempt to translate these requirements in terms of the Fourier transform of f. The Paley–Wiener theorem is an example of this. The Paley–Wiener theorem immediately implies that if f is a nonzero distribution of compact support (these include functions of compact support), then its Fourier transform is never compactly supported (i.e. if a signal is limited in one domain, it is unlimited in the other). This is a very elementary form of an uncertainty principle in a harmonic-analysis setting. Fourier series can be conveniently studied in the context of Hilbert spaces, which provides a connection between harmonic analysis and functional analysis. There are four versions of the Fourier transform, dependent on the spaces that are mapped by the transformation: discrete/periodic–discrete/periodic: discrete Fourier transform, continuous/periodic–discrete/aperiodic: Fourier series, discrete/aperiodic–continuous/periodic: discrete-time Fourier transform, continuous/aperiodic–continuous/aperiodic: Fourier transform.
Relational database system Stored procedures Relational_Database_Management_System > Constraints > Stored procedures A stored procedure is executable code that is associated with, and generally stored in, the database. Stored procedures usually collect and customize common operations, like inserting a tuple into a relation, gathering statistical information about usage patterns, or encapsulating complex business logic and calculations. Frequently they are used as an application programming interface (API) for security or simplicity. Implementations of stored procedures on SQL RDBMS's often allow developers to take advantage of procedural extensions (often vendor-specific) to the standard declarative SQL syntax. Stored procedures are not part of the relational database model, but all commercial implementations include them.
Neural scaling law Cost of training Neural_scaling_law > Introduction > Cost of training The cost of training is typically measured in terms of time (how long it takes to train the model) and computational resources (how much processing power and memory are required to train the model). It's important to note that the cost of training can be significantly reduced with efficient training algorithms, optimized software libraries, and parallel computing on specialized hardware like GPUs or TPUs. The cost of training a neural model is a function of several factors including the size of the model, the size of the training dataset, the complexity of the training algorithm, and the computational resources available. In particular, doubling the training dataset does not necessarily double the cost of training, because one may train the model for several times over the same dataset (each being an "epoch").
Corepressor (genetics) Role in biological processes Corepressor > Role in biological processes Corepressors are known to regulate transcription through different activation and inactivation states.NCoR and SMRT act as a corepressor complex to regulate transcription by becoming activated once the ligand is bound. Knockouts of NCoR resulted in embryo death, indicating its importance in erythrocytic, thymic, and neural system development.Mutations in certain corepressors can result in deregulation of signals. SMRT contributes to cardiac muscle development, with knockouts of the complex resulting in less developed muscle and improper development.NCoR has also been found to be an important checkpoint in processes such as inflammation and macrophage activation.Recent evidence also suggests the role of corepressor RIP140 in metabolic regulation of energy homeostasis.
École européenne de chimie, polymères et matériaux Speciality École_européenne_de_chimie,_polymères_et_matériaux > Speciality The speciality is chosen in the second year. Students have four possibilities: Chemistry: Organic Chemistry: With this speciality, students attain a high level in synthesis and characterization of organic chemistry. Analytical Chemistry: Students are trained in techniques of analysis within the context of quality control. Polymers: Students are trained to become flexible engineers in the polymer industry. Materials: Students are trained in physics and chemistry of functional materials. Students become engineers specializing in conception and development of materials with an added value.
Mu lepton History Mu_lepton > History In the eventual Standard Model of particle physics codified in the 1970s, all mesons other than the mu meson were understood to be hadrons – that is, particles made of quarks – and thus subject to the nuclear force. In the quark model, a meson was no longer defined by mass (for some had been discovered that were very massive – more than nucleons), but instead were particles composed of exactly two quarks (a quark and antiquark), unlike the baryons, which are defined as particles composed of three quarks (protons and neutrons were the lightest baryons). Mu mesons, however, had shown themselves to be fundamental particles (leptons) like electrons, with no quark structure.
Correlation matrix Correlation and causality Correlation_matrix > Common misconceptions > Correlation and causality A correlation between age and height in children is fairly causally transparent, but a correlation between mood and health in people is less so. Does improved mood lead to improved health, or does good health lead to good mood, or both? Or does some other factor underlie both? In other words, a correlation can be taken as evidence for a possible causal relationship, but cannot indicate what the causal relationship, if any, might be.
Interleukin 1 beta Function Interleukin-1_beta > Function That suggests IL-1β is involved in modulation of autoimmune inflammation Different inflammasome complex — cytosolic molecular complex — have been described. Inflammasomes recognize danger signals and activate proinflammatory process and production of IL-1β and IL-18. NLRP3 (contains three domain: pyrin domain, a nucleotide-binding domain and a leucine-rich repeat) type of inflammasome is activated by various stimuli and there are documented several diseases connected to NLRP3 activation like type 2 diabetes mellitus , Alzheimer's disease, obesity and atherosclerosis.
Ping pong mechanism Michaelis–Menten kinetics Enzyme_kinetics > Single-substrate reactions > Michaelis–Menten kinetics There is an initial bimolecular reaction between the enzyme E and substrate S to form the enzyme–substrate complex ES. The rate of enzymatic reaction increases with the increase of the substrate concentration up to a certain level called Vmax; at Vmax, increase in substrate concentration does not cause any increase in reaction rate as there is no more enzyme (E) available for reacting with substrate (S). Here, the rate of reaction becomes dependent on the ES complex and the reaction becomes a unimolecular reaction with an order of zero.
