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# Alternative algebra
In abstract algebra, an **alternative algebra** is an algebra in which multiplication need not be associative, only alternative. That is, one must have
- $x(xy) = (xx)y$
- $(yx)x = y(xx)$
for all *x* and *y* in the algebra.
Every associative algebra is obviously alternative, but so too are some strictly non-associative algebras such as the octonions.
## The associator {#the_associator}
Alternative algebras are so named because they are the algebras for which the associator is alternating. The associator is a trilinear map given by
$$[x,y,z] = (xy)z - x(yz)$$. By definition, a multilinear map is alternating if it vanishes whenever two of its arguments are equal. The left and right alternative identities for an algebra are equivalent to
$$[x,x,y] = 0$$
$$[y,x,x] = 0$$ Both of these identities together imply that:
$$[x,y,x]=[x,x,x]+[x,y,x]+$$
$$-[x,x+y,x+y] =$$
$$= [x,x+y,-y] =$$
$$= [x,x,-y] - [x,y,y] = 0$$ for all $x$ and $y$. This is equivalent to the *flexible identity*
$$(xy)x = x(yx).$$ The associator of an alternative algebra is therefore alternating. Conversely, any algebra whose associator is alternating is clearly alternative. By symmetry, any algebra which satisfies any two of:
- left alternative identity: $x(xy) = (xx)y$
- right alternative identity: $(yx)x = y(xx)$
- flexible identity: $(xy)x = x(yx).$
is alternative and therefore satisfies all three identities.
An alternating associator is always totally skew-symmetric. That is,
$$[x_{\sigma(1)}, x_{\sigma(2)}, x_{\sigma(3)}] = \sgn(\sigma)[x_1,x_2,x_3]$$ for any permutation $\sigma$. The converse holds so long as the characteristic of the base field is not 2.
## Examples
- Every associative algebra is alternative.
- The octonions form a non-associative alternative algebra, a normed division algebra of dimension 8 over the real numbers.
- More generally, any octonion algebra is alternative.
### Non-examples {#non_examples}
- The sedenions, trigintaduonions, and all higher Cayley--Dickson algebras lose alternativity.
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# Alternative algebra
## Properties
**Artin\'s theorem** states that in an alternative algebra the subalgebra generated by any two elements is associative. Conversely, any algebra for which this is true is clearly alternative. It follows that expressions involving only two variables can be written unambiguously without parentheses in an alternative algebra. A generalization of Artin\'s theorem states that whenever three elements $x,y,z$ in an alternative algebra associate (i.e., $[x,y,z] = 0$), the subalgebra generated by those elements is associative.
A corollary of Artin\'s theorem is that alternative algebras are power-associative, that is, the subalgebra generated by a single element is associative. The converse need not hold: the sedenions are power-associative but not alternative.
The Moufang identities
- $a(x(ay)) = (axa)y$
- $((xa)y)a = x(aya)$
- $(ax)(ya) = a(xy)a$
hold in any alternative algebra.
In a unital alternative algebra, multiplicative inverses are unique whenever they exist. Moreover, for any invertible element $x$ and all $y$ one has
$$y = x^{-1}(xy).$$ This is equivalent to saying the associator $[x^{-1},x,y]$ vanishes for all such $x$ and $y$.
If $x$ and $y$ are invertible then $xy$ is also invertible with inverse $(xy)^{-1} = y^{-1}x^{-1}$. The set of all invertible elements is therefore closed under multiplication and forms a Moufang loop. This *loop of units* in an alternative ring or algebra is analogous to the group of units in an associative ring or algebra.
Kleinfeld\'s theorem states that any simple non-associative alternative ring is a generalized octonion algebra over its center. The structure theory of alternative rings is presented in the book *Rings That Are Nearly Associative* by Zhevlakov, Slin\'ko, Shestakov, and Shirshov.
## Occurrence
The projective plane over any alternative division ring is a Moufang plane.
Every composition algebra is an alternative algebra, as shown by Guy Roos in 2008: A composition algebra *A* over a field *K* has a *norm n* that is a multiplicative homomorphism: $n(a \times b) = n(a) \times n(b)$ connecting (*A*, ×) and (*K*, ×).
Define the form ( \_ : \_ ): *A* × *A* → *K* by $(a:b) = n(a+b) - n(a) - n(b).$ Then the trace of *a* is given by (*a*:1) and the conjugate by *a*\* = (*a*:1)e -- *a* where e is the basis element for 1. A series of exercises prove that a composition algebra is always an alternative algebra
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# Arithmetic function
In number theory, an **arithmetic**, **arithmetical**, or **number-theoretic function** is generally any function whose domain is the set of positive integers and whose range is a subset of the complex numbers. Hardy & Wright include in their definition the requirement that an arithmetical function \"expresses some arithmetical property of *n*\". There is a larger class of number-theoretic functions that do not fit this definition, for example, the prime-counting functions. This article provides links to functions of both classes.
An example of an arithmetic function is the divisor function whose value at a positive integer *n* is equal to the number of divisors of *n*.
Arithmetic functions are often extremely irregular (see table), but some of them have series expansions in terms of Ramanujan\'s sum.
## Multiplicative and additive functions {#multiplicative_and_additive_functions}
An arithmetic function *a* is
- **completely additive** if *a*(*mn*) = *a*(*m*) + *a*(*n*) for all natural numbers *m* and *n*;
- **completely multiplicative** if *a*(1) = 1 and *a*(*mn*) = *a*(*m*)*a*(*n*) for all natural numbers *m* and *n*;
Two whole numbers *m* and *n* are called coprime if their greatest common divisor is 1, that is, if there is no prime number that divides both of them.
Then an arithmetic function *a* is
- **additive** if *a*(*mn*) = *a*(*m*) + *a*(*n*) for all coprime natural numbers *m* and *n*;
- **multiplicative** if *a*(1) = 1 and *a*(*mn*) = *a*(*m*)*a*(*n*) for all coprime natural numbers *m* and *n*.
## Notation
In this article, $\sum_p f(p)$ and $\prod_p f(p)$ mean that the sum or product is over all prime numbers: $\sum_p f(p) = f(2) + f(3) + f(5) + \cdots$ and $\prod_p f(p)= f(2)f(3)f(5)\cdots.$ Similarly, $\sum_{p^k} f(p^k)$ and $\prod_{p^k} f(p^k)$ mean that the sum or product is over all prime powers with strictly positive exponent (so `{{math|1=''k'' = 0}}`{=mediawiki} is not included): $\sum_{p^k} f(p^k) = \sum_p\sum_{k > 0} f(p^k) = f(2) + f(3) + f(4) +f(5) +f(7)+f(8)+f(9)+\cdots.$
The notations $\sum_{d\mid n} f(d)$ and $\prod_{d\mid n} f(d)$ mean that the sum or product is over all positive divisors of *n*, including 1 and *n*. For example, if `{{math|1=''n'' = 12}}`{=mediawiki}, then $\prod_{d\mid 12} f(d) = f(1)f(2) f(3) f(4) f(6) f(12).$
The notations can be combined: $\sum_{p\mid n} f(p)$ and $\prod_{p\mid n} f(p)$ mean that the sum or product is over all prime divisors of *n*. For example, if *n* = 18, then $\sum_{p\mid 18} f(p) = f(2) + f(3),$ and similarly $\sum_{p^k\mid n} f(p^k)$ and $\prod_{p^k\mid n} f(p^k)$ mean that the sum or product is over all prime powers dividing *n*. For example, if *n* = 24, then $\prod_{p^k\mid 24} f(p^k) = f(2) f(3) f(4) f(8).$
## Ω(*n*), *ω*(*n*), *ν*~*p*~(*n*) -- prime power decomposition {#ωn_ωn_νpn_prime_power_decomposition}
The fundamental theorem of arithmetic states that any positive integer *n* can be represented uniquely as a product of powers of primes: $n = p_1^{a_1}\cdots p_k^{a_k}$ where *p*~1~ \< *p*~2~ \< \... \< *p*~*k*~ are primes and the *a~j~* are positive integers. (1 is given by the empty product.)
It is often convenient to write this as an infinite product over all the primes, where all but a finite number have a zero exponent. Define the *p*-adic valuation **ν~*p*~(*n*)** to be the exponent of the highest power of the prime *p* that divides *n*. That is, if *p* is one of the *p*~*i*~ then *ν*~*p*~(*n*) = *a*~*i*~, otherwise it is zero. Then $n = \prod_p p^{\nu_p(n)}.$
In terms of the above the prime omega functions *ω* and Ω are defined by `{{block indent | em = 1.5 | text = ''ω''(''n'') = ''k'',}}`{=mediawiki} `{{block indent | em = 1.5 | text = Ω(''n'') = ''a''<sub>1</sub> + ''a''<sub>2</sub> + ... + ''a''<sub>''k''</sub>.}}`{=mediawiki}
To avoid repetition, formulas for the functions listed in this article are, whenever possible, given in terms of *n* and the corresponding *p*~*i*~, *a*~*i*~, *ω*, and Ω.
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# Arithmetic function
## Multiplicative functions {#multiplicative_functions}
### *σ*~*k*~(*n*), *τ*(*n*), *d*(*n*) -- divisor sums {#σkn_τn_dn_divisor_sums}
**σ~*k*~(*n*)** is the sum of the *k*th powers of the positive divisors of *n*, including 1 and *n*, where *k* is a complex number.
***σ*~1~(*n*)**, the sum of the (positive) divisors of *n*, is usually denoted by ***σ*(*n*)**.
Since a positive number to the zero power is one, ***σ*~0~(*n*)** is therefore the number of (positive) divisors of *n*; it is usually denoted by ***d*(*n*)** or ***τ*(*n*)** (for the German *Teiler* = divisors).
$\sigma_k(n) = \prod_{i=1}^{\omega(n)} \frac{p_i^{(a_i+1)k}-1}{p_i^k-1}= \prod_{i=1}^{\omega(n)} \left(1 + p_i^k + p_i^{2k} + \cdots + p_i^{a_i k}\right).$
Setting *k* = 0 in the second product gives $\tau(n) = d(n) = (1 + a_{1})(1+a_{2})\cdots(1+a_{\omega(n)}).$
### *φ*(*n*) -- Euler totient function {#φn_euler_totient_function}
***φ*(*n*)**, the Euler totient function, is the number of positive integers not greater than *n* that are coprime to *n*. $\varphi(n) = n \prod_{p\mid n} \left(1-\frac{1}{p}\right)
= n \left(\frac{p_1 - 1}{p_1}\right)\left(\frac{p_2 - 1}{p_2}\right) \cdots \left(\frac{p_{\omega(n)} - 1}{p_{\omega(n)}}\right)
.$
### *J*~*k*~(*n*) -- Jordan totient function {#jkn_jordan_totient_function}
***J*~*k*~(*n*)**, the Jordan totient function, is the number of *k*-tuples of positive integers all less than or equal to *n* that form a coprime (*k* + 1)-tuple together with *n*. It is a generalization of Euler\'s totient, `{{math|1=''φ''(''n'') = ''J''<sub>1</sub>(''n'')}}`{=mediawiki}. $J_k(n) = n^k \prod_{p\mid n} \left(1-\frac{1}{p^k}\right)
= n^k \left(\frac{p^k_1 - 1}{p^k_1}\right)\left(\frac{p^k_2 - 1}{p^k_2}\right) \cdots \left(\frac{p^k_{\omega(n)} - 1}{p^k_{\omega(n)}}\right)
.$
### *μ*(*n*) -- Möbius function {#μn_möbius_function}
***μ*(*n*)**, the Möbius function, is important because of the Möbius inversion formula. See *`{{slink|#Dirichlet convolution}}`{=mediawiki}*, below. $\mu(n)=\begin{cases}
(-1)^{\omega(n)}=(-1)^{\Omega(n)} &\text{if }\; \omega(n) = \Omega(n)\\
0&\text{if }\;\omega(n) \ne \Omega(n).
\end{cases}$
This implies that *μ*(1) = 1. (Because Ω(1) = *ω*(1) = 0.)
### *τ*(*n*) -- Ramanujan tau function {#τn_ramanujan_tau_function}
***τ*(*n*)**, the Ramanujan tau function, is defined by its generating function identity: $\sum_{n\geq 1}\tau(n)q^n=q\prod_{n\geq 1}(1-q^n)^{24}.$
Although it is hard to say exactly what \"arithmetical property of *n*\" it \"expresses\", (*τ*(*n*) is (2*π*)^−12^ times the *n*th Fourier coefficient in the *q*-expansion of the modular discriminant function) it is included among the arithmetical functions because it is multiplicative and it occurs in identities involving certain *σ*~*k*~(*n*) and *r*~*k*~(*n*) functions (because these are also coefficients in the expansion of modular forms).
### *c*~*q*~(*n*) -- Ramanujan\'s sum {#cqn_ramanujans_sum}
***c*~*q*~(*n*)**, Ramanujan\'s sum, is the sum of the *n*th powers of the primitive *q*th roots of unity: $c_q(n) = \sum_{\stackrel{1\le a\le q}{ \gcd(a,q)=1}} e^{2 \pi i \tfrac{a}{q} n}.$
Even though it is defined as a sum of complex numbers (irrational for most values of *q*), it is an integer. For a fixed value of *n* it is multiplicative in *q*:
: **If *q* and *r* are coprime**, then $c_q(n)c_r(n)=c_{qr}(n).$
### *ψ*(*n*) -- Dedekind psi function {#ψn_dedekind_psi_function}
The Dedekind psi function, used in the theory of modular functions, is defined by the formula $\psi(n) = n \prod_{p|n}\left(1+\frac{1}{p}\right).$
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# Arithmetic function
## Completely multiplicative functions {#completely_multiplicative_functions}
### *λ*(*n*) -- Liouville function {#λn_liouville_function}
***λ*(*n*)**, the Liouville function, is defined by $\lambda (n) = (-1)^{\Omega(n)}.$
### *χ*(*n*) -- characters {#χn_characters}
All **Dirichlet characters *χ*(*n*)** are completely multiplicative. Two characters have special notations:
The **principal character (mod *n*)** is denoted by *χ*~0~(*a*) (or *χ*~1~(*a*)). It is defined as $\chi_0(a) = \begin{cases}
1 & \text{if } \gcd(a,n) = 1, \\
0 & \text{if } \gcd(a,n) \ne 1.
\end{cases}$
The **quadratic character (mod *n*)** is denoted by the Jacobi symbol for odd *n* (it is not defined for even *n*): $\left(\frac{a}{n}\right) = \left(\frac{a}{p_1}\right)^{a_1}\left(\frac{a}{p_2}\right)^{a_2}\cdots \left(\frac{a}{p_{\omega(n)}}\right)^{a_{\omega(n)}}.$
In this formula $(\tfrac{a}{p})$ is the Legendre symbol, defined for all integers *a* and all odd primes *p* by $\left(\frac{a}{p}\right) = \begin{cases}
\;\;\,0 & \text{if } a \equiv 0 \pmod p,
\\+1 & \text{if }a \not\equiv 0\pmod p \text{ and for some integer }x, \;a\equiv x^2\pmod p
\\-1 & \text{if there is no such } x. \end{cases}$
Following the normal convention for the empty product, $\left(\frac{a}{1}\right) = 1.$
## Additive functions {#additive_functions}
### *ω*(*n*) -- distinct prime divisors {#ωn_distinct_prime_divisors}
***ω*(*n*)**, defined above as the number of distinct primes dividing *n*, is additive (see *Prime omega function*).
## Completely additive functions {#completely_additive_functions}
### Ω(*n*) -- prime divisors {#ωn_prime_divisors}
**Ω(*n*)**, defined above as the number of prime factors of *n* counted with multiplicities, is completely additive (see Prime omega function).
### *ν*~*p*~(*n*) -- *p*-adic valuation of an integer *n* {#νpn_p_adic_valuation_of_an_integer_n}
For a fixed prime *p*, ***ν*~*p*~(*n*)**, defined above as the exponent of the largest power of *p* dividing *n*, is completely additive.
### Logarithmic derivative {#logarithmic_derivative}
$\operatorname{ld}(n)=\frac{D(n)}{n} = \sum_{\stackrel{p\mid n}{p\text{ prime}}} \frac {v_p(n)} {p}$, where $D(n)$ is the arithmetic derivative.
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# Arithmetic function
## Neither multiplicative nor additive {#neither_multiplicative_nor_additive}
### *π*(*x*), Π(*x*), *ϑ*(*x*), *ψ*(*x*) -- prime-counting functions {#πx_πx_ϑx_ψx_prime_counting_functions}
These important functions (which are not arithmetic functions) are defined for non-negative real arguments, and are used in the various statements and proofs of the prime number theorem. They are summation functions (see the main section just below) of arithmetic functions which are neither multiplicative nor additive.
*π*(*x*), the prime-counting function, is the number of primes not exceeding *x*. It is the summation function of the characteristic function of the prime numbers. $\pi(x) = \sum_{p \le x} 1$
A related function counts prime powers with weight 1 for primes, 1/2 for their squares, 1/3 for cubes, etc. It is the summation function of the arithmetic function which takes the value 1/*k* on integers which are the *k*th power of some prime number, and the value 0 on other integers. $\Pi(x) = \sum_{p^k\le x}\frac{1}{k}.$
*ϑ*(*x*) and *ψ*(*x*), the Chebyshev functions, are defined as sums of the natural logarithms of the primes not exceeding *x*. $\vartheta(x)=\sum_{p\le x} \log p,$ $\psi(x) = \sum_{p^k\le x} \log p.$
The second Chebyshev function *ψ*(*x*) is the summation function of the von Mangoldt function just below.
### Λ(*n*) -- von Mangoldt function {#λn_von_mangoldt_function}
**Λ(*n*)**, the von Mangoldt function, is 0 unless the argument *n* is a prime power `{{math|''p''<sup>''k''</sup>}}`{=mediawiki}, in which case it is the natural logarithm of the prime *p*: $\Lambda(n) = \begin{cases}
\log p &\text{if } n = 2,3,4,5,7,8,9,11,13,16,\ldots=p^k \text{ is a prime power}\\
0&\text{if } n=1,6,10,12,14,15,18,20,21,\dots \;\;\;\;\text{ is not a prime power}.
\end{cases}$
### *p*(*n*) -- partition function {#pn_partition_function}
***p*(*n*)**, the partition function, is the number of ways of representing *n* as a sum of positive integers, where two representations with the same summands in a different order are not counted as being different: $p(n) = \left|\left\{ (a_1, a_2,\dots a_k): 0 < a_1 \le a_2 \le \cdots \le a_k\; \land \;n=a_1+a_2+\cdots +a_k \right\}\right|.$
### *λ*(*n*) -- Carmichael function {#λn_carmichael_function}
***λ*(*n*)**, the Carmichael function, is the smallest positive number such that $a^{\lambda(n)}\equiv 1 \pmod{n}$ for all *a* coprime to *n*. Equivalently, it is the least common multiple of the orders of the elements of the multiplicative group of integers modulo *n*.
For powers of odd primes and for 2 and 4, *λ*(*n*) is equal to the Euler totient function of *n*; for powers of 2 greater than 4 it is equal to one half of the Euler totient function of *n*: $\lambda(n) = \begin{cases}
\;\;\phi(n) &\text{if }n = 2,3,4,5,7,9,11,13,17,19,23,25,27,\dots\\
\tfrac 1 2 \phi(n)&\text{if }n=8,16,32,64,\dots
\end{cases}$ and for general *n* it is the least common multiple of *λ* of each of the prime power factors of *n*: $\lambda(p_1^{a_1}p_2^{a_2} \dots p_{\omega(n)}^{a_{\omega(n)}}) = \operatorname{lcm}[\lambda(p_1^{a_1}),\;\lambda(p_2^{a_2}),\dots,\lambda(p_{\omega(n)}^{a_{\omega(n)}}) ].$
### *h*(*n*) -- class number {#hn_class_number}
***h*(*n*)**, the class number function, is the order of the ideal class group of an algebraic extension of the rationals with discriminant *n*. The notation is ambiguous, as there are in general many extensions with the same discriminant. See quadratic field and cyclotomic field for classical examples.
### *r*~*k*~(*n*) -- sum of *k* squares {#rkn_sum_of_k_squares}
***r*~*k*~(*n*)** is the number of ways *n* can be represented as the sum of *k* squares, where representations that differ only in the order of the summands or in the signs of the square roots are counted as different. $r_k(n) = \left|\left\{(a_1, a_2,\dots,a_k):n=a_1^2+a_2^2+\cdots+a_k^2\right\}\right|$
### *D*(*n*) -- Arithmetic derivative {#dn_arithmetic_derivative}
Using the Heaviside notation for the derivative, the arithmetic derivative *D*(*n*) is a function such that
- $D(n) = 1$ if *n* prime, and
- $D(mn) = m D(n) + D(m) n$ (the product rule)
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# Arithmetic function
## Summation functions {#summation_functions}
Given an arithmetic function *a*(*n*), its **summation function** *A*(*x*) is defined by $A(x) := \sum_{n \le x} a(n) .$ *A* can be regarded as a function of a real variable. Given a positive integer *m*, *A* is constant along open intervals *m* \< *x* \< *m* + 1, and has a jump discontinuity at each integer for which *a*(*m*) ≠ 0.
Since such functions are often represented by series and integrals, to achieve pointwise convergence it is usual to define the value at the discontinuities as the average of the values to the left and right: $A_0(m) := \frac 1 2 \left(\sum_{n < m} a(n) +\sum_{n \le m} a(n)\right) = A(m) - \frac 1 2 a(m) .$
Individual values of arithmetic functions may fluctuate wildly -- as in most of the above examples. Summation functions \"smooth out\" these fluctuations. In some cases it may be possible to find asymptotic behaviour for the summation function for large *x*.
A classical example of this phenomenon is given by the divisor summatory function, the summation function of *d*(*n*), the number of divisors of *n*: $\liminf_{n\to\infty} d(n) = 2$ $\limsup_{n\to\infty}\frac{\log d(n) \log\log n}{\log n} = \log 2$ $\lim_{n\to\infty}\frac{d(1) + d(2)+ \cdots +d(n)}{\log(1) + \log(2)+ \cdots +\log(n)} = 1.$
An **average order of an arithmetic function** is some simpler or better-understood function which has the same summation function asymptotically, and hence takes the same values \"on average\". We say that *g* is an *average order* of *f* if $\sum_{n \le x} f(n) \sim \sum_{n \le x} g(n)$
as *x* tends to infinity. The example above shows that *d*(*n*) has the average order log(*n*).
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# Arithmetic function
## Dirichlet convolution {#dirichlet_convolution}
Given an arithmetic function *a*(*n*), let *F*~*a*~(*s*), for complex *s*, be the function defined by the corresponding Dirichlet series (where it converges): $F_a(s) := \sum_{n=1}^\infty \frac{a(n)}{n^s} .$ *F*~*a*~(*s*) is called a generating function of *a*(*n*). The simplest such series, corresponding to the constant function *a*(*n*) = 1 for all *n*, is *ζ*(*s*) the Riemann zeta function.
The generating function of the Möbius function is the inverse of the zeta function: $\zeta(s)\,\sum_{n=1}^\infty\frac{\mu(n)}{n^s}=1, \;\;\Re s >1.$
Consider two arithmetic functions *a* and *b* and their respective generating functions *F*~*a*~(*s*) and *F*~*b*~(*s*). The product *F*~*a*~(*s*)*F*~*b*~(*s*) can be computed as follows: $F_a(s)F_b(s) = \left( \sum_{m=1}^{\infty}\frac{a(m)}{m^s} \right)\left( \sum_{n=1}^{\infty}\frac{b(n)}{n^s} \right) .$
It is a straightforward exercise to show that if *c*(*n*) is defined by $c(n) := \sum_{ij = n} a(i)b(j) = \sum_{i\mid n}a(i)b\left(\frac{n}{i}\right) ,$ then $F_c(s) = F_a(s) F_b(s).$
This function *c* is called the Dirichlet convolution of *a* and *b*, and is denoted by $a*b$.
A particularly important case is convolution with the constant function *a*(*n*) = 1 for all *n*, corresponding to multiplying the generating function by the zeta function: $g(n) = \sum_{d \mid n}f(d).$
Multiplying by the inverse of the zeta function gives the Möbius inversion formula: $f(n) = \sum_{d\mid n}\mu\left(\frac{n}{d}\right)g(d).$
If *f* is multiplicative, then so is *g*. If *f* is completely multiplicative, then *g* is multiplicative, but may or may not be completely multiplicative.
## Relations among the functions {#relations_among_the_functions}
There are a great many formulas connecting arithmetical functions with each other and with the functions of analysis, especially powers, roots, and the exponential and log functions. The page divisor sum identities contains many more generalized and related examples of identities involving arithmetic functions.
Here are a few examples:
### Dirichlet convolutions {#dirichlet_convolutions}
:
\\sum\_{\\delta\\mid n}\\mu(\\delta)= \\sum\_{\\delta\\mid n}\\lambda\\left(\\frac{n}{\\delta}\\right)\|\\mu(\\delta)\|= \\begin{cases} 1 & \\text{if } n=1\\\\ 0 & \\text{if } n\\ne1 \\end{cases} where *λ* is the Liouville function.
: $\sum_{\delta\mid n}\varphi(\delta) = n.$
: \\varphi(n)
# \\sum\_{\\delta\\mid n}\\mu\\left(\\frac{n}{\\delta}\\right)\\delta {#sum_deltamid_nmuleftfracndeltarightdelta}
n\\sum\_{\\delta\\mid n}\\frac{\\mu(\\delta)}{\\delta}. Möbius inversion
: $\sum_{d \mid n } J_k(d) = n^k.$
:
J_k(n)
# \\sum\_{\\delta\\mid n}\\mu\\left(\\frac{n}{\\delta}\\right)\\delta\^k {#sum_deltamid_nmuleftfracndeltarightdeltak}
n\^k\\sum\_{\\delta\\mid n}\\frac{\\mu(\\delta)}{\\delta\^k}. Möbius inversion
: $\sum_{\delta\mid n}\delta^sJ_r(\delta)J_s\left(\frac{n}{\delta}\right) = J_{r+s}(n)$
: $\sum_{\delta\mid n}\varphi(\delta)d\left(\frac{n}{\delta}\right) = \sigma(n).$
: $\sum_{\delta\mid n}|\mu(\delta)| = 2^{\omega(n)}.$
: $|\mu(n)|=\sum_{\delta\mid n}\mu\left(\frac{n}{\delta}\right)2^{\omega(\delta)}.$ Möbius inversion
: $\sum_{\delta\mid n}2^{\omega(\delta)}=d(n^2).$
: $2^{\omega(n)}=\sum_{\delta\mid n}\mu\left(\frac{n}{\delta}\right)d(\delta^2).$ Möbius inversion
: $\sum_{\delta\mid n}d(\delta^2)=d^2(n).$
: $d(n^2)=\sum_{\delta\mid n}\mu\left(\frac{n}{\delta}\right)d^2(\delta).$ Möbius inversion
: $\sum_{\delta\mid n}d\left(\frac{n}{\delta}\right)2^{\omega(\delta)}=d^2(n).$
: \\sum\_{\\delta\\mid n}\\lambda(\\delta)=\\begin{cases}
&1\\text{ if } n \\text{ is a square }\\\\ &0\\text{ if } n \\text{ is not square.} \\end{cases} where λ is the Liouville function.
: $\sum_{\delta\mid n}\Lambda(\delta) = \log n.$
: $\Lambda(n)=\sum_{\delta\mid n}\mu\left(\frac{n}{\delta}\right)\log(\delta).$ Möbius inversion
### Sums of squares {#sums_of_squares}
For all $k \ge 4,\;\;\; r_k(n) > 0.$ (Lagrange\'s four-square theorem).
:
r_2(n) = 4\\sum\_{d\\mid n}\\left(\\frac{-4}{d}\\right), where the Kronecker symbol has the values
:
\\left(\\frac{-4}{n}\\right) = \\begin{cases} +1&\\text{if }n\\equiv 1 \\pmod 4 \\\\ -1&\\text{if }n\\equiv 3 \\pmod 4\\\\ \\;\\;\\;0&\\text{if }n\\text{ is even}.\\\\ \\end{cases}
There is a formula for *r*~3~ in the section on class numbers below. $r_4(n) =
8 \sum_{\stackrel{d\mid n}{ 4\, \nmid \,d}}d =
8 (2+(-1)^n)\sum_{\stackrel{d\mid n}{ 2\, \nmid \,d}}d =
\begin{cases}
8\sigma(n)&\text{if } n \text{ is odd }\\
24\sigma\left(\frac{n}{2^\nu}\right)&\text{if } n \text{ is even }
\end{cases},$ where `{{math|1=''ν'' = ''ν''<sub>2</sub>(''n'')}}`{=mediawiki}. $r_6(n) = 16 \sum_{d\mid n} \chi\left(\frac{n}{d}\right)d^2 - 4\sum_{d\mid n} \chi(d)d^2,$ where $\chi(n) = \left(\frac{-4}{n}\right).$
Define the function `{{math|1=''σ''<sub>''k''</sub><sup>*</sup>(''n'')}}`{=mediawiki} as $\sigma_k^*(n) = (-1)^{n}\sum_{d\mid n}(-1)^d d^k=
\begin{cases}
\sum_{d\mid n} d^k=\sigma_k(n)&\text{if } n \text{ is odd }\\
\sum_{\stackrel{d\mid n}{ 2\, \mid \,d}}d^k -\sum_{\stackrel{d\mid n}{ 2\, \nmid \,d}}d^k&\text{if } n \text{ is even}.
\end{cases}$
That is, if *n* is odd, `{{math|1=''σ''<sub>''k''</sub><sup>*</sup>(''n'')}}`{=mediawiki} is the sum of the *k*th powers of the divisors of *n*, that is, `{{math|1=''σ''<sub>''k''</sub>(''n''),}}`{=mediawiki} and if *n* is even it is the sum of the *k*th powers of the even divisors of *n* minus the sum of the *k*th powers of the odd divisors of *n*.
: $r_8(n) = 16\sigma_3^*(n).$
Adopt the convention that Ramanujan\'s `{{math|1=''τ''(''x'') = 0}}`{=mediawiki} if *x* is **not an integer.**
:
r\_{24}(n) = \\frac{16}{691}\\sigma\_{11}\^\*(n) + \\frac{128}{691}\\left\\{ (-1)\^{n-1}259\\tau(n)-512\\tau\\left(\\frac{n}{2}\\right)\\right\\}
### Divisor sum convolutions {#divisor_sum_convolutions}
Here \"convolution\" does not mean \"Dirichlet convolution\" but instead refers to the formula for the coefficients of the product of two power series:
: \\left(\\sum\_{n=0}\^\\infty a_n x\^n\\right)\\left(\\sum\_{n=0}\^\\infty b_n x\^n\\right)
# \\sum\_{i
0}\^\\infty \\sum\_{j=0}\^\\infty a_i b_j x\^{i+j}
# \\sum\_{n
0}\^\\infty \\left(\\sum\_{i=0}\^n a_i b\_{n-i}\\right) x\^n
# \\sum\_{n {#sum_n_1}
0}\^\\infty c_n x\^n .
The sequence $c_n = \sum_{i=0}^n a_i b_{n-i}$ is called the convolution or the Cauchy product of the sequences *a*~*n*~ and *b*~*n*~. `{{br}}`{=mediawiki}These formulas may be proved analytically (see Eisenstein series) or by elementary methods.
:
\\sigma_3(n) = \\frac{1}{5}\\left\\{6n\\sigma_1(n)-\\sigma_1(n) + 12\\sum\_{0\<k\<n}\\sigma_1(k)\\sigma_1(n-k)\\right\\}.
:
\\sigma_5(n) = \\frac{1}{21}\\left\\{10(3n-1)\\sigma_3(n)+\\sigma_1(n) + 240\\sum\_{0\<k\<n}\\sigma_1(k)\\sigma_3(n-k)\\right\\}.
:
\\begin{align} \\sigma_7(n) &=\\frac{1}{20}\\left\\{21(2n-1)\\sigma_5(n)-\\sigma_1(n) + 504\\sum\_{0\<k\<n}\\sigma_1(k)\\sigma_5(n-k)\\right\\}\\\\ &=\\sigma_3(n) + 120\\sum\_{0\<k\<n}\\sigma_3(k)\\sigma_3(n-k). \\end{align}
:
\\begin{align} \\sigma_9(n) &= \\frac{1}{11}\\left\\{10(3n-2)\\sigma_7(n)+\\sigma_1(n) + 480\\sum\_{0\<k\<n}\\sigma_1(k)\\sigma_7(n-k)\\right\\}\\\\ &= \\frac{1}{11}\\left\\{21\\sigma_5(n)-10\\sigma_3(n) + 5040\\sum\_{0\<k\<n}\\sigma_3(k)\\sigma_5(n-k)\\right\\}. \\end{align}
:
\\tau(n) = \\frac{65}{756}\\sigma\_{11}(n) + \\frac{691}{756}\\sigma\_{5}(n) - \\frac{691}{3}\\sum\_{0\<k\<n}\\sigma_5(k)\\sigma_5(n-k), where *τ*(*n*) is Ramanujan\'s function.
Since *σ*~*k*~(*n*) (for natural number *k*) and *τ*(*n*) are integers, the above formulas can be used to prove congruences for the functions. See Ramanujan tau function for some examples.
Extend the domain of the partition function by setting `{{math|1=''p''(0) = 1.}}`{=mediawiki}
:
p(n)=\\frac{1}{n}\\sum\_{1\\le k\\le n}\\sigma(k)p(n-k). This recurrence can be used to compute *p*(*n*).
### Class number related {#class_number_related}
Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet discovered formulas that relate the class number *h* of quadratic number fields to the Jacobi symbol.
An integer *D* is called a **fundamental discriminant** if it is the discriminant of a quadratic number field. This is equivalent to *D* ≠ 1 and either a) *D* is squarefree and *D* ≡ 1 (mod 4) or b) *D* ≡ 0 (mod 4), *D*/4 is squarefree, and *D*/4 ≡ 2 or 3 (mod 4).
Extend the Jacobi symbol to accept even numbers in the \"denominator\" by defining the Kronecker symbol: $\left(\frac{a}{2}\right) = \begin{cases}
\;\;\,0&\text{ if } a \text{ is even}
\\(-1)^{\frac{a^2-1}{8}}&\text{ if }a \text{ is odd. }
\end{cases}$
Then if *D* \< −4 is a fundamental discriminant $\begin{align}
h(D) & = \frac{1}{D} \sum_{r=1}^{|D|}r\left(\frac{D}{r}\right)\\
& = \frac{1}{2-\left(\tfrac{D}{2}\right)} \sum_{r=1}^{|D|/2}\left(\frac{D}{r}\right).
\end{align}$
There is also a formula relating *r*~3~ and *h*. Again, let *D* be a fundamental discriminant, *D* \< −4. Then $r_3(|D|) = 12\left(1-\left(\frac{D}{2}\right)\right)h(D).$
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Arithmetic function
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# \\sum\_{n {#sum_n_1}
### Prime-count related {#prime_count_related}
Let $H_n = 1 + \frac 1 2 + \frac 1 3 + \cdots +\frac{1}{n}$ be the *n*th harmonic number. Then
: $\sigma(n) \le H_n + e^{H_n}\log H_n$ is true for every natural number *n* if and only if the Riemann hypothesis is true.
The Riemann hypothesis is also equivalent to the statement that, for all *n* \> 5040, $\sigma(n) < e^\gamma n \log \log n$ (where γ is the Euler--Mascheroni constant). This is Robin\'s theorem.
: $\sum_{p}\nu_p(n) = \Omega(n).$
: $\psi(x)=\sum_{n\le x}\Lambda(n).$
: $\Pi(x)= \sum_{n\le x}\frac{\Lambda(n)}{\log n}.$
: $e^{\theta(x)}=\prod_{p\le x}p.$
: $e^{\psi(x)}= \operatorname{lcm}[1,2,\dots,\lfloor x\rfloor].$
### Menon\'s identity {#menons_identity}
In 1965 P Kesava Menon proved $\sum_{\stackrel{1\le k\le n}{ \gcd(k,n)=1}} \gcd(k-1,n)=\varphi(n)d(n).$
This has been generalized by a number of mathematicians. For example,
- B. Sury
\\sum\_{\\stackrel{1\\le k_1, k_2, \\dots, k_s\\le n}{ \\gcd(k_1,n)=1}} \\gcd(k_1-1,k_2,\\dots,k_s,n) = \\varphi(n)\\sigma\_{s-1}(n).
- N. Rao
\\sum\_{\\stackrel{1\\le k_1, k_2, \\dots, k_s\\le n}{ \\gcd(k_1,k_2,\\dots,k_s,n)=1}} \\gcd(k_1-a_1,k_2-a_2,\\dots,k_s-a_s,n)\^s
# J_s(n)d(n), where *a*~1~, *a*~2~, \..., *a*~*s*~ are integers, gcd(*a*~1~, *a*~2~, \..., *a*~*s*~, *n*) {#j_sndn_where_a1_a2_..._as_are_integers_gcda1_a2_..._as_n}
1\.
- László Fejes Tóth
\\sum\_{\\stackrel{1\\le k\\le m}{ \\gcd(k,m)=1}} \\gcd(k\^2-1,m_1)\\gcd(k\^2-1,m_2)
# \\varphi(n)\\sum\_{\\stackrel{d_1\\mid m_1} {d_2\\mid m_2}} \\varphi(\\gcd(d_1, d_2))2\^{\\omega(\\operatorname{lcm}(d_1, d_2))}, where *m*~1~ and *m*~2~ are odd, *m* {#varphinsum_stackreld_1mid_m_1_d_2mid_m_2_varphigcdd_1_d_22omegaoperatornamelcmd_1_d_2_where_m1_and_m2_are_odd_m}
lcm(*m*~1~, *m*~2~).
In fact, if *f* is any arithmetical function $\sum_{\stackrel{1\le k\le n}{ \gcd(k,n)=1}} f(\gcd(k-1,n))
=\varphi(n)\sum_{d\mid n}\frac{(\mu*f)(d)}{\varphi(d)},$ where $*$ stands for Dirichlet convolution.
### Miscellaneous
Let *m* and *n* be distinct, odd, and positive. Then the Jacobi symbol satisfies the law of quadratic reciprocity: $\left(\frac{m}{n}\right) \left(\frac{n}{m}\right) = (-1)^{(m-1)(n-1)/4}.$
Let *D*(*n*) be the arithmetic derivative. Then the logarithmic derivative $\frac{D(n)}{n} = \sum_{\stackrel{p\mid n}{p\text{ prime}}} \frac {v_{p}(n)} {p}.$ See *Arithmetic derivative* for details.
Let *λ*(*n*) be Liouville\'s function. Then
: $|\lambda(n)|\mu(n) =\lambda(n)|\mu(n)| = \mu(n),$ and
: $\lambda(n)\mu(n) = |\mu(n)| =\mu^2(n).$
Let *λ*(*n*) be Carmichael\'s function. Then
: $\lambda(n)\mid \phi(n).$ Further,
: \\lambda(n)= \\phi(n) \\text{ if and only if }n=\\begin{cases}
1,2, 4;\\\\ 3,5,7,9,11, \\ldots \\text{ (that is, } p\^k \\text{, where }p\\text{ is an odd prime)};\\\\ 6,10,14,18,\\ldots \\text{ (that is, } 2p\^k\\text{, where }p\\text{ is an odd prime)}. \\end{cases} See Multiplicative group of integers modulo n and Primitive root modulo n.
: $2^{\omega(n)} \le d(n) \le 2^{\Omega(n)}.$
: $\frac{6}{\pi^2}<\frac{\phi(n)\sigma(n)}{n^2} < 1.$
: \\begin{align}
c_q(n) &=\\frac{\\mu\\left(\\frac{q}{\\gcd(q, n)}\\right)}{\\phi\\left(\\frac{q}{\\gcd(q, n)}\\right)}\\phi(q)\\\\ &=\\sum\_{\\delta\\mid \\gcd(q,n)}\\mu\\left(\\frac{q}{\\delta}\\right)\\delta. \\end{align} Note that $\phi(q) = \sum_{\delta\mid q}\mu\left(\frac{q}{\delta}\right)\delta.$
: $c_q(1) = \mu(q).$
: $c_q(q) = \phi(q).$
: $\sum_{\delta\mid n}d^{3}(\delta) = \left(\sum_{\delta\mid n}d(\delta)\right)^2.$ Compare this with `{{math|1=1<sup>3</sup> + 2<sup>3</sup> + 3<sup>3</sup> + ... + ''n''<sup>3</sup> = (1 + 2 + 3 + ... + ''n'')<sup>2</sup>}}`{=mediawiki}
: d(uv) = \\sum\_{\\delta\\mid \\gcd(u,v)}\\mu(\\delta)d\\left(\\frac{u}{\\delta}\\right)d\\left(\\frac{v}{\\delta}\\right).
: \\sigma_k(u)\\sigma_k(v) = \\sum\_{\\delta\\mid \\gcd(u,v)}\\delta\^k\\sigma_k\\left(\\frac{uv}{\\delta\^2}\\right).
