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Frictional contact mechanics Solution of rolling contact problems Frictional_contact_mechanics > Solution of rolling contact problems They are free of stress when entering the contact patch, then stick to a particle of the opposing surface, are strained by the overall motion difference between the two bodies, until the local traction bound is exceeded and local slip sets in. This process is in different stages for different parts of the contact area.
Machine Shop Calibration Machine_Shop > Machine shop topics > Inspection > Calibration The standards followed, the industry served, quality control, and mainly the type of practices in the machine shop, will denote the utilization of precision inspection instruments, and the accuracy of metrology employed. This means that not all machine shops implement a periodic interval for calibrating measuring devices. Not all machine shops have the same type of measuring instruments, though it is common to find micrometers, Vernier calipers, granite surface plates, among others. The frequency and precision for calibrating metrology instruments may vary and it may require hiring the services of a specialized third-party. Also, in some instances, maintaining all instruments existent in the shop calibrated may be a requirement to not fall out of compliance.
Signal transition graphs Main definitions and applications Signal_transition_graphs > Main definitions and applications Informally, an STG is a graphical description of the behaviour of an asynchronous circuit in the form where information about causal relations between signalling events is represented directly, as opposed to descriptions based on states. In that way, STGs help to formalise the description of a circuit typically represented by timing diagrams, sometimes also called waveforms. The latter are widely used by electronic engineers.
Extrapulmonary tuberculosis Pleural effusion Extrapulmonary_tuberculosis > Pleural effusion This condition is one of the common forms of extrapulmonary tuberculosis. It occurs during acute phases of the disease, with fever, cough, and pain while breathing (pleurisy). Pleural fluid usually contains mainly lymphocytes and the Mycobacterium bacteria.
Survey data collection Online surveys Survey_data_collection > Modes of data collection > Online surveys Some employees are also concerned about privacy. Even if they do not provide their names when responding to a company survey, can they be certain that their anonymity is protected? Such fears prevent some employees from expressing an opinion.
Röntgen (unit) Development of replacement radiometric quantities Röntgen_(unit) > Development of replacement radiometric quantities This body, initially known as the "Commission for the System of Units", renamed in 1964 as the "Consultative Committee for Units" (CCU), was responsible for overseeing the development of the International System of Units (SI). At the same time it was becoming increasingly obvious that the definition of the roentgen was unsound, and in 1962 it was redefined. The CCU decided to define the SI unit of absorbed radiation in terms of energy per unit mass, which in MKS units was J/kg.
Superconducting quantum computing Challenges Superconductive_quantum_computing > Challenges Moreover, superconducting quantum computing devices must be reliably reproducable at increasingly large scales such that they are compatible with these improvements.The Journey of Superconducting Quantum Computing: Although not the newest development, the focus began to shift onto superconducting qubits in the latter half of the 1990s when quantum tunneling across Josephson junctions became apparent which allowed for the realization that quantum computing could be achieved through these superconducting qubits.At the end of the century in 1999, a paper was published by Yasunobu Nakamura, which exhibited the initial design of a superconducting qubit which is now known as the "charge qubit". This is the primary basis point on which later designs amended upon. These initial qubits had their limitations in respect to maintaining long coherence times and destructive measurements.
Main processor Cache Central_Processing_Unit > Structure and implementation > Cache Each extra level of cache tends to be bigger and be optimized differently. Other types of caches exist (that are not counted towards the "cache size" of the most important caches mentioned above), such as the translation lookaside buffer (TLB) that is part of the memory management unit (MMU) that most CPUs have. Caches are generally sized in powers of two: 2, 8, 16 etc. KiB or MiB (for larger non-L1) sizes, although the IBM z13 has a 96 KiB L1 instruction cache.
Manifold regularization Functional approach of the Laplacian norm Manifold_regularization > Manifold regularizer > Functional approach of the Laplacian norm The idea beyond graph-Laplacian is to use neighbors to estimate Laplacian. This method is akin local averaging methods, that are known to scale poorly in high-dimensional problem. Indeed, graph Laplacian is known to suffer from the curse of dimensionality.
Motor coordination Complexity Motor_coordination > Properties > Complexity (3) coordinating the muscles required for lifting and articulating the bottle so that the water can be poured into the glass. (4) terminating the action by placing the empty bottle back on the table. Hand-eye coordination is also required in the above task. There is simultaneous coordination between hand and eye movement as dictated by the multi-sensory integration of proprioceptive and visual information. Additional levels of coordination are required depending on if the person intends to drink from the glass, give it to someone else, or simply put it on a table.
Geothermal exploration Seismology Geothermal_exploration > Methods of exploration > Geophysics > Seismology Active seismology relies on using induced/man-made vibrations at or near the surface. Passive seismology uses earthquakes, volcanic eruptions or other tectonic activity as sources.Passive seismic studies use natural wave propagation through the earth. Geothermal fields are often characterized by increased levels of seismicity.
PEP group translocation Mechanism Phosphotransferase_system > Mechanism From HPr the phosphoryl is transferred to EIIA. EIIA is specific for glucose and it further transfers the phosphoryl group to a juxtamembrane EIIB. Finally, EIIB phosphorylates glucose as it crosses the plasma membrane through the transmembrane enzyme II C (EIIC), forming glucose-6-phosphate.
Arithmetic circuit Summary Arithmetic_circuit_complexity In computational complexity theory, arithmetic circuits are the standard model for computing polynomials. Informally, an arithmetic circuit takes as inputs either variables or numbers, and is allowed to either add or multiply two expressions it has already computed. Arithmetic circuits provide a formal way to understand the complexity of computing polynomials. The basic type of question in this line of research is "what is the most efficient way to compute a given polynomial f {\displaystyle f} ?"
Transition-state theory Generalized transition state theory Transition_state_theory > Generalized transition state theory Any form of TST, such as microcanonical variational TST, canonical variational TST, and improved canonical variational TST, in which the transition state is not necessarily located at the saddle point, is referred to as generalized transition state theory.
Phenotypic integration Summary Phenotypic_integration At the genetic level, integration can be caused by pleiotropy, close linkage, or linkage disequilibrium among unlinked genes. At the developmental level it can be due to cell-cell signaling such as in the development of the ectopic eyes in Drosophila. It is believed that the patterns of genetic covariance helped distinguish certain species.
