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# Alcopop
An **alcopop** (or **cooler**) is a category of mixed alcoholic beverages with relatively low alcohol content (e.g., 3--7% alcohol by volume), including:
1. Malt beverages to which various fruit juices or other flavorings have been added
2. Wine coolers: beverages containing wine to which ingredients such as fruit juice or other flavorings have been added
3. Mixed drinks containing distilled alcohol and sweet liquids such as fruit juices or other flavourings
The term *alcopop* (a portmanteau of the words *alcohol* and *pop*) is used commonly in the United Kingdom and Ireland to describe these drinks. In English-speaking Canada, \"cooler\" is more common but \"alcopop\" may also be used. Other terms include flavored alcoholic beverage (**FAB**), flavored malt beverage (**FMB**), \"pre-packaged\" or \"premium packaged\" spirit (**PPS**). In Australia and New Zealand \"premix\" and ready to drink (**RTD**) are both commonly used terms. \"Spirit cooler\" is used in South Africa for distilled alcohol versions.
Hard seltzer is a related category of alcoholic drinks based on flavored seltzer water. Hard soda, meanwhile, is specifically related to soft drinks. Hard lemonade, which could be considered an alcopop, has been around for some time. Hard cider, on the other hand, is a fermented beverage similar to wine or beer.
## Description
There are a variety of beverages produced and marketed around the world as well as within each market which are described as coolers or alcopops. They tend to be sweet and served in small bottles (typically 355 ml (the normal size of a soda pop can) in the US, 275 ml in South Africa and Germany, 330 ml in Canada and Europe), and between 4% and 7% ABV. In Europe, Canada, and South Africa coolers tend to be pre-mixed spirits, including vodka (e.g. Smirnoff Ice) or rum (e.g. Bacardi Breezer). In the United States, on the other hand, alcopops often start out as un-hopped beers, depending on the state in which they are sold. Much of the malt (and alcohol) is removed (leaving mostly water), with subsequent addition of alcohol (usually vodka or grain alcohol), sugar, coloring and flavoring. Such drinks are legally classified as beers in virtually all states and can therefore be sold in outlets that do not or cannot carry spirit-based drinks. There are, however, stronger ones that *are* simply pre-mixed spirits (e.g. Bacardi Rum Island Iced Tea), often containing about 12.5% alcohol by volume, that can be sold only where hard liquor is available.
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# Alcopop
## History
Wine coolers gained popularity in the US market in the 1980s when Bartles and Jaymes began advertising their brand of wine coolers, which were followed by other brands, including when Bacardi introduced the Breezer. A growth in popularity occurred around 1993 with Two Dogs, DNA Alcoholic Spring Water, Hooper\'s Hooch and Zima, which was marketed under the title of \"malternative beverage.\" Wine coolers were on the decline due to the increase in the US federal wine tax, and using a malt-beverage base became the new industry standard. Later, Mike\'s Hard Lemonade was released in the United States, with humorous commercials depicting what they called \"violence against lemons\". Smirnoff also came out with another citrus-flavored malt beverage in the United States in the late 1990s called Smirnoff Ice, which promoted itself with flashy commercials, usually involving trendy young people dancing in unlikely situations and places. (In the UK, Smirnoff Ice is marketed by Diageo as a PPS.)
Through its Alcopop-Free Zone® campaign, \" Alcohol Justice has sought to ban alcopop sales entirely since the sweet and brightly colored alcoholic drinks may appeal to children. Many cooler advertising campaigns have been criticized as trying to make alcopops appeal to young drinkers. In the United Kingdom, a media outcry during the mid-1990s arose as the tabloid press associated alcopops with under-age drinking which damaged sales and led to British liquor stores withdrawing them from their shelves.
In response to a complaint from the Center for Science in the Public Interest (CSPI), the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) conducted an extensive investigation in 2001. The agency \"found no evidence of intent to target minors with FMB products, packaging, or advertising. Furthermore, after reviewing the consumer survey evidence submitted by CSPI in support of the proposition that FMBs were predominantly popular with minors, the FTC concluded that flaws in the survey\'s methodology limited the ability to draw conclusions from the survey data.\"
The Federal Trade Commission again in 2003 investigated FMB ads, product placement, and internal company marketing documents after a directive from the conferees of the House and Senate Appropriations Committees. \"The Commission\'s investigation found no evidence of targeting underage consumers in the marketing of FMBs. Adults 21 to 29 appear to be the intended target of FMB marketing\" and found that \"the majority of FMB drinkers are over the age of 27.\"
In December 2003, Ireland raised the tax on flavored malt beverages to equal that of spirits, the second-highest in Europe. Germany has imposed an extra duty of 0.80 to 0.90 euro per bottle effective August 1, 2004. To circumvent higher taxation, some German producers have switched to wine coolers, which are being marketed the same way. Some bottles now carry a warning stating that they are not for consumption by people under the legal drinking age (under 18 in the UK and 21 in the United States). On May 11, 2008, the Australian Government increased the excise tax on alcopops by 70%, to bring it in line with the tax on spirits. There is the concern this tax will encourage consumers to buy straight spirits and mix the drinks themselves, possibly resulting in drinks with a higher alcohol concentration than the premixed alternatives. This tax was revoked during March 2009 meaning the government had to pay back the 290 million collected on the tax.
The Federal Trade Commission report states, \"Further, industry-conducted research on consumers over the age of 21 who use FMBs shows that these consumers generally view the FMBs as substitutes for beer, \... This research also concludes that consumers are not likely to consume more than two or three FMBs on any occasion because of the products\' sweetness.
In March 2018, Coca-Cola announced it would be launching an alcopop product for the first time, a *chūhai* beverage in Japan.
## Brands
Brands of coolers are numerous and their alcoholic base vary greatly. Some notable brands include: VK, Smirnoff Ice, Mike\'s Hard Lemonade, Bacardi Breezer, Palm Bay, Skyy Blue, Jack Daniel\'s mixed with Coca-Cola and, in the UK, WKD Original Vodka. Garage is an alcopop produced by the Finnish brewery Sinebrychoff.
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# Alcopop
## Health concerns {#health_concerns}
Alcohol-based sugar-sweetened beverages like alcopop are closely linked to episodic drinking in adolescents.
## Attempts to discourage {#attempts_to_discourage}
### Australia
The Australian government increased the tax on these drinks under the 2008 budget to the same rate as spirits, volumetrically, in an effort to stop binge drinking. The tax was criticized by the opposition as a tax grab, and voted down in the Senate on March 18, 2009. Before its rejection, the tax had already raised at least A\$290 million after April 2008. In April 2009, some Labor party MPs planned to resubmit the tax to the Senate, and it was finally approved in August 2009, increasing the tax on the drinks from \$39.36 to \$66.67 per litre of alcohol. A 2013 study concluded that the tax had no impact on binge drinking of the drinks by teenagers.
### Germany
On 1 July 2004 the German government increased the tax on mixed drinks based on spirits (e.g. vodka, rum) by roughly one Euro per 275-ml-bottle in order to discourage teenagers drinking excessively, although those drinks were already prohibited for those under the age of 18. This had two implications: The most common alcopops, such as Smirnoff Ice or Bacardi Breezer, were nearly taken off the market, while other manufacturers changed the recipes of their drinks to replace spirit alcohols with wine or beer, but with the same ABV, enabling these mixed drinks (which are not \"alcopops\" under German law) to be sold legally to minors 16 and 17 years of age.
### Philippines
In 2019, some senators including Pia Cayetano and former Special Assistant to the President Bong Go called for pullout of alcopops from the market due to \"deceptive packaging that resembles fruit juices usually bought by young consumers\". Alcopops also have seven percent alcohol content, which is slightly lower than that of local beer brand Red Horse Beer.
### Sweden
Systembolaget blocked the sale of alcoholic soft drinks in Sweden until mid-1996, when Alkoholsortimentsnämnden decided, with reference to Treaty of Rome Article 30, that Systembolaget could not refuse to sell certain products. This led to great debate, where the marketing of the alcoholic soft drink was considered to be aimed above all at young people. After initially great sales successes, the popularity has now declined, and many of the alcoholic drinks\' market shares have been taken over by sweeter varieties of cider that share many characteristics with the soft drink but have been fermented to their alcoholic strength.
### United Kingdom {#united_kingdom}
In June 1997, Co-op Food became the first major retailer to place an outright ban on the sale of alcopops in its shops. This has since been revoked
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# Alkali
In chemistry, an **alkali** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|æ|l|k|ə|l|aɪ|audio=LL-Q1860 (eng)-Naomi Persephone Amethyst (NaomiAmethyst)-Alkali.wav}}`{=mediawiki}; from the Arabic word `{{transliteration|ar|al-qāly}}`{=mediawiki}, *القالِي*) is a basic salt of an alkali metal or an alkaline earth metal. An alkali can also be defined as a base that dissolves in water. A solution of a soluble base has a pH greater than 7.0. The adjective **alkaline**, and less often, **alkalescent**, is commonly used in English as a synonym for basic, especially for bases soluble in water. This broad use of the term is likely to have come about because alkalis were the first bases known to obey the Arrhenius definition of a base, and they are still among the most common bases.
## Etymology
The word *alkali* is derived from Arabic *al qalīy* (or *alkali*), meaning `{{gloss|the calcined ashes}}`{=mediawiki} (see calcination), referring to the original source of alkaline substances. A water-extract of burned plant ashes, called potash and composed mostly of potassium carbonate, was mildly basic. After heating this substance with calcium hydroxide (*slaked lime*), a far more strongly basic substance known as *caustic potash* (potassium hydroxide) was produced. Caustic potash was traditionally used in conjunction with animal fats to produce soft soaps, one of the caustic processes that rendered soaps from fats in the process of saponification, one known since antiquity. Plant potash lent the name to the element potassium, which was first derived from caustic potash, and also gave potassium its chemical symbol **K** (from the German name *Kalium*), which ultimately derived from al**k**ali.
## Common properties of alkalis and bases {#common_properties_of_alkalis_and_bases}
Alkalis are all Arrhenius bases, ones which form hydroxide ions (OH^−^) when dissolved in water. Common properties of alkaline aqueous solutions include:
- Moderately concentrated solutions (over 10^−3^ M) have a pH of 10 or greater. This means that they will turn phenolphthalein from colorless to pink.
- Concentrated solutions are caustic (causing chemical burns).
- Alkaline solutions are slippery or soapy to the touch, due to the saponification of the fatty substances on the surface of the skin.
- Alkalis are normally water-soluble, although some like barium carbonate are only soluble when reacting with an acidic aqueous solution.
## Difference between alkali and base {#difference_between_alkali_and_base}
The terms \"base\" and \"alkali\" are often used interchangeably, particularly outside the context of chemistry and chemical engineering.
There are various, more specific definitions for the concept of an alkali. Alkalis are usually defined as a subset of the bases. One of two subsets is commonly chosen.
- A basic salt of an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal (this includes Mg(OH)~2~ (magnesium hydroxide) but excludes NH~3~ (ammonia)).
- Any base that is soluble in water and forms hydroxide ions or the solution of a base in water. (This includes both Mg(OH)~2~ and NH~3~, which forms NH~4~OH.)
The second subset of bases is also called an \"Arrhenius base\".
## Alkali salts {#alkali_salts}
Alkali salts are soluble hydroxides of alkali metals and alkaline earth metals, of which common examples are:
- Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) -- often called \"caustic soda\"
- Potassium hydroxide (KOH) -- commonly called \"caustic potash\"
- Lye -- generic term for either of two previous salts or their mixture
- Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)~2~) -- saturated solution known as \"limewater\"
- Magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)~2~) -- an atypical alkali since it has low solubility in water (although the dissolved portion is considered a strong base due to complete dissociation of its ions)
## Alkaline soil {#alkaline_soil}
Soils with pH values that are higher than 7.3 are usually defined as being alkaline. These soils can occur naturally due to the presence of alkali salts. Although many plants do prefer slightly basic soil (including vegetables like cabbage and fodder like buffalo grass), most plants prefer mildly acidic soil (with pHs between 6.0 and 6.8), and alkaline soils can cause problems.
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# Alkali
## Alkali lakes {#alkali_lakes}
In alkali lakes (also called *soda lakes*), evaporation concentrates the naturally occurring carbonate salts, giving rise to an alkalic and often saline lake
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# AMOS (programming language)
**AMOS BASIC** is a dialect of the BASIC programming language for the Amiga computer. Following on from the successful STOS BASIC for the Atari ST, AMOS BASIC was written for the Amiga by François Lionet with Constantin Sotiropoulos and published by Europress Software in 1990.
The language was notable for its focus on media and game development capabilities, allowing users to easily create demanding multimedia software and games. It featured full structured code and numerous high-level functions for loading and manipulating images, animations, and sounds. These capabilities made it a popular choice among Amiga enthusiasts, particularly beginners, for creating video games (especially platformers and graphical adventures), multimedia applications, and educational software.
## History
AMOS competed on the Amiga platform with Acid Software\'s Blitz BASIC. Both BASICs differed from other dialects on different platforms, in that they allowed the easy creation of fairly demanding multimedia software, with full structured code and many high-level functions to load images, animations, sounds and display them in various ways.
The original AMOS was a BASIC interpreter which, whilst working fine, suffered the same disadvantages of any language being run interpretively. By all accounts, AMOS was extremely fast among interpreted languages, being speedy enough that an extension called AMOS 3D could produce playable 3D games even on plain 7 MHz 68000 Amigas. Later, an AMOS compiler was developed that further increased speed. AMOS could also run MC68000 machine code, loaded into a program\'s memory banks.
To simplify animation of sprites, AMOS included the AMOS Animation Language (AMAL), a compiled sprite scripting language which runs independently of the main AMOS BASIC program. It was also possible to control screen and \"rainbow\" effects using AMAL scripts. AMAL scripts in effect created CopperLists, small routines executed by the Amiga\'s Agnus chip.
After the original version of AMOS, Europress released a compiler (**AMOS Compiler**), and two other versions of the language: **Easy AMOS**, a simpler version for beginners, and **AMOS Professional**, a more advanced version with added features, such as a better integrated development environment, ARexx support, a new user interface API and new flow control constructs. Neither of these new versions was significantly more popular than the original AMOS.
AMOS was used mostly to make multimedia software, video games (platformers and graphical adventures) and educational software.
The language was mildly successful within the Amiga community. Its ease of use made it especially attractive to beginners.
One of AMOS BASIC\'s disadvantages, stemming from its Atari ST lineage, was its incompatibility with the Amiga\'s operating system functions and interfaces. Instead, AMOS BASIC controlled the computer directly, which caused programs written in it to have a non-standard user interface, and also caused compatibility problems with newer versions of hardware.
Today, the language has declined in popularity along with the Amiga computer for which it was written. Despite this, a small community of enthusiasts are still using it. The source code to AMOS was released around 2001 under a BSD style license by Clickteam, a company that includes the original programmer
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# Anemometer
In meteorology, an **anemometer** (`{{etymology|grc|''{{wikt-lang|grc|άνεμος}}'' ({{grc-transl|άνεμος}})|wind||''{{wikt-lang|grc|μέτρον}}'' ({{grc-transl|μέτρον}})|measure}}`{=mediawiki}) is a device that measures wind speed and direction. It is a common instrument used in weather stations. The earliest known description of an anemometer was by Italian architect and author Leon Battista Alberti (1404--1472) in 1450.
## History
The anemometer has changed little since its development in the 15th century. Alberti is said to have invented it around 1450. In the ensuing centuries numerous others, including Robert Hooke (1635--1703), developed their own versions, with some mistakenly credited as its inventor. In 1846, Thomas Romney Robinson (1792--1882) improved the design by using four hemispherical cups and mechanical wheels. In 1926, Canadian meteorologist John Patterson (1872--1956) developed a three-cup anemometer, which was improved by Brevoort and Joiner in 1935. In 1991, Derek Weston added the ability to measure wind direction. In 1994, Andreas Pflitsch developed the sonic anemometer.
## Velocity anemometers {#velocity_anemometers}
### Cup anemometers {#cup_anemometers}
A simple type of anemometer was invented in 1845 by Rev. Dr. John Thomas Romney Robinson of Armagh Observatory. It consisted of four hemispherical cups on horizontal arms mounted on a vertical shaft. The air flow past the cups in any horizontal direction turned the shaft at a rate roughly proportional to the wind\'s speed. Therefore, counting the shaft\'s revolutions over a set time interval produced a value proportional to the average wind speed for a wide range of speeds. This type of instrument is also called a *rotational* anemometer.
#### Four cup {#four_cup}
With a four-cup anemometer, the wind always has the hollow of one cup presented to it, and is blowing on the back of the opposing cup. Since a hollow hemisphere has a drag coefficient of .38 on the spherical side and 1.42 on the hollow side, more force is generated on the cup that presenting its hollow side to the wind. Because of this asymmetrical force, torque is generated on the anemometer\'s axis, causing it to spin.
Theoretically, the anemometer\'s speed of rotation should be proportional to the wind speed because the force produced on an object is proportional to the speed of the gas or fluid flowing past it. However, in practice, other factors influence the rotational speed, including turbulence produced by the apparatus, increasing drag in opposition to the torque produced by the cups and support arms, and friction on the mount point. When Robinson first designed his anemometer, he asserted that the cups moved one-third of the speed of the wind, unaffected by cup size or arm length. This was apparently confirmed by some early independent experiments, but it was incorrect. Instead, the ratio of the speed of the wind and that of the cups, the *anemometer factor*, depends on the dimensions of the cups and arms, and can have a value between two and a little over three. Once the error was discovered, all previous experiments involving anemometers had to be repeated.
#### Three cup {#three_cup}
The three-cup anemometer developed by Canadian John Patterson in 1926, and subsequent cup improvements by Brevoort & Joiner of the United States in 1935, led to a cupwheel design with a nearly linear response and an error of less than 3% up to 60 mi/h. Patterson found that each cup produced maximum torque when it was at 45° to the wind flow. The three-cup anemometer also had a more constant torque and responded more quickly to gusts than the four-cup anemometer.
#### Three cup wind direction {#three_cup_wind_direction}
The three-cup anemometer was further modified by Australian Dr. Derek Weston in 1991 to also measure wind direction. He added a tag to one cup, causing the cupwheel speed to increase and decrease as the tag moved alternately with and against the wind. Wind direction is calculated from these cyclical changes in speed, while wind speed is determined from the average cupwheel speed.
Three-cup anemometers are currently the industry standard for wind resource assessment studies and practice.
### Vane anemometers {#vane_anemometers}
One of the other forms of mechanical velocity anemometer is the *vane anemometer*. It may be described as a windmill or a propeller anemometer. Unlike the Robinson anemometer, whose axis of rotation is vertical, the vane anemometer must have its axis parallel to the direction of the wind and is therefore horizontal. Furthermore, since the wind varies in direction and the axis has to follow its changes, a wind vane or some other contrivance to fulfill the same purpose must be employed.
A *vane anemometer* thus combines a propeller and a tail on the same axis to obtain accurate and precise wind speed and direction measurements from the same instrument. The speed of the fan is measured by a revolution counter and converted to a windspeed by an electronic chip. Hence, volumetric flow rate may be calculated if the cross-sectional area is known.
In cases where the direction of the air motion is always the same, as in ventilating shafts of mines and buildings, wind vanes known as air meters are employed, and give satisfactory results.
<File:Wind> speed and direction instrument - NOAA.jpg\|Vane style of anemometer <File:Prop> vane anemometer.jpg\|Helicoid propeller anemometer incorporating a wind vane for orientation <File:Anemometer-IMG> 4734-white.jpg\|Hand-held low-speed vane anemometer <File:Digital_Handheld_Anemometer.jpg%7CHand-held> digital anemometer or Byram anenometer.
### Hot-wire anemometers {#hot_wire_anemometers}
Hot wire anemometers use a fine wire (on the order of several micrometres) electrically heated to some temperature above the ambient. Air flowing past the wire cools the wire. As the electrical resistance of most metals is dependent upon the temperature of the metal (tungsten is a popular choice for hot-wires), a relationship can be obtained between the resistance of the wire and the speed of the air. In most cases, they cannot be used to measure the direction of the airflow, unless coupled with a wind vane.
Several ways of implementing this exist, and hot-wire devices can be further classified as CCA (constant current anemometer), CVA (constant voltage anemometer) and CTA (constant-temperature anemometer). The voltage output from these anemometers is thus the result of some sort of circuit within the device trying to maintain the specific variable (current, voltage or temperature) constant, following Ohm\'s law.
Additionally, PWM (pulse-width modulation) anemometers are also used, wherein the velocity is inferred by the time length of a repeating pulse of current that brings the wire up to a specified resistance and then stops until a threshold \"floor\" is reached, at which time the pulse is sent again.
Hot-wire anemometers, while extremely delicate, have extremely high frequency-response and fine spatial resolution compared to other measurement methods, and as such are almost universally employed for the detailed study of turbulent flows, or any flow in which rapid velocity fluctuations are of interest.
An industrial version of the fine-wire anemometer is the thermal flow meter, which follows the same concept, but uses two pins or strings to monitor the variation in temperature. The strings contain fine wires, but encasing the wires makes them much more durable and capable of accurately measuring air, gas, and emissions flow in pipes, ducts, and stacks. Industrial applications often contain dirt that will damage the classic hot-wire anemometer.
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# Anemometer
## Velocity anemometers {#velocity_anemometers}
### Laser Doppler anemometers {#laser_doppler_anemometers}
In laser Doppler velocimetry, laser Doppler anemometers use a beam of light from a laser that is divided into two beams, with one propagated out of the anemometer. Particulates (or deliberately introduced seed material) flowing along with air molecules near where the beam exits reflect, or backscatter, the light back into a detector, where it is measured relative to the original laser beam. When the particles are in great motion, they produce a Doppler shift for measuring wind speed in the laser light, which is used to calculate the speed of the particles, and therefore the air around the anemometer.
### Ultrasonic anemometers {#ultrasonic_anemometers}
Ultrasonic anemometers, first developed in the 1950s, use ultrasonic sound waves to measure wind velocity. They measure wind speed based on the time of flight of sonic pulses between pairs of transducers.
The time that a sonic pulse takes to travel from one transducer to its pair is inversely proportionate to the speed of sound in air plus the wind velocity in the same direction: $t=\frac{L}{(c+v)}$ where $t$ is the time of flight, $L$ is the distance between transducers, $c$ is the speed of sound in air and $v$ is the wind velocity. In other words, the faster the wind is blowing, the faster the sound pulse travels. To correct for the speed of sound in air (which varies according to temperature, pressure and humidity) sound pulses are sent in both directions and the wind velocity is calculated using the forward and reverse times of flight: $v=\frac{1}{2} L(\frac{1}{t_1}-\frac{1}{t_2})$ where $t_1$ is the forward time of flight and $t_2$ the reverse.
Because ultrasonic anenometers have no moving parts, they need little maintenance and can be used in harsh environments. They operate over a wide range of wind speeds. They can measure rapid changes in wind speed and direction, taking many measurements each second, and so are useful in measuring turbulent air flow patterns.
Their main disadvantage is the distortion of the air flow by the structure supporting the transducers, which requires a correction based upon wind tunnel measurements to minimize the effect. Rain drops or ice on the transducers can also cause inaccuracies.
Since the speed of sound varies with temperature, and is virtually stable with pressure change, ultrasonic anemometers are also used as thermometers.
Measurements from pairs of transducers can be combined to yield a measurement of velocity in 1-, 2-, or 3-dimensional flow. Two-dimensional (wind speed and wind direction) sonic anemometers are used in applications such as weather stations, ship navigation, aviation, weather buoys and wind turbines. Monitoring wind turbines usually requires a refresh rate of wind speed measurements of 3 Hz, easily achieved by sonic anemometers. Three-dimensional sonic anemometers are widely used to measure gas emissions and ecosystem fluxes using the eddy covariance method when used with fast-response infrared gas analyzers or laser-based analyzers.
#### Acoustic resonance anemometers {#acoustic_resonance_anemometers}
Acoustic resonance anemometers are a more recent variant of sonic anemometer. The technology was invented by Savvas Kapartis and patented in 1999. Whereas conventional sonic anemometers rely on time of flight measurement, acoustic resonance sensors use resonating acoustic (ultrasonic) waves within a small purpose-built cavity in order to perform their measurement.
Built into the cavity is an array of ultrasonic transducers, which are used to create the separate standing-wave patterns at ultrasonic frequencies. As wind passes through the cavity, a change in the wave\'s property occurs (phase shift). By measuring the amount of phase shift in the received signals by each transducer, and then by mathematically processing the data, the sensor is able to provide an accurate horizontal measurement of wind speed and direction.
Because acoustic resonance technology enables measurement within a small cavity, the sensors tend to be typically smaller in size than other ultrasonic sensors. The small size of acoustic resonance anemometers makes them physically strong and easy to heat, and therefore resistant to icing. This combination of features means that they achieve high levels of data availability and are well suited to wind turbine control and to other uses that require small robust sensors such as battlefield meteorology. One issue with this sensor type is measurement accuracy when compared to a calibrated mechanical sensor. For many end uses, this weakness is compensated for by the sensor\'s longevity and the fact that it does not require recalibration once installed.