: \\tau(u)\\tau(v) = \\sum\_{\\delta\\mid \\gcd(u,v)}\\delta\^{11}\\tau\\left(\\frac{uv}{\\delta\^2}\\right),
where *τ*(*n*) is Ramanujan\'s function.
| 422 |
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# Arithmetic function
## First 100 values of some arithmetic functions {#first_100_values_of_some_arithmetic_functions}
*n* factorization *φ*(*n*) *ω*(*n*) Ω(*n*) *λ*(*n*) *μ*(*n*) Λ(*n*) *π*(*n*) *σ*~0~(*n*) *σ*~1~(*n*) *σ*~2~(*n*) *r*~2~(*n*) *r*~3~(*n*) *r*~4~(*n*)
----- --------------- ---------- ---------- -------- ---------- ---------- -------- ---------- ------------- ------------- ------------- ------------- ------------- -------------
1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 4 6 8
2 2 1 1 1 −1 −1 0.69 1 2 3 5 4 12 24
3 3 2 1 1 −1 −1 1.10 2 2 4 10 0 8 32
4 2^2^ 2 1 2 1 0 0.69 2 3 7 21 4 6 24
5 5 4 1 1 −1 −1 1.61 3 2 6 26 8 24 48
6 2 · 3 2 2 2 1 1 0 3 4 12 50 0 24 96
7 7 6 1 1 −1 −1 1.95 4 2 8 50 0 0 64
8 2^3^ 4 1 3 −1 0 0.69 4 4 15 85 4 12 24
9 3^2^ 6 1 2 1 0 1.10 4 3 13 91 4 30 104
10 2 · 5 4 2 2 1 1 0 4 4 18 130 8 24 144
11 11 10 1 1 −1 −1 2.40 5 2 12 122 0 24 96
12 2^2^ · 3 4 2 3 −1 0 0 5 6 28 210 0 8 96
13 13 12 1 1 −1 −1 2.56 6 2 14 170 8 24 112
14 2 · 7 6 2 2 1 1 0 6 4 24 250 0 48 192
15 3 · 5 8 2 2 1 1 0 6 4 24 260 0 0 192
16 2^4^ 8 1 4 1 0 0.69 6 5 31 341 4 6 24
17 17 16 1 1 −1 −1 2.83 7 2 18 290 8 48 144
18 2 · 3^2^ 6 2 3 −1 0 0 7 6 39 455 4 36 312
19 19 18 1 1 −1 −1 2.94 8 2 20 362 0 24 160
20 2^2^ · 5 8 2 3 −1 0 0 8 6 42 546 8 24 144
21 3 · 7 12 2 2 1 1 0 8 4 32 500 0 48 256
22 2 · 11 10 2 2 1 1 0 8 4 36 610 0 24 288
23 23 22 1 1 −1 −1 3.14 9 2 24 530 0 0 192
24 2^3^ · 3 8 2 4 1 0 0 9 8 60 850 0 24 96
25 5^2^ 20 1 2 1 0 1.61 9 3 31 651 12 30 248
26 2 · 13 12 2 2 1 1 0 9 4 42 850 8 72 336
27 3^3^ 18 1 3 −1 0 1.10 9 4 40 820 0 32 320
28 2^2^ · 7 12 2 3 −1 0 0 9 6 56 1050 0 0 192
29 29 28 1 1 −1 −1 3.37 10 2 30 842 8 72 240
30 2 · 3 · 5 8 3 3 −1 −1 0 10 8 72 1300 0 48 576
31 31 30 1 1 −1 −1 3.43 11 2 32 962 0 0 256
32 2^5^ 16 1 5 −1 0 0.69 11 6 63 1365 4 12 24
33 3 · 11 20 2 2 1 1 0 11 4 48 1220 0 48 384
34 2 · 17 16 2 2 1 1 0 11 4 54 1450 8 48 432
35 5 · 7 24 2 2 1 1 0 11 4 48 1300 0 48 384
36 2^2^ · 3^2^ 12 2 4 1 0 0 11 9 91 1911 4 30 312
37 37 36 1 1 −1 −1 3.61 12 2 38 1370 8 24 304
38 2 · 19 18 2 2 1 1 0 12 4 60 1810 0 72 480
39 3 · 13 24 2 2 1 1 0 12 4 56 1700 0 0 448
40 2^3^ · 5 16 2 4 1 0 0 12 8 90 2210 8 24 144
41 41 40 1 1 −1 −1 3.71 13 2 42 1682 8 96 336
42 2 · 3 · 7 12 3 3 −1 −1 0 13 8 96 2500 0 48 768
43 43 42 1 1 −1 −1 3.76 14 2 44 1850 0 24 352
44 2^2^ · 11 20 2 3 −1 0 0 14 6 84 2562 0 24 288
45 3^2^ · 5 24 2 3 −1 0 0 14 6 78 2366 8 72 624
46 2 · 23 22 2 2 1 1 0 14 4 72 2650 0 48 576
47 47 46 1 1 −1 −1 3.85 15 2 48 2210 0 0 384
48 2^4^ · 3 16 2 5 −1 0 0 15 10 124 3410 0 8 96
49 7^2^ 42 1 2 1 0 1.95 15 3 57 2451 4 54 456
50 2 · 5^2^ 20 2 3 −1 0 0 15 6 93 3255 12 84 744
51 3 · 17 32 2 2 1 1 0 15 4 72 2900 0 48 576
52 2^2^ · 13 24 2 3 −1 0 0 15 6 98 3570 8 24 336
53 53 52 1 1 −1 −1 3.97 16 2 54 2810 8 72 432
54 2 · 3^3^ 18 2 4 1 0 0 16 8 120 4100 0 96 960
55 5 · 11 40 2 2 1 1 0 16 4 72 3172 0 0 576
56 2^3^ · 7 24 2 4 1 0 0 16 8 120 4250 0 48 192
57 3 · 19 36 2 2 1 1 0 16 4 80 3620 0 48 640
58 2 · 29 28 2 2 1 1 0 16 4 90 4210 8 24 720
59 59 58 1 1 −1 −1 4.08 17 2 60 3482 0 72 480
60 2^2^ · 3 · 5 16 3 4 1 0 0 17 12 168 5460 0 0 576
61 61 60 1 1 −1 −1 4.11 18 2 62 3722 8 72 496
62 2 · 31 30 2 2 1 1 0 18 4 96 4810 0 96 768
63 3^2^ · 7 36 2 3 −1 0 0 18 6 104 4550 0 0 832
64 2^6^ 32 1 6 1 0 0.69 18 7 127 5461 4 6 24
65 5 · 13 48 2 2 1 1 0 18 4 84 4420 16 96 672
66 2 · 3 · 11 20 3 3 −1 −1 0 18 8 144 6100 0 96 1152
67 67 66 1 1 −1 −1 4.20 19 2 68 4490 0 24 544
68 2^2^ · 17 32 2 3 −1 0 0 19 6 126 6090 8 48 432
69 3 · 23 44 2 2 1 1 0 19 4 96 5300 0 96 768
70 2 · 5 · 7 24 3 3 −1 −1 0 19 8 144 6500 0 48 1152
71 71 70 1 1 −1 −1 4.26 20 2 72 5042 0 0 576
72 2^3^ · 3^2^ 24 2 5 −1 0 0 20 12 195 7735 4 36 312
73 73 72 1 1 −1 −1 4.29 21 2 74 5330 8 48 592
74 2 · 37 36 2 2 1 1 0 21 4 114 6850 8 120 912
75 3 · 5^2^ 40 2 3 −1 0 0 21 6 124 6510 0 56 992
76 2^2^ · 19 36 2 3 −1 0 0 21 6 140 7602 0 24 480
77 7 · 11 60 2 2 1 1 0 21 4 96 6100 0 96 768
78 2 · 3 · 13 24 3 3 −1 −1 0 21 8 168 8500 0 48 1344
79 79 78 1 1 −1 −1 4.37 22 2 80 6242 0 0 640
80 2^4^ · 5 32 2 5 −1 0 0 22 10 186 8866 8 24 144
81 3^4^ 54 1 4 1 0 1.10 22 5 121 7381 4 102 968
82 2 · 41 40 2 2 1 1 0 22 4 126 8410 8 48 1008
83 83 82 1 1 −1 −1 4.42 23 2 84 6890 0 72 672
84 2^2^ · 3 · 7 24 3 4 1 0 0 23 12 224 10500 0 48 768
85 5 · 17 64 2 2 1 1 0 23 4 108 7540 16 48 864
86 2 · 43 42 2 2 1 1 0 23 4 132 9250 0 120 1056
87 3 · 29 56 2 2 1 1 0 23 4 120 8420 0 0 960
88 2^3^ · 11 40 2 4 1 0 0 23 8 180 10370 0 24 288
89 89 88 1 1 −1 −1 4.49 24 2 90 7922 8 144 720
90 2 · 3^2^ · 5 24 3 4 1 0 0 24 12 234 11830 8 120 1872
91 7 · 13 72 2 2 1 1 0 24 4 112 8500 0 48 896
92 2^2^ · 23 44 2 3 −1 0 0 24 6 168 11130 0 0 576
93 3 · 31 60 2 2 1 1 0 24 4 128 9620 0 48 1024
94 2 · 47 46 2 2 1 1 0 24 4 144 11050 0 96 1152
95 5 · 19 72 2 2 1 1 0 24 4 120 9412 0 0 960
96 2^5^ · 3 32 2 6 1 0 0 24 12 252 13650 0 24 96
97 97 96 1 1 −1 −1 4
| 1,628 |
Arithmetic function
| 7 |
3,172 |
# ANSI C
**ANSI C**, **ISO C**, and **Standard C** are successive standards for the C programming language published by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 22/WG 14 of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). Historically, the names referred specifically to the original and best-supported version of the standard (known as **C89** or **C90**). Software developers writing in C are encouraged to conform to the standards, as doing so helps portability between compilers.
## History and outlook {#history_and_outlook}
The first standard for C was published by ANSI. Although this document was subsequently adopted by ISO/IEC and subsequent revisions published by ISO/IEC have been adopted by ANSI, \"ANSI C\" is still used to refer to the standard. While some software developers use the term ISO C, others are standards-body neutral and use Standard C.
### Informal specification: K&R C (*C78*) {#informal_specification_kr_c_c78}
Informal specification in 1978 (Brian Kernighan and Dennis Ritchie book *The C Programming Language*).
### Standardizing C {#standardizing_c}
In 1983, the American National Standards Institute formed a committee, X3J11, to establish a standard specification of C. In 1985, the first Standard Draft was released, sometimes referred to as *C85*. In 1986, another Draft Standard was released, sometimes referred to as *C86*. The prerelease Standard C was published in 1988, and sometimes referred to as *C88*.
### C89
The ANSI standard was completed in 1989 and ratified as ANSI X3.159-1989 \"Programming Language C.\" This version of the language is often referred to as \"ANSI C\". Later on sometimes the label \"C89\" is used to distinguish it from C90 but using the same labeling method.
### C90
The same standard as C89 was ratified by ISO/IEC as ISO/IEC 9899:1990, with only formatting changes, which is sometimes referred to as C90. Therefore, the terms \"C89\" and \"C90\" refer to a language that is virtually identical.
This standard has been withdrawn by both ANSI/INCITS and ISO/IEC.
### C95
In 1995, the ISO/IEC published an extension, called Amendment 1, for the C standard. Its full name finally was *ISO/IEC 9899:1990/AMD1:1995* or nicknamed *C95*. Aside from error correction there were further changes to the language capabilities, such as:
- Improved *multi-byte* and *wide character* support in the standard library, introducing `<wchar.h>` and `<wctype.h>` as well as multi-byte I/O
- Addition of digraphs to the language
- Specification of standard macros for the alternative specification of operators, e.g. `and` for `&&`
- Specification of the standard macro `__STDC_VERSION__`
In addition to the amendment, two technical corrigenda were published by ISO for C90:
- ISO/IEC 9899:1990/Cor 1:1994 TCOR1 in 1994
- ISO/IEC 9899:1990/Cor 2:1996 in 1996
#### Preprocessor test for C95 compatibility {#preprocessor_test_for_c95_compatibility}
``` c
#if defined(__STDC_VERSION__) && __STDC_VERSION__ >= 199409L
/* C95 compatible source code. */
#elif defined(__STDC__)
/* C89 compatible source code. */
#endif
```
### C99
In March 2000, ANSI adopted the ISO/IEC 9899:1999 standard. This standard is commonly referred to as C99. Some notable additions to the previous standard include:
- New built-in data types: `long long`, `_Bool`, `_Complex`, and `_Imaginary`
- Several new core language features, including static array indices, designated initializers, compound literals, variable-length arrays, flexible array members, variadic macros, and `restrict` keyword
- Several new library headers, including `stdint.h`, `<tgmath.h>`, `fenv.h`, `<complex.h>`
- Improved compatibility with several C++ features, including inline functions, single-line comments with `//`, mixing declarations and code, and universal character names in identifiers
- Removed several dangerous C89 language features such as implicit function declarations and implicit `int`
Three technical corrigenda were published by ISO for C99:
- ISO/IEC 9899:1999/Cor 1:2001(E)
- ISO/IEC 9899:1999/Cor 2:2004(E)
- ISO/IEC 9899:1999/Cor 3:2007(E), notable for deprecating the standard library function gets
This standard has been withdrawn by both ANSI/INCITS and ISO/IEC in favour of C11.
### C11
C11 was officially ratified and published on December 8, 2011. Notable features include improved Unicode support, type-generic expressions using the new `_Generic` keyword, a cross-platform multi-threading API (`threads.h`), and atomic types support in both core language and the library (`stdatomic.h`).
One technical corrigendum has been published by ISO for C11:
- ISO/IEC 9899:2011/Cor 1:2012
### C17
C17 was published in June 2018. Rather than introducing new language features, it only addresses defects in C11.
### C23
C23 was published in October 2024, and is the current standard for the C programming language.
### Other related ISO publications {#other_related_iso_publications}
As part of the standardization process, ISO/IEC also publishes technical reports and specifications related to the C language:
- ISO/IEC TR 19769:2004, on library extensions to support Unicode transformation formats, integrated into C11
- ISO/IEC TR 24731-1:2007, on library extensions to support bounds-checked interfaces, integrated into C11
- ISO/IEC TR 18037:2008, on embedded C extensions
- ISO/IEC TR 24732:2009, on decimal floating point arithmetic, superseded by ISO/IEC TS 18661-2:2015
- ISO/IEC TR 24747:2009, on special mathematical functions,
- ISO/IEC TR 24731-2:2010, on library extensions to support dynamic allocation functions
- ISO/IEC TS 17961:2013, on secure coding in C
- ISO/IEC TS 18661-1:2014, on IEC 60559:2011-compatible binary floating-point arithmetic
- ISO/IEC TS 18661-2:2015, on IEC 60559:2011-compatible decimal floating point arithmetic
- ISO/IEC TS 18661-3:2015, on IEC 60559:2011-compatible interchange and extended floating-point types
- ISO/IEC TS 18661-4:2015, on IEC 60559:2011-compatible supplementary functions
More technical specifications are in development and pending approval, including the fifth and final part of TS 18661, a software transactional memory specification, and parallel library extensions.
## Support from major compilers {#support_from_major_compilers}
ANSI C is supported by almost all the widely used compilers. GCC and Clang are two major C compilers popular today, both based on the C11 with updates including changes from later specifications such as C17. Any source code written *only* in standard C and without any hardware dependent assumptions is virtually guaranteed to compile correctly on any platform with a conforming C implementation. Without such precautions, most programs may compile only on a certain platform or with a particular compiler, due, for example, to the use of non-standard libraries, such as GUI libraries, or to the reliance on compiler- or platform-specific attributes such as the exact size of certain data types and byte endianness.
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#endif
## Support from major compilers {#support_from_major_compilers}
### Compliance detectability {#compliance_detectability}
To mitigate the differences between K&R C and the ANSI C standard, the `__STDC__` (\"standard c\") macro can be used to split code into ANSI and K&R sections.
``` c
#if defined(__STDC__) && __STDC__
extern int getopt(int, char * const *, const char *);
#else
extern int getopt();
#endif
```
In the above example, a prototype is used in a function declaration for ANSI compliant implementations, while an obsolescent non-prototype declaration is used otherwise. Those are still ANSI-compliant as of C99. Note how this code checks both definition and evaluation: this is because some implementations may set `__STDC__` to zero to indicate non-ANSI compliance.
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#endif
## Compiler support {#compiler_support}
List of compilers supporting ANSI C:
- Acornsoft ANSI C (first version in 1988, revised in 1989)
- Amsterdam Compiler Kit (C K&R and C89/90)
- ARM RealView
- Clang (full C89/C90, partial C99, C11, C17, C23 and C2y), using LLVM backend
- GCC (full C89/90, C99, C11, partial C17 and some C23 and experimental/incomplete C2y)
- HP C/ANSI C compiler (C89 and C99)
- IBM XL C/C++ (C11, starting with version 12.1)
- Intel\'s ICC (later versions are based on clang, and have its support!\-- or more or less, seemingly missing some support/or table wrong, not updated? And can have more support than clang despite when using it? \--\>)
- LabWindows/CVI
- LCC
- Oracle Developer Studio
- OpenWatcom (C89/90 and some C99)
- Microsoft Visual C++ (C89/90 and some C99, C11, C17, mostly missing C23)
- Pelles C (C99 and C11. Windows only
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# Ascending chain condition
In mathematics, the **ascending chain condition** (**ACC**) and **descending chain condition** (**DCC**) are finiteness properties satisfied by some algebraic structures, most importantly ideals in certain commutative rings. These conditions played an important role in the development of the structure theory of commutative rings in the works of David Hilbert, Emmy Noether, and Emil Artin. The conditions themselves can be stated in an abstract form, so that they make sense for any partially ordered set. This point of view is useful in abstract algebraic dimension theory due to Gabriel and Rentschler.
## Definition
A partially ordered set (poset) *P* is said to satisfy the **ascending chain condition** (ACC) if no infinite strictly ascending sequence
: $a_1 < a_2 < a_3 < \cdots$
of elements of *P* exists. Equivalently, every weakly ascending sequence
: $a_1 \leq a_2 \leq a_3 \leq \cdots,$
of elements of *P* eventually stabilizes, meaning that there exists a positive integer *n* such that
: $a_n = a_{n+1} = a_{n+2} = \cdots.$
Similarly, *P* is said to satisfy the **descending chain condition** (DCC) if there is no infinite strictly descending chain of elements of *P*. Equivalently, every weakly descending sequence
: $a_1 \geq a_2 \geq a_3 \geq \cdots$
of elements of *P* eventually stabilizes.
### Comments
- Assuming the axiom of dependent choice, the descending chain condition on (possibly infinite) poset *P* is equivalent to *P* being well-founded: every nonempty subset of *P* has a minimal element (also called the **minimal condition** or **minimum condition**). A totally ordered set that is well-founded is a well-ordered set.
- Similarly, the ascending chain condition is equivalent to *P* being converse well-founded (again, assuming dependent choice): every nonempty subset of *P* has a maximal element (the **maximal condition** or **maximum condition**).
- Every finite poset satisfies both the ascending and descending chain conditions, and thus is both well-founded and converse well-founded.
## Example
Consider the ring
: $\mathbb{Z} = \{\dots, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, \dots\}$
of integers. Each ideal of $\mathbb{Z}$ consists of all multiples of some number $n$. For example, the ideal
: $I = \{\dots, -18, -12, -6, 0, 6, 12, 18, \dots\}$
consists of all multiples of $6$. Let
: $J = \{\dots, -6, -4, -2, 0, 2, 4, 6, \dots\}$
be the ideal consisting of all multiples of $2$. The ideal $I$ is contained inside the ideal $J$, since every multiple of $6$ is also a multiple of $2$. In turn, the ideal $J$ is contained in the ideal $\mathbb{Z}$, since every multiple of $2$ is a multiple of $1$. However, at this point there is no larger ideal; we have \"topped out\" at $\mathbb{Z}$.
In general, if $I_1, I_2, I_3, \dots$ are ideals of $\mathbb{Z}$ such that $I_1$ is contained in $I_2$, $I_2$ is contained in $I_3$, and so on, then there is some $n$ for which all $I_n = I_{n+1} = I_{n+2} = \cdots$. That is, after some point all the ideals are equal to each other. Therefore, the ideals of $\mathbb{Z}$ satisfy the ascending chain condition, where ideals are ordered by set inclusion. Hence $\mathbb{Z}$ is a Noetherian ring
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# Achduart
**Achduart** (Gaelic: ***Achadh Dhubhaird***) is a coastal hamlet in Coigach, Wester Ross in northwestern Scotland, now within the Highland council area. It is situated about 4 km southeast of the village of Achiltibuie, at the end of a minor road. A footpath continues on to the hamlet of Culnacraig, then along the coast past Ben More Coigach to Strathcanaird. Achduart has accommodation facilities for tourists, who come for its proximity to the sea and its seclusion and remoteness. There is a hostel in Acheninver, a short distance to the north, formerly run by the Scottish Youth Hostels Association. The name of Achduart comes from the Gaelic for \"the field at the black headland\". Achduart was part of the Estate of Coigach, Lochbroom, belonging to the Countess of Cromartie.
The dominant geographical feature in the area is Cairn Conmheall, which rises to 541 metres
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# Amplifier figures of merit
In electronics, the **figures of merit** of an amplifier are numerical measures that characterize its properties and performance. Figures of merit can be given as a list of specifications that include properties such as gain, bandwidth, noise and linearity, among others listed in this article. Figures of merit are important for determining the suitability of a particular amplifier for an intended use.
## Gain
The gain of an amplifier is the ratio of output to input power or amplitude, and is usually measured in decibels. When measured in decibels it is logarithmically related to the power ratio: *G*(dB)=10 log(*P~out~* /*P~in~*). RF amplifiers are often specified in terms of the maximum *power gain* obtainable, while the voltage gain of audio amplifiers and instrumentation amplifiers will be more often specified. For example, an audio amplifier with a gain given as 20 dB will have a *voltage gain* of ten.
The use of voltage gain figure is appropriate when the amplifier\'s input impedance is much higher than the source impedance, and the load impedance higher than the amplifier\'s output impedance.
If two equivalent amplifiers are being compared, the amplifier with higher gain settings would be more sensitive as it would take less input signal to produce a given amount of power.`{{unreliable source?|date=November 2017}}`{=mediawiki}
## Bandwidth
The bandwidth of an amplifier is the range of frequencies for which the amplifier gives \"satisfactory performance\". The definition of \"satisfactory performance\" may be different for different applications. However, a common and well-accepted metric is the half-power points (i.e. frequency where the power goes down by half its peak value) on the output vs. frequency curve. Therefore, bandwidth can be defined as the difference between the lower and upper half power points. This is therefore also known as the `{{nowrap|−3 dB}}`{=mediawiki} bandwidth. Bandwidths (otherwise called \"frequency responses\") for other response tolerances are sometimes quoted (`{{nowrap|−1 dB}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{nowrap|−6 dB}}`{=mediawiki} etc.) or \"plus or minus 1dB\" (roughly the sound level difference people usually can detect).
The gain of a good quality full-range audio amplifier will be essentially flat between 20 Hz to about 20 kHz (the range of normal human hearing). In ultra-high-fidelity amplifier design, the amplifier\'s frequency response should extend considerably beyond this (one or more octaves either side) and might have `{{nowrap|−3 dB}}`{=mediawiki} points \< 10 Hz and \> `{{nowrap|65 kHz}}`{=mediawiki}. Professional touring amplifiers often have input and/or output filtering to sharply limit frequency response beyond `{{nowrap|20 Hz-20 kHz}}`{=mediawiki}; too much of the amplifier\'s potential output power would otherwise be wasted on infrasonic and ultrasonic frequencies, and the danger of AM radio interference would increase. Modern switching amplifiers need steep low pass filtering at the output to get rid of high-frequency switching noise and harmonics.
The range of frequency over which the gain is equal to or greater than 70.7% of its maximum gain is termed as bandwidth.
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# Amplifier figures of merit
## Efficiency
Efficiency is a measure of how much of the power source is usefully applied to the amplifier\'s output. Class A amplifiers are very inefficient, in the range of 10--20% with a max efficiency of 25% for direct coupling of the output. Inductive coupling of the output can raise their efficiency to a maximum of 50%.
Drain efficiency is the ratio of output RF power to input DC power when primary input DC power has been fed to the drain of a field-effect transistor. Based on this definition, the drain efficiency cannot exceed 25% for a class A amplifier that is supplied drain bias current through resistors (because RF signal has its zero level at about 50% of the input DC). Manufacturers specify much higher drain efficiencies, and designers are able to obtain higher efficiencies by providing current to the drain of the transistor through an inductor or a transformer winding. In this case the RF zero level is near the DC rail and will swing both above and below the rail during operation. While the voltage level is above the DC rail current is supplied by the inductor.
Class B amplifiers have a very high efficiency but are impractical for audio work because of high levels of distortion (See: Crossover distortion). In practical design, the result of a tradeoff is the class AB design. Modern Class AB amplifiers commonly have peak efficiencies between 30 and 55% in audio systems and 50-70% in radio frequency systems with a theoretical maximum of 78.5%.
Commercially available Class D switching amplifiers have reported efficiencies as high as 90%. Amplifiers of Class C-F are usually known to be very high-efficiency amplifiers. RCA manufactured an AM broadcast transmitter employing a single class-C low-mu triode with an RF efficiency in the 90% range.
More efficient amplifiers run cooler, and often do not need any cooling fans even in multi-kilowatt designs. The reason for this is that the loss of efficiency produces heat as a by-product of the energy lost during the conversion of power. In more efficient amplifiers there is less loss of energy so in turn less heat.
In RF linear Power Amplifiers, such as cellular base stations and broadcast transmitters, special design techniques can be used to improve efficiency. Doherty designs, which use a second output stage as a \"peak\" amplifier, can lift efficiency from the typical 15% up to 30-35% in a narrow bandwidth. Envelope Tracking designs are able to achieve efficiencies of up to 60%, by modulating the supply voltage to the amplifier in line with the envelope of the signal.
## Linearity`{{anchor|linearity}}`{=mediawiki}
An ideal amplifier would be a totally linear device, but real amplifiers are only linear within limits.
When the signal drive to the amplifier is increased, the output also increases until a point is reached where some part of the amplifier becomes saturated and cannot produce any more output; this is called clipping, and results in distortion.
In most amplifiers a reduction in gain takes place before hard clipping occurs; the result is a *compression* effect, which (if the amplifier is an audio amplifier) sounds much less unpleasant to the ear. For these amplifiers, the 1 dB compression point is defined as the input power (or output power) where the gain is 1 dB less than the small signal gain. Sometimes this non linearity is deliberately designed in to reduce the audible unpleasantness of hard clipping under overload.
Ill effects of non-linearity can be reduced with negative feedback.
Linearization is an emergent field, and there are many techniques, such as feed forward, predistortion, postdistortion, in order to avoid the undesired effects of the non-linearities.
## Noise
This is a measure of how much noise is introduced in the amplification process. Noise is an undesirable but inevitable product of the electronic devices and components; also, much noise results from intentional economies of manufacture and design time. The metric for noise performance of a circuit is noise figure or noise factor. Noise figure is a comparison between the output signal to noise ratio and the thermal noise of the input signal.
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# Amplifier figures of merit
## Output dynamic range {#output_dynamic_range}
Output dynamic range is the range, usually given in dB, between the smallest and largest useful output levels. The lowest useful level is limited by output noise, while the largest is limited most often by distortion. The ratio of these two is quoted as the amplifier dynamic range. More precisely, if *S* = maximal allowed signal power and *N* = noise power, the dynamic range *DR* is *DR = (S + N ) /N*.
In many switched mode amplifiers, dynamic range is limited by the minimum output step size.
## Slew rate {#slew_rate}
Slew rate is the maximum rate of change of the output, usually quoted in volts per second (or microsecond). Many amplifiers are ultimately slew rate limited (typically by the impedance of a drive current having to overcome capacitive effects at some point in the circuit), which sometimes limits the full power bandwidth to frequencies well below the amplifier\'s small-signal frequency response.
## Rise time {#rise_time}
The rise time, t~r~, of an amplifier is the time taken for the output to change from 10% to 90% of its final level when driven by a step input. For a Gaussian response system (or a simple RC roll off), the rise time is approximated by:
**t~r~ \* BW = 0.35**, where t~r~ is rise time in seconds and BW is bandwidth in Hz.
## Settling time and ringing {#settling_time_and_ringing}
The time taken for the output to settle to within a certain percentage of the final value (for instance 0.1%) is called the settling time, and is usually specified for oscilloscope vertical amplifiers and high-accuracy measurement systems. Ringing refers to an output variation that cycles above and below an amplifier\'s final value and leads to a delay in reaching a stable output. Ringing is the result of overshoot caused by an underdamped circuit.
## Overshoot
In response to a step input, the overshoot is the amount the output exceeds its final, steady-state value.
## Stability
Stability is an issue in all amplifiers with feedback, whether that feedback is added intentionally or results unintentionally. It is especially an issue when applied over multiple amplifying stages.
Stability is a major concern in RF and microwave amplifiers. The degree of an amplifier\'s stability can be quantified by a so-called stability factor. There are several different stability factors, such as the Stern stability factor and the Linvil stability factor, which specify a condition that must be met for the absolute stability of an amplifier in terms of its two-port parameters
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# Absolute infinite
The **absolute infinite** (*symbol*: Ω), in context often called \"**absolute**\", is an extension of the idea of infinity proposed by mathematician Georg Cantor. Cantor linked the absolute infinite with God, and believed that it had various mathematical properties, including the reflection principle: every property of the absolute infinite is also held by some smaller object.`{{clarify|reason=The 'defining' property, i.e. that of being 'bigger than any (other) conceivable or inconceivable quantity', cannot be held by any smaller object.|date=December 2021}}`{=mediawiki}
## Cantor\'s view {#cantors_view}
Cantor said:
}}
While using the Latin expression *in Deo* (in God), Cantor identifies absolute infinity with God (GA 175--176, 376, 378, 386, 399). According to Cantor, Absolute Infinity is beyond mathematical comprehension and shall be interpreted in terms of negative theology.
Cantor also mentioned the idea in his letters to Richard Dedekind (text in square brackets not present in original):`{{refn|''Gesammelte Abhandlungen'',<ref name="Cantor.1932"/> Georg Cantor, ed. Ernst Zermelo, Hildesheim: Georg Olms Verlagsbuchhandlung, 1962, pp. 443–447; translated into English in ''From Frege to Gödel: A Source Book in Mathematical Logic, 1879-1931'', ed. Jean van Heijenoort, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1967, pp. 113–117. These references both purport to be a letter from Cantor to Dedekind, dated July 28, 1899. However, as [[Ivor Grattan-Guinness]] has discovered,<ref>[https://eudml.org/doc/146637 The Rediscovery of the Cantor-Dedekind Correspondence], I. Grattan-Guinness, ''Jahresbericht der Deutschen Mathematiker-Vereinigung'' '''76''' (1974/75), pp. 104–139, at p. 126 ff.</ref> this is in fact an amalgamation by Cantor's editor, [[Ernst Zermelo]], of two letters from Cantor to Dedekind, the first dated July 28 and the second dated August 3.|name=GesammelteAbhandlungen}}`{=mediawiki}
## The Burali-Forti paradox {#the_burali_forti_paradox}
The idea that the collection of all ordinal numbers cannot logically exist seems paradoxical to many. This is related to the Burali-Forti\'s paradox which implies that there can be no greatest ordinal number. All of these problems can be traced back to the idea that, for every property that can be logically defined, there exists a set of all objects that have that property. However, as in Cantor\'s argument (above), this idea leads to difficulties.
More generally, as noted by A. W. Moore, there can be no end to the process of set formation, and thus no such thing as the *totality of all sets*, or the *set hierarchy*. Any such totality would itself have to be a set, thus lying somewhere within the hierarchy and thus failing to contain every set.
A standard solution to this problem is found in Zermelo set theory, which does not allow the unrestricted formation of sets from arbitrary properties. Rather, we may form the set of all objects that have a given property *and lie in some given set* (Zermelo\'s Axiom of Separation). This allows for the formation of sets based on properties, in a limited sense, while (hopefully) preserving the consistency of the theory.
While this solves the logical problem, one could argue that the philosophical problem remains. It seems natural that a set of individuals ought to exist, so long as the individuals exist. Indeed, naive set theory might be said to be based on this notion. Although Zermelo\'s fix allows a class to describe arbitrary (possibly \"large\") entities, these predicates of the metalanguage may have no formal existence (i.e., as a set) within the theory. For example, the class of all sets would be a proper class. This is philosophically unsatisfying to some and has motivated additional work in set theory and other methods of formalizing the foundations of mathematics such as New Foundations by Willard Van Orman Quine
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# Acceptance testing
In engineering and its various subdisciplines, **acceptance testing** is a test conducted to determine if the requirements of a specification or contract are met. It may involve chemical tests, physical tests, or performance tests.
In systems engineering, it may involve black-box testing performed on a system (for example: a piece of software, lots of manufactured mechanical parts, or batches of chemical products) prior to its delivery.
In software testing, the ISTQB defines *acceptance testing* as: `{{Blockquote|text=Formal testing with respect to user needs, requirements, and business processes conducted to determine whether a system satisfies the [[acceptance criteria]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-06-10 |title=acceptance criteria |url=https://innolution.com/resources/glossary/acceptance-criteria |publisher=Innolution, LLC}}</ref> and to enable the user, customers or other authorized entity to determine whether to accept the system.|source=Standard Glossary of Terms used in Software Testing<ref>{{Cite web |title=Standard Glossary of Terms used in Software Testing, Version 3.2: All Terms |url=https://glossary.istqb.org|access-date=November 23, 2020 |publisher=[[International Software Testing Qualifications Board|ISTQB]] |format=PDF}}</ref>{{rp|2}} |title=|author=}}`{=mediawiki} The final test in the QA lifecycle, user acceptance testing, is conducted just before the final release to assess whether the product or application can handle real-world scenarios. By replicating user behavior, it checks if the system satisfies business requirements and rejects changes if certain criteria are not met.
Some forms of acceptance testing are, user acceptance testing (UAT), end-user testing, operational acceptance testing (OAT), acceptance test-driven development (ATDD) and field (acceptance) testing. Acceptance criteria are the criteria that a system or component must satisfy in order to be accepted by a user, customer, or other authorized entity.
## Overview
Testing is a set of activities conducted to facilitate the discovery and/or evaluation of properties of one or more items under test. Each test, known as a test case, exercises a set of predefined test activities, developed to drive the execution of the test item to meet test objectives; including correct implementation, error identification, quality verification, and other valued details. The test environment is usually designed to be identical, or as close as possible, to the anticipated production environment. It includes all facilities, hardware, software, firmware, procedures, and/or documentation intended for or used to perform the testing of software.
UAT and OAT test cases are ideally derived in collaboration with business customers, business analysts, testers, and developers. These tests must include both business logic tests as well as operational environment conditions. The business customers (product owners) are the primary stakeholders of these tests. As the test conditions successfully achieve their acceptance criteria, the stakeholders are reassured the development is progressing in the right direction.
- User acceptance test (UAT) criteria (in agile software development) are usually created by business customers and expressed in a business domain language. These are high-level tests to verify the completeness of a user story or stories \'played\' during any sprint/iteration.
- Operational acceptance test (OAT) criteria (regardless of using agile, iterative, or sequential development) are defined in terms of functional and non-functional requirements; covering key quality attributes of functional stability, portability, and reliability.
## Process
The acceptance test suite may need to be performed multiple times, as all of the test cases may not be executed within a single test iteration.
The acceptance test suite is run using predefined acceptance test procedures to direct the testers on which data to use, the step-by-step processes to follow, and the expected result following execution. The actual results are retained for comparison with the expected results. If the actual results match the expected results for each test case, the test case is said to pass. If the quantity of non-passing test cases does not breach the project\'s predetermined threshold, the test suite is said to pass. If it does, the system may either be rejected or accepted on conditions previously agreed between the sponsor and the manufacturer.
The anticipated result of a successful test execution:
- test cases are executed, using predetermined data
- actual results are recorded
- actual and expected results are compared, and
- test results are determined.
The objective is to provide confidence that the developed product meets both the functional and non-functional requirements. The purpose of conducting acceptance testing is that once completed, and provided the acceptance criteria are met, it is expected the sponsors will sign off on the product development/enhancement as satisfying the defined requirements (previously agreed between business and product provider/developer).
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# Acceptance testing
## User acceptance testing {#user_acceptance_testing}
User acceptance testing (UAT) consists of a process of verifying that a solution works for the user. It is not system testing (ensuring software does not crash and meets documented requirements) but rather ensures that the solution will work for the user (i.e. tests that the user accepts the solution); software vendors often refer to this as \"Beta testing\".
This testing should be undertaken by the intended end user, or a subject-matter expert (SME), preferably the owner or client of the solution under test and provide a summary of the findings for confirmation to proceed after trial or review. In software development, UAT as one of the final stages of a project often occurs before a client or customer accepts the new system. Users of the system perform tests in line with what would occur in real-life scenarios.
The materials given to the tester must be similar to the materials that the end user will have. Testers should be given real-life scenarios such as the three most common or difficult tasks that the users they represent will undertake.
The UAT acts as a final verification of the required business functionality and proper functioning of the system, emulating real-world conditions on behalf of the paying client or a specific large customer. If the software works as required and without issues during normal use, one can reasonably extrapolate the same level of stability in production.
User tests, usually performed by clients or by end-users, do not normally focus on identifying simple cosmetic problems such as spelling errors, nor on showstopper defects, such as software crashes; testers and developers identify and fix these issues during earlier unit testing, integration testing, and system testing phases.
UAT should be executed against test scenarios. Test scenarios usually differ from System or Functional test cases in that they represent a \"player\" or \"user\" journey. The broad nature of the test scenario ensures that the focus is on the journey and not on technical or system-specific details, staying away from \"click-by-click\" test steps to allow for a variance in users\' behavior. Test scenarios can be broken down into logical \"days\", which are usually where the actor (player/customer/operator) or system (backoffice, front end) changes.
In industry, a common UAT is a factory acceptance test (FAT). This test takes place before the installation of the equipment. Most of the time testers not only check that the equipment meets the specification but also that it is fully functional. A FAT usually includes a check of completeness, a verification against contractual requirements, a proof of functionality (either by simulation or a conventional function test), and a final inspection. The results of these tests give clients confidence in how the system will perform in production. There may also be legal or contractual requirements for acceptance of the system.
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# Acceptance testing
## Operational acceptance testing {#operational_acceptance_testing}
Operational acceptance testing (OAT) is used to conduct operational readiness (pre-release) of a product, service or system as part of a quality management system. OAT is a common type of non-functional software testing, used mainly in software development and software maintenance projects. This type of testing focuses on the operational readiness of the system to be supported, and/or to become part of the production environment.
## Acceptance testing in extreme programming {#acceptance_testing_in_extreme_programming}
Acceptance testing is a term used in agile software development methodologies, particularly extreme programming, referring to the functional testing of a user story by the software development team during the implementation phase.
The customer specifies scenarios to test when a user story has been correctly implemented. A story can have one or many acceptance tests, whatever it takes to ensure the functionality works. Acceptance tests are black-box system tests. Each acceptance test represents some expected result from the system. Customers are responsible for verifying the correctness of the acceptance tests and reviewing test scores to decide which failed tests are of highest priority. Acceptance tests are also used as regression tests prior to a production release. A user story is not considered complete until it has passed its acceptance tests. This means that new acceptance tests must be created for each iteration, or the development team will report zero progress.
## Types of acceptance testing {#types_of_acceptance_testing}
Typical types of acceptance testing include the following
User acceptance testing:This may include factory acceptance testing (FAT), i.e. the testing done by a vendor before the product or system is moved to its destination site, after which site acceptance testing (SAT) may be performed by the users at the site.\
Operational acceptance testing:Also known as operational readiness testing, this refers to the checking done to a system to ensure that processes and procedures are in place to allow the system to be used and maintained. This may include checks done to back-up facilities, procedures for disaster recovery, training for end users, maintenance procedures, and security procedures.\
Contract and regulation acceptance testing
: In contract acceptance testing, a system is tested against acceptance criteria as documented in a contract, before the system is accepted. In regulation acceptance testing, a system is tested to ensure it meets governmental, legal and safety standards.
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Factory acceptance testing
: Acceptance testing conducted at the site at which the product is developed and performed by employees of the supplier organization, to determine whether a component or system satisfies the requirements, normally including hardware as well as software.
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```
Alpha and beta testing
: Alpha testing takes place at developers\' sites and involves testing of the operational system by internal staff, before it is released to external customers. Beta testing takes place at customers\' sites and involves testing by a group of customers who use the system at their own locations and provide feedback, before the system is released to other customers. The latter is often called \"field testing\".
## Acceptance criteria {#acceptance_criteria}
According to the Project Management Institute, **acceptance criteria** is a \"set of conditions that is required to be met before deliverables are accepted.\" Requirements found in acceptance criteria for a given component of the system are usually very detailed.
## List of acceptance-testing frameworks {#list_of_acceptance_testing_frameworks}
- Concordion, Specification by example (SbE) framework
- Concordion.NET, acceptance testing in .NET
- Cucumber, a behavior-driven development (BDD) acceptance test framework
- Capybara, Acceptance test framework for Ruby web applications
- Behat, BDD acceptance framework for PHP
- Lettuce, BDD acceptance framework for Python
- Cypress
- Fabasoft app.test for automated acceptance tests
- Framework for Integrated Test (Fit)
- FitNesse, a fork of Fit
- Gauge (software), Test Automation Framework from Thoughtworks
- iMacros
- ItsNat Java Ajax web framework with built-in, server based, functional web testing capabilities.
- Maveryx Test Automation Framework for functional testing, regression testing, GUI testing, data-driven and codeless testing of Desktop and Web applications.
- Mocha, a popular web acceptance test framework based on Javascript and Node
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# Archbishopric of Riga
The **Archbishopric of Riga** (*Archiepiscopatus Rigensis*, *Erzbisdom Riga*) was a Catholic diocese and civil government in Medieval Livonia, subject to the Holy See. It was established in 1186 and ended in 1561.
## History
The diocese was established in 1186 as the Bishopric of Livonia at Ikšķile; after its seat was moved to Riga, it became the Bishopric of Riga in 1202 and was elevated to an archbishopric in 1255.
The archbishops of Riga were also the secular rulers of Riga until 1561 when during the Reformation the territory converted from Catholicism to Lutheranism and all church territories were secularized. The see was restored as a diocese of the Catholic Church in 1918 and raised into an archdiocese in 1923.
## Bishops and Archbishops of Riga {#bishops_and_archbishops_of_riga}
+------------------------+
| Bishopric of Livonia\ |
| (Bishopric of Üxküll)\ |
| 1186--1255 |
+========================+
| 1186--1196 |
+------------------------+
| 1196--1198 |
+------------------------+
| 1199--1202 |
+------------------------+
| Bishopric of Riga\ |
| 1202--1255 |
+------------------------+
| 1202--1229 |
+------------------------+
| 1229--1253 |
+------------------------+
| 1245--1255 |
+------------------------+
| Archbishopric of Riga\ |
| 1255--1561 |
+------------------------+
| 1255--1273 |
+------------------------+
| 1273--1284 |
+------------------------+
| 1285--1294 |
+------------------------+
| 1294--1300 |
+------------------------+
| 1300--1302 |
+------------------------+
| 1303--1310 |
+------------------------+
| 1304--1341 |
+------------------------+
| 1341--1347 |
+------------------------+
| 1348--1369 |
+------------------------+
| 1370--1374 |
+------------------------+
| 1374--1393 |
+------------------------+
| 1393--1418 |
+------------------------+
| 1418--1424 |
+------------------------+
| 1424--1448 |
+------------------------+
| 1448--1479 |
+------------------------+
| 1479--1484 |
+------------------------+
| 1484--1509 |
+------------------------+
| 1509--1524 |
+------------------------+
| 1524--1527 |
+------------------------+
| 1528--1539 |
+------------------------+
| 1539--1563 |
+------------------------+
A new Bishopric of Livonia was established in Latgalia in 1621 during the Inflanty Voivodeship of the Polish--Lithuanian Commonwealth.
## Coinage
The Archbishops of Riga were innovators in the field of minting currency, reviving techniques abandoned since the collapse of Rome. The names of individual archbishops after 1418, as well as the years of their respective reigns, are stamped on Livonian pennies excavated at archaeological sites. In many cases, this is the only biographical data available. No Livonian pennies before 1418 have been found
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# Albert Frederick, Duke of Prussia
**Albert Frederick** (*Albrecht Friedrich*; *Albrecht Fryderyk*; 7 May 1553 -- 27 August 1618) was the Duke of Prussia, from 1568 until his death. He was a son of Albert of Prussia and Anna Marie of Brunswick-Lüneburg. He was the second and last Prussian duke of the Ansbach branch of the Hohenzollern family.