Reproduce asexually Spore formation Asexual_reproduction > Types of asexual reproduction > Spore formation Many multicellular organisms form spores during their biological life cycle in a process called sporogenesis. Exceptions are animals and some protists, which undergo meiosis immediately followed by fertilization. Plants and many algae on the other hand undergo sporic meiosis where meiosis leads to the formation of haploid spores rather than gametes. These spores grow into multicellular individuals (called gametophytes in the case of plants) without a fertilization event.
Velocity addition Relativistic Doppler shift Velocity_addition_formula > Applications > Relativistic Doppler shift The formula has general validity though. When s′ = −c, the formula reduces to the formula calculated directly for light waves above, If the emitter is not firing bullets in empty space, but emitting waves in a medium, then the formula still applies, but now, it may be necessary to first calculate s′ from the velocity of the emitter relative to the medium. Returning to the case of a light emitter, in the case the observer and emitter are not collinear, the result has little modification, where θ is the angle between the light emitter and the observer. This reduces to the previous result for collinear motion when θ = 0, but for transverse motion corresponding to θ = π/2, the frequency is shifted by the Lorentz factor. This does not happen in the classical optical Doppler effect.
Heron's formula Proofs Heron's_formula > Proofs There are many ways to prove Heron's formula, for example using trigonometry as below, or the incenter and one excircle of the triangle, or as a special case of De Gua's theorem (for the particular case of acute triangles), or as a special case of Brahmagupta's formula (for the case of a degenerate cyclic quadrilateral).
Deformation mechanism maps Power Law creep region Deformation_mechanism > Deformation mechanism map > Construction > Power Law creep region Low temperature core diffusion, sometimes called pipe diffusion, occurs because dislocations are more quickly able to diffuse through the pipe-like core of a dislocation. The effective diffusion coefficient in the strain rate equation depends on whether or not the system is dominated by core diffusion or lattice diffusion and can be generalized as follows where D v {\displaystyle D_{v}} is the volumetric lattice diffusion constant, a c {\displaystyle a_{c}} is the area corresponding to the dislocation core, D c {\displaystyle D_{c}} is the diffusion coefficient for the core, and b is the Burger's vector. D e f f = D v + 10 ( σ s μ ) 2 a c D c b 2 {\displaystyle D_{eff}=D_{v}+10({\frac {\sigma _{s}}{\mu }})^{2}{\frac {a_{c}D_{c}}{b^{2}}}} In the high temperature region, the effective diffusion constant is simply the volumetric lattice diffusion constant, whereas at low temperatures the diffusion constant is given by the expression 10 ( σ s μ ) 2 a c D c b 2 {\displaystyle 10({\frac {\sigma _{s}}{\mu }})^{2}{\frac {a_{c}D_{c}}{b^{2}}}} . Thus in the high temperature power law creep region, the strain rate goes as ( σ s μ ) n {\displaystyle ({\frac {\sigma _{s}}{\mu }})^{n}} , and in the low temperature power law creep region the strain rate goes as ( σ s μ ) n + 2 {\displaystyle ({\frac {\sigma _{s}}{\mu }})^{n+2}} .
Neurodegenerative Diseases Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease Neurodegenerative_disease > Specific disorders > Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease (CJD) is a prion disease that is characterized by rapidly progressive dementia. Misfolded proteins called prions aggregate in brain tissue leading to nerve cell death. Variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease (vCJD) is the infectious form that comes from the meat of a cow that was infected with bovine spongiform encephalopathy, also called mad cow disease.
Tensile load Ductile materials Tensile_load > Definition > Ductile materials For many applications, plastic deformation is unacceptable, and is used as the design limitation. After the yield point, ductile metals undergo a period of strain hardening, in which the stress increases again with increasing strain, and they begin to neck, as the cross-sectional area of the specimen decreases due to plastic flow. In a sufficiently ductile material, when necking becomes substantial, it causes a reversal of the engineering stress–strain curve (curve A, figure 2); this is because the engineering stress is calculated assuming the original cross-sectional area before necking.
Homoserine lactone AHLs and Nitrogen Cycle Homoserine_lactone > Signalling > AHLs and Nitrogen Cycle AHLs influence the efficiency of and regulate the functions involved in nitrification and denitrification. Some bacterial species of ammonia-oxidizing bacteria, like Nitrosomonas europaea, Nitrosospira multiformis, Nitrosospira briensis, use C6- to C14- AHLs. Nitrite-oxidizing bacteria (NOB), such as Nitrobacter winogradskyi, Nitrobacter vulgaris, and Nitrospira moscoviensis, also use C8- or C10- AHLs.
History of programming languages 1980s: consolidation, modules, performance History_of_programming_languages > 1980s: consolidation, modules, performance The 1980s also brought advances in programming language implementation. The reduced instruction set computer (RISC) movement in computer architecture postulated that hardware should be designed for compilers rather than for human assembly programmers.
Sub-atomic particle General readers Subatomic_particle > Further reading > General readers Feynman, R.P. & Weinberg, S. (1987). Elementary Particles and the Laws of Physics: The 1986 Dirac Memorial Lectures.
L. A. Paul Selected works L._A._Paul > Selected works 2004. Causation and Counterfactuals. Co-edited with Ned Hall and John Collins.
Electric system Electromagnets Electric_system > Concepts > Electromagnets The interaction is mediated by the magnetic field each current produces and forms the basis for the international definition of the ampere. This relationship between magnetic fields and currents is extremely important, for it led to Michael Faraday's invention of the electric motor in 1821. Faraday's homopolar motor consisted of a permanent magnet sitting in a pool of mercury.
Uniform Resource Identifiers Relation to XML namespaces URI_scheme > Design > Relation to XML namespaces In XML, a namespace is an abstract domain to which a collection of element and attribute names can be assigned. The namespace name is a character string which must adhere to the generic URI syntax. However, the name is generally not considered to be a URI, because the URI specification bases the decision not only on lexical components, but also on their intended use. A namespace name does not necessarily imply any of the semantics of URI schemes; for example, a namespace name beginning with http: may have no connotation to the use of the HTTP. Originally, the namespace name could match the syntax of any non-empty URI reference, but the use of relative URI references was deprecated by the W3C. A separate W3C specification for namespaces in XML 1.1 permits Internationalized Resource Identifier (IRI) references to serve as the basis for namespace names in addition to URI references.