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# Anemometer
## Pressure anemometers {#pressure_anemometers}
The first designs of anemometers that measure the pressure were divided into plate and tube classes.
### Plate anemometers {#plate_anemometers}
These are the first modern anemometers. They consist of a flat plate suspended from the top so that the wind deflects the plate. In 1450, the Italian art architect Leon Battista Alberti invented the first such mechanical anemometer; in 1663 it was re-invented by Robert Hooke. Later versions of this form consisted of a flat plate, either square or circular, which is kept normal to the wind by a wind vane. The pressure of the wind on its face is balanced by a spring. The compression of the spring determines the actual force which the wind is exerting on the plate, and this is either read off on a suitable gauge, or on a recorder. Instruments of this kind do not respond to light winds, are inaccurate for high wind readings, and are slow at responding to variable winds. Plate anemometers have been used to trigger high wind alarms on bridges.
### Tube anemometers {#tube_anemometers}
James Lind\'s anemometer of 1775 consisted of a vertically mounted glass U tube containing a liquid manometer (pressure gauge), with one end bent out in a horizontal direction to face the wind flow and the other vertical end capped. Though the Lind was not the first, it was the most practical and best known anemometer of this type. If the wind blows into the mouth of a tube, it causes an increase of pressure on one side of the manometer. The wind over the open end of a vertical tube causes little change in pressure on the other side of the manometer. The resulting elevation difference in the two legs of the U tube is an indication of the wind speed. However, an accurate measurement requires that the wind speed be directly into the open end of the tube; small departures from the true direction of the wind causes large variations in the reading.
The successful metal pressure tube anemometer of William Henry Dines in 1892 utilized the same pressure difference between the open mouth of a straight tube facing the wind and a ring of small holes in a vertical tube which is closed at the upper end. Both are mounted at the same height. The pressure differences on which the action depends are very small, and special means are required to register them. The recorder consists of a float in a sealed chamber partially filled with water. The pipe from the straight tube is connected to the top of the sealed chamber and the pipe from the small tubes is directed into the bottom inside the float. Since the pressure difference determines the vertical position of the float this is a measure of the wind speed.
The great advantage of the tube anemometer lies in the fact that the exposed part can be mounted on a high pole, and requires no oiling or attention for years; and the registering part can be placed in any convenient position. Two connecting tubes are required. It might appear at first sight as though one connection would serve, but the differences in pressure on which these instruments depend are so minute, that the pressure of the air in the room where the recording part is placed has to be considered. Thus, if the instrument depends on the pressure or suction effect alone, and this pressure or suction is measured against the air pressure in an ordinary room in which the doors and windows are carefully closed and a newspaper is then burnt up the chimney, an effect may be produced equal to a wind of 10 mi/h (16 km/h); and the opening of a window in rough weather, or the opening of a door, may entirely alter the registration.
While the Dines anemometer had an error of only 1% at 10 mi/h, it did not respond very well to low winds due to the poor response of the flat plate vane required to turn the head into the wind. In 1918 an aerodynamic vane with eight times the torque of the flat plate overcame this problem.
#### Pitot tube static anemometers {#pitot_tube_static_anemometers}
Modern tube anemometers use the same principle as in the Dines anemometer, but using a different design. The implementation uses a pitot-static tube, which is a pitot tube with two ports, pitot and static, that is normally used in measuring the airspeed of aircraft. The pitot port measures the dynamic pressure of the open mouth of a tube with pointed head facing the wind, and the static port measures the static pressure from small holes along the side on that tube. The pitot tube is connected to a tail so that it always makes the tube\'s head face the wind. Additionally, the tube is heated to prevent rime ice formation on the tube. There are two lines from the tube down to the devices to measure the difference in pressure of the two lines. The measurement devices can be manometers, pressure transducers, or analog chart recorders.
### Ping-pong ball anemometers {#ping_pong_ball_anemometers}
A common anemometer for basic use is constructed from a ping-pong ball attached to a string. When the wind blows horizontally, it presses on and moves the ball; because ping-pong balls are very lightweight, they move easily in light winds. Measuring the angle between the string-ball apparatus and the vertical gives an estimate of the wind speed.
This type of anemometer is mostly used for middle-school level instruction, which most students make on their own, but a similar device was also flown on the Phoenix Mars Lander.
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# Anemometer
## Pressure anemometers {#pressure_anemometers}
### Effect of density on measurements {#effect_of_density_on_measurements}
In the tube anemometer the dynamic pressure is actually being measured, although the scale is usually graduated as a velocity scale. If the actual air density differs from the calibration value, due to differing temperature, elevation or barometric pressure, a correction is required to obtain the actual wind speed. Approximately 1.5% (1.6% above 6,000 feet) should be added to the velocity recorded by a tube anemometer for each 1000 ft (5% for each kilometer) above sea-level.
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# Anemometer
## Effect of icing {#effect_of_icing}
At airports, it is essential to have accurate wind data under all conditions, including freezing precipitation. Anemometry is also required in monitoring and controlling the operation of wind turbines, which in cold environments are prone to in-cloud icing. Icing alters the aerodynamics of an anemometer and may entirely block it from operating. Therefore, anemometers used in these applications must be internally heated. Both cup anemometers and sonic anemometers are presently available with heated versions.
## Instrument location {#instrument_location}
In order for wind speeds to be comparable from location to location, the effect of the terrain needs to be considered, especially in regard to height. Other considerations are the presence of trees, and both natural canyons and artificial canyons (urban buildings). The standard anemometer height in open rural terrain is 10 meters
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# Alan Jay Lerner
**Alan Jay Lerner** (August 31, 1918 -- June 14, 1986) was an American lyricist and librettist. In collaboration with Frederick Loewe, and later Burton Lane, he created some of the world\'s most popular and enduring works of musical theatre both for the stage and on film. Lerner won three Tony Awards and three Academy Awards, among other honors.
## Early life and education {#early_life_and_education}
Lerner was born in New York City to a Jewish family. He was the son of Edith (`{{née}}`{=mediawiki} Adelson) and Joseph Jay Lerner, whose brother, Samuel Alexander Lerner, was founder and owner of the Lerner Stores, a chain of dress shops. One of Lerner\'s cousins was the radio comedian and television game show panelist Henry Morgan. Lerner was educated at Bedales School in England, The Choate School (now Choate Rosemary Hall) in Wallingford, Connecticut, (where he wrote \"The Choate Marching Song\") and Harvard. He attended both Camp Androscoggin and Camp Greylock. At both Choate and Harvard, Lerner was a classmate of John F. Kennedy; at Choate they had worked together on the yearbook staff. Like Cole Porter at Yale and Richard Rodgers at Columbia, his career in musical theater began with his collegiate contributions, in Lerner\'s case to the annual Harvard Hasty Pudding musicals. During the summers of 1936 and 1937, Lerner studied music composition at Juilliard. While attending Harvard, he lost his sight in his left eye due to an accident in the boxing ring. In 1957, Lerner and Leonard Bernstein, another of Lerner\'s college classmates, collaborated on \"Lonely Men of Harvard\", a tongue-in-cheek salute to their alma mater.
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# Alan Jay Lerner
## Career
Owing to his eye injury, Lerner could not serve in World War II. Instead he wrote radio scripts, including *Your Hit Parade*, until he was introduced to German-Austrian composer Frederick Loewe, who needed a partner, in 1942 at the Lamb\'s Club. While at the Lamb\'s, he also met Lorenz Hart, with whom he would also collaborate.
Lerner and Loewe\'s first collaboration was a musical adaptation of Barry Conners\'s farce *The Patsy* called *Life of the Party* for a Detroit stock company. The lyrics were mostly written by Earle Crooker, but he had left the project, with the score needing vast improvement. It enjoyed a nine-week run and encouraged the duo to join forces with Arthur Pierson for *What\'s Up?*, which opened on Broadway in 1943. It ran for 63 performances and was followed two years later by *The Day Before Spring*.
Their first hit was *Brigadoon* (1947), a romantic fantasy set in a mystical Scottish village, directed by Robert Lewis. It was followed in 1951 by the Gold Rush story *Paint Your Wagon*. While the show ran for nearly a year and included songs that later became pop standards, such as \"They Call the Wind Maria\", it was less successful than Lerner\'s previous work. He later said of *Paint Your Wagon*, it was \"a success but not a hit.\"
Lerner worked with Kurt Weill on the stage musical *Love Life* (1948) and Burton Lane on the movie musical *Royal Wedding* (1951). In that same year Lerner also wrote the Oscar-winning original screenplay for *An American in Paris*, produced by Arthur Freed and directed by Vincente Minnelli. This was the same team who would later join with Lerner and Loewe to create *Gigi*.
In 1956, Lerner and Loewe unveiled *My Fair Lady*. By this time, too, Lerner and Burton Lane were already working on a musical about Li\'l Abner. Gabriel Pascal owned the rights to *Pygmalion*, which had been unsuccessful with other composers who tried to adapt it into a musical. Arthur Schwartz and Howard Dietz first tried, and then Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein II attempted, but gave up and Hammerstein told Lerner, \"*Pygmalion* had no subplot\". Lerner and Loewe\'s adaptation of George Bernard Shaw\'s *Pygmalion* retained his social commentary and added appropriate songs for the characters of Henry Higgins and Eliza Doolittle, played originally by Rex Harrison and Julie Andrews. It set box-office records in New York and London. When brought to the screen in 1964, the movie version won eight Oscars, including Best Picture and Best Actor for Rex Harrison.
Lerner and Loewe\'s run of success continued with their next project, a film adaptation of stories from Colette, the Academy Award-winning film musical *Gigi*, starring Leslie Caron, Louis Jourdan and Maurice Chevalier. The film won all of its nine Oscar nominations, a record at that time, and a special Oscar for co-star Maurice Chevalier.
The Lerner-Loewe partnership cracked under the stress of producing the Arthurian *Camelot* in 1960, with Loewe resisting Lerner\'s desire to direct as well as write when original director Moss Hart suffered a heart attack in the last few months of rehearsals and died about a year after the show\'s Broadway premiere. Lerner was hospitalized with bleeding ulcers while Loewe continued to have heart troubles. *Camelot* was a hit nonetheless, and immediately following the assassination of John F. Kennedy, his widow told reporter Theodore H. White that JFK\'s administration reminded her of the \"one brief shining moment\" of Lerner and Loewe\'s *Camelot*. As of the early 21st century, *Camelot* was still invoked to describe the idealism, romance, and tragedy of the Kennedy years.
Loewe retired to Palm Springs, California, while Lerner went through a series of musicals---some successful, some not---with such composers as André Previn (*Coco*), John Barry (*Lolita, My Love*), Leonard Bernstein (*1600 Pennsylvania Avenue*), Burton Lane (*Carmelina*) and Charles Strouse (*Dance a Little Closer*, based on the film, *Idiot\'s Delight*, nicknamed *Close A Little Faster* by Broadway humorists because it closed on opening night). Most biographers`{{who|date=July 2015}}`{=mediawiki} blame Lerner\'s professional decline on the lack of a strong director with whom Lerner could collaborate, as Neil Simon did with Mike Nichols or Stephen Sondheim with Harold Prince. (Moss Hart, who had directed *My Fair Lady,* died shortly after *Camelot* opened.) In 1965 Lerner collaborated again with Burton Lane on the musical *On a Clear Day You Can See Forever*, which was adapted for film in 1970. At this time, Lerner was hired by film producer Arthur P. Jacobs to write a treatment for an upcoming film project, *Doctor Dolittle*, but Lerner abrogated his contract after several non-productive months of non-communicative procrastination and was replaced with Leslie Bricusse. Lerner was inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame in 1971.
In 1973, Lerner coaxed Loewe out of retirement to augment the *Gigi* score for a musical stage adaptation. The following year they collaborated on a musical film version of *The Little Prince*, based on the classic children\'s tale by Antoine de Saint-Exupéry. This film was a critical and box office failure, but it has gained a modern following.
Lerner\'s autobiography, *The Street Where I Live* (1978), was an account of three of his and Loewe\'s successful collaborations, *My Fair Lady*, *Gigi*, and *Camelot*, along with personal information. In the last year of his life, he published *The Musical Theatre: A Celebration*, a well-reviewed history of the theatre, with personal anecdotes and humor. The *Los Angeles Times* reviewer wrote: \"There are several reasons why this book makes a fine introduction to musical theater. One is that Lerner knows exactly what was new, and when and why\....In \"The Musical Theatre,\" one is privy to the judgment of a man\... who expresses his opinions in a forthright, warm and personal manner.\" A book of Lerner\'s lyrics entitled *A Hymn To Him*, edited by a British writer Benny Green, was published in 1987.
At the time of Lerner\'s death, he had been working with Gerard Kenny and Kristi Kane in London on a musical version of the film *My Man Godfrey*. He had also received an urgent call from Andrew Lloyd Webber, asking him to write the lyrics to *The Phantom of the Opera*. He wrote \"Masquerade\", but he then informed Webber that he wanted to leave the project because he was losing his memory (he had developed metastatic lung cancer) and Charles Hart replaced him. He had turned down an invitation to write the English-language lyrics for the musical version of *Les Misérables*.
After Lerner\'s death, Paul Blake made a musical revue based on Lerner\'s lyrics and life entitled *Almost Like Being In Love*, which featured music by Loewe, Lane, Previn, Strouse, and Weill. The show ran for 10 days at the Herbst Theatre in San Francisco.
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# Alan Jay Lerner
## Songwriting
Lerner often struggled with writing his lyrics. He was uncharacteristically able to complete \"I Could Have Danced All Night\" from *My Fair Lady* in one 24-hour period. He usually spent months on each song and was constantly rewriting them. Lerner was said`{{by whom|date=August 2017}}`{=mediawiki} to have insecurity about his talent. He would sometimes write songs with someone in mind. For instance, he changed the rhymes in some lines of \"I\'ve Grown Accustomed To Her Face\" to ones that Rex Harrison was more comfortable with.
Lerner said of writing: `{{Blockquote|You have to keep in mind that there is no such thing as realism or naturalism in the theater. That is a myth. If there was realism in the theater, there would never be a third act. Nothing ends that way. A man's life is made up of thousands and thousands of little pieces. In writing fiction, you select 20 or 30 of them. In a musical, you select even fewer than that.}}`{=mediawiki} `{{Blockquote| First, we decide where a song is needed in a play. Second, what is it going to be about? Third, we discuss the mood of the song. Fourth, I give (Loewe) a title. Then he writes the music to the title and the general feeling of the song is established. After he's written the melody, then I write the lyrics.}}`{=mediawiki}
In a 1979 interview on NPR\'s *All Things Considered*, Lerner went into some depth about his lyrics for *My Fair Lady*. Professor Henry Higgins sings, \"Look at her, a prisoner of the gutters / Condemned by every syllable she utters / By right she should be taken out and hung / For the cold-blooded murder of the English tongue.\" Lerner said he knew the lyric used incorrect grammar for the sake of a rhyme. He was later approached about it by another lyricist: `{{Blockquote|I thought, oh well, maybe nobody will notice it, but not at all. Two nights after it opened, I ran into [[Noël Coward]] in a restaurant, and he walked over and he said, "Dear boy, it is ''hanged'', not ''hung''." I said, "Oh, Noel, I know it, I know it! You know, shut up!" So, and there's another, "Than to ever let a woman in my life." It should be, "as to ever let a woman in my life," but it just didn't sing well.
}}`{=mediawiki}
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# Alan Jay Lerner
## Dramatists Guild {#dramatists_guild}
Alan Jay Lerner was an advocate for writers\' rights in theatre. He was a member of the Dramatists Guild of America. In 1960, he was elected as the twelfth president of the non-profit organization. He continued to serve as the Guild\'s president until 1964.
## Personal life {#personal_life}
For nearly twenty years, Lerner was addicted to amphetamines; during the 1960s he was a patient of Max Jacobson, known as \"Dr. Feelgood\", who administered injections of \"vitamins with enzymes\" that were in fact laced with amphetamines. Lerner\'s addiction is believed to have been the result of Jacobson\'s practice.
### Marriages and children {#marriages_and_children}
Lerner married eight times: Ruth Boyd (1940--1947), singer Marion Bell (1947--1949), actress Nancy Olson (1950--1957), lawyer Micheline Muselli Pozzo di Borgo (1957--1965), editor Karen Gundersen (1966--1974), Sandra Payne (1974--1976), Nina Bushkin (1977--1981) and Liz Robertson (1981--1986 \[his death\]). Four of his eight wives --- Olson, Payne, Bushkin, and Robertson --- were actresses. His seventh wife, Nina Bushkin, whom he married on May 30, 1977, was the director of development at Mannes College of Music and the daughter of composer and musician Joey Bushkin. After their divorce in 1981, Lerner was ordered to pay her a settlement of \$50,000. Lerner wrote in his autobiography (as quoted by *The New York Times*): \"All I can say is that if I had no flair for marriage, I also had no flair for bachelorhood.\" All of this lent some irony to the lyrics for his song *Get Me to the Church on Time*.
Lerner had four children --- three daughters, Susan (by Boyd), Liza, and Jennifer (by Olson), and one son, screenwriter and journalist Michael Alan Lerner (by di Borgo).
Lerner\'s multiple divorces cost him much of his wealth. Still, he was primarily responsible for his financial ups and downs and was less than truthful about his financial fecklessness. It was claimed that his divorce settlement from Micheline Muselli Pozzo di Borgo (his fourth wife) cost him an estimated \$1 million in 1965. This was untrue. Lerner\'s pattern of financial mismanagement continued until his death from cancer in 1986 when he reportedly owed the U.S. Internal Revenue Service over US\$1 million `{{USDCY|1e6|1986}}`{=mediawiki} in back taxes and was unable to pay for his final medical expenses.
## Death
On June 14, 1986, Lerner died of lung cancer in Manhattan at the age of 67. At the time of his death he was married to actress Liz Robertson, who was 36 years his junior. He lived in Center Island, New York. He has a memorial plaque in St Paul\'s Church, the Actors\' Church in Covent Garden in London
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# Ann Druyan
**Ann Druyan** (`{{IPAc-en|d|r|iː|'|æ|n}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell|dree|ANN}}`{=mediawiki}; born June 13, 1949) is an American documentary producer and director specializing in the communication of science. She co-wrote the 1980 PBS documentary series *Cosmos*, hosted by Carl Sagan, whom she married in 1981. She is the creator, producer, and writer of the 2014 sequel, *Cosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey* and its sequel series, *Cosmos: Possible Worlds*, as well as the book of the same name. She directed episodes of both series.
In the late 1970s, she became the creative director of NASA\'s Voyager Interstellar Message Project, which produced the golden discs affixed to both the *Voyager 1* and *Voyager 2* spacecraft. She also published a novel, *A Famous Broken Heart*, in 1977, and later co-wrote several best selling non-fiction books with Sagan.
## Early life and education {#early_life_and_education}
Ann Druyan was born in Queens, New York, the daughter of Pearl A. (`{{nee|Goldsmith}}`{=mediawiki}) and Harry Druyan, who co-owned a knitwear firm. Her family was Jewish.
Druyan\'s early interest in math and science was, in her word, \"derailed\" when a junior high-school teacher ridiculed a question she asked about the universality of `{{pi}}`{=mediawiki}. \"I raised my hand and said, \'You mean this applies to every circle in the universe?\', and the teacher told me not to ask stupid questions. And there I was having this religious experience, and she made me feel like such a fool. I was completely flummoxed from then on until after college.\" Druyan characterized her three years at New York University as \"disastrous\", and it was only after she left school without graduating that she discovered the pre-Socratic philosophers and began educating herself, thus leading to a renewed interest in science.
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# Ann Druyan
## Career
In the late 1970s, Druyan became the creative director of NASA\'s Voyager Interstellar Message Project. As creative director, Druyan worked with a team to design a complex message, including music and images, for possible alien civilizations. These golden phonograph records affixed to the *Voyager 1* and *Voyager 2* spacecraft are now beyond the outermost planets of the Solar System, and *Voyager 1* has entered interstellar space. Both records have a projected shelf life of one billion years.
Druyan\'s role on the project was discussed on the July 8, 2018, 60 Minutes segment \"The Little Spacecraft That Could\". In the segment, Druyan explained her insistence that Chuck Berry\'s \"Johnny B. Goode\" be included on the Golden Record, saying: \"\...*Johnny B. Goode*, rock and roll, was the music of motion, of moving, getting to someplace you\'ve never been before, and the odds are against you, but you want to go. That was Voyager.\" The segment also discussed Sagan\'s suggestion, in 1990, that *Voyager 1* turn its cameras back towards Earth to take a series of photographs showing the planets of the Solar System. The shots, showing Earth from a distance of 3.7 billion miles as a small point of bluish light, became the basis for Sagan\'s famous \"Pale Blue Dot\" passage, first published in *Pale Blue Dot: A Vision of the Human Future in Space* (1994).
During that time, Druyan also co-wrote (with Carl Sagan and Steven Soter) the 1980 PBS documentary series *Cosmos*, hosted by Carl Sagan. The thirteen-part series covered a wide range of scientific subjects, including the origin of life and a perspective of humans place in the universe. It was highly acclaimed, and became the most widely watched series in the history of American public television at that time. The series won two Emmys and a Peabody Award, and has since been broadcast in more than 60 countries and seen by over 500 million people. A book was also published to accompany the series. `{{As of |2009}}`{=mediawiki}, it is still the most widely watched PBS series in the world. Several revised versions of the series were later broadcast; one version, telecast after Sagan\'s death, opens with Druyan paying tribute to her late husband and the impact of *Cosmos* over the years.
Druyan wrote and produced the 1987 PBS *NOVA* episode \"Confessions of a Weaponeer\" on the life of President Eisenhower\'s Science Advisor George Kistiakowsky.
In 2000, Druyan, together with Steve Soter, co-wrote *Passport to the Universe*, the inaugural planetarium show for the Rose Center for Earth and Space at the American Natural History Museum\'s Hayden Planetarium. The attraction is narrated by Tom Hanks. Druyan and Soter also co-wrote *The Search for Life: Are We Alone*, narrated by Harrison Ford, which also debuted at the Hayden\'s Rose Center.
In 2000, Druyan co-founded Cosmos Studios, Inc, with Joseph Firmage. As CEO of Cosmos Studios, Druyan produces science-based entertainment for all media. In addition to *Cosmos: A SpaceTime Odyssey*, Cosmos Studios has produced *Cosmic Africa*, *Lost Dinosaurs of Egypt*, and the Emmy-nominated documentary *Cosmic Journey: The Voyager Interstellar Mission and Message*. In 2009, she distributed a series of podcasts called *At Home in the Cosmos with Annie Druyan*, in which she described her works, the life of her husband, Carl Sagan, and their marriage.
Druyan is credited, with Carl Sagan, as the co-creator and co-producer of the 1997 feature film *Contact*.
In 2011, it was announced that Druyan would executive produce, co-write, and be one of the episodic directors for a sequel to *Cosmos: A Personal Voyage*, to be called *Cosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey*, which began airing in March 2014. Episodes premiered on Fox and also aired on National Geographic Channel on the following night. At the time of its release, Fox gave the series the largest global rollout of a television series ever, debuting it in 180 countries. The premiere episode was shown across nine of Fox\'s cable properties in addition to the broadcast network in a \"roadblock\" style premiere. The series went on to become the most-watched series ever for National Geographic Channel International, with at least some part of the 13-episode series watched by 135 million people, including 45 million in the U.S.
In March 2020, a third season of *Cosmos*, named *Cosmos: Possible Worlds*, for which Druyan was executive producer, writer, and director, premiered on National Geographic. Druyan also said: \"I very much have season four in mind, and I know what it\'s going to be. And I even know some of the stories that I want to tell in it.\"
### Writing
Druyan\'s first novel, *A Famous Broken Heart*, was published in 1977.
Druyan co-wrote six *New York Times* bestsellers with Carl Sagan, including: *Comet*, *Shadows of Forgotten Ancestors*, and *The Demon-Haunted World*. She is co-author, along with Carl Sagan, F. D. Drake, Timothy Ferris, Jon Lomberg and Linda Salzman Sagan, of *Murmurs Of Earth: The Voyager Interstellar Record*. She also wrote the updated introduction to Sagan\'s book *The Cosmic Connection* and the epilogue of *Billions and Billions*. She wrote the introduction to, and edited *The Varieties of Scientific Experience*, published from Sagan\'s 1985 Gifford lectures.
In February 2020, Druyan published *Cosmos: Possible Worlds*, a companion volume to the television series of the same name, which premiered in March 2020.
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# Ann Druyan
## Career
### Work in science {#work_in_science}
Druyan is a fellow of the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal (CSICOP).
Druyan served as program director of the first solar-sail deep-space mission, Cosmos 1, launched on a Russian ICBM in 2005.
Druyan is involved in multiple Breakthrough Initiatives. With Frank Drake, Druyan is the co-chair of Breakthrough Message and also a member of Breakthrough Starshot.
She is a member of the advisory board of The Carl Sagan Institute.