Glucose solution Open-chain form User:Just_some_student_on_the_web/sandbox > Chemical and physical properties > Open-chain form The open-chain form of glucose makes up less than 0.02% of the glucose molecules in an aqueous solution at equilibrium. The rest is one of two cyclic hemiacetal forms. In its open-chain form, the glucose molecule has an open (as opposed to cyclic) unbranched backbone of six carbon atoms, where C-1 is part of an aldehyde group H(C=O)−. Therefore, glucose is also classified as an aldose, or an aldohexose. The aldehyde group makes glucose a reducing sugar giving a positive reaction with the Fehling test.
Oxalate ion Structure Potassium_oxalate > Structure The oxalate anion exists in a nonplanar conformation where the O–C–C–O dihedrals approach 90° with approximate D2d symmetry. When chelated to cations, oxalate adopts the planar, D2h conformation. However, in the structure of Cs2C2O4 the O–C–C–O dihedral angle is 81(1)°.
Sector coupling Electricity storage Power-to-X > Electricity storage Reconversion technologies include gas turbines, combined cycle plants, reciprocating engines and fuel cells. Power-to-power refers to the round-trip reconversion efficiency. For hydrogen storage, the round-trip efficiency remains limited at 35–50%.
Quantum Turing machine History Universal_quantum_computer > History In 1980 and 1982, physicist Paul Benioff published articles that first described a quantum mechanical model of Turing machines. A 1985 article written by Oxford University physicist David Deutsch further developed the idea of quantum computers by suggesting that quantum gates could function in a similar fashion to traditional digital computing binary logic gates.Iriyama, Ohya, and Volovich have developed a model of a linear quantum Turing machine (LQTM). This is a generalization of a classical QTM that has mixed states and that allows irreversible transition functions. These allow the representation of quantum measurements without classical outcomes.A quantum Turing machine with postselection was defined by Scott Aaronson, who showed that the class of polynomial time on such a machine (PostBQP) is equal to the classical complexity class PP.
58 (number) In mathematics 58_(number) > In mathematics Fifty-eight is the 17th discrete semiprime and the 9th with 2 as the lowest non-unitary factor; thus of the form (2.q), where q is a higher prime. Fifty-eight is the first member of a cluster of two semiprimes (57, 58), the next such cluster is (118, 119). Fifty-eight has an aliquot sum of 32 within an aliquot sequence of two composite numbers (58, 32, 13, 1, 0) in the 13-aliquot tree. Fifty-eight is an 11-gonal number, after 30 (and 11).
Scale of temperature Definition Scales_of_temperature > Thermodynamic scale > Definition {\displaystyle f(T_{2},T_{3})={\frac {f(T_{1},T_{3})}{f(T_{1},T_{2})}}={\frac {273.16\cdot f(T_{1},T_{3})}{273.16\cdot f(T_{1},T_{2})}}.} Therefore, if thermodynamic temperature is defined by T = 273.16 ⋅ f ( T 1 , T ) {\displaystyle T=273.16\cdot f(T_{1},T)\,} then the function f, viewed as a function of thermodynamic temperature, is f ( T 2 , T 3 ) = T 3 T 2 , {\displaystyle f(T_{2},T_{3})={\frac {T_{3}}{T_{2}}},} and the reference temperature T1 has the value 273.16. (Of course any reference temperature and any positive numerical value could be used—the choice here corresponds to the Kelvin scale.)
Turkish Journal of Biology Summary Turkish_Journal_of_Biology The Turkish Journal of Biology is a peer-reviewed scientific journal covering all aspects of biology. It was established in 1977 as Doğa: Turkish Journal of Biology before obtaining its current name in 1994. Since 2001, the journal is published in English, earlier it also contained articles in Turkish.
Data dissemination Standards Data_dissemination > Standards Standards have been developed in order to provide an internationally accepted statistical methodology for the dissemination of statistical data. The ‘International Organization for Standardization’ (ISO) are one such international standard-setting body made up of representatives from various national standards organizations. They created the SDMX standard widely used around the world. SDMX stands for ‘Statistical Data and Metadata Exchange’.
Simulation of production systems Computer simulation Simulation_of_production_systems > Computer simulation A computer simulation (or "sim") is an attempt to model a real-life or hypothetical situation on a computer so that it can be studied to see how the system works. By changing variables in the simulation, predictions may be made about the behaviour of the system. It is a tool to virtually investigate the behaviour of the system under study.Computer simulation has become a useful part of modeling many natural systems in physics, chemistry and biology, and human systems in economics and social science (e.g., computational sociology) as well as in engineering to gain insight into the operation of those systems. A good example of the usefulness of using computers to simulate can be found in the field of network traffic simulation.
Target protein Summary Target_protein Target proteins are functional biomolecules that are addressed and controlled by biologically active compounds. They are used in the processes of transduction, transformation and conjugation. The identification of target proteins, the investigation of signal transduction processes and the understanding of their interaction with ligands are key elements of modern biomedical research. Since the interaction with target proteins is the molecular origin of most drugs, their particular importance for molecular biology, molecular pharmacy and pharmaceutical sciences is obvious.
Command hierarchy Military chain of command Command_structure > Military chain of command For example, a medical officer in an infantry battalion would be responsible for the combat medics in that unit but would not be eligible to command the battalion or any of its subordinate units. The term is also used in a civilian management context describing comparable hierarchical structures of authority. Such structures are included in Fire Departments, Police Departments, and other organizations that have a paramilitary command or power structure.