Empty product In logic 0! > In logic It can be explained the way that the conjunction (as part of logic in general) deals with values less or equal 1. This means that the longer the conjunction, the higher the probability of ending up with 0. Conjunction merely checks the propositions and returns 0 (or false) as soon as one of propositions evaluates to false. Reducing the number of conjoined propositions increases the chance to pass the check and stay with 1. Particularly, if there are 0 tests or members to check, none can fail, so by default we must always succeed regardless of which propositions or member properties were to be tested.
Web graph Summary Web_graph The webgraph describes the directed links between pages of the World Wide Web. A graph, in general, consists of several vertices, some pairs connected by edges. In a directed graph, edges are directed lines or arcs. The webgraph is a directed graph, whose vertices correspond to the pages of the WWW, and a directed edge connects page X to page Y if there exists a hyperlink on page X, referring to page Y.
Polymer capacitor Series-equivalent circuit Polymer_electrolytic > Electrical characteristics > Series-equivalent circuit The electrical characteristics of capacitors are harmonized by the international generic specification IEC 60384-1. In this standard, the electrical characteristics of capacitors are described by an idealized series-equivalent circuit with electrical components which model all ohmic losses, capacitive and inductive parameters of electrolytic capacitors: C, the capacitance of the capacitor RESR, the equivalent series resistance which summarizes all ohmic losses of the capacitor, usually abbreviated as "ESR" LESL, the equivalent series inductance which is the effective self-inductance of the capacitor, usually abbreviated as "ESL". Rleak, the resistance representing the leakage current of the capacitor
Law of comparative judgment Relationships to pre-existing psychophysical theory Law_of_comparative_judgment > Background > Relationships to pre-existing psychophysical theory The same applies to brightness, pressure, warmth, loudness, and so on. Thurstone stated Weber's law as follows: "The stimulus increase which is correctly discriminated in any specified proportion of attempts (except 0 and 100 per cent) is a constant fraction of the stimulus magnitude" (Thurstone, 1959, p. 61).
Programmed learning Learning or training? Programmed_instruction > Learning or training? This was based on the key activities which a trained person should be able to do. In educational work, deciding on the terminal test was not so securely grounded. One school of thought, probably the majority, decided to turn the rather vague statements of educational aims into full-fledged behavioural statements of the kind "At the end of this program, students should be able to do the following...".
Distributed shared memory States Distributed_shared_memory > Directory memory coherence > States The state can transition to S when other nodes begin reading the block. There are two primary methods for allowing the system to track where blocks are cached and in what condition across each node. Home-centric request-response uses the home to service requests and drive states, whereas requester-centric allows each node to drive and manage its own requests through the home.
Transition metal formyl complex Summary Transition_metal_formyl_complex In organometallic chemistry, a transition metal formyl complex is a metal complex containing one (usually) or more formyl (CHO) ligand. A subset of transition metal acyl complexes, formyl complexes can be viewed as metalla-aldehydes. A representative example is (CO)5ReCHO. The formyl is viewed as an X (pseudohalide) ligand. Metal formyls are proposed as intermediates in the hydrogenation of carbon monoxide, as occurs in the Fischer-Tropsch process.
Actor model and process calculi history Early work Actor_model_and_process_calculi_history > Early work ... This paper has suggested that input, output, and concurrency should be regarded as primitives of programming, which underlie many familiar and less familiar programming concepts. However, it would be unjustified to conclude that these primitives can wholly replace the other concepts in a programming language. Where a more elaborate construction (such as a procedure or a monitor) is frequently useful, has properties which are more simply provable, and can also be implemented more efficiently than the general case, there is a strong reason for including in a programming language a special notation for that construction.
Space-time interval Basic propositions Time-space_continuum > Introduction to curved spacetime > Basic propositions The equivalence principle states that these two masses are identical. : 141–149 To go from the elementary description above of curved spacetime to a complete description of gravitation requires tensor calculus and differential geometry, topics both requiring considerable study. Without these mathematical tools, it is possible to write about general relativity, but it is not possible to demonstrate any non-trivial derivations.
Electric-magnetic duality Summary Electric-magnetic_duality where they state: There should be two "dual equivalent" field formulations of the same theory in which electric (Noether) and magnetic (topological) quantum numbers exchange roles. S-duality is now a basic ingredient in topological quantum field theories and string theories, especially since the 1990s with the advent of the second superstring revolution. This duality is now one of several in string theory, the AdS/CFT correspondence which gives rise to the holographic principle, being viewed as amongst the most important. These dualities have played an important role in condensed matter physics, from predicting fractional charges of the electron, to the discovery of the magnetic monopole.
Weizhu Bao Selected works Weizhu_Bao > Selected works "On Time-Splitting Spectral Approximations for the Schrödinger Equation in the Semiclassical Regime". Journal of Computational Physics. Elsevier BV.
Domain name Second-level and lower level domains DNS_domain > Domain name space > Second-level and lower level domains Modern technology allows multiple physical servers with either different (cf. load balancing) or even identical addresses (cf. anycast) to serve a single hostname or domain name, or multiple domain names to be served by a single computer. The latter is very popular in Web hosting service centers, where service providers host the websites of many organizations on just a few servers. The hierarchical DNS labels or components of domain names are separated in a fully qualified name by the full stop (dot, . ).
Free fatty acid receptor 2 Type 1 diabetes Free_fatty_acid_receptor_2 > FFAR2 functions and actions > Diabetes > Type 1 diabetes Non-obese Diabetic mice, i.e., NOD mice, may be a more appropriate model of the human disease. These mice are genetically predisposed to develop tissue-damaging inflammation in their pancreatic islets, insulin insufficiency, and overt diabetes. NOD mice fed a HAMSA or HAMSB diet (i.e., prebiotic diets which cause high intestinal levels of acetic acid or butyric acid, respectively), were partially protected and mice fed a combination of the two diets were fully protected from developing diabetes.