## Duke of Prussia {#duke_of_prussia}
Albert became Duke of Prussia after paying feudal homage to his cousin, the King of Poland, Sigismund Augustus, on 19 July 1569 in Lublin. The homage was described by the Polish chronicler Jan Kochanowski in his work *Proporzec* (\"Standard\"). During the 1573 Polish election, Albert Frederick attempted to gain acceptance to the Polish senate but was opposed by the powerful Jan Zamoyski (later Grand Hetman of the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland) who feared the influence of Protestants in the Polish legislative body. Albert Frederick initially refused to recognize the election of Stefan Bathory and supported the candidacy of Maximilian of Austria. However, at the Toruń sejm of October 1576 he gave his support to the new monarch.
As the great-grandson of the Polish king Casimir IV Jagiellon, and as a Duke in Prussia who was fluent in Polish, Albert Frederick was seriously considered for a time as a possible candidate for the Polish throne. He particularly enjoyed the support of Polish Lutherans.
In 1572 he began to exhibit signs of mental disorder. He had twice tried to commit suicide and was prone to violent outbursts and held a great fear of \" Turks and Muscovites \" overrunning Germany.
In early 1578, the regency was taken over by his cousin, George Frederick of Brandenburg-Kulmbach (1539--1603). After George Frederick\'s death in 1603, the Polish king Sigismund III Vasa appointed Joachim Frederick as regent in 1605, and permitted his son, John Sigismund, to succeed him in 1611. The latter became Duke of Prussia after Albert Frederick\'s death in 1618.
## Marriage
Albert Frederick was married in 1573 to Marie Eleonore of Cleves, a daughter of Wilhelm, Duke of Jülich-Cleves-Berg and Archduchess Maria of Austria (1531--1581). Maria was a daughter of Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor and Anna of Bohemia and Hungary.
## Issue
Albert Frederick and Marie were parents to seven children:
1. Anna of Prussia (3 July 1576 -- 30 August 1625). Married John Sigismund, Elector of Brandenburg.
2. Marie of Prussia (23 January 1579 -- 21 February 1649). Married Christian, Margrave of Brandenburg-Bayreuth.
3. Albert Frederick of Prussia (1 June 1580 -- 8 October 1580) died in infancy.
4. Sophie of Prussia (31 March 1582 -- 4 December 1610). Married Wilhelm Kettler of Courland.
5. Eleanor of Prussia (21 August 1583 -- 9 April 1607). Married Joachim Frederick, Elector of Brandenburg.
6. Wilhelm Frederick of Prussia (23 June 1585 -- 18 January 1586) died in infancy.
7. Magdalene Sibylle of Prussia (31 December 1586 -- 22 February 1659). Married John George I, Elector of Saxony.
At his death, the duchy passed to his son-in-law John Sigismund, Margrave of Brandenburg, combining the two territories under a single dynasty and forming Brandenburg-Prussia
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# Ansbach
**Ansbach** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|æ|n|z|b|æ|k}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell|ANZ|bak}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPA|de|ˈansbax|lang|De-Ansbach.ogg}}`{=mediawiki}; *Anschba*) is a city in the German state of Bavaria. It is the capital of the administrative region of Middle Franconia. Ansbach is 25 mi southwest of Nuremberg and 90 mi north of Munich, on the river Fränkische Rezat, a tributary of the river Main. In 2020, its population was 41,681.
Developed in the 8th century as a Benedictine monastery, it became the seat of the Hohenzollern family in 1331. In 1460, the Margraves of Brandenburg-Ansbach lived here. The city has a castle known as Margrafen--Schloss, built between 1704 and 1738. It was not badly damaged during the World Wars and hence retains its original historical baroque sheen. Ansbach is now home to a US military base and to the Ansbach University of Applied Sciences.
The city has connections via autobahn A6 and highways B13 and B14. Ansbach station is on the Nürnberg--Crailsheim and Treuchtlingen--Würzburg railways and a Station of line S4 of the Nuremberg S-Bahn.
## Name origin {#name_origin}
**Ansbach** was originally called **Onoltesbach** (about 790 AD), a term composed of three parts.
The individual word elements are \"Onold\" (the city founder\'s name), the Suffix \"-es\" (a possessive ending, like \"-\'s\" in English) and the Old High German expression \"pah\" or \"bach\" (for brook). The name of the city has slightly changed throughout the centuries into **Onoltespah** (837 AD), **Onoldesbach** (1141 AD), **Onoldsbach** (1230 AD), **Onelspach** (1338 AD), **Onsbach** (1508 AD) and finally **Ansbach** (1732 AD).
It was also formerly known as **Anspach**.
## History
According to folklore, towards the end of the 7th century a group of Franconian peasants and their families went up into the wilderness to found a new settlement. Their leader Onold led them to an area called the \"Rezattal\" (Rezat valley). This is where they founded the \"Urhöfe\" (meaning the first farms: Knollenhof, Voggenhof and Rabenhof). Gradually more settlers, such as the \"Winden-Tribe\" came, and the farms grew into a small village. Many villages around Ansbach were founded by the \"Winden\" during that period (even today, their settlements can easily identified by their names, like Meinhardswinden, Dautenwinden or Brodswinden). A Benedictine monastery was established there around 748 by the Frankish noble St Gumbertus. The adjoining village of Onoltesbach was first noticed as a proper town in 1221.
The counts of Öttingen ruled over Ansbach until the Hohenzollern burgrave of Nürnberg took over in 1331. The Hohenzollerns made Ansbach the seat of their dynasty until their acquisition of the Margraviate of Brandenburg in 1415. After the 1440 death of Frederick I, a cadet branch of the family established itself as the margraves of Ansbach. George the Pious introduced the Protestant Reformation to Ansbach in 1528, leading to Gumbertus Abbey\'s secularization in 1563.
The Markgrafenschloß was built between 1704 and 1738. Its gardens continued to be a notable attraction into the 1800s. In 1791, the last margrave sold his realm to the Kingdom of Prussia. In 1796, the Duke of Zweibrücken, Maximilian Joseph --- the future Bavarian king--- was exiled to Ansbach the French took Zweibrücken. In Ansbach, Maximilian von Montgelas wrote an elaborate concept for the future political organization of Bavaria, which is known as the Ansbacher Mémoire. Napoleon forced Prussia to cede Ansbach and its principality to Bavaria in the Franco-Prussian treaty of alliance signed at Schönbrunn Palace on 15 December 1805 at the end of the Third Coalition. Ansbach became the capital of the *\[\[Rezatkreis\]\]* (\'Circle of the Rezat\'). Bavarian ownership was confirmed by the 1815 Congress of Vienna; Prussia was compensated with the Bavarian Duchy of Berg. In 1837 the *Rezatkreis* became the circle of Middle Franconia. Following the unification of Germany Ansbach had a population of 12,635.
Jewish families were resident in Ansbach from at least the end of the 18th century. They set up a Jewish Cemetery in the Ruglaender Strasse, which was vandalised and razed under the Nazi regime in the Kristallnacht. It was repaired in 1946, but it was damaged several times more. A plaque on the wall of the cemetery commemorates these events. The Jewish Congregation built its synagogue at No 3 Rosenbadstrasse, but it too was damaged by the SA, though it was not burnt down for fear of damaging the neighbouring buildings. It serves today as a \"Symbolic House of God\". A plaque in the entrance serves as a memorial to the synagogue and to Jewish residents who were murdered during the Holocaust. In 1940, at least 500 patients were deported from the Heil- und Pflegeanstalt Ansbach \[*Ansbach Medical and Nursing Clinic*\] to the extermination facilities Sonnenstein and Hartheim which were disguised as psychiatric institutions, as part of the Action T4 euthanasia action. They were gassed there. At the clinic in Ansbach itself, around 50 intellectually disabled children were injected with the drug Luminal and killed that way. A plaque was erected in their memory in 1988 in the local hospital at No. 38 Feuchtwangerstrasse.
During World War II, a subcamp of Flossenbürg concentration camp was located here. Also during the Second World War the Luftwaffe and Wehrmacht had bases here. The nearby airbase was the home station for the Stab & I/KG53 (Staff & 1st Group of Kampfgeschwader 53) operating 38 Heinkel He 111 bombers. On 1 September 1939 this unit was one of the many that participated in the attack on Poland that started the war. All of its bridges were destroyed during the course of the war. During the Western Allied invasion of Germany in April 1945, the airfield was seized by the United States Third Army, and used by the USAAF 354th Fighter Group which flew P-47 Thunderbolts from the aerodrome (designated ALG R-82) from late April until the German capitulation on 7 May 1945. At the end of the war, 19-year-old student Robert Limpert tried to get the town to surrender to the US Forces without a fight. He was betrayed by Hitler Youth and was hanged from the portal of the City Hall by the city\'s military commander, Col. (*Oberst*) Ernst Meyer. Several memorials to his heroic deed have been erected over the years, despite opposition from some residents --- in the Ludwigskirche, in the Gymnasium Carolinum and at No 6 Kronenstrasse. After the Second World War, Ansbach belonged to the American Zone. The American Military authorities established a displaced persons (DP) camp in what used to be a sanatorium in what is today the Strüth quarter.
Bachwoche Ansbach has been held in Ansbach since 1947. Since 1970, Ansbach has enlarged its municipal area by incorporating adjacent communities. Ansbach hosts several units of the U.S. armed forces, associated with German units under NATO. There are five separate U.S. installations: Shipton Kaserne, home to 412th Aviation Support Battalion, Katterbach Kaserne, formerly the home of the 1st Infantry Division\'s 4th Combat Aviation Brigade, also home of 501st M.I. Bn and 501st Avn Bn. which has been replaced by the 12th Combat Aviation Brigade as of 2006, as part of the 1st Infantry Division\'s return to Fort Riley, Kansas; Bismarck Kaserne, which functions as a satellite post to Katterbach, hosting their Post Theater, barracks, Von Steuben Community Center, Military Police, and other support agencies, Barton Barracks, home to the USAG Ansbach and Bleidorn Barracks, which has a library and housing, and Urlas, which hosts the Post Exchange as well as a housing area opened in 2010. Ansbach was also home to the headquarters of the 1st Armored Division (United States) from 1972 to the early 1990s.
On 24 July 2016 a bomb was detonated in a restaurant in the city, killing only the bomber himself and injuring few people. The perpetrator was reported to be a Syrian refugee whose asylum application had been rejected but who had been given exceptional leave to remain until the security situation in Syria returned to a safe condition. Witnesses reported he had tried to enter a nearby music festival but had been turned away, before detonating his device outside a nearby wine bar.
## Boroughs
- Eyb bei Ansbach, part of Ansbach since 1 October 1970
- Bernhardswinden, part of Ansbach since 1 July 1972
- Brodswinden, part of Ansbach since 1 July 1972
- Claffheim, part of Ansbach since 1 July 1972
- Elpersdorf bei Ansbach, part of Ansbach since 1 July 1972
- Hennenbach, part of Ansbach since 1 July 1972
- Neuses bei Ansbach, part of Ansbach since 1 July 1972
- Strüth
- Wasserzell
- Schalkhausen, part of Ansbach since 1 July 1972
- Geisengrund
- Dornberg
- Neudorf
- Steinersdorf
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# Ansbach
## Lord mayors {#lord_mayors}
- 1877--1905: Ludwig Keller (1839--1911)
- 1905--1919: Ernst Rohmeder
- 1919--1934: Wilhelm Borkholder (1886--1945)
- 1934--1945: Richard Hänel (NSDAP) (1895-date of death unknown)
- 1945: Hans Schregle (1890--1970), (SPD), introduced by the Office of Military Government, United States
- 1945--1950: Ernst Körner (SPD)
- 1950--1952: Friedrich Böhner
- 1952--1957: Karl Burkhardt (CSU)
- 1957--1971: Ludwig Schönecker (CSU)
- 1971--1990: Ernst-Günther Zumach (CSU) (1926--2012)
- 1990--2008: Ralf Felber (SPD)
- 2008-2020: Carda Seidel (independent)
- since May 2020: Thomas Deffner (CSU)
## Sights
- Castle of the Margraves of Brandenburg-Ansbach
- Museum Retti Palais
- Margrave museum
- Kaspar Hauser Monument
- St. Gumbertus and St. Johannis churches, both 15th century
- Theater Ansbach
- Ansbacher Kammerspiele
- LOFT -- projectspace for contemporary art
## Climate
Ansbach has a transitional temperate-continental climate (Köppen climate classification: *Cfb*/*Dfb*), with a small diurnal air temperature variation between day and night during winter, and with a moderate annual precipitation.
## Demography
## Economy
Around the time of the unification of Germany in 1871, the chief manufactures of Ansbach were woollen, cotton, and half-silk goods; earthenware; tobacco; cutlery; and playing cards. A considerable trade in grain, wool, and flax was also supported. By the onset of the First World War, it also produced machinery, toys, and embroidery.
Today there is a large density of plastics industry in the city and rural districts around Ansbach.
The city is known for making Peperami pork sausages and jerky.
## Transport
Ansbach lies on the Treuchtlingen-Würzburg railway.
## Notable people {#notable_people}
### Public service {#public_service}
- Elisabeth von Brandenburg-Ansbach (1451--1524), Princess of Brandenburg, by marriage Duchess of Württemberg
- Frederick I, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach (1460--1536), Margrave of Ansbach & Margrave of Kulmbach
- Albert, Duke of Prussia (1490--1568), Grand Master of the Teutonic Order and the first duke of Prussia.
- Margravine Eleonore Juliane of Brandenburg-Ansbach (1663--1724), Princess of Brandenburg-Ansbach, by marriage Duchess of Württemberg-Winnental
- Caroline of Ansbach (1683--1737), Queen of Great Britain and Ireland, wife of George II of Great Britain.
- Christian Friedrich Carl Alexander (1736--1806), the last Margrave of Ansbach
- Karl Heinrich Ritter von Lang (1764--1835), a historian and statesman, lived mainly in Ansbach.
- Moritz Ritter von Spies (1805--1862), Bavarian Major General and War Minister
- John James Maximilian Oertel (1811--1882), a Lutheran clergyman, converted to Roman Catholicism and moved to the United States
- Maximilian Wolfgang Duncker (1811--1886), a historian and politician, died in Ansbach.
- Kaspar Hauser (1812--1833), lived in Ansbach from 1830 to 1833, stabbed in the palace gardens
- Henry Hochheimer (1818--1912), rabbi
- George H. Brickner (1834--1904), U.S. Representative from Wisconsin
- Pinchas Kohn (1867--1941), was the last rabbi of Ansbach. He was the rabbinical advisor to the German occupying forces of Poland in the First World War and was also one of the founders of the World Agudath Israel movement
- Theodor Endres (1876--1956), General of the Artillery
- Wilhelm Adam (1893--1978), Colonel General
- Hermann Fegelein (1906--1945), General of the Waffen-SS, was married to the sister of Eva Braun
- Waldemar Fegelein (1912--2000), officer in the Waffen-SS
- Amélie Jakobovits (née Munk, 1928--2010), wife of Immanuel Jakobovits, Chief Rabbi of the United Kingdom
- Walter Brandmüller (born 1929), theologian and historian, president of the Pontifical Committee for Historical Sciences
- Manfred Ach (born 1940), politician, from 1994 to 2008 Member of the Bavarian Parliament
### Arts & science {#arts_science}
- Leonhart Fuchs (1501--1566), botanist and physician to margrave Georg Friedrich
- Simon Marius (1573--1625), astronomer lived in Ansbach, he observed Jupiter\'s moons from the castle\'s tower, which led to a dispute with the true discoverer, Galileo Galilei
- Georg Ernst Stahl (1659--1734), chemist, physician and metallurgist.
- Matthias Buchinger (1674--1740), a German artist, magician and illustrator, born without hands or legs
- Johann Uz (1720--1796), a German poet.
- Marcus Eliezer Bloch (1723--1799), ichthyologist.
- Georg Christian Oeder (1728--1791), pre-Linnean botanist
- Ludwig von Förster (1792--1863), architect: Ringstrasse, 3 & synagogues in Vienna and Budapest
- August von Platen-Hallermünde (1796--1835), poet.
- Georges Oberhaeuser (1798--1868), optician
- Oskar Freiherr von Redwitz (1823--1891), a poet from nearby Lichtenau.
- Ferdinand Christian Gustav Arnold (1828--1901), lichenologist and taxonomist
- Wilhelm Hecht (1843--1920), wood engraver and etcher
- Fritz Hommel (1854--1936), orientalist
- Theodor Escherich (1857--1911), pediatrician and bacteriologist
- Max Westenhöfer (1871--1957), pathologist, professor at the University of Berlin and the University of Chile. Proposed the Aquatic ape hypothesis
- Herbert Blendinger (1936--2020), violinist and composer
### Sport
- Helga Matschkur (born 1943), gymnast, competed in six events at the 1968 Summer Olympics.
- Georg Volkert (1945--2020), footballer, played 410 games in Bundesliga and won 12 caps for West Germany
- Sebastian Preiss (born 1981), handball player
- Dominik Farnbacher (born 1984), racing driver
- Alex King (born 1985), basketball player
- Mario Farnbacher (born 1992), racing driver
- Danilo Dittrich (born 1995), football player
## Twin towns -- sister cities {#twin_towns_sister_cities}
Ansbach is twinned with:
- Anglet, Nouvelle-Aquitaine, France
- Bay City, Michigan, United States
- Fermo, Marche, Italy
- Jingjiang, Jiangsu, China
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# Ansbach
## In popular culture {#in_popular_culture}
In the novel *The Schirmer Inheritance* (1953) by Eric Ambler (1909--1998), Sergeant Franz Schirmer of the Ansbach Dragoons is wounded in the battle of Preussisch-Eylau in 1807. He returns to Ansbach to settle but changes his name as he has been posted as a deserter. The bulk of the novel concerns efforts by an American law firm to trace his descendants to claim an inheritance
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# Amblypoda
**Amblypoda** was a taxonomic hypothesis uniting a group of extinct, herbivorous mammals. They were considered a suborder of the primitive ungulate mammals and have since been shown to represent a polyphyletic group.
## Characteristics
The Amblypoda take their name from their short and stumpy feet, which were furnished with five toes each and supported massive pillar-like limbs. The brain cavity was extremely small and insignificant in comparison to the bodily mass, which was equal to that of the largest rhinoceroses. These animals were descendants of the small ancestral ungulates that retained all the primitive characteristics of the latter, accompanied by a huge increase in body size.
The Amblypoda were confined to the Paleocene and Eocene periods and occurred in North America, Asia (especially Mongolia) and Europe. The cheek teeth were short-crowned (brachyodont), with the tubercles more-or-less completely fused into transverse ridges, or cross-crests (lophodont type), and the total number of teeth was in one case the typical 44, but in another was fewer. The vertebra of the neck unite on nearly flat surfaces, the humerus had lost the foramen, or perforation, at the lower end, and the third trochanter to the femur may have also been wanting. In the forelimb, the upper and lower series of carpal (finger) bones scarcely alternated, but in the hind foot, the astragalus overlapped the cuboid, while the fibula, which was quite distinct from the tibia (as was the radius from the ulna in the forelimb), articulated with both astragalus and calcaneum.
## Types of amblypods {#types_of_amblypods}
The most generalized type was *Coryphodon*, representing the family Coryphodontidae, from the lower Eocene of Europe and North America, in which there were 44 teeth and no horn-like excrescences on the long skull, while the femur had a third trochanter. The canines were somewhat elongated and were followed by a short gap in each jaw, and the cheek-teeth were adapted for succulent food. The length of the body reached about six feet in some cases.
In the middle Eocene formations of North America occurred the more specialized *Uintatherium* (or *Dinoceras*), typifying the family Uintatheriidae. Uintatheres were huge creatures with long narrow skulls, of which the elongated facial portion carried three pairs of bony horn-cores, probably covered with short horns in life, the hind-pair having been much the largest. The dental formula was i. 0/3, c. 1/1, p. 3/3·4, m. 3/3, the upper canines having been long sabre-like weapons, protected by a descending flange on each side of the lower front jaw.
In the basal Eocene of North America, the Amblypoda were represented by extremely primitive, five-toed, small ungulates such as *Periptychus* and *Pantolambda*, each of these typifying a family`{{Vague|date=April 2009}}`{=mediawiki}. The full typical series of 44 teeth was developed in each, but whereas in the Periptychidae, the upper molars were bunodont and tritubercular, in the Pantolambdidae, they had assumed a selenodont structure. Creodont characters were displayed in the skeleton.
## Current taxonomy of animals once classified in Amblypoda {#current_taxonomy_of_animals_once_classified_in_amblypoda}
Few authorities recognize Amblypoda in modern classifications. The following mammals were once considered part of this group:
- Order Pantodonta
- Family Wangliidae
- Family Harpyodidae
- Family Bemalambdidae
- Family Pastoralodontidae
- Family Titanoideidae
- Family Pantolambdidae (including *Pantolambda*)
- Family Barylambdidae
- Family Cyriacotheriidae
- Family Pantolambdodontidae
- Family Coryphodontidae (including *Coryphodon*)
- Order Dinocerata
- Family Uintatheriidae (includes *Uintatherium*, *Eobasileus*, *Tetheopsis*, etc. *Gobiatherium* is sometimes placed in its own family
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# Amblygonite
**Amblygonite** (`{{IPAc-en|æ|m|ˈ|b|l|ɪ|ɡ|ə|ˌ|n|aɪ|t}}`{=mediawiki}) is a fluorophosphate mineral, `{{chem2|(Li,Na)AlPO4(F,OH)}}`{=mediawiki}, composed of lithium, sodium, aluminium, phosphate, fluoride and hydroxide. The mineral occurs in pegmatite deposits and is easily mistaken for albite and other feldspars. Its density, cleavage and flame test for lithium are diagnostic. Amblygonite forms a series with montebrasite, the low fluorine endmember. Geologic occurrence is in granite pegmatites, high-temperature tin veins, and greisens. Amblygonite occurs with spodumene, apatite, lepidolite, tourmaline, and other lithium-bearing minerals in pegmatite veins. It contains about 10% lithium, and has been utilized as a source of lithium. The chief commercial sources have historically been the deposits of California and France.
## History
The mineral was first discovered in Saxony by August Breithaupt in 1817, and named by him from the Greek *amblus*, blunt, and *gonia*, angle, because of the obtuse angle between the cleavages. Later it was found at Montebras, Creuse, France, and at Hebron in Maine; and because of slight differences in optical character and chemical composition the names montebrasite and hebronite have been applied to the mineral from these localities.The term amblygonite has been used interchangeably in mining, whether this mineral or montebrasite was extracted. In fact, montebrasite is much more common than amblygonite, which is a rare mineral. It has been discovered in considerable quantity at Pala in San Diego county, California; Caceres, Spain; and the Black Hills of South Dakota. A blue form of amblygonite-montebrasite has been described from Rwanda. The largest documented single crystal of amblygonite measured 7.62 × 2.44 × 1.83 m and weighed about 102 tons.
## Gemology
Transparent amblygonite has been faceted and used as a gemstone. As a gemstone set into jewelry it is vulnerable to breakage and abrasion from general wear, as its hardness and toughness are poor. The main sources for gem material are Brazil and the United States. Australia, France, Germany, Namibia, and Norway, and Spain have also produced gem quality amblygonite
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# Anthony, King of Saxony
**Anthony of Saxony** (*Anton*; 27 December 1755 -- 6 June 1836) was a King of Saxony from the House of Wettin. He became known as *Anton der Gütige* (\"Anthony the Kind\").
He was the fifth but third surviving son of Frederick Christian, Elector of Saxony and his wife Duchess Maria Antonia of Bavaria.
## Early life {#early_life}
With few chances to take part in the politics of the Electorate of Saxony or receive any land from his older brother Frederick Augustus III, Anton lived under the shadows. No Elector of Saxony after Johann Georg I gave appanages to his younger sons.
During the first years of the reign of his older brother as Elector, Anthony was the third in line, preceded only by his older brother Charles. The death of Charles (8 September 1781) made him the next in line to the Electorate as Electoral Prince (de: *Kurprinz*); this was because all the pregnancies of the Electress Amalie, except for one daughter, ended in a stillbirth.
His aunt, the Dauphine of France, had wanted to engage her daughter Marie Zéphyrine of France to Anthony; Marie Zéphyrine died in 1755 abandoning plans. Another French candidate was Marie Zéphyrine\'s sister Marie Clothilde (later Queen of Sardinia) but again nothing happened.
In Turin on 29 September 1781 (by proxy) and again in Dresden on 24 October 1781 (in person), Anthony married firstly with the Princess Maria Carolina of Savoy, daughter of the King Victor Amadeus III of Sardinia and Maria Antonietta of Spain. Caroline died after only one year of marriage, on 28 December 1782 having succumbed to smallpox. They had no children.
In Florence on 8 September 1787 (by proxy) and again in Dresden on 18 October 1787 (in person), Anthony entered his second marriage, to the Archduchess Maria Theresia of Austria (Maria Theresia Josephe Charlotte Johanna), daughter of the Grand Duke Leopold I of Tuscany, later Emperor Leopold II. Mozart\'s opera *Don Giovanni* was originally intended to be performed in honor of his bride for a visit to Prague on 14 October 1787, as she traveled between Vienna and Dresden for the in-person ceremony, and librettos were printed with mention of the names of both Anton and the archduchess. The premiere could not be arranged in time, however, so the opera *The Marriage of Figaro* was substituted on the express orders of the bride\'s uncle, the Emperor Joseph II. The choice of *The Marriage of Figaro* was considered improper for a new bride by many observers, and the archduchess left the opera theater early without seeing the entire work performed. Mozart complained bitterly of the intrigues surrounding this incident in a letter to his friend Gottfried von Jacquin that was written in stages between 15 October and 25 October 1787. Anthony was present in Prague in September 1791 for the first performance of Mozart\'s opera *La clemenza di Tito*, which was written as part of the coronation ceremonies of his father-in-law, the Emperor Leopold II, as King of Bohemia.
The couple had four children, but none survived to the age of two:
1. Maria Ludovika Auguste Fredericka Therese Franziska Johanna Aloysia Nepomucena Ignatia Anna Josepha Xaveria Franziska de Paula Barbara (b. Dresden, 14 March 1795 -- d. Dresden, 25 April 1796) died in infancy.
2. Frederick Augustus (b. and d. Dresden, 5 April 1796) died at birth
3. Maria Johanna Ludovica Anna Amalia Nepomucena Aloysia Ignatia Xaveria Josepha Franziska de Chantal Eva Apollonia Magdalena Crescentia Vincentia (b. Dresden, 5 April 1798 -- d. Dresden, 30 October 1799) died in infancy.
4. Maria Theresia (b. and d. Dresden, 15 October 1799) died at birth
Electress Amalie gave birth for last time in 1799 to another stillborn child. After this, it became apparent that Anthony would succeed to the Electorate of Saxony, which was raised to kingdom in 1806.
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# Anthony, King of Saxony
## King of Saxony {#king_of_saxony}
Anthony succeeded his brother Frederick August I as King of Saxony upon the latter\'s death, on 5 May 1827. The 71-year-old new king was completely inexperienced in government, and hence had no intention of initiating profound changes in foreign or domestic policy.
Prussian diplomats discussed granting the Prussian Rhineland (predominantly Catholic) to Anthony (a Catholic) in exchange for Lutheran Saxony in 1827, but nothing came of these talks.
After the July Revolution of 1830 in France, disturbances in Saxony began in autumn. These were directed primarily against the old Constitution. Therefore, on 13 September the cabinet dismissed Count Detlev von Einsiedel, followed by Bernhard von Lindenau. Because the people wished to have a younger regent, Anthony agreed to appoint his nephew Frederick Augustus Prince Co-Regent (de: *Prinz-Mitregenten*). As another consequence of the disturbances, a new constitution was adopted in 1831 and came into effect on 4 September of that year. With it Saxony became a Constitutional monarchy and obtained a bi-cameral legislature and a responsible ministry, which replaced the old feudal estates. The constitution was more conservative than other constitutions existing at this time in the German Union. Nevertheless, it remained in force in Saxony until 1918. The king kept his exclusive sovereignty but was bound by the Government Business to cooperate with the Ministers and the decisions of both Chambers of the Estates (de: *Kammern der Ständeversammlung*) meeting. The entry of Saxony into the *Zollverein* in 1833 let trade, industry and traffic blossom farther.
Without surviving male issue, Anthony was succeeded as king by his nephew, Frederick Augustus II
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# Albert III, Duke of Saxony
**Albert III** (*Albrecht*) (27 January 1443`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}12 September 1500) was a Duke of Saxony. He was nicknamed **Albert the Bold** or **Albert the Courageous** and founded the *Albertine line* of the House of Wettin.
## Biography
Albert was born in Grimma as the third and youngest son (but fifth child in order of birth) of Frederick II the Gentle, Elector of Saxony, and Margarete of Austria, sister of Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor. Later, he was a member of the Order of the Golden Fleece.
After escaping from the hands of Kunz von Kaufungen, who had abducted him together with his brother Ernest, he spent some time at the court of the emperor Frederick III in Vienna.`{{EB1911|inline=1|wstitle=Albert III. (duke of Saxony) |display=Albert III.|volume=1|pages=497-498}}`{=mediawiki} Endnote: See
- F. A. von Langenn, *Herzog Albrecht der Beherzte, Stammvater des königlichen Hauses Sachsen* (Leipzig, 1838)
- O. Sperling, *Herzog Albrecht der Beherzte von Sachsen als Gubernator Frieslands* (Leipzig, 1892).
In Eger (Cheb) on 11 November 1464 Albert married Zdenka (Sidonie), daughter of George of Podebrady, King of Bohemia; but failed to obtain the Bohemian Crown on the death of George in 1471. After the death of his father in 1464, Albert and Ernest ruled their lands together, but in 1485 a division was made by the Treaty of Leipzig, and Albert received the Meissen, together with some adjoining districts, and founded the Albertine branch of the House of Wettin.
Regarded as a capable soldier by the emperor, Albert (in 1475) took a prominent part in the campaign against Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, and in 1487 led an expedition against Matthias Corvinus, King of Hungary, which failed owing to lack of support on the part of the emperor.
From 1477 a new conflict arose with king Matthias Corvinus of Hungary who started to invade the Austrian Habsburg lands. The conflict is known as the Austrian--Hungarian War (1477--1488). The Kaiser did not succeed in persuading the German electors and other imperial estates to provide military assistance. In the spring of 1483 Frederick fled Vienna to the safe city of Wiener Neustadt, in 1485 Corvinus was able to conquer Vienna and had himself called " Archduke of Austria " (Dux Austriae). In August 1487, the Hungarians succeeded in taking Wiener Neustadt, the new imperial residence in eastern Lower Austria. Friedrich first had to flee to Graz and temporarily flee to Linz in Upper Austria. After the imperial war against Hungary had been decided at the Nuremberg Diet in 1487, Duke Albert was appointed as the supreme commander of the entire imperial army. He was supposed to oppose Matthias\' famous standing professional army, the Black Army of Hungary. After the Hungarian occupation of Vienna, Albrecht\'s task was to reconquer the lost Austrian territories. However, this failed due to the poor equipment of his army, so he had to wage a difficult defensive war under adverse circumstances. Duke Albrecht knew that no decisive help was to be expected from the Reich in the near future, but that the situation in the hereditary lands would deteriorate visibly. On 17 November 1487, Duke Albrecht informed Emperor Frederick that, under the ongoing military situation in his hereditary lands, a compromise with the King of Hungary would be the only rational solution. The war came to an end with an armistice in 1488, although the Habsburgs rankled with the peace. At the beginning of December, Matthias Corvinus met with Albrecht of Saxony in Markersdorf an der Pielach, a little later an armistice was reached in St. Pölten on 6 December, which was extended several times until the death of the Hungarian king.
In 1488 he was appointed Governor of the Netherlands (until 1493) and marched with the imperial forces to free the Roman king Maximilian from his imprisonment at Bruges, and when, in 1489, the King returned to Germany, Albert was left as his representative to prosecute the war against the rebels. He was successful in restoring the authority of Maximilian in Holland, Flanders, and Brabant, but failed to obtain any repayment of the large sums of money which he had spent in these campaigns.
His services were rewarded in 1498 when Maximilian bestowed upon him the title of Hereditary Governor (*potestat*) of Friesland, but he had to make good his claim by force of arms. He had to a great extent succeeded, and was paying a visit to Saxony, when he was recalled by news of a fresh rising. The duke recaptured Groningen, but soon afterwards he died at Emden. He was buried at Meissen.
Albert, who was a man of great strength and considerable skill in feats of arms, delighted in tournaments and knightly exercises. His loyalty to the emperor Frederick, and the expenses incurred in this connection, aroused some irritation among his subjects, but his rule was a period of prosperity in Saxony.
## Family and children {#family_and_children}
With his wife Sidonie, Albrecht had nine children:
1. Katharina (Meissen, 24 July 1468`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}Göttingen, 10 February 1524), married firstly on 24 February 1484 in Innsbruck to Duke Sigismund of Austria, and secondly on 1497 to Duke Eric I of Brunswick-Calenberg.
2. Georg \"der Bärtige\" (Meissen, 27 August 1471`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}Dresden, 17 April 1539).
3. Heinrich V \"der Fromme\" (Dresden, 16 March 1473`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}Dresden, 18 August 1541).
4. Frederick (Torgau, 26 October 1473`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}Rochlitz, 14 December 1510), Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights.
5. Anna (Dresden, 3 August 1478`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}Dresden, 1479).
6. Stillborn child (1479).
7. Louis (Torgau, 28 September 1481`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}Torgau?, some days later / Torgau?, young after 1498) \[?\].
8. John (born and died Torgau, 24 June 1484).
9. John (Torgau, 2 December 1498`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}Torgau?, some days later / Torgau?, young in September of the same year as his brother Louis) \[?\]
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# Book of Alma
thumb\|upright=1.5\|Captain Moroni raises the \"Title of Liberty\", as found in the 1910 book *Cities in the Sun*.\|alt=A figure (presumably Captain Moroni) stands with arms aloft at the top of a wide set of outdoor stairs that appear to descend from a large public building; implicitly, in the context of the Book of Mormon, a religious edifice like a temple. Two figures flank Captain Moroni, one seated and the other standing, a few steps down. Behind them, a the building looms, with two gaping square-arched entrances. Crowds seem to be trailing out from each. At the bottom of the steps, another crowd gathers. They are animated, and many have their arms raised up. Captain Moroni has evidently energized the crowd, rallying them to arms in defense of Nephite society. `{{Books of the Book of Mormon}}`{=mediawiki} **The Book of Alma: The Son of Alma** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|æ|l|m|ə}}`{=mediawiki}), usually referred to as the **Book of Alma**, is one of the books that make up the Book of Mormon. The title refers to Alma the Younger, a prophet and \"chief judge\" of the Nephites. Alma is the longest book in the Book of Mormon and consists of sixty-three chapters, taking up almost a third of the volume.
## Narrative
The Book of Alma is the longest of all the books of the Book of Mormon, consisting of 63 chapters. The book records the first 39 years of what the Nephites termed \"the reign of the judges\", a period in which the Nephite nation adopted a constitutional theocratic government in which the judicial and executive branches of the government were combined
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# BearShare
**BearShare** was a peer-to-peer-file-sharing-application originally created by Free Peers, Inc. for Microsoft Windows and also a rebranded version of iMesh by MusicLab, LLC, tightly integrated with their music subscription service.
## History
The principal operators of Free Peers, Inc. were Vincent Falco and Louis Tatta. Bearshare was launched on December 4, 2000, as a Gnutella-based peer-to-peer file sharing application with innovative features that eventually grew to include IRC, a free library of software and media called BearShare Featured Artists, online help pages and a support forum integrated as dedicated web browser windows in the application; as well as a media player and a library window to organize the user\'s media collection.
Following the June 27, 2005 United States Supreme Court decision on the *MGM Studios, Inc. v. Grokster, Ltd.* case the BearShare Community support forums were abruptly closed during negotiations to settle an impending lawsuit with the RIAA. The webmaster and forum administrator immediately created a new site called Technutopia and the same support staff continue to support the gnutella versions from there. A few months later the unused Community window was removed from BearShare 5.1.
On May 4, 2006, Free Peers agreed to transfer all their BearShare-related assets to MusicLab, LLC (an iMesh subsidiary) and use the \$30 million raised from that sale to settle with the RIAA.
On August 17, 2006, MusicLab released a reskinned and updated version of iMesh named BearSharev6 which connected to its proprietary iMesh network instead of gnutella. BearShareV6 and its successors offer paid music downloads in the PlaysForSure DRM controlled WMA format as well as free content in various formats, chiefly MP3. Like BearShare they also include a media player and embedded online and social networking features but with a Web 2.0 style, somewhat similar to MySpace or Facebook. Free content provided by users is automatically verified using acoustic fingerprinting as non-infringing before it can be shared. Video files more than 50 Mb in size and 15 minutes in length cannot be shared, ensuring television shows and feature-length movies cannot be distributed over the network. Only a limited set of music and video file types can be shared, thus excluding everything else like executable files, documents and compressed archives.
In August 2006, MusicLab released a variant of the original BearShare gnutella servant, called BearFlix, which was altered to limit sharing, searches and downloads to images and videos. Shared videos were limited in length and duration, similar to limits in BearShareV6. The first release was version 1.2.1. Its version numbers appear to start from 1.1.2.1 in the user interface but it presents itself on the gnutella network as versions 6.1.2.1 to 6.2.2.530. This version has since been discontinued by MusicLab and no longer available on their websites; however, it remains in wide usage.
On October 27, 2008, responding to uncertainty around the future of PlaysForSure, MusicLab added iPod support in BearShareV7.
As of June 12, 2016, BearShare is no longer available to download. The official page with a message announcing its discontinuation remained active until March 2017.
## Popular versions {#popular_versions}
Three variants of the original BearShare gnutella servant were distributed by Free Peers: Free, Lite, and Pro. The Free-version had higher performance limits than the Lite version but contained some adware. The Pro version had higher limits than both the Free and Lite versions but cost US\$24. Version numbers in this series ranged from 1.0 to 5.2.5.9. Though lacking MusicLab\'s support a wide spread of BearShare versions from 4.7 to 5.2.5.6 remain the second most popular servant on gnutella, alongside LimeWire.
Old-School fans of the gnutella versions tend to favour the last of the beta versions, 5.1.0 beta25, because it has no adware, is hard-coded for performance levels roughly between Pro and regular (ad-supported) versions and has the unique ability to switch between leaf and ultrapeer mode on demand, a feature deemed necessary for effective testing. No other gnutella servant has enjoyed this capability.
The most recent MusicLab version, V10, was available by free download from their support website and \"Pro\" features could be unlocked with a six or twelve-month subscription. Access to premium content required a \$9.95 monthly subscription. Customers in Canada and the U.S.A. could opt for a \$14.95 monthly \"BearShare ToGo\" subscription which allowed downloads of premium music to portable music players
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# Black-letter law
In common law legal systems, **black-letter law** refers to well-established legal rules that are no longer subject to reasonable dispute. Black-letter law can be contrasted with legal theory or unsettled legal issues.
## History and etymology {#history_and_etymology}
In an 1831 case in the U.S. Supreme Court, *Jackson ex dem. Bradstreet v. Huntington*, the phrase \"black letter\" was used: \"It is seldom that a case in our time savours so much of the black letter; but the course of decisions in New York renders it unavoidable\...\". The phrase \"black-letter law\" was used in the Pennsylvania Supreme Court case *Naglee v. Ingersoll,* 7 Pa. 185 (1847). The phrase does not apparently come directly from association with *Black\'s Law Dictionary*, which was first published in 1891. It may refer to the practice of setting law books and citing legal precedents in blackletter type, a tradition that survived long after the switch to Roman and italic text for other printed works. It may also be linked to the Black Book of the Admiralty published in the Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland that collates at least 1,000 years of European-based laws of the sea and an authority for the High Court of Admiralty Court and maritime cases in the early modern period.
The phrase refers to a distillation of the common law into general and accepted legal principles. This can be seen in the quote above from the Supreme Court where the court is noting that while the black-letter law is clear, New York precedent deviates from the general principles.
In common law, the informal notion of black-letter law includes the basic principles of law generally accepted by the courts and/or embodied in the statutes of a particular jurisdiction. The letter of the law is its actual implementation, thereby demonstrating that black-letter laws are those statutes, rules, acts, laws, provisions, etc. that are or have been written down, codified, or indicated somewhere in legal texts throughout history of specific state law. This is often the case for many precedents that have been set in the common law.
An example of such a state within the common law jurisdiction, and using the black letter legal doctrine is Canada. Canadian law is based on British law and black-letter law is the principles of law accepted by the majority of judges in most provinces and territories. Sometimes it is referred to as \"hornbook law\" meaning treatise or textbook, often relied upon as authoritative, competent, and generally accepted in the field of Canadian law.
In lawyer lingo, hornbook law or black-letter law is a fundamental and well-accepted legal principle that does not require any further explanation, since a hornbook is a primer of basics. Law is the rule which establish that a principle, provision, references, inference, observation, etc. may not require further explanation or clarification when the very nature of them shows that they are basic and elementary.
## Similar phrases {#similar_phrases}
The phrase is nearly synonymous with the phrase \"hornbook law\". There are a number of venerable legal sources that distill the common law on various subjects known as restatement of the Law. The specific titles will be \"The Restatement (First) of Contracts\" or \"The Restatement of Agency\", etc. Each of these volumes is divided into sections that begin with a text in boldface that summarizes a basic rule on an aspect of the law of contracts, agency, etc. This \"restatement\" is followed by commentary and examples that expand on the principle stated.
Another synonymous term, usually used in the United Kingdom, is \"trite law\".
## Examples
Examples of black-letter law include that the formation of a contract requires consideration, or that the registration of a trademark requires established use in the course of trade
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# Beadwork
thumb\|upright=1.3\|Beadwork on the ceremonial dress of a Datooga woman **Beadwork** is the art or craft of attaching beads to one another by stringing them onto a thread or thin wire with a sewing or beading needle or sewing them to cloth. Beads are produced in a diverse range of materials, shapes, and sizes, and vary by the kind of art produced. Most often, beadwork is a form of personal adornment (e.g. jewelry), but it also commonly makes up other artworks.
Beadwork techniques are broadly divided into several categories, including loom and off-loom weaving, stringing, bead embroidery, bead crochet, bead knitting, and bead tatting.
## Ancient beading {#ancient_beading}
The art of creating and utilizing beads is ancient, and ostrich shell beads discovered in Africa can be carbon-dated to 10,000 BC. Faience beads, a type of ceramic created by mixing powdered clays, lime, soda, and silica sand with water until a paste forms, then molding it around a stick or straw and firing until hard, were notably used in ancient Egyptian jewelry from the First Dynasty (beginning in the early Bronze Age) onward. Faience and other ceramic beads with vitrified quartz coatings predate pure glass beads.
Beads and work created with them were found near-ubiquitously across the ancient world, often made of locally available materials. For example, the Athabaskan peoples of Alaska used tusk shells (scaphopod mollusks), which are naturally hollow, as beads and incorporated them into elaborate jewelry.
Beadwork has historically been used for religious purposes, as good luck talismans, for barter and trade, and for ritual exchange.
## Modern beading {#modern_beading}
thumb\|upright=.75\|Modern beaded flowers, yellow made in the French beading technique and pink in the Victorian beading technique. Today, beadwork is commonly practiced by jewelers, hobbyists, and contemporary artists; artists known for using beadwork as a medium include Liza Lou, Ran Hwang, Hew Locke, Jeffery Gibson, and Joyce J. Scott.