Point-line-plane postulate Assumptions Point–line–plane_postulate > Assumptions The following are the assumptions of the point-line-plane postulate: Unique line assumption. There is exactly one line passing through two distinct points. Number line assumption.
Axiom of Choice Criticism and acceptance Axiom_of_Choice > Criticism and acceptance A proof requiring the axiom of choice may establish the existence of an object without explicitly defining the object in the language of set theory. For example, while the axiom of choice implies that there is a well-ordering of the real numbers, there are models of set theory with the axiom of choice in which no well-ordering of the reals is definable. Similarly, although a subset of the real numbers that is not Lebesgue measurable can be proved to exist using the axiom of choice, it is consistent that no such set is definable.The axiom of choice proves the existence of these intangibles (objects that are proved to exist, but which cannot be explicitly constructed), which may conflict with some philosophical principles. Because there is no canonical well-ordering of all sets, a construction that relies on a well-ordering may not produce a canonical result, even if a canonical result is desired (as is often the case in category theory).
Ovarian cancer Examination Ovarian_cancer > Diagnosis > Examination Diagnosis of ovarian cancer starts with a physical examination (including a pelvic examination), a blood test (for CA-125 and sometimes other markers), and transvaginal ultrasound. Sometimes a rectovaginal examination is used to help plan a surgery. The diagnosis must be confirmed with surgery to inspect the abdominal cavity, take biopsies (tissue samples for microscopic analysis), and look for cancer cells in the abdominal fluid. This helps to determine if an ovarian mass is benign or malignant.Ovarian cancer's early stages (I/II) are difficult to diagnose because most symptoms are nonspecific and thus of little use in diagnosis; as a result, it is rarely diagnosed until it spreads and advances to later stages (III/IV).
CPU cooler Peltier (thermoelectric) cooling Full_immersion_cooling > Other techniques > Peltier (thermoelectric) cooling Peltier junctions are generally only around 10-15% as efficient as the ideal refrigerator (Carnot cycle), compared with 40–60% achieved by conventional compression cycle systems (reverse Rankine systems using compression/expansion). Due to this lower efficiency, thermoelectric cooling is generally only used in environments where the solid state nature (no moving parts, low maintenance, compact size, and orientation insensitivity) outweighs pure efficiency. Modern TECs use several stacked units each composed of dozens or hundreds of thermocouples laid out next to each other, which allows for a substantial amount of heat transfer. A combination of bismuth and tellurium is most commonly used for the thermocouples.
Semantic action routine Metacompilers Semantic_action_routine > Variants > Metacompilers A metacompiler is a metaprogram usually written in its own metalanguage or an existing computer programming language. The process of a metacompiler, written in its own metalanguage, compiling itself is equivalent to self-hosting compiler. Most common compilers written today are self-hosting compilers.
Mathematical theorem Theorems in logic Formal_theorem > Theorems in logic What makes formal theorems useful and interesting is that they may be interpreted as true propositions and their derivations may be interpreted as a proof of their truth. A theorem whose interpretation is a true statement about a formal system (as opposed to within a formal system) is called a metatheorem. Some important theorems in mathematical logic are: Compactness of first-order logic Completeness of first-order logic Gödel's incompleteness theorems of first-order arithmetic Consistency of first-order arithmetic Tarski's undefinability theorem Church-Turing theorem of undecidability Löb's theorem Löwenheim–Skolem theorem Lindström's theorem Craig's theorem Cut-elimination theorem
Empirical Bayes Summary Empirical_Bayes_method Empirical Bayes methods are procedures for statistical inference in which the prior probability distribution is estimated from the data. This approach stands in contrast to standard Bayesian methods, for which the prior distribution is fixed before any data are observed. Despite this difference in perspective, empirical Bayes may be viewed as an approximation to a fully Bayesian treatment of a hierarchical model wherein the parameters at the highest level of the hierarchy are set to their most likely values, instead of being integrated out. Empirical Bayes, also known as maximum marginal likelihood, represents a convenient approach for setting hyperparameters, but has been mostly supplanted by fully Bayesian hierarchical analyses since the 2000s with the increasing availability of well-performing computation techniques. It is still commonly used, however, for variational methods in Deep Learning, such as variational autoencoders, where latent variable spaces are high-dimensional.
Electron configuration Ionization of the transition metals Electron_configurations > Atoms: Aufbau principle and Madelung rule > Ionization of the transition metals More recently Scerri has argued that contrary to what is stated in the vast majority of sources including the title of his previous article on the subject, 3d orbitals rather than 4s are in fact preferentially occupied.In chemical environments, configurations can change even more: Th3+ as a bare ion has a configuration of 5f1, yet in most ThIII compounds the thorium atom has a 6d1 configuration instead. Mostly, what is present is rather a superposition of various configurations.
Carborane acid Acidity Carborane_superacid > Acidity Despite being the strongest acid, the boron-based carborane acids are described as being "gentle", cleanly protonating weakly basic substances without further side reactions. Whereas conventional superacids decompose fullerenes due to their strongly oxidizing Lewis acidic component, carborane acid has the ability to protonate fullerenes at room temperature to yield an isolable salt. Furthermore, the anion that forms as a result of proton transfer is nearly completely inert. This property is what makes the carborane acids the only substances that are comparable in acidity to the mixed superacids that can also be stored in a glass bottle, as various fluoride-donating species (which attack glass) are not present or generated.