Mood stabilizers Other Mood_stabilizer > Examples > Other Furthermore, preliminary research into the use of thyroid augmentation in patients with refractory and rapid-cycling bipolar disorder has been positive, showing a slowing in cycle frequency and reduction in symptoms. Most studies have been conducted on an open-label basis. One large, controlled study of 300 mcg daily dose of levothyroxine (T4) found it superior to placebo for this purpose. In general, studies have shown T4 to be well tolerated and to show efficacy even in patients without overt hypothyroidism.
Liu Hui's π algorithm Area of a circle Liu_Hui's_π_algorithm > Area of a circle Liu Hui argued: "Multiply one side of a hexagon by the radius (of its circumcircle), then multiply this by three, to yield the area of a dodecagon; if we cut a hexagon into a dodecagon, multiply its side by its radius, then again multiply by six, we get the area of a 24-gon; the finer we cut, the smaller the loss with respect to the area of circle, thus with further cut after cut, the area of the resulting polygon will coincide and become one with the circle; there will be no loss".Apparently Liu Hui had already mastered the concept of the limit lim N → ∞ area of N -gon = area of circle . {\displaystyle \lim _{N\to \infty }{\text{area of }}N{\text{-gon}}={\text{area of circle}}.\,} Further, Liu Hui proved that the area of a circle is half of its circumference multiplied by its radius. He said: "Between a polygon and a circle, there is excess radius. Multiply the excess radius by a side of the polygon.
Quantum Logic History and modern criticism Quantum_Logic > History and modern criticism Later, Putnam retracted his views, albeit with much less fanfare, but the damage had been done. While Birkhoff and von Neumann's original work only attempted to organize the calculations associated with the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics, a school of researchers had now sprung up, either hoping that quantum logic would provide a viable hidden-variable theory, or obviate the need for one. Their work proved fruitless, and now lies in poor repute.Most philosophers find quantum logic an unappealing competitor to classical logic.
Allostatic load Regulatory model Allostatic_load > Regulatory model But it takes a considerable amount of the brain's energy to do this, and if it fails to resolve the uncertainty, the situation may become chronic and result in the accumulation of allostatic load.The concept of allostatic load provides that "the neuroendocrine, cardiovascular, neuroenergetic, and emotional responses become persistently activated so that blood flow turbulences in the coronary and cerebral arteries, high blood pressure, atherogenesis, cognitive dysfunction and depressed mood accelerate disease progression." All long-standing effects of continuously activated stress responses are referred to as allostatic load. Allostatic load can result in permanently altered brain architecture and systemic pathophysiology.Allostatic load minimizes an organism's ability to cope with and reduce uncertainty in the future.
Rational language Examples Regular_languages > Examples All finite languages are regular; in particular the empty string language {ε} = Ø* is regular. Other typical examples include the language consisting of all strings over the alphabet {a, b} which contain an even number of a's, or the language consisting of all strings of the form: several a's followed by several b's. A simple example of a language that is not regular is the set of strings {anbn | n ≥ 0}. Intuitively, it cannot be recognized with a finite automaton, since a finite automaton has finite memory and it cannot remember the exact number of a's. Techniques to prove this fact rigorously are given below.
Spartan (chemistry software) Graphical models Spartan_(chemistry_software) > Graphical models Graphical models, especially molecular orbitals, electron density, and electrostatic potential maps, are a routine means of molecular visualization in chemistry education. Surfaces: Molecular orbitals (highest occupied, lowest unoccupied, and others) Electron density – The density, ρ(r), is a function of the coordinates r, defined such that ρ(r)dr is the number of electrons inside a small volume dr. This is what is measured in an X-ray diffraction experiment. The density may be portrayed in terms of an isosurface (isodensity surface) with the size and shape of the surface being given by the value (or percentage of enclosure) of the electron density. Spin density – The density, ρspin(r), is defined as the difference in electron density formed by electrons of α spin, ρα(r), and the electron density formed by electrons of β spin, ρβ(r).
Crematorium Thermodynamics Crematorium > Cremators > Thermodynamics A human body usually contains a negative caloric value, meaning that energy is required to combust it. This is a result of the high water content; all water must be vaporized which requires a very large amount of thermal energy. A 68 kg (150 lbs) body which contains 65% water will require 100 MJ of thermal energy before any combustion will take place. 100 MJ is approximately equivalent to 3 m3 (105 ft3) of natural gas, or 3 liters of fuel oil (0.8 US gallons).
Internal group Newtonian gravitation Field_(physics) > Classical fields > Newtonian gravitation A classical field theory describing gravity is Newtonian gravitation, which describes the gravitational force as a mutual interaction between two masses. Any body with mass M is associated with a gravitational field g which describes its influence on other bodies with mass. The gravitational field of M at a point r in space corresponds to the ratio between force F that M exerts on a small or negligible test mass m located at r and the test mass itself: g ( r ) = F ( r ) m . {\displaystyle \mathbf {g} (\mathbf {r} )={\frac {\mathbf {F} (\mathbf {r} )}{m}}.}
Lipopolysaccharide Summary O_antigen LPS is a potent activator of the immune system and pyrogen (agent that causes fever). In severe cases, LPS can play a role in causing septic shock. In lower levels and over a longer time period, there is evidence LPS may play an important and harmful role in autoimmunity, obesity, depression, and cellular senescence.
Distributed operating system Complexity/Trust exposure through accepted responsibility Distributed_operating_system > Research > Complexity/Trust exposure through accepted responsibility Scale and performance in the Denali isolation kernel.
Germinal stage Blastulation Human_embryogenesis > Germinal stage > Blastulation Cleavage itself is the first stage in blastulation, the process of forming the blastocyst. Cells differentiate into an outer layer of cells called the trophoblast, and an inner cell mass. With further compaction the individual outer blastomeres, the trophoblasts, become indistinguishable. They are still enclosed within the zona pellucida.
Configuration state function Definition Configuration_state_function > Definition A configuration state function (CSF), is a symmetry-adapted linear combination of Slater determinants. It is constructed to have the same quantum numbers as the wavefunction, Ψ {\displaystyle \Psi } , of the system being studied. In the method of configuration interaction, the wavefunction can be expressed as a linear combination of CSFs, that is in the form Ψ = ∑ k c k ψ k {\displaystyle \Psi =\sum _{k}c_{k}\psi _{k}} where ψ k {\displaystyle \psi _{k}} denotes the set of CSFs. The coefficients, c k {\displaystyle c_{k}} , are found by using the expansion of Ψ {\displaystyle \Psi } to compute a Hamiltonian matrix.