## Activism
Druyan has for many years been a vocal advocate for nuclear disarmament. She was arrested three times at the Mercury, Nevada nuclear test site during Mikhail Gorbachev\'s unilateral moratorium on underground nuclear testing, with which President Ronald Reagan did not cooperate. This included an arrest in June 1986, when she crossed a white painted line indicating the test site\'s boundary. Sagan, who attended the same protest with Druyan, was not arrested.
In the early 1990s, Druyan worked with Sagan and then-Senator Al Gore Jr. and a host of religious and scientific leaders to bring the scientific and religious worlds together in a unified effort to preserve the environment, resulting in the *Declaration of the \'Mission to Washington{{\'}}*.
She was a founding director of the Children\'s Health Fund until the spring of 2004, a project that provides mobile pediatric care to homeless and disadvantaged children in more than half a dozen cities. She is currently a member of their advisory board.
She has been on the board of directors of the National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws (NORML) for over 10 years and was its president from 2006 to 2010.
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# Ann Druyan
## Honors
An asteroid discovered in 1988 was named in Druyan\'s honor by its discoverer Eleanor F. Helin. In a 2020 interview with *Skeptical Inquirer*, Druyan discussed 4970 Druyan and the asteroid named after her late husband, saying that 4970 Druyan is in a \"wedding ring orbit\" around the Sun with 2709 Sagan. Druyan was presented with a plaque on Sagan\'s sixtieth birthday, which is inscribed: \"Asteroid 2709 Sagan in eternal companion orbit with asteroid 4970 Druyan, symbolic of their love and admiration for each other.\"
In November 2006, Druyan was a speaker at \"Beyond Belief: Science, Religion, Reason and Survival\".
In January 2007, she was a juror at the 2007 Sundance Film Festival, responsible for selecting the winner of the Alfred P. Sloan Prize for films about science and technology.
In November 2007, Druyan was awarded the title of \"Humanist Laureate\" by the International Academy of Humanism.
In October 2019, the Center for Inquiry West opened the Carl Sagan--Ann Druyan Theater in Los Angeles.
## Religious and philosophical views {#religious_and_philosophical_views}
In an interview with Joel Achenbach of *The Washington Post*, Druyan said that her early interest in science stemmed from a fascination with Karl Marx. Achenbach commented that \"She had, at the time, rather vaporous standards of evidence\", a reference to her belief in the ancient astronauts of Erich von Däniken and the theories of Immanuel Velikovsky pertaining to the solar system.
Concerning the death of her husband she stated:
> When my husband died, because he was so famous and known for not being a believer, many people would come up to me---it still sometimes happens---and ask me if Carl changed at the end and converted to a belief in an afterlife. They also frequently ask me if I think I will see him again. Carl faced his death with unflagging courage and never sought refuge in illusions. The tragedy was that we knew we would never see each other again. I don\'t ever expect to be reunited with Carl.
## Personal life {#personal_life}
Druyan and Sagan\'s working and resulting romantic relationship has been the subject of numerous treatments in popular culture, including the Radiolab episode \"Carl Sagan and Ann Druyan\'s Ultimate Mix Tape\", a segment of the Comedy Central program *Drunk History*{{\'}}s episode \"Space\", and the song \"Sounds of Earth\" by Jim Moray. The asteroid 4970 Druyan, which is in a companion orbit with asteroid 2709 Sagan named after Druyan\'s late husband, is named after Druyan. In 2015, it was announced that Warner Brothers was in development on a drama about Sagan and Druyan\'s relationship, to be produced by producer Lynda Obst and Druyan.
In 2020, Sagan and Druyan\'s daughter Sasha Sagan released a book *For Small Creatures Such As We: Rituals for Finding Meaning in our Unlikely World*, which discusses life with her parents and her father\'s death when she was fourteen years old.
Druyan also gave Sasha a recurring role in *Cosmos: Possible Worlds*, where she played her own grandmother, including in the episode *Man of a Trillion Worlds*, which featured the life of Carl Sagan
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# ʻAbdu'l-Bahá
**ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá** `{{post-nominals|country=GBR|KBE}}`{=mediawiki} (`{{IPAc-en|ə|b|ˈ|d|ʊ|l|_|b|ə|ˈ|h|ɑː|}}`{=mediawiki}; Persian: *عبد البهاء*, `{{IPA|fa|ʔæbdolbæhɒːʔ|IPA}}`{=mediawiki};, 23 May 1844 -- 28 November 1921), born **ʻAbbás** (*عباس*, `{{IPA|fa|ʔæbːɒːs|IPA}}`{=mediawiki}), was the eldest son of Baháʼu\'lláh**,** founder of the Bahá'í Faith, who designated him to be his successor and head of the Baháʼí Faith from 1892 until 1921. ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá was later cited as the last of three \"central figures\" of the religion, along with Baháʼu\'lláh and the Báb, and his writings and authenticated talks are regarded as sources of Baháʼí sacred literature.
He was born in Tehran to an aristocratic family. At the age of eight, his father was imprisoned during a government crackdown on the Bábí Faith and the family\'s possessions were looted, leaving them in virtual poverty. His father was exiled from their native Iran, and the family established their residence in Baghdad in Iraq, where they stayed for ten years. They were later called by the Ottoman state to Istanbul before entering another period of confinement in Edirne and finally the prison-city of ʻAkká (Acre). ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá remained a prisoner there until the Young Turk Revolution freed him in 1908 at the age of 64. He then made several journeys to the West to spread the Baháʼí message beyond its middle-eastern roots, but the onset of World War I left him largely confined to Haifa from 1914 to 1918. Following the war, the openly hostile Ottoman authorities were replaced by the British Mandate over Palestine, during which time he was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire for his help in averting famine following the war.
In 1892, ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá was appointed in his father\'s will to be his successor and head of the Baháʼí Faith. His *Tablets of the Divine Plan* galvanized Baháʼís in North America to spread the Baháʼí teachings to new territories, and his Will and Testament laid the foundation for the current Baháʼí administrative order. Many of his writings, prayers and letters are extant, and his discourses with the Western Baháʼís emphasize the growth of the religion by the late 1890s.
ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá\'s given name was ʻAbbás. Depending on context, he would have gone by either Mírzá ʻAbbás (Persian) or ʻAbbás Effendi (Turkish), both of which are equivalent to the English Sir ʻAbbás. During most of his time as head of the Bahá\'í Faith, he used and preferred the title of ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá (\"servant of Bahá\", a reference to his father). He is commonly referred to in Baháʼí texts as \"The Master\".
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# ʻAbdu'l-Bahá
## Early life {#early_life}
ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá was born in Tehran, Persia (now Iran) on 23 May 1844 (5th of Jamadiyu\'l-Avval, 1260 AH), the eldest son of Baháʼu\'lláh and Navváb. He was born on the same night on which the Báb declared his mission. Given the name ʻAbbás at birth, he was named after his grandfather Mírzá ʻAbbás Núrí, a prominent and powerful nobleman. ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá\'s early years were shaped by his father\'s prominent role within the Bábí community. As a child, he fondly recalled interactions with the Bábí, Táhirih, describing how she would take him on her knee, caress him, and engage in heartfelt conversations, leaving a lasting impression on him. His childhood was characterized by happiness and carefree moments. The family\'s residences in Tehran and the countryside were not only comfortable but also beautifully adorned. Alongside his younger siblings -- a sister, Bahíyyih, and a brother, Mihdí -- he experienced a life of privilege, joy, and comfort. ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá loved playing in the gardens with his younger sister, fostering a strong bond between them. During his formative years, ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá observed his parents\' commitment to various charitable endeavors, including the conversion of part of their home into a hospital ward for women and children.
Due to a life largely marked by exile and imprisonment, ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá had limited opportunities for formal schooling. In his youth, it was customary for children of nobility, including ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá, not to attend conventional schools. Instead, noblemen typically received a brief education at home, focusing on subjects such as scripture, rhetoric, calligraphy, and basic mathematics, with an emphasis on preparing for life within royal courts.
ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá spent only a short period at a traditional preparatory school at the age of seven for a single year. His mother and uncle took on the responsibility of his early education, but the primary source of his learning was his father. In 1890 Edward Granville Browne described ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá, saying that \"one more eloquent of speech, more ready of argument, more apt of illustration, more intimately acquainted with the sacred books of the Jews, the Christians, and the Muhammadans\...could scarcely be found\...\"
According to contemporary accounts ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá was an eloquent and charming child. At the age of seven, he faced a severe health challenge when he contracted tuberculosis, and his prognosis suggested death. Though the illness abated, this marked the beginning of a lifelong struggle with recurrent bouts of various illnesses that would persist throughout his life.
One event that affected ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá greatly during his childhood was the imprisonment of his father when ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá was eight years old; this circumstance led to a considerable decline in the family\'s economic standing, subjecting him to poverty and exposing him to hostility from other children in the streets. ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá accompanied his mother to visit Baháʼu\'lláh who was then imprisoned in the infamous subterranean dungeon the Síyáh-Chál. He described how \"I saw a dark, steep place. We entered a small, narrow doorway, and went down two steps, but beyond those one could see nothing. In the middle of the stairway, all of a sudden we heard His \[Baháʼu\'lláh\'s\]...voice: \'Do not bring him in here\', and so they took me back\".
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# ʻAbdu'l-Bahá
## Baghdad
Baháʼu\'lláh was eventually released from prison but was ordered into exile, and ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá, then eight years old, joined his father on the journey to Baghdad in the winter (January to April) of 1853. During the journey ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá suffered from frost-bite. After a year of difficulties, Baháʼu\'lláh absented himself rather than continuing to face the conflict with Mirza Yahya and secluded himself in the mountains of Sulaymaniyah in April 1854, a month before ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá\'s tenth birthday Due to mutual sorrow, ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá, his mother and sister becoming constant companions. ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá was particularly close to both, and his mother took an active role in his education and upbringing. During the two-year absence of his father ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá took up the duty of managing the affairs of the family, before his age of maturity (14 in Middle-Eastern society) and was known to be occupied with reading and, at a time of hand-copied scriptures being the primary means of publishing, was also engaged in copying the writings of the Báb. ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá also took an interest in the art of horseback riding, and as he grew, he became a renowned rider.
In 1856, news of an ascetic engaging in discourses with local Súfí leaders reached family and friends, raising hopes that it could be Bahá'u'lláh. Immediately, they went to search for Baháʼu\'lláh, and in March, brought him back to Baghdad. On seeing his father, ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá fell to his knees and wept loudly \"Why did you leave us?\", and his mother and sister did the same. ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá soon became his father\'s secretary and shield. During the sojourn in the city ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá grew from a boy into a young man. He was noted as a \"remarkably fine looking youth\", and remembered for his charity. Having passed the age of maturity, ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá was regularly seen in the mosques of Baghdad discussing religious topics and the scripture as a young man. Whilst in Baghdad, ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá composed a commentary at the request of his father on the Muslim tradition of \"I was a Hidden Treasure\" for a Súfí leader named ʻAlí Shawkat Páshá. ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá was fifteen or sixteen at the time and ʻAlí Shawkat Páshá regarded the more than 11,000-word essay as a remarkable feat for someone of his age. In 1863, in what became known as the Garden of Ridván, his father Baháʼu\'lláh announced to a few companions that he was the manifestation of God and He whom God shall make manifest whose coming had been foretold by the Báb. On day eight of the twelve days, it is reported that ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá was the first person to whom Baháʼu\'lláh revealed his claim.
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# ʻAbdu'l-Bahá
## Istanbul/Adrianople
In 1863, Baháʼu\'lláh was summoned to Istanbul, and thus his family, including ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá, then eighteen, accompanied him on his 110-day journey. The journey to Constantinople was another wearisome voyage, and ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá helped feed the exiles. It was here that his position became more prominent amongst the Baháʼís. This was further solidified by Baháʼu\'lláh\'s tablet of the Branch in which he constantly exalts his son\'s virtues and station. Bahá'u'lláh and his family were soon exiled to Adrianople, and on this journey ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá again suffered from frostbite.
In Adrianople ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá was regarded as the sole comforter of his family -- in particular to his mother. At this point ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá was known by the Baháʼís as \"the Master\", and by non-Baháʼís as ʻAbbás Effendi (\"Effendi\" signifies \"Sir\"). It was in Adrianople that Baháʼu\'lláh referred to his son as \"the Mystery of God\". The title of \"Mystery of God\" symbolises, according to Baháʼís, that ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá is not a manifestation of God but that in the \"person of ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá the incompatible characteristics of a human nature and superhuman knowledge and perfection have been blended and are completely harmonized\". Baháʼu\'lláh gave his son many other titles such as *G͟husn-i-Aʻzam* (meaning \"Mightiest Branch\" or \"Mightier Branch\"), the \"Branch of Holiness\", \"the Center of the Covenant\" and the apple of his eye. Upon learning of yet another exile of Bahá'u'llah, this time to Palestine, ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá (\"the Master\") was devastated when hearing the news that he and his family were to be exiled separately from Baháʼu\'lláh. It was, according to Baháʼís, through his intercession that the idea was reverted and the rest of the family were allowed to be exiled together.
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# ʻAbdu'l-Bahá
## ʻAkká
At the age of 24, ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá was clearly chief-steward to his father and an outstanding member of the Baháʼí community. In 1868 Baháʼu\'lláh and his family were exiled to the penal colony of ʻAkká, Palestine where it was expected that the family would perish. Arrival in ʻAkká was distressing for the family and exiles when they were met by a hostile local population. When told that the women were to sit on the shoulders of the men to reach the shore, ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá obtained chairs to carry the women to land. His sister and father fell dangerously ill. ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá was able to procure some anesthetic and nursed the sick. The Baháʼís were imprisoned under horrendous conditions in a cluster of cells covered in excrement and dirt. ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá himself fell dangerously ill with dysentery, and a sympathetic soldier permitted a physician to attend to him. The population shunned them, the soldiers treated them badly, and the behaviour of Siyyid Muhammad-i-Isfahani (an Azali) aggravated matters. Morale declined further with the accidental death of ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá\'s youngest brother Mírzá Mihdí at the age of 22. The grieving ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá kept a night-long vigil beside his brother\'s body.
### Later in ʻAkká {#later_in_ʻakká}
Over time, he gradually assumed responsibility for the relationships between the small Baháʼí exile community and the outside world. It was through his interaction with the people of ʻAkká (Acre) that, they recognized the innocence of the Baháʼís, and thus the conditions of imprisonment were eased. Four months after the death of Mihdí the family moved from the prison to the House of ʻAbbúd. Gradually the respect of the local population for the Baháʼís increased, and in particular, for ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá who soon became very popular in the penal colony. Myron Henry Phelps a wealthy New York lawyer described how \"a crowd of human beings\...Syrians, Arabs, Ethiopians, and many others\", all waited to talk and receive ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá. With the passage of time ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá was able to rent alternative accommodations for the family, and eventually the family moved to the Mansion of Bahjí around 1879 when an epidemic caused its residents to flee.
ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá undertook a history of the Bábí religion through publication of A Traveller\'s Narrative (Makála-i-Shakhsí Sayyáh) in 1886, later translated and published in translation in 1891 through Cambridge University through the agency of Edward Granville Browne.
### Marriage and family life {#marriage_and_family_life}
When ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá was a young man, speculation was rife amongst the Baháʼís as to whom he would marry. Several young girls were seen as marriage prospects but ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá seemed disinclined to marriage. On 8 March 1873, at the urging of his father, the twenty-eight-year-old ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá married Fátimih Nahrí of Isfahán (1847--1938) a twenty-five-year-old from an upper-class family of the city. Her father was Mírzá Muḥammad ʻAlí Nahrí of Isfahan, an eminent Baháʼí with prominent connections. Fátimih was brought from Persia to ʻAkká after both Baháʼu\'lláh and his wife Navváb expressed an interest that she marries ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá. After a wearisome journey from Isfahán to Akka she finally arrived accompanied by her brother in 1872. The young couple were betrothed for about five months before the marriage itself commenced. In the meantime, Fátimih lived in the home of ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá\'s uncle Mírzá Músá. According to her later memoirs, Fátimih fell in love with ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá on seeing him. ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá himself had shown little inkling to marriage until meeting Fátimih; who was entitled Munírih by Baháʼu\'lláh. Munírih is a title meaning \"Luminous\".
The marriage resulted in nine children. The first born was a son Mihdí Effendi who died aged about 3. He was followed by Ḍíyáʼíyyih K͟hánum, Fuʼádíyyih K͟hánum (who dies very young), Rúhangíz Khánum (d. 1893), Túbá Khánum, Husayn Effendi (d. 1887 aged 5), Túbá K͟hánum, Rúhá K͟hánum (mother of Munib Shahid), and Munnavar K͟hánum. The death of his children caused ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá immense grief -- in particular the death of his son Husayn Effendi came at a difficult time following the death of his mother and uncle. The surviving children (all daughters) were; Ḍíyáʼíyyih K͟hánum (mother of Shoghi Effendi) (d. 1951) Túbá K͟hánum (1880--1959) Rúḥá K͟hánum and Munavvar K͟hánum (d. 1971). Baháʼu\'lláh wished that the Baháʼís follow the example of ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá and gradually move away from polygamy. The marriage of ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá to one woman and his choice to remain monogamous, from advice of his father and his own wish, legitimised the practice of monogamy to a people who hitherto had regarded polygamy as a righteous way of life.
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# ʻAbdu'l-Bahá
## Early years of his ministry {#early_years_of_his_ministry}
After Baháʼu\'lláh died on 29 May 1892, the Book of the Covenant of Baháʼu\'lláh (his will) named ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá as Centre of the Covenant, successor and interpreter of Baháʼu\'lláh\'s writings.
Baháʼu\'lláh designates his successor with the following verses: `{{blockquote|The Will of the divine Testator is this: It is incumbent upon the [[Aghsán]], the [[Afnán]] and [[Baháʼu'lláh's family|My Kindred]] to turn, one and all, their faces towards the Most Mighty Branch. Consider that which We have revealed in Our Most Holy Book: 'When the ocean of My presence hath ebbed and the Book of My Revelation is ended, turn your faces toward Him Whom God hath purposed, Who hath branched from this Ancient Root.' The object of this sacred verse is none other except the Most Mighty Branch [ʻAbdu'l-Bahá]. Thus have We graciously revealed unto you Our potent Will, and I am verily the Gracious, the All-Powerful. Verily God hath ordained the station of the Greater Branch [Muḥammad ʻAlí] to be beneath that of the Most Great Branch [ʻAbdu'l-Bahá]. He is in truth the Ordainer, the All-Wise. We have chosen 'the Greater' after 'the Most Great', as decreed by Him Who is the All-Knowing, the All-Informed.|{{harvtxt|Baháʼu'lláh|1873–1892}} }}`{=mediawiki}
In Baháʼu\'lláh\'s will, ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá\'s half-brother, Muhammad ʻAlí, was mentioned by name as being subordinate to ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá. Muhammad ʻAlí became jealous of 'Abdu'l-Bahá and set out to establish authority for himself as an alternative leader with the support of his brothers Badi'u\'llah and Ḍíyáʼu\'llah. He began correspondence with Baháʼís in Iran, initially in secret, casting doubts in others\' minds about ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá. While most Baháʼís followed ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá, a handful followed Muhammad ʻAlí including such prominent Bahá'ís as Mirza Javad and Ibrahim George Kheiralla, an early Baháʼí missionary to America.
Muhammad ʻAlí and Mirza Javad began to openly accuse ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá of assuming too much authority, suggesting that he believed himself to be a Manifestation of God, equal in status to Baháʼu\'lláh. It was at this time that ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá, to counter the accusations leveled against him, stated in tablets to the West that he was to be known as \"ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá\" an Arabic phrase meaning the Servant of Bahá to make it clear that he was not a Manifestation of God, and that his station was only servitude. ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá left a Will and Testament that established the framework of the administration of the Baháʼí Faith, the two highest institutions of which were the Universal House of Justice, and the Guardianship, for which he appointed his grandson Shoghi Effendi as the Guardian. With the exception of ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá and Shoghi Effendi, Muhammad ʻAlí was supported by all of the remaining male relatives of Baháʼu\'lláh, including Shoghi Effendi\'s father, Mírzá Hádí Shírází. However**,** in general the Bahá'ís experienced very little effect from the propaganda of** **Muhammad ʻAlí and his allies; in the ʻAkká area, the followers of Muhammad ʻAlí represented six families at most, had no common religious activities, and were almost wholly assimilated into Muslim society.
Religions in the past faced schism and doctrinal drift after the death of their prophet founders. ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá however managed to preserve the unity and doctrinal integrity of the Baháʼí Faith, even in the face of serious threats from his half-brother\'s opposition. His success is especially notable given that even in the midst of these attacks his leadership brought about considerable expansion of the Baháʼí community beyond its initial cultural and geographic roots.
### First Western pilgrims {#first_western_pilgrims}
By the end of 1898, Western pilgrims started traveling to Akka on pilgrimage to visit ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá; this group of pilgrims, including Phoebe Hearst, was the first time that Baháʼís raised up in the West had met ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá. The first group arrived in 1898 and throughout late 1898 to early 1899 Western Baháʼís sporadically visited ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá. The group was relatively young containing mainly women from high American society in their 20s. The group of Westerners aroused suspicion for the authorities, and consequently ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá\'s confinement was tightened. During the next decade ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá would be in constant communication with Baháʼís around the world, encouraging them to teach the religion; the group included Susan Moody, Lua Getsinger, Laura Clifford Barney, Herbert Hopper and May Ellis Bolles in Paris (all Americans); Englishman Thomas Breakwell; and Frenchman `{{Interlanguage link|Hippolyte Dreyfus|fr|3=Hippolyte Dreyfus-Barney}}`{=mediawiki}. It was Laura Clifford Barney who, by asking questions of ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá over many years and many visits to Haifa, compiled what later became the book Some Answered Questions.
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# ʻAbdu'l-Bahá
## Early years of his ministry {#early_years_of_his_ministry}
### Ministry, 1901--1912 {#ministry_19011912}
During the final years of the 19th century, while ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá was still officially a prisoner and confined to ʻAkka, he organized the transfer of the remains of the Báb from Iran to Palestine. He then organized the purchase of land on Mount Carmel that Baháʼu\'lláh had instructed should be used to lay the remains of the Báb, and organized for the construction of the Shrine of the Báb. This process took another 10 years. With the increase of pilgrims visiting ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá, Muhammad ʻAlí conspired with the Ottoman authorities to re-introduce stricter terms on ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá\'s imprisonment in August 1901. By 1902, however, due to the support of the Governor of ʻAkka, the situation was greatly eased; while pilgrims were able to once again visit ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá, he was still confined to the city. In February 1903, two followers of Muhammad ʻAlí, including Badiʻu\'llah and Siyyid ʻAliy-i-Afnan, broke with Muhammad ʻAli and wrote books and letters giving details of Muhammad ʻAli\'s plots and noting that what was circulating about ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá was fabrication.
From 1902 to 1904, even as 'Abdu'l-Bahá directed the construction of the Shrine of the Báb, he initiated execution of two additional projects; the restoration of the House of the Báb in Shiraz, Iran and the construction of the first Baháʼí House of Worship in Ashgabat, Turkmenistan. ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá asked Aqa Mirza Aqa to coordinate the restoration of the house of the Báb to its state at the time of the Báb\'s declaration to Mulla Husayn in 1844; he also entrusted the work on the House of Worship to Vakil-u\'d-Dawlih.
In his role as head of the Bahá'í Faith, 'Abdu'l-Bahá would occasionally communicate with leaders of thought to offer commentary and guidance based on the Bahá'í teachings, and in defense of the Bahá'í community. During this period, ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá communicated with a number of Young Turks, who sought to reform to the reign of Sultan Abdul Hamid II, including Namık Kemal, Ziya Pasha and Midhat Pasha. He emphasized Baháʼís \"seek freedom and love liberty, hope for equality, are well-wishers of humanity and ready to sacrifice their lives to unite humanity\" but on a more broad approach than the Young Turks. Abdullah Cevdet, one of the founders of the Committee of Union and Progress who considered the Baháʼí Faith an intermediary step between Islam and the ultimate abandonment of religious belief, would go on trial for defense of Baháʼís in a periodical he founded.
‛Abdu\'l-Bahá also had contact with military leaders, including such individuals as Bursalı Mehmet Tahir Bey and Hasan Bedreddin. The latter, who in an earlier period was involved in the overthrow of Sultan Abdülaziz in 1876, is commonly known as Bedri Paşa or Bedri Pasha and is referred to in Persian Baháʼí sources as Bedri Bey (Badri Beg). He probably came to know 'Abdu'l-Baha around 1898 when he served in the Ottoman administration in Akká. Persian sources cite him was a Baháʼí and he who translated ‛Abdu\'l-Baha\'s works into French. 'Abdu'l-Bahá continued to communicate with him for several years when he was governor of Albania.
ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá also met Muhammad Abduh, one of the key figures of Islamic Modernism and the Salafi movement, in Beirut, at a time when the two men shared similar goals of religious reform. Rashid Rida asserts that during his visits to Beirut, ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá would attend Abduh\'s study sessions. Regarding the meetings of ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá and Muhammad ʻAbduh, Shoghi Effendi asserts that \"His several interviews with the well-known Shaykh Muhammad ʻAbdu served to enhance immensely the growing prestige of the community and spread abroad the fame of its most distinguished member.\"
Due to Muhammad ʻAli\'s accusations against him, a Commission of Inquiry interviewed ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá in 1905, almost resulting in exile to Fezzan. In response, ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá wrote the sultan a letter protesting that his followers refrain from involvement in partisan politics and that his *tariqa* had guided many Americans to Islam. The next few years in ʻAkka were relatively free of pressures and pilgrims were able to come and visit ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá. By 1909 the mausoleum of the Shrine of the Báb was completed.
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# ʻAbdu'l-Bahá
## Journeys to the West {#journeys_to_the_west}
The 1908 Young Turks revolution liberated all political and religious prisoners in the Ottoman Empire, and ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá was freed from imprisonment. His first action after his liberation was to visit the Shrine of Baháʼu\'lláh in Bahji. While ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá continued to live in ʻAkka immediately following the revolution, he soon moved to live in Haifa near the Shrine of the Báb. In 1910, with the freedom to leave the country, he embarked on a three-year journey to Egypt, Europe, and North America, spreading the Baháʼí message.
From August to December 1911, ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá visited cities in Europe, including London, Bristol, and Paris. The purpose of these trips was to support the Baháʼí communities in the west and to further spread his father\'s teachings.
In the following year, he undertook a much more extensive journey to the United States and Canada to once again spread his father\'s teachings. He arrived in New York City on 11 April 1912, after declining an offer of passage on the RMS *Titanic*, telling the Baháʼí believers, instead, to \"Donate this to charity.\" He instead travelled on a slower craft, the RMS *Cedric*, and cited preference of a longer sea journey as the reason. After hearing of the Titanic\'s sinking on 16 April he was quoted as saying \"I was asked to sail upon the Titanic, but my heart did not prompt me to do so.\" While he spent most of his time in New York, he visited Chicago, Cleveland, Pittsburgh, Washington, D.C.,Boston and Philadelphia. In August of the same year he started a more extensive journey to places including New Hampshire, the Green Acre school in Maine, and Montreal (his only visit to Canada). He then travelled west to Minneapolis, Minnesota; San Francisco; Stanford; and Los Angeles, California before returning east at the end of October. On 5 December 1912 he set sail back to Europe.
During his visit to North America he visited many missions, churches, and groups, as well as having scores of meetings in homes of Baháʼís, and offering innumerable personal meetings with hundreds of people. During his talks he proclaimed Baháʼí principles such as the unity of God, unity of the religions, oneness of humanity, equality of women and men, world peace and economic justice. He also insisted that all his meetings be open to all races.
His visit and talks were the subject of hundreds of newspaper articles. In Boston newspaper reporters asked ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá why he had come to America, and he stated that he had come to participate in conferences on peace and that just giving warning messages is not enough. ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá\'s visit to Montreal provided notable newspaper coverage; on the night of his arrival the editor of the *Montreal Daily Star* met with him and that newspaper along with *The Montreal Gazette*, *Montreal Standard*, *\[\[Le Devoir\]\]* and *La Presse\]\]* among others reported on ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá\'s activities. The headlines in those papers included \"Persian Teacher to Preach Peace\", \"Racialism Wrong, Says Eastern Sage, Strife and War Caused by Religious and National Prejudices\", and \"Apostle of Peace Meets Socialists, Abdul Baha\'s Novel Scheme for Distribution of Surplus Wealth.\" The *Montreal Standard*, which was distributed across Canada, took so much interest that it republished the articles a week later; the Gazette published six articles and Montreal\'s largest French language newspaper published two articles about him. His 1912 visit to Montreal also inspired humourist Stephen Leacock to parody him in his bestselling 1914 book *Arcadian Adventures with the Idle Rich*. In Chicago one newspaper headline included \"His Holiness Visits Us, Not Pius X but A. Baha,\" and ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá\'s visit to California was reported in the *Palo Altan*.
Back in Europe, he visited London, Edinburgh, Paris (where he stayed for two months), Stuttgart, Budapest, and Vienna. Finally, on 12 June 1913, he returned to Egypt, where he stayed for six months before returning to Haifa.
On 23 February 1914, at the eve of World War I, ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá hosted Baron Edmond James de Rothschild, a member of the Rothschild banking family who was a leading advocate and financier of the Zionist movement, during one of his early trips to Palestine.
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# ʻAbdu'l-Bahá
## Final years (1914--1921) {#final_years_19141921}
thumb\|upright=1.25\|ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá on Mount Carmel with pilgrims in 1919
During World War I (1914--1918) ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá stayed in Palestine and was unable to travel. He carried on a limited correspondence, which included the *Tablets of the Divine Plan*, a collection of fourteen letters addressed to the Baháʼís of North America, later described as one of three \"charters\" of the Baháʼí Faith. The letters assign a leadership role for the North American Baháʼís in spreading the religion around the planet.
Haifa was under real threat of Allied bombardment, enough that ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá and other Baháʼís temporarily retreated to the hills east of ʻAkka.
ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá was also under threats from Cemal Paşa, the Ottoman military chief who at one point expressed his desire to crucify him and destroy Baháʼí properties in Palestine. The swift Megiddo offensive of the British General Allenby swept away the Turkish forces in Palestine before harm was done to the Baháʼís, and the war was over less than two months later.
### Post-war period {#post_war_period}
The conclusion of World War I led to the openly hostile Ottoman authorities being replaced by the more friendly British Mandate, allowing for a renewal of correspondence, pilgrims, and development of the Baháʼí World Centre properties. It was during this revival of activity that the Baháʼí Faith saw an expansion and consolidation in places like Egypt, the Caucasus, Iran, Turkmenistan, North America and South Asia under the leadership of ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá.
The end of the war brought about several political developments on which ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá commented. The League of Nations formed in January 1920, representing the first instance of collective security through a worldwide organization. ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá had written in 1875 for the need to establish a \"Union of the nations of the world\", and he praised the attempt through the League of Nations as an important step towards the goal. He also said that it was \"incapable of establishing Universal Peace\" because it did not represent all nations and had only trivial power over its member states. Around the same time, the British Mandate supported the ongoing immigration of Jews to Palestine. ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá mentioned the immigration as a fulfillment of prophecy, and encouraged the Zionists to develop the land and \"elevate the country for all its inhabitants\... They must not work to separate the Jews from the other Palestinians\...If the Zionists will mingle with the other races and live in unity with them, they will succeed. If not, they will meet certain resistance.\"
thumb\|upright=1.25\|ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá at his investiture ceremony as a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire, April 1920
The war also left the region in famine. In 1901, ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá had purchased about 1704 acres of scrubland near the Jordan river and by 1907 many Baháʼís from Iran had begun sharecropping on the land. ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá received between 20 and 33% of their harvest (or cash equivalent), which was shipped to Haifa. With the war still raging in 1917, ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá received a large amount of wheat from the crops, and also bought other available wheat and shipped it back to Haifa. The wheat arrived just after the British captured Palestine, and as such was widely distributed to allay the famine. For this service in averting a famine in Northern Palestine he received the honour of Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire at a ceremony held in his honor at the home of the British Governor on 27 April 1920. He was later visited by General Allenby, King Faisal (later King of Iraq), Herbert Samuel (High Commissioner for Palestine), and Ronald Storrs (Military Governor of Jerusalem).
### Death and funeral {#death_and_funeral}
thumb\|upright=1.25\|Funeral of ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá in Haifa, British Mandate-Palestine
ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá died on Monday, 28 November 1921, sometime after 1:15 a.m. (27th of Rabi\' al-awwal, 1340 AH).
Then Colonial Secretary Winston Churchill telegraphed the High Commissioner for Palestine, \"convey to the Baháʼí Community, on behalf of His Majesty\'s Government, their sympathy and condolence.\" Similar messages came from Viscount Allenby, the Council of Ministers of Iraq, and others.
On his funeral, which was held the next day, Esslemont notes: `{{blockquote|text=... a funeral the like of which Haifa, nay Palestine itself, had surely never seen... so deep was the feeling that brought so many thousands of mourners together, representative of so many religions, races and tongues.<ref>{{harvnb|Esslemont|1980|p=77}}, quoting 'The Passing of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá", by Lady Blomfield and Shoghi Effendi, pp 11, 12.</ref>}}`{=mediawiki}
Among the talks delivered at the funeral, Shoghi Effendi records Stewart Symes (Governor of the Palestine North District) giving the following tribute:
He was buried in the front room of the Shrine of the Báb on Mount Carmel. His interment there is meant to be temporary, until his own mausoleum can be built in the vicinity of Riḍván Garden, known as the Shrine of ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá.
### Legacy
ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá left a *Will and Testament* that was originally written between 1901 and 1908 and addressed to Shoghi Effendi, who at that time was only 4--11 years old. The will appoints Shoghi Effendi as the first in a line of Guardians of the religion, a hereditary executive role that may provide authoritative interpretations of scripture. ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá directed all Baháʼís to turn to him and obey him, and assured him of divine protection and guidance. The will also provided a formal reiteration of his teachings, such as the instructions to teach, manifest spiritual qualities, associate with all people, and shun Covenant-breakers. Many obligations of the Universal House of Justice and the Hands of the Cause were also elaborated. Shoghi Effendi later described the document as one of three \"charters\" of the Baháʼí Faith.
The authenticity and provisions of the will were almost universally accepted by Baháʼís around the world, with the exception of Ruth White and a few other Americans who tried to protest Shoghi Effendi\'s leadership.
In volumes of *The Baháʼí World* published in 1930 and 1933, Shoghi Effendi named nineteen Baháʼís as disciples of ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá and heralds of the Covenant, including Thornton Chase, `{{Interlanguage link|Hippolyte Dreyfus-Barney|fr}}`{=mediawiki}, John Esslemont, Lua Getsinger, and Robert Turner. No other statements about them have been found in Shoghi Effendi\'s writings.
During his lifetime there was some ambiguity among Baháʼís as to his station relative to Baháʼu\'lláh, and later to Shoghi Effendi. Some American newspapers erroneously reported him to be a Baháʼí prophet or the return of Christ. Shoghi Effendi later formalized his legacy as the last of three \"Central Figures\" of the Baháʼí Faith and the \"Perfect exemplar\" of the teachings, also claiming that holding him on an equal status to Baháʼu\'lláh or Jesus was heretical. Shoghi Effendi also wrote that during the anticipated Baháʼí dispensation of 1000 years there will be no equal to ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá.
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# ʻAbdu'l-Bahá
## Appearance and personality {#appearance_and_personality}
ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá was described as handsome, and bore striking resemblance to his mother. As an adult he reached medium height but he gave the impression of being taller. He had dark hair that flowed to his shoulders, grey coloured eyes, a fair complexion and an aquiline nose. In 1890, Orientalist Edward Granville Browne met him and wrote:
After the death of Bahá'u'lláh, ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá began to visibly age. By the late 1890s his hair had turned snow-white and deep lines set on his face. As a young man he was athletic and enjoyed archery, horseback riding and swimming. Even later in his life ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá remained active going for long walks in Haifa and Acre.
ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá was a major presence for the Bahá'ís during his lifetime, and he continues to influence the Bahá'í community today. Bahá'ís regard 'Abdu'l-Bahá as the perfect example of the teachings of his father and therefore strive to emulate him. Anecdotes about him are frequently used to illustrate particular points about morality and interpersonal relations. He was remembered for his charisma, compassion, philanthropy and strength in the face of suffering. John Esslemont reflected that \"\['Abdu'l-Bahá\] showed that it is still possible, amid the whirl and rush of modern life, amid the self-love and struggle for material prosperity that everywhere prevail, to live the life of entire devotion to God and to the service of one\'s fellows.\"
Even ardent enemies of the Bahá'í Faith were on occasion taken by meeting him. Mírzá \'Abdu\'l-Muḥammad Írání Mu\'addibu\'s-Sulṭán, an Iranian, and Shaykh \'Alí Yúsuf, an Arab, were both newspaper editors in Egypt who had published harsh attacks on the Bahá'í Faith in their papers. They called on 'Abdu'l-Bahá when he was in Egypt and their attitude changed. Similarly, a Christian clergyman, Rev. J.T. Bixby, who was the author of a hostile article on the Bahá'í Faith in the United States, felt compelled to witness Abdu\'l-Bahá\'s personal qualities. The effect of 'Abdu'l-Bahá on those who were already committed Bahá'ís was greater still.
ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá was widely known for his encounters with the poor and dying. His generosity resulted in his own family complaining that they were left with nothing. He was sensitive to people's feelings, and later expressed his wish to be a beloved figure of the Bahá'ís saying "I am your father\...and you must be glad and rejoice, for I love you exceedingly." According to historical accounts, he had a keen sense of humour and was relaxed and informal. He was open about personal tragedies such as the loss of his children and the sufferings he\'d endured as a prisoner, further enhancing his popularity.
'Abdu'l-Bahá directed the affairs of the Bahá'í community with care. He was inclined to allow a large range of personal interpretations of the Bahá'í teachings as long as these did not obviously contradict fundamental principles. He did, however, expel members of the religion he felt were challenging his leadership and deliberately causing disunity in the community. Outbreaks of persecution of the Bahá'ís affected him deeply. He wrote personally to the families of those who had been martyred.
## Works
The total estimated number of tablets that ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá wrote are over 27,000 of which only a fraction have been translated into English. His works fall into two groups including first his direct writings and second his lectures and speeches as noted by others. The first group includes *The Secret of Divine Civilization* written before 1875, *A Traveller\'s Narrative* written around 1886, the Resāla-ye sīāsīya or *Sermon on the Art of Governance* written in 1893, the *Memorials of the Faithful*, and a large number of tablets written to various people; including various Western intellectuals such as Auguste Forel which has been translated and published as the *Tablet to Auguste-Henri Forel*. The *Secret of Divine Civilization* and the *Sermon on the Art of Governance* were widely circulated anonymously.
The second group includes *Some Answered Questions*, which is an English translation of a series of table talks with Laura Barney, and *Paris Talks*, *ʻAbdu\'l-Baha in London* and *Promulgation of Universal Peace* which are respectively addresses given by ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá in Paris, London and the United States.
The following is a list of some of ʻAbdu\'l-Bahá\'s many books, tablets, and talks:
- *Foundations of World Unity*
- *[Light of the World: Selected Tablets of 'Abdu'l-Bahá](https://www.bahai.org/library/authoritative-texts/abdul-baha/light-of-the-world)*
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# Ambrose of Alexandria
**Ambrose of Alexandria** (before 212 -- c. 250) was a friend of the Christian theologian Origen.
## Life
Ambrose was attracted by Origen\'s fame as a teacher, and visited the Catechetical School of Alexandria in 212. At first a gnostic Valentinian and Marcionist, Ambrose, through Origen\'s teaching, eventually rejected this theology and became Origen\'s constant companion, and was ordained deacon. He plied Origen with questions, and urged him to write his Commentaries (treating him as \"*ἐργοδιώκτης*\" in *Commentary on John* V,1) on the books of the Bible, and, as a wealthy nobleman and courtier, he provided his teacher with books for his studies and secretaries to lighten the labor of composition.
He suffered during the persecution under the Roman emperor Maximinus Thrax in 235. He was later released and died a confessor. The last mention of Ambrose in the historical record is in Origen\'s *Contra Celsum,* which the latter wrote at the solicitation of Ambrose.
Origen often speaks of Ambrose affectionately as a man of education with excellent literary and scholarly tastes. All of Origen\'s works written after 218 are dedicated to Ambrose, including his *On Martyrdom*, *Contra Celsum*, *Commentary on St. John\'s Gospel*, and *On Prayer*. Ambrose\'s letters to Origen (praised by Jerome) are lost, although part of one exists.
## Veneration
Ambrose is venerated as a saint by some branches of Christianity. His feast day in the Catholic Church falls on 17 March
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# Autonomous building
An **autonomous building** is a hypothetical building designed to be operated independently from infrastructural support services such as the electric power grid, gas grid, municipal water systems, sewage treatment systems, storm drains, communication services, and in some cases, public roads. The literature mostly refers to housing, or the **autonomous house**.
Advocates of autonomous building describe advantages that include reduced environmental impacts, increased security, and lower costs of ownership. Some cited advantages satisfy tenets of green building, not independence per se (see below). Off-grid buildings often rely very little on civil services and are therefore safer and more comfortable during civil disaster or military attacks. For example, off-grid buildings would not lose power or water if public supplies were compromised.
## History
### 1970s
In the 1970s, groups of activists and engineers were inspired by the warnings of imminent resource depletion and starvation. In the United States, a group calling themselves the New Alchemists were famous for the depth of research effort placed in their projects. Using conventional construction techniques, they designed a series of \"bioshelter\" projects, the most famous of which was The Ark bioshelter community for Prince Edward Island. They published the plans for all of these, with detailed design calculations and blueprints. The Ark used wind-based water pumping and electricity and was self-contained in food production. It had living quarters for people, fish tanks raising tilapia for protein, a greenhouse watered with fish water, and a closed-loop sewage reclamation system that recycled human waste into sanitized fertilizer for the fish tanks.
Around 1975--1977, Australian architect and lecturer at University of Sydney School of Architecture, Col James, in collaboration with urban designer, architect, artist, and university tutor Nick Hollo, designed and built an autonomous house on university grounds, in collaboration with students. This taught self-build sustainability to hundreds of students.
### 1990s {#s_1}
The 1990s saw the development of Earthships, similar in intent to the Ark project, but organised as a for-profit venture, with construction details published in a series of three books by American architect Mike Reynolds. The building material is tires filled with earth. This makes a wall that has large amounts of thermal mass (see earth sheltering). Berms are placed on exposed surfaces to further increase the house\'s temperature stability. The water system starts with rain water, processed for drinking, then washing, then plant watering, then toilet flushing, and finally black water is recycled again for more plant watering. The cisterns are placed and used as thermal masses. Power, including electricity, heat and water heating, is from solar power.
Some 1990s architects such as William McDonough and Ken Yeang applied environmentally responsible building design to large commercial buildings, such as office buildings, making them largely self-sufficient in energy production. One major bank building (ING Group\'s Amsterdam headquarters) in the Netherlands was constructed to be autonomous and artistic as well.
### 2000s {#s_2}
In 2002, British architects Brenda and Robert Vale wrote:
> It is quite possible in all parts of Australia to construct a \'house with no bills\', which would be comfortable without heating and cooling, which would make its own electricity, collect its own water and deal with its own waste\...These houses can be built now, using off-the-shelf techniques. It is possible to build a \"house with no bills\" for the same price as a conventional house, but it would be (25%) smaller.
## Advantages
As an architect or engineer becomes more concerned with the disadvantages of transportation networks, and dependence on distant resources, their designs tend to include more autonomous elements. The historic path to autonomy was a concern for secure sources of heat, power, water and food. A nearly parallel path toward autonomy has been to start with a concern for environmental impacts, which cause disadvantages.
Autonomous buildings can increase security and reduce environmental impacts by using on-site resources (such as sunlight and rain) that would otherwise be wasted. Autonomy often dramatically reduces the costs and impacts of networks that serve the building, because autonomy short-circuits the multiplying inefficiencies of collecting and transporting resources. Other impacted resources, such as oil reserves and the retention of the local watershed, can often be cheaply conserved by thoughtful designs.
Autonomous buildings are usually energy-efficient in operation, and therefore cost-efficient, for the obvious reason that smaller energy needs are easier to satisfy off-grid. But they may substitute energy production or other techniques to avoid diminishing returns in extreme conservation.
An autonomous structure is not always environmentally friendly. The goal of independence from support systems is associated with, but not identical to, other goals of environmentally responsible green building. However, autonomous buildings also usually include some degree of sustainability through the use of renewable energy and other renewable resources, producing no more greenhouse gases than they consume, and other measures.
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# Autonomous building
## Disadvantages
First and fundamentally, independence is a matter of degree. For example, eliminating dependence on the electrical grid is relatively easy. In contrast, running an efficient, reliable food source can be a chore.
Living within an autonomous shelter may also require sacrifices in lifestyle or social opportunities. Even the most comfortable and technologically advanced autonomous homes could require alterations of residents\' behavior. Some may not welcome the extra chores. The Vails described some clients\' experiences as inconvenient, irritating, isolating, or even as an unwanted full-time job. A well-designed building can reduce this issue, but usually at the expense of reduced autonomy.
An autonomous house must be custom-built (or extensively retrofitted) to suit the climate and location. Passive solar techniques, alternative toilet and sewage systems, thermal massing designs, basement battery systems, efficient windowing, and the array of other design tactics require some degree of non-standard construction, added expense, ongoing experimentation and maintenance, and also have an effect on the psychology of the space.
## Systems
### Water
There are many methods of collecting and conserving water. Use reduction is cost-effective.
Greywater systems reuse drained wash water to flush toilets or to water lawns and gardens. Greywater systems can halve the water use of most residential buildings; however, they require the purchase of a sump, greywater pressurization pump, and secondary plumbing. Some builders are installing waterless urinals and even composting toilets that eliminate water usage in sewage disposal.
The classic solution with minimal life-style changes is using a well. Once drilled, a well-foot requires substantial power. However, advanced well-foots can reduce power usage by twofold or more from older models. Well water can be contaminated in some areas. The Sono arsenic filter eliminates unhealthy arsenic in well water. However drilling a well is an uncertain activity, with aquifers depleted in some areas. It can also be expensive.
In regions with sufficient rainfall, it is often more economical to design a building to use rainwater harvesting, with supplementary water deliveries in a drought. Rain water makes excellent soft washwater, but needs antibacterial treatment. If used for drinking, mineral supplements or mineralization is necessary.
Most desert and temperate climates get at least 250 mm of rain per year. This means that a typical one-story house with a greywater system can supply its year-round water needs from its roof alone. In the driest areas, it might require a cistern of 30 m3. Many areas average 13 mm of rain per week, and these can use a cistern as small as 10 m3.
In many areas, it is difficult to keep a roof clean enough for drinking. To reduce dirt and bad tastes, systems use a metal collecting-roof and a \"roof cleaner\" tank that diverts the first 40 liters. Cistern water is usually chlorinated, though reverse osmosis systems provide even better quality drinking water.
In the classic Roman house (\"Domus\"), household water was provided from a cistern (the \"impluvium\"), which was a decorative feature of the atrium, the house\'s main public space. It was fed by downspout tiles from the inward-facing roof-opening (the \"compluvium\"). Often water lilies were grown in it to purify the water. Wealthy households often supplemented the rain with a small fountain fed from a city\'s cistern. The impluvium always had an overflow drain so it could not flood the house.
Modern cisterns are usually large plastic tanks. Gravity tanks on short towers are reliable, so pump repairs are less urgent. The least expensive bulk cistern is a fenced pond or pool at ground level.
Reducing autonomy reduces the size and expense of cisterns. Many autonomous homes can reduce water use below 10 USgal per person per day, so that in a drought a month of water can be delivered inexpensively via truck. Self-delivery is often possible by installing fabric water tanks that fit the bed of a pick-up truck.
It can be convenient to use the cistern as a heat sink or trap for a heat pump or air conditioning system; however this can make cold drinking water warm, and in drier years may decrease the efficiency of the HVAC system.
Solar stills can efficiently produce drinking water from ditch water or cistern water, especially high-efficiency multiple effect humidification designs, which separate the evaporator(s) and condenser(s).
New technologies, like reverse osmosis can create unlimited amounts of pure water from polluted water, ocean water, and even from humid air. Watermakers are available for yachts that convert seawater and electricity into potable water and brine. Atmospheric water generators extract moisture from dry desert air and filter it to pure water.
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# Autonomous building
## Systems
### Sewage
#### Resource
Composting toilets use bacteria to decompose human feces into useful, odourless, sanitary compost. The process is sanitary because soil bacteria eat the human pathogens as well as most of the mass of the waste. Nevertheless, most health authorities forbid direct use of \"humanure\" for growing food. The risk is microbial and viral contamination, as well as heavy metal toxicity. In a dry composting toilet, the waste is evaporated or digested to gas (mostly carbon dioxide) and vented, so a toilet produces only a few pounds of compost every six months. To control the odor, modern toilets use a small fan to keep the toilet under negative pressure, and exhaust the gasses to a vent pipe.
Some home sewage treatment systems use biological treatment, usually beds of plants and aquaria, that absorb nutrients and bacteria and convert greywater and sewage to clear water. This odor- and color-free reclaimed water can be used to flush toilets and water outside plants. When tested, it approaches standards for potable water. In climates that freeze, the plants and aquaria need to be kept in a small greenhouse space. Good systems need about as much care as a large aquarium.
Electric incinerating toilets turn excrement into a small amount of ash. They are cool to the touch, have no water and no pipes, and require an air vent in a wall. They are used in remote areas where use of septic tanks is limited, usually to reduce nutrient loads in lakes.
NASA\'s bioreactor is an extremely advanced biological sewage system. It can turn sewage into air and water through microbial action. NASA plans to use it in the crewed Mars mission. Another method is NASA\'s urine-to-water distillation system. A big disadvantage of complex biological sewage treatment systems is that if the house is empty, the sewage system biota may starve to death.