Ball lens Optical coupling Ball_lens > Optical coupling Similarly, a point source of light placed at the focal point will produce a collimated beam emanating from the opposite side of the lens, and the lens's large ratio of diameter to focal length (large numerical aperture) allows more light to be captured than would be possible with other spherical lenses. This makes ball lenses particularly suited for coupling light from a laser to a fiber-optic cable or a detector, or from one fiber-optic cable to another, or for micro-optical systems. In addition, ball lenses are omnidirectional, which eases alignment of optical couplings over other types of lens because all that is necessary is to keep everything centered.
Kepler-1647b Summary Kepler-1647b Kepler-1647b (sometimes named Kepler-1647(AB)-b to distinguish it from the secondary component) is a circumbinary exoplanet that orbits the binary star system Kepler-1647, 3,700 light-years (1,100 pc) from Earth in the constellation Cygnus. It was announced on June 13, 2016, in San Diego at a meeting of the American Astronomical Society. It was detected using the transit method, when it caused the dimming of the primary star, and then again of the secondary star blended with the primary star eclipse. The first transit of the planet was identified in 2012, but at the time the single event was not enough to rule out contamination, or confirm it as a planet. It was discovered by the analysis of the Kepler light-curve, which showed the planet in transit.
Protected Mode Operating systems Protected_Mode > Operating systems Some early Unix operating systems, OS/2 1.x, and Windows used this mode. Windows 3.0 was able to run real mode programs in 16-bit protected mode; when switching to protected mode, it decided to preserve the single privilege level model that was used in real mode, which is why Windows applications and DLLs can hook interrupts and do direct hardware access. That lasted through the Windows 9x series.
Universal hashing Introduction Universal_hashing > Introduction Several hash table implementations are based on universal hashing. In such applications, typically the software chooses a new hash function only after it notices that "too many" keys have collided; until then, the same hash function continues to be used over and over. (Some collision resolution schemes, such as dynamic perfect hashing, pick a new hash function every time there is a collision. Other collision resolution schemes, such as cuckoo hashing and 2-choice hashing, allow a number of collisions before picking a new hash function). A survey of fastest known universal and strongly universal hash functions for integers, vectors, and strings is found in.
For (command) Tag syntax For_loop > Timeline of the for-loop syntax in various programming languages > 1995: CFML > Tag syntax Simple index loop: Using an array: Using a "list" of string values:
Aggregate modulus Summary Aggregate_modulus This configuration is opposed to the Young's modulus, which is determined from a unidirectional loading testing configuration, i.e., the only non-zero stress component is, say, in the e1 direction. In this test, the only non-zero component of the stress tensor is T11. == References ==
Outline of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Mathematics Outline_of_Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz > Achievements and contributions > Mathematics CalculusGeneral Leibniz rule Leibniz formula for π Leibniz integral rule
Student's t-statistic Summary Student's_t-statistic In statistics, the t-statistic is the ratio of the departure of the estimated value of a parameter from its hypothesized value to its standard error. It is used in hypothesis testing via Student's t-test. The t-statistic is used in a t-test to determine whether to support or reject the null hypothesis.
Equational theory Groups Equational_reasoning > Varieties > Examples > Groups x∗~x=e=~x∗x.To summarize, the usual definition has: a single binary operation (signature (2)) 1 equational law (associativity) 2 quantified laws (identity and inverse)while the universal algebra definition has: 3 operations: one binary, one unary, and one nullary (signature (2,1,0)) 3 equational laws (associativity, identity, and inverse) no quantified laws (except outermost universal quantifiers, which are allowed in varieties)A key point is that the extra operations do not add information, but follow uniquely from the usual definition of a group. Although the usual definition did not uniquely specify the identity element e, an easy exercise shows it is unique, as is each inverse element. The universal algebra point of view is well adapted to category theory.
List of axioms Equivalents of AC List_of_axioms > Axiom of choice > Equivalents of AC Hausdorff maximality theorem Well-ordering theorem Zorn's lemma
Vector Laplacian Euclidean invariance Vector_Laplacian > Euclidean invariance The Laplacian is invariant under all Euclidean transformations: rotations and translations. In two dimensions, for example, this means that: for all θ, a, and b. In arbitrary dimensions, whenever ρ is a rotation, and likewise: whenever τ is a translation. (More generally, this remains true when ρ is an orthogonal transformation such as a reflection.) In fact, the algebra of all scalar linear differential operators, with constant coefficients, that commute with all Euclidean transformations, is the polynomial algebra generated by the Laplace operator.
Social complexity Complex social network analysis Sociology_and_complexity_science > Methodologies > Complex social network analysis New methods of global network analysis are emerging from the work of John Urry and the sociological study of globalization, linked to the work of Manuel Castells and the later work of Immanuel Wallerstein. Since the late 1990s, Wallerstein increasingly makes use of complexity theory, particularly the work of Ilya Prigogine. Dynamic social network analysis is linked to a variety of methodological traditions, above and beyond systems thinking, including graph theory, traditional social network analysis in sociology, and mathematical sociology. It also links to mathematical chaos and complex dynamics through the work of Duncan Watts and Steven Strogatz, as well as fractal geometry through Albert-László Barabási and his work on scale-free networks.