Some ancient stitches have become especially popular among contemporary artists. The off-loom peyote stitch, for example, is used in Native American Church members\' beadwork.
Jewelry made of beads was widespread and fashionable in Western Ukraine, which was connected with the familiarity of Ukrainian artists with the artistic achievements of the countries of Western Europe, where from the 18th century. There was a fashion for artistic products made of beads. Modern Ukrainian beadwork includes: beaded clothing, collars, bracelets, necklaces, necklaces-gerdanes, clothing accessories, and household items such as pysanka.
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# Beadwork
## Europe
thumb\|upright=.75\|Russian Countess Olga Orlova-Davydova wearing a heavily beaded kokoshnik, 1903Beadwork in Europe, much like in Egypt and the Americas, can be traced to the use of bone and shell as adornments amongst early modern humans. As glassmaking increased in popularity through the Middle Ages, glass beads began to appear extensively in bead embroidery, beaded necklaces, and similar wares.
In Northern Russia, the Kokoshnik headdress typically includes river pearl netting around the forehead in addition to traditional bead embroidery.
By 1291, artists in Murano, Italy had begun production of intricate glass Murano beads inspired by Venetian glassware. With the advent of lampwork glass, Europeans started producing seed beads for embroidery, crochet, and other, mostly off-loom techniques. Czech seed beads are among the most popular contemporary bead styles.
One technique of European beadwork is beaded \"immortal\" flowers. The technique\'s origins, though indistinct, are generally agreed to range at least several centuries back, as far back as at least the 16th if not 14th century. Two mayor styles were developed: French beading, in which the wire only goes through each bead once and the wires are arranged vertically, and Victorian (also called English or Russian) beading, in which the wires go through each bead twice and are arranged horizontally. In the late 19th and early 20th century, the beaded flowers were used to create long lasting funeral wreaths, called *immortelles* (French for \"immortals\"). In the mid-20th century, the art was introduced to United States with sales of flower beading kits. In 1960s to 1970s, books by emerging beaded flower designers emerged. In the 1990s and 2000s, there was another revival of interest in the craft, exemplified for example by the funeral wreaths made to commemorate victims of the September 11 attacks.
Ukrainian masters develop exclusively national motifs in their bead collections. Beaded artworks include clothing ensembles, clothing accessories, priestly clothing decorations, and household items. At the beginning of the 20th century embroidery workshops were created on the territory of Galicia and Bukovyna, where, along with weaving and embroidery, jewelry from beads was made. Contemporary beadwork includes: beaded clothing, collars, bracelets, necklaces, clothing accessories like handbags and purses.
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# Beadwork
## North America {#north_america}
Native American beadwork, already established via the use of materials like shells, dendrite, claws, and bone, evolved to incorporate glass beads as Europeans brought them to the Americas beginning in the early 17th century.
Native beadwork today heavily utilizes small glass beads, but artists also continue to use traditionally important materials. Wampum shells, for instance, are ceremonially and politically important to a range of Eastern Woodlands tribes, and are used to depict important events.
Several Native American artists from a wide range of nations are considered to be at the forefront of modern American bead working. These artists include Teri Greeves (Kiowa, known for beaded commentaries on Native voting rights), Marcus Amerman (Choctaw, known for realistic beaded portraits of historical figures and celebrities), and Jamie Okuma (Luiseño-Shoshone-Bannock, known for beaded dolls).
### Great Lakes tribes {#great_lakes_tribes}
Ursuline nuns in the Great Lakes introduced floral patterns to young Indigenous women, who quickly applied them to beadwork. Ojibwe women in the area created ornately decorated shoulder bags known as *gashkibidaagan* (bandolier bags).
### Eastern Woodlands tribes {#eastern_woodlands_tribes}
Innu, Mi\'kmaq, Penobscot, and Haudenosaunee peoples developed, and are known for, beading symmetrical scroll motifs, most often in white beads. Tribes of the Iroqouis Confederacy practice raised beading, where threads are pulled taut to force beads into a bas-relief, which creates a three-dimensional effect.
### Southeastern tribes {#southeastern_tribes}
Southeastern tribes pioneered a beadwork style that features images with white outlines, a visual reference to the shells and pearls coastal Southeasterners used pre-contact. This style was nearly lost during the Trail of Tears, as many beadworkers died during their forced removal to Indian Territory west of the Mississippi River. Roger Amerman (Choctaw, brother of Marcus Amerman) and Martha Berry (Cherokee) have effectively revived the style, however.
### Sierra Madre tribes {#sierra_madre_tribes}
Huichol communities in the Mexican states of Jalisco and Nayarit uniquely attach their beads to objects and surfaces via the use of a resin-beeswax mixture (in lieu of wire or waxed thread). Huichol beadwork is commonly characterized by bright colors and geometric shapes, and motifs of animals and spirits illustrate their spiritual beliefs.
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# Beadwork
## North America {#north_america}
### Métis Nation {#métis_nation}
Métis were known as the Flower Beadwork People by the Cree and Dene because of their culture of colourful floral beadwork and embroidery. During the early 19th century, European and Euro-North American observers and travelers frequently noted the intricate beadwork adorning Métis clothing. This beadwork, particularly floral patterns, has evolved into one of the most recognizable symbols of Métis culture. Métis artisans employed First Nations beadwork techniques along with floral designs influenced by French-Canadian nuns in Roman Catholic missions. By the 1830s, vibrant and lifelike floral motifs dominated Métis creations from the Red River region. Beadwork adorned nearly every traditional Métis garment, from moccasins to coats, belts to bags. The practice of beadwork became a vital economic activity for Métis women and families, spanning generations and providing both personal and commercial expression. Métis organizations like the Louis Riel Institute and the Gabriel Dumont Institute actively promote and preserve traditional beading through workshops and resources, ensuring its continuation within the community.
## East Asia {#east_asia}
Aside from jewelry and apparel bead work, bead curtains made a rise in the 1960-1970\'s. Bead curtains root back to as early as the 20th century in China, where they were known for the positive energy that they shared. They typically consist of a horizontal pole or piece of wood that has rows of string dangling vertically, each string adorned with beads from top to bottom. These curtains provide a sense of separation between rooms and sometimes to deflect insects along with their decorative qualities. They often fall under the category of 'screen' alongside cloth, stone, or wood, though offer a completely different sensory experience while passing though them.
In both Chinese and Japanese glass bead curtains, they\'re inscribed with important messages; they often deal with auspicious factors like 'double happiness' and immortality. Common iconography, which was created by hanging the beads in a certain pattern, included suns and cranes, to signify happiness and peace.
While there\'s no physical evidence of these existing before the 20th century, early bead curtains were found to be made of jade, agate, shell, serpentine, faience, glass, bamboo tubes, wood and seeds. They were originally referred to as knotted bead nets or corpse curtains, as they often served as a rank of wealth when an individual was buried. Although pearl and crystal curtains gained popularity around the same time, they were often mistaken for glass bead curtains due to looks. Historical texts indicate that pearl curtains were made from real pearls, although we lack any substantial evidence.
## Africa
Several African nations outside of Egypt have beadwork traditions. Aggry (also spelled aggri or aggrey) beads, a type of decorated glass bead, are used by Ghanaians and other West Africans to make necklaces and bracelets that may be traded for other goods. These beads are often believed to have magical medicinal of fertility powers. In Mauritania, powder-glass Kiffa beads represent a beading tradition that may date as far back as 1200 CE; a group of women have been revitalizing the craft after the last traditional Kiffa artisans died in the 1970s. Cameroonian women are known for crafting wooden sculptures covered in beadwork
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# Bead weaving
**Bead weaving** (or **beadweaving**) is a set of techniques for weaving sheets and objects of seed beads. Threads are strung through and/or around the beads to hold them together. It can be done either on a loom or using one of a number of off-loom stitches.
## On-loom beadweaving {#on_loom_beadweaving}
When weaving on a loom, the beads are strung on the weft threads and locked in between the warp threads. Although loomed pieces are typically rectangular, it is possible to increase and decrease to produce angular or curvy shapes. Fringe can also be added during weaving or before the piece is removed from the loom.
### Frame looms {#frame_looms}
The most common modern loom bead weaving technique requires two passes of the weft thread per row of beads. First, an entire row of beads is strung on the weft thread. Then the beads are pressed in between the warp threads from below. Then the needle is passed back through the beads, but above the warp threads, to lock the beads into place.
Bead looms vary in size and are typically made of wood or metal. Usually, a comb or spring is used to hold the warp threads a bead-width apart (the lede image shows a threaded rod). Some looms have roller bars; these allow the weaver to produce pieces that are longer than the loom. Most looms are meant to sit on a table, but some have floor stands or are meant to sit in the lap. Cheap bead looms are sometimes made from styrofoam trays, wrapping the warp through evenly-spaced small slits notched into opposite edges.
### Heddle looms {#heddle_looms}
Heddle bead looms were popular in the United States near the beginning of the 20th century. They allow weaving of beads by raising every other thread and inserting strung beads in the shed, the space between the lowered and raised threads. There are still a few heddle bead looms being manufactured today. The most difficult part of loomwork is finishing off the warp threads.
## Off-loom beadweaving {#off_loom_beadweaving}
Off-loom beadweaving is a family of beadwork techniques in which seed beads are woven together into a flat fabric, a tubular rope, or a three-dimensional object such as a ball, clasp, box, or a piece of jewelry. Most off-loom techniques can be accomplished using a single needle and thread (no warp threads), and some have two-needle variations. Different stitches produce pieces with distinct textures, shapes, and patterns. There are many different off-loom bead stitches, including new stitches (distinct thread paths) published as recently as 2015:
- albion stitch, developed by Heather Kingsley-Heath, published May 2009
- brick stitch, also known as Comanche or Cheyenne stitch
- chevron stitch, a triangular form of bead netting
- diamond weave, developed over a number of years by Gerlinde Lenz, published August 2015
- herringbone stitch, also known as Ndebele stitch
- hubble stitch and wave hubble stitch, created and developed by Melanie de Miguel, published 2015
- netting, to avoid confusion specifically *bead* netting
- peyote stitch, also known as gourd stitch
- plaiting, crossing multiple threads as in a plait or braid, using beads to connect the crossings
- pondo stitch, also known as African circle stitch
- right-angle weave
- Saint Petersburg chain
- square stitch, an off loom stitch that mimics the look of loomed bead projects.
- ladder stitch, a foundation stitch that is used to build a base for brick stitch or herringbone stitch
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# Branchiopoda
**Branchiopoda**, from Ancient Greek βράγχια (*bránkhia*), meaning \"gill\", and πούς (*poús*), meaning \"foot\", is a class of crustaceans. It comprises fairy shrimp, clam shrimp, Diplostraca (or Cladocera), Notostraca, the Devonian *Lepidocaris* and possibly the Cambrian *Rehbachiella*. They are mostly small, freshwater animals that feed on plankton and detritus.
## Description
Members of the Branchiopoda are unified by the presence of gills on many of the animals\' appendages, including some of the mouthparts. This is also responsible for the name of the group (from the *βράγχια*, gills, akin to *βρόγχος*, windpipe; *πούς*, foot). They generally possess compound eyes and a carapace, which may be a shell of two valves enclosing the trunk (as in most Cladocera), broad and shallow (as in the Notostraca), or entirely absent (as in the Anostraca). In the groups where the carapace prevents the use of the trunk limbs for swimming (Cladocera and clam shrimp), the antennae are used for locomotion, as they are in the nauplius. Male fairy shrimp have an enlarged pair of antennae with which they grasp the female during mating, while in the bottom-feeding Notostraca, the antennae are reduced to vestiges. The trunk limbs are beaten in a metachronal rhythm, causing a flow of water along the midline of the animal, from which it derives oxygen, food and, in the case of the Anostraca and Notostraca, movement.
## Ecology
Branchiopods are found in continental fresh water, including temporary pools and in hypersaline lakes, and some in brackish water. Only two groups of water fleas include marine species: Family Podonidae in the order Diplostraca, and family Sididae in the order Diplostraca. Most branchiopodans eat floating detritus or plankton, which they take using the setae on their appendages. But notostracans are omnivorous and very opportunistic feeders and will eat algae and bacteria in addition to animals as both predators and scavengers.
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# Branchiopoda
## Taxonomy
In early taxonomic treatments, the current members of the Branchiopoda were all placed in a single genus, *Monoculus*. The taxon Branchiopoda was erected by Pierre André Latreille in 1817, initially at the rank of order.
The current upper-level classification of Branchiopoda, according to the World Register of Marine Species (2021), is as follows:
**Class Branchiopoda Latreille, 1817**
: **Subclass Sarsostraca Tasch, 1969**
: Order Anostraca Sars, 1867
: Suborder Anostracina Weekers et al., 2002
: Suborder Artemiina Weekers et al., 2002
: **Subclass Phyllopoda Preuss, 1951**
: Superorder Diplostraca Gerstaecker, 1866
: Order Anomopoda G.O. Sars, 1865
: Order Ctenopoda G.O. Sars, 1865
: Order Cyclestherida Sars G.O., 1899
: Order Haplopoda G.O. Sars, 1865
: Order Laevicaudata Linder, 1945
: Order Onychopoda G.O. Sars, 1865
: Order Spinicaudata Linder, 1945
: Order Notostraca G. O. Sars, 1867
: Genus †*Rehbachiella*? Müller, 1983
In addition, the extinct genus *Lepidocaris* is generally placed in Branchiopoda.
### Anostraca
*Main article: Anostraca* The fairy shrimp of the order Anostraca are usually 6 - long (exceptionally up to 170 mm). Most species have 20 body segments, bearing 11 pairs of leaf-like *phyllopodia* (swimming legs), and the body lacks a carapace. They live in vernal pools and hypersaline lakes across the world, including pools in deserts, in ice-covered mountain lakes and in Antarctica. They swim \"upside-down\" and feed by filtering organic particles from the water or by scraping algae from surfaces. They are an important food for many birds and fish, and are cultured and harvested for use as fish food. There are 300 species spread across 8 families.
### Lipostraca
Lipostraca contains a single extinct Early Devonian species, *Lepidocaris rhyniensis*, which is the most abundant animal in the Rhynie chert deposits. It resembles modern Anostraca, to which it is probably closely related, although its relationships to other orders remain unclear. The body is 3 mm long, with 23 body segments and 19 pairs of appendages, but no carapace. It occurred chiefly among charophytes, probably in alkaline temporary pools.
### Notostraca
The order Notostraca comprises the single family Triopsidae, containing the tadpole shrimp or shield shrimp. The two genera, *Triops* and *Lepidurus*, are considered living fossils, having not changed significantly in outward form since the Triassic. They have a broad, flat carapace, which conceals the head and bears a single pair of compound eyes. The abdomen is long, appears to be segmented and bears numerous pairs of flattened legs. The telson is flanked by a pair of long, thin caudal rami. Phenotypic plasticity within taxa makes species-level identification difficult, and is further compounded by variation in the mode of reproduction. The evidence of phenotypic plasticity of Arctic tadpole shrimp (*Lepidurus arcticus*, Notostraca) has been observed in Svalbard. Notostracans are the largest branchiopodans and are omnivores living on the bottom of temporary pools, ponds and shallow lakes.
### Laevicaudata, Spinicaudata and Cyclestherida (once Conchostraca) {#laevicaudata_spinicaudata_and_cyclestherida_once_conchostraca}
Clam shrimp are bivalved animals which have lived since at least the Devonian. The three groups are not believed to form a clade. They have 10--32 trunk segments, decreasing in size from front to back, and each bears a pair of legs which also carry gills. A strong muscle can close the two halves of the shell together.
### Anomopoda, Ctenopoda, Onychopoda, and Haplopoda (once Cladocera) {#anomopoda_ctenopoda_onychopoda_and_haplopoda_once_cladocera}
These four orders make up a group of small crustaceans commonly called water fleas. Around 620 species have been recognised so far, with many more undescribed. They are ubiquitous in inland aquatic habitats, but rare in the oceans. Most are 0.2 - long, with a down-turned head, and a carapace covering the apparently unsegmented thorax and abdomen. There is a single median compound eye. Most species show cyclical parthenogenesis, where asexual reproduction is occasionally supplemented by sexual reproduction, which produces resting eggs that allow the species to survive harsh conditions and disperse to distant habitats. In the water bodies of the world, a lot of Cladocera are non-native species, many of which pose a great threat to aquatic ecosystems.
## Evolution
The fossil record of branchiopods extends back at least into the Upper Cambrian and possibly further. The group is thought to be monophyletic, with the Anostraca having been the first group to branch off. It is thought that the group evolved in the seas, but was forced into temporary pools and hypersaline lakes by the evolution of bony fishes. Although they were previously considered the sister group to the remaining crustaceans, it is now widely accepted that crustaceans form a paraphyletic group, and Branchiopoda are thought to be sister to a clade comprising Xenocarida (Remipedia and Cephalocarida) and Hexapoda (insects and their relatives)
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# Burn card
In card games, a **burn card** is a playing card dealt from the top of a deck and discarded (\"burned\"), unused by the players. Burn cards are usually not shown to the players.
Burning is most often performed in casinos to deter a form of cheating known as card marking.
## Usage
In poker, the top card of the deck stub is burned at the beginning of each betting round so that players who might have been able to read markings on that card during the previous round are less able to take advantage of that information. Knowledge of a burn card might be marginally useful, such as knowing there is one fewer Ace in the deck, but far less so than knowing it is about to be in play.
Two other uses for burning are: to prevent second dealing and to provide extra cards for use when an irregularity of play occurs. Sometimes a misdealt card (such as one of the down cards in poker that has flashed during the deal) will be used as the burn card -- in those cases, the card should be immediately placed face-up on the deck after the deal is complete.
When Texas hold \'em (as well as in Omaha hold \'em) is played in casinos (or other formal games where cheating is a concern), a card is burned before dealing the flop, turn, and river, for a maximum of 3 total burn cards
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# Piano Trios, Op. 1 (Beethoven)
Ludwig van Beethoven\'s Opus 1 is a set of three piano trios (written for piano, violin, and cello), first performed in 1795 in the house of Prince Lichnowsky, to whom they are dedicated. The trios were published in 1795.
Despite the Op. 1 designation, these trios were not Beethoven\'s first published compositions; this distinction belongs rather to his *Dressler Variations* for keyboard (WoO 63). Clearly he recognized the Op. 1 compositions as the earliest ones he had produced that were substantial enough (and marketable enough) to fill out a first major publication to introduce his style of writing to the musical public.
## No. 1 in E-flat major {#no._1_in_e_flat_major}
1. Allegro (E-flat major), `{{music|time|4|4}}`{=mediawiki}
2. Adagio cantabile (A-flat major), `{{music|time|3|4}}`{=mediawiki}
3. Scherzo. Allegro assai (E-flat major, with trio in A-flat major), `{{music|time|3|4}}`{=mediawiki}
4. Finale. Presto (E-flat major), `{{music|time|2|4}}`{=mediawiki}
The first movement opens with an ascending arpeggiated figure (a so-called Mannheim Rocket, like that opening the first movement of the composer\'s own Piano Sonata no 1, Opus 2 no 1),
## No. 2 in G major {#no._2_in_g_major}
1. Adagio, `{{music|time|3|4}}`{=mediawiki} -- Allegro vivace, `{{music|time|2|4}}`{=mediawiki} (G major)
2. Largo con espressione (E major), `{{music|time|6|8}}`{=mediawiki}
3. Scherzo. Allegro (G major, with a trio in B minor), `{{music|time|3|4}}`{=mediawiki}
4. Finale. Presto (G major), `{{music|time|2|4}}`{=mediawiki}
## No. 3 in C minor {#no._3_in_c_minor}
1. Allegro con brio (C minor), `{{music|time|3|4}}`{=mediawiki}
2. Andante cantabile con Variazioni (E-flat major), `{{music|time|2|4}}`{=mediawiki}
3. Minuetto. Quasi allegro (C minor, with a trio in C major), `{{music|time|3|4}}`{=mediawiki}
4. Finale. Prestissimo (C minor, concluding in C major), `{{music|time|2|2}}`{=mediawiki}
Unlike the other piano trios in this opus, the third trio does not have a scherzo as its third movement but a minuet instead.
This third piano trio was later reworked by Beethoven into the C minor string quintet, Op. 104
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# Barratry (common law)
Barratry}}
**Barratry** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|b|ær|ə|t|r|i}}`{=mediawiki} `{{Respell|BARR|ə|tree}}`{=mediawiki}, from Old French `{{Wikt-lang|fr|barat}}`{=mediawiki} (\"deceit, trickery\")) is a legal term that, at common law, described a criminal offense committed by people who are overly officious in instigating or encouraging prosecution of groundless litigation, or who bring repeated or persistent acts of litigation for the purposes of profit or harassment.
Although it remains a crime in some jurisdictions, barratry has frequently been abolished as being anachronistic and obsolete.
If barratrous litigation is deemed to be for the purpose of silencing critics, it is known as a strategic lawsuit against public participation (SLAPP). Jurisdictions that otherwise have no barratry laws may have SLAPP laws.
## Barratry by country {#barratry_by_country}
### Australia
In Australia, the term barratry is predominantly used in the first sense of a frivolous or harassing litigant. The concept has fallen into disuse in Australia.
#### New South Wales {#new_south_wales}
The offence of being a common barrator was abolished in New South Wales by Section 4A of the Maintenance, Champerty and Barratry Abolition Act 1993.
#### Victoria
The offence of being a common barrator was abolished in Victoria by section 2 of the Abolition of Obsolete Offences Act 1969.
### Canada
In Canada, barratry, alongside all common law offences except contempt of court and contempt of Parliament, was abolished by the 1953 consolidation of the *Criminal Code*.
### United Kingdom {#united_kingdom}
#### England and Wales {#england_and_wales}
In England and Wales the common law offence of **being a common barrator** was abolished by section 13(1)(a) of the Criminal Law Act 1967.
##### History
Being a common barrator was an offence under the common law of England. It was classified as a misdemeanor . It consisted of \"persistently stirring up quarrels in the Courts or out of them\". It is uncertain whether, in the ordinary way, persons charged with commission of the offence were dealt with by indictment.
In 1966, the Law Commission recommended for the offence to be abolished. It said that there had been no indictments for this offence for \"many years\" and that, as an indictable misdemeanor, it was \"wholly obsolete\". Its recommendation was implemented by the Criminal Law Act 1967.
#### Scotland
In Scots law, barratry referred to the crime committed by a judge who is induced by bribery to pronounce judgment.
### United States {#united_states}
Several jurisdictions in the United States have declared barratry (in the sense of a frivolous or harassing litigant) to be a crime as part of their tort reform efforts. For example, in the U.S. states of California, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and Washington, barratry is a misdemeanor. In Texas, barratry is a misdemeanor on the first conviction, but a felony on subsequent convictions.
- California Penal Code Section 158: \"Common barratry is the practice of exciting groundless judicial proceedings, and is punishable by imprisonment in the county jail not exceeding six months and by fine not exceeding one thousand dollars (\$1,000).\"
- California Penal Code Section 159: \"No person can be convicted of common barratry except upon proof that he has excited suits or proceedings at law in at least three instances, and with a corrupt or malicious intent to vex and annoy.\"
- Revised Code of Washington 9.12.010: \"Every person who brings on his or her own behalf, or instigates, incites, or encourages another to bring, any false suit at law or in equity in any court of this state, with intent thereby to distress or harass a defendant in the suit, or who serves or sends any paper or document purporting to be or resembling a judicial process, that is not in fact a judicial process, is guilty of a misdemeanor; and in case the person offending is an attorney, he or she may, in addition thereto be disbarred from practicing law within this state.\"
- Virginia laws on barratry, champerty, and maintenance were overturned by the Supreme Court of the United States in *NAACP v. Button* 371 U.S. 415 (1963).
- Vermont Statutes [Title 13, § 701](https://codes.findlaw.com/vt/title-13-crimes-and-criminal-procedure/vt-st-tit-13-sect-701.html): \"A person who is a common barrator shall be fined not more than \$50.00 and become bound with sufficient surety for his or her good behavior for not less than one year
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# Bomber
A **bomber** is a military combat aircraft that utilizes air-to-ground weaponry to drop bombs, launch torpedoes, or deploy air-launched cruise missiles.
There are two major classifications of bomber: strategic and tactical. Strategic bombing is done by heavy bombers primarily designed for long-range bombing missions against strategic targets to diminish the enemy\'s ability to wage war by limiting access to resources through crippling infrastructure, reducing industrial output, or inflicting massive civilian casualties to an extent deemed to force surrender. Tactical bombing is aimed at countering enemy military activity and in supporting offensive operations, and is typically assigned to smaller aircraft operating at shorter ranges, typically near the troops on the ground or against enemy shipping.
Bombs were first dropped from an aircraft during the Italo-Turkish War, with the first major deployments coming in the First World War and Second World War by all major airforces, damaging cities, towns, and rural areas. The first bomber planes in history were the Italian Caproni Ca 30 and British Bristol T.B.8, both of 1913. Some bombers were decorated with nose art or victory markings.
During WWII with engine power as a major limitation, combined with the desire for accuracy and other operational factors, bomber designs tended to be tailored to specific roles. Early in the Cold War however, bombers were the only means of carrying nuclear weapons to enemy targets, and held the role of deterrence.
With the advent of guided air-to-air missiles, bombers needed to avoid interception. High-speed and high-altitude flying became a means of evading detection and attack. With the advent of ICBMs the role of the bomber was brought to a more tactical focus in close air support roles, and a focus on stealth technology for strategic bombers.
## Classification
### Strategic
Further information: Carpet bombing, Strategic bomber Strategic bombing is done by heavy bombers primarily designed for long-range bombing missions against strategic targets such as supply bases, bridges, factories, shipyards, and cities themselves, to diminish the enemy\'s ability to wage war by limiting access to resources through crippling infrastructure or reducing industrial output. Current examples include the strategic nuclear-armed bombers: B-2 Spirit, B-52 Stratofortress, Tupolev Tu-95 \'Bear\', Tupolev Tu-22M \'Backfire\' and Tupolev Tu-160 \"Blackjack\"; historically notable examples are the: Gotha G.IV, Avro Lancaster, Heinkel He 111, Junkers Ju 88, Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress, Consolidated B-24 Liberator, Boeing B-29 Superfortress, and Tupolev Tu-16 \'Badger\'.
### Tactical
Tactical bombing, aimed at countering enemy military activity and in supporting offensive operations, is typically assigned to smaller aircraft operating at shorter ranges, typically near the troops on the ground or against enemy shipping. This role is filled by tactical bomber class, which crosses and blurs with various other aircraft categories: light bombers, medium bombers, dive bombers, interdictors, fighter-bombers, attack aircraft, multirole combat aircraft, and others.
- Current examples: Xian JH-7, Dassault Mirage 2000D, and the Panavia Tornado IDS
- Historical examples: Ilyushin Il-2 *Shturmovik*, Junkers Ju 87 *Stuka*, Republic P-47 Thunderbolt, Hawker Typhoon and Mikoyan MiG-27.
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# Bomber
## History
The first use of an air-dropped bomb (actually four hand grenades specially manufactured by the Italian naval arsenal) was carried out by Italian Second Lieutenant Giulio Gavotti on 1 November 1911 during the Italo-Turkish war in Libya -- although his plane was not designed for the task of bombing, and his improvised attacks on Ottoman positions had little impact. These picric acid-filled steel spheres were nicknamed \"ballerinas\" from the fluttering fabric ribbons attached. Turks carried out the first ever anti-airplane operation in history during the Italo-Turkish war. Although lacking anti-aircraft weapons, they were the first to shoot down an airplane by rifle fire. The first aircraft to crash in a war was the one of Lieutenant Piero Manzini, shot down on 25 August 1912.
### Early bombers {#early_bombers}
On 16 October 1912, Bulgarian observer Prodan Tarakchiev dropped two of those bombs on the Turkish railway station of Karağaç (near the besieged Edirne) from an Albatros F.2 aircraft piloted by Radul Milkov, during the First Balkan War. This is deemed to be the first use of an aircraft as a bomber.
The first heavier-than-air aircraft purposely designed for bombing were the Italian Caproni Ca 30 and British Bristol T.B.8, both of 1913. The Bristol T.B.8 was an early British single engined biplane built by the Bristol Aeroplane Company. They were fitted with a prismatic Bombsight in the front cockpit and a cylindrical bomb carrier in the lower forward fuselage capable of carrying twelve 10 lb bombs, which could be dropped singly or as a salvo as required.
The aircraft was purchased for use both by the Royal Naval Air Service and the Royal Flying Corps (RFC), and three T.B.8s, that were being displayed in Paris during December 1913 fitted with bombing equipment, were sent to France following the outbreak of war. Under the command of Charles Rumney Samson, a bombing attack on German gun batteries at Middelkerke, Belgium was executed on 25 November 1914.
The dirigible, or airship, was developed in the early 20th century. Early airships were prone to disaster, but slowly the airship became more dependable, with a more rigid structure and stronger skin. Prior to the outbreak of war, Zeppelins, a larger and more streamlined form of airship designed by German Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin, were outfitted to carry bombs to attack targets at long range. These were the first long range, strategic bombers. Although the German air arm was strong, with a total of 123 airships by the end of the war, they were vulnerable to attack and engine failure, as well as navigational issues. German airships inflicted little damage on all 51 raids, with 557 Britons killed and 1,358 injured. The German Navy lost 53 of its 73 airships, and the German Army lost 26 of its 50 ships.
The Caproni Ca 30 was built by Gianni Caproni in Italy. It was a twin-boom biplane with three 67 kW Gnome rotary engines and first flew in October 1914. Test flights revealed power to be insufficient and the engine layout unworkable, and Caproni soon adopted a more conventional approach installing three 81 kW Fiat A.10s. The improved design was bought by the Italian Army and it was delivered in quantity from August 1915.
While mainly used as a trainer, Avro 504s were also briefly used as bombers at the start of the First World War by the Royal Naval Air Service (RNAS) when they were used for raids on the German airship sheds.
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# Bomber
## History
### Strategic bombing {#strategic_bombing}
Bombing raids and interdiction operations were mainly carried out by French and British forces during the War as the German air arm was forced to concentrate its resources on a defensive strategy. Notably, bombing campaigns formed a part of the British offensive at the Battle of Neuve Chapelle in 1915, with Royal Flying Corps squadrons attacking German railway stations in an attempt to hinder the logistical supply of the German army. The early, improvised attempts at bombing that characterized the early part of the war slowly gave way to a more organized and systematic approach to strategic and tactical bombing, pioneered by various air power strategists of the Entente, especially Major Hugh Trenchard; he was the first to advocate that there should be \"\... sustained \[strategic bombing\] attacks with a view to interrupting the enemy\'s railway communications \... in conjunction with the main operations of the Allied Armies.\"
When the war started, bombing was very crude (hand-held bombs were thrown over the side) yet by the end of the war long-range bombers equipped with complex mechanical bombing computers were being built, designed to carry large loads to destroy enemy industrial targets. The most important bombers used in World War I were the French Breguet 14, British de Havilland DH-4, German Albatros C.III and Russian Sikorsky Ilya Muromets. The Russian Sikorsky Ilya Muromets, was the first four-engine bomber to equip a dedicated strategic bombing unit during World War I. This heavy bomber was unrivaled in the early stages of the war, as the Central Powers had no comparable aircraft until much later.
Long range bombing raids were carried out at night by multi-engine biplanes such as the Gotha G.IV (whose name was synonymous with all multi-engine German bombers) and later the Handley Page Type O; the majority of bombing was done by single-engined biplanes with one or two crew members flying short distances to attack enemy lines and immediate hinterland. As the effectiveness of a bomber was dependent on the weight and accuracy of its bomb load, ever larger bombers were developed starting in World War I, while considerable money was spent developing suitable bombsights.
### World War II {#world_war_ii}
With engine power as a major limitation, combined with the desire for accuracy and other operational factors, bomber designs tended to be tailored to specific roles. By the start of the war this included:
- dive bomber -- specially strengthened for vertical diving attacks for greater accuracy
- light bomber, medium bomber and heavy bomber -- subjective definitions based on size and/or payload capacity
- torpedo bomber -- specialized aircraft armed with torpedoes
- ground attack aircraft -- aircraft used against targets on a battlefield such as troop or tank concentrations
- night bomber -- specially equipped to operate at night when opposing defences are limited
- maritime patrol -- long range bombers that were used against enemy shipping, particularly submarines
- fighter-bomber -- a modified fighter aircraft used as a light bomber
Bombers of this era were not intended to attack other aircraft although most were fitted with defensive weapons. World War II saw the beginning of the widespread use of high speed bombers which began to minimize defensive weaponry in order to attain higher speed. Some smaller designs were used as the basis for night fighters. A number of fighters, such as the Hawker Hurricane were used as ground attack aircraft, replacing earlier conventional light bombers that proved unable to defend themselves while carrying a useful bomb load.
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# Bomber
## History
### Cold War {#cold_war}
At the start of the Cold War, bombers were the only means of carrying nuclear weapons to enemy targets, and had the role of deterrence. With the advent of guided air-to-air missiles, bombers needed to avoid interception. High-speed and high-altitude flying became a means of evading detection and attack. Designs such as the English Electric Canberra could fly faster or higher than contemporary fighters. When surface-to-air missiles became capable of hitting high-flying bombers, bombers were flown at low altitudes to evade radar detection and interception.
Once \"stand off\" nuclear weapon designs were developed, bombers did not need to pass over the target to make an attack; they could fire and turn away to escape the blast. Nuclear strike aircraft were generally finished in bare metal or anti-flash white to minimize absorption of thermal radiation from the flash of a nuclear explosion. The need to drop conventional bombs remained in conflicts with non-nuclear powers, such as the Vietnam War or Malayan Emergency.
The development of large strategic bombers stagnated in the later part of the Cold War because of spiraling costs and the development of the Intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) -- which was felt to have similar deterrent value while being impossible to intercept. Because of this, the United States Air Force XB-70 Valkyrie program was cancelled in the early 1960s; the later B-1B Lancer and B-2 Spirit aircraft entered service only after protracted political and development problems. Their high cost meant that few were built and the 1950s-designed B-52s are projected to remain in use until the 2040s. Similarly, the Soviet Union used the intermediate-range Tu-22M \'Backfire\' in the 1970s, but their Mach 3 bomber project stalled. The Mach 2 Tu-160 \'Blackjack\' was built only in tiny numbers, leaving the 1950s Tupolev Tu-16 and Tu-95 \'Bear\' heavy bombers to continue being used into the 21st century.
The British strategic bombing force largely came to an end when the V bomber force was phased out; the last of which left service in 1983. The French Mirage IV bomber version was retired in 1996, although the Mirage 2000N and the Rafale have taken on this role. The only other nation that fields strategic bombing forces is China, which has a number of Xian H-6s.
### Modern era {#modern_era}
Currently, only the United States Air Force, the Russian Aerospace Forces\' Long-Range Aviation command, and China\'s People\'s Liberation Army Air Force operate strategic heavy bombers. Other air forces have transitioned away from dedicated bombers in favor of multirole combat aircraft.
At present, these air forces are each developing stealth replacements for their legacy bomber fleets, the USAF with the Northrop Grumman B-21, the Russian Aerospace Forces with the PAK DA, and the PLAAF with the Xian H-20. `{{As of|2021}}`{=mediawiki}, the B-21 is expected to enter service by 2026--2027. The B-21 would be capable of loitering near target areas for extended periods of time.
## Other uses {#other_uses}
Occasionally, military aircraft have been used to bomb ice jams with limited success as part of an effort to clear them. In 2018, the Swedish Air Force dropped bombs on a forest fire, snuffing out flames with the aid of the blast waves. The fires had been raging in an area contaminated with unexploded ordnance, rendering them difficult to extinguish for firefighters
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# Telecommunications in Belarus
**Telecommunications in Belarus** involves the availability and use of electronic devices and services, such as the telephone, television, radio or computer, for the purpose of communication.
## Telephone system {#telephone_system}
- Telephone lines in use: 3,9741 million (2011).
- Mobile/cellular: 11,559,473 subscribers (Q1 2019).
- The phone calling code for Belarus is +375.
The Ministry of Telecommunications controls all telecommunications originating within the country through its carrier unitary enterprise, Beltelecom. thumb\|right\|200px\|Telephone booths in Minsk, September 2007 Minsk has a digital metropolitan network; waiting lists for telephones are long; fixed line penetration is improving although rural areas continue to be underserved; intercity -- Belarus has developed a fibre-optic backbone system presently serving at least 13 major cities (1998). Belarus\'s fibre optics form synchronous digital hierarchy rings through other countries\' systems.
### International connection {#international_connection}
Belarus is a member of the Trans-European Line (TEL), Trans-Asia-Europe Fibre-Optic Line (TAE) and has access to the Trans-Siberia Line (TSL); three fibre-optic segments provide connectivity to Latvia, Poland, Russia, and Ukraine; worldwide service is available to Belarus through this infrastructure; Intelsat, Eutelsat, and Intersputnik earth stations.
In 2006 it was announced that Belarus and Russia completed the second broadband link between the two countries, the Yartsevo-Vitebsk cable. The capacity of this high speed terrestrial link which based on DWDM and STM technology is 400 Gbit/s with the ability to upgrade in the future.
### Cellular communications {#cellular_communications}
Belarus has 3 GSM/UMTS operators -- A1, MTS, life:). For 4G data operators use the infrastructure managed by state operator beCloud, VoLTE service currently is offered only with A1.
## Radio and television {#radio_and_television}
- Television broadcast stations: 100 of which 59 are privately owned.
Belarus has switched from an analog to digital broadcast television. The process finished in May 2015. Belarus broadcasts according to the DVB-T2 standard with MPEG-4 compression.
- Radio broadcast stations: 173 with 24 privately owned, including 30 FM stations.
- Radios: 3.02 million (1997).`{{update after|2013|12|28}}`{=mediawiki}
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# Telecommunications in Belarus
## Internet
- Country code: .by
The state telecom monopoly, Beltelecom, holds the exclusive interconnection with Internet providers outside of Belarus. Beltelecom owns all the backbone channels that linked to the Lattelecom, TEO LT, Tata Communications (former Teleglobe), Synterra, Rostelecom, Transtelekom and MTS ISP\'s. Beltelecom is the only operator licensed to provide commercial VoIP services in Belarus.
Until 2005--2006 broadband access (mostly using ADSL) was available only in a few major cities in Belarus. In Minsk there were a dozen privately owned ISP\'s and in some larger cities Beltelecom\'s broadband was available. Outside these cities the only options for Internet access were dial-up from Beltelecom or GPRS/cdma2000 from mobile operators. In 2006 Beltelecom introduced a new trademark, *Byfly*, for its ADSL access. As of 2008 Byfly was available in all administrative centres of Belarus. Other ISPs are expanding their broadband networks beyond Minsk as well.
Internet use:
- According to a 2006 survey of 1,500 adults by Satio, a third of Belarusians use the Internet---38% of the urban population and 16% of the rural population.
- A 2006 study by the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development indicates 56.5% of Belarus\' population were internet-users.
- The International Telecommunication Union showed Internet penetration (Internet users per 100 population) in 2009 at 27% for Belarus, 42% for Serbia, 37% for Romania, 29% for Russia, and 17% for Ukraine.
- According to Internet World Stats, Internet penetration in June 2010 was 47.5%. For comparison, Internet penetration in Ukraine was 33.7%, in Romania 35.5%, Russia 42.8%, and Serbia 55.9%.
The most active Internet users in Belarus belong to the 17--22 age group (38 percent), followed by users in the 23--29 age group. Internet access in Belarus is predominantly urban, with 60 percent of users living in the capital Minsk. The profile of the average Internet user is male, university educated, living in the capital, and working in a state enterprise. The Ministry for Statistics and Analysis estimates that one in four families in Belarus owns a computer at home. The popularity of Internet cafés has fallen in recent years, as most users prefer to access the Internet from home or work. Russian is the most widely used language by Belarusians on the Internet, followed by Belarusian, English, and Polish.
In mid-2009 there were more than 22,300 Belarusian Web sites, of which roughly 13,500 domain names were registered with the top-level domain name \".by\".
In June 2011 E-Belarus.org listed:
- 2 ISPs in the Brest region, 4 in the Gomel region, 1 in the Grodno region, 26 in the Minsk region, 1 in the Mogilev region, and 1 in the Vitebsk region
- 4 ADSL providers
- 3 technology parks
- 2 educational networks
- more than 30 Internet cafes and Wi-Fi Hotspots
## Censorship and media freedom {#censorship_and_media_freedom}
Many western human rights groups state that civil rights and free expression are severely limited in Belarus, though there are some individuals and groups that refuse to be controlled and some journalists have disappeared.
Because the Belarus government limits freedom of expression, several opposition media outlets are broadcast from nearby countries to help provide Belarusians an alternative points of view. This includes the Polish state-owned Belsat TV station and European Radio for Belarus (Eŭrapéjskaje Rádyjo dla Biełarúsi)
Reporters Without Borders ranked Belarus 157th out of 178 countries in its 2014 Press Freedom Index. By comparison, the same index ranked neighbor Ukraine, 126th and Russia, 148th.
In the 2011 Freedom House *Freedom of the Press report*, Belarus scored 92 on a scale from 10 (most free) to 99 (least free), because the government allegedly systematically curtails press freedom. This score placed Belarus 9th from the bottom of the 196 countries included in the report and earned the country a \"Not Free\" status
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# Transport in Belarus
This article is about **transport in Belarus**.
## Railways
Rail transport in Belarus is operated by Belarusskaya Chyhunka\
*total:* 5,512 km\
*country comparison to the world:* 32\
*broad gauge:* 5,497 km of `{{RailGauge|1520mm}}`{=mediawiki} gauge (874 km electrified) (2006)
- City with underground railway system: Minsk, see Minsk Metro
- For tramway systems: see List of town tramway systems in Belarus
## Highways
The owners of highways may be the Republic of Belarus, its political subdivisions, legal and natural persons, who own roads, as well as legal entities, which roads are fixed on the basis of economic or operational management.
Republican state administration in the field of roads and road activity is the Department Belavtodor under the Ministry of Transport and Communications of the Republic of Belarus.
In total, in Belarus there are more than 93,000 km of roads and 200 km of departmental thousand (agriculture, industry, forestry, etc.), including 10000 mi in cities and towns. The density of paved roads has been relatively low -- 337 km per 1,000 km^2^ territory -- for comparison, in European countries with well-developed road network, the figure is an average of 906 km.
*total:* 93,055 km\
*paved:* 93,055 km (2003)
## Waterways
(use limited by location on perimeter of country and by shallowness) (2003)\
*country comparison to the world:* 37
Belarus\' inland waterways are managed by Dneprobugvodput, Belvodput, and the Dnieper-Berezinsky Enterprise.