#### Waste
Sewage handling is essential for public health. Many diseases are transmitted by poorly functioning sewage systems.
The standard system is a tiled leach field combined with a septic tank. The basic idea is to provide a small system with primary sewage treatment. Sludge settles to the bottom of the septic tank, is partially reduced by anaerobic digestion, and fluid is dispersed in the leach field. The leach field is usually under a yard growing grass. Septic tanks can operate entirely by gravity, and if well managed, are reasonably safe.
Septic tanks have to be pumped periodically by a vacuum truck to eliminate non reducing solids. Failure to pump a septic tank can cause overflow that damages the leach field, and contaminates ground water. Septic tanks may also require some lifestyle changes, such as not using garbage disposals, minimizing fluids flushed into the tank, and minimizing non-digestible solids flushed into the tank. For example, septic safe toilet paper is recommended. However, septic tanks remain popular because they permit standard plumbing fixtures, and require few or no lifestyle sacrifices.
Composting or packaging toilets make it economical and sanitary to throw away sewage as part of the normal garbage collection service. They also reduce water use by half, and eliminate the difficulty and expense of septic tanks. However, they require the local landfill to use sanitary practices.
Incinerator systems are quite practical. The ashes are biologically safe, and less than 1/10 the volume of the original waste, but like all incinerator waste, are usually classified as hazardous waste.
Traditional methods of sewage handling include pit toilets, latrines, and outhouses. These can be safe, inexpensive and practical. They are still used in many regions.
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# Autonomous building
## Systems
### Storm drains {#storm_drains}
Drainage systems are a crucial compromise between human habitability and a secure, sustainable watershed. Paved areas and lawns or turf do not allow much precipitation to filter through the ground to recharge aquifers. They can cause flooding and damage in neighbourhoods, as the water flows over the surface towards a low point.
Typically, elaborate, capital-intensive storm sewer networks are engineered to deal with stormwater. In some cities, such as the Victorian era London sewers or much of the old City of Toronto, the storm water system is combined with the sanitary sewer system. In the event of heavy precipitation, the load on the sewage treatment plant at the end of the pipe becomes too great to handle and raw sewage is dumped into holding tanks, and sometimes into surface water.
Autonomous buildings can address precipitation in a number of ways. If a water-absorbing swale for each yard is combined with permeable concrete streets, storm drains can be omitted from the neighbourhood. This can save more than \$800 per house (1970s) by eliminating storm drains. One way to use the savings is to purchase larger lots, which permits more amenities at the same cost. Permeable concrete is an established product in warm climates, and in development for freezing climates. In freezing climates, the elimination of storm drains can often still pay for enough land to construct swales (shallow water collecting ditches) or water impeding berms instead. This plan provides more land for homeowners and can offer more interesting topography for landscaping. Additionally, a green roof captures precipitation and uses the water to grow plants. It can be built into a new building or used to replace an existing roof.
### Electricity
Further information: Zero emissions, Zero-energy building Since electricity is an expensive utility, the first step towards autonomy is to design a house and lifestyle to reduce demand. LED lights, laptop computers and gas-powered refrigerators save electricity, although gas-powered refrigerators are not very efficient. There are also superefficient electric refrigerators, such as those produced by the Sun Frost company, some of which use only about half as much electricity as a mass-market energy star-rated refrigerator.
Using a solar roof, solar cells can provide electric power. Solar roofs can be more cost-effective than retrofitted solar power, because buildings need roofs anyway. Modern solar cells last about 40 years, which makes them a reasonable investment in some areas. At a sufficient angle, solar cells are cleaned by run-off rain water and therefore have almost no life-style impact.
Many areas have long winter nights or dark cloudy days. In these climates, a solar installation might not pay for itself or large battery storage systems are necessary to achieve electric self-sufficiency. In stormy or windy climates, wind turbines can replace or significantly supplement solar power. The average autonomous house needs only one small wind turbine, 5 metres or less in diameter. On a 30-metre (100-foot) tower, this turbine can provide enough power to supplement solar power on cloudy days. Commercially available wind turbines use sealed, one-moving-part AC generators and passive, self-feathering blades for years of operation without service.
The main advantage of wind power is that larger wind turbines have a lower per-watt cost than solar cells, provided there is wind. Turbine location is critical: just as some locations lack sun for solar cells, many areas lack enough wind to make a turbine pay for itself. In the Great Plains of the United States, a 10-metre (33-foot) turbine can supply enough energy to heat and cool a well-built all-electric house. Economic use in other areas requires research, and possibly a site survey.
Some sites have access to a stream with a change in elevation. These sites can use small hydropower systems to generate electricity. If the difference in elevation is above 30 metres (100 feet), and the stream runs in all seasons, this can provide continuous power with a small, inexpensive installation. Lower changes of elevation require larger installations or dams, and can be less efficient. Clogging at the turbine intake can be a practical problem. The usual solution is a small pool and waterfall (a penstock) to carry away floating debris. Another solution is to utilize a turbine that resists debris, such as a Gorlov helical turbine or Ossberger turbine.
During times of low demand, excess power can be stored in batteries for future use. However, batteries need to be replaced every few years. In many areas, battery expenses can be eliminated by attaching the building to the electric power grid and operating the power system with net metering. Utility permission is required, but such cooperative generation is legally mandated in some areas (for example, California).
A grid-based building is less autonomous, but more economical and sustainable with fewer lifestyle sacrifices. In rural areas the grid\'s cost and impacts can be reduced by using single-wire earth return systems (for example, the MALT-system).
In areas that lack access to the grid, battery size can be reduced with a generator to recharge the batteries during energy droughts such as extended fogs. Auxiliary generators are usually run from propane, natural gas, or sometimes diesel. An hour of charging usually provides a day of operation. Modern residential chargers permit the user to set the charging times, so the generator is quiet at night. Some generators automatically test themselves once per week.
Recent advances in passively stable magnetic bearings may someday permit inexpensive storage of power in a flywheel in a vacuum. Research groups like Canada\'s Ballard Power Systems are also working to develop a \"regenerative fuel cell\", a device that can generate hydrogen and oxygen when power is available, and combine these efficiently when power is needed.
Earth batteries tap electric currents in the earth called telluric current. They can be installed anywhere in the ground. They provide only low voltages and current. They were used to power telegraphs in the 19th century. As appliance efficiencies increase, they may become practical.
Microbial fuel cells and thermoelectric generators allow electricity to be generated from biomass. The plant can be dried, chopped and converted or burned as a whole, or it can be left alive so that waste saps from the plant can be converted by bacteria.
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# Autonomous building
## Systems
### Heating
Most autonomous buildings are designed to use insulation, thermal mass and passive solar heating and cooling. Examples of these are trombe walls and other technologies as skylights.
Passive solar heating can heat most buildings in even the mild and chilly climates. In colder climates, extra construction costs can be as little as 15% more than new, conventional buildings. In warm climates, those having less than two weeks of frosty nights per year, there is no cost impact. The basic requirement for passive solar heating is that the solar collectors must face the prevailing sunlight (south in the Northern Hemisphere, north in the Southern Hemisphere), and the building must incorporate thermal mass to keep it warm in the night.
A recent, somewhat experimental solar heating system \"Annualized geo solar heating\" is practical even in regions that get little or no sunlight in winter. It uses the ground beneath a building for thermal mass. Precipitation can carry away the heat, so the ground is shielded with `{{nowrap|6 m}}`{=mediawiki} skirts of plastic insulation. The thermal mass of this system is sufficiently inexpensive and large that it can store enough summer heat to warm a building for the whole winter, and enough winter cold to cool the building in summer.
In annualized geo solar systems, the solar collector is often separate from (and hotter or colder than) the living space. The building may actually be constructed from insulation, for example, straw-bale construction. Some buildings have been aerodynamically designed so that convection via ducts and interior spaces eliminates any need for electric fans.
A more modest \"daily solar\" design is practical. For example, for about a 15% premium in building costs, the Passivhaus building codes in Europe use high performance insulating windows, R-30 insulation, HRV ventilation, and a small thermal mass. With modest changes in the building\'s position, modern krypton- or argon-insulated windows permit normal-looking windows to provide passive solar heat without compromising insulation or structural strength. If a small heater is available for the coldest nights, a slab or basement cistern can inexpensively provide the required thermal mass. Passivhaus building codes, in particular, bring unusually good interior air quality, because the buildings change the air several times per hour, passing it through a heat exchanger to keep heat inside.
In all systems, a small supplementary heater increases personal security and reduces lifestyle impacts for a small reduction of autonomy. The two most popular heaters for ultra-high-efficiency houses are a small heat pump, which also provides air conditioning, or a central hydronic (radiator) air heater with water recirculating from the water heater. Passivhaus designs usually integrate the heater with the ventilation system.
Earth sheltering and windbreaks can also reduce the absolute amount of heat needed by a building. Several feet below the earth, temperature ranges from 4 C in North Dakota to 26 C, in Southern Florida. Wind breaks reduce the amount of heat carried away from a building.
Rounded, aerodynamic buildings also lose less heat.
An increasing number of commercial buildings use a combined cycle with cogeneration to provide heating, often water heating, from the output of a natural gas reciprocating engine, gas turbine or stirling electric generator.
Houses designed to cope with interruptions in civil services generally incorporate a wood stove, or heat and power from diesel fuel or bottled gas, regardless of their other heating mechanisms.
Electric heaters and electric stoves may provide pollution-free heat (depending on the power source), but use large amounts of electricity. If enough electricity is provided by solar panels, wind turbines, or other means, then electric heaters and stoves become a practical autonomous design.
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# Autonomous building
## Systems
### Water heating {#water_heating}
Hot water heat recycling units recover heat from water drain lines. They increase a building\'s autonomy by decreasing the heat or fuel used to heat water. They are attractive because they have no lifestyle changes.
Current practical, comfortable domestic water-heating systems combine a solar preheating system with a thermostatic gas-powered flow-through heater, so that the temperature of the water is consistent, and the amount is unlimited. This reduces life-style impacts at some cost in autonomy.
Solar water heaters can save large amounts of fuel. Also, small changes in lifestyle, such as doing laundry, dishes and bathing on sunny days, can greatly increase their efficiency. Pure solar heaters are especially useful for laundries, swimming pools and external baths, because these can be scheduled for use on sunny days.
The basic trick in a solar water heating system is to use a well-insulated holding tank. Some systems are vacuum- insulated, acting something like large thermos bottles. The tank is filled with hot water on sunny days, and made available at all times. Unlike a conventional tank water heater, the tank is filled only when there is sunlight. Good storage makes a smaller, higher-technology collector feasible. Such collectors can use relatively exotic technologies, such as vacuum insulation, and reflective concentration of sunlight.
Cogeneration systems produce hot water from waste heat. They usually get the heat from the exhaust of a generator or fuel cell.
Heat recycling, cogeneration and solar pre-heating can save 50--75% of the gas otherwise used. Also, some combinations provide redundant reliability by having several sources of heat. Some authorities advocate replacing bottled gas or natural gas with biogas. However, this is usually impractical unless live-stock are on-site. The wastes of a single family are usually insufficient to produce enough methane for anything more than small amounts of cooking.
### Cooling
Annualized geo solar buildings often have buried, sloped water-tight skirts of insulation that extend 6 m from the foundations, to prevent heat leakage between the earth used as thermal mass, and the surface.
Less dramatic improvements are possible. Windows can be shaded in summer. Eaves can be overhung to provide the necessary shade. These also shade the walls of the house, reducing cooling costs.
Another trick is to cool the building\'s thermal mass at night, perhaps with a whole-house fan and then cool the building from the thermal mass during the day. It helps to be able to route cold air from a sky-facing radiator (perhaps an air heating solar collector with an alternate purpose) or evaporative cooler directly through the thermal mass. On clear nights, even in tropical areas, sky-facing radiators can cool below freezing.
If a circular building is aerodynamically smooth, and cooler than the ground, it can be passively cooled by the \"dome effect.\" Many installations have reported that a reflective or light-colored dome induces a local vertical heat-driven vortex that sucks cooler overhead air downward into a dome if the dome is vented properly (a single overhead vent, and peripheral vents). Some people have reported a temperature differential as high as `{{nowrap|8 °C}}`{=mediawiki} (`{{nowrap|15 °F}}`{=mediawiki}) between the inside of the dome and the outside. Buckminster Fuller discovered this effect with a simple house design adapted from a grain silo, and adapted his Dymaxion house and geodesic domes to use it.
Refrigerators and air conditioners operating from the waste heat of a diesel engine exhaust, heater flue or solar collector are entering use. These use the same principles as a gas refrigerator. Normally, the heat from a flue powers an \"absorptive chiller\". The cold water or brine from the chiller is used to cool air or a refrigerated space.
Cogeneration is popular in new commercial buildings. In current cogeneration systems small gas turbines or stirling engines powered from natural gas produce electricity and their exhaust drives an absorptive chiller.
A truck trailer refrigerator operating from the waste heat of a tractor\'s diesel exhaust was demonstrated by NRG Solutions, Inc. NRG developed a hydronic ammonia gas heat exchanger and vaporizer, the two essential new, not commercially available components of a waste heat driven refrigerator.
A similar scheme (multiphase cooling) can be by a multistage evaporative cooler. The air is passed through a spray of salt solution to dehumidify it, then through a spray of water solution to cool it, then another salt solution to dehumidify it again. The brine has to be regenerated, and that can be done economically with a low-temperature solar still. Multiphase evaporative coolers can lower the air\'s temperature by 50 °F (28 °C), and still control humidity. If the brine regenerator uses high heat, it also partially sterilises to the air.
If enough electric power is available, cooling can be provided by conventional air conditioning using a heat pump.
### Food production {#food_production}
Food production has often been included in historic autonomous projects to provide security. Skilled, intensive gardening can support an adult from as little as 100 square meters of land per person, possibly requiring the use of organic farming and aeroponics. Some proven intensive, low-effort food-production systems include urban gardening (indoors and outdoors). Indoor cultivation may be set up using hydroponics, while outdoor cultivation may be done using permaculture, forest gardening, no-till farming, and do nothing farming.
Greenhouses are also sometimes included. Sometimes they are also outfitted with irrigation systems or heat sink systems which can respectively irrigate the plants or help to store energy from the sun and redistribute it at night (when the greenhouses starts to cool down)
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# Anubis
**Anubis** (`{{IPAc-en|ə|ˈ|nj|uː|b|ᵻ|s|audio=LL-Q1860 (eng)-Naomi Persephone Amethyst (NaomiAmethyst)-Anubis.wav}}`{=mediawiki}; *Ἄνουβις*), also known as **Inpu**, **Inpw**, **Jnpw**, or **Anpu** in Ancient Egyptian (*translit=Anoup*), is the god of funerary rites, protector of graves, and guide to the underworld in ancient Egyptian religion, usually depicted as a canine or a man with a canine head.
Like many ancient Egyptian deities, Anubis assumed different roles in various contexts. Depicted as a protector of graves as early as the First Dynasty (c. 3100), Anubis was also an embalmer. By the Middle Kingdom (c. 2055--1650 BC) he was replaced by Osiris in his role as lord of the underworld. One of his prominent roles was as a god who ushered souls into the afterlife. He attended the weighing scale during the \"Weighing of the Heart\", in which it was determined whether a soul would be allowed to enter the realm of the dead. Anubis is one of the most frequently depicted and mentioned gods in the Egyptian pantheon; however, few major myths involved him.
Anubis was depicted in black, a color that symbolized regeneration, life, the soil of the Nile River, and the discoloration of the corpse after embalming. Anubis is associated with Wepwawet, another Egyptian god portrayed with a dog\'s head or in canine form, but with grey or white fur. Historians assume that the two figures were eventually combined. Anubis\' female counterpart is Anput. His daughter is the serpent goddess Kebechet.
## Name
\"Anubis\" is a Greek rendering of this god\'s Egyptian name. Before the Greeks arrived in Egypt, around the 7th century BC, the god was known as *Anpu* or *Inpu.* The root of the name in ancient Egyptian language means \"a royal child.\" *Inpu* has a root to \"inp\", which means \"to decay.\" The god was also known as \"First of the Westerners,\" \"Lord of the Sacred Land,\" \"He Who is Upon his Sacred Mountain,\" \"Ruler of the Nine Bows,\" \"The Dog who Swallows Millions,\" \"Master of Secrets,\" \"He Who is in the Place of Embalming,\" and \"Foremost of the Divine Booth.\" The positions that he had were also reflected in the titles he held such as \"He Who Is upon His Mountain,\" \"Lord of the Sacred Land,\" \"Foremost of the Westerners,\" and \"He Who Is in the Place of Embalming.\" In the Old Kingdom (c. 2686 BC), the standard way of writing his name in hieroglyphs was composed of the sound signs ***inpw*** followed by a jackal over a *ḥtp* sign: i-n:p-w-C6 A new form with the jackal on a tall stand appeared in the late Old Kingdom and became common thereafter: i-n:p-w-E16
Anubis\' name *jnpw* was possibly pronounced `{{IPA|[aˈna.pʰa(w)]}}`{=mediawiki}, based on Coptic *Anoup* and the Akkadian transcription `{{Transliteration|akk-x-midbabyl|{{angbr|a-na-pa}}}}`{=mediawiki} (*𒀀𒈾𒉺}}*) in the name \"Reanapa\" that appears in Amarna letter EA 315. However, this transcription may also be interpreted as *rˁ-nfr*, a name similar to that of Prince Ranefer of the Fourth Dynasty.
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# Anubis
## History
In Egypt\'s Early Dynastic period (c. 3100), Anubis was portrayed in full animal form, with a \"jackal\" head and body. A jackal god, probably Anubis, is depicted in stone inscriptions from the reigns of Hor-Aha, Djer, and other pharaohs of the First Dynasty. Since Predynastic Egypt, when the dead were buried in shallow graves, jackals had been strongly associated with cemeteries because they were scavengers which uncovered human bodies and ate their flesh. In the spirit of \"fighting like with like,\" a jackal was chosen to protect the dead, because \"a common problem (and cause of concern) must have been the digging up of bodies, shortly after burial, by jackals and other wild dogs which lived on the margins of the cultivation.\"
In the Old Kingdom, Anubis was the most important god of the dead. He was replaced in that role by Osiris during the Middle Kingdom (2000--1700 BC). In the Roman era, which started in 30 BC, tomb paintings depict him holding the hand of deceased persons to guide them to Osiris.
The parentage of Anubis varied between myths, times and sources. In early mythology, he was portrayed as a son of Ra. In the Coffin Texts, which were written in the First Intermediate Period (c. 2181--2055 BC), Anubis is the son of either the cow goddess Hesat or the cat-headed Bastet. Another tradition depicted him as the son of Ra and Nephthys. More commonly, however, he is recognized as the offspring of Osiris and Isis.In later periods, particularly during the Ptolemaic era, Anubis was sometimes described as the son of Isis and Serapis, a Hellenized form of Osiris designed to appeal to Egypt\'s growing Greek population. The Greek Plutarch (c. 40--120 AD) reported a tradition that Anubis was the illegitimate son of Nephthys and Osiris, but that he was adopted by Osiris\'s wife Isis:
George Hart sees this story as an \"attempt to incorporate the independent deity Anubis into the Osirian pantheon.\" An Egyptian papyrus from the Roman period (30--380 AD) simply called Anubis the \"son of Isis.\" In Nubia, Anubis was seen as the husband of his mother Nephthys.
In the Ptolemaic period (350--30 BC), when Egypt became a Hellenistic kingdom ruled by Greek pharaohs, Anubis was merged with the Greek god Hermes, becoming Hermanubis. The two gods were considered similar because they both guided souls to the afterlife. The center of this cult was in *uten-ha*/*Sa-ka*/ Cynopolis, a place whose Greek name means \"city of dogs.\" In Book XI of *The Golden Ass* by Apuleius, there is evidence that the worship of this god was continued in Rome through at least the 2nd century. Indeed, Hermanubis also appears in the alchemical and hermetical literature of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance.
Although the Greeks and Romans typically scorned Egyptian animal-headed gods as bizarre and primitive (Anubis was mockingly called \"Barker\" by the Greeks), Anubis was sometimes associated with Sirius in the heavens and Cerberus and Hades in the underworld. In his dialogues, Plato often has Socrates utter oaths \"by the dog\" (Greek: *kai me ton kuna*), \"by the dog of Egypt\", and \"by the dog, the god of the Egyptians\", both for emphasis and to appeal to Anubis as an arbiter of truth in the underworld.
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# Anubis
## Roles
### Embalmer
As *jmy-wt* (Imiut or the Imiut fetish) \"He who is in the place of embalming\", Anubis was associated with mummification. He was also called *ḫnty zḥ-nṯr* \"He who presides over the god\'s booth\", in which \"booth\" could refer either to the place where embalming was carried out or the pharaoh\'s burial chamber.
In the Osiris myth, Anubis helped Isis to embalm Osiris. Indeed, when the Osiris myth emerged, it was said that after Osiris had been killed by Set, Osiris\'s organs were given to Anubis as a gift. With this connection, Anubis became the patron god of embalmers; during the rites of mummification, illustrations from the *Book of the Dead* often show a wolf-mask-wearing priest supporting the upright mummy.
### Protector of tombs {#protector_of_tombs}
Anubis was a protector of graves and cemeteries. Several epithets attached to his name in Egyptian texts and inscriptions referred to that role. *Khenty-Amentiu*, which means \"foremost of the westerners\" and was also the name of a different canine funerary god, alluded to his protecting function because the dead were usually buried on the west bank of the Nile. He took other names in connection with his funerary role, such as *tpy-ḏw.f* (Tepy-djuef) \"He who is upon his mountain\" (i.e. keeping guard over tombs from above) and *nb-t3-ḏsr* (Neb-ta-djeser) \"Lord of the sacred land\", which designates him as a god of the desert necropolis.
The Jumilhac papyrus recounts another tale where Anubis protected the body of Osiris from Set. Set attempted to attack the body of Osiris by transforming himself into a leopard. Anubis stopped and subdued Set, however, and he branded Set\'s skin with a hot iron rod. Anubis then flayed Set and wore his skin as a warning against evil-doers who would desecrate the tombs of the dead. Priests who attended to the dead wore leopard skin in order to commemorate Anubis\' victory over Set. The legend of Anubis branding the hide of Set in leopard form was used to explain how the leopard got its spots.
Most ancient tombs had prayers to Anubis carved on them.
### Guide of souls {#guide_of_souls}
By the late pharaonic era (664--332 BC), Anubis was often depicted as guiding individuals across the threshold from the world of the living to the afterlife. Though a similar role was sometimes performed by the cow-headed Hathor, Anubis was more commonly chosen to fulfill that function. Greek writers from the Roman period of Egyptian history designated that role as that of \"psychopomp\", a Greek term meaning \"guide of souls\" that they used to refer to their own god Hermes, who also played that role in Greek religion. Funerary art from that period represents Anubis guiding either men or women dressed in Greek clothes into the presence of Osiris, who by then had long replaced Anubis as ruler of the underworld.
### Weigher of hearts {#weigher_of_hearts}
One of the roles of Anubis was as the \"Guardian of the Scales.\" The critical scene depicting the weighing of the heart, in the *Book of the Dead*, shows Anubis performing a measurement that determined whether the person was worthy of entering the realm of the dead (the underworld, known as *Duat*). By weighing the heart of a deceased person against *ma\'at*, who was often represented as an ostrich feather, Anubis dictated the fate of souls. Souls heavier than a feather would be devoured by Ammit, and souls lighter than a feather would ascend to a heavenly existence.
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# Anubis
## Portrayal in art {#portrayal_in_art}
Anubis was one of the most frequently represented deities in ancient Egyptian art. He is depicted in royal tombs as early as the First Dynasty. The god is typically treating a king\'s corpse, providing sovereign to mummification rituals and funerals, or standing with fellow gods at the Weighing of the Heart of the Soul in the Hall of Two Truths. One of his most popular representations is of him, with the body of a man and the head of a jackal with pointed ears, standing or kneeling, holding a gold scale while a heart of the soul is being weighed against Ma\'at\'s white truth feather.
In the early dynastic period, he was depicted in animal form, as a black canine. Anubis\'s distinctive black color did not represent the animal, rather it had several symbolic meanings. It represented \"the discolouration of the corpse after its treatment with natron and the smearing of the wrappings with a resinous substance during mummification.\" Being the color of the fertile silt of the River Nile, to Egyptians, black also symbolized fertility and the possibility of rebirth in the afterlife. In the Middle Kingdom, Anubis was often portrayed as a man with the head of a jackal. The African jackal was the species depicted and the template of numerous Ancient Egyptian deities, including Anubis. An extremely rare depiction of him in fully human form was found in a chapel of Ramesses II in Abydos.
Anubis is often depicted wearing a ribbon and holding a *nḫ3ḫ3* \"flail\" in the crook of his arm. Another of Anubis\'s attributes was the *jmy-wt* or imiut fetish, named for his role in embalming. In funerary contexts, Anubis is shown either attending to a deceased person\'s mummy or sitting atop a tomb protecting it. New Kingdom tomb-seals also depict Anubis sitting atop the nine bows that symbolize his domination over the enemies of Egypt.