Turing-computable function Alan Turing's a-machine Universal_computer > History > Alan Turing's a-machine His PhD thesis, titled "Systems of Logic Based on Ordinals", contains the following definition of "a computable function": It was stated above that 'a function is effectively calculable if its values can be found by some purely mechanical process'. We may take this statement literally, understanding by a purely mechanical process one which could be carried out by a machine. It is possible to give a mathematical description, in a certain normal form, of the structures of these machines.
Bullous pemphigoid Pathophysiology Bullous_pemphigoid > Pathophysiology The bullae are formed by an immune reaction, initiated by the formation of IgG autoantibodies targeting dystonin, also called bullous pemphigoid antigen 1, and/or type XVII collagen, also called bullous pemphigoid antigen 2, which is a component of hemidesmosomes. A different form of dystonin is associated with neuropathy. Following antibody targeting, a cascade of immunomodulators results in a variable surge of immune cells, including neutrophils, lymphocytes and eosinophils coming to the affected area. Unclear events subsequently result in a separation along the dermoepidermal junction and eventually stretch bullae.
Merkle tree Second preimage attack Merkle_tree > Overview > Second preimage attack The Merkle hash root does not indicate the tree depth, enabling a second-preimage attack in which an attacker creates a document other than the original that has the same Merkle hash root. For the example above, an attacker can create a new document containing two data blocks, where the first is hash 0-0 + hash 0-1, and the second is hash 1-0 + hash 1-1.One simple fix is defined in Certificate Transparency: when computing leaf node hashes, a 0x00 byte is prepended to the hash data, while 0x01 is prepended when computing internal node hashes. Limiting the hash tree size is a prerequisite of some formal security proofs, and helps in making some proofs tighter. Some implementations limit the tree depth using hash tree depth prefixes before hashes, so any extracted hash chain is defined to be valid only if the prefix decreases at each step and is still positive when the leaf is reached.
Polymer chains Young's modulus of elasticity Organic_polymer > Properties > Mechanical properties > Young's modulus of elasticity The modulus is strongly dependent on temperature. Viscoelasticity describes a complex time-dependent elastic response, which will exhibit hysteresis in the stress-strain curve when the load is removed. Dynamic mechanical analysis or DMA measures this complex modulus by oscillating the load and measuring the resulting strain as a function of time.
Rapid Prototyping History 3D_fabrication > History After fixing, a solid transparent cylinder contains an image of the object. "The Origins of Rapid Prototyping - RP stems from the ever-growing CAD industry, more specifically, the solid modeling side of CAD. Before solid modeling was introduced in the late 1980's, three-dimensional models were created with wire frames and surfaces.
HiGHS optimization solver Quadratic programming HiGHS_optimization_solver > Solvers > Quadratic programming HiGHS has an active set solver for convex quadratic programming (QP) problems.
Timeline of quantum computing and communication 2008 Timeline_of_quantum_computing_and_communication > 2000s > 2008 The HHL algorithm for solving linear equations was published. Graphene quantum dot qubits were described. Scientists succeeded in storing a quantum bit. 3D qubit-qutrit entanglement was demonstrated.
Colon adenocarcinoma Papua New Guinea Bowel_cancer > Epidemiology > Papua New Guinea In the developing countries like Papua New Guinea and other Pacific Island States including the Solomon Islands, colorectal cancer is a very rare cancer amongst the people, which is least common compared to lung, stomach, liver or breast cancer. It is estimated that at least 8 in 100,000 of the people are most likely to developed colorectal cancer every year, which is unlike lung or breast cancer, where for the latter alone is 24 in 100,000 of the women folks alone.
Causes of mental disorders Neurotransmitter systems Causes_of_mental_disorders > Biological factors > Neurotransmitter systems Instead, neurotransmitter systems have been understood in the context of the diathesis-stress or biopsychosocial models. The following 1967 quote from renowned psychiatric and neuroscience researchers exemplifies this more sophisticated understanding (in contrast to the woolly "chemical imbalance" notion). Whereas specific genetic factors may be of importance in the etiology of some, and possibly all, depressions, it is equally conceivable that early experiences of the infant or child may cause enduring biochemical changes, that may predispose some individuals to depressions in adulthood. It is not likely that changes in the metabolism of the biogenic amines alone will account for the complex phenomena of normal or pathological affect.
Named graph Specifications Named_graph > Specifications There is currently no specification for named graphs in themselves beyond that described in Carroll et al. (2005) and Carroll and Stickler (2004) (which includes syntaxes for representing named graphs), but they do form part of the SPARQL Protocol and RDF Query Language specification.
Neo (The Matrix) The Matrix Neo_(The_Matrix) > Fictional character biography > The Matrix It is then shown that he is able to perceive, interpret, and alter the computer code of the Matrix. Completely believing in his new-found powers, he effortlessly fends off agent Smith before forcing himself into the agent's body and destroying it from within.
Herman te Riele Summary Herman_te_Riele Hermanus Johannes Joseph te Riele (born 5 January 1947) is a Dutch mathematician at CWI in Amsterdam with a specialization in computational number theory. He is known for proving the correctness of the Riemann hypothesis for the first 1.5 billion non-trivial zeros of the Riemann zeta function with Jan van de Lune and Dik Winter, for disproving the Mertens conjecture with Andrew Odlyzko, and for factoring large numbers of world record size. In 1987, he found a new upper bound for π(x) − Li(x). In 1970, Te Riele received an engineer's degree in mathematical engineering from Delft University of Technology and, in 1976, a PhD degree in mathematics and physics from University of Amsterdam (1976).