## Pipelines
gas 5,250 km; oil 1,528 km; refined products 1,730 km (2008)
## Ports and harbors {#ports_and_harbors}
- Mazyr - on the river Pripyat
## Airports
65 (2008):\
*country comparison to the world:* 76
- Minsk International Airport
- Minsk-1
- Gomel Airport
### Airports - with paved runways {#airports___with_paved_runways}
*total:* 35\
*over 3,047 m:* 2\
*2,438 to:* 22\
*1,524 to:* 4\
*914 to:* 1\
*under 914 m:* 6 (2008)
### Airports - with unpaved runways {#airports___with_unpaved_runways}
*total:* 30\
*2,438 to:* 1\
*1,524 to:* 1\
*914 to:* 2\
*under 914 m:* 26 (2008)
### Heliports
1 (2007)Heliports is where helicopter land
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# Telecommunications in Belgium
**Communications in Belgium** are extensive and advanced. Belgium possesses the infrastructure for both mobile and land-based telecom, as well as having significant television, radio and internet infrastructure. The country code for Belgium is **BE**.
## Services
### Mail
Mail regulation is a national competency. Postal service in Belgium is in many cases performed by Belgian Post Group, a semi-private public company. Competitors include DHL and UPS.
Postal codes in Belgium consist of four digits which indicate regional areas, e.g. \"9000\" is the postal code for Ghent.
### Telephone
The telephone system itself is highly developed and technologically advanced, with full automation in facilities that handle domestic and international telecom. Domestically speaking, the county has a nationwide cellular telephone system and an extensive network of telephone cables. Telephone regulation is a national competency.
The country code for Belgium is **32** and the international call prefix is **00**.
A telephone number in Belgium is a sequence of nine or ten numbers dialled on a telephone to make a call on the telephone network in Belgium. Belgium is under a closed telephone numbering plan, but retains the trunk code, \"0\", for all national dialling.
#### Fixed telephones {#fixed_telephones}
There were 4.668 million land telephone lines in use in Belgium in 2007, a slight decrease on the 4.769 million in use in 1997.
The majority state-owned public telephone company of Belgium is Proximus. Some other or private operators exist, as Scarlet (Proximus) and Base (Telenet).
#### Mobile telephones {#mobile_telephones}
Mobile telephone ownership has increased by nearly one thousand percent in the period 1997--2007, from 974,494 to 10.23 million.
There are three licensed mobile network operators (MNO) in Belgium, Proximus (Belgacom), Orange Belgium (Orange S.A.) and Telenet/Base and numerous mobile virtual network operators (MVNO).
A fourth license will be auctioned off by the government in January 2010.
### Internet
There were 61 (2003) internet service providers in Belgium, serving 8.113 million internet users in 2009. The country code for Belgian websites is .be.
In September 2009 in Flanders there were 3,048,260 broadband internet customers (DSL and cable), of which 2,520,481 were residential users and 527,779 business users. Only 65,175 dial-up internet access accounts remained in the residential market and 9,580 in the business market.
#### Internet providers {#internet_providers}
##### xDSL Internet Providers {#xdsl_internet_providers}
Belgium has numerous copper cable internet providers:
- Altercom \*End service 2011
- Base
- Proximus
- Destiny
- Digiweb
- EDPnet
- Evonet
- Full Telecom
- Interxion
- iPFix
- LCL
- Mobistar (Orange S.A.) \*End service : 2013
- Numericable (France Numericable)
- Perceval
- Portima
- Proximedia Group
- Scarlet (Belgacom)
- Verizon Business (Verizon Communications)
- Ergatel
Only Belgacom and Numericable currently offers fixed telephony and digital television in a triple play formula. All other companies offer also fixed telephony in a duo play formula.
##### Cable Internet Providers {#cable_internet_providers}
Belgium has three major fiberglass cable internet providers:
- Numéricable for the Brussels region (Ypso Holding)
- Telenet for the Flanders and Brussels regions (Liberty Global)
- VOO for the Walloon and Brussels regions (TECTEO)
- Orange Belgium use Telenet and VOO network combined
These companies all offer fixed telephony and digital television in a triple play formula.
- Interoute Managed Services
- Interxion
- LCL
- Nucleus
- Verizon Business (Verizon Communications)
These companies all offer specialised services.
##### Terrestrial Internet Providers {#terrestrial_internet_providers}
- Clearwire in Brussels, Ghent, Leuven, Aalst, Halle and Vilvoorde (Sprint Nextel)
- Perceval
##### Satellite Internet Providers {#satellite_internet_providers}
- Verizon Business (Verizon Communications)
##### ISP for public services {#isp_for_public_services}
- The Brussels Regional Informatics Center (BRIC, Centre d\'Informatique pour la Région Bruxelloise in French) offers Internet access to public administrations in the Brussels-Capital Region, relying directly on the national Belnet network and the IRISnet network.<http://www.irisnet.eu/en?set_language=en> regional
##### Not categorized {#not_categorized}
Other ISP are Chat.be, Connexeon, HostIT, Microsoft Belgium, Netlog, Ulysse, Ven Brussels, Rack66 (EUSIP bvba), WSD Hosting.
### Other
The microwave relay network is, however, more limited. For international communications, Belgium has 5 submarine cables and a number of satellite earth stations, two of which are Intelsat, and one Eutelsat
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# Transport in Belgium
**Transport in Belgium** is facilitated with well-developed road, air, rail and water networks. The rail network has 2950 km of electrified tracks. There are 118414 km of roads, among which there are 1747 km of motorways, 13892 km of main roads and 102775 km of other paved roads. There is also a well-developed urban rail network in Brussels, Antwerp, Ghent and Charleroi. The ports of Antwerp and Zeebrugge are two of the biggest seaports in Europe. Brussels Airport is Belgium its biggest airport.
## Railways
`{{see also|High-speed rail in Belgium}}`{=mediawiki}
Rail transport in Belgium was historically managed by the National Railway Company of Belgium, known as SNCB in French and NMBS in Dutch. In 2005, the public company was split into 2 companies: Infrabel, which manages the rail network and SNCB/NMBS itself, which manages the freight and passenger services. There is a total of 3536 km, (2563 km double track (as of 1998)), of which 2950 km are electrified, mainly at 3,000 volts DC but with 351 km at 25 kV 50 Hz AC (2004) and all on standard gauge of `{{RailGauge|sg}}`{=mediawiki}. In 2004 the National Railway Company of Belgium, carried 178.4 million passengers a total of 8,676 million passenger-kilometres. Due to the high population density, operations are relatively profitable, so tickets are cheap and the frequency of services is high. The SNCB/NMBS is continually updating its rolling stock.
The network currently includes four high speed lines, three operating up to 300 km/h, and one up to 260 km/h. HSL 1 runs from just south of Brussels to the French border, where it continues to Lille, and from there to Paris or London. HSL 2 runs from Leuven to Liège. HSL 3 continues this route from Liège to the German border near Aachen. HSL 4 runs from Antwerp to Rotterdam by meeting HSL-Zuid at the border with Netherlands.
Electrification is at 3 kV DC, with the exception of the new high-speed lines, and of two recently electrified lines in the south of the country which are at 25 kV AC. Trains, contrary to tram and road traffic, run on the left.
### Rail links with adjacent countries {#rail_links_with_adjacent_countries}
- France --- voltage change 3 kV DC -- 25 kV AC
- LGV 1 --- voltage remains at 25 kV AC.
- via France to the UK on HSL 1, LGV 1, Channel Tunnel and CTRL (Channel Tunnel Rail Link) --- voltage remains at 25 kV AC.
- Germany --- voltage change 3 kV DC -- 15 kV AC
- HSL 3 --- voltage remains at 25 kV AC.
- Netherlands --- voltage change 3 kV DC -- 1500 V DC
- HSL-Zuid --- voltage remains at 25 kV AC.
- Luxembourg --- no voltage change at the border (the line Hatrival (Libramont)-Luxembourg is at 25 kV AC and the line Gouvy-Luxembourg is at 25 kV AC)
### Urban rail {#urban_rail}
An urban commuter rail network, Brussels RER (*Réseau express régional Bruxellois*, *Gewestelijk ExpresNet*), is operational in the Brussels-Capital Region and surrounding areas.
### Metros and light rail {#metros_and_light_rail}
In Belgium an extensive system of tram-like local railways called *vicinal or buurtspoor* lines crossed the country in the first half of the 20th century, and had a greater route length than the main-line railway system. The only survivors of the vicinal/buurtspoor system are the Kusttram (covering almost the entire coast from France to the Netherlands, being the longest tram line in the world) and some sections of the Charleroi lightrail system. Urban tram networks exist in Antwerp (the Antwerp Pre-metro), Ghent and Brussels (the Brussels trams), and are gradually being extended. The only rapid transit system in Belgium is the Brussels Metro. Some heavy metro infrastructures were built in Brussels, Antwerp and the Charleroi area, but these are currently used by light rail vehicles, and their conversion to full metro is not envisaged at present due to lack of funds.
Regional transport in Belgium is operated by regional companies: De Lijn in Flanders operates the Kusttram and the Antwerp pre-metro and tram, and the tram in Gent, as well as a bus network both urban and interurban, TEC in Wallonia operates the Charleroi lightrail system as well as a bus network and MIVB/STIB in the Brussels Capital-Region operates the Brussels metro as well as the Brussels tram and bus network. Despite this regional organization, some bus and tram routes operated by STIB/MIVB go beyond the regional border, and some bus routes operated by TEC or De Lijn transport passengers from the Flemish or Walloon regions to the capital city or in the other regions.
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# Transport in Belgium
## Road transport {#road_transport}
### Road network {#road_network}
The road network in Belgium is managed by regional authorities, meaning that a road section in Flanders is managed by the Flemish Government, a road section in Brussels by the Brussels government and a road section in Wallonia by the Walloon Government. This explains that road signs in Flanders are written in Dutch, even when referring to a Walloon region, and conversely, which can be confusing for foreigners who do not know the different translations of Flemish or Walloon cities in the other language. The road network in Belgium is made of highways, national (or regional) roads (the secondary network) and communal roads (or streets). Communal roads are managed at the municipal level. There are also a number of orbital roads in Belgium around major cities.
- *total:* 152,256 km (2006)
- *country comparison to the world:* 35
- *paved:* 119,079 km (including 1,763 km of expressways)
- *unpaved:* 33,177 km
Belgian road numbering evolved during the middle decades of the twentieth century, in a relatively inconsistent way. Road number allocations became less systematic during the surge in road building that took place in the 1960s and 70s. Frequently downgraded and deteriorating older national roads retained two digit numbers while newer major roads were identified with less instantly memorable three digit numbers, if only because the shorter numbers were already taken. 1985 saw a comprehensive renumbering of the \"N\" (National) roads which now followed the scheme described below.
#### Highways
right\|thumb\|upright=2.0\|Motorways in Belgium
The highways (motorways) in Belgium are marked with a letter **A** and a number. Most often however the European numbering system for the international E-road network is used. There is however not always a one-on-one relationship between the two numbering systems along the whole length of the highways.
- A1 (E19): Brussels - Antwerp - Breda
- A2 (E314): Leuven - Lummen - Genk
- A3 (E40): Brussels - Leuven - Liège - Aachen
- A4 (E411): Brussels - Wavre - Namur - Arlon - Luxembourg
- A10 (E40): Brussels - Ghent - Bruges - Ostend
- A12 (Brussels - Boom - Antwerp - *Netherlands* (Bergen op Zoom)\
:*(includes a section not yet fully upgraded to motorway standard)*
- A13 (E313): Antwerp - Beringen - Hasselt - Liège
- A14 (E17): Lille - Kortrijk - Ghent - Antwerp
- A15 (E42): Charleroi - Namur - Huy - Liège
- A17 (E403): Bruges - Kortrijk - Tournai
- A18 (E40): Bruges - Veurne - Dunkerque
#### Ringways
The ringways (or orbital roads) around bigger cities have their own series of numbers. The names start with a **R** then a first digit indicating the (old) province, and sometimes a second digit to further differentiate in between different ringways.
Some major examples are:
- R0 is the outer ringway around Brussels. The R20 and R22 are (parts of) inner ringways around Brussels.
- R1 is the southern half ringway and R2 is the northern half ringway around Antwerp.
- R3 is the outer ringway and R9 is the inner ringway around Charleroi. The inner ring is counterclockwise-only.
- R4 is the outer ringway and R40 is the inner ringway around Ghent.
- R6 is the outer ringway and R12 is the inner ringway around Mechelen.
- R8 is the outer ringway and R36 is the inner ringway around Kortrijk.
- R23 is the ringway around Leuven.
- R30 is the inner ringway around Bruges.
#### National roads {#national_roads}
The national roads were renumbered in 1985 according to a national scheme and are identified with the letter **N** followed by a number.
The principal national roads fan out from Brussels, numbered in clockwise order:
- N1: Brussels - Mechelen - Antwerp
- N2: Brussels - Leuven - Diest - Hasselt - Maastricht
- N3: Brussels - Leuven - Tienen - Sint-Truiden - Liège - Aachen
- N4: Brussels - Wavre - Namur - Marche-en-Famenne - Bastogne - Arlon
- N5: Brussels - Charleroi - Philippeville
- N6: Brussels - Halle - Soignies - Mons
- N7: Halle - Ath - Tournai
- N8: Brussels - Ninove - Oudenaarde - Kortrijk - Ypres - Veurne - Koksijde
- N9: Brussels - Aalst - Ghent - Eeklo - Bruges - Ostend
Secondary national roads intersect these.
National roads have an N plus 1, 2 or 3 digits. National roads numbered with 3 digits are provincial roads, their first number indicating the province in which the road begins:
- N1xx Province of Antwerp
- N2xx Provinces of Flemish Brabant and Walloon Brabant
- N3xx Province of West Flanders
- N4xx Province of East Flanders
- N5xx Province of Hainaut
- N6xx Province of Liège
- N7xx Province of Limburg
- N8xx Province of Luxembourg
- N9xx Province of Namur
### Cars
#### Changes
Between 1993 and 2012 the average age of the passengers cars registered as running in Belgium increased from just over 6 years and 4 months to 8 years and 17 days. 2012 data for other European countries are not yet available, but in 2010 the average age of car Belgium was 7.9 years against a European Union average of 8.3 years.`{{Fix|text=Out of date}}`{=mediawiki} Government policy provides an important clue as to one reason for the relative newness of the national car parc.`{{clarify|date=February 2025}}`{=mediawiki} Despite recent high-profile plant closures by Ford and Renault, Belgium remains an important centre for automobile component and passenger car production, with important plants operated by Volvo and Audi, and this is reflected in a relatively benign taxation environment whereby company cars are a still a popular and relatively tax efficient element in many remuneration packages.
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# Transport in Belgium
## Water
### Ports and harbours {#ports_and_harbours}
#### Sea ports {#sea_ports}
- Antwerp - Port of Antwerp [1](http://www.portofantwerp.com/) (one of the world\'s busiest ports)
- Bruges (Zeebrugge) - Port of Bruges-Zeebrugge [2](http://www.zeebruggeport.be/) (one of the busiest in Europe)
- Ghent - Port of Ghent [3](http://www.havengent.be/)
- Ostend - Port of Ostend [4](http://www.portofoostende.be/)
#### Main inland ports {#main_inland_ports}
Brussels - Port of Brussels [5](http://www.havenvanbrussel.irisnet.be/) (also accessible for ocean-going ships)\
Liège - Port of Liège [6](https://web.archive.org/web/20041127031815/http://www.liege.port-autonome.be/) (one of the busiest in Europe)
#### European portuary context`{{clarify|date=February 2025}}`{=mediawiki} {#european_portuary_context}
European Sea Ports Organisation [ESPO](http://www.espo.be/)\
European Federation of Inland Ports [FEPI](http://www.inlandports.be/)\
Inland Navigation Europe [INE](http://www.inlandnavigation.org/)\
2002 ranking of world ports by tonnage and by container volume (in TEU) [Port ranking](http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0104779.html)
### Merchant marine {#merchant_marine}
### Waterways
The Belgian waterway network has 2,043 km, 1,532 km of which is in regular commercial use. The main waterways are:
- the Albert Canal connecting Antwerp to Liège,
- the Ghent--Terneuzen Canal through the port of Ghent connecting Ghent with the Westerschelde,
- the Boudewijn Canal through the port of Bruges-Zeebrugge connecting Bruges with the North Sea,
- the Brussels-Charleroi Canal, Brussels--Scheldt Maritime Canal and Scheldt connecting Charleroi to Antwerp,
- the Nimy-Blaton-Péronnes Canal and Scheldt connecting the Borinage to Antwerp,
- the connection between the North Sea and Antwerp and the connection between Dunkerque and Liège via the Nimy-Blaton-Péronnes Canal,
- the Canal du Centre, the lower Sambre and the Meuse.
Waterways are managed on a regional level in Belgium. The region of Brussels only managed 14 km of waterways from the Anderlecht lock to the Vilvoorde bridge. In Flanders, the management of waterways is outsourced to four companies: NV De Scheepvaart, Departement Mobiliteit en Openbare Werken, Agentschap voor Maritieme Dienstverlening en Kust and Waterwegen en Zeekanaal NV.
## Air transport {#air_transport}
According to the 2009 CIA World Factbook`{{Fix|text=Out of date}}`{=mediawiki}, there are a total of 43 airports in Belgium, 27 of which have paved runways. Five airports have passenger flights; the largest of these is Brussels Airport. The other four are Ostend-Bruges International Airport, Brussels-South Charleroi Airport, Liège Airport and Antwerp International Airport. Other airports are military airports or small civil airports with no scheduled flights. Well-known military airports include the Melsbroek Air Base and the Beauvechain Air Base.
The Belgian national airline was Sabena from 1923 to 2001, until it went into bankruptcy. A new Belgian airline named SN Brussels Airlines was then founded by businessman Étienne Davignon. The company was then renamed as Brussels Airlines in 2006. In 2016, Air Belgium was founded by Nicky Terzakis, former CEO of TNT Airways, with the goal of connecting Belgium, offering long-haul flights. In 2019, Brussels Airlines became a subsidiary of German airline Lufthansa
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# Lhop people
hazaras }} The **Lhop** or **Doya people (**Dzongkha**: ལྷོབ་ ་ཡང་ན་ དྲོ་ཡ)** are a little-known tribe of southwest Bhutan. The Bhutanese believe them to be the aboriginal inhabitants of the country. The Lhop are found in the low valleys of Dorokha Gewog and near Phuntsholing in the Duars. The dress of the Lhop resembles the Lepcha, but they bear little similarity with the Bhutia in the North and the Toto in the west. The Doya trace their descent matrilineally, marry their cross cousins, and embalm the deceased who are then placed in a foetal position in a circular sarcophagus above the ground. They follow a blend of Tibetan Buddhism mixed with animism
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# Geography of Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bosnia and Herzegovina is located in Southeastern Europe. Situated in the western Balkans, it has a 932 km border with Croatia to the north and southwest, a 357 km border with Serbia to the east, and a 249 km border with Montenegro to the southeast. It borders the Adriatic Sea along its 20 km coastline.
The most striking features of the local terrain are valleys and mountains which measure up to 2386 m in height. The country is mostly mountainous, encompassing the central Dinaric Alps. The northeastern parts reach into the Pannonian basin, while in the south it borders the Adriatic Sea.
The country\'s natural resources include coal, iron ore, bauxite, manganese, nickel, clay, gypsum, salt, sand, timber and hydropower.
## Regions
The country\'s name comes from the two regions Bosnia and Herzegovina, which have a very vaguely defined border between them. Bosnia occupies the northern areas which are roughly four fifths of the entire country, while Herzegovina occupies the rest in the southern part of the country.
The major cities are the capital Sarajevo, Banja Luka and Bihać in the northwest region known as Bosanska Krajina, Tuzla in the northeast, Zenica in the central part of Bosnia and Mostar is the capital of Herzegovina.
The south part of Bosnia has Mediterranean climate and a great deal of agriculture. Central Bosnia is the most mountainous part of Bosnia featuring prominent mountains Vlašić, Čvrsnica, and Prenj. Eastern Bosnia also features mountains like Trebević, Jahorina, Igman, Bjelašnica and Treskavica. It was here that the 1984 Winter Olympics were held.
In Bosnia and Herzegovina forest cover is around 43% of the total land area, equivalent to 2,187,910 hectares (ha) of forest in 2020, down from 2,210,000 hectares (ha) in 1990. For the year 2015, 74% of the forest area was reported to be under public ownership and 26% private ownership. Eastern Bosnia is heavily forested along the river Drina and most forest areas are in Central, Eastern and Western parts of Bosnia. Northern Bosnia contains very fertile agricultural land along the river Sava and the corresponding area is heavily farmed. This farmland is a part of the Parapannonian Plain stretching into neighbouring Croatia and Serbia. The river Sava and corresponding Posavina river basin hold the cities of Brčko, Bosanski Šamac, Bosanski Brod and Bosanska Gradiška.
The northwest part of Bosnia is called Bosanska Krajina and holds the cities of Banja Luka, Prijedor, Sanski Most, Jajce, Cazin, Velika Kladuša and Bihać. Kozara National Park and Mrakovica World War II monument is located in this region.
The country has only 20 km of coastline, around the town of Neum in the Herzegovina-Neretva Canton, although surrounded by Croatian peninsulas it is possible to get to the middle of the Adriatic from Neum. Through the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Bosnia has a right of innocent passage to the outer sea. Neum has many hotels and is an important tourism destination.
## Rivers
There are seven major rivers of Bosnia and Herzegovina:
- The Una in the northwest part of Bosnia flows along the northern and western border of Bosnia and Croatia and through the Bosnian city of Bihać. It is popular for rafting and adventure sports.
- The Sana flows through the city of Sanski Most and Prijedor and is a tributary of the river Una in the north.
- The Vrbas flows through the cities of Gornji Vakuf -- Uskoplje, Bugojno, Jajce, Banja Luka, Srbac and reaches the river Sava in the north. The Vrbas flows through the central part of Bosnia and flows outwards to the North.
- The Bosna is the longest river in Bosnia and is fully contained within the country as it stretches from its source near Sarajevo to the river Sava in the north. It gave its name to the country.
- The Drina flows through the eastern part of Bosnia, at many places in the border between Bosnia and Serbia. The Drina flows through the cities of Foča, Goražde Višegrad and Zvornik.
- The Neretva is the longest river in Herzegovina, flowing from Jablanica south to the Adriatic Sea. The river is famous as it flows through the city of Mostar.
The Sava is the longest river in Bosnia and Herzegovina. However, within Bosnia and Herzegovina, it only runs along the border with Croatia. It then flows into Serbia. Towns like Brčko, Bosanski Šamac, and Bosanska Gradiška lie on the river.
## Phytogeography
Phytogeographically, Bosnia and Herzegovina belongs to the Boreal Kingdom and is shared between the Illyrian province of the Circumboreal Region and Adriatic province of the Mediterranean Region. According to the WWF, the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina can be subdivided into three ecoregions: the Pannonian mixed forests, Dinaric Mountains mixed forests and Illyrian deciduous forests.
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# Geography of Bosnia and Herzegovina
## Climate
Except for the easternmost provinces, the country experiences a wet Mediterranean climate.
The hills and mountains are drier, colder, windier, and cloudier. `{{Weather box
|width = auto
|location = Sarajevo
|collapsed =
|metric first = Y
|single line = Y
| Jan record high C = 18.2
| Feb record high C = 21.4
| Mar record high C = 26.6
| Apr record high C = 30.2
| May record high C = 33.2
| Jun record high C = 35.9
| Jul record high C = 38.2
| Aug record high C = 40.0
| Sep record high C = 37.7
| Oct record high C = 32.2
| Nov record high C = 24.7
| Dec record high C = 18.0
|year record high C = 40.0
| Jan high C = 3.7
| Feb high C = 6.0
| Mar high C = 10.9
| Apr high C = 15.6
| May high C = 21.4
| Jun high C = 24.5
| Jul high C = 27.0
| Aug high C = 27.2
| Sep high C = 22.0
| Oct high C = 17.0
| Nov high C = 9.7
| Dec high C = 4.2
|year high C = 15.8
| Jan mean C = 0.2
| Feb mean C = 1.8
| Mar mean C = 6.0
| Apr mean C = 10.2
| May mean C = 15.2
| Jun mean C = 18.2
| Jul mean C = 20.3
| Aug mean C = 20.4
| Sep mean C = 16.0
| Oct mean C = 11.7
| Nov mean C = 5.8
| Dec mean C = 1.2
|year mean C = 10.6
| Jan low C = -3.3
| Feb low C = -2.5
| Mar low C = 1.1
| Apr low C = 4.8
| May low C = 9.0
| Jun low C = 11.9
| Jul low C = 13.7
| Aug low C = 13.7
| Sep low C = 10.0
| Oct low C = 6.4
| Nov low C = 1.9
| Dec low C = -1.8
|year low C = 5.4
| Jan record low C = -26.8
| Feb record low C = -23.4
| Mar record low C = -26.4
| Apr record low C = -13.2
| May record low C = -9.0
| Jun record low C = -3.2
| Jul record low C = -2.7
| Aug record low C = -1.0
| Sep record low C = -4.0
| Oct record low C = -10.9
| Nov record low C = -19.3
| Dec record low C = -22.4
|year record low C = -26.8
| precipitation colour = green
| Jan precipitation mm = 68
| Feb precipitation mm = 64
| Mar precipitation mm = 70
| Apr precipitation mm = 77
| May precipitation mm = 72
| Jun precipitation mm = 90
| Jul precipitation mm = 72
| Aug precipitation mm = 66
| Sep precipitation mm = 91
| Oct precipitation mm = 86
| Nov precipitation mm = 85
| Dec precipitation mm = 86
|year precipitation mm = 928
| Jan humidity = 79
| Feb humidity = 74
| Mar humidity = 68
| Apr humidity = 67
| May humidity = 68
| Jun humidity = 70
| Jul humidity = 69
| Aug humidity = 69
| Sep humidity = 75
| Oct humidity = 77
| Nov humidity = 76
| Dec humidity = 81
|year humidity = 73
| Jan rain days = 8
| Feb rain days = 10
| Mar rain days = 13
| Apr rain days = 17
| May rain days = 17
| Jun rain days = 16
| Jul rain days = 14
| Aug rain days = 13
| Sep rain days = 15
| Oct rain days = 13
| Nov rain days = 12
| Dec rain days = 11
|year rain days = 159
| Jan snow days = 10
| Feb snow days = 12
| Mar snow days = 9
| Apr snow days = 2
| May snow days = 0.2
| Jun snow days = 0
| Jul snow days = 0
| Aug snow days = 0
| Sep snow days = 0
| Oct snow days = 2
| Nov snow days = 6
| Dec snow days = 12
|year snow days = 53
| Jan sun = 57.1
| Feb sun = 83.8
| Mar sun = 125.6
| Apr sun = 152.3
| May sun = 191.7
| Jun sun = 207.1
| Jul sun = 256.3
| Aug sun = 238.2
| Sep sun = 186.6
| Oct sun = 148.8
| Nov sun = 81.2
| Dec sun = 40.7
|year sun = 1769.4
|source 1 = Pogoda.ru.net<ref name = pogoda>{{cite web
| url = http://www.pogoda.ru.net/climate2/14654.htm
| title = Weather and Climate: The Climate of Sarajevo
| publisher = Weather and Climate (Погода и климат)
| access-date = August 25, 2016
| language = ru
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120516141700/http://pogoda.ru.net/climate2/14654.htm
| archive-date = May 16, 2012
| url-status = dead}}</ref>
|source 2 = [[NOAA]] (sun, 1961–1990)<ref name = NOAA>{{cite web
| url = ftp://ftp.atdd.noaa.gov/pub/GCOS/WMO-Normals/RA-VI/BH/14654.TXT
| title = Sarajevo Climate Normals 1961–1990
| publisher = National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200728153920/ftp://ftp.atdd.noaa.gov/pub/GCOS/WMO-Normals/RA-VI/BH/14654.TXT
| archive-date = 2020-07-28
| url-status = dead
| access-date = August 25, 2016}}</ref>
|date=August 2016
}}`{=mediawiki}
The north region has a typical continental climate.
### Climate change {#climate_change}
## Mining industry {#mining_industry}
Various archaeological artifacts including relicts of mining activities and tools belonging to similar age groups, provide an indication of the geographical distribution, scale and methods of mining activities in Bosnia and Herzegovina during the Paleolithic to Roman era.
Most important of these is the so-called area of "central Bosnian mountains" located between the rivers Vrbas, Lašva, Neretva, Rama and their tributaries. The second one is the area of western Bosnia, bordered by the Vrbas and Una rivers, with its main orebearing formations found in the river-valleys of Sana and Japra, and their tributaries. The third area is eastern Bosnia, around the river Drina between the towns of Foča and Zvornik, the principal mining activity centered around Srebrenica.
Ores of various metals, including iron, are found in these areas and exploitation has been going on for more than 5000 years -- from the period of prehistoric human settlers, through Illyrian, Roman, Slavic, Turkish and Austrian rulers, into the present.
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# Geography of Bosnia and Herzegovina
## Land use {#land_use}
- **Arable land:** 19.73%
- **Permanent crops:** 2.06%
- **Other:** 78.22% (2012 est.)
**Irrigated land:** 30 km2 (2003)
**Total renewable water resources:** 37.5 km3 (2011)
## Environment
**Natural hazards:**
- Destructive earthquakes
**Current issues:**
- Air pollution from metallurgical plants
- Sites for disposing of urban waste are limited
- Widespread casualties, water shortages, and destruction of infrastructure because of the 1992--95 war
- Deforestation
**International agreements:**
- Party to: Air Pollution, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands
- Signed, but not ratified: none
## Gallery
<File:NP001> nacionalni park sutjeska perucica.jpg\|Sutjeska National Park <File:NP002> - 14.jpg\|Kozara National Park <File:Štrbački> buk 1.jpg\|Una National Park <File:Drina> Canyon
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# Politics of Bosnia and Herzegovina
The **politics of Bosnia and Herzegovina** are defined by a parliamentary, representative democratic framework, where the Chairman of the Council of Ministers of Bosnia and Herzegovina, named by the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina, is the head of government. Executive power is exercised by the Council of Ministers of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Legislative power is vested in both the Council of Ministers and the Parliamentary Assembly of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Members of the Parliamentary Assembly are chosen according to a proportional representation system. The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature.
The system of government established by the Dayton Agreement that ended the Bosnian war in 1995 is an example of consociationalism, as representation is by elites who represent the country\'s three major ethnic groups termed *constituent peoples*, with each having a guaranteed share of power.
Bosnia and Herzegovina is divided into two *Entities* -- the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republika Srpska, which are politically autonomous to an extent, as well as the Brčko District, which is jointly administered by both. The Entities have their own constitutions. `{{Democracy Index rating|Bosnia and Herzegovina|hybrid regime|2022}}`{=mediawiki}
## Dayton Agreement {#dayton_agreement}
Due to the Dayton Agreement, signed on 14 December 1995, Bosnia and Herzegovina forms an undeclared protectorate, where highest power is given to the High Representative for Bosnia and Herzegovina, named by the Peace Implementation Council. The intention of the Agreement was to retain Bosnia\'s exterior border, while creating a joint multi-ethnic and democratic government based on proportional representation, and charged with conducting foreign, economic, and fiscal policy.
The Dayton Agreement established the Office of the High Representative (OHR) to oversee the implementation of the civilian aspects of the agreement. About 250 international and 450 local staff members are employed by the OHR.
## High Representative {#high_representative}
The highest political authority in the country is the High Representative for Bosnia and Herzegovina, the chief executive officer for the international civilian presence in the country. The High Representative has power to remove government officials, including court justices, local government members, members of parliament, etc. From its establishment, the Office of the High Representative has sacked 192 Bosnian officials. The mandate of the High Representatives derives from the Dayton Agreement, as confirmed by the Peace Implementation Council (PIC), a body with a Steering Board composed of representatives of Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia, the United Kingdom, the United States, the presidency of the European Union, the European Commission, and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. The Peace Implementation Council has established several criteria for the OHR to be closed, two of which have been completed but must be sustained until all five are completed.
Due to the vast powers of the High Representative over Bosnian politics and essential veto powers, the position has also been compared to that of a viceroy.
## Executive branch {#executive_branch}
The Chair of the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina rotates amongst three members (a Bosniak, a Serb, and a Croat) every 8 months within their 4-year term. The three members of the Presidency are elected directly by the people, with Federation voters electing both the Bosniak and the Croat member, and Republika Srpska voters electing the Serb member. The Presidency serves as a collective head of state. The Presidency is mainly responsible for the foreign policy and proposing the budget.
The Prime Minister, formally titled Chairman of the Council of Ministers of Bosnia and Herzegovina, is nominated by the Presidency and approved by the House of Representatives. They appoint the Minister of Foreign Affairs, the Minister of Foreign Trade and other ministers as may be appropriate (no more than two thirds of the ministers may be appointed from the territory of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina), who assume the office upon the approval by the House of Representatives; also, the chair appoints deputy ministers (who may not be from the same constituent people as their ministers), who assume the office upon the approval by the House of Representatives.
The Council is responsible for carrying out policies and decisions in the fields of diplomacy, economy, inter-entity relations and other matters as agreed by the entities.
The two Entities have Governments that deal with internal matters not dealt with by the Council of Ministers.
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# Politics of Bosnia and Herzegovina
## Legislative branch {#legislative_branch}
The Parliamentary Assembly or *Parliamentarna skupština* is the main legislative body in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It consists of two chambers:
- the House of Peoples or *Dom naroda*
- the House of Representatives or *Predstavnički dom/Zastupnički dom*
The Parliamentary Assembly is responsible for:
- enacting legislation as necessary to implement decisions of the Presidency or to carry out the responsibilities of the Assembly under the Constitution.
- deciding upon the sources and amounts of revenues for the operations of the institutions of Bosnia and Herzegovina and international obligations of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
- approving the budget for the institutions of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
- deciding ratify treaties and agreements.
- other matters as are necessary to carry out its duties of as are assigned to it by mutual agreement of the Entities.
Bosnia and Herzegovina did not have a permanent election law until 2001, during which time a draft law specified four-year terms for the state and first-order administrative division entity legislatures. The final election law was passed and publicized on 9 September 2001.
### House of Peoples {#house_of_peoples}
The House of Peoples includes 15 delegates who serve two-year terms. Two-thirds of delegates come from the Federation (5 Croats and 5 Bosniaks) and one-third from the Republika Srpska (5 Serbs). Nine constitutes a quorum in the House of Peoples, provided that at least three delegates from each group are present. Federation representatives are selected by the House of Peoples of the Federation, which has 58 seats (17 Bosniaks, 17 Croats, 17 Serbs, 7 others), and whose members are delegated by cantonal assemblies to serve four-year terms. Republika Srpska representatives are selected by the 28-member Republika Srpska Council of Peoples, which was established in the National Assembly of Republika Srpska; each constituent people has eight delegates, while four delegates are representatives of \"others\".
### House of Representatives {#house_of_representatives}
The House of Representatives comprises 42 members elected under a system of proportional representation (PR) for a four-year term. Two thirds of the members are elected from the Federation (14 Croats; 14 Bosniaks) and one third from the Republika Srpska (14 Serbs).
For the 2010 general election, voters in the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina elected twenty-one members in five multi-member constituencies by PR, while the remaining seven seats were allocated by compensatory PR. Voters in the Republika Srpska elected nine members in three multi-member constituencies by PR, while the five other seats were allocated by compensatory PR.
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# Politics of Bosnia and Herzegovina
## Political parties and elections {#political_parties_and_elections}
Candidate Party Votes \%
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ----------------------------------------------------- --------------- ---------
Bosniak member
Šefik Džaferović Party of Democratic Action 212,581 36.61
Denis Bećirović Social Democratic Party of Bosnia and Herzegovina 194,688 33.53
Fahrudin Radončić Union for a Better Future of BiH 75,210 12.95
Mirsad Hadžikadić Independent 58,555 10.09
Senad Šepić Independent Bloc 29,922 5.15
Amer Jerlagić Party for Bosnia and Herzegovina 9,655 1.66
Croat member
Željko Komšić Democratic Front 225,500 52.64
Dragan Čović Croatian Democratic Union of Bosnia and Herzegovina 154,819 36.14
Diana Zelenika Croatian Democratic Union 1990 25,890 6.04
Boriša Falatar Our Party 16,036 3.74
Jerko Ivanković Lijanović People\'s Party Work for Prosperity 6,099 1.42
Serb member
Milorad Dodik Alliance of Independent Social Democrats 368,210 53.88
Mladen Ivanić Serb Democratic Party 292,065 42.74
Mirjana Popović Fair Policy Party 12,731 1.86
Gojko Kličković Fair Policy Party 10,355 1.52
Invalid/blank votes 120,259 --
**Total** **1,812,575** **100**
Registered voters/turnout
Source: [CEC](http://www.izbori.ba/Utvrdjeni2014/Finalni/PredsjednistvoBiH/Default.aspx)
### House of Representatives {#house_of_representatives_1}
Party Federation
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------- --------- --------
Votes \% Seats Votes
Party of Democratic Action 252,081 25.48 8
Alliance of Independent Social Democrats 4,663 0.47 0
SDS--NDP--NS--SRS -- \|-- --
Social Democratic Party 140,781 14.23 5
HDZ BiH--HSS--HSP-HNS--HKDU--HSP-AS BiH--HDU BiH 145,487 14.71 5
Democratic Front--Civic Alliance 96,180 9.72 3
Social Democratic Party 92,906 9.45 3
PDP--NDP 194 0.02 0
Croatian Democratic Union 1990 40,113 4.08 1
Bosnian-Herzegovinian Patriotic Party-Sefer Halilović 35,866 3.65 1
Democratic People\'s Alliance -- \|-- --
Party for Bosnia and Herzegovina 25,677 2.61 0
Party of Democratic Activity 22,088 2.25 1
Socialist Party -- \|-- --
SPP--SDU--DNZ 12,885 1.31 0
People\'s Party for Work and Betterment 12,927 1.31 0
Serbian Progressive Party -- \|-- --
Our Party 10,913 1.11 0
Party of Justice and Trust -- \|-- --
Bosnian Party 7,518 0.76 0
Social Democratic Union 5,881 0.6 0
Labour Party 5,731 0.58 0
HSP--DSI 5,475 0.56 0
Communist Party 3,075 0.31 0
HKDU 4,718 0.48 0
Diaspora Party 3,371 0.34 0
New Movement 1,830 0.19 0
Tomo Vukić -- \|-- --
Invalid/blank votes 97,720 -- --
**Total** **1,081,025** **100** **28**
Registered voters/turnout --
Source: [CEC](http://www.izbori.ba/Utvrdjeni2014/Finalni/ParlamentBIH/Default.aspx)
### Election history {#election_history}
National House of Representatives:
- elections held 12--13 September 1998:
- seats by party/coalition -- KCD 17, HDZ-BiH 6, SDP-BiH 6, Sloga 4, SDS 4, SRS-RS 2, DNZ 1, NHI 1, RSRS 1
- elections held 5 October 2002:
- percent of vote by party/coalition - SDA 21.9%, SDS 14.0%, SBiH 10.5%, SDP 10.4%, SNSD 9.8%, HDZ 9.5%, PDP 4.6%, others 19.3%
- seats by party/coalition -- SDA 10, SDS 5, SBiH 6, SDP 4, SNSD 3, HDZ 5, PDP 2, others 7
House of Peoples:
- constituted 4 December 1998
- constituted in fall 2000
- constituted in January 2003
- next to be constituted in 2007
Federal House of Representatives:
- elections held fall 1998:
- seats by party/coalition -- KCD 68, HDZ-BiH 28, SDP-BiH 25, NHI 4, DNZ 3, DSP 2, BPS 2, HSP 2, SPRS 2, BSP 1, KC 1, BOSS 1, HSS 1
- elections held 5 October 2002:
- seats by party/coalition -- SDA 32, HDZ-BiH 16, SDP 15, SBiH 15, other 20
Federal House of Peoples:
- constituted November 1998
- constituted December 2002
Republika Srpska National Assembly:
- elections held fall 1998
- seats by party/coalition -- SDS 19, KCD 15, SNS 12, SRS-RS 11, SPRS 10, SNSD 6, RSRS 3, SKRS 2, SDP 2, KKO 1, HDZ-BiH 1, NHI 1
- elections held fall 2000
- elections held 5 October 2002
- seats by party/coalition -- SDS 26, SNSD 19, PDP 9, SDA 6, SRS 4, SPRS 3, DNZ 3, SBiH 4, SDP 3, others 6
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# Politics of Bosnia and Herzegovina
## Judicial branch {#judicial_branch}
### Constitutional Court {#constitutional_court}
The Constitutional Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina is the supreme, final arbiter of constitutional matters. The court is composed of nine members: four selected by the House of Representatives of the Federation, two by the National Assembly of Republika Srpska, and three are foreign citizens appointed by the President of the European Court of Human Rights after courtesy-consultation with the Presidency.
The initial term of appointee is 5 years, unless they resign or are removed by consensus of other judges. Appointed judges are not eligible for reappointment. Judges subsequently appointed will serve until the age of 70, unless they resign sooner or are removed. Appointments made 5 years into the initial appointments may be governed by a different regulation for selection, to be determined by the Parliamentary Assembly.
Proceedings of the Court are public, and decisions are published. Court rules are adopted by a majority in the Court. Court decisions are final and supposedly binding though this is not always the case, as noted.
The Constitutional Court has jurisdiction over deciding in constitutional disputes that arise between the Entities or amongst Bosnia and Herzegovina and an Entity or Entities. Such disputes may be referred only by a member of the Presidency, the Chair of the Council of Ministers, the chair or deputy chair of either of the chambers of the Parliamentary Assembly, or by one-fourth of the legislature of either Entity.
The Court also has appellate jurisdiction within the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
### State Court {#state_court}
The Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina consists of three divisions -- Administrative, Appellate and Criminal -- having jurisdiction over cases related to the state-level law and executive, as well as appellate jurisdiction over cases initiated in the entities.
A War Crimes Chamber was introduced in January 2005, and has adopted two cases transferred from the ICTY, as well as dozens of war crimes cases originally initiated in cantonal courts.
The State Court also deals with organized crime, and economic crime including corruption cases. For example, the former member of the Presidency Dragan Čović was on trial for alleged involvement in organized crime.
### Human Rights Chamber {#human_rights_chamber}
The Human Rights Chamber for Bosnia and Herzegovina (*Dom za ljudska prava za Bosnu i Hercegovinu*) existed between March 1996 and 31 December 2003. It was a judicial body established under the Annex 6 of the General Framework Agreement for Peace in Bosnia and Herzegovina (Dayton Agreement).
### Entities
The two Entities have Supreme Courts. Each entity also has a number of lower courts. There are 10 cantonal courts in the Federation, along with a number of municipal courts. The Republika Srpska has seven district (*okrug*) courts.
### High Judicial and Prosecutorial Council {#high_judicial_and_prosecutorial_council}
The High Judicial and Prosecutorial Council (JHPC / VSTV) is the self-regulatory body of the judiciary in the country, tasked with guaranteeing its independence. It is based on the continental tradition of self-management of the judiciary. It was formed in 2004
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# Transport in Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bosnia and Herzegovina has facilities for road, rail and air transport. There are five international road routes and 20 state highways, with bus connections to many countries. Railways total just over 1,000 km with links to Croatia and Serbia. There are 25 airports, seven of them with paved runways. The Sava River is navigable, but its use is limited.