Show control Subsystems Show_control > Subsystems The lowest level of subsystem is an embedded system. These are typically found in single-purpose devices, such as a professional fog generator. A small microprocessor might be a part of the equipment and be used to control variables such as volume, temperature and communications with other devices. An example is these specifications for the Antari DMG-200 fog machine.
Pentamminerhodium chloride Summary Pentaamminechlororhodium_dichloride Pentamminechlororhodium dichloride is the dichloride salt of the coordination complex 2+. It is a yellow, water-soluble solid. The salt is an intermediate in the purification of rhodium from its ores.
Analyse des Infiniment Petits pour l'Intelligence des Lignes Courbes Summary Analyse_des_Infiniment_Petits_pour_l'Intelligence_des_Lignes_Courbes When l'Hôpital published his book, he gave due credit to Bernoulli and, not wishing to take credit for any of the mathematics in the book, he published the work anonymously. Bernoulli, who was known for being extremely jealous, claimed to be the author of the entire work. Nevertheless, the rule was named for l'Hôpital, who never claimed to have invented it in the first place.
DOT pictograms Implementation DOT_pictograms > Implementation To aid in the process of learning to 'read' the symbols. To provide adequate flexibility to allow appropriate response to specific design problems. A typeface is not recommended, to allow flexibility for architectural and cultural needs of the facility.
Higgs particle Gauge invariant theories and symmetries The_Higgs_Boson > Introduction > Gauge invariant theories and symmetries Symmetries of this kind are powerful tools for a deep understanding of the fundamental forces and particles of our physical world. Gauge invariance is therefore an important property within particle physics theory. They are closely connected to conservation laws and are described mathematically using group theory. Quantum field theory and the Standard Model are both gauge invariant theories – meaning they focus on properties of our universe, demonstrating this property of gauge invariance and the symmetries which are involved.
Equivalence relations Group theory Graphing_equivalence > Algebraic structure > Group theory Let G denote the set of bijective functions over A that preserve the partition structure of A, meaning that for all x ∈ A {\displaystyle x\in A} and g ∈ G , g ( x ) ∈ . {\displaystyle g\in G,g(x)\in .} Then the following three connected theorems hold: ~ partitions A into equivalence classes.
Execution trace cache Technology Execution_trace_cache > Technology The NetBurst microarchitecture includes features such as Hyper-threading, Hyper Pipelined Technology, Rapid Execution Engine, Execution Trace Cache, and replay system which all were introduced for the first time in this particular microarchitecture, and some never appeared again afterwards.
Mechanical integrity Scope Mechanical_integrity > Scope It may also be the responsibility of the integrity engineer to incorporate and manage any variation identified (metal loss, material degradation, cracking mechanisms, mitigation issues, i.e. Cathodic protection potentials, coating failures, etc.) during the monitoring regime. It may be a generalist in nature and/or applied with specific prior knowledge denoted using a pre-nominal of Mechanical, Inspection, Asset, Well or Wellhead, Technical, Pipeline, Signal, Fabrication, or Commissioning depending upon the equipment or system under scrutiny. Integrity Engineers construct and implement Integrity Management plans that detail the requirements of the item or asset under scrutiny and study any adverse effects from internal or external sources that damage / impair that item or system.
Horse jumping obstacles Table Horse_jumping_obstacles > Table A table is a fence with height and width, with the top of the table being one piece of material (unlike an open oxer, which is not "filled in"). The horse is encouraged to jump over the entire obstacle at once, similar to an oxer, however there are times where the animal may accidentally touch down on, or "bank," the top. Because of this, tables should be built strongly enough to support the horse landing on it.
Polar homology Summary Polar_homology In complex geometry, a polar homology is a group which captures holomorphic invariants of a complex manifold in a similar way to usual homology of a manifold in differential topology. Polar homology was defined by B. Khesin and A. Rosly in 1999.
Biophysical Models The architecture Biophysical_Models > BioMA - Biophysical Model Applications > The architecture The simulation system is discretized in layers, each with its own features and requirements. Such layers are the Model Layer (ModL), where fine granularity models are implemented as discrete units, the Composition Layer (CompL), where basic models are linked into more complex, aggregated models, and the Configuration Layer (ConfL), which allows providing context specific parameterization (in the software sense) for operational use. Applications can span from simple console applications to user-interacting applications based on the model-view-controller pattern, in the simplest cases linking either directly to either the ModL or the CompL, or accessing model ConfL. In all cases, the component oriented architecture allows implementing a set of functionalities which impact on the richness of functionality of the system and on its transparency. Layers implement no top-down dependency among them, hence facilitating the independent reuse of tools, utilities, and model components in different applications and frameworks.
Paul Milgrom Publications (selected) Paul_Milgrom > Publications (selected) The B.E. Journal of Theoretical Economics.
Origin and function of meiosis From prokaryotic sex Origin_and_function_of_meiosis > Origin of meiosis > From prokaryotic sex One of the most important enzymes catalyzing this process in bacteria is referred to as RecA, and this enzyme has two functionally similar counterparts that act in eukaryotic meiosis, RAD51 and DMC1.Support for the theory that meiosis arose from prokaryotic transformation comes from the increasing evidence that early diverging lineages of eukaryotes have the core genes for meiosis. This implies that the precursor to meiosis was already present in the prokaryotic ancestor of eukaryotes. For instance the common intestinal parasite Giardia intestinalis, a simple eukaryotic protozoan was, until recently, thought to be descended from an early diverging eukaryotic lineage that lacked sex.
Center of percussion Calculating the center of percussion Center_of_percussion > Calculating the center of percussion For a free, rigid beam, an impulse F d t {\displaystyle Fdt} applied at right angle at a distance b {\displaystyle b} from the center of mass (CM) will result in the CM changing velocity d v c m {\displaystyle dv_{cm}} according to the relation: F = M d v c m d t , {\displaystyle F=M{\frac {dv_{cm}}{dt}},} where M {\displaystyle M} is the mass of the beam. Similarly, the torque about the CM will change the angular velocity ω {\displaystyle \omega } according to: F b = I d ω d t , {\displaystyle Fb=I{\frac {d\omega }{dt}},} where I {\displaystyle I} is the moment of inertia around the CM. For any point P a distance p {\displaystyle p} on the opposite side of the CM from the point of impact, the change in velocity of point P is d v n e t = d v c m − p d ω {\displaystyle dv_{net}=dv_{cm}-pd\omega \,} where p {\displaystyle p} is the distance of P from the CM. Hence the acceleration at P due to the impulsive blow is: d v n e t d t = ( 1 M − p b I ) F .