Fairchild v Glenhaven Funeral Services Ltd Judgment Fairchild_v_Glenhaven_Funeral_Services_Ltd > Judgment It is however open to your Lordships to formulate a different causal requirement in this class of case. The Court of Appeal was in my opinion wrong to say that in the absence of a proven link between the defendant's asbestos and the disease, there was no "causative relationship" whatever between the defendant's conduct and the disease. It depends entirely upon the level at which the causal relationship is described.
Sum-of-squares optimization Summary Sum-of-squares_optimization A sum-of-squares optimization program is an optimization problem with a linear cost function and a particular type of constraint on the decision variables. These constraints are of the form that when the decision variables are used as coefficients in certain polynomials, those polynomials should have the polynomial SOS property. When fixing the maximum degree of the polynomials involved, sum-of-squares optimization is also known as the Lasserre hierarchy of relaxations in semidefinite programming. Sum-of-squares optimization techniques have been applied across a variety of areas, including control theory (in particular, for searching for polynomial Lyapunov functions for dynamical systems described by polynomial vector fields), statistics, finance and machine learning.
Inductive probability Distribution of numbers Inductive_probability > Probability and information > The internal language of information > Distribution of numbers No explicit representation of natural numbers is given. However natural numbers may be constructed by applying the successor function to 0, and then applying other arithmetic functions. A distribution of natural numbers is implied by this, based on the complexity of constructing each number. Rational numbers are constructed by the division of natural numbers. The simplest representation has no common factors between the numerator and the denominator. This allows the probability distribution of natural numbers may be extended to rational numbers.
Lie group theory The exponential map Real_Lie_group > Basic concepts > The exponential map {\displaystyle \exp(X)=c(1).\ } This is called the exponential map, and it maps the Lie algebra g {\displaystyle {\mathfrak {g}}} into the Lie group G {\displaystyle G} . It provides a diffeomorphism between a neighborhood of 0 in g {\displaystyle {\mathfrak {g}}} and a neighborhood of e {\displaystyle e} in G {\displaystyle G} . This exponential map is a generalization of the exponential function for real numbers (because R {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} } is the Lie algebra of the Lie group of positive real numbers with multiplication), for complex numbers (because C {\displaystyle \mathbb {C} } is the Lie algebra of the Lie group of non-zero complex numbers with multiplication) and for matrices (because M ( n , R ) {\displaystyle M(n,\mathbb {R} )} with the regular commutator is the Lie algebra of the Lie group G L ( n , R ) {\displaystyle \mathrm {GL} (n,\mathbb {R} )} of all invertible matrices).
Materials informatics Databases Materials_informatics > Databases Databases are essential for any informatics research and applications. In material informatics many databases exist containing both empirical data obtained experimentally, and theoretical data obtained computationally. Big data that can be used for machine learning is particularly difficult to obtain for experimental data due to the lack of a standard for reporting data and the variability in the experimental environment. This lack of big data has led to growing effort in developing machine learning techniques that utilize data extremely data sets.
Reinforcement Learning Direct policy search Direct_policy_search > Algorithms for control learning > Direct policy search These include simulated annealing, cross-entropy search or methods of evolutionary computation. Many gradient-free methods can achieve (in theory and in the limit) a global optimum.
Law of multiple proportions Summary Law_of_multiple_proportions The ratio of the masses of oxygen that can react with 100 grams of carbon is 266:133 = 2:1, a ratio of small whole numbers. Dalton interpreted this result in his atomic theory by proposing (correctly in this case) that the two oxides have one and two oxygen atoms respectively for each carbon atom. In modern notation the first is CO (carbon monoxide) and the second is CO2 (carbon dioxide).
History of classical mechanics Formation of classical mechanics History_of_classical_mechanics > Formation of classical mechanics Newton and most of his contemporaries hoped that classical mechanics would be able to explain all entities, including (in the form of geometric optics) light. Newton's own explanation of Newton's rings avoided wave principles and supposed that the light particles were altered or excited by the glass and resonated. Newton also developed the calculus which is necessary to perform the mathematical calculations involved in classical mechanics.
General adversarial network Byzantine attacks Adversarial_machine_learning > Attack modalities > Strategies > Byzantine attacks On the other hand, if the training is performed on a single machine, then the model is very vulnerable to a failure of the machine, or an attack on the machine; the machine is a single point of failure. In fact, the machine owner may themselves insert provably undetectable backdoors.The current leading solutions to make (distributed) learning algorithms provably resilient to a minority of malicious (a.k.a. Byzantine) participants are based on robust gradient aggregation rules. The robust aggregation rules do not always work especially when the data across participants has a non-iid distribution. Nevertheless, in the context of heterogeneous honest participants, such as users with different consumption habits for recommendation algorithms or writing styles for language models, there are provable impossibility theorems on what any robust learning algorithm can guarantee.
Major trauma Pathophysiology Major_trauma > Pathophysiology The body responds to traumatic injury both systemically and at the injury site. This response attempts to protect vital organs such as the liver, to allow further cell duplication and to heal the damage. The healing time of an injury depends on various factors including sex, age, and the severity of injury.The symptoms of injury may manifest in many different ways, including: Altered mental status Fever Increased heart rate Generalized edema Increased cardiac output Increased rate of metabolismVarious organ systems respond to injury to restore homeostasis by maintaining perfusion to the heart and brain. Inflammation after injury occurs to protect against further damage and starts the healing process.