## Roadways
- *total*: 21,846 km
- *paved*: 11,425 km (4,686 km of interurban roads)
- *unpaved*: 10,421 km (2006)
### Roads
#### International
- E65
- E73 (Pan-European corridor Vc), A1 highway
- E661
- E761
- E762
#### State highways {#state_highways}
- M-1.8
- M-2
- M-4
- M-4.2
- M-5
- M-6
- M-6.1
- M-8
- M-11
- M-14
- M-14.1
- M-14.2
- M-15
- M-16
- M-16.1
- M-16.2
- M-16.3
- M-16.4
- M-17
- M-17.2
- M-17.3
- M-18
- M-19
- M-19.2
- M-19.3
- M-20
### National and international bus services {#national_and_international_bus_services}
Bosnia & Herzegovina is well connected to other countries in Europe. The main bus station of Sarajevo has its own website. The main provider of international bus connection in Bosnia & Herzegovina is Eurolines. There are routes to Croatia, Germany, Austria, France, Netherlands, Montenegro, Belgium, Denmark, Sweden and Serbia. Despite Bosnia & Herzegovina\'s geographical closeness to Serbia, there is only one bus a day, which takes more than 8 hours due to the lack of proper roads.
## Railways
- Total: 1,032 km standard gauge: `{{RailGauge|1435mm}}`{=mediawiki} (2006)
Railway operators in Bosnia and Herzegovina are successors of the Yugoslav Railways within the country boundaries following independence from in March 1992. The two companies operating services (in their respective divisions following the Dayton Agreement) are:
- Railways of Republika Srpska (Željeznice Republike Srpske, ŽRS), which operates in Republika Srpska
- Railways of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (Željeznice Federacije Bosne i Hercegovine, ŽFBH), which operates in the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
ŽFBH and ŽRS have been members of International Union of Railways (UIC) since 1992 and 1998, respectively.
### Rail links with adjacent countries {#rail_links_with_adjacent_countries}
- Same gauge: `{{RailGauge|sg}}`{=mediawiki}
- Croatia --- yes
- Serbia --- yes
- Montenegro --- no
## Waterways
Sava River (northern border) open to shipping but use is limited (2008)
### Ports and harbours {#ports_and_harbours}
Gradiška, Brod, Šamac, and Brčko (all inland waterway ports on the Sava none of which are fully operational), Orašje, Bosnia
## Merchant marine {#merchant_marine}
none (1999 est.)
## Airports
Air transport begin in Bosnia and Herzegovina during the period of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia when the flag-carrier Aeroput inaugurated a regular flight linking the national capital Belgrade with Podgorica in 1930, with a stop in Sarajevo. A year later Aeroput inaugurated another regular flight starting in Belgrade and then stopping in Sarajevo and continuing towards Split, Sušak and Zagreb. By mid-1930s Aeroput inaugurated two routes linking Belgrade and Zagreb with Dubrovnik through Sarajevo, and, in 1938, it inaugurated an international route linking Dubrovnik, which was becoming a major holiday destination, through Sarajevo, to Zagreb, Vienna, Brno and Prague
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# Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina
The **Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina** (`{{lang-sh-Latn-Cyrl|separator=" / "|Oružane snage Bosne i Hercegovine|Оружане снаге Босне и Херцеговине}}`{=mediawiki} or **OSBiH**) is the official military force of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The BiH armed forces were officially unified in 2005 and are composed of two founding armies: the Bosniak and Bosnian Croat Army of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (VFBiH) and the Bosnian Serbs\' Army of Republika Srpska (VRS).
The Ministry of Defence of Bosnia and Herzegovina, founded in 2004, is in charge of the Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
## Chain of command {#chain_of_command}
In accordance with the Constitution of Bosnia and Herzegovina (Article 5.5a), Bosnian Law of defense and Bosnian Law of service, the supreme civilian commander of the Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina is the collective Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The collective Presidency directs the Ministry of Defence of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Armed Forces. Former Bosnia and Herzegovina ministers of defence include Nikola Radovanović, Selmo Cikotić, Muhamed Ibrahimović, Zekerijah Osmić, Marina Pendeš and Sifet Podžić. `{{As of|2023}}`{=mediawiki}, the minister is Zukan Helez. Former Chiefs of Joint Staff of the Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina include Lieutenant colonel general Sifet Podžić, Lieutenant colonel general Miladin Milojčić, Lieutenant colonel general Anto Jeleč and Colonel general Senad Mašović. The current Chief of Joint Staff is General Gojko Knežević. Conscription was completely abolished in Bosnia and Herzegovina effective 1 January 2006.
## Defence law {#defence_law}
The Bosnia and Herzegovina Defence Law addresses the following areas: the Military of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Government Institutions, Entity Jurisdictions and Structure, Budget and Financing, Composition of Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina, War Declaration, natural disasters, conflict of interests and professionalism, Oath to Bosnia-Herzegovina, flags, anthem and military insignia, and transitional and end orders.
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# Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina
## History
The AFBiH was formed from three armies of the Bosnian War period: the Bosniak Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Bosnian Serb Army of Republika Srpska, and the Croat Defence Council.
The Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina was created on 15 April 1992 during the early days of the Bosnian War. Before the ARBiH was formally created, there existed Territorial Defence, an official military force of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and several paramilitary groups such as the Green Berets, Patriotic League, and civil defence groups, as well as many criminal gangs and collections of police and military professionals. The army was formed under poor circumstances, with a very low number of tanks, APCs and no military aviation assets. The army was divided into Corps, each Corps was stationed in a territory. The first commander was Sefer Halilović.
The Army of Republika Srpska was created on 12 May 1992. Before the VRS was formally created, there were several paramilitary groups such as the Srpska dobrovoljačka garda, Beli Orlovi, as well as some Russian, Greek and other volunteers. The army was equipped with ex-JNA inventory. It had about 200 tanks, mostly T-55s and 85 M-84s, and 150 APCs with several heavy artillery pieces. The Air Defense of VRS shot down several aircraft, like F-16, Mirage 2000, F-18 and one Croatian Air Force MiG-21. The VRS received support from the Yugoslav Army and FR Yugoslavia.
The Croatian Defence Council was the main military formation of the Croatian Republic of Herzeg-Bosnia during the Bosnian War. It was the first organized military force to control the Croat-populated areas, created on 8 April 1992. They ranged from men armed with shotguns assigned to village defence tasks to organized, uniformed, and well-equipped brigade-sized formations that nevertheless employed part-time soldiers. As time went on, the HVO forces became increasingly better organized and more \"professional\", but it was not until early 1994, that the HVO began to form guards brigades, mobile units manned by full-time professional soldiers.
In 1995--96, a NATO-led international peacekeeping force (IFOR) of 60,000 troops served in Bosnia and Herzegovina, beginning on December 21, 1995, to implement and monitor the military aspects of the Dayton Peace Agreement. IFOR was succeeded by a smaller, NATO-led Stabilization Force or SFOR. The number of SFOR troops was reduced first to 12,000 and then to 7,000. SFOR was in turn succeeded by an even smaller, European Union-led European Union Force, EUFOR Althea. `{{as of|2004}}`{=mediawiki}, EUFOR Althea numbered around 7,000 troops.
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# Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina
## History
### The Bosnian Train and Equip Program {#the_bosnian_train_and_equip_program}
The program to train and equip the Bosnian Federation Army after the signing of the Dayton Peace Agreement in 1995 was a key element of the U.S. strategy to bring stable peace to Bosnia. The Train and Equip Program also calmed the concerns of some Congressmen about committing U.S. troops to peacekeeping duty in Bosnia. Creating a stable and functioning Federation Army that could deter Serb aggression had the prospect of allowing NATO and U.S. troops to withdraw from Bosnia within the original 12-month mandate, which the administration assured Congress was all it would take to stabilize the country.
+----------------------------------+--------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Country | Funds | Equipment |
+==================================+==============+=========================================================================================================================+
| United Arab Emirates | \$15 million | \$120 million worth of equipment • 36 pieces of M101 howitzer |
| | | |
| | | • 50 AMX-30 tanks and 31 AML-90 armored vehicles |
| | | |
| | | • 8 transport vehicles |
+----------------------------------+--------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| United States | | \$109 million worth of equipment and services • 45 M60A3 tanks, 80 M113-A2 armored personnel carriers, 240 heavy trucks |
| | | |
| | | • 15 UH-1H helicopters |
| | | |
| | | • 116 155mm field howitzers and 840 AT4 light antitank weapons |
| | | |
| | | • 1,000 M60 machine guns and 46,100 M16 rifles |
| | | |
| | | • JANUS and BBS Command and Staff simulation software |
| | | |
| | | • 2,342 radios, 4,100 tactical telephones, binoculars |
+----------------------------------+--------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Saudi Arabia | \$50 million | |
+----------------------------------+--------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Kuwait | \$50 million | |
+----------------------------------+--------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Brunei | \$27 million | |
+----------------------------------+--------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Qatar | | \$13 million worth of equipment • 25 armored personnel carriers |
+----------------------------------+--------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Malaysia | \$10 million | |
+----------------------------------+--------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Egypt | | \$3.8 million worth of equipment • 16 130mm field guns |
| | | |
| | | • 12 122mm howitzers and 18 23mm antiaircraft guns |
+----------------------------------+--------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Turkey | | \$2 million worth of equipment • 10 T-55 tanks |
+----------------------------------+--------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| **Total Value: \$399.8 million** | | |
+----------------------------------+--------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
: Train and Equip Program Donated Resources to the Army of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina as of January 1997.
The program conducted an "international program review" in April 1998 to demonstrate to U.S. partners that it had been well managed and successful and to solicit additional contributions. The event was attended by 20 current and potential donor countries and an air of satisfaction prevailed.
The Dayton Peace Agreement left the country with three armies under two commands: the Bosniak and Bosnian Croat armies within the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, facing their recent adversaries the Army of the Republika Srpska. These three forces together had around 419,000 personnel in regulars and reserves. This force size and orientation was totally at odds with the international peacemakers\' vision. Slow reductions did take place. By 2004, the two warring factions had reduced their forces to 12,000 regulars and 240,000 reserves but had made virtually no progress in integrating the two into one new force, though the basis of a state defence ministry had been put in place via the Standing Committee on Military Matters (SCMM). Conscription for periods of around four months continued, the costs of which were weighing down both entities.
The restructuring of the three armies into the Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina represents part of a wider process of \'thickening\' the central state institutions in Bosnia and Herzegovina. To mitigate some of the potential controversy around restructuring, the Office of the High Representative (OHR) made use of evidence of malpractice in Republika Srpska military institutions. Firstly, from 2002 onwards, OHR utilised a scandal around the provision of parts and assistance to Iraq in breach of a UN embargo (the so-called Orao affair) to support the cause for bringing governance of the armies under the level of central institutions. Following this, in 2004, the process was accelerated, drawing its justification from new evidence of material and other forms of support flowing from Republika Srpska armed forces to ICTY indictee Ratko Mladić. OHR condemned the 'systematic connivance of high-ranking members of the RS military' and noted that measures to tackle such systematic deficiencies were under consideration. This was quickly followed by the expansion of the mandate for a Defence Reform Commission, which ultimately resulted in the consolidation of three armed forces into one, governed at the level of the central state.
As the joint AFBiH began to develop, troops began to be sent abroad. Bosnia and Herzegovina deployed a unit of 37 men to destroy munitions and clear mines, in addition to 6 command personnel as part of the Multinational force in Iraq. The unit was first deployed to Fallujah, then Talil Air Base, and is now located at Camp Echo. In December 2006, the Bosnian government formally extended its mandate through June 2007. Bosnia and Herzegovina planned to send another 49 soldiers from the 6th Infantry Division to Iraq in August 2008, their mission being to protect/guard Camp Victory in Baghdad.`{{Update inline|reason=More than 10 years have passed, so the mentioned missions could have been cancelled have ended.|date=July 2021}}`{=mediawiki}
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# Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina
## Structure
The Military units are commanded by the **Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina Joint Staff** in Sarajevo. There are two major commands under the Joint Staff: Operational Command and Support Command.
There are three regiments that are each formed by soldiers from the three ethnic groups of Bosnia and Herzegovina: Bosniaks, Croats and Serbs and trace their roots to the armies that were created during the war in BiH. These regiments have their distinct ethnic insignias and consist of three active battalions each. Headquarters of regiments have no operational authority. On the basis of the Law on Service in the Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the regimental headquarters have the following tasks: to manage the regimental museum, monitor financial fund, prepare, investigate and cherish the history of the regiment, the regiment publish newsletters, maintain cultural and historical heritage, give guidance on holding special ceremonies, give guidance on customs, dress and deportment Regiment, conduct officer, NCO and military clubs. Each regiments\' three battalions are divided evenly between the three active brigades of the Army.
### Joint Staff of the Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina {#joint_staff_of_the_armed_forces_of_bosnia_and_herzegovina}
Name Headquarters Information Chief
------------------------- -------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------ ----------------
**Operational Command** Sarajevo The main command center of the Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Gojko Knežević
### Operational Command {#operational_command}
`{{Location map+ | Bosnia
| width = 400
| float = right
| caption = {{center|Brigade locations 2020: [[File:Blue pog.svg|8px]] 4th Infantry Brigade [[File:Red pog.svg|8px]] 5th Infantry Brigade [[File:Yellow pog.svg|8px]] 6th Infantry Brigade}}
| relief = 1
| places =
{{Location map~ | Bosnia | background= white |label= <small>{{nowrap|'''Oper. Cmd<br>Tac. Sup. Bde'''}}</small> |lat= 43.866667 |long= 18.396667 |position=left |mark=Green 008000 pog.svg |marksize = 12}}
{{Location map~ | Bosnia | background= white |label= <small>{{nowrap|'''4 Infantry Bde'''}}</small> |lat= 43.111828 |long= 17.705483 |position=left |mark=Blue pog.svg |marksize = 10}}
{{Location map~ | Bosnia | background= white |label= <small>{{nowrap|1 Infantry Bn.}}</small> |lat= 43.825278 |long= 17.005833 |position=left |mark=Blue pog.svg |marksize = 8}}
{{Location map~ | Bosnia | background= white |label= <small>{{nowrap|2 Infantry Bn.}}</small> |lat= 42.866667 |long= 18.433333 |position=right |mark=Blue pog.svg |marksize = 8}}
{{Location map~ | Bosnia | background= white |label= <small>{{nowrap|3 Infantry Bn.}}</small> |lat= 43.666667 |long= 18.983333 |position=right |mark=Blue pog.svg |marksize = 8}}
{{Location map~ | Bosnia | background= white |label= <small>{{nowrap|Artillery Bn.}}</small> |lat= 43.333333 |long= 17.8 |position=right |mark=Blue pog.svg |marksize = 8}}
{{Location map~ | Bosnia | background= white |label= <small>{{nowrap|'''5 Infantry Bde'''}}</small> |lat= 44.538056 |long= 18.656111 |position=left |mark=Red pog.svg |marksize = 10}}
{{Location map~ | Bosnia | background= white |label= <small>{{nowrap|1 Infantry Bn.}}</small> |lat= 44.203889 |long= 17.907778 |position=left |mark=Red pog.svg |marksize = 8}}
{{Location map~ | Bosnia | background= white |label= <small>{{nowrap|2 Infantry Bn.}}</small> |lat= 43.943056 |long= 18.0775 |position=top |mark=Red pog.svg |marksize = 8}}
{{Location map~ | Bosnia | background= white |label= <small>{{nowrap|3 Infantry Bn.}}</small> |lat= 44.756944 |long= 19.216111 |position=right |mark=Red pog.svg |marksize = 8}}
{{Location map~ | Bosnia | background= white |label= <small>{{nowrap|Artillery Bn.}}</small> |lat= 44.433333 |long= 18.033333 |position=left |mark=Red pog.svg |marksize = 8}}
{{Location map~ | Bosnia | background= white |label= <small>{{nowrap|'''6 Infantry Bde'''}}</small> |lat= 44.766667 |long= 17.163333 |position=left |mark=Yellow pog.svg |marksize = 10}}
{{Location map~ | Bosnia | background= white |label= <small>{{nowrap|1 Infantry Bn.}}</small> |lat= 44.766667 |long= 17.203333 |position=right |mark=Yellow pog.svg |marksize = 8}}
{{Location map~ | Bosnia | background= white |label= <small>{{nowrap|2 Infantry Bn.}}</small> |lat= 44.816667 |long= 15.866667 |position=top |mark=Yellow pog.svg |marksize = 8}}
{{Location map~ | Bosnia | background= white |label= <small>{{nowrap|3 Infantry Bn.}}</small> |lat= 45.036111 |long= 18.693333 |position=right |mark=Yellow pog.svg |marksize = 8}}
{{Location map~ | Bosnia | background= white |label= <small>{{nowrap|Artillery Bn.}}</small> |lat= 44.731389 |long= 18.084444 |position=right |mark=Yellow pog.svg |marksize = 8}}
{{Location map~ | Bosnia | background= white |label= |lat= 43.866667 |long= 18.436667 |position=left |mark=Green 008000 pog.svg |marksize = 10}}
{{Location map~ | Bosnia | background= white |label= <small>{{nowrap|Armored Bn.}}</small> |lat= 44.538056 |long= 18.696111 |position=right |mark=Pink pog.svg |marksize = 8}}
{{Location map~ | Bosnia | background= white |label= <small>{{nowrap|Engineer Bn.}}</small> |lat= 44.9775 |long= 17.9075 |position=right |mark=Black pog.svg |marksize = 8}}
{{Location map~ | Bosnia | background= white |label= <small>{{nowrap|Signal Bn.}}</small> |lat= 43.811944 |long= 18.571111 |position=right |mark=Turquoise pog.svg |marksize = 8}}
}}`{=mediawiki} `{{Multiple image
|title =
||total_width= 490
|image1 = AFBIHIR16.jpg
|caption1= [[Bosnian Ground Forces]] during Immediate Response 16 exercise.
|image2 = Bell Huey II Bosnian Air Force.jpg
|caption2= A [[Air Force and Anti-Aircraft Defence of Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnian Air Force]] Bell Huey II (TH-1H) at [[Sarajevo International Airport|Rajlovac Air Force Base]].
}}`{=mediawiki}
Overall the brigades are multinational with 45.9% Bosniaks, 33.6% Serbs, 19.8% Croats and about 0.7% of other ethnic groups (as for 2016).
- **Operational Command**, in Sarajevo
- **4th Infantry Brigade**, in Čapljina
- 1st Infantry Battalion, in Livno (Croat troops)
- 2nd Infantry Battalion, in Bileća (Serb troops)
- 3rd Infantry Battalion, in Goražde (Bosniak troops)
- Artillery Battalion, in Mostar
- Reconnaissance Company, in Čapljina
- Signals Platoon, in Čapljina
- Military Police Platoon, in Čapljina
- **5th Infantry Brigade**, in Tuzla
- 1st Infantry Battalion, in Zenica (Bosniak troops)
- 2nd Infantry Battalion, in Kiseljak (Croat troops)
- 3rd Infantry Battalion, in Bijeljina (Serb troops)
- Artillery Battalion, in Žepče
- Reconnaissance Company, in Tuzla
- Signals Platoon, in Tuzla
- Military Police Platoon, in Tuzla
- **6th Infantry Brigade**, in Banja Luka
- 1st Infantry Battalion, in Banja Luka (Serb troops)
- 2nd Infantry Battalion, in Bihać (Bosniak troops)
- 3rd Infantry Battalion, in Orašje (Croat troops)
- Artillery Battalion, in Doboj
- Reconnaissance Company, in Banja Luka
- Signals Platoon, in Banja Luka
- Military Police Platoon, in Banja Luka
- **Tactical Support Brigade**, in Sarajevo
- Armored Battalion, in Tuzla
- Engineer Battalion, in Derventa
- Military Intelligence Battalion, in Sarajevo
- Military Police Battalion, in Sarajevo
- Demining Battalion, in Sarajevo
- Signal Battalion, in Pale
- CBRN Defense Company, in Tuzla
- **Air Force and Air Defense Brigade**, at Sarajevo Air Base and Banja Luka Air Base
- 1st Helicopter Squadron, at Banja Luka Airport
- 2nd Helicopter Squadron, at Sarajevo Airport
- Air Defense Battalion, at Sarajevo Airport
- Surveillance and Early Warning Battalion, at Banja Luka Airport
- Flight Support Battalion, at Sarajevo Airport and Banja Luka Airport
### Brigades under the Support Command control {#brigades_under_the_support_command_control}
+-----------------------+--------------+-------------------------------------------------------+
| Name | Headquarters | Information |
+=======================+==============+=======================================================+
| **Personnel Command** | Banja Luka | - - **Training and Doctrine Command** (Travnik) |
| | | - Combat Training Center (Manjača) |
| | | - Armored Mechanized Battalion |
| | | - Combat Simulation Center (Manjača) |
| | | - Professional Development Center (Hadžići) |
| | | - Officers School |
| | | - NCO School |
| | | - Military Police School |
| | | - Foreign Language Center |
+-----------------------+--------------+-------------------------------------------------------+
| **Logistics Command** | Travnik\ | - Center for Movement Control |
| | Doboj | - Center for Material Management |
| | | - Main Logistics Base (Doboj and Sarajevo) |
| | | - 1st Logistics Support Battalion |
| | | - 2nd Logistics Support Battalion |
| | | - 3rd Logistics Support Battalion |
| | | - 4th Logistics Support Battalion |
| | | - 5th Logistics Support Battalion |
+-----------------------+--------------+-------------------------------------------------------+
| | | |
+-----------------------+--------------+-------------------------------------------------------+
Within the armed forces, there are a number of services. These include a Technical Service, Air Technology service, Military Police service, Communications service, Sanitary service, a Veterans service, Civilian service, Financial service, Information service, Legal service, Religious service, and a Musical service.
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# Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina
## Uniform and insignia {#uniform_and_insignia}
Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina were unified in 2005 and at that time they needed a uniform for the newly founded Armed Forces. MARPAT was designated as the future camouflage pattern to be used on combat uniforms of the AFBiH.
Insignia is found on military hats or berets, on the right and left shoulder on the uniform of all soldiers of the Armed Forces. All, except for generals, wear badges on their hats or berets with either the land force badge or air force badge. Generals wear badges with the coat of arms of Bosnia surrounded with branches and two swords. All soldiers of the armed forces have on their right shoulder a flag of Bosnia and Herzegovina. All members of the three regiments wear their regiment insignia on the left shoulder. There are other insignias, brigades or other institution are worn under the regiment insignia. The name of the soldiers is worn on the left part of the chest while the name \"Armed Forces of BiH\" is worn on the right part of the chest. In 2023, members of the Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina began to wear a new field uniform of high-quality cloth and original camouflage schemes with the characteristics of the Bosnian environment
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# History of Botswana
The history of Botswana encompasses the region\'s ancient and tribal history, its colonisation as the Bechuanaland Protectorate, and the present-day Republic of Botswana. The first modern humans to inhabit Botswana were the San people, and agriculture first developed approximately 2,300 years ago. The first Bantu peoples arrived c. 200 AD, and the first Tswana people arrived about 200 years later. The Tswana people split into various tribes over the following thousand years as migrations within the region continued, culminating in the *Difaqane* in the late 18th century. European contact first occurred in 1816, which led to the Christianization of the region.
Facing threats from German South West Africa and the Afrikaners, the most influential Tswana chiefs negotiated the creation of a protectorate under the United Kingdom in 1885. The British divided the territory into tribal reserves for each of the major chiefs to rule, giving the chiefs more power than they had previously, but it otherwise exercised only limited direct control over the protectorate. The British government took a more active role beginning in the 1930s. Botswana supported British involvement in World War II and many fought as part of the African Auxiliary Pioneer Corps.
A power struggle took place in the 1950s between the Ngwato chief Seretse Khama and his regent Tshekedi Khama. Seretse\'s marriage to a white woman, Ruth Williams Khama, led the British to ban him from the protectorate. He returned in 1956 with popular support, and tribes moved toward elected government as an independence movement formed. A national legislature was created in 1961, and political parties were formed. Seretse became the leader of the Bechuanaland Democratic Party, which was endorsed by the British government to lead post-independence, and it saw overwhelming support in the first election in 1965. The Republic of Botswana was granted full independence in 1966.
With a strong mandate, Seretse and his party implemented liberal democracy and began developing infrastructure in what was one of the world\'s poorest nations. Extensive diamond deposits were discovered in 1969, causing a massive reorganisation of Botswana\'s economy. The Debswana mining company was created in 1978, and Botswana became the world\'s fastest growing economy. The HIV/AIDS pandemic became a crisis in Botswana in the 1980s, and the 1990s came with the introduction of political factionalism after the political scandal of the Kgabo Commission. The Botswana Democratic Party remained the dominant party from independence until the Umbrella for Democratic Change won the 2024 general election.
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# History of Botswana
## Pre-colonial history {#pre_colonial_history}
### Prehistory
Present-day Botswana was primarily forest ten million years ago, and the rivers were much larger than they are in the present, flowing into a massive paleolake, Lake Makgadikgadi. *Homo erectus* lived in the region during the Early Stone Age. Stone tools in present-day Botswana, such as Acheulean axes, date back to two million years ago. Hominin migration to the Kalahari Desert is estimated to have happened prior to Marine Isotope Stage 6, 186,000 years ago. Lake Makgadikgadi began to shrink approximately 50,000 years ago.
The ancestors of the Khoe and San peoples---unrelated peoples who are referred to collectively as the *Khoisan* or *Sarwa* peoples---lived in present-day Botswana by approximately 40,000 to 30,000 years ago. They may have been the first humans to enter the Late Stone Age. They established themselves around rivers during drier periods of history but spread throughout the region during wetter periods. They are known to have inhabited the areas around Lake Makgadikgadi, as well as Tsodilo and ≠Gi. Other peoples such as the Nata, Shua, and Xani are believed to have arrived after the Khoe and San. Rock art dates back to approximately 30,000 years ago, Mining of specularite and hematite began around this time to create paints. Virtually all permanent bodies of water were associated with early human populations by 20,000 years ago. More detailed study of southern Africa in the Stone Age has been limited.
The various peoples of the region were hunter-gatherers who remained in small groups and engaged in trade with one another. It is believed that each group was a collection of related families holding a specific territory, led by the eldest man of the group\'s head family. Men hunted large animals, while women gathered plants and caught small animals. The groups intermarried and practiced a dowry system, *xaro*.
### Ancient history {#ancient_history}
Approximately 2,000 years ago, the peoples of the region brought cattle and sheep to present-day Botswana and began making pottery. Agriculture developed during this time and the peoples began settling in villages, which rose and fell as the climate and cattle raids caused livestock access to fluctuate. Among the earliest crops were pearl millet, finger millet, sorghum, Bambara groundnuts, cowpeas, and cucurbits.
The first Bantu people migrated to the region between 2,000 and 1,500 years ago, and it was once believed that they were the ones who had first introduced livestock to the area. The Kalanga people were the first of the Bantu peoples to settle in present-day Botswana, arriving c. 200 CE. The first Tswana people (singular *Motswana*, plural *Batswana*) are estimated to have arrived c. 400 CE. These Bantu peoples brought iron and copper tools to the region and settled along permanent waterways. They built permanent settlements of about 10--15 pole-and-daga houses each, rather than the temporary structures of the more nomadic Khoisan. The Khoisan and the Bantu likely traded and intermarried during this period.
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# History of Botswana
## Pre-colonial history {#pre_colonial_history}
### Post-classical period {#post_classical_period}
A group of Zhizo people, the Taukome people, arrived in present-day Botswana by the 7th century and settled between the Shashe River and the Serorome River. Their possession of glass beads indicates early connection to Indian Ocean trade. The number of livestock kept in present-day Botswana increased significantly between the 8th century and the 10th century. The Tswana people organised themselves into a type of tribal government, called a *morafe* (plural *merafe*), each led by a chief called a *kgosi* (plural *dikgosi*). This system produced a more hierarchical government relative to others in the region. Cattle became a central part of society in the region, and ownership of cattle denoted one\'s status. The early history of the Tswana people remains largely unknown because little archaeological evidence has been left.
Trade routes connected tribes throughout the Kalahari Desert by 900 CE, and a series of routes were created across the entire region over the following century, culminating at the Indian Ocean. Some of the Eiland people migrated from present-day South Africa into present-day Botswana in the mid-10th century. The Toutswe people, another of the Zhizo people, migrated to present-day Botswana during the 11th century and became the strongest group in the region, deriving their wealth from ownership of cattle. Three Toutswe villages were constructed at Bosutswe, Sung, and Toutswemogala, each ruling over smaller villages surrounding them. By the 12th century, the Toutswe had spread to the Kalahari Desert.
The value of products fluctuated as expanding trade with foreign nations and the discovery of gold occurred, reducing interest in specularite and animal products like ivory. One tribe in Tsodilo was particularly influential in the trade of specularite until it fell at the end of the 12th century. The tribes in southeastern Botswana were far removed from these developments and remained largely unaffected.
Neighbouring present-day Botswana during the 11th and 12th centuries were the people of Leopard\'s Kopje to the east. First established in Bambandyanalo, they became major figures in regional trade and moved to Mapungubwe by the late-11th century where they formed the Kingdom of Mapungubwe. They projected influence across the region through the 12th century. The peoples of the Okavango Delta and later the peoples of the Tsodilo Hills were forced to abandon their settlements during this time, which may have been because they were cut off from major trade routes. Only the Khoe people stayed in the area. Mapungubwe fell by the 13th century, and the Toutswe villages, cut off from trade, fell around the same time. The Mambo people lived around present-day Francistown and became influential around this time.
The Kingdom of Zimbabwe emerged and replaced Mapungubwe the regional power in the 13th century when the Gumanye people gained influence in the city of Great Zimbabwe, which was able to control trade more closely with its valuable land and resources and its closer proximity to the coast. Zimbabwe controlled many of the tribes that existed in what is now northeastern Botswana, and the gold trade became a driving factor in the region\'s economy. Zimbabwe was losing influence by the end of the 14th century, and it fell in the mid-15th century. Several other states developed after its fall. The Kingdom of Butua, formed by the Kalanga peoples, was established on the present-day Botswana--Zimbabwe border.
### Early modern period {#early_modern_period}
Tswana peoples migrated internally through present-day Botswana as they were displaced by native and colonial populations from the south, and they had a presence throughout present-day Botswana by 1600. Large migrations of Kalanga and Sotho--Tswana peoples took place in the 15th and 16th centuries. The Kalanga peoples controlled the land between the Motloutse River and the Makgadikgadi Pan until the 18th century. The Hurutshe, Kgatla, and Kwena peoples split from the Phofu dynasty in the Transvaal region amid drought and hereditary conflicts, eventually migrating north to present-day Botswana.
Some peoples of the region remained in the Late Stone Age until around the 16th century. According to oral tradition, the pastoralist Herero and Mbanderu peoples split from the Mbunda people in the 17th century as Tswana cattle raids scattered the groups. Oral tradition also holds that the Yeyi people migrated from the upper Chobe River into the Okavango Delta in the 18th century, though contact between the Yeyi and the Khoe may have existed much longer. Different Tswana tribes were able to separate and form independently from one another as the region\'s primary asset, cattle, is easily transported. The western tribes were especially prone to separation because of the large distances between towns and farmlands. They were often the targets of raids by the Griqua people.
The first Tswana state was formed by the Ngwaketse people in the mid-18th century. Subsequent states were formed by the Kwena people, the Ngwato people, and the Tawana people over the following decades. With these came the development of the *mophato* (plural *mephato*), a militia regiment organised by age group, among the eastern Tswana peoples in the 1750s. Two Kgatla peoples, the Kgafela people and the Tlokwa people, joined at this time and seized control over the area surrounding Pilanesberg in present-day South Africa. They subjugated several peoples in the region and twice won conflicts against the Fokeng people. The use of *mephato* spread to the western Tswana peoples by the end of the century. It was never widely adopted in the south.
### The Difaqane {#the_difaqane}
The *Difaqane*, a period of conflict and displacement in southern Africa, took place during the late 18th and early 19th centuries. During this time, the Tswana people were subject to raids by many groups, including the Ndebele, the Kololo, the Ngoni, the Pedi, and the Voortrekkers. Most Tswana groups opted to retreat instead of fight. This triggered extensive migration across the region, causing the Tswana tribes to more thoroughly spread and establish a stronger presence throughout the territory of present-day Botswana. They settled primarily in the *hardveld* that makes up the eastern region of present-day Botswana. The Kwena and Ngwaketse peoples migrated from Transvaal to the *sandveld*. The first of the Kgatla peoples to settle in present-day Botswana, the Mmanaana people, migrated from South Africa in the early 19th century before settling in Moshupa and Thamaga. Only some of the northwestern Tswana peoples were spared displacement or interruption.
The Kololo people attacked the northwestern Tswana peoples in 1826, forcing the Kwena and Ngwaketse from their respective territories. Sebogo, the regent of the Ngwaketse tribe, raised 4,000 men in their *mephato* and surrounded Dithubaruba where the Kololo were residing. Killing the warriors and the civilians, they permanently expelled the Kololo from the region.
The tribes reestablished their states in the 1840s, founding several towns and villages of varying sizes. Governance was based around the *kgotla*, a deliberative forum in which the chief or a regional leader heard the concerns of most male citizens before making decisions.
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# History of Botswana
## Pre-colonial history {#pre_colonial_history}
### European missionaries {#european_missionaries}
European missionaries first arrived in present-day Botswana in 1816 through the London Missionary Society. This and other missionary groups worked to convert the chiefs to Christianity and to build missionary schools. The missionary Robert Moffat set his mission station on the border of present-day Botswana as a barrier against the Boers so they could not move further inward. Moffat published the first Setswana language text with a uniform orthography when he began translating Christian texts and wrote a Setswana dictionary. Both the Old and New Testaments could be read in Setswana by 1857.
The 19th century Tswana people used several economic ideas that were rare in southern Africa, including credit, service contracts, and the *mafisa* system of the rich loaning cattle to the poor in exchange for labour. They also had a conception of private property by the mid-19th century, and both married men and married women were entitled to land rights. The men typically herded cattle while the women grew crops. Sorghum was the region\'s most commonly grown crop in the 19th century. Land was widely available, but droughts meant that farming was inconsistent.
British traders arrived in the 1830s and engaged in transactions with the chiefs. The influx of European settlers nearby allowed the Tswana tribes to incorporate themselves into the global economy. Chief Sechele I of the Kwena people took advantage of the new trading routes, securing control of British trade for his tribe. The Scottish missionary David Livingstone arrived in Botswana in 1845, where he established the Kolobeng Mission. This was the beginning of heavier European involvement in the Tswana tribes as they established intercontinental trade routes. Westernised fashion was adopted in urban areas through the rest of the century and combined with traditional clothing. In another effort to thwart the Boers, Livingstone provided firearms to the Kwena people. Sechele was the first person who Livingstone converted to Christianity, and the chief subsequently offered to convert his head men using rhinoceros-hide whips.
The Tswana peoples faced conflict from other groups in the region, peaking in the 1850s. Many Batswana, particularly the Kwena and Ngwato tribes, fought against Afrikaners and Zulu tribes in the eastern Kalahari Desert. The Kwena and the Mmanaana fought against Boers from Transvaal in 1852, defending their territory and ending the nation\'s westward expansion. The Batswana saw missionary groups as a means of refuge from invaders, incentivising conversion to Christianity. Sechele requested a British protectorate in 1853 to end regional conflicts, but he was denied.
European visitors became more common in the mid-19th century as hunters, explorers, and traders sought profit and adventure in the region. Many wrote travel books about the area, which were some of the only non-academic publications about present-day Botswana at the time. By the 1860s, migration out of the region increased as Batswana men travelled to work in South African mines. The discovery of the Tati Goldfields triggered the first European gold rush of Southern Africa in 1868. An early mining camp established in the 1870s expanded greatly as it became a major railway hub between Cape Province and Bulawayo, becoming Botswana\'s first major city, Francistown. At this point in Botswana\'s history, the major chiefs were all Christian. A war between the Kwena and the Kgafela in 1875. By the end of the decade, chief Khama III of the Ngwato people seized control of British trade from the Kwena people.
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# History of Botswana
## Bechuanaland Protectorate {#bechuanaland_protectorate}
### Formation of the protectorate {#formation_of_the_protectorate}
The United Kingdom feared increasing German influence in the region, and it agreed to form the Bechuanaland Protectorate. The British wished to preserve its influence over the Tswana tribes, as they provided a connection between southern and central Africa. Tswana chiefs feared encroachment by German South West Africa and the Afrikaners, and they believed that the alternative to British control was settler colonialism by Germany. They also wished to avoid falling under the control of South Africa or mining magnate Cecil Rhodes, though the protectorate still found itself dependent on South Africa economically.
The region was divided into tribal land ruled by the chiefs and crown land controlled by the United Kingdom. Eight tribes were recognised by the British upon the creation of the protectorate. The largest four were given tribal reserves: the Kwena, the Ngwaketse, the Ngwato, and the Tawana. Three smaller ones were also recognised: the Kgatla, the Tlokwa, and the Malete. The eighth, the Tshidi, were given a reserve crossing the border between the protectorate and South Africa. While members of non-Tswana minorities were allowed to participate in Tswana society and governance, they were given no tribal reserves of their own. The introduction of tribal reserves altered the nature of Tswana governance, as tribes had previously been less defined and subject to expansion or shifting. With territories divided into tribal jurisdictions, residents were no longer able to easily leave a tribe. The protectorate initially extended to the Ngwato, reaching from 22 degrees south to the Molopo River, but it was extended to 18 degrees south to reach the Chobe River in 1890. This provided the British more labourers under its jurisdiction and created a larger barrier to limit German colonisation. Other Tswana peoples lived to the south of the protectorate and were later absorbed into South Africa.
The Kgafela people settled in Mochudi in 1887. This Kgatla group quickly became influential in the region and its name became synonymous with Kgatla. British soldiers led by Charles Warren arrived in 1891 to formally establish the protectorate. Its government was defined, and a commissioner was appointed as its head. The commissioner was given broad powers over the protectorate, so long as he respected previously established tribal law. Its capital was the South African city of Vryburg, meaning that the colonial rulers did not reside in the protectorate and had little direct involvement in its affairs. Instead, the high commissioner operated through two assistant commissioners, and a district commissioner facilitated contact with the various tribes. The centralisation of British rule in South Africa meant that the Bechuanaland Protectorate was economically dependent on it.
The British government believed the Bechuanaland Protectorate to be only a temporary entity and expected that it would soon be absorbed by a British colony. In the meantime, it believed that a self-sufficient protectorate would cost less to maintain. For these reasons, the colonial administration imposed very little direct control of the Bechuanaland Protectorate. The chiefs benefited from these affairs and were able to empower and enrich themselves; they retained broad autonomy, but colonial backing meant that they no longer needed the consent of the tribes to maintain rule. Tribal rule became autocratic, which led to human rights abuses and discrimination against women and ethnic minorities.
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# History of Botswana
## Bechuanaland Protectorate {#bechuanaland_protectorate}
### Early years of the protectorate {#early_years_of_the_protectorate}
The British planned to eventually incorporate the Bechuanaland Protectorate into the Union of South Africa. In the years after the protectorate\'s creation, the United Kingdom entered talks with Cecil Rhodes to absorb it into the British South Africa Company. In response, three of the most influential chiefs---Khama III of the Ngwato, Sebele I of the Kwena, and Bathoen I of the Ngwaketse---made a diplomatic trip to the United Kingdom in 1895 and convinced the government not to complete the deal. This set a precedent of chiefs interacting with the British as a unified group and enshrined these three figures as early figures in Botswana\'s history as a single nation. Rhodes\'s handling of the failed Jameson Raid discouraged the British and negotiations were postponed indefinitely. The celebration of these chiefs resulted in the publication of *Three Great African Chiefs: Khamé, Sebéle and Bathoeng* by the London Missionary Society the same year. This text introduced a founding myth that their three respective tribes were created by three brothers.
Also in 1895, the capital was moved from Vryburg to another South African city, Mafeking, and the Ancient Ruins Company was registered to dig up prehistoric ruins in Bechuanaland and Rhodesia in search for gold. The protectorate was heavily affected by the 1890s African rinderpest epizootic, losing large portions of its livestock and wild game. The protectorate\'s railroad was built in 1897 as the main north--south transit line.
When the United Kingdom raised the Pioneer Column to go to war with the Ndebele people, Khama III of the Ngwato assisted by sending soldiers. Botswana became a staging ground for the Jameson Raid in 1896. The Kgatla tribe was later part of the Boer War, fighting alongside the British Army.
The early colonial economy of the Bechuanaland Protectorate remained much the same as the pre-colonial economy. The United Kingdom primarily used the protectorate as a supply of labour, offering high wages to Batswana who migrated south to work in mines. Taxes were also imposed, beginning with a hut tax in 1899, which was then replaced by a poll tax in 1909. A native tax was later imposed in 1919. Colonial taxes in the Bechuanaland Protectorate were higher than those in neighbouring colonies, causing mass exodus to the south, and the chiefs allowed more generous power sharing with citizens to incentivise them to stay. The United Kingdom considered integrating the protectorate into South Africa as it unified its southern African colonies, but it ultimately grouped them economically by creating the South African Customs Union, joining in 1910. Membership entitled the protectorate to only 2% of the union\'s revenue.
By 1910, all Tswana tribes had adopted Christianity. Bechuanaland sent several hundred soldiers to assist the British Army during World War I. The London Missionary Society found itself in decline at this time, and it gradually lost influence over the protectorate.
Sebele II became chief of the Kwena in 1918, succeeding his father, Sechele II. Sechele II had conflicted with the dominant London Missionary Society, permitting an Anglican presence and reinstating many traditional practices such as polygyny, rainmaking, and *bogwera*. Sebele II continued his father\'s challenge to the London Missionary Society, to the grievance of the British government.
The dual government of the chiefs and the colonial administration made administration difficult, so the administration created two advisory councils to standardise these authorities. The Native Advisory Council (later the African Advisory Council) was established in 1919. This annual meeting of the chiefs and other influential people in the protectorate allowed the British government to hear from and manage the tribes collectively instead of individually. Khama III of the Ngwato refused to participate, citing weak enforcement of alcohol prohibition in southern tribe. Khama III died in 1923 and was succeeded by Sekgoma II, who served until his own death in 1926. Sekgoma\'s son Seretse Khama was still an infant, so Tshekedi Khama became regent. Tshekedi came to be recognised as a representative for all of the Tswana tribes. As Seretse grew, Tshekedi insisted that he be given a liberal education rather than be sent to a Rhodesian industrial school.
### Development and increased British influence {#development_and_increased_british_influence}
In the 1920s, chief Isang Pilane of the Kgatla people oversaw the Bechuanaland Protectorate\'s first major water development scheme, having sixteen boreholes drilled, seven of which became successful water supplies. These became more common over the following decades as the British government took interest in expanding the protectorate\'s economy. By the 1930s, Isang Pilane and the Native Advisory Council privatised the boreholes, as they were not maintained under collective ownership. A severe drought occurred in the early 1930s, killing over 60% of the protectorate\'s cattle.