<File:Anubis>, Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen, 20220618 1030 6992.jpg\|Statue of Anubis <File:KV17>, the tomb of Pharaoh Seti I of the Nineteenth Dynasty, Valley of the Kings, Egypt (49845804653).jpg\|Wall relief of Anubis in (KV17) the tomb of Seti I, 19th Dynasty, Valley of the Kings <File:ThebanTomb335.png%7Calt=Fresco> of a mummy lying on a bier. Women stand at the head and foot of the bier, while a winged woman kneels in the register above\|Isis, left, and Nephthys stand by as Anubis embalms the deceased, 13th century BC <File:Hermitage> hall 100 - Egyptian hall 46.jpg\|Anubis receiving offerings, hieroglyph name in third column from left, 14th century BC; painted limestone; from Saqqara (Egypt) <File:Tutankhamun> jackal.jpg\|The *Anubis Shrine*; 1336--1327 BC; painted wood and gold; 1.1 × 2.7 × 0.52 m; from the Valley of the Kings; Egyptian Museum (Cairo) <File:Anubis>, Anzio, Villa Pamphili, 1st-2nd century AD, Pario marble - Museo Gregoriano Egizio - Vatican Museums - DSC00818.jpg\|Statue of Hermanubis, c. 100--138 AD, from Rome <File:Casa> degli Amorini Dorati. Fresco. 09.JPG\|Anubis, Harpocrates, Isis and Serapis, antique fresco in Pompeii, Italy <File:Stela> of Siamun and Taruy worshipping Anubis MET 90.6.128 01.jpg\|Stela of Siamun and Taruy worshipping Anubis <File:The> King with Anubis, Tomb of Haremhab MET DP234736.jpg\|The king with Anubis, from the tomb of Horemheb; 1323-1295 BC; tempera on paper; Metropolitan Museum of Art <File:Anubis> Amulet MET DP109371.jpg\|Anubis amulet; 664--30 BC; faience; height: 4.7 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art <File:Recumbent> Anubis MET DP228716.jpg\|Recumbent Anubis; 664--30 BC; limestone, originally painted black; height: 38.1 cm, length: 64 cm, width: 16.5 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art <File:Statuette> of Anubis MET 38.5 EGDP022863.jpg\|Statuette of Anubis; 332--30 BC; plastered and painted wood; 42.3 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
## Worship
Although he does not appear in many myths, he was extremely popular with Egyptians and those of other cultures. The Greeks linked him to their god Hermes, the god who guided the dead to the afterlife. The pairing was later known as Hermanubis. Anubis was heavily worshipped because, despite modern beliefs, he gave the people hope. People marveled in the guarantee that their body would be respected at death, their soul would be protected and justly judged.
Anubis had male priests who sported wood masks with the god\'s likeness when performing rituals. His cult center was at Cynopolis in Upper Egypt but memorials were built everywhere and he was universally revered in every part of the nation
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# Adoptionism
thumb\|upright=1.2\|Francesco Albani\'s *The Baptism of Christ*, when Jesus became one with God according to adoptionism
**Adoptionism**, also called **dynamic monarchianism**, is an early Christian nontrinitarian theological doctrine, subsequently revived in various forms, which holds that Jesus was adopted as the Son of God at his baptism, his resurrection, or his ascension. How common adoptionist views were among early Christians is debated, but it appears to have been most popular in the first, second, and third centuries. Some scholars see adoptionism as the belief of the earliest followers of Jesus, based on the epistles of Paul and other early literature. However, adoptionist views sharply declined in prominence in the fourth and fifth centuries, as Church leaders condemned it as a heresy.
## Definition
Adoptionism is one of two main forms of monarchianism (the other being modalism, which considers God to be one while working through the different \"modes\" or \"manifestations\" of God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit, without limiting his modes or manifestations). Adoptionism denies the eternal pre-existence of Christ, and although it explicitly affirms his deity subsequent to events in his life, many classical trinitarians claim that the doctrine implicitly denies it by denying the constant hypostatic union of the eternal Logos to the human nature of Jesus.
Under adoptionism, Jesus is divine and has been since his adoption although he is not equal to the Father per \"my Father is greater than I\" and as such is a kind of subordinationism. (However, the quoted scripture can be orthodoxically interpreted as the fact that in the Trinity the Father is the source without origin, while the Son eternally receives the divinity from the Father.) Adoptionism is sometimes but not always related to a denial of the virgin birth of Jesus.
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# Adoptionism
## History
### Early Christianity {#early_christianity}
#### Adoptionism and high Christology {#adoptionism_and_high_christology}
Bart Ehrman claims that the New Testament writings contain two different Christologies, namely a \"low\" or adoptionist Christology, and a \"high\" or \"incarnation Christology\". The \"low Christology\" or \"adoptionist Christology\" is the belief \"that God exalted Jesus to be his Son by raising him from the dead\", thereby raising him to \"divine status\". The other early Christology is \"high Christology,\" which is \"the view that Jesus was a pre-existent divine being who became a human, did the Father\'s will on earth, and then was taken back up into heaven whence he had originally come,\" and from where he appeared on earth. The chronology of the development of these early Christologies is a matter of debate within contemporary scholarship.
According to the \"evolutionary model\" or evolutionary theories proposed by Bousset, followed by Brown, the Christological understanding of Christ developed over time, from a low Christology to a high Christology, as witnessed in the Gospels.`{{Page needed|date=May 2024}}`{=mediawiki} According to the evolutionary model, the earliest Christians believed that Jesus was a human who was exalted, and thus adopted as God\'s Son, when he was resurrected, signaling the nearness of the Kingdom of God, when all dead would be resurrected and the righteous exalted. Adoptionist concepts can be found in the Gospel of Mark. As Daniel Johansson notes, the majority of scholars hold Mark\'s Jesus as \"an exalted, but merely human figure\", especially when read in the apparent context of Jewish beliefs. Later beliefs shifted the exaltation to his baptism, birth, and subsequently to the idea of his eternal existence, as witnessed in the Gospel of John. Mark shifted the moment of when Jesus became the son to the baptism of Jesus, and later still Matthew and Luke shifted it to the moment of the divine conception, and finally John declared that Jesus had been with God from the beginning: \"In the beginning was the Word\".
One notable passage that may have been cited by early adoptionists was what exactly God said at Jesus\'s baptism; three different versions are recorded. One of them, found in the Codex Bezae version of Luke 3:22, is \"You are my son; today I have begotten you.\" This seems to be quoted in Acts 13:32--33 as well (in all manuscripts, not just Bezae) and in Hebrews 5:5. Quotes from second and third century Christian writers almost always use this variant as well, with many fourth and fifth century writers continuing to use it, if occasionally with embarrassment; Augustine cites the line, for example, but clarifies God meant an eternal \"today\". Ehrman speculates that Orthodox scribes of the fourth and fifth century changed the passage in Luke to align with the version in Mark as a defense against adoptionists citing the passage in their favor.
Since the 1970s, these late datings for the development of a \"high Christology\" have been contested, and a majority of scholars argue that this \"high Christology\" existed already before the writings of Paul. According to the \"New *Religionsgeschichtliche Schule*\", or the Early High Christology Club, which includes Martin Hengel, Larry Hurtado, N. T. Wright, and Richard Bauckham, this \"incarnation Christology\" or \"high Christology\" did not evolve over a longer time, but was a \"big bang\" of ideas which were already present at the start of Christianity, and took further shape in the first few decades of the church, as witnessed in the writings of Paul. Some \'Early High Christology\' proponents scholars argue that this \"high Christology\" may go back to Jesus himself.
According to Ehrman, these two Christologies existed alongside each other, calling the \"low Christology\" an \"adoptionist Christology, and \"the \"high Christology\" an \"incarnation Christology\". Conversely, Michael Bird has argued that adoptionism did not first emerge until the 2nd century as a result of later theological debates and other socio-religious influences on the reading of certain biblical texts.
#### New Testamental epistles {#new_testamental_epistles}
Adoptionist theology may also be reflected in canonical epistles, the earliest of which pre-date the writing of the gospels. The letters of Paul the Apostle, for example, do not mention a virgin birth of Christ. Paul describes Jesus as \"born of a woman, born under the law\" and \"as to his human nature was a descendant of David\" in the Epistle to the Galatians and the Epistle to the Romans. Christian interpreters, however, take his statements in Philippians 2 to imply that Paul believed Jesus to have existed as equal to God before his incarnation.
#### Shepherd of Hermas {#shepherd_of_hermas}
The 2nd-century work Shepherd of Hermas may also have taught that Jesus was a virtuous man filled with the Holy Spirit and adopted as the Son.`{{refn|group=note|"The Holy Pre-existent Spirit. Which created the whole creation, God made to dwell in flesh that he desired. This flesh, therefore, in which the Holy Spirit dwelt, was subject unto the Spirit, walking honorably in holiness and purity, without in any way defiling the Spirit. When then it had lived honorably in chastity, and had labored with the Spirit, and had cooperated with it in everything, behaving itself boldly and bravely, he chose it as a partner with the Holy Spirit; for the career of this flesh pleased [the Lord], seeing that, as possessing the Holy Spirit, it was not defiled upon the earth. He therefore took the son as adviser and the glorious angels also, that this flesh too, having served the Spirit unblamably, might have some place of sojourn, and might not seem to have lost the reward for its service; for all flesh, which is found undefiled and unspotted, wherein the Holy Spirit dwelt, shall receive a reward."<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/shepherd-lightfoot.html|title=The Shepherd of Hermas (Lightfoot translation)|website=www.earlychristianwritings.com}}</ref>}}`{=mediawiki} While the Shepherd of Hermas was popular and sometimes bound with the canonical scriptures, it did not retain canonical status, if it ever had it.
#### Theodotus of Byzantium {#theodotus_of_byzantium}
Theodotus of Byzantium (`{{abbr|fl.|[[floruit]]}}`{=mediawiki} late 2nd century), a Valentinian Gnostic, was the most prominent exponent of adoptionism. According to Hippolytus of Rome (*Philosophumena*, VII, xxiii) Theodotus taught that Jesus was a man born of a virgin, according to the Council of Jerusalem, that he lived like other men, and was most pious. At his baptism in the Jordan the \"Christ\" came down upon the man Jesus, in the likeness of a dove (*Philosophumena*, VII, xxiii), but Jesus was not himself God until after his resurrection.
Adoptionism was declared heresy at the end of the 3rd century and was rejected by the Synods of Antioch and the First Council of Nicaea, which defined the orthodox doctrine of the Trinity and identified the man Jesus with the eternally begotten Son or Word of God in the Nicene Creed. The belief was also declared heretical by Pope Victor I.
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# Adoptionism
## History
### Early Christianity {#early_christianity}
#### Ebionites
Adoptionism was also adhered to by the Jewish Christians known as Ebionites, who, according to Epiphanius in the 4th century, believed that Jesus was chosen on account of his sinless devotion to the will of God.
The Ebionites were a Jewish Christian movement that existed during the early centuries of the Christian Era. They show strong similarities with the earliest form of Jewish Christianity, and their specific theology may have been a \"reaction to the law-free Gentile mission\". They regarded Jesus as the Messiah while rejecting his divinity and his virgin birth, and insisted on the necessity of following Jewish law and rites. They used the Gospel of the Ebionites, one of the Jewish--Christian gospels; the Hebrew Book of Matthew starting at chapter 3; revered James the brother of Jesus (James the Just); and rejected Paul the Apostle as an apostate from the Law. Their name (*Ebionaioi*, derived from *ebyonim*, meaning `{{gloss|the poor}}`{=mediawiki} or `{{gloss|poor ones}}`{=mediawiki}) suggests that they placed a special value on voluntary poverty.
Distinctive features of the Gospel of the Ebionites include the absence of the virgin birth and of the genealogy of Jesus; an Adoptionist Christology,`{{refn|group=note|{{harvnb|Kloppenborg|1994|pp=435–9}}; p. 435 – "This belief, known as "adoptionism", held that Jesus was not divine by nature or by birth, but that God chose him to become his son, i.e., adopted him."}}`{=mediawiki} in which Jesus is chosen to be God\'s Son at the time of his Baptism; the abolition of the Jewish sacrifices by Jesus; and an advocacy of vegetarianism.`{{refn|group=note|{{harvnb|Vielhauer|Strecker|1991|pp=166–71}}; p. 168 – "Jesus' task is to do away with the 'sacrifices'. In this saying (16.4–5), the hostility of the Ebionites against the Temple cult is documented."}}`{=mediawiki}
### Spanish Adoptionism {#spanish_adoptionism}
Iberian Adoptionism was a theological position which was articulated in Umayyad and Christian-held regions of the Iberian Peninsula in the 8th and 9th centuries. The issue seems to have begun with the claim of archbishop Elipandus of Toledo that -- in respect to his human nature -- Christ was *adoptive* Son of God. Another leading advocate of this Christology was Felix of Urgel. In the Iberian peninsula, adoptionism was opposed by Beatus of Liebana, and in the Carolingian territories, the Adoptionist position was condemned by Pope Hadrian I, Alcuin of York, Agobard, and officially in Carolingian territory by the Council of Frankfurt (794).
Despite the shared name of \"adoptionism\" the Spanish Adoptionist Christology appears to have differed sharply from the adoptionism of early Christianity. Spanish advocates predicated the term *adoptivus* of Christ only in respect to his humanity; once the divine Son \"emptied himself\" of divinity and \"took the form of a servant\" (Philippians 2:7), Christ\'s human nature was \"adopted\" as divine.
Historically, many scholars have followed the Adoptionists\' Carolingian opponents in labeling Spanish Adoptionism as a minor revival of \"Nestorian\" Christology. John C. Cavadini has challenged this notion by attempting to take the Spanish Christology in its own Spanish/North African context in his study, *The Last Christology of the West: Adoptionism in Spain and Gaul, 785--820*.
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# Adoptionism
## History
### Scholastic Neo-adoptionism {#scholastic_neo_adoptionism}
A third wave was the revived form (\"Neo-adoptionism\") of Peter Abelard in the 12th century. Later, various modified and qualified Adoptionist tenets emerged from some theologians in the 14th century. Duns Scotus (1300) and Durandus of Saint-Pourçain (1320) admit the term *filius adoptivus* in a qualified sense. In more recent times the Jesuit Gabriel Vásquez, and the Lutheran divines Georgius Calixtus and Johann Ernst Immanuel Walch, have defended adoptionism as essentially orthodox.
### Modern adoptionist groups {#modern_adoptionist_groups}
A form of adoptionism surfaced in Unitarianism during the 16th and 17th in Polish Brethren and the 18th century as denial of the virgin birth became increasingly common, led by the views of Joseph Priestley and others.
A similar form of adoptionism was expressed in the writings of James Strang, a Latter Day Saint leader who founded the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Strangite) after the death of Joseph Smith in 1844. In his Book of the Law of the Lord, a purported work of ancient scripture found and translated by Strang, he offers an essay entitled \"Note on the Sacrifice of Christ\" in which he explains his unique (for Mormonism as a whole) doctrines on the subject. Jesus Christ, said Strang, was the natural-born son of Mary and Joseph, who was chosen from before all time to be the Savior of mankind, but who had to be born as an ordinary mortal of two human parents (rather than being begotten by the Father or the Holy Spirit) to be able to truly fulfill his Messianic role. Strang claimed that the earthly Christ was in essence \"adopted\" as God\'s son at birth, and fully revealed as such during the Transfiguration. After proving himself to God by living a perfectly sinless life, he was enabled to provide an acceptable sacrifice for the sins of men, prior to his resurrection and ascension.
The Christian Community, an esoteric Christian denomination informed by the teachings of Rudolf Steiner, assumes a high adoptionist Christology that treats Jesus and God the Son as separate beings until they are joined at baptism. \"Steiner\'s Christology is discussed as a central element of his thought in Johannes Hemleben, *Rudolf Steiner: A Documentary Biography,* trans. Leo Twyman (East Grinstead, Sussex: Henry Goulden, 1975), pp. 96-100. From the perspective of orthodox Christianity, it may be said that Steiner combined a docetic understanding of Christ\'s nature with the Adoptionist heresy
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# Apollinarism
**Apollinarism** or **Apollinarianism** is a Christological position proposed by Apollinaris of Laodicea that argues that Jesus had a human body and sensitive human soul, but a divine mind and not a human rational mind, the Divine Logos taking the place of the latter. It was deemed heretical by the First Council of Constantinople in 381 and virtually died out within the following decades.
## History
The Trinity had been recognized at the First Council of Nicaea in 325, but debate about exactly what it meant continued. A rival to the more common belief that Jesus Christ had two natures was monophysitism (\"one nature\"), the doctrine that Christ had only one nature. Apollinarism and Eutychianism were two forms of monophysitism. Apollinaris\'s rejection of Christ having a human mind was considered an over-reaction to Arianism and its teaching that Christ was a lesser god.
Theodoret charged Apollinaris with confounding the persons of the Godhead and giving in to the heretical ways of Sabellius. Basil of Caesarea accused him of abandoning the literal sense of the scripture, and taking it up wholly with the allegorical sense. His views were condemned in a Synod at Alexandria, under Athanasius of Alexandria, in 362, and later subdivided into several different heresies, the main ones of which were the Polemians and the Antidicomarianites.
Apollinaris, considering the rational soul and spirit as essentially liable to sin and capable, at its best, of only precarious efforts, saw no way of saving Christ\'s impeccability and the infinite value of Redemption, except by the elimination of the human spirit from Jesus\' humanity, and the substitution of the Divine Logos in its stead. Apollinarism was declared to be a heresy in 381 by the First Council of Constantinople.
## Neo-Apollinarianism {#neo_apollinarianism}
Christian philosopher William Lane Craig has proposed a neo-Apollinarian Christology in which the divine Logos completes the human nature of Christ. Craig says his proposal is tentative and he welcomes critique and interaction from other scholars.
Craig also clarifies \"what I called a Neo-Apollinarian Christological model\" by stating that `{{blockquote|What I argue in my Neo-Apollinarian proposal is that the ''Logos'' brought to the human body just those properties which would make it a complete human nature – things like [[rationality]], [[self-consciousness]], freedom of the will, and so forth. Christ already possessed those in his divine nature, and it is in virtue of those that we are created in the [[image of God]]. So when he brought those properties to the animal body – the human body – it completes it and makes it a human nature. Against Apollinarius, I want to say that Christ did have a complete human nature. He was truly God and truly man. Therefore his death on our behalf as our representative before God was efficacious.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.reasonablefaith.org/media/reasonable-faith-podcast/does-dr.-craig-have-an-orthodox-christology/| title = Does Dr
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# Amphisbaena
The **amphisbaena** (`{{IPAc-en|ˌ|æ|m|f|ɪ|s|ˈ|b|ɛ|ɪ|n|ə}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPAc-en|ˌ|æ|m|f|ɪ|s|ˈ|b|aɪ|n|ə}}`{=mediawiki}, or `{{IPAc-en|ˌ|æ|m|f|ɪ|s|ˈ|b|iː|n|ə}}`{=mediawiki}, plural: **amphisbaenae**; *ἀμφίσβαινα*) is a mythological, ant-eating serpent with a head at each end. The name of the creature is alternatively written **amphisbaina**, **amphisbene**, **amphisboena**, **amphisbona**, **amphista**, **amfivena**, **amphivena**, or **anphivena**, and is also known as the \"Mother of Ants\".`{{citation needed lead|date=January 2014}}`{=mediawiki} Its name comes from the Greek words *`{{Transliteration|el|amphis}}`{=mediawiki}*, meaning \"both ways\", and *`{{Transliteration|el|bainein}}`{=mediawiki}*, meaning \"to go\".`{{citation needed lead|date=January 2014}}`{=mediawiki}
## Mythology
According to Lucan, the amphisbaena was spawned from the blood that dripped from the Gorgon Medusa\'s head as Perseus flew over the Libyan Desert with her head in his hand: in *Pharsalia* (IX, 719), the Roman poet names it along with other serpents that Cato\'s army encountered in Libya. Amphisbaena fed on the corpses left behind. Although it is a legendary creature, it has been referred to by various Greek and Latin authors, scientists as well as poets: Nicander, Lucan, Pliny the Elder, Isidore of Seville and later Thomas Browne, the last of whom debunked its existence ( book three chapter XV). Modern poets are John Milton, Alexander Pope, Percy Bysshe Shelley, Alfred Tennyson, Aimé Césaire, A. E. Housman and Allen Mandelbaum.
## Appearance
thumb\|upright=1.2\|A 15th-century amphisbaena (a two-headed beast) on a misericord in Buckinghamshire
These early descriptions of the amphisbaena depict a venomous, dual-headed snakelike creature. However, medieval and later drawings often show it with two or more scaled feet, particularly chicken feet, and feathered wings. Some`{{Who|date=January 2015}}`{=mediawiki} even depict it as a horned, dragon-like creature with a serpent-headed tail and small, round ears, while others have both \"necks\" of equal size so that it cannot be determined which is the rear head. Many descriptions`{{by whom|date=October 2016}}`{=mediawiki} of the amphisbaena say its eyes glow like candles or lightning, but the poet Nicander, the first to speak about it, described it as \"always dull of eye\". He also wrote: \"From either end protrudes a blunt chin; each is far from each other.\" Nicander\'s account seems to be referring to a group of real lizards what is today called the Amphisbaenia, after the legendary creature, because their tail truncates in a manner that vaguely resembles the head.
## Habitat
The amphisbaena is said to make its home in the desert.
## Folk medicine {#folk_medicine}
In ancient times, the supposedly dangerous amphisbaena had many uses in the art of folk medicine and other magical remedies. Pliny notes that expecting women wearing a live amphisbaena around their necks would have safe pregnancies (*Naturalis historia* XXX, 128); however, if one\'s goal was to cure ailments such as arthritis or the common cold, one should wear only its skin (*Naturalis historia* XXX, 85): lumberjacks suffering from cold weather on the job could nail its carcass or skin to a tree to keep warm, while in the process allowing the tree to be felled more easily.
By eating the meat of the amphisbaena, one could supposedly attract many lovers of the opposite sex, and slaying one during the full moon could give power to one who is pure of heart and mind. ^\[primary\ reference\ needed\]^
## Origins
In *The Book of Beasts*, T.H. White suggests that the creature derives from sightings of the worm lizards of the same name. But it is the other way around. These creatures are found in the Mediterranean countries where many of these legends originated.
The Códice Casanatense (c. 1540), a Portuguese book describing the areas the Portuguese had visited, includes an illustration of the flora and fauna of India. One of the animals shown is a two-headed snake (conjoined twin snakes), with one head on each end, much like an amphisbaena. The image is captioned, \"*two headed snakes of India are harmless*\". It is possible a sighting of an animal like this was the origin of the amphisbaena, or that the Greek mythological creature is used, as well as others, to literarily embellish the description of an exotic country.
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# Amphisbaena
## In literature and other media {#in_literature_and_other_media}
In Parmenides\'s poem there seems to be an allusion to the amphisbaena. Mortals are said to \"stray two-headed, for perplexity in their own breasts directs their mind astray\".
In Dante\'s *Inferno*, the amphisbaena is listed as one of the types of reptiles that torment thieves in the seventh bolgia.
In John Milton\'s *Paradise Lost*, after the Fall and the return of Satan to Hell, some of the fallen angelic host are transformed into the amphisbaena, to represent the animal by which the Fall was caused, i.e. a snake.
Amphisbaena appears in some editions of the tabletop roleplaying game *Dungeons & Dragons*.
Amphisbaena has appeared in several video games as an enemy or boss monster, including *La-Mulana* and *Bravely Second: End Layer*. A creature called Amphisbaena appears in the games *Castlevania: Symphony of the Night* and *Portrait of Ruin* but bears little resemblance to other renditions of the creature, appearing as an eyeless 4-legged reptile with the upper body of a human woman sprouting from its long tail instead of a double-headed serpent.
In the 1984 animated film *Gallavants*, an amphisbaena (called a \"Vanterviper\" in the film) appears as a minor antagonist. The two heads, a red one named Edil and a blue one called Fice, frequently disagree and argue, and sing a song about their miserable plight.
The amphisbaena is mentioned in *The Last Wish*, from *The Witcher* series by Andrzej Sapkowski, while protagonist Geralt of Rivia recalls past events. The amphisbaena was endangering the region of Kovir until the beast was slain by Geralt\'s hand.
Amphisbaena is referenced in *RWBY*, an animated web series created by Monty Oum, in the form of an evil creature called Grimm. Of the different Grimm, the amphisbaena appears to be the King Taijitu, a two-headed snake or serpent. The king\'s name references the taijitu, a symbol or diagram in Chinese philosophy representing *Taiji* in both its monist and dualist aspects. The Grimm\'s coloration visually symbolizes the taijitu, with one head and body section black and the opposite side white.
The amphisbaena appears in the *Rise of the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles* episode \"Battle Nexus: New York\". This version is one of the known champions of the Battle Nexus. Big Mama had Michelangelo and Meat Sweats compete to feed each of its heads in order to satisfy the amphisbaena. They managed to work together to pull it off.