Chromatin Cell-cycle dependent structural organization Chromatin > Dynamic chromatin structure and hierarchy > Cell-cycle dependent structural organization Chromosome scaffolds play an important role to hold the chromatin into compact chromosomes. Loops of 30 nm structure further condense with scaffold, into higher order structures. Chromosome scaffolds are made of proteins including condensin, type IIA topoisomerase and kinesin family member 4 (KIF4).
(n-p) reaction Summary Np_reaction The (n-p) reaction, or (n,p) reaction, is an example of a nuclear reaction. It is the reaction which occurs when a neutron enters a nucleus and a proton leaves the nucleus simultaneously.For example, sulfur-32 (32S) undergoes an (n,p) nuclear reaction when bombarded with neutrons, thus forming phosphorus-32 (32P). The nuclide nitrogen-14 (14N) can also undergo an (n,p) nuclear reaction to produce carbon-14 (14C). This nuclear reaction 14N (n,p) 14C continually happens in the Earth's atmosphere, forming equilibrium amounts of the radionuclide 14C.
Randomized algorithm Sorting Probabilistic_algorithms > Early history > Sorting Quicksort was discovered by Tony Hoare in 1959, and subsequently published in 1961. In the same year, Hoare published the quickselect algorithm, which finds the median element of a list in linear expected time. It remained open until 1973 whether a deterministic linear-time algorithm existed.
Artificial intelligence for video surveillance Varies from traditional mindset of security systems Intelligent_video_surveillance > Behavioural analytics > Active environments > Varies from traditional mindset of security systems Places where people are moving and working do not present a problem. However, the A.I. may spot many things that appear anomalous but are innocent in nature.
Decomposition of spectrum (functional analysis) For bounded Banach space operators Decomposition_of_spectrum_(functional_analysis) > Decomposition into point spectrum, continuous spectrum, and residual spectrum > For bounded Banach space operators Then z = x − y is a non-zero vector such that T(z) = λz. In other words, λ is an eigenvalue of T in the sense of linear algebra. In this case, λ is said to be in the point spectrum of T, denoted σp(T).
Universal translator Non-fictional translators Universal_translator > Non-fictional translators The United States Army has scrapped the TRANSTAC Program and is developing in conjunction with DARPA, the BOLT (Broad Operational Language Translation) in its place. In February 2010, a communications software called VoxOx launched a two-way translator service for instant messaging, SMS, email and social media titled the VoxOx Universal Translator. It enables two people to communicate instantly with each other while both typing in their native languages.
Derangement Generalizations Derangement > Generalizations The problème des rencontres asks how many permutations of a size-n set have exactly k fixed points. Derangements are an example of the wider field of constrained permutations. For example, the ménage problem asks if n opposite-sex couples are seated man-woman-man-woman-... around a table, how many ways can they be seated so that nobody is seated next to his or her partner? More formally, given sets A and S, and some sets U and V of surjections A → S, we often wish to know the number of pairs of functions (f, g) such that f is in U and g is in V, and for all a in A, f(a) ≠ g(a); in other words, where for each f and g, there exists a derangement φ of S such that f(a) = φ(g(a)). Another generalization is the following problem: How many anagrams with no fixed letters of a given word are there?For instance, for a word made of only two different letters, say n letters A and m letters B, the answer is, of course, 1 or 0 according to whether n = m or not, for the only way to form an anagram without fixed letters is to exchange all the A with B, which is possible if and only if n = m. In the general case, for a word with n1 letters X1, n2 letters X2, ..., nr letters Xr, it turns out (after a proper use of the inclusion-exclusion formula) that the answer has the form for a certain sequence of polynomials Pn, where Pn has degree n. But the above answer for the case r = 2 gives an orthogonality relation, whence the Pn's are the Laguerre polynomials (up to a sign that is easily decided).In particular, for the classical derangements, one has that where Γ ( s , x ) {\displaystyle \Gamma (s,x)} is the upper incomplete gamma function.
Calendar queue Summary Calendar_queue A calendar queue (CQ) is a priority queue (queue in which every element has associated priority and the dequeue operation removes the highest priority element). It is analogous to desk calendar, which is used by humans for ordering future events by date. Discrete event simulations require a future event list (FEL) structure that sorts pending events according to their time.
4-Ipomeanol Reactivity of ketone 4-Ipomeanol > Structure and reactivity > Reactivity of ketone A ketone group is polar, as oxygen is more electronegative than carbon. Therefore, the carbonyl atom of the ketone group is electron deficient, thus electrophilic, and can easily react with nucleophiles. However, it does not undergo substitution reactions, as the attached molecule is a too strong base to be eliminated. As a result of this, irreversible nucleophilic addition reactions are possible: a nucleophile can add to the carbonyl carbon, but due to the lack of a good leaving group, no base is eliminated.
Fourth dimension in literature Summary Fourth_dimension_in_literature The idea of a fourth dimension has been a factor in the evolution of modern art, but use of concepts relating to higher dimensions has been little discussed by academics in the literary world. From the late 19th century onwards, many writers began to make use of possibilities opened up by the exploration of such concepts as hypercube geometry. While many writers took the fourth dimension to be one of time (as it is commonly considered today), others preferred to think of it in spatial terms, and some associated the new mathematics with wider changes in modern culture. In science fiction, a higher "dimension" often refers to parallel or alternate universes or other imagined planes of existence.