Isozyme Summary Isozyme In biochemistry, isozymes (also known as isoenzymes or more generally as multiple forms of enzymes) are enzymes that differ in amino acid sequence but catalyze the same chemical reaction. Isozymes usually have different kinetic parameters (e.g. different KM values), or are regulated differently. They permit the fine-tuning of metabolism to meet the particular needs of a given tissue or developmental stage. In many cases, isozymes are encoded by homologous genes that have diverged over time. Strictly speaking, enzymes with different amino acid sequences that catalyse the same reaction are isozymes if encoded by different genes, or allozymes if encoded by different alleles of the same gene; the two terms are often used interchangeably.
Ambigram Numbers Ambigram > Symbols > Numbers A strobogrammatic number is a number whose numeral is rotationally symmetric, so that it appears the same when rotated 180 degrees. The numeral looks the same right-side up and upside down (e.g., 69, 96, 1001).Some dates are natural numeral ambigrams. In March 1961, artist Norman Mingo created an upside-down cover for Mad magazine featuring an ambigram of the current year.
Particle filtering Heuristic-like algorithms Particle_filtering > History > Heuristic-like algorithms Metaheuristic). In computational physics and molecular chemistry, they are used to solve Feynman-Kac path integration problems or to compute Boltzmann-Gibbs measures, top eigenvalues, and ground states of Schrödinger operators.
Sanjay Mittal Summary Sanjay_Mittal Sanjay Mittal is a Professor of computational fluid dynamics in the Department of Aerospace Engineering at Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, India.
System virtual machine Virtualization of the underlying raw hardware (native execution) System_virtual_machine > Techniques > Virtualization of the underlying raw hardware (native execution) With the VM architecture, most users run a relatively simple interactive computing single-user operating system, CMS, as a "guest" on top of the VM control program (VM-CP). This approach kept the CMS design simple, as if it were running alone; the control program quietly provides multitasking and resource management services "behind the scenes". In addition to CMS communication and other system tasks are performed by multitasking VMs (RSCS, GCS, TCP/IP, UNIX), and users can run any of the other IBM operating systems, such as MVS, even a new CP itself or now z/OS.
Thermal resistance in electronics Analogies and nomenclature Thermal_resistance > Analogies and nomenclature Electrical engineers are familiar with Ohm's law and so often use it as an analogy when doing calculations involving thermal resistance. Mechanical and structural engineers are more familiar with Hooke's law and so often use it as an analogy when doing calculations involving thermal resistance.
Second-order arithmetic Coding mathematics Second_order_arithmetic > Coding mathematics The aforementioned coding works well for continuous and total functions, as shown in (Kohlenbach 2002, Section 4), assuming a higher-order base theory plus weak Kőnig's lemma. As perhaps expected, in the case of topology or measure theory, coding is not without problems, as explored in e.g. (Hunter, 2008) or (Normann and Sanders, 2019). However, even coding Riemann integrable functions leads to problems: as shown in (Normann and Sanders, 2020), the minimal (comprehension) axioms needed to prove Arzelà's convergence theorem for the Riemann integral are very different depending on whether one uses second-order codes or third-order functions.
Methyl lithium Bonding CH3Li > Structure > Bonding These clusters are considered "electron-deficient," that is, they do not follow the octet rule because the molecules lack sufficient electrons to form four 2-centered, 2-electron bonds around each carbon atom, in contrast to most organic compounds. The hexamer is a 30 electron compound (30 valence electrons.) If one allocates 18 electrons for the strong C-H bonds, 12 electrons remain for Li-C and Li-Li bonding.
Probability box C-boxes Probability_box > Where p-boxes come from > C-boxes For instance, they can be used to compute probability boxes for both prediction and tolerance distributions. C-boxes can be computed in a variety of ways directly from random sample data. There are confidence boxes for both parametric problems where the family of the underlying distribution from which the data were randomly generated is known (including normal, lognormal, exponential, Bernoulli, binomial, Poisson), and nonparametric problems in which the shape of the underlying distribution is unknown.
Fully qualified domain name Summary Fully_qualified_domain_name A fully qualified domain name (FQDN), sometimes also referred to as an absolute domain name, is a domain name that specifies its exact location in the tree hierarchy of the Domain Name System (DNS). It specifies all domain levels, including the top-level domain and the root zone. A fully qualified domain name is distinguished by its lack of ambiguity in terms of DNS zone location in the hierarchy of DNS labels: it can be interpreted only in one way.
Nondegenerate bilinear form Using the determinant Nondegenerate_form > Using the determinant If V is finite-dimensional then, relative to some basis for V, a bilinear form is degenerate if and only if the determinant of the associated matrix is zero – if and only if the matrix is singular, and accordingly degenerate forms are also called singular forms. Likewise, a nondegenerate form is one for which the associated matrix is non-singular, and accordingly nondegenerate forms are also referred to as non-singular forms. These statements are independent of the chosen basis.
Semantic decomposition (natural language processing) Graph representations Semantic_decomposition_(natural_language_processing) > Graph representations AI approaches that use knowledge-given reasoning creates a notion of meaning combining the state of the art knowledge of natural meaning with the symbolic and connectionist formalization of meaning for AI. The abstract approach is shown in Figure. First, a connectionist knowledge representation is created as a semantic network consisting of concepts and their relations to serve as the basis for the representation of meaning.This graph is built out of different knowledge sources like WordNet, Wiktionary, and BabelNET.