Brandon Sanderson\'s novel *Skyward* has a character whose name is Arturo Mendez. His call sign is amphisbaena.
*Beyblade* has a character named Enrique whose bit beast (ancient spirits contained within spinning tops) is named Amphilyon. It takes the form of a medieval amphisbaena with bat wings.
The primary antagonist of *Elden Ring: Shadow of the Erdtree*, Messmer the Impaler, is conjoined with a winged amphisbaena.
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# Amphisbaena
## Use as a Proverb {#use_as_a_proverb}
The amphisbaena appears also in the saying \"to the amphisbaena, Perseus is good\" which can have various meanings depending in the connotation in which it is used. However, one main meaning lies in the connection between Perseus and the creation of the amphisbaena. Though created out of the violent murder of Medusa by Perseus, it shows that the creation will always see the creator in a positive light
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# Amyl alcohol
**Amyl alcohols** are alcohols with the formula C~5~H~11~OH. Eight are known. A mixture of amyl alcohols (also called amyl alcohol) can be obtained from fusel alcohol. Amyl alcohol is used as a solvent and in esterification, by which is produced amyl acetate and other products. The name *amyl alcohol* without further specification applies to the normal (straight-chain) form, 1-pentanol.
: {\| class=\"wikitable sortable\"
\|+**Amyl alcohol isomers** \|- ! Common name !! Structure !! Type !! IUPAC name !! Boiling point (°C) \|- \| 1-pentanol\
or normal amyl alcohol \| \| primary \| Pentan-1-ol \| 138.5 \|- \| 2-methyl-1-butanol\
or active amyl alcohol \| \| primary \| 2-Methylbutan-1-ol \| 128.7 \|- \| 3-methyl-1-butanol\
or isoamyl alcohol\
or isopentyl alcohol \| \| primary \| 3-Methylbutan-1-ol \| 131.2 \|- \| 2,2-dimethyl-1-propanol\
or neopentyl alcohol \| \| primary \| 2,2-Dimethylpropan-1-ol \| 113.1 \|- \| 2-pentanol\
or *sec*-amyl alcohol\
or methyl (n) propyl carbinol \| \| secondary \| Pentan-2-ol \| 118.8 \|- \| 3-methyl-2-butanol\
or *sec*-isoamyl alcohol\
or methyl isopropyl carbinol \| \| secondary \| 3-Methylbutan-2-ol \| 113.6 \|- \| 3-Pentanol \| \| secondary \| Pentan-3-ol \| 115.3 \|- \| 2-methyl-2-butanol\
or *tert*-amyl alcohol \| \| tertiary \| 2-Methylbutan-2-ol \| 102 \|}
Three of these alcohols, 2-methyl-1-butanol, 2-pentanol, and 3-methyl-2-butanol (methyl isopropyl carbinol), contain stereocenters, and are therefore chiral and optically active.
The most important amyl alcohol is isoamyl alcohol, the chief one generated by fermentation in the production of alcoholic beverages and a constituent of fusel oil. The other amyl alcohols may be obtained synthetically
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# Amyl nitrite
**Amyl nitrite** is a chemical compound with the formula C~5~H~11~ONO. A variety of isomers are known, but they all feature an amyl group attached to the nitrite functional group. The alkyl group (the amyl in this case) is unreactive and the chemical and biological properties are mainly due to the nitrite group. Like other alkyl nitrites, amyl nitrite is bioactive in mammals, being a vasodilator, which is the basis of its use as a prescription medicine. As an inhalant, it also has a psychoactive effect, which has led to its recreational use, with its smell being described as that of old socks or dirty feet. It was first documented in 1844 and came into medical use in 1867.
## Uses
- Amyl nitrite was historically employed medically to treat heart diseases as well as angina.
- Amyl nitrite was sometimes used as an antidote for cyanide poisoning. It was thought to act as an oxidant, to induce the formation of methemoglobin. Methemoglobin in turn can sequester cyanide as cyanomethemoglobin. However, it has been replaced by hydroxocobalamin which had better efficacy, and the use of amyl nitrite has been found to be ineffective and unscientific.
- Trace amounts are added to some perfumes.
- It is also used recreationally as an inhalant drug that induces a brief euphoric state, and when combined with other intoxicant stimulant drugs such as cocaine or MDMA, the euphoric state intensifies and is prolonged. Once some stimulative drugs wear off, a common side effect is a period of depression or anxiety, colloquially called a \"come down\"; amyl nitrite is sometimes used to combat these negative after-effects. This effect, combined with its dissociative effects, has led to its use as a recreational drug `{{xref|(see: [[Poppers]])}}`{=mediawiki}.
## Nomenclature
The term \"amyl nitrite\" encompasses several isomers. In older literature, the common non-systematic name **amyl** was often used for the pentyl group, where the amyl group is a linear or normal (n) alkyl group, and the resulting amyl nitrite would have the structural formula CH~3~(CH~2~)~3~CH~2~ONO, also referred to as n-amyl nitrite.
A common form of amyl nitrite is the isomer with the formula (CH~3~)~2~CHCH~2~CH~2~ONO, which may be more specifically referred to as isoamyl nitrite.
The similarly named amyl nitrate has very different properties. At the same time, isopropyl nitrite has a similar structure and similar uses (also called \'poppers\') but with worse side-effects.
Amyl nitrite is sometimes referred to colloquially as *banapple gas*.
## Synthesis and reactions {#synthesis_and_reactions}
Alkyl nitrites are prepared by the reaction of alcohols with nitrous acid:
: ROH + HONO → RONO + H~2~O, where R = alkyl group
The reaction is called esterification. Synthesis of alkyl nitrites is, in general, straightforward and can be accomplished in home laboratories. A common procedure includes the dropwise addition of concentrated sulfuric acid to a cooled mixture of an aqueous sodium nitrite solution and an alcohol. The intermediately-formed stoichiometric mixture of nitrogen dioxide and nitric oxide then converts the alcohol to the alkyl nitrite, which, due to its low density, will form an upper layer that can be easily decanted from the reaction mixture.
Isoamyl nitrite decomposes in the presence of base to give nitrite salts and the isoamyl alcohol:
: C~5~H~11~ONO + NaOH → C~5~H~11~OH + NaNO~2~
Amyl nitrite, like other alkyl nitrites, reacts with carbanions to give oximes.
Amyl nitrites are also useful as reagents in a modification of the Sandmeyer reaction. The reaction of the alkyl nitrite with an aromatic amine in a halogenated solvent produces a radical aromatic species, this then frees a halogen atom from the solvent. For the synthesis of aryl iodides diiodomethane is used, whereas bromoform is the solvent of choice for the synthesis of aryl bromides.
## Physiological effects {#physiological_effects}
Amyl nitrite, in common with other alkyl nitrites, is a potent vasodilator; it expands blood vessels, resulting in lowering of the blood pressure. Amyl nitrite may be used during cardiovascular stress testing in patients with suspected hypertrophic cardiomyopathy to cause vasodilation and thereby reduce afterload and provoke obstruction of blood flow towards the aorta from the ventricle by increasing the pressure gradient, thereby causing left ventricular outflow obstruction. Alkyl nitrites are a source of nitric oxide, which signals for relaxation of the involuntary muscles. Physical effects include decrease in blood pressure, headache, flushing of the face, increased heart rate, dizziness, and relaxation of involuntary muscles, especially the blood vessel walls and the internal and external anal sphincter. There are no withdrawal symptoms. Overdose symptoms include nausea, vomiting, hypotension, hypoventilation, shortness of breath, and fainting. The effects set in very quickly, typically within a few seconds and disappear within a few minutes. Amyl nitrite may also intensify the experience of synesthesia. Amyl nitrite, when given as a medication for patients with angina, can also be administered as an ampule. The ampule is put in a gauze pad and then inhaled by the patient during an angina attack and repeated every fifteen minutes. However, oral dosing of amyl nitrite is ineffective due to poor absorption and extensive hepatic metabolism. Amyl nitrite has been widely replaced by nitroglycerin for the treatment of acute angina.
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# Amyl nitrite
## Toxicity
Although there are case reports of life-threatening toxicity involving unusually large amounts, typical inhaled doses of amyl nitrite are considered relatively safe. However, liquid amyl nitrite is highly toxic when ingested because of the dangerously high concentration it causes in the blood. Regardless of the form or route of administration, acute toxicity principally results when the nitrite oxidizes a significant proportion of hemoglobin in the blood without oxygen, forming methemoglobin, which cannot carry oxygen. Severe poisoning cases will progress to methemoglobinemia, characterized by a blue-brown discoloration under the skin which could be mistaken for cyanosis. Treatment with oxygen and intravenous methylene blue frustrates visual confirmation further as methylene blue itself is, as its name suggests, a blue dye; the patient\'s changes in different shades of blue notwithstanding, it is an effective antidote by way of catalyzing the production of the enzyme responsible for reducing the methemoglobin in the blood back to hemoglobin.
The discoloration does mean that regular near-infrared--based pulse oximetry becomes useless. More fundamentally, blood gas analysis on the whole has limited effectiveness, as the increased methemoglobin level increases the oxygen binding affinity of regular hemoglobin. Therefore, the measurement of actual ratios and levels of methemoglobin and hemoglobin must accompany any blood gas partial pressure sample in these cases.
## In popular culture {#in_popular_culture}
The *Columbo* episode titled \"Troubled Waters\" (1974--1975) features amyl nitrite inhaled by the antagonist Hayden Danziger -- played by Robert Vaughn -- to help him feign a heart attack for his alibi. However, the episode consistently refers to the substance incorrectly as amyl nitrate.
The 1978 Derek Jarman film *Jubilee* features a character credited as \"Amyl Nitrite\", although in the film itself the character is \"Amyl Nitrate\".
The title of the 1993 song \"Animal Nitrate\" by English band Suede is a pun on amyl nitrite, referencing its recreational use, although singer Brett Anderson has said the song has more to do with other drugs like ecstasy and cocaine.
In the 1999 film *Fight Club*, the character Chloe, a terminally ill woman, mentions having a collection of amyl nitrite while openly discussing her unfulfilled desires at a cancer support group.
The punk band Amyl and the Sniffers reference recreational use of amyl nitrite in their name.
The Hunter S. Thompson book *Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas* sees amyl nitrite as one of the many drugs Raoul Duke packs for the trip to Las Vegas, taking about two dozen ampules of it with him and usually justifying its usage by him and Dr. Gonzo to other people around them by claiming it is for angina.
In Season 1, Episode 9 of *Bob\'s Burgers*, \"Spaghetti Western and Meatballs\", Gene guesses amyl nitrite for the A in the ABS program near the end of the episode
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# Alpha helix
An **alpha helix** (or **α-helix**) is a sequence of amino acids in a protein that are twisted into a coil (a helix).
The alpha helix is the most common structural arrangement in the secondary structure of proteins. It is also the most extreme type of local structure, and it is the local structure that is most easily predicted from a sequence of amino acids.
The alpha helix has a right-handed helix conformation in which every backbone N−H group hydrogen bonds to the backbone C=O group of the amino acid that is four residues earlier in the protein sequence.
## Other names {#other_names}
The alpha helix is also commonly called a:
- **Pauling--Corey--Branson α-helix** (from the names of three scientists who described its structure)
- **3.6~13~-helix** because there are 3.6 amino acids in one ring, with 13 atoms being involved in the ring formed by the hydrogen bond (starting with amidic hydrogen and ending with carbonyl oxygen)
## Discovery
In the early 1930s, William Astbury showed that there were drastic changes in the X-ray fiber diffraction of moist wool or hair fibers upon significant stretching. The data suggested that the unstretched fibers had a coiled molecular structure with a characteristic repeat of ≈5.1 Å.
Astbury initially proposed a linked-chain structure for the fibers. He later joined other researchers (notably the American chemist Maurice Huggins) in proposing that:
- the unstretched protein molecules formed a helix (which he called the α-form)
- the stretching caused the helix to uncoil, forming an extended state (which he called the β-form).
Although incorrect in their details, Astbury\'s models of these forms were correct in essence and correspond to modern elements of secondary structure, the α-helix and the β-strand (Astbury\'s nomenclature was kept), which were developed by Linus Pauling, Robert Corey and Herman Branson in 1951 (see below); that paper showed both right- and left-handed helices, although in 1960 the crystal structure of myoglobin showed that the right-handed form is the common one. Hans Neurath was the first to show that Astbury\'s models could not be correct in detail, because they involved clashes of atoms. Neurath\'s paper and Astbury\'s data inspired H. S. Taylor, Maurice Huggins and Bragg and collaborators to propose models of keratin that somewhat resemble the modern α-helix.
Two key developments in the modeling of the modern α-helix were: the correct bond geometry, thanks to the crystal structure determinations of amino acids and peptides and Pauling\'s prediction of *planar* peptide bonds; and his relinquishing of the assumption of an integral number of residues per turn of the helix. The pivotal moment came in the early spring of 1948, when Pauling caught a cold and went to bed. Being bored, he drew a polypeptide chain of roughly correct dimensions on a strip of paper and folded it into a helix, being careful to maintain the planar peptide bonds. After a few attempts, he produced a model with physically plausible hydrogen bonds. Pauling then worked with Corey and Branson to confirm his model before publication. In 1954, Pauling was awarded his first Nobel Prize \"for his research into the nature of the chemical bond and its application to the elucidation of the structure of complex substances\" (such as proteins), prominently including the structure of the α-helix.
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# Alpha helix
## Structure
### Geometry and hydrogen bonding {#geometry_and_hydrogen_bonding}
The amino acids in an α-helix are arranged in a right-handed helical structure where each amino acid residue corresponds to a 100° turn in the helix (i.e., the helix has 3.6 residues per turn), and a translation of 1.5 Å along the helical axis. Dunitz describes how Pauling\'s first article on the theme in fact shows a left-handed helix, the enantiomer of the true structure. Short pieces of left-handed helix sometimes occur with a large content of achiral glycine amino acids, but are unfavorable for the other normal, biological `{{small|L}}`{=mediawiki}-amino acids. The pitch of the alpha-helix (the vertical distance between consecutive turns of the helix) is 5.4 Å, which is the product of 1.5 and 3.6. The most important thing is that the N-H group of one amino acid forms a hydrogen bond with the C=O group of the amino acid *four* residues earlier; this repeated *i* + 4 → *i* hydrogen bonding is the most prominent characteristic of an α-helix. Official international nomenclature specifies two ways of defining α-helices, rule 6.2 in terms of repeating *φ*, *ψ* torsion angles (see below) and rule 6.3 in terms of the combined pattern of pitch and hydrogen bonding. The α-helices can be identified in protein structure using several computational methods, such as DSSP (Define Secondary Structure of Protein).
Similar structures include the 3~10~ helix (*i* + 3 → *i* hydrogen bonding) and the π-helix (*i* + 5 → *i* hydrogen bonding). The α-helix can be described as a 3.6~13~ helix, since the *i* + 4 spacing adds three more atoms to the H-bonded loop compared to the tighter 3~10~ helix, and on average, 3.6 amino acids are involved in one ring of α-helix. The subscripts refer to the number of atoms (including the hydrogen) in the closed loop formed by the hydrogen bond.
Residues in α-helices typically adopt backbone (*φ*, *ψ*) dihedral angles around (−60°, −45°), as shown in the image at right. In more general terms, they adopt dihedral angles such that the *ψ* dihedral angle of one residue and the *φ* dihedral angle of the *next* residue sum to roughly −105°. As a consequence, α-helical dihedral angles, in general, fall on a diagonal stripe on the Ramachandran diagram (of slope −1), ranging from (−90°, −15°) to (−70°, −35°). For comparison, the sum of the dihedral angles for a 3~10~ helix is roughly −75°, whereas that for the π-helix is roughly −130°. The general formula for the rotation angle *Ω* per residue of any polypeptide helix with *trans* isomers is given by the equation
: 1 − 4 cos^2^ `{{sfrac|''φ'' + ''ψ''|2}}`{=mediawiki}}}
The α-helix is tightly packed; there is almost no free space within the helix. The amino-acid side-chains are on the outside of the helix, and point roughly \"downward\" (i.e., toward the N-terminus), like the branches of an evergreen tree (Christmas tree effect). This directionality is sometimes used in preliminary, low-resolution electron-density maps to determine the direction of the protein backbone.
### Stability
Helices observed in proteins can range from four to over forty residues long, but a typical helix contains about ten amino acids (about three turns). In general, short polypeptides do not exhibit much α-helical structure in solution, since the entropic cost associated with the folding of the polypeptide chain is not compensated for by a sufficient amount of stabilizing interactions. In general, the backbone hydrogen bonds of α-helices are considered slightly weaker than those found in β-sheets, and are readily attacked by the ambient water molecules. However, in more hydrophobic environments such as the plasma membrane, or in the presence of co-solvents such as trifluoroethanol (TFE), or isolated from solvent in the gas phase, oligopeptides readily adopt stable α-helical structure. Furthermore, crosslinks can be incorporated into peptides to conformationally stabilize helical folds. Crosslinks stabilize the helical state by entropically destabilizing the unfolded state and by removing enthalpically stabilized \"decoy\" folds that compete with the fully helical state. It has been shown that α-helices are more stable, robust to mutations and designable than β-strands in natural proteins, and also in artificially designed proteins.
### Visualization
The three most popular ways of visualizing the alpha-helical secondary structure of oligopeptide sequences are (1) a helical wheel, (2) a wenxiang diagram, and (3) a helical net. Each of these can be visualized with various software packages and web servers. To generate a small number of diagrams, Heliquest can be used for helical wheels, and NetWheels can be used for helical wheels and helical nets. To programmatically generate a large number of diagrams, helixvis can be used to draw helical wheels and wenxiang diagrams in the R and Python programming languages.
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# Alpha helix
## Experimental determination {#experimental_determination}
Since the α-helix is defined by its hydrogen bonds and backbone conformation, the most detailed experimental evidence for α-helical structure comes from atomic-resolution X-ray crystallography such as the example shown at right. It is clear that all the backbone carbonyl oxygens point downward (toward the C-terminus) but splay out slightly, and the H-bonds are approximately parallel to the helix axis. Protein structures from NMR spectroscopy also show helices well, with characteristic observations of nuclear Overhauser effect (NOE) couplings between atoms on adjacent helical turns. In some cases, the individual hydrogen bonds can be observed directly as a small scalar coupling in NMR.
There are several lower-resolution methods for assigning general helical structure. The NMR chemical shifts (in particular of the C^α^, C^β^ and C′) and residual dipolar couplings are often characteristic of helices. The far-UV (170--250 nm) circular dichroism spectrum of helices is also idiosyncratic, exhibiting a pronounced double minimum at around 208 and 222 nm. Infrared spectroscopy is rarely used, since the α-helical spectrum resembles that of a random coil (although these might be discerned by, e.g., hydrogen-deuterium exchange). Finally, cryo electron microscopy is now capable of discerning individual α-helices within a protein, although their assignment to residues is still an active area of research.
Long homopolymers of amino acids often form helices if soluble. Such long, isolated helices can also be detected by other methods, such as dielectric relaxation, flow birefringence, and measurements of the diffusion constant. In stricter terms, these methods detect only the characteristic prolate (long cigar-like) hydrodynamic shape of a helix, or its large dipole moment.
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# Alpha helix
## Amino-acid propensities {#amino_acid_propensities}
Different amino-acid sequences have different propensities for forming α-helical structure. Alanine, uncharged glutamate, leucine, charged arginine, methionine and charged lysine have especially high helix-forming propensities, whereas proline and glycine have poor helix-forming propensities. Proline either breaks or kinks a helix, both because it cannot donate an amide hydrogen bond (because it has none) and because its sidechain interferes sterically with the backbone of the preceding turn`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki} inside a helix, which forces a bend of about 30° in the helix\'s axis. However, proline is often the *first* residue of a helix, presumably due to its structural rigidity. At the other extreme, glycine also tends to disrupt helices because its high conformational flexibility makes it entropically expensive to adopt the relatively constrained α-helical structure.
### Table of standard amino acid alpha-helical propensities {#table_of_standard_amino_acid_alpha_helical_propensities}
Estimated differences in free energy change, Δ(Δ*G*), estimated in kcal/mol per residue in an α-helical configuration, relative to alanine arbitrarily set as zero. Higher numbers (more positive free energy changes) are less favoured. Significant deviations from these average numbers are possible, depending on the identities of the neighbouring residues.
: {\| class=\"wikitable sortable\"
\|+Differences in free energy change per residue !rowspan=2\| Amino acid !rowspan=2 class=\"unsortable\"\| 3-\
letter !rowspan=2 class=\"unsortable\"\| 1-\
letter !colspan=2\| Helical penalty \|- !kcal/mol !kJ/mol \|- \| Alanine \| Ala \| A \| 0.00 kcal/mol \|- \| Arginine \| Arg \| R \| 0.21 kcal/mol \|- \| Asparagine \| Asn \| N \| 0.65 kcal/mol \|- \| Aspartic acid \| Asp \| D \| 0.69 kcal/mol \|- \| Cysteine \| Cys \| C \| 0.68 kcal/mol \|- \| Glutamic acid \| Glu \| E \| 0.40 kcal/mol \|- \| Glutamine \| Gln \| Q \| 0.39 kcal/mol \|- \| Glycine \| Gly \| G \| 1.00 kcal/mol \|- \| Histidine \| His \| H \| 0.61 kcal/mol \|- \| Isoleucine \| Ile \| I \| 0.41 kcal/mol \|- \| Leucine \| Leu \| L \| 0.21 kcal/mol \|- \| Lysine \| Lys \| K \| 0.26 kcal/mol \|- \| Methionine \| Met \| M \| 0.24 kcal/mol \|- \| Phenylalanine \| Phe \| F \| 0.54 kcal/mol \|- \| Proline \| Pro \| P \| 3.16 kcal/mol \|- \| Serine \| Ser \| S \| 0.50 kcal/mol \|- \| Threonine \| Thr \| T \| 0.66 kcal/mol \|- \| Tryptophan \| Trp \| W \| 0.49 kcal/mol \|- \| Tyrosine \| Tyr \| Y \| 0.53 kcal/mol \|- \| Valine \| Val \| V \| 0.61 kcal/mol \|}
## Dipole moment {#dipole_moment}
A helix has an overall dipole moment due to the aggregate effect of the individual microdipoles from the carbonyl groups of the peptide bond pointing along the helix axis. The effects of this macrodipole are a matter of some controversy. α-helices often occur with the N-terminal end bound by a negatively charged group, sometimes an amino acid side chain such as glutamate or aspartate, or sometimes a phosphate ion. Some regard the helix macrodipole as interacting electrostatically with such groups. Others feel that this is misleading and it is more realistic to say that the hydrogen bond potential of the free NH groups at the N-terminus of an α-helix can be satisfied by hydrogen bonding; this can also be regarded as set of interactions between local microdipoles such as `{{nowrap|1=C=O···H−N}}`{=mediawiki}.
## Coiled coils {#coiled_coils}
Coiled-coil α helices are highly stable forms in which two or more helices wrap around each other in a \"supercoil\" structure. Coiled coils contain a highly characteristic sequence motif known as a **heptad repeat**, in which the motif repeats itself every seven residues along the sequence (*amino acid* residues, not DNA base-pairs). The first and especially the fourth residues (known as the *a* and *d* positions) are almost always hydrophobic; the fourth residue is typically leucine`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki} this gives rise to the name of the structural motif called a *leucine zipper*, which is a type of coiled-coil. These hydrophobic residues pack together in the interior of the helix bundle. In general, the fifth and seventh residues (the *e* and *g* positions) have opposing charges and form a salt bridge stabilized by electrostatic interactions. Fibrous proteins such as keratin or the \"stalks\" of myosin or kinesin often adopt coiled-coil structures, as do several dimerizing proteins. A pair of coiled-coils`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki} a four-helix bundle`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki} is a very common structural motif in proteins. For example, it occurs in human growth hormone and several varieties of cytochrome. The Rop protein, which promotes plasmid replication in bacteria, is an interesting case in which a single polypeptide forms a coiled-coil and two monomers assemble to form a four-helix bundle.
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# Alpha helix
## Facial arrangements {#facial_arrangements}
The amino acids that make up a particular helix can be plotted on a helical wheel, a representation that illustrates the orientations of the constituent amino acids (see the article for leucine zipper for such a diagram). Often in globular proteins, as well as in specialized structures such as coiled-coils and leucine zippers, an α-helix will exhibit two \"faces\"`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki} one containing predominantly hydrophobic amino acids oriented toward the interior of the protein, in the hydrophobic core, and one containing predominantly polar amino acids oriented toward the solvent-exposed surface of the protein.
Changes in binding orientation also occur for facially-organized oligopeptides. This pattern is especially common in antimicrobial peptides, and many models have been devised to describe how this relates to their function. Common to many of them is that the hydrophobic face of the antimicrobial peptide forms pores in the plasma membrane after associating with the fatty chains at the membrane core.