Cache inclusion policy Inclusive Policy Cache_inclusion_policy > Inclusive Policy Consider an example of a two level cache hierarchy where L2 can be inclusive, exclusive or NINE of L1. Consider the case when L2 is inclusive of L1. Suppose there is a processor read request for block X. If the block is found in L1 cache, then the data is read from L1 cache and returned to the processor. If the block is not found in the L1 cache, but present in the L2 cache, then the cache block is fetched from the L2 cache and placed in L1.
Enhancer-FACS-seq Transcriptional regulation Enhancer-FACS-seq > Introduction > Transcriptional regulation In metazoans, in order to respond to environmental stress, differentiate properly, and progress normally through the cell cycle, a eukaryotic cell needs a specific and coordinated gene expression program, which involves the highly regulated transcription of thousands of genes. This gene regulation is in large part controlled, in a tissue-specific manner, by the binding of transcription factors to noncoding genomic regions referred to as cis-regulatory modules (CRMs), activating or repressing gene expression by modulating the structure of the chromatin and therefore having a positive or negative effect on transcription regulation. CRMs activating gene expression are often referred to as transcriptional enhancers, whereas those repressing gene expression are referred to as transcriptional silencers.
Railway electrification system AC versus DC for mainlines Electrified_railway > Comparisons > AC versus DC for mainlines Energy efficiency and infrastructure costs determine which of these is used on a network, although this is often fixed due to pre-existing electrification systems. Both the transmission and conversion of electric energy involve losses: ohmic losses in wires and power electronics, magnetic field losses in transformers and smoothing reactors (inductors). Power conversion for a DC system takes place mainly in a railway substation where large, heavy, and more efficient hardware can be used as compared to an AC system where conversion takes place aboard the locomotive where space is limited and losses are significantly higher.
Multiple Virtual Storage Evolution of MVS Multiple_Virtual_Storage > Evolution of MVS OS/360 MVT (Multiprogramming with a Variable number of Tasks) was an enhancement that further refined memory use. Instead of using fixed-size memory partitions, MVT allocates memory to regions for job steps as needed, provided enough contiguous physical memory is available. This is a significant advance over MFT's memory management, but has some weaknesses: if a job allocates memory dynamically (as most sort programs and database management systems do), the programmers has to estimate the job's maximum memory requirement and pre-define it for MVT.
Table of Integrals, Series, and Products Russian editions Gradshteyn_and_Ryzhik > Editions > Russian editions 400 pages. Рыжик, И. М.; Градштейн, И. С. (1951).
Filter (signal processing) Some filters for specific purposes Filter_(signal_processing) > Some filters for specific purposes Audio filter Line filter Scaled correlation, high-pass filter for correlations Texture filtering
Goto fail Causes Goto_fail > Causes Unreachable code can exist for many reasons, such as: programming errors in complex conditional branches a consequence of the internal transformations performed by an optimizing compiler; incomplete testing of new or modified code Legacy code Code superseded by another implementation Unreachable code that a programmer decided not to delete because it is mingled with reachable code Potentially reachable code that current use cases never need Dormant code that is kept intentionally in case it is needed later Code used only for debugging.Legacy code is that which was once useful but is no longer used or required. But unreachable code may also be part of a complex library, module or routine where it is useful to others or under conditions which are not met in a particular scenario. An example of such a conditionally unreachable code may be the implementation of a general string formatting function in a compiler's runtime library, which contains complex code to process all possible arguments, of which only a small subset is actually used. Compilers will typically not be able to remove the unused code sections at compile time, as the behavior is largely determined by the values of arguments at run time.
Medical simulation Clinical Skills and Simulations Centers (CSSC) for Medical Simulation Medical_simulation > Clinical Skills and Simulations Centers (CSSC) for Medical Simulation The two main types of medical institutions that train people through medical simulations are medical schools and teaching hospitals. According to survey results from the Association of American Medical Colleges (AAMC), simulation content taught at American medical schools spans all four years of study, while hospitals utilize simulations during the residency and subspecialty period. Internal medicine, emergency medicine, obstetrics/gynecology, pediatrics, surgery, and anesthesiology are the most common areas taught in medical schools and hospitals.The AAMC reported that the majority of medical schools and teaching hospitals centralize their simulation activities at a single physical location, while some use decentralized facilities or mobile simulation resources.
Wheeling (electric power transmission) Summary Wheeling_(electric_power_transmission) In electric power transmission, wheeling is the transportation of electric energy (megawatt-hours) from within an electrical grid to an electrical load outside the grid boundaries. In a simpler sense, it refers to the process of transmission of electricity through the transmission lines. Two types of wheeling are 1) a wheel-through, where the electrical power generation and the load are both outside the boundaries of the transmission system and 2) a wheel-out, where the generation resource is inside the boundaries of the transmission system but the load is outside. Wheeling often refers to the scheduling of the energy transfer from one balancing authority (cf. Balancing Authority, Tie Facility and Interconnection) to another. Since the wheeling of electric energy requires use of a transmission system, there is often an associated fee which goes to the transmission owners.
Vitamin A Summary Vitamin_A Neither of these measures indicates the status of liver reserves.The European Union and various countries have set recommendations for dietary intake, and upper limits for safe intake. Vitamin A toxicity also referred to as hypervitaminosis A, occurs when there is too much vitamin A accumulating in the body. Symptoms may include nervous system effects, liver abnormalities, fatigue, muscle weakness, bone and skin changes, and others. The adverse effects of both acute and chronic toxicity are reversed after consumption of high dose supplements is stopped.