Power plant engineering Solar power plants Power_plant_engineering > Types of power plants > Solar power plants Solar power plants derive their energy from sunlight, which is made accessible via photovoltaics (PV's). Photovoltaic panels, or solar panels, are constructed using photovoltaic cells which are made of silica materials that release electrons when they are warmed by the thermal energy of the sun. The new flow of electrons generates electricity within the cell. While PV's are an efficient method of producing electricity, they do burn out after a decade and thus, must be replaced; however, their efficiency, cost of operation, and lack of noise/physical pollutants make them one of the cleanest and least expensive forms of energy. Solar power plants require the work of many facets of engineering; electrical engineers are especially crucial in constructing the solar panels and connecting them into a grid, and computer engineers code the cells themselves so that electricity can be effectively and efficiently produced, and civil engineers play the very important role of identifying areas where solar plants are able to collect the most energy.
Analytic Number Theory Riemann zeta function Analytic_Number_Theory > Methods of analytic number theory > Riemann zeta function Euler showed that the fundamental theorem of arithmetic implies (at least formally) the Euler product ∑ n = 1 ∞ 1 n s = ∏ p ∞ 1 1 − p − s for s > 1 {\displaystyle \sum _{n=1}^{\infty }{\frac {1}{n^{s}}}=\prod _{p}^{\infty }{\frac {1}{1-p^{-s}}}{\text{ for }}s>1} where the product is taken over all prime numbers p. Euler's proof of the infinity of prime numbers makes use of the divergence of the term at the left hand side for s = 1 (the so-called harmonic series), a purely analytic result. Euler was also the first to use analytical arguments for the purpose of studying properties of integers, specifically by constructing generating power series. This was the beginning of analytic number theory.Later, Riemann considered this function for complex values of s and showed that this function can be extended to a meromorphic function on the entire plane with a simple pole at s = 1. This function is now known as the Riemann Zeta function and is denoted by ζ(s).
Lenoir cycle Summary Lenoir_cycle The Lenoir cycle is an idealized thermodynamic cycle often used to model a pulse jet engine. It is based on the operation of an engine patented by Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir in 1860. This engine is often thought of as the first commercially produced internal combustion engine. The absence of any compression process in the design leads to lower thermal efficiency than the more well known Otto cycle and Diesel cycle.
Rectal cancer Genetics Multitarget_stool_DNA_screening_test > Cause > Genetics Those with a family history in two or more first-degree relatives (such as a parent or sibling) have a two to threefold greater risk of disease, and this group accounts for about 20% of all cases. A number of genetic syndromes are also associated with higher rates of colorectal cancer. The most common of these is hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC, or Lynch syndrome) which is present in about 3% of people with colorectal cancer. Other syndromes that are strongly associated with colorectal cancer include Gardner syndrome and familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP).
Motion Laws of motion Motion > Laws of motion In physics, the motion of massive bodies is described through two related sets of laws of mechanics. Classical mechanics for super atomic (larger than an atom) objects (such as cars, projectiles, planets, cells, and humans) and quantum mechanics for atomic and sub-atomic objects (such as helium, protons, and electrons). Historically, Newton and Euler formulated three laws of classical mechanics:
Elaboration likelihood model Variables Elaboration_likelihood_model > Variables Under moderate elaboration, a variable may direct the extent of information processing (e.g., "If an expert agrees with this position, I should really listen to what they have to say"). If subjects are under conditions of moderate elaboration, variables might enhance or reduce the persuasiveness in an objective manner, or bialy motivate or inhibit subjects to generate a certain thought. For instance, a distraction could serve as a variable to objectively affect the persuasiveness of a message.
Regression Analysis of Time Series Features Regression_Analysis_of_Time_Series > Features Kalman filter and State Space models. Neural networks. Regressions with discrete dependent variables, such as logistic regressions.
Ribosome biogenesis Prokaryotes Ribosome_biogenesis > Prokaryotes There are 52 genes that encode the ribosomal proteins, and they can be found in 20 operons within prokaryotic DNA. Regulation of ribosome synthesis hinges on the regulation of the rRNA itself. First, a reduction in aminoacyl-tRNA will cause the prokaryotic cell to respond by lowering transcription and translation. This occurs through a series of steps, beginning with stringent factors binding to ribosomes and catalyzing the reaction:GTP + ATP --> pppGpp + AMP The γ-phosphate is then removed and ppGpp will bind to and inhibit RNA polymerase.
TPC-C Summary TPC-C TPC-C, short for Transaction Processing Performance Council Benchmark C, is a benchmark used to compare the performance of online transaction processing (OLTP) systems. This industry standard was published in August 1992, and eventually replaced the earlier TPC-A, which was declared obsolete in 1995. It has undergone a number of changes to keep it relevant as computer performance grew by several orders of magnitude, with the current version as of 2021, 5.11, released in 2010. In 2006, a newer OLTP benchmark was added to the suite, TPC-E, but TPC-C remains in widespread use.
Sequence analysis in social sciences Visualization Social_sequence_analysis > Methods > Visualization In addition, there are many plots that focus on specific characteristics of the sequences. Below is a list of plots that have been proposed in the literature for rendering large sets of sequences. For each plot, we give examples of software (details in section Software) that produce it. Index plot: renders the set of individual sequences (SADI, SQ, TraMineR) Chronogram (status proportion plot, state distribution plot): renders the sequence of cross-sectional distributions (SADI, SQ, TraMineR) Plot of multidomain/multichannel sequences grouped by channels (TraMineR, seqHMM) or by individuals Plot of time series of cross-sectional indicators (entropy, modal state, ...) (SQ, TraMineR) Frequency plot (SQ, TraMineR) Relative frequency plot (TraMineR) Representative sequences (TraMineR) Mean time in the different states and their standard errors (TraMineR) State survival plot (TraMineRextras) Transition patterns (SADI) Transition plot (SQ; Gmisc) and plot of transition probabilities (seqHMM) Parallel coordinate plot (TraMineR, SQ) Probabilistic suffix trees (PST) Sequence networks (see social network analysis, Social network analysis software) Narrative networks (Software?)
Open problem in mathematics Prime numbers Open_problem_in_mathematics > Unsolved problems > Number theory > Prime numbers Are there infinitely many prime triplets? Are there infinitely many regular primes, and if so is their relative density e − 1 / 2 {\displaystyle e^{-1/2}} ? Are there infinitely many sexy primes?
Force dynamics Basic concepts Force_dynamics > Theoretical outline > Basic concepts Force entities have an intrinsic force tendency, either toward action or toward rest. For the agonist, this tendency is marked with an arrowhead (action) or with a large dot (rest) (see b, figure 1). Since the antagonist by definition has an opposing tendency, it need not be marked.