The British government took a more active role in the protectorate\'s governance beginning in 1930. That year, it began providing direct funding to the protectorate. Charles Rey was appointed Resident Commissioner of the Bechuanaland Protectorate, and he was responsible for reorganising the economy around cattle exports. An initiative to reform the protectorate toward mining and commercial agricultural development was attempted but saw push back from the chiefs.
Resident Commissioner Rey came into conflict with chief Sebele II, having him exiled in 1931. Sebele II was replaced by his younger brother, Kgari. Further initiatives were attempted by the British government in 1934 to constrain the unchecked power of the chiefs following the overthrow of Sebele II. These initiatives mandated advisory councils that chiefs had to consult and required that the British government be given access to court records. Chief Bathoen II of Ngwaketse and regent Tshekedi Khama of Ngwato issued a legal challenge to these initiatives. Although the British court ruled against the challenge, the new policies were never fully implemented. Other restrictions were adopted through colonial proclamation to limit the ability of the chiefs to levy taxes and seize stray cattle. A new resident commissioner, Charles Arden-Clarke, was appointed in 1936 and worked more closely with the chiefs.
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# History of Botswana
## Bechuanaland Protectorate {#bechuanaland_protectorate}
### Early years of World War II {#early_years_of_world_war_ii}
Fears of German attack in Bechuanaland grew in the lead up to World War II due to its strategic position between Britain\'s central and southern colonies in Africa. 11 days before war was declared, the British government warned the protectorate to be on standby, and military forces were organised. Four days after Britain declared war on Germany, Resident Commissioner Arden-Clarke held a meeting with the chiefs where they pledged full support for the war effort. The next day, the high commission issued a proclamation of emergency powers that gave it total control over public activity in the protectorate, but the chiefs were informed that they would be responsible for most enforcement and peacekeeping.
The earliest years of World War II had almost no effect on the people of Bechuanaland, and many only had a vague idea that the war existed. The colonial administration shrank as large numbers of white residents enlisted in the British Army. Those who remained were focused on security planning in case southern Africa became another front in the war. Against the wishes of the chiefs, the colonial administration encouraged Batswana who wished to serve with the British Army to enlist with the South African Native Military Corps. About 700 Batswana men enlisted with the group.
Maintaining the Bechuanaland Protectorate became a low priority for the United Kingdom during the Great Depression and World War II, and the protectorate received no funding from the United Kingdom during the war. The British Empire had relatively little control over Bechuanaland compared to its other territories, and British efforts to control wartime production in the protectorate were unsuccessful. The war drastically altered the protectorate\'s economy as it went on, introducing shortages, rationing, and higher prices. Profiteering and price gouging were common, and the colonial administration, unable to enforce price controls, resorted to gentlemen\'s agreements with traders. Taxes were raised and Colonial Development Fund projects were curtailed at the onset of World War II to establish financial independence from the empire. The Control of Livestock Industry Proclamation No. 1 of 1940 was passed to tax cattle, the protectorate\'s main industry, but it met overwhelming resistance from Batswana and the European Advisory Council. A war fund operated in Bechuanaland, and although the United Kingdom expected that donations be voluntary, chiefs invoked their authority over their tribes to enforce donations. It was replaced by a levy in 1941, but this was less popular and proved difficult to enforce.
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# History of Botswana
## Bechuanaland Protectorate {#bechuanaland_protectorate}
### Batswana participation in World War II {#batswana_participation_in_world_war_ii}
Military recruitment began in Bechuanaland in 1941. About 5,500 men were trained and sent to war within the first six months. Another 5,000 Batswana men joined the war in 1942. In total, approximately 11,000 soldiers from Bechuanaland fought alongside the British Army during the war. Over 10,000 of these served in the British Army\'s African Auxiliary Pioneer Corps. The chiefs traditionally had the right to conscript soldiers, and they ignored the colonial government\'s wishes that military service should be entirely voluntary. Regent Tshekedi Khama of Ngwato made himself unpopular by using military conscription as a tool for control, weaponising it to silence critics and political opponents. Men who wished to avoid conscription sometimes fled to South Africa or to remote areas like the Okavango Delta swamps and the Kgalagadi bush. Others used more immediate precautions, such as digging holes when recruiters visited.
The chiefs wished to leverage their participation in the war for additional rights within the British Empire, and they feared that British defeat would make them subjects of Germany or South Africa, a fate they wished to avoid. The war effort was also an opportunity to reclaim Tswana men who had migrated to South Africa for mining jobs; the chiefs wished to end this practice and felt they could do so by offering military jobs. Some military pay was deferred to the families of soldiers, and limitations on exports were lifted during the war, causing an influx of money into Bechuanaland.
Relative to other nations in the British Empire, the people of Bechuanaland approved of the war. Many Batswana held a sense of loyalty to the empire or felt that their interests were aligned. Some chiefs, such as Kgari Sechele II of the Kwena and Molefi Pilane of the Kgatla, personally enlisted. They served as regimental sergeant majors, the highest rank available to Batswana.
Toward the end of World War II, the colonial government allowed Batswana to have business licenses and operate within the protectorate. This had previously been restricted to whites and Indians.
The High Commissions Territories Corps was stationed in the Middle East from 1946 to 1949.
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# History of Botswana
## Bechuanaland Protectorate {#bechuanaland_protectorate}
### Independence movement {#independence_movement}
The end of World War II came with drastic social change. The chiefs came to be seen as less essential to social structure, and many gave up their universal claims over tribal cattle. Other public resources, such as land and labour, were privatised and commodified. Access to education created a class of liberal intellectuals who opposed the rule of the chiefs and began forming their own centres of power in workers\' associations and civic groups. By 1946, only 2% of the population had employment outside of agriculture and services. The protectorate saw a major increase in birth rates as part of the mid-20th century baby boom in the years after World War II, accompanied by an increase in life expectancy. The colonial administration began its first development project in the protectorate, a slaughterhouse, in the 1950s. The British, still expecting to merge the protectorate into South Africa, finally scrapped this plan after the beginning of Apartheid. As efforts began to develop a new path for the protectorate\'s future, the protectorate was placed in a state of limbo, and no path forward was clear. One proposal was to incorporate it into the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, which the United Kingdom formed under a policy of \"multi-racial partnership\".
When the Ngwato heir Seretse Khama came of age, regent Tshekedi Khama attempted to hold on to power. Seretse married a white woman, Ruth Williams, while studying in the United Kingdom, causing scandal in the Ngwato royal family. Though the public initially opposed the marriage, Tshekedi\'s unpopularity shifted opinion in Seretse\'s favour. The issue was raised in the *kgotla* in 1949, and Tshekedi\'s rule was overwhelmingly rejected by thousands in attendance. Tshekedi and his supporters fled to the Kwena in exile.
The British government was less tolerant of Seretse\'s marriage to a white woman. In an attempt to appease the Apartheid government of South Africa, it banished the couple from the protectorate in 1950. This provoked a burgeoning nationalist movement among Seretse\'s supporters in the protectorate, which fully emerged in 1952. During Seretse\'s absence, the United Kingdom placed the district commissioner in charge for four years before appointing Rasebolai Kgamane, a supporter of Tshekedi, as regent.
The Ngwato tribe rebelled against Seretse\'s banishment. His supporters petitioned for his return, and riots broke out when they were denied. Seretse was eventually allowed to return in 1956. By this time, the stricter racial segregation in Apartheid South Africa dissuaded the United Kingdom from appeasing it. Throughout the ordeal of Seretse\'s banishment, power shifted away from the chiefdomship and toward electoral bodies. Tshekedi and Seretse made peace upon Seretse\'s return, and Seretse became the *de facto* leader of the Ngwato, though the United Kingdom forbade him from being the official chief. With British support, the Ngwato tribe developed a tribal council, of which both Seretse and Tshekedi were members. Other tribes then established similar tribal councils, which served as checks on the power of the chiefs. Some animosity remained between the two men: Tshekedi wished to retain the tribal government and the power of the chiefs, while Seretse envisioned a representative democracy and weaker chiefs. The amount of power invested in the chiefs became the most contentious issue in the burgeoning independence movement, especially among the Ngwato people and the Khama family.
The Bechuanaland Protectorate Federal Party was the first political party formed in the protectorate when it was created by the Ngwato union leader Leetile Disang Raditladi in 1959. Composed primarily of elites and intellectuals, it advocated a unification of the Tswana tribes. The party failed to gain support and was short-lived. The following year, the Bechuanaland People\'s Party (BPP, later the Botswana People\'s Party) was created as a more radical party, objecting to traditional tribal government and gaining appeal among migrant workers. It was led by Motsamai Mpho, Philip Matante, and Kgalemang Morsete. The BPP, created as a Tswana counterpart to the African National Congress party of South Africa, supported immediate independence and the total abolition of chiefdom. Fearing that the BPP would undermine the existing government and ignite tensions with the Apartheid government of South Africa, the chiefs and the British government restricted its ability to meet.
The protectorate\'s tribes collectively formed a legislative council in 1961. The Kwena people found themselves under a regent, Neale Sechele, in 1963, meaning that they had little political influence as the independence movement developed. The *Bechuanaland Protectorate Development Plan 1963/1968* was drafted through a deliberative process in 1963, creating an outline for the nation\'s independence.
As the population was politically inactive overall, the United Kingdom came to be one of the leading forces toward independence. Worrying that the BPP was too radical, the United Kingdom encouraged its preferred leader, Seretse Khama, to form a political party. Though Khama agreed with the BPP\'s antiracist and republican values, he opposed its dogmatic approach to politics and its acceptance of socialism. He agreed to give up his claim over the Ngwato people to serve as a politician, forming the Bechuanaland Democratic Party (BDP, later the Botswana Democratic Party) in 1962. The BDP established itself as the \"party of chiefs\", and it adopted ideas associated with pre-colonial tribal rule. The United Kingdom supported the BDP, understanding that it would maintain the colonial era livestock trade. By 1963, the Kgatla chief Linchwe was the only chief who opposed the BDP and had political influence, but the Kgatla people were in favour of the BDP, so he remained apolitical. A transition process began with BDP expected to rule an independent Botswana, and the colonial government worked with BDP leadership to prepare them for running a nation.
A conference was held in 1963 to oversee the creation of a new constitution. Internal strife within the BPP meant that the BDP had the most influence over the process. Tshekedi Khama had died by this time, so Bathoen II became the leader of the pro-federalisation faction, believing it would keep power in the hands of the chiefs. The United Kingdom and the Batswana politicians endorsed a unitary national government because Botswana was too poor to divide its resources and because a lack of centralisation would make it vulnerable to attacks from other nations. Federalisation proved politically unviable, so a compromise was made that the chiefs would form the House of Chiefs, an advisory body within the Parliament of Botswana. The chiefs still opposed this arrangement, and in a movement led by Bathoen, the House of Chiefs passed a vote of no confidence in the new government, but its lack of political power prevented it from leveraging meaningful reform. The District Council\'s Act was passed as another means of limiting chiefs power by creating councils to preside over each district and town, making these elected bodies the primary local authorities.
Gaborone was built in 1965 and declared the new capital. It was built on British crown land, which provided a neutral location not controlled by any one tribe. The constitution was implemented the same year. With this in effect, the United Kingdom granted the protectorate self-governance. 1965 also saw the passing of the District Councils Act that adapted the colonial role of district commissioner by tying it to newly created district councils, and it saw the establishment of the state-owned National Development Bank.
Mpho split from the BPP to create the Bechuanaland Independence Party (BIP) in 1965. Led by Seretse Khama and Quett Masire, the BDP campaigned in almost every village in the protectorate leading up to the first general election. Unlike other political figures in Bechuanaland, Seretse Khama had appeal across the different tribes. The BDP was subsequently elected to lead the first government. The BPP won only three seats in the legislature, and the BIP failed to win any. After the election, the Botswana National Front (BNF) was created as a unified opposition to the BDP. Founded by Kenneth Koma, the BNF became the BDP\'s largest rival.
The BDP chose Khama as the nation\'s prime minister. Unlike most inaugural political parties in Africa, the BDP was a moderate conservative party instead of a radical anti-colonial party. After its formation, the House of Chiefs delivered a vote of no confidence in the constitution in 1966, leading to a national campaign in support of the constitution that garnered enough support for the chiefs to end their efforts to challenge it. The protectorate was granted independence as the Republic of Botswana in 1966.
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# History of Botswana
## Republic of Botswana {#republic_of_botswana}
### Botswana in 1966 {#botswana_in_1966}
Independence for Botswana meant the implementation of liberal democracy, bringing about elections, human rights protections, and civil service. This allowed for a merit-based system of promotion and the creation of a technocratic bureaucracy. The nation formed a government adapted from the Westminster system, and Prime Minister Seretse Khama became President Seretse Khama. A national identity was crafted, bringing together disparate ethnic groups in a single Tswana label, with a culture based on that of the Tswana tribes.
Botswana retained much of its pre-colonial tribal institutions after independence. This was an effect of both the strong centralised government associated with the Tswana tribes and the relatively limited intervention of the British government in colonial times. The deliberative nature of the nation\'s politics before and after independence was an exception to many other African nations that became authoritarian after independence. Instead of abolishing the chiefdom, the new government incorporated it into the legal system, giving the chiefs judicial powers through the *kgotla*, subject to appellate courts. A tradition of subservience to leadership, once given to the chiefs, shifted to the presidency. The government reinforced its stability by staffing its civil service with foreign experts, as opposed to other new African countries that often expelled foreign experts. This preserved a Western-style bureaucratic government with an emphasis on development.
The United Kingdom continued funding Botswana for the first five years of its existence. Its peaceful, democratic status relative to other African nations meant that it received more aid from Western organisations. At the time of independence, Botswana was an extremely poor nation, more so than most others in Africa. It did not have an educated workforce, with only 40 citizens having university degrees, and there were no known natural resource supplies to support the nation. Botswana was dependent on the Apartheid regime in South Africa for access to the global community, and the majority of Botswana\'s labourers were migrant workers in South Africa. Botswana came into more direct conflict with Rhodesia, which caused military skirmishes until 1978.
Limited British involvement meant that little development had taken place since colonisation. Literacy was at 25%, and only 10 kilometres of paved road existed. Approximately 90% of the population was in abject poverty, and most of the population were cattle farmers or subsistence farmers. As the nation achieved independence, a severe drought eliminated 30--50% of the cattle population. Approximately half of Batswana were dependent on the World Food Programme to avoid starvation. Other nations had low expectations for Botswana, and throughout Africa it was seen as an Apartheid Bantustan. This relationship with Apartheid was also a factor in Botswana\'s success as an independent nation: the Batswana leadership wished to avoid the same fate as South Africa should the nation fail, and the diplomatic connections formed with the West to prevent subsumption by South Africa meant that Botswana was more trusting of Western powers and willing to accept their assistance.
The early leadership of Botswana was dominated by the ruling tribal families as well as a small number of highly educated public servants. Their economic and ideological similarities meant that the government remained stable without political infighting. Though Bathoen left his position as chief to pursue politics, most other chiefs accepted their reduced political power in the new government. Further activity of the chiefs was regulated by the Chieftainship Act of 1966.
A lack of corruption gave the state more legitimacy and won the favour of Western allies. Unlike most newly formed African nations, much of the leadership came from the agricultural community, meaning that their interests aligned with the majority. This encouraged the new government to retain colonial-era policies that benefited cattle farmers. The Botswana Meat Commission was created to regulate the beef industry. The BDP\'s pan-tribal appeal and the mutual interest in establishing independence further incentivised the new government to act in the interest of the majority. Small groups of white settlers remained in the country and objected to its independence. Though they would later be crucial in Botswana\'s development, mineral rights were given low priority upon independence, and the tribes transferred them to the central government in 1967.
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# History of Botswana
## Republic of Botswana {#republic_of_botswana}
### Presidency of Seretse Khama {#presidency_of_seretse_khama}
Khama was widely popular and seen as the natural leader of all the Tswana peoples. His administration implemented policies geared toward the creation of infrastructure and public goods, particularly the paving of roads. He began the construction of schools, slaughterhouses, and boreholes that continued over the following decades. Inhabited land of both the Tswana and the San was used to construct the boreholes. Development came at the expense of commerce and production, which was limited to the funding of livestock. Considerable focus was placed on nourishing cattle and constructing slaughterhouses to stimulate the beef industry amid a draught. Public welfare programs were also established. The discovery of diamonds ensured that these programs received sufficient funding. These investments and a conservative approach to government spending prevented the Dutch disease scenario that crippled other resource-laden African countries. Education was expanded throughout the nation, and the Tswana language was standardised alongside English at the expense of other languages. Khama justified this as a means to achieve unity.
Quett Masire served as Vice-President under Seretse Khama as well as Minister of Finance. He exercised control over the nation\'s budgeting and spending by creating a series of National Development Plans, subject to the approval of the National Assembly and the Economic Committee of the Cabinet. Iterations of these plans remained a central facet of government policy well after Khama and Masire\'s successors took office.
In 1967, diamonds were discovered in Botswana by the South African diamond company De Beers, and operations began shortly after. Copper deposits were found in Selebi-Phikwe that year, further revealing the nation\'s mineral wealth. The government partnered with De Beers in 1969 to carry out larger diamond mining operations, and it was involved with a renegotiation of the Southern African Customs Union the same year to greatly improve its economic leverage in the region. A mine in Morupule began producing coal in 1973, providing the nation with a large share of its power supply. The Orapa diamond mine was opened in Orapa in 1971, and a revenue sharing agreement was finalised between the government and De Beers in 1974. Masire later confirmed that De Beers had funded his private ventures, causing speculation that the company may have received an advantageous deal in the matter.
The Water Act and the Tribal Land Act were enacted in 1968, creating the Water Apportionment Board and twelve land boards, respectively. These oversaw the apportionment of water and land rights by the state rather than through the ownership of each tribe. Through this, they effectively subsumed the traditional powers of the chiefs. The Tribal Grazing Lands Policy was implemented in 1975 to prevent overgrazing, but it proved unsuccessful. In effect, it allowed wealthy citizens to claim large plots of land for cattle at the expense of less wealthy citizens.
The first election after independence took place in 1969. The BDP did slightly worse relative to its 1965 performance, and Vice-President Masire lost his seat to Bathoen, requiring him to take a specially elected seat. The BPP faded in relevance as the politics of Botswana developed.
The state-owned Botswana Development Corporation was founded in 1970, and the Orapa diamond mine opened in 1971. By 1973, diamonds made up 10% of Botswana\'s GDP, and by the end of the 1970s, mining was the largest industry in the country. The government of Botswana renegotiated its mining agreement with De Beers between 1971 and 1975, shifting the majority of earnings to the nation. As the diamond economy developed and investments were made back into the country, Botswana escaped poverty and came to be seen as a success among the other nations in post-colonial sub-Saharan Africa. These developments made Botswana the fastest growing economy in the world. The upper and middle classes saw the most benefit, increasing wealth inequality, but it also meant taxes could be lowered, which earned the support of peasants.
Botswana\'s development and its use of foreign civil service was successful enough that the government convinced the United States to send the Peace Corps without traditional limitations on what roles the organisation can perform. With the 1970s came an increase in young locally educated Batswana, who became more influential in government. As these newcomers received similar education and began working in the same administrative culture, there was no major operational difference between the foreigner-led civil service and that run by the Batswana.
The Ministry of Development Planning had briefly existed following a schism in the Ministry of Finance between traditional caretakers who had been associated with the protectorate against Masire\'s supporters who wished to see more aggressive development. The latter took control, and the ministries were reunified as the Ministry of Finance and Development Planning in 1970. Because of the limited number of qualified people to manage the economy, this ministry took almost full control of the government\'s spending and initiated the Shashe Project that called for extensive development exceeding the country\'s GDP. This included the establishment of a copper and nickel mining complex, which became the government\'s highest priority.
In 1973, Seepapitso IV became the first chief to be suspended from his position in the post-colonial era. The BDP was again highly successful in the 1974 election. Minimum wages were introduced the same year.
Botswana began issuing its own currency, the Botswana pula, in 1976. Bank of Botswana governor Quill Hermans pushed for financial disentanglement from South Africa and its South African rand. Despite international concerns that Botswana might not be able to maintain its own currency, Khama felt that his economic advisors were capable and trusted their decision. Within a decade of independence, Botswana was one of the wealthiest nations in the Third World. The economic transformation is referred to as Botswana\'s \"miracle\".
Linchwe II, chief of the Kgatla people, reinstated the *bogwera* initiation rite for his tribe in 1975, aggravating the national government. Khama took a universalist approach in his administration, avoiding ethnic politics and rejecting the influence of tribal leaders in favour of civil servants. He at times asked individuals to resign if one ethnic group became too influential in the civil service. The Tswana peoples feared that dissent from the Kalanga minority could be destabilising. To addresses this, Khama incorporated educated members of the Kalanga tribe into the government, appointing many to high-ranking positions. The decision was controversial, and it spawned conspiracy theories about malevolent influence of the Kalanga. These sometimes centred on the Bakalanga Students Association, which became the Society for the Promotion of Ikalanga Language in 1980.
Fear of neighbouring white-led governments in Namibia, Rhodesia, and South Africa, as well as the danger of the Angolan Civil War, led Botswana to create a national military in 1977. Prior to this, the Botswana Police Service was responsible for national security. The lack of military meant that Botswana was not susceptible to leading causes of instability in other African nations: military coups and corruption through military spending. The military saw combat the following year when Rhodesian militants attacked Leshoma, killing fifteen soldiers.
In its partnership with De Beers, the government of Botswana formed the Debswana mining company in 1978, acquiring significant income for the state. Mining became the predominant industry of the nation\'s economy over the following decades, and Botswana became the world\'s fastest growing economy. Foreign involvement in the economy became a political issue at this time as outsiders collected on the nation\'s growth while domestic jobs developed slowly. Cattle farming, which had already been affected by a major outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease in 1977, lost the significance that it had previously held.
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# History of Botswana
## Republic of Botswana {#republic_of_botswana}
### Presidency of Quett Masire {#presidency_of_quett_masire}
After Seretse Khama\'s death in 1980, Vice-President Quett Masire became the president of Botswana. Despite concerns about Khama\'s succession, Masire maintained the government infrastructure he helped build and preserved faith in the government. To appease Khama\'s Ngwato tribe and the other northern tribes, Masire appointed Khama\'s cousin, Lenyeletse Seretse, as vice-president. Popular opinion among the Ngwato was that Khama\'s son, Ian Khama, was entitled to the presidency. Upon Lenyeletse\'s death in 1983, Masire selected Peter Mmusi to replace him. This time he selected someone from a southern tribe, so as not to set a precedent that the president and vice-president must always be from opposite regions.
Botswana was part of the Southern African Development Coordination Conference established in 1980 to create a southern African market. The nation was affected by the early 1980s recession. The Jwaneng diamond mine began operation 1982, becoming the most lucrative diamond mine in the world. The University of Botswana was created the same year when it split from the University of Botswana, Lesotho and Swaziland. Legal developments in 1982, the Financial Assistance Policy and the legalisation of commercial activity by civil servants, spurred the nation\'s economy but also loosened regulations that would prevent corruption. As democracy and economic growth proved to be long-term trends, Botswana garnered a reputation as an \"African miracle\".
Strong opposition to the BDP-controlled government first arose in the 1980s. Opposition parties began winning local elections, interest groups began forming, and five major anti-BDP newspapers began publication. Previously dependent on support by specific ethnic groups, the BNF gained support among the working class. By the 1984 general election, it was a competitive opposition party.
A severe drought affected Botswana from 1982 to 1987, necessitating government food assistance for about 65% of rural Batswana. Masire\'s critics associated him with this drought as it coincided with the beginning of his presidency, suggesting that Khama had a divine mandate that Masire did not. Mid-way through the 1980s, the diamond industry reached its peak at 53% of the national GDP. By this time, the nation\'s economy became strong enough that citizens were no longer incentivised to opt for subsistence agriculture or migration for work in South Africa. Entrepreneurship became more widespread, particularly among former government workers who moved from the public sector to the private sector. Free secondary education was established in 1989. Trade unions and other special interest groups developed in the 1980s to influence public policy, although the government was often unwilling to acknowledge them. It responded to the burgeoning labour movement by passing heavy restrictions on unions in 1983. The decade also introduced movements for the recognition of minority ethnicities, rejecting the national Tswana identity.
During the 1980s, South Africa began military incursions into Botswana to seek out South African rebels. In response to the civilian casualties, the government of Botswana increased military spending. It also tasked the military with wildlife protection and anti-poaching enforcement in response to the danger posed by armed poachers.
The first case of HIV/AIDS in Botswana was diagnosed in 1985, and over the following decade the country became the most severely affected in the world. Life expectancy in Botswana would drop from 67 to 50 by 1997. A dramatic shift in Botswana\'s health system followed through the 1980s and 1990s; Western medicine grew more widely respected alongside traditional healing, and private hospitals were established to coexist with the government-run facilities.
The early 1990s recession affected Botswana. A landmark constitutional court case brought by Unity Dow ended with a ruling in 1991 that children could inherit citizenship from their mothers as well as their fathers, which was adopted into law with the Citizenship Act of 1995.
The Kgabo Commission was held in 1991 to investigate governmental land boards, and it found that ethical violations had been committed by Vice-President Peter Mmusi and BDP Secretary General Daniel Kwelagobe, both of whom were also members of the Cabinet of Botswana. Facing outrage within the government and among the public, both resigned. The fallout created two polarised factions within the party, one led by the two former cabinet members (the Big Two), and one led by their opponents (the Big Five): Festus Mogae, Bihiti Temane, Chapson Butale, Gaositwe Chiepe, and their leader Mompati Merafhe. This built on tensions that had grown between the southern leadership of the BLP and the new generation of politicians from the north. Masire chose Mogae as the new vice-president.
Worried about the possibility of normalising corruption, Masire hired the deputy head of the Hong Kong Independent Commission Against Corruption (Hong Kong) to create a similar organisation in Botswana. The Directorate on Corruption and Economic Crime was created in 1994, and a land board tribunal was created to hear appeals of land board decisions in 1995.
The BDP\'s position as the dominant party received its first serious challenge in light of the Kgabo Commission. The scandal and the resulting schism in the BDP allowed the BNF to become a more competitive opposition party after the 1994 general election. With the added complication of urbanisation reducing the BDP\'s rural base, opposition parties held a significant minority in the National Assembly. Following Mmusi\'s death, Kwelagobe aligned with Ponatshego Kedikilwe, and they formed the Barata-Phathi faction of the BDP. The Big Five developed into the A-Team faction.
Botswana benefited from the end of the South African Apartheid government in 1994, as the new African-led government did not restrict Botswana\'s growth or engage in military operations across the border. As the region stabilised, economic developments like shopping malls, property speculation, and citizen-owned tourism expanded.
The Ngwaketse tribe came into conflict with the government in April 1994, when minister of local government and lands Patrick Balope accused chief Seepapitso IV of failure to fulfil his duties and ordered the chief\'s suspension---the second suspension of Seepapitso\'s rule. Seepapitso\'s son Leema accepted an appointment to the role, against Seepapitso\'s wishes. The tribe wrestled with the issue of Leema\'s ambiguous legitimacy and the fear that tribal culture would not longer be recognised, and the removal became a national issue. Seepapitso filed a legal challenge, and the court ruled on 22 February 1995 that while Seepapitso\'s removal was legal, Leema\'s appointment was not. With the power of appointment returned to the tribe, they refused to choose a new leader as a form of protest. The government then relented and allowed Seepapitso to be reinstated.
The ritual murder of Segametsi Mogomotsi, a 14-year-old girl from Mochudi, took place in November 1994. Social unrest broke out when the suspects, who were wealthy businessmen and politicians, were released for lack of evidence. Over the following months, student-led protests and riots against the use of occult practices like ritual murder to gain wealth took place.
An outbreak of contagious bovine pleuropneumonia in 1995 caused the deaths of 320,000 cattle. The Agriculture Act of 1995 expanded the process of privatising communal land.
Minority tribes increasingly pushed for recognition beginning in the 1990s. The government began the removal of San people from the Central Kalahari Game Reserve in 1995. While it argued that the intention was to help integrate communities that were too remote, and it offered livestock to incentivise cooperation, international organisations accused the government of coercion and forced displacement to make room for mining. The first major legal effort to protect the rights of ethnic minorities came from a 1995 motion in parliament to define the constitution as tribally neutral, but it was tabled. The Kamanakao Association was formed the same year by the academic Lydia Nyati-Ramahobo to protect the rights of the Yeyi people.
A series of governmental and electoral reforms were implemented in the final years of Masire\'s presidency. Election supervision was transferred to an independent body, the voting age was lowered from 21 to 18, postal voting was implemented, and policies were enacted to protect labour rights and gender equality. Masire wished to create a stable order of succession and to ensure that his chosen successor Vice-President Mogae became president, so he worked with the lawyer Parks Tafa to draft a constitutional amendment. This implemented automatic succession and term limits for the presidency. He then forced the amendment through on his own initiative. Reforming the nation\'s economy, a tentative system of tripartism was implemented to bring together government, the private sector, and labour representatives. When the party was selecting its central committee membership in 1997, the risk of factionalism grew severe enough that Masire cancelled its internal election and had the factions give him lists of names.
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# History of Botswana
## Republic of Botswana {#republic_of_botswana}
### Presidency of Festus Mogae {#presidency_of_festus_mogae}
Masire stepped down as president on 1 April 1998, and he was succeeded by Vice-President Festus Mogae. Mogae made the controversial decision to appoint Ian Khama, commander of the army and the son of Seretse Khama, as the next vice-president, passing his choice through by threatening to dissolve parliament. Although they were officially neutral between the factions of the BDP, Mogae and Khama were both understood to be major figures among the A-Team.
1998 saw one of many splits within the BNF opposition party. It had divided into two factions: the conservatives who held socialist beliefs and the progressives who held social democratic beliefs. Violence at the party\'s congress saw progressives split off into their own party, the Botswana Congress Party (BCP), which became the main opposition party until they lost most of their seats in the 1999 election. This division of the opposition, as well as the civil reforms of the previous years, allowed the BDP to regain some of the seats that it lost in 1994. Several southern members of the BCP\'s leadership returned to the BNF after all of the top positions were taken by northerners.
To raise themselves to the level of the Tswana tribes, the Yeyi people named a paramount chief in 1999, but this went unrecognised by the Chieftainship Act. They brought the issue to the Supreme Court, which struck the relevant provision of the law as discriminatory. Mogae established a commission in 2000 to review minority tribes\' representation in the House of Chiefs, which in turn caused protest from those who felt Mogae sought to undermine the power of the chiefs. The commission determined that the House of Chiefs should be retained, and it was renamed to the Setswana *Ntlo ya Dikgosi*. Other proposed changes were not accepted following pushback from the major Tswana tribes, particularly the Ngwato. The following year, the Kgatla-baga-Mmanaana people saw their chief Gobuamang Gobuamang II formally recognised as a minor *kgosi* within the Kwena territory where they reside.
The Botswana--Namibia border came under dispute in 1999 when both countries claimed a territory in the Caprivi Strip. In the 2000s, Botswana invested heavily in the development of an air force. Botswana Television was established in 2000. The Tsodilo Hills became a World Heritage Site in 2001. The San people issued a legal challenge in 2002 to contest their expulsion from the Central Kalahari Game Reserve, but the case was dismissed. Mosadi Seboko of the Lete people became the first female leader of a tribe in 2003. Mogae had one of the government\'s most prominent critics, Kenneth Good, deported in February 2005. The Three Dikgosi Monument was unveiled in 2005.
Mogae considered the nation\'s HIV/AIDS pandemic to be the most important issue during his presidency. To combat it, he made antiretroviral treatments for HIV/AIDS freely available.
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# History of Botswana
## Republic of Botswana {#republic_of_botswana}
### Presidency of Ian Khama {#presidency_of_ian_khama}
Ian Khama succeeded to the presidency at the end of Mogae\'s term on 1 April 2008. His style of leadership was advertised as following the \"four Ds\": democracy, development, dignity, and discipline. After taking office, he restructured the nation\'s executive in a more hierarchical manner, centralising power around the presidency.
Khama placed emphasis on national security in his administration. During his tenure, the Directorate of Intelligence and Security came to be known for politically motivated espionage and arrests against his political opponents. He also appointed several former military figures in his government Botswana was less involved in the African Union during Khama\'s presidency, instead presenting a more Western-orientated foreign policy.
The 2008 financial crisis pressured Botswana\'s economy, which remained dependent on diamond mines despite the government\'s efforts. The diamond industry ended a steady decline when it stabilised at about 39% of the nation\'s GDP in 2009.
Regulation of chiefs was reformed in 2008 with the Bogosi Act. Khama supported devolving power to the chiefs in the name of restoring discipline and traditional morality. He issued a directive that increased the legal drinking age to 21, empowered minor tribal leaders to order floggings, created *mephato* groups to be vigilantes, and reintroduced corporal punishment in schools. Several newly installed chiefs endorsed this policy and implemented stricter punishments for wrongdoers. Among these was Kgafela II, chief of the Kgatla people. To enforce traditional morality among his people, he significantly increased the use of flogging for those who violated the law. Kgafela and others involved were criminally charged for misusing the punishment in 2010, and the court dismissed his claim of immunity, determining that chiefs lack sovereignty and are subject to the constitution.
As the BDP chose its party leadership in 2009, Khama appointed numerous A-Team figures to party sub-committees despite the victory of the Barata-Phathi during the party\'s congress. When the party\'s secretary general Gomolemo Motswaledi consulted with lawyers to question the legality of Khama\'s actions, Khama had him suspended from the committee. After taking the issue to court, it was found that the incumbent president is immune from legal prosecution, and Khama suspended Motswaledi from the BDP entirely. In early 2010, Khama suspended and then expelled several other members of the Barata-Phathi faction from the BDP. This led to the BDP\'s first major split in March when the Barata-Phathi faction left the party to form the Botswana Movement of Democracy.
The Public Service Act took effect in 2010, legalising strikes for civil servants under some circumstances. The following year, the Botswana Federation of Public Sector Unions (BOFEPUSU) led a two-month strike among the nation\'s civil service to demand a 16% pay, and the government responded by removing thousands of employees from their positions. The removals were overseen by Mokgweetsi Masisi, the Minister for Presidential Affairs. To oppose the government\'s position, BOFEPUSU facilitated a merger of major opposition parties into the Umbrella for Democratic Change (UDC). This new group was led by Duma Boko, who had taken charge of the BNF in 2010 and moderated its rhetoric.
Khama implemented strong conservation reforms during his presidency, especially regarding hunting. While applauded internationally and forming the reputation of Botswana as a \"green miracle\", they were met with frustration domestically because of the unilateral top-down means they were implemented, especially from those living in the designated conservation areas. These policies included an escalation of military anti-poaching practices; anti-poaching units were equipped with automatic firearms to complement a shoot-to-kill policy against suspected poachers.
The BDP retained its majority in the legislature after the following election, but for the first time it did so with only a plurality of the popular vote. Ian Khama then appointed Masisi as his vice-president. The decision was controversial because of Masisi\'s inexperience relative to other possible choices. According to Mogae, Masisi was chosen with the understanding that he would appoint Tshekedi Khama II as vice-president after taking the presidency himself. Botsalo Ntuane was elected Secretary General of the BDP in 2015 on a platform of anti-corruption and electoral reform. This threatened the entrenched nature of the BDP, and Ntuane found a political rival in Masisi. Khama was hostile to the press, especially toward outlets that disagreed with his administration\'s actions. He had two journalists charged with sedition in 2017, but the chargers were later dropped.
### Presidency of Mokgweetsi Masisi {#presidency_of_mokgweetsi_masisi}
Masisi became president at the end of Khama\'s term on 1 April 2018. As the 2019 general election approached, Masisi developed an image to contrast himself from Khama, presenting himself as an anti-corruption figure while supporting the media and BOFEPUSU. His anti-corruption drive resulted in the arrest of Isaac Kgosi, who had led the Directorate of Intelligence and Security in Khama\'s administration.
Masisi proceeded to reverse many of Khama\'s policies. Among these were the repeal of conservation policies, including a controversial hunting ban that targeted the ivory trade. He also oversaw the decriminalisation of homosexuality. As this developed, Masisi and Khama became rivals instead of allies. Khama attempted to recruit Pelonomi Venson-Moitoi as an alternative BDP candidate against Masisi, and when that failed, he founded his own party, the Botswana Patriotic Front (BPF).
The BDP reclaimed a majority of the popular vote in 2019, but the election was marred by government pressure and occasional raids against opposition figures. The UDC challenged the results, but they were unsuccessful. Regional trends shifted in 2019 as the BDP lost some of its support in the north while increasing its influence in the south. The election also saw the primary opposition party, the BNF, lose ground to the BCP.
Like most nations, Botswana saw major economic decline during the COVID-19 pandemic, and the country stayed in lockdown for much of 2020 and 2021. The SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant was discovered in Botswana later in 2021. Anti-Indian sentiment became widespread as the Indian community in Botswana was relatively wealthy.
Khama fled to South Africa in exile in November 2021, and the government of Botswana charged him with illegal ownership of weapons soon after.
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# History of Botswana
## Republic of Botswana {#republic_of_botswana}
### Presidency of Duma Boko {#presidency_of_duma_boko}
The UDC became the first opposition party in Botswana to take power following its victory in the 2024 general election, ending 58 years of rule by the BDP. In his first State of the Nation Address in November 2024, Duma Boko said that his government would push for increased investment into solar energy, medicinal cannabis and industrial hemp. He also announced engagements with Elon Musk to extend affordable internet access nationwide through Starlink. In March 2025, Botswana launched its first satellite, the BOTSAT-1, into space. Boko attended the satellite\'s launch, which took place at SpaceX facilities in the United States
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# Geography of Botswana
**Botswana** is a landlocked country located in Southern Africa, north of South Africa. Botswana occupies an area of 581730 km2, of which 566730 km2 are land. Botswana has land boundaries of combined length 4347.15 km, of which the constituent boundaries are shared with Namibia, for 1544 km; South Africa 1969 km; Zimbabwe, 834 km and Zambia, 0.15 km. Much of the population of Botswana is concentrated in the eastern part of the country.
Sunshine totals are high all year round although winter is the sunniest period. The whole country is windy and dusty during the dry season.
## Area data {#area_data}
Area:
:\* Total: 581,730 km²
:\*\**country rank in the world:* 48th
:\* Land: 566,730 km²
:\* Water: 15,000 km²
Area comparative
:\* Australia comparative: approximately `{{sfrac|5|7}}`{=mediawiki} the size of New South Wales
:\* Canada comparative: approximately `{{sfrac|1|10}}`{=mediawiki} smaller than Saskatchewan
:\* United Kingdom comparative: approximately 2`{{sfrac|2|5}}`{=mediawiki} times the size of the United Kingdom
:\* United States comparative: slightly less than twice the size of Arizona
:\* EU comparative: slightly larger than Metropolitan France
## Geography
The land is predominantly flat to gently undulating tableland, although there is some hilly country, where mining is carried out. The Kalahari Desert is in the central and the southwest. The Okavango Delta, one of the world\'s largest inland deltas, is in the northwest and the Makgadikgadi Pans, a large salt pan lies in the north-central area. The Makgadikgadi has been established as an early habitation area for primitive man; This large seasonal wetland is composed of several large component pans, the largest being Nwetwe Pan, Sua Pan and Nxai Pan. Botswana\'s lowest elevation point is at the junction of the Limpopo and Shashe Rivers, at a height of 513 m. The highest point is Monalanong Hill, at 1494 m. The country is divided into four drainage regions, which are sometimes indistinct due to the arid nature of the climate:
- the Chobe River on the border with the Caprivi Strip of Namibia together with a small adjacent swampy area is part of the Zambezi basin;
- most of the north and central region of the country is part of the Okavango inland drainage basin;
- the easternmost part of the country falls into the Limpopo drainage basin;
- the southern and southwestern regions, which are the driest of all, are drained by the Molopo river along the South African border and the Nossob river through the Kalahari Gemsbok National Park, and are technically part of the basin of the Orange River. None of these rivers normally flows as far as the Orange, however. (The last recorded confluence was in the 1880s.)
Except for the Chobe, Okavango, Boteti and Limpopo rivers, most of Botswana\'s rivers cease to flow during the dry and early rainy seasons.
In Botswana forest cover is around 27% of the total land area, equivalent to 15,254,700 hectares (ha) of forest in 2020, down from 18,803,700 hectares (ha) in 1990. In 2020, naturally regenerating forest covered 15,254,700 hectares, of the naturally regenerating forest 0% was reported to be primary forest (consisting of native tree species with no clearly visible indications of human activity) and around 11% of the forest area was found within protected areas. For the year 2015, 24% of the forest area was reported to be under public ownership and 76% private ownership.
## Climate
Botswana is semi-arid, due to the short rain season. However, the relatively high altitude of the country and its continental situation gives it a subtropical climate. The country is remote from moisture-laden air flows for most of the year. The dry season lasts from April to October in the south and to November in the north where rainfall totals are higher. The south of the country is most exposed to cold winds during the winter period (early May to late August) when average temperatures are around 14 °C. The whole country has hot summers with average temperatures around 26 °C. Sunshine totals are high all year round although winter is the sunniest period. The whole country is windy and dusty during the dry season.
<File:Koppen-Geiger_Map_v2_BWA_1991–2020.svg%7Calt=%7CBotswana> map of Köppen climate classification zones <File:Botswana> sat.png\|alt=\|Satellite image of Botswana <File:Botswana> Topography.png\|alt=\|Elevation map of Botswana
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# Geography of Botswana
## Natural hazards {#natural_hazards}
Botswana is affected by periodic droughts, and seasonal August winds blow from the west, carrying sand and dust, which can obscure visibility.
## Environment
Current environmental issues in Botswana are overgrazing, desertification and the existence of only limited fresh water resources.
Research from scientists has found that the common practice of overstocking cattle to cope with drought losses actually depletes scarce biomass, making ecosystems more vulnerable. The study of the district predicts that by 2050 the cycle of mild drought is likely to become shorter ---18 months instead of two years---due to climate change.
## International agreements {#international_agreements}
Botswana is a party to the following international agreements: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Organization, Ozone Layer Protection and Wetlands.
## Extreme points {#extreme_points}
This is a list of the extreme points of Botswana, the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location.
- Northernmost point -- the border with Zambia upon the Zambezi River at Chobe District
- Easternmost point -- the tripoint with South Africa and Zimbabwe, Central District
- Southernmost point -- Bokspits, Kgalagadi District
- Westernmost point -- the western section of the border with Namibia\*
- *note: Botswana does not have a westernmost point as the western section is formed by the 22nd meridian of longitude east of Greenwich
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# Telecommunications in Botswana
Telecommunications in Botswana include newspapers, radio, television, fixed and mobile telephones, and the Internet.
In addition to the government-owned newspaper and national radio network, there is an active, independent press (six weekly newspapers). Foreign publications are sold without restriction in Botswana. Two privately owned radio stations began operations in 1999. Botswana\'s first national television station, the government-owned Botswana Television (BTV), was launched in July 2000. It began broadcasting with three hours of programming on weekdays and five on weekends, offering news in Setswana and English, entertainment, and sports, with plans to produce 60% of its programming locally. The cellular phone providers Orange and MTN cover most of the country.