Velocity vector Polar coordinates Velocity > Polar coordinates where v T {\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {v}}_{T}} is the transverse velocity v R {\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {v}}_{R}} is the radial velocity.The radial speed (or magnitude of the radial velocity) is the dot product of the velocity vector and the unit vector in the radial direction. where r {\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {r}}} is position and r ^ {\displaystyle {\hat {\boldsymbol {r}}}} is the radial direction. The transverse speed (or magnitude of the transverse velocity) is the magnitude of the cross product of the unit vector in the radial direction and the velocity vector.
Compact controller Construction Compact_controller > Construction The analog outputs can be configured as voltage or current output, e.g. 4 ... 20 mA / 0 ... 10 V and are used for the continuous control of analog actuators such as, for example, control valves, thyristor power controllers or frequency converters.The operation, parameterization and configuration can be carried out via the device front, in addition, configuration programs are supplied in which the settings for the user can be clearly arranged. The connection between PC and controller can be established via USB, TCP / IP or serial interfaces. == References ==
Regression to the mean Restrictive definition Regression_toward_the_mean > Definitions for bivariate distribution with identical marginal distributions > Restrictive definition Let d denote the expected value of X2 of this particular widget. (i.e. Let d denote the average value of X2 of all widgets in the population with X1=c.) If the following condition is true: Whatever the value c is, d lies between μ and c (i.e. d is closer to μ than c is),then we say that X1 and X2 show regression toward the mean. This definition accords closely with the current common usage, evolved from Galton's original usage, of the term "regression toward the mean". It is "restrictive" in the sense that not every bivariate distribution with identical marginal distributions exhibits regression toward the mean (under this definition).
Neurobiological effects of physical exercise Parkinson's disease Neurobiological_effects_of_physical_exercise > Effects on central nervous system disorders > Neurodegenerative disorders > Parkinson's disease Research also suggests that physical exercise is beneficial for those with Parkinson's disease, a neurodegenerative condition characterised by a loss of dopaminergic neurons in an area of the brain known as the substantia nigra. A growing body of evidence suggests that physical exercise may be protective against Parkinson's, reducing the risk by around 29%. These findings are supported by animal studies, which indicate that physical exercise may protect against the loss of dopaminergic neurons by increasing the number of neurotrophic factors in the brain, proteins known to protect against degeneration.
Stochastic gradient descent Notable applications Stochastic_gradient_descent > Notable applications Stochastic gradient descent is a popular algorithm for training a wide range of models in machine learning, including (linear) support vector machines, logistic regression (see, e.g., Vowpal Wabbit) and graphical models. When combined with the backpropagation algorithm, it is the de facto standard algorithm for training artificial neural networks. Its use has been also reported in the Geophysics community, specifically to applications of Full Waveform Inversion (FWI).Stochastic gradient descent competes with the L-BFGS algorithm, which is also widely used. Stochastic gradient descent has been used since at least 1960 for training linear regression models, originally under the name ADALINE.Another stochastic gradient descent algorithm is the least mean squares (LMS) adaptive filter.
Empirical formulas Summary Empirical_formula In chemistry, the empirical formula of a chemical compound is the simplest whole number ratio of atoms present in a compound. A simple example of this concept is that the empirical formula of sulfur monoxide, or SO, would simply be SO, as is the empirical formula of disulfur dioxide, S2O2. Thus, sulfur monoxide and disulfur dioxide, both compounds of sulfur and oxygen, have the same empirical formula. However, their molecular formulas, which express the number of atoms in each molecule of a chemical compound, are not the same.
Database encryption Column-level encryption Database_encryption > Column-level encryption This effectively increases the difficulty of generating rainbow tables which thus implies that the data stored within each column is less likely to be lost or leaked. The main disadvantage associated with column-level database encryption is speed, or a loss thereof. Encrypting separate columns with different unique keys in the same database can cause database performance to decrease, and additionally also decreases the speed at which the contents of the database can be indexed or searched.
Aminopolycarboxylic acid Summary Aminopolycarboxylic_acid An aminopolycarboxylic acid (sometimes abbreviated APCA) is a chemical compound containing one or more nitrogen atoms connected through carbon atoms to two or more carboxyl groups. Aminopolycarboxylates that have lost acidic protons form strong complexes with metal ions. This property makes aminopolycarboxylic acids useful complexone in a wide variety of chemical, medical, and environmental applications.
Quotient rule Proof from derivative definition and limit properties Quotient_rule > Proofs > Proof from derivative definition and limit properties Let h ( x ) = f ( x ) g ( x ) . {\displaystyle h(x)={\frac {f(x)}{g(x)}}.} Applying the definition of the derivative and properties of limits gives the following proof, with the term f ( x ) g ( x ) {\displaystyle f(x)g(x)} added and subtracted to allow splitting and factoring in subsequent steps without affecting the value:The limit evaluation lim k → 0 1 g ( x + k ) g ( x ) = 1 g ( x ) 2 {\displaystyle \lim _{k\to 0}{\frac {1}{g(x+k)g(x)}}={\frac {1}{g(x)^{2}}}} is justified by the differentiability of g ( x ) {\displaystyle g(x)} , implying continuity, which can be expressed as lim k → 0 g ( x + k ) = g ( x ) {\displaystyle \lim _{k\to 0}g(x+k)=g(x)} .
Acoustic Hawking radiation Overview Black_hole_radiation > Overview In 1974, British physicist Stephen Hawking used quantum field theory in curved spacetime to show that in theory, instead of cancelling each other out normally, the antimatter and matter fields were disrupted by the black hole, causing antimatter and matter particles to "blip" into existence as a result of the imbalanced matter fields, and drawing energy from the disruptor itself: the black holes (to escape), effectively draining energy from the black hole. In addition, not all of the particles were close to the event horizon, and the ones that were, could not escape. In effect this energy acted as if the black hole itself was slowly evaporating (although it actually came from outside it).An important difference between the black hole radiation as computed by Hawking and thermal radiation emitted from a black body is that the latter is statistical in nature, and only its average satisfies what is known as Planck's law of black-body radiation, while the former fits the data better.