## Radio stations {#radio_stations}
- 2 state-owned national radio stations; 3 privately owned radio stations broadcast locally (2007);
- AM 8, FM 13, shortwave 4 (2001).
## Television stations {#television_stations}
One state-owned and one privately owned; privately owned satellite TV subscription service is available (2007).
**Television sets in use:**
- 101,713 (2001);
- 98,568 (2003).
- 173,327 (2006)
- 297,233 (2008)
- 297,971 (2011)
- 365,650 (2014).
## Telephones
**Main lines in use:**
- 160,500 lines, 134th in the world (2012);
- 136,900 (2006).
**Mobile cellular in use:**
- 3.1 million lines, 129th in the world (2012);
**Telephone system**
- *general assessment*: Botswana is participating in regional development efforts; expanding fully digital system with fiber-optic cables linking the major population centers in the east as well as a system of open-wire lines, microwave radio relays links, and radiotelephone communication stations (2011);
- *domestic*: fixed-line teledensity has declined in recent years and now stands at roughly 7 telephones per 100 persons; mobile-cellular teledensity now pushing 140 telephones per 100 persons (2011);
- *international*: country code - 267; international calls are made via satellite, using international direct dialing; 2 international exchanges; digital microwave radio relay links to Namibia, Zambia, Zimbabwe, and South Africa; satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Indian Ocean) (2011).
## ISDB-T {#isdb_t}
**Features:**
- Supports ISDB-T broadcast (13 segments).
- MPEG-2/ MPEG-4 AVC/ H.264 HD/ SD video.
- DiVX Compatible with 480i / 480p / 720p / 1080i/ 1080p video formats. Auto and manually scan all available TV and radio channels.
- Aspect ratio 16:9 and 4:3.
- 1000 channels memory.
- Parental control.
- Teletext / Bit map subtitle.
- Compliant with ETSI.
- Supported 7 days EPG function.
- VBI Teletext support 6 MHz software setting Auto / Manual program search.
- Multi language supported.
## Internet
**Internet top-level domain:** .bw
**Internet users:**
- 241,272 users, 148th in the world; 11.5% of the population, 166th in the world (2012);
- 120,000 users, 154th in the world (2009);
- 80,000 users (2007).
**Internet broadband**:
- 16,407 fixed broadband subscriptions, 134th in the world; 0.8% of the population, 143rd in the world;
- 348,124 wireless broadband subscriptions, 102nd in the world; 16.6% of the population, 76th in the world.
**Internet hosts:**
- 1,806 hosts (2012);
- 6,374 hosts (2008).
**Internet IPv4 addresses**: 100,096 addresses allocated, less than 0.05% of the world total, 47.7 addresses per 1000 people (2012).
**Internet Service Providers:**`{{update after|2014|1|21}}`{=mediawiki}
- 11 ISPs (2001);
- 2 ISPs (1999).
ADSL has been introduced in the following areas: Gaborone, Tlkokweng, Mogoditsane, Phakalane, Francistown, Lobatse, Palapye, Maun, Kasane, Selibe-Phikwe, Letlhakane, Jwaneng, and Orapa
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# Transport in Botswana
**Transportation in Botswana** is provided by an extensive network of railways, highways, ferry services and air routes that criss-cross the country. The transport sector in Botswana played an important role in economic growth following its independence in 1966. The country discovered natural resources which allowed it to finance the development of infrastructure, and policy ensured that the transport sector grew at an affordable pace commensurate with demands for services.
## Rail transport {#rail_transport}
Rail services are provided by Botswana Railways, with most routes radiating from Gaborone. Botswana has the 93rd longest railway network in the world at 888 km, it is one of the busiest railways in Africa. The track gauge is 1,067 mm (3 ft 6 in) (cape gauge). Botswana is an associate member of the International Union of Railways (UIC).
### Regional trains (BR Express) {#regional_trains_br_express}
Botswana Railways run 2 nightly passenger trains, one from Lobatse to Francistown, and the other from Francistown to Lobatse, with stops in Gaborone, Mahalapye, Palapye, and Serule. The passenger train is termed the \"BR Express\" (Botswana Railways). Passenger services were suspended from 2009 to 2016, with the exception of an international link to Zimbabwe from Francistown.
### Commuter/suburban trains {#commutersuburban_trains}
In Botswana, the (Botswana Railways) \"BR Express\" has a commuter train between Lobatse and Gaborone. The train departs to Lobatse at 0530hrs and arrives at Gaborone at 0649hrs. This train returns to Lobatse in the evening, departing in Gaborone at 1800hrs. Arrival time at Lobatse is 1934hrs. The train stops at Otse, Ramotswa, and Commerce Park Halt.
### BR Express Sleeping & Dining Department {#br_express_sleeping_dining_department}
From the beginning, the BR decided to operate its own sleeping cars, thus building bigger-sized berths and more comfortable surroundings. Providing and operating their cars allowed better control of the services and revenue. While the food was served to passengers, the profits were never result of serving the food. Those who could afford to travel great distances expected better facilities, and favorable opinions from the overall experience would attract others to Botswana and the BR\'s trains.
### Stations
### Freight trains {#freight_trains}
Over half of BRs freight traffic is in coal, grain and intermodal freight, and it also ships automotive parts and assembled automobiles, sulphur, fertilizers, other chemicals, soda ash, forest products and other types of the commodities.
### Locomotives
**Diesel locomotives**
As of March 2009:
- 8 General Electric UM 22C diesel-electric locomotive, 1982.
- 20 General Motors Model GT22LC-2 diesel-electric locomotive, 1986.
- 10 General Electric UI5C diesel-electric locomotive, 1990.
- 8 new gt142aces were delivered in the end of 2017.
### Network
- total: 888 km (since 2015)
- number of stations: 13
- standard gauge: 1,067 mm (3 ft 6 in) cape gauge.
### Railway links with adjacent countries {#railway_links_with_adjacent_countries}
**Existing**
- South Africa (same gauge)
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- Zimbabwe (same gauge)
#### Currently under construction {#currently_under_construction}
- Zambia - being built at Kazungula Bridge in Kazungula.
#### Proposed
- Namibia
- Mozambique
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# Transport in Botswana
## Road transport {#road_transport}
### Vehicle population {#vehicle_population}
- Botswana had 584,000 locally registered vehicles at the end of June 2019 - more than double the number compared to 10 years prior. This equates to around 250 vehicles per 1,000 people in the country.
- 30,583 vehicles were registered in the first 6 months of 2019.
- Secondhand imports from Asia and the UK are a significant source of vehicles in Botswana.
### A-roads {#a_roads}
A-roads are highways and other major roads.
---------- -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
**Road** **Connections**
A1 Zimbabwe (A7) - Ramokgwebane (B315) - Tshesebe (B311) - Francistown (A3, B162) - Dikabeya (B151) - Serule (A15) - Palapye (A14, B140) - Mahalapye (B145, B147) - Pilane (B130) - Gaborone (A10, A12) - Ramotswa (A11, B111) - Otse (B105) - Lobatse (A2) - Ramatlabama (B202) - South Africa (R503)
A2 Namibia (B6) - Charleshill (B214) - A3 (south of Ghanzi) - Morwamosu (B102) - Sekoma (A20) - Kanye (A10, B105, B202) - Lobatse (A1) - South Africa (N4)
A3 A2 - Ghanzi - Sehithwa (A35) - Maun (B334) - Matopi (B300) - Nata (A33) - Dukwe (A32) - Sebina (A31) - Francistown (A30, A1)
A10 Gaborone (A1, A12) - Thamaga (B111) - Mosopa - Kanye (A2, B105, B202)
A11 A1 - Ramotswa
A12 Molepolole (B102, B111, B112) - Metsimotlhaba (B122) - Gaborone (A1) - South Africa (R49)
A14 Orapa (A30, B300) - Serowe (B145) - Palapye (A1, B140)
A15 Serule (A1) - Selebi Phikwe (B157, B150)
A20 Sekoma (A2) - Khakhea (B205) - Tshabong (B210, B211)
A30 Orapa (A14, B300) - Francistown (A3)
A31 Tutume - Sebina (A3)
A32 Sowa - Dukwe (A3)
A33 Namibia (B6) - Muchenje - Kasane - Pandamatenga (B333) - Nata (A3)
A35 Namibia - Shakawe - Sehithwa (A3)
---------- -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
### B-roads {#b_roads}
B-roads are smaller distributor roads.
---------- -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
**Road** **Connections**
B102 Morwamosu (A2) - Molepolole (A12, B111, B112)
B105 Kanye (A2, A10, B202) - Otse (A1)
B111 Molepolole (A12, B102, B112) - Thamaga (A10) - Ramotswa (A1, A11)
B112 Shoshong (B145) - Molepolole (A12, B102, B111)
B122 Lentsweletau (B123) - Metsimotlhaba (A12)
B123 Lentsweletau (B122) - east
B130 Pilane (A1) - Mochudi - Sikwane (B135) - South Africa
B135 Malolwane - Sikwane (B130)
B140 Palapye (A1, A14) - Sherwood (B141) - South Africa (Grobler\'s Bridge, N11)
B141 Machaneng (B147, B148) - Sherwood (B140)
B145 Serowe (A14) - Shoshong (B112) - Mahalapye (A1, B147)
B147 Mahalapye (A1, B145) - Machaneng (B141, B148)
B148 B140 - Machaneng (B141, B147)
B150 Selebi Phikwe (A15) - Sefophe (B150) - Tsetsebjwe
B151 Dikabeya (A1) - Sefophe (B151) - Bobonong (B155) - Kobojango
B155 Bobonong (B150) - Molalatau
B157 Mmadinare - Selebi Phikwe (A15)
B162 Francistown (A1, A3) - Matsiloje
B202 Kanye (A2, A10, B105) - Ramatlabama (A1)
B205 A2 - Khakhea (A20) - south
B210 Tshabong (A20, B211) - South Africa (R380)
B211 South Africa - Bokspits - Tshabong (A20, B210)
B214 Charleshill (A2) - Ncojane
B300 Matopi (A3) - Rakops - Orapa (A14, A30)
B311 Masunga (B316) - Tshesebe (A1)
B315 Zwenshambe (B316) - Moroka - Ramokgwebane (A1)
B316 Zwenshambe (B315) - Masunga (B311)
B333 A33 - Pandamatenga - Zimbabwe
B334 Shorobe - Maun (A3)
---------- -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
### Motorways
Motorways in Botswana have a set of restrictions, which prohibit certain traffic from using the road. The following classes of traffic are not allowed on Botswana motorways:
- Learner drivers
- Slow vehicles (i.e., not capable of reaching 60 km/h on a level road)
- Invalid carriages (lightweight three-wheeled vehicles)
- Pedestrians
- Pedal-cycles (bicycles, etc.)
- Vehicles under 50cc (e.g. mopeds)
- Tractors
- Animals
Rules for driving on motorways include the following:
- The keep-left rule applies unless overtaking
- No stopping at any time
- No reversing
- No hitchhiking
- Only vehicles that travel faster than 80 km/h may use the outside lane
- No driving on the hard-shoulder
The general motorway speed limit is 120 km/h.
### Road signs {#road_signs}
Traditionally, road signs in Botswana used blue backgrounds rather than the yellow, white, or orange that the rest of the world uses on traffic warning signs. In the early 2010s, officials announced plans to begin phasing out the distinctive blue signs in favour of more typical signs in order to be more in line with the neighbouring Southern African Development Community member states.
### Interchanges
#### Existing
- **Kenneth Nkhwa Interchange** at the junction of A1 / Blue Jacket Street and A3 in Francistown.
- **Boatle Interchange** in **Boatle**.
#### Under construction {#under_construction}
The Government of Botswana is building three interchanges along **K.T Motsete Drive (*Western Bypass*)** in Gaborone. This project started in August 2019, and deadline date is set 2022.
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# Transport in Botswana
## Road transport {#road_transport}
### Longest bridges {#longest_bridges}
The Kazungula Bridge in Kazungula and the Okavango River Bridge (constructed 2022) in Mohembo are the two longest bridges.
### Roadway links with adjacent countries {#roadway_links_with_adjacent_countries}
#### Existing {#existing_1}
- Namibia by Trans-Kalahari Corridor.
- South Africa by A1 highway (Botswana), A2 highway (Botswana), A11 road (Botswana) and **A12 highway (Botswana)**.
- Zambia by A33 road (Botswana).
- Zimbabwe by A1 highway (Botswana).
## Mass transit by road {#mass_transit_by_road}
### Taxicabs
In most parts of Botswana, there are many taxicabs of various colours and styles. Botswana has no limitation in taxicab design, so each taxicab company adopts its own design.
### Minibus taxis {#minibus_taxis}
Minibus taxis, also known as C*ombi*, are the predominant form of transport for people in urban areas of Botswana. Most of them are found within cities, towns, major villages, and even the least populated areas.
They also have their own minibus station within a particular area; only transporting people within that specific area using different and unique routes. This is due to their availability and affordability to the public.
Most minibus taxis do not have a specific departure time that is allocated by the state and most of them have 15-seaters. The minibuses are owned and operated by many individual minibus owners.
### Coach bus {#coach_bus}
Coach buses are used for longer-distance services within and outside Botswana. These are normally operated by private companies and are the only buses that have departure times allocated by the Ministry of Transport. Coach buses have multiple departures, routes, and stations all over Botswana.
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# Transport in Botswana
## Water transport {#water_transport}
Further information: List of rivers of Botswana
### Ferries
The Kazungula Ferry was a pontoon ferry that crossed the 400 m Zambezi River between Botswana and Zambia.
### Tour boats {#tour_boats}
## Aviation
Further information: List of airports in Botswana In 2004 there were an estimated 85 airports, 10 of which (as of 2005), were paved. The country\'s main international airport is Sir Seretse Khama International Airport in Gaborone. The government-owned Air Botswana operates scheduled flights to Francistown, Gaborone, Maun, and Selebi-Phikwe. There is international service to Johannesburg, South Africa; Mbabane, Eswatini; and Harare, Zimbabwe. A new international airport near Gaborone was opened in 1984. Air passengers arriving to and departing from Botswana during 2003 totalled about 183,000.
### International airports {#international_airports}
Botswana has 4 international airports.
- Sir Seretse Khama International Airport in Gaborone.
- Francistown Airport in Francistown.
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- Kasane Airport in Kasane.
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- Maun Airport in Maun.
#### Proposed airports {#proposed_airports}
- \"Mophane International Airport\" is planned in Palapye Sub-District near Moremi village.
## Pedestrian elevated walkways {#pedestrian_elevated_walkways}
Botswana has many pedestrian elevated walkways at different places.
## Water pipelines {#water_pipelines}
`{{Relevance inline|discuss=|date=August 2023|reason=is a pipeline 'Transport'?}}`{=mediawiki}
### Under construction {#under_construction_1}
#### North-South Carrier {#north_south_carrier}
NSC is a pipeline in Botswana that carries raw water, south for a distance of 360 km to the capital city of Gaborone. It was done in phases. However, phase 1 was completed in 2000.
Phase 2 of the NSC, still under construction, will duplicate the pipeline to carry water from the Dikgatlhong Dam, which was completed in 2012.
A proposed extension to deliver water from the Zambezi would add another 500 to to the total pipeline length.
#### Lesotho-Botswana Water Transport {#lesotho_botswana_water_transport}
The Lesotho-Botswana Water Transfer is an ongoing project which is expected to provide two hundred million cubic meters per year to transfer water to the south-eastern parts of Botswana.
The scheme involves the supply of water to Gaborone from Lesotho via a 600 to pipeline.
The project commenced on the 1 August 2018 and is set for completion in June 2020.
### Proposed {#proposed_1}
#### Sea water desalination project {#sea_water_desalination_project}
The Government of Botswana intends to sign the Sea Water Desalination Project from Namibia. The project is at a tendering stage
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# Geography of Brazil
The country of Brazil occupies roughly half of South America, bordering the Atlantic Ocean. Brazil covers a total area of 8514215 km2 which includes 8456510 km2 of land and 55455 km2 of water. The highest point in Brazil is Pico da Neblina at 2994 m. Brazil is bordered by the countries of Argentina, Bolivia, Colombia, Guyana, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, Uruguay, Venezuela, and French Guiana.
Much of the climate is tropical, with the south being relatively temperate. The largest river in Brazil, and the second longest in the world, is the Amazon.
## Size and geographical location {#size_and_geographical_location}
Brazil occupies most of the eastern part of the South American continent and its geographic heartland and various islands in the Atlantic Ocean. The only countries in the world that are larger are Russia, Canada, China and the United States. The national territory extends 4397.53 km from north to south (5°16\'10\" N to 33°45\'03\" S latitude), and 4320.53 km from east to west (34°47\'35\" W to 73°58\'59\" W longitude). It spans four time zones, the westernmost of which is equivalent to Eastern Standard Time in the United States. The time zone of the capital (Brasília) and of the most populated part of Brazil along the east coast (UTC-3) is two hours ahead of Eastern Standard Time. The Atlantic islands are in the easternmost time zone. This continent occupies almost half of the total area. Its coasts are washed by the waters of the Atlantic Ocean in the east. Brazil borders all South American countries except Chile and Ecuador. It ranks 5th among the countries of the world in terms of area. The territory of Brazil is located on the ancient South American platform. Therefore, the relief consists of lowlands and flat mountains. In the north, a large area is occupied by the Amazonian lowland. To the south of it is the strongly dissected Brazilian lowland. Between the Brazilian lowland and the Atlantic Ocean is a narrow coastal lowland. Brazil has large deposits of oil, iron, bauxite, nickel, uranium, manganese ores, diamonds and other minerals. Due to the fact that most of it is located in the equatorial and subequatorial climatic zones and the influence of the trade winds blowing from the Atlantic Ocean, the climatic conditions are characterized by high humidity and heat. Due to the temperate climate, the hydrographic network in Brazil is very well developed. The longest and most fertile river in the world, the Amazon, flows through the north of the country. The Amazon basin has formed one of the largest and thickest massifs on our planet. In addition to the Amazon, Brazil also has such large rivers as the Paraná, Tocantins, and São Francisco. In general, Brazil is one of the countries best endowed with water, hydroelectric power, and forest resources.
Brazil possesses the archipelago of Fernando de Noronha, located 350 km northeast of its \"horn\", and several small islands and atolls in the Atlantic - Abrolhos, Atol das Rocas, Penedos de São Pedro e São Paulo, Trindade, and Martim Vaz. In the early 1970s, Brazil claimed a territorial sea extending 362 km from the country\'s shores, including those of the islands.
On Brazil\'s east coast, the Atlantic coastline extends 7367 km. In the west, in clockwise order from the south, Brazil has 15719 km of borders with Uruguay, Argentina, Paraguay, Bolivia, Peru, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana (overseas department of France). The only South American countries with which Brazil does not share borders are Chile and Ecuador. A few short sections are in question, but there are no true major boundary controversies with any of the neighboring countries. Brazil has the 10th largest Exclusive Economic Zone of 3,830,955 km2.
Brazil\'s 49 major ecosystems include the Amazon Basin, Pantanal, Cerrado, Caatinga, Atlantic Forest, and Pampas, each contributing uniquely to the country\'s rich biodiversity and environmental diversity. In Brazil forest cover is around 59% of the total land area, equivalent to 496,619,600 hectares (ha) of forest in 2020, down from 588,898,000 hectares (ha) in 1990. In 2020, naturally regenerating forest covered 485,396,000 hectares (ha) and planted forest covered 11,223,600 hectares (ha). Of the naturally regenerating forest 44% was reported to be primary forest (consisting of native tree species with clearly visible indications of human activity) and around 30% of the forest area was found within protected areas. For the year 2015, 56.% of the forest area was reported to be under public ownership and 400% private ownership.
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# Geography of Brazil
## Geology, geomorphology and drainage {#geology_geomorphology_and_drainage}
In contrast to the Andes, which rose to elevations of nearly 7000 m in a relatively recent epoch and inverted the Amazon\'s direction of flow from westward to eastward, Brazil\'s geological formation is ancient. Precambrian crystalline shields cover 36% of the territory, especially its central area. The dramatic granite sugarloaf mountains in the city of Rio de Janeiro are an example of the terrain of the Brazilian shield regions, where continental basement rock has been sculpted into towering domes and columns by tens of millions of years of erosion, untouched by mountain-building events.
The principal mountain ranges average elevations under 2000 m. The Serra do Mar Range hugs the Atlantic coast, and the Serra do Espinhaço Range, the largest in area, extends through the south-central part of the country. The highest mountains are in the Tumucumaque, Pacaraima, and Imeri ranges, among others, which traverse the northern border with the Guianas and Venezuela.
In addition to mountain ranges (about 0.5% of the country is above 1200 m), Brazil\'s Central Highlands include a vast central plateau (Planalto Central). The plateau\'s uneven terrain has an average elevation of 1000 m. The rest of the territory is made up primarily of sedimentary basins, the largest of which is drained by the Amazon and its tributaries. Of the total territory, 41% averages less than 200 m in elevation. The coastal zone is noted for thousands of kilometers of tropical beaches interspersed with mangroves, lagoons, and dunes, as well as numerous coral reefs. A recent global remote sensing analysis also suggested that there were 5,389 km^2^ of tidal flats in Brazil, making it the 7th ranked country in terms of how much tidal flat occurs there.
The Parcel de Manuel Luís Marine State Park off the coast of Maranhão protects the largest coral reef in South America.
Brazil has one of the world\'s most extensive river systems, with eight major drainage basins, all of which drain into the Atlantic Ocean. Two of these basins---the Amazon and Tocantins-Araguaia account for more than half the total drainage area. The largest river system in Brazil is the Amazon, which originates in the Andes and receives tributaries from a basin that covers 45.7% of the country, principally the north and west. The main Amazon river system is the Amazonas-Solimões-Ucayali axis (the 6762 km-long Ucayali is a Peruvian tributary), flowing from west to east. Through the Amazon Basin flows one-fifth of the world\'s fresh water. A total of 3615 km of the Amazon are in Brazilian territory. Over this distance, the waters decline only about 100 m. The major tributaries on the southern side are, from west to east, the Javari, Juruá, Purus (all three of which flow into the western section of the Amazon called the Solimões), Madeira, Tapajós, Xingu, and Tocantins. On the northern side, the largest tributaries are the Branco, Japurá, Jari, and Rio Negro. The above-mentioned tributaries carry more water than the Mississippi (its discharge is less than one-tenth that of the Amazon). The Amazon and some of its tributaries, called \"white\" rivers, bear rich sediments and hydrobiological elements. The black-white and clear rivers---such as the Negro, Tapajós, and Xingu---have clear (greenish) or dark water with few nutrients and little sediment.
The major river system in the Northeast is the Rio São Francisco, which flows 1609 km northeast from the south-central region. Its basin covers 7.6% of the national territory. Only 277 km of the lower river are navigable for oceangoing ships. The Paraná system covers 14.5% of the country. The Paraná flows south among the Río de la Plata Basin, reaching the Atlantic between Argentina and Uruguay. The headwaters of the Paraguai, the Paraná\'s major eastern tributary, constitute the Pantanal, the largest contiguous wetlands in the world, covering as much as 230000 km2.
Below their descent from the highlands, many of the tributaries of the Amazon are navigable. Upstream, they generally have rapids or waterfalls, and boats and barges also must face sandbars, trees, and other obstacles. Nevertheless, the Amazon is navigable by oceangoing vessels as far as 3885 km upstream, reaching Iquitos in Peru. The Amazon river system was the principal means of access until new roads became more important. Hydroelectric projects are Itaipu, in Paraná, with 12,600 MW; Tucuruí, in Pará, with 7,746 MW; and Paulo Afonso, in Bahia, with 3,986 MW.
### Natural resources {#natural_resources}
Natural resources in Brazil include bauxite, gold, iron ore, manganese, nickel, phosphates, platinum, tin, clay, rare earth elements, uranium, petroleum, hydropower, and timber.
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# Geography of Brazil
## Rivers and lakes {#rivers_and_lakes}
`{{Main articles|List of rivers of Brazil}}`{=mediawiki} According to organs of the Brazilian government there are 12 major hydrographic regions in Brazil. Seven of these are river basins named after their main rivers; the other five are groupings of various river basins in areas which have no dominant river.
- 7 hydrographic regions named after their dominant rivers:
- Amazonas
- Paraguai
- Paraná
- Parnaíba
- São Francisco
- Tocantins
- Uruguay
- 5 coastal Hydrographic Regions based on regional groupings of minor river basins (listed from north to south):
- Atlântico Nordeste Ocidental (Western North-east Atlantic)
- Atlântico Nordeste Oriental (Eastern North-east Atlantic)
- Atlântico Leste (Eastern Atlantic)
- Atlântico Sudeste (South-east Atlantic)
- Atlântico Sul (South Atlantic)
The Amazon River is the widest and second longest river (behind the Nile) in the world. This huge river drains the greater part of the world\'s rainforests. Another major river, the Paraná, has its source in Brazil. It forms the border of Paraguay and Argentina, then winds its way through Argentina and into the Atlantic Ocean, along the southern coast of Uruguay.
## Soil and vegetation {#soil_and_vegetation}
Brazil\'s tropical soils produce almost 210 million tons of grain crops per year, from about 70 million hectares of crops. The country also has the 5th largest arable land area in the world. Burning also is used traditionally to remove tall, dry, and nutrient-poor grass from pasture at the end of the dry season. Until mechanization and the use of chemical and genetic inputs increased during the agricultural intensification period of the 1970s and 1980s, coffee planting and farming, in general, moved constantly onward to new lands in the west and north. This pattern of horizontal or extensive expansion maintained low levels of technology and productivity and placed emphasis on quantity rather than the quality of agricultural production.
The largest areas of fertile soils, called terra roxa (red earth), are found in the states of Paraná and São Paulo. The least fertile areas are in the Amazon, where the dense rainforest is. Soils in the Northeast are often fertile, but they lack water, unless they are irrigated artificially.
In the 1980s, investments made possible the use of irrigation, especially in the Northeast Region and in Rio Grande do Sul State, which had shifted from grazing to soy and rice production in the 1970s. Savanna soils also were made usable for soybean farming through acidity correction, fertilization, plant breeding, and in some cases spray irrigation. As agriculture underwent modernization in the 1970s and 1980s, soil fertility became less important for agricultural production than factors related to capital investment, such as infrastructure, mechanization, use of chemical inputs, breeding, and proximity to markets. Consequently, the vigor of frontier expansion weakened.
The variety of climates, soils, and drainage conditions in Brazil is reflected in the range of its vegetation types. The Amazon Basin and the areas of heavy rainfall along the Atlantic coast have tropical rain forest composed of broadleaf evergreen trees. The rain forest may contain as many as 3,000 species of flora and fauna within a 2.6 km2 area. The Atlantic Forest is reputed to have even greater biological diversity than the Amazon rain forest, which, despite apparent homogeneity, contains many types of vegetation, from high canopy forest to bamboo groves.
In the semiarid Northeast, caatinga, a dry, thick, thorny vegetation, predominates. Most of central Brazil is covered with a woodland savanna, known as the cerrado (sparse scrub trees and drought-resistant grasses), which became an area of agricultural development after the mid-1970s. In the South (Sul), needle-leaved pinewoods (Paraná pine or araucaria) cover the highlands; grassland similar to the Argentine pampa covers the sea-level plains. The Mato Grosso swamplands (Pantanal Mato-grossense) is a Florida-sized plain in the western portion of the Center-West (Centro-Oeste). It is covered with tall grasses, bushes, and widely dispersed trees similar to those of the cerrado and is partly submerged during the rainy season.
Brazil, which is named after reddish dyewood (pau brasil), has long been famous for the wealth of its tropical forests. These are not, however, as important to world markets as those of Asia and Africa, which started to reach depletion only in the 1980s. By 1996 more than 90% of the original Atlantic forest had been cleared, primarily for agriculture, with little use made of the wood, except for araucaria pine in Paraná.
The inverse situation existed with regard to clearing for wood in the Amazon rain forest, of which about 15% had been cleared by 1994, and part of the remainder had been disturbed by selective logging. Because the Amazon forest is highly heterogeneous, with hundreds of woody species per hectare, there is considerable distance between individual trees of economic value, such as mahogany and Pereira. Therefore, this type of forest is not normally cleared for timber extraction but logged through high-grading or selection of the most valuable trees. Because of vines, felling, and transportation, their removal causes destruction of many other trees, and the litter and new growth create a risk of forest fires, which are otherwise rare in rainforests. In favorable locations, such as Paragominas, in the northeastern part of Pará State, a new pattern of timber extraction has emerged: diversification and the production of plywood have led to the economic use of more than 100 tree species.
Starting in the late 1980s, rapid deforestation and extensive burning in Brazil received considerable international and national attention. Satellite images have helped document and quantify deforestation as well as fires, but their use also has generated considerable controversy because of problems of defining original vegetation, cloud cover, and dealing with secondary growth and because fires, as mentioned above, may occur in old pasture rather than signifying new clearing. Public policies intended to promote sustainable management of timber extraction, as well as sustainable use of nontimber forest products (such as rubber, Brazil nuts, fruits, seeds, oils, and vines), were being discussed intensely in the mid-1990s. However, implementing the principles of sustainable development, without irreversible damage to the environment, proved to be more challenging than establishing international agreements about them.
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# Geography of Brazil
## Climate
Although 74% of the country is within the tropical zone, the climate of Brazil varies considerably from the mostly tropical North (the equator traverses the mouth of the Amazon) to temperate zones below the Tropic of Capricorn (23°27\' S latitude), which crosses the country at the latitude of the city of São Paulo. Brazil has five climatic regions: equatorial, tropical, semiarid, highland tropical, subtropical and oceanic.
Temperatures along the equator are high, averaging above 25 C, but not reaching the summer extremes of up to 40 C in the temperate zones. There is little seasonal variation near the equator, although at times it can get cool enough for wearing a jacket, especially in the rain. At the country\'s other extreme, there are frosts south of the Tropic of Capricorn during the winter (June--August), and there is snow in the mountainous areas, such as Paraná, Rio Grande do Sul and Santa Catarina. Temperatures in the cities of São Paulo, Belo Horizonte, and Brasília are moderate (usually between 15 and), despite their relatively low latitude, because of their elevation of approximately 1000 m. Rio de Janeiro, Recife, and Salvador on the coast have warm climates, with average temperatures ranging from 23 to, but enjoy constant trade winds. The southern cities of Porto Alegre and Curitiba have a subtropical climate similar to that in parts of the United States and Europe, and temperatures can fall below freezing in winter.
Precipitation levels vary widely. Most of Brazil has moderate rainfall of between 1000 and a year, with most of the rain falling in the winter (between December and April) south of the Equator. The Amazon region is notoriously humid, with rainfall generally more than 2000 mm per year and reaching as high as 3000 mm in parts of the western Amazon and near Belém. It is less widely known that, despite high annual precipitation, the Amazon rain forest has a three- to five-month dry season, the timing of which varies according to location north or south of the equator.
High and relatively regular levels of precipitation in the Amazon contrast sharply with the dryness of the semiarid Northeast, where rainfall is scarce and there are severe droughts in cycles averaging seven years. The Northeast is the driest part of the country. The region also constitutes the hottest part of Brazil, where during the dry season between May and November, temperatures of more than 38 C have been recorded. However, the sertão, a region of semidesert vegetation used primarily for low-density ranching, turns green when there is rain. Most of the Center-West has 1500 to of rain per year, with a pronounced dry season in the middle of the year, while the South and most of the year without a distinct dry season.
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# Geography of Brazil
## Geographic regions {#geographic_regions}
Brazil\'s 26 states and the Federal District (Distrito Federal) are divided conventionally into five regions: North (Norte), Northeast (Nordeste), Southeast (Sudeste), South (Sul), and Center-West (Centro-Oeste). In 2015 there were 5,570 municipalities (municípios), which have municipal governments. Many municipalities, which are comparable to United States counties, are in turn divided into districts (distritos), which do not have political or administrative autonomy. In 2015 there were 10,424 districts. All municipal and district seats, regardless of size, are considered officially to be urban. For purely statistical purposes, the municipalities were grouped in 1990 into 558 micro-regions, which in turn constituted 137 meso-regions. This grouping modified the previous micro-regional division established in 1968, a division that was used to present census data for 1970, 1975, 1980, and 1985.
Each of the five major regions has a distinct ecosystem. Administrative boundaries do not necessarily coincide with ecological boundaries, however. In addition to differences in physical environment, patterns of economic activity and population settlement vary widely among the regions. The principal ecological characteristics of each of the five major regions, as well as their principal socioeconomic and demographic features, are summarized below.
### Center-West {#center_west}
The Center-West consists of the states of Goiás, Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul (separated from Mato Grosso in 1979) and the Federal District, where Brasília is located, the national capital. Until 1988 Goiás State included the area that then became the state of Tocantins in the North.
The Center-West has 1612077 km2 and covers 18.9% of the national territory. Its main biome is the cerrado, the tropical savanna in which natural grassland is partly covered with twisted shrubs and small trees. The cerrado was used for low-density cattle-raising in the past but is now also used for soybean production. There are gallery forests along the rivers and streams and some larger areas of forest, most of which have been cleared for farming and livestock. In the north, the cerrado blends into tropical forest. It also includes the Pantanal wetlands in the west, known for their wildlife, especially aquatic birds and caimans. In the early 1980s, 33.6% of the region had been altered by anthropic activities, with a low of 9.3% in Mato Grosso and a high of 72.9% in Goiás (not including Tocantins). In 1996 the Center-West region had 10.2 million inhabitants, or 6% of Brazil\'s total population. The average density is low, with concentrations in and around the cities of Brasília, Goiânia, Campo Grande, and Cuiabá. Living standards are below the national average. In 1994 they were highest in the Federal District, with per capita income of US\$7,089 (the highest in the nation), and lowest in Mato Grosso, with US\$2,268.
### Northeast
The nine states that make up the Northeast are Alagoas, Bahia, Ceará, Maranhão, Paraíba, Pernambuco, Piauí, Rio Grande do Norte, and Sergipe. The Fernando de Noronha archipelago (formerly the federal territory of Fernando de Noronha, now part of Pernambuco state) is also included in the Northeast.
The Northeast, with 1561178 km2, covers 18.3% of the national terrest concentration of rural population, and its living standards are the lowest in Brazil. In 1994 Piauí had the lowest per capita income in the region and the country, only US\$835, while Sergipe had the highest average income in the region, with US\$1,958.
### North
The equatorial North, also known as the Amazon or Amazônia, includes, from west to east, the states of Rondônia, Acre, Amazonas, Roraima, Pará, Amapá, and, as of 1988, Tocantins (created from the northern part of Goiás State, which is situated in the Center-West). Rondônia, previously a federal territory, became a state in 1986. The former federal territories of Roraima and Amapá were raised to statehood in 1988.
With 3869638 km2, the North is the country\'s largest region, covering 45.3% of the national territory. The region\'s principal biome is the humid tropical forest, also known as the rain forest, home to some of the planet\'s richest biological diversity. The North has served as a source of forest products ranging from \"backlands drugs\" (such as sarsaparilla, cocoa, cinnamon, and turtle butter) in the colonial period to rubber and Brazil nuts in more recent times. In the mid-twentieth century, non-forest products from mining, farming, and livestock-raising became more important, and in the 1980s the lumber industry boomed. In 1990, 6.6% of the region\'s territory was considered altered by anthropic (man-made) action, with state levels varying from 0.9% in Amapá to 14.0% in Rondônia.
In 1996 the North had 11.1 million inhabitants, only 7% of the national total. However, its share of Brazil\'s total had grown rapidly in the 1970s and early 1980s as a result of interregional migration, as well as high rates of natural increase. The largest population concentrations are in eastern Pará State and in Rondônia. The major cities are Belém and Santarém in Pará, and Manaus in Amazonas. Living standards are below the national average. The highest per capita income, US\$2,888, in the region in 1994, was in Amazonas, while the lowest, US\$901, was in Tocantins.
### Southeast
The Southeast consists of the four states of Espírito Santo, Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro, and São Paulo. Its total area of 927286 km2 corresponds to 10.9% of the national territory. The region has the largest share of the country\'s population, 63 million in 1991, or 39% of the national total, primarily as a result of internal migration since the mid-19th century until the 1980s. In addition to a dense urban network, it contains the megacities of São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, which in 1991 had 18.7 million and 11.7 million inhabitants in their metropolitan areas, respectively. The region combines the highest living standards in Brazil with pockets of urban poverty. In 1994 São Paulo boasted an average income of US\$4,666, while Minas Gerais reported only US\$2,833.
Originally, the principal biome in the Southeast was the Atlantic Forest, but by 1990 less than 10% of the original forest cover remained as a result of clearing for farming, ranching, and charcoal making. Anthropic activity had altered 79.7% of the region, ranging from 75% in Minas Gerais to 91.1% in Espírito Santo. The region has most of Brazil\'s industrial production. The state of São Paulo alone accounts for half of the country\'s industries. Agriculture, also very strong, has diversified and now uses modern technology.
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# Geography of Brazil
## Geographic regions {#geographic_regions}
### South
The three states in the temperate South: Paraná, Rio Grande do Sul, and Santa Catarina---cover 577214 km2, or 6.8% of the national territory. The population of the South in 1991 was 23.1 million, or 14% of the country\'s total. The region is almost as densely settled as the Southeast, but the population is more concentrated along the coast. The major cities are Curitiba and Porto Alegre. The inhabitants of the South enjoy relatively high living standards. Because of its industry and agriculture, Paraná had the highest average income in 1994, US\$3,674, while Santa Catarina, a land of small farmers and small industries, had slightly less, US\$3,405.
In addition to the Atlantic Forest and Araucaria moist forests, much of which were cleared in the post-World War II period, the southernmost portion of Brazil contains the Uruguayan savanna, which extends into Argentina and Uruguay. In 1982, 83.5% of the region had been altered by anthropic activity, with the highest level (89.7%) in Rio Grande do Sul, and the lowest (66.7%) in Santa Catarina. Agriculture---much of which, such as rice production, is carried out by small farmers---has high levels of productivity. There are also some important industries.
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# Geography of Brazil
## Data
In contrast to the Andes, which rose to elevations of nearly 7000 m in a relatively recent epoch and inverted the Amazon\'s direction of flow from westward to eastward, Brazil\'s geological formation is very old. Precambrian crystalline shields cover 36% of the territory, especially its central area. The dramatic granite sugarloaf mountains in the city of Rio de Janeiro are an example of the terrain of the Brazilian shield regions, where continental basement rock has been sculpted into towering domes and columns by tens of millions of years of erosion, untouched by mountain-building events.
The principal mountain ranges average elevations just under 2000 m. The Serra do Mar Range hugs the Atlantic coast, and the Serra do Espinhaço Range, the largest in area, extends through the south-central part of the country. The highest mountains are in the Tumucumaque, Pacaraima, and Imeri ranges, among others, which traverse the northern border with the Guianas and Venezuela.
In addition to mountain ranges (about 0.5% of the country is above 1200 m), Brazil\'s Central Highlands include a vast central plateau (Planalto Central). The plateau\'s uneven terrain has an average elevation of 1000 m. The rest of the territory is made up primarily of sedimentary basins, the largest of which is drained by the Amazon and its tributaries. Of the total territory, 44% averages less than 200 m in elevation. The coastal zone is noted for thousands of kilometers of tropical beaches interspersed with mangroves, lagoons, and dunes, as well as numerous coral reefs.
The Parcel de Manuel Luís Marine State Park off the coast of Maranhão protects the largest coral reef in South America.
Brazil has one of the world\'s most extensive river systems, with eight major drainage basins, all of which drain into the Atlantic Ocean. Two of these basins---the Amazon and Tocantins-Araguaia account for more than half the total drainage area. The largest river system in Brazil is the Amazon, which originates in the Andes and receives tributaries from a basin that covers 45.7% of the country, principally the north and west. The main Amazon river system is the Amazonas-Solimões-Ucayali axis (the 6762 km-long Ucayali is a Peruvian tributary), flowing from west to east. Through the Amazon Basin flows one-fifth of the world\'s fresh water. A total of 3615 km of the Amazon are in Brazilian territory. Over this distance, the waters decline only about 100 m. The major tributaries on the southern side are, from west to east, the Javari, Juruá, Purus (all three of which flow into the western section of the Amazon called the Solimões), Madeira, Tapajós, Xingu, and Tocantins. On the northern side, the largest tributaries are the Branco, Japurá, Jari, and Rio Negro. The above-mentioned tributaries carry more water than the Mississippi (its discharge is less than one-tenth that of the Amazon). The Amazon and some of its tributaries, called \"white\" rivers, bear rich sediments and hydrobiological elements. The black-white and clear rivers---such as the Negro, Tapajós, and Xingu---have clear (greenish) or dark water with few nutrients and little sediment.
The major river system in the Northeast is the Rio São Francisco, which flows 1609 km northeast from the south-central region. Its basin covers 7.6% of the national territory. Only 277 km of the lower river are navigable for oceangoing ships. The Paraná system covers 14.5% of the country. The Paraná flows south among the Río de la Plata Basin, reaching the Atlantic between Argentina and Uruguay. The headwaters of the Paraguai, the Paraná\'s major eastern tributary, constitute the Pantanal, the largest contiguous wetlands in the world, covering as much as 230000 km2.
Below their descent from the highlands, many of the tributaries of the Amazon are navigable. Upstream, they generally have rapids or waterfalls, and boats and barges also must face sandbars, trees, and other obstacles. Nevertheless, the Amazon is navigable by oceangoing vessels as far as 3885 km upstream, reaching Iquitos in Peru. The Amazon river system was the principal means of access until new roads became more important. Hydroelectric projects are Itaipu, in Paraná, with 12,600 MW; Tucuruí, in Pará, with 7,746 MW; and Paulo Afonso, in Bahia, with 3,986 MW.
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# Geography of Brazil
## Locations
Brazil occupies most of the eastern part of the South American continent and its geographic heartland, as well as various islands in the Atlantic Ocean. The only countries in the world that are larger are Russia, Canada, China, and the United States. The national territory extends 4395 km from north to south (5°16\'20\" N to 33°44\'32\" S latitude), and 4319 km from east to west (34°47\'30\" W to 73°59\'32\" W longitude). It spans four time zones, the westernmost of which is equivalent to Eastern Standard Time in the United States. The time zone of the capital (Brasília) and of the most populated part of Brazil along the east coast (UTC-3) is two hours ahead of Eastern Standard Time. The Atlantic islands are in the easternmost time zone.
Brazil possesses the archipelago of Fernando de Noronha, located 350 km northeast of its \"horn\", and several small islands and atolls in the Atlantic - Abrolhos, Atol das Rocas, Penedos de São Pedro e São Paulo, Trindade, and Martim Vaz. In the early 1970s, Brazil claimed a territorial sea extending 362 km from the country\'s shores, including those of the islands.
On Brazil\'s east coast, the Atlantic coastline extends 7367 km. In the west, in clockwise order from the south, Brazil has 15719 km of borders with Uruguay, Argentina, Paraguay, Bolivia, Peru, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana (overseas department of France). The only South American countries with which Brazil does not share borders are Chile and Ecuador. A few short sections are in question, but there are no true major boundary controversies with any of the neighboring countries. Brazil has the 10th largest Exclusive Economic Zone of 3,830,955 km2
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