## Larger-scale assemblies {#larger_scale_assemblies}
Myoglobin and hemoglobin, the first two proteins whose structures were solved by X-ray crystallography, have very similar folds made up of about 70% α-helix, with the rest being non-repetitive regions, or \"loops\" that connect the helices. In classifying proteins by their dominant fold, the Structural Classification of Proteins database maintains a large category specifically for all-α proteins.
Hemoglobin then has an even larger-scale quaternary structure, in which the functional oxygen-binding molecule is made up of four subunits.
## Functional roles {#functional_roles}
### DNA binding {#dna_binding}
α-Helices have particular significance in DNA binding motifs, including helix-turn-helix motifs, leucine zipper motifs and zinc finger motifs. This is because of the convenient structural fact that the diameter of an α-helix is about 12 Å including an average set of sidechains, about the same as the width of the major groove in B-form DNA, and also because coiled-coil (or leucine zipper) dimers of helices can readily position a pair of interaction surfaces to contact the sort of symmetrical repeat common in double-helical DNA. An example of both aspects is the transcription factor Max (see image at left), which uses a helical coiled coil to dimerize, positioning another pair of helices for interaction in two successive turns of the DNA major groove.
### Membrane spanning {#membrane_spanning}
α-Helices are also the most common protein structure element that crosses biological membranes (transmembrane protein), presumably because the helical structure can satisfy all backbone hydrogen-bonds internally, leaving no polar groups exposed to the membrane if the sidechains are hydrophobic. Proteins are sometimes anchored by a single membrane-spanning helix, sometimes by a pair, and sometimes by a helix bundle, most classically consisting of seven helices arranged up-and-down in a ring such as for rhodopsins (see image at right) and other G protein--coupled receptors (GPCRs). The structural stability between pairs of α-Helical transmembrane domains rely on conserved membrane interhelical packing motifs, for example, the Glycine-xxx-Glycine (or small-xxx-small) motif.
### Mechanical properties {#mechanical_properties}
α-Helices under axial tensile deformation, a characteristic loading condition that appears in many alpha-helix-rich filaments and tissues, results in a characteristic three-phase behavior of stiff-soft-stiff tangent modulus. Phase I corresponds to the small-deformation regime during which the helix is stretched homogeneously, followed by phase II, in which alpha-helical turns break mediated by the rupture of groups of H-bonds. Phase III is typically associated with large-deformation covalent bond stretching.
## Dynamical features {#dynamical_features}
Alpha-helices in proteins may have low-frequency accordion-like motion as observed by the Raman spectroscopy and analyzed via the quasi-continuum model. Helices not stabilized by tertiary interactions show dynamic behavior, which can be mainly attributed to helix fraying from the ends.
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# Alpha helix
## Helix--coil transition {#helixcoil_transition}
Homopolymers of amino acids (such as polylysine) can adopt α-helical structure at low temperature that is \"melted out\" at high temperatures. This **helix--coil transition** was once thought to be analogous to protein denaturation. The statistical mechanics of this transition can be modeled using an elegant transfer matrix method, characterized by two parameters: the propensity to initiate a helix and the propensity to extend a helix.
## In art {#in_art}
At least five artists have made explicit reference to the α-helix in their work: Julie Newdoll in painting and Julian Voss-Andreae, Bathsheba Grossman, Byron Rubin, and Mike Tyka in sculpture.
San Francisco area artist Julie Newdoll, who holds a degree in microbiology with a minor in art, has specialized in paintings inspired by microscopic images and molecules since 1990. Her painting \"Rise of the Alpha Helix\" (2003) features human figures arranged in an α helical arrangement. According to the artist, \"the flowers reflect the various types of sidechains that each amino acid holds out to the world\". This same metaphor is also echoed from the scientist\'s side: \"β sheets do not show a stiff repetitious regularity but flow in graceful, twisting curves, and even the α-helix is regular more in the manner of a flower stem, whose branching nodes show the influence of environment, developmental history, and the evolution of each part to match its own idiosyncratic function.\"
Julian Voss-Andreae is a German-born sculptor with degrees in experimental physics and sculpture. Since 2001 Voss-Andreae creates \"protein sculptures\" based on protein structure with the α-helix being one of his preferred objects. Voss-Andreae has made α-helix sculptures from diverse materials including bamboo and whole trees. A monument Voss-Andreae created in 2004 to celebrate the memory of Linus Pauling, the discoverer of the α-helix, is fashioned from a large steel beam rearranged in the structure of the α-helix. The 10 ft, bright-red sculpture stands in front of Pauling\'s childhood home in Portland, Oregon.
Ribbon diagrams of α-helices are a prominent element in the laser-etched crystal sculptures of protein structures created by artist Bathsheba Grossman, such as those of insulin, hemoglobin, and DNA polymerase. Byron Rubin is a former protein crystallographer now professional sculptor in metal of proteins, nucleic acids, and drug molecules`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki} many of which featuring α-helices, such as subtilisin, human growth hormone, and phospholipase A2.
Mike Tyka is a computational biochemist at the University of Washington working with David Baker. Tyka has been making sculptures of protein molecules since 2010 from copper and steel, including ubiquitin and a potassium channel tetramer
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# Armageddon
`{{Christian Eschatology}}`{=mediawiki}
**Armageddon** (`{{IPAc-en|ˌ|ɑːr|m|ə|ˈ|g|ɛ|d|ən|audio=LL-Q1860 (eng)-Naomi Persephone Amethyst (NaomiAmethyst)-armageddon.wav}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell|AR|mə|GHED|ən}}`{=mediawiki}; *Ἁρμαγεδών}}*; *Armagedōn*; from *Har Məgīddō*) is the prophesied gathering of armies for a battle during the end times, according to the Book of Revelation in the New Testament of the Christian Bible. Armageddon is variously interpreted as either a literal or a symbolic location, although the term has since become more often used in a generic sense to refer to any end-of-the-world scenario. In Islamic theology, Armageddon is also mentioned in Hadith as the Greatest Armageddon or Al-Malhama Al-Kubra (the great battle).
The \"mount\" of Megiddo in northern Israel is not actually a mountain, but a tell (a mound or hill created by many generations of people living and rebuilding at the same spot) on which ancient forts were built to guard the Via Maris, an ancient trade route linking Egypt with the northern empires of Syria, Anatolia and Mesopotamia. Megiddo was the location of various ancient battles, including one in the 15th century BC and one in 609 BC. The nearby modern Megiddo is a kibbutz in the Kishon River area.
## Etymology
The word *Armageddon* appears only once in the Greek New Testament, in Revelation 16:16. The word is a Greek transliteration of the Hebrew *har məgīddō* (*rtl=yes*). *Har* means \"a mountain\" or \"a range of hills\". This is a shortened form of *harar* meaning \"to loom up; a mountain\". *Məgīddō* refers to a fortification made by King Ahab that dominated the Plain of Jezreel. Its name means \"place of crowds\".
Adam Clarke wrote in his Bible commentary (1817) on Revelation 16:16:
> *Armageddon* -- The original of this word has been variously formed, and variously translated. It is *הר־מגדון* *har-megiddon*, \"the mount of the assembly;\" or *חרמה גדהון* *chormah gedehon*, \"the destruction of their army;\" or it is *הר־מגדו* *har-megiddo*, \"Mount Megiddo.\"
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# Armageddon
## Christianity
Megiddo is mentioned twelve times in the Old Testament, ten times in reference to the ancient city of Megiddo, and twice with reference to \"the plain of Megiddo\", most probably simply meaning \"the plain next to the city\". None of these Old Testament passages describes the city of Megiddo as being associated with any particular prophetic beliefs. The one New Testament reference to the city of Armageddon found in `{{bibleverse|Revelation|16:16}}`{=mediawiki} makes no specific mention of any armies being predicted to one day gather in this city, either, but instead seems to predict only that \"they (will gather) the kings together to \... Armageddon\". The text does however seem to imply, based on the text from the earlier passage of Revelation 16:14, that the purpose of this gathering of kings in the \"place called Armageddon\" is \"for the war of the great day of God, the Almighty\". Because of the seemingly highly symbolic and even cryptic language of this one New Testament passage, some Christian scholars conclude that Mount Armageddon must be an idealized location. R. J. Rushdoony says, \"There are no mountains of Megiddo, only the Plains of Megiddo. This is a deliberate destruction of the vision of any literal reference to the place.\" Other scholars, including C. C. Torrey, Kline and Jordan, argue that the word is derived from the Hebrew *moed* (*rtl=yes*), meaning \"assembly\". Thus, \"Armageddon\" would mean \"Mountain of Assembly\", which Jordan says is \"a reference to the assembly at Mount Sinai, and to its replacement, Mount Zion\".
Most traditions interpret this Bible prophecy to be symbolic of the progression of the world toward the \"great day of God, the Almighty\" in which God pours out his just and holy wrath against unrepentant sinners led by Satan, in a literal end-of-the-world final confrontation. \'Armageddon\' is the symbolic name given to this event based on scripture references regarding divine obliteration of God\'s enemies. The hermeneutical method supports this position by referencing Judges 4 and 5 where God miraculously destroys the enemy of their elect, Israel, at Megiddo.
Christian scholar William Hendriksen writes: `{{blockquote|For this cause, Har Magedon is the symbol of every battle in which, when the need is greatest and believers are oppressed, the Lord suddenly reveals His power in the interest of His distressed people and defeats the enemy. When Sennacherib's 185,000 are slain by the Angel of Jehovah, that is a shadow of the final Har-Magedon. When God grants a little handful of Maccabees a glorious victory over an enemy which far outnumbers it, that is a type of Har-Magedon. But the real, the great, the final Har Magedon coincides with the time of Satan’s little season. Then the world, under the leadership of Satan, anti-Christian government, and anti-Christian religion – the dragon, the beast, and the false prophet – is gathered against the Church for the final battle, and the need is greatest; when God's children, oppressed on every side, cry for help; then suddenly, Christ will appear on the clouds of glory to deliver his people; that is Har-Magedon.<ref>[[William Hendriksen]], ''More Than Conquerors'', 163.</ref>}}`{=mediawiki}
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# Armageddon
## Christianity
### Dispensationalism
In his discussion of Armageddon, J. Dwight Pentecost has devoted a chapter to the subject, \"The Campaign of Armageddon\", in which he discusses it as a campaign and not a specific battle, which will be fought in the Middle East. Pentecost writes: `{{blockquote|It has been held commonly that the battle of Armageddon is an isolated event transpiring just prior to the second advent of Christ to the earth. The extent of this great movement in which God deals with "the kings of the earth and of the whole world"<ref>Rev. 16:14</ref> will not be seen unless it is realized that the "battle of that great day of God Almighty"<ref>{{bibleverse||Revelation|16:14|NKJV}}</ref> is not an isolated battle, but rather a campaign that extends over the last half of the tribulation period. The Greek word "polemo", translated "battle" in Revelation 16:14, signifies a war or campaign, while "machē" signifies a battle, and sometimes even single combat. This distinction is observed by Trench (see [[Richard Chenevix Trench|Richard C. Trench]], ''New Testament Synonyms'', pp. 301–32) and is followed by Thayer (see [[Joseph Henry Thayer]], ''Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament'', p. 528) and Vincent (see Marvin R. Vincent, ''Word Studies in the New Testament'', II, 541). The use of the word ''polemos'' (campaign) in Revelation 16:14 signifies that God views the events culminating in the gathering at Armageddon at the second advent as one connected campaign.|Pentecost, p. 340}}`{=mediawiki}
Pentecost then discusses the location of this campaign, and mentions the \"hill of Megiddo\" and other geographic locations such as \"the valley of Jehoshaphat\" and \"the valley of the passengers\", \"Lord coming from Edom or Idumea, south of Jerusalem, when he returns from the judgment\"; and Jerusalem itself.
Pentecost further describes the area involved: `{{blockquote|This wide area would cover the entire land of Israel and this campaign, with all its parts, would confirm what Ezekiel pictures when he says the invaders will 'cover the land'.<ref>{{bibleverse||Ezekiel|38:9–16|NKJV}}</ref> This area would conform to the extent pictured by [[John of Patmos|John]] in Revelation 14:20.<ref>{{bibleverse||Revelation|14:20|NKJV}}</ref>}}`{=mediawiki}
Pentecost then outlines the biblical time period for this campaign to occur and with further arguments concludes that it must take place with the 70th week of Daniel. The invasion of Israel by the Northern Confederacy \"will bring the Beast and his armies to the defense of Israel as her protector\". He then uses Daniel to further clarify his thinking.
Again, events are listed by Pentecost in his book:
1. \"The movement of the campaign begins when the King of the South moves against the Beast--False Prophet coalition, which takes place \'at the time of the end\'.\"
2. The King of the South gets in battle with the North King and the Northern Confederacy. Jerusalem is destroyed as a result of this attack, and, in turn, the armies of the Northern Confederacy are destroyed.
3. \"The full armies of the Beast move into Israel and shall conquer all that territory. Edom, Moab, and Ammon alone escape.\"
4. \"\... a report that causes alarm is brought to the Beast\"
5. \"The Beast moves his headquarters into the land of Israel and assembles his armies there.\"
6. \"It is there that his destruction will come.\"
After the destruction of the Beast at the Second Coming of Jesus, the promised Kingdom is set up, in which Jesus and the saints will rule for a thousand years. Satan is then loosed \"for a season\" and goes out to deceive the nations, specifically Gog and Magog. The army mentioned attacks the saints in the New Jerusalem, they are defeated by a judgment of fire coming down from heaven, and then comes the Great White Throne judgment, which includes all of those through the ages and these are cast into the Lake of Fire, which event is also known as the \"second death\" and Gehenna, not to be confused with Hell, which is Satan\'s domain. Pentecost describes this as follows:
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# Armageddon
## Christianity
### Jehovah\'s Witnesses {#jehovahs_witnesses}
Jehovah\'s Witnesses believe that Armageddon is the means by which God will fulfill his purpose for the Earth to be populated with happy healthy humans who will be free from sin and death. They teach that the armies of heaven will eradicate all who oppose the Kingdom of God, wiping out all wicked humans on Earth, only leaving righteous mankind.
They believe that the gathering of all of the nations of the earth refers to the uniting of the world\'s political powers, as a gradual process which began in 1914 and was later seen in manifestations such as the League of Nations and the United Nations following the First and Second World Wars.`{{full citation needed|reason=author? publisher? year?|date=June 2022}}`{=mediawiki} These political powers are said to be influenced by Satan and they are disgusting in that they stand in the place of God\'s kingdom before men as the only hope of mankind. Babylon the Great is interpreted as being the world empire of false religions, and it will be destroyed by the beast just prior to Armageddon.`{{full citation needed|reason=what is this, a book? who wrote it and when?|date=June 2022}}`{=mediawiki} Witnesses believe that after all other religions have been destroyed, the governments of the world will turn their attention to destroying Jehovah\'s Witnesses, provoking God to intervene and precipitating Armageddon.
Jehovah\'s Witnesses teach that the armies of heaven, led by Jesus, will then destroy all forms of human government and then Jesus, along with a selected 144,000 humans, will rule Earth for 1,000 years. They believe that Satan and his demons will be bound for that period, unable to influence mankind. After the 1,000 years are ended, and the second resurrection has taken place, Satan is released and allowed to tempt the perfect human race one last time. Those who follow Satan will be destroyed, along with him, leaving the earth, and humankind at peace with God forever, free from sin and death.
The religion\'s current teaching on Armageddon originated in 1925 with former Watch Tower Society president J. F. Rutherford, who based his interpretations on passages that are found in the books of Exodus, Jeremiah, Ezekiel and Psalms as well as additional passages that are found in the books of Samuel, Kings and Chronicles. The doctrine marked a further break from the teachings of the Watch Tower Society\'s founder Charles Taze Russell, who for decades had taught that the final war would be an anarchistic struggle for domination on earth. Tony Wills, the author of a historical study of Jehovah\'s Witnesses, wrote that Rutherford seemed to relish his descriptions of how completely the wicked would be destroyed at Armageddon, dwelling at great length on prophecies of destruction. He stated that towards the close of his ministry, Rutherford allocated about half the space that was available in *The Watchtower* magazines to discussions about Armageddon.
### Seventh-day Adventist {#seventh_day_adventist}
The teachings of the Seventh-day Adventist Church state that the terms \"Armageddon\", \"Day of the Lord\" and \"The Second Coming of Christ\" all describe the same event.`{{verify source|reason=A conference by itself is not a [[WP:V|verifiable]] source. Are we actually citing conference proceedings here, or something else?|date=June 2022}}`{=mediawiki} Seventh-day Adventists further teach that the current religious movements taking place in the world are setting the stage for Armageddon, and they are concerned by an anticipated unity between spiritualism, American Protestantism and Roman Catholicism. A further teaching in Seventh-day Adventist theology is that the events of Armageddon will leave the earth desolate for the duration of the millennium.`{{full citation needed|date=June 2022}}`{=mediawiki} They teach that the righteous will be taken to heaven while the rest of humanity will be destroyed, leaving Satan with no one to tempt and effectively \"bound\". The final re-creation of a \"new heaven and a new earth\"; then follows the millennium.
### Christadelphians
For Christadelphians, Armageddon marks the \"great climax of history when the nations would be gathered together \'into a place called in the Hebrew tongue Armageddon\', and the judgment on them would herald the setting up of the Kingdom of God.\"
## Baháʼí Faith {#baháʼí_faith}
From Baháʼí literature, a number of interpretations of the expectations surrounding the Battle of Armageddon may be inferred, three of them being associated with events surrounding the World Wars.
The first interpretation deals with a series of tablets written by Bahá\'u\'lláh, founder of the Baháʼí Faith, to be sent to various kings and rulers. The second, and best-known one, relates to events near the end of World War I involving General Allenby and the Battle of Megiddo (1918) wherein World Powers are said to have drawn soldiers from many parts of the world to engage in battle at Megiddo. In winning this battle Allenby also prevented the Ottomans from killing \'Abdu\'l-Baha, then head of the Baháʼí Faith, whom they had intended to crucify. A third interpretation reviews the overall progress of the World Wars, and the situation in the world before and after
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# Athlon
**AMD Athlon** is the brand name applied to a series of x86-compatible microprocessors designed and manufactured by Advanced Micro Devices. The original Athlon (now called Athlon Classic) was the first seventh-generation x86 processor and the first desktop processor to reach speeds of one gigahertz (GHz). It made its debut as AMD\'s high-end processor brand on June 23, 1999. Over the years AMD has used the Athlon name with the 64-bit Athlon 64 architecture, the Athlon II, and Accelerated Processing Unit (APU) chips targeting the Socket AM1 desktop SoC architecture, and Socket AM4 Zen (microarchitecture). The modern Zen-based Athlon with a Radeon Graphics processor was introduced in 2019 as AMD\'s highest-performance entry-level processor.
## Brand history {#brand_history}
### K7 design and development {#k7_design_and_development}
The first Athlon processor was a result of AMD\'s development of K7 processors in the 1990s. AMD founder and then-CEO Jerry Sanders aggressively pursued strategic partnerships and engineering talent in the late 1990s, working to build on earlier successes in the PC market with the AMD K6 processor line. One major partnership announced in 1998 paired AMD with semiconductor giant Motorola to co-develop copper-based semiconductor technology, resulting in the K7 project being the first commercial processor to utilize copper fabrication technology. In the announcement, Sanders referred to the partnership as creating a \"virtual gorilla\" that would enable AMD to compete with Intel on fabrication capacity while limiting AMD\'s financial outlay for new facilities. The K7 design team was led by Dirk Meyer, who had previously worked as a lead engineer at DEC on multiple Alpha microprocessors. When DEC was sold to Compaq in 1998 and discontinued Alpha processor development, Sanders brought most of the Alpha design team to the K7 project. This added to the previously acquired NexGen K6 team, which already included engineers such as Vinod Dham.
### Original release {#original_release}
The AMD Athlon processor launched on June 23, 1999, with general availability by August 1999. Subsequently, from August 1999 until January 2002, this initial K7 processor was the fastest x86 chip in the world. Wrote the *Los Angeles Times* on October 5, 1999: \"AMD has historically trailed Intel's fastest processors, but has overtaken the industry leader with the new Athlon. Analysts say the Athlon, which will be used by Compaq, IBM and other manufacturers in their most powerful PCs, is significantly faster than Intel's flagship Pentium III, which runs at a top speed of 600MHz.\" A number of features helped the chips compete with Intel. By working with Motorola, AMD had been able to refine copper interconnect manufacturing about one year before Intel, with the revised process permitting 180-nanometer processor production. The accompanying die-shrink resulted in lower power consumption, permitting AMD to increase Athlon clock speeds to the 1 GHz range. The Athlon architecture also used the EV6 bus licensed from DEC as its main system bus, allowing AMD to develop its own products without needing to license Intel\'s GTL+ bus. By the summer of 2000, AMD was shipping Athlons at high volume, and the chips were being used in systems by Gateway, Hewlett-Packard, and Fujitsu Siemens Computers among others.
### Later Athlon iterations {#later_athlon_iterations}
The second-generation Athlon, the Thunderbird, debuted in 2000. AMD released the Athlon XP the following year, and the Athlon XP\'s immediate successor, the Athlon 64, was an AMD64-architecture microprocessor released in 2003. After the 2007 launch of the Phenom processors, the Athlon name was also used for mid-range processors, positioned above brands such as Sempron. The Athlon 64 X2 was released in 2005 as the first native dual-core desktop CPU designed by AMD, and the Athlon X2 was a subsequent family based on the Athlon 64 X2. Introduced in 2009, Athlon II was a dual-core family of Athlon chips.
A USD\$55 low-power Athlon 200GE with a Radeon graphics processor was introduced in September 2018, sitting under the Ryzen 3 2200G. This iteration of Athlon used AMD\'s Zen-based *Raven Ridge* core, which in turn had debuted in Ryzen with Radeon graphics processors. With the release, AMD began using the Athlon brand name to refer to \"low-cost, high-volume products\", in a situation similar to both Intel\'s Celeron and Pentium Gold. The modern Athlon 3000G was introduced in 2019 and was positioned as AMD\'s highest-performance entry-level processor. AMD positions the Athlon against its rival, the Intel Pentium. While CPU processing performance is in the same ballpark, the Athlon 3000G uses Radeon Vega graphics, which are rated as more powerful than the Pentium\'s Intel UHD Graphics.
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# Athlon
## Generations
### Athlon Classic (1999) {#athlon_classic_1999}
The AMD Athlon processor launched on June 23, 1999, with general availability by August 1999. Subsequently, from August 1999 until January 2002, this initial K7 processor was the fastest x86 chip in the world. At launch it was, on average, 10% faster than the Pentium III at the same clock for business applications and 20% faster for gaming workloads. In commercial terms, the Athlon \"Classic\" was an enormous success.
Features
The Athlon Classic is a cartridge-based processor, named Slot A and similar to Intel\'s cartridge Slot 1 used for Pentium II and Pentium III. It used the same, commonly available, physical 242-pin connector used by Intel Slot 1 processors but rotated by 180 degrees to connect the processor to the motherboard. The cartridge assembly allowed the use of higher-speed cache memory modules than could be put on (or reasonably bundled with) motherboards at the time. Similar to the Pentium II and the Katmai-based Pentium III, the Athlon Classic contained 512 KB of L2 cache. This high-speed SRAM cache was run at a divisor of the processor clock and was accessed via its own 64-bit back-side bus, allowing the processor to service both front-side bus requests and cache accesses simultaneously, as compared to pushing everything through the front-side bus.
The Argon-based Athlon contained 22 million transistors and measured 184 mm^2^. It was fabricated by AMD in a version of their CS44E process, a 250 nm complementary metal--oxide--semiconductor (CMOS) process with six levels of aluminium interconnect. \"Pluto\" and \"Orion\" Athlons were fabricated in a 180 nm process.
The Athlon\'s CPU cache consisted of the typical two levels. Athlon was the first x86 processor with a 128 KB split level-1 cache; a 2-way associative cache separated into 2×64 KB for data and instructions (a concept from Harvard architecture). SRAM cache designs at the time were incapable of keeping up with the Athlon\'s clock scalability, resulting in compromised CPU performance in some computers. With later Athlon models, AMD would integrate the L2 cache onto the processor itself, removing dependence on external cache chips. The Slot-A Athlons were the first multiplier-locked CPUs from AMD, preventing users from setting their own desired clock speed. This was done by AMD in part to hinder CPU remarking and overclocking by resellers, which could result in inconsistent performance. Eventually a product called the \"Goldfingers device\" was created that could unlock the CPU.
AMD designed the CPU with more robust x86 instruction decoding capabilities than that of K6, to enhance its ability to keep more data in-flight at once. The critical branch-predictor unit was enhanced compared to the K6. Deeper pipelining with more stages allowed higher clock speeds to be attained. Like the AMD K5 and K6, the Athlon dynamically buffered internal micro-instructions at runtime resulting from parallel x86 instruction decoding. The CPU is an out-of-order design, again like previous post-5x86 AMD CPUs. The Athlon utilizes the Alpha 21264\'s EV6 bus architecture with double data rate (DDR) technology.
AMD ended its long-time handicap with floating point x87 performance by designing a super-pipelined, out-of-order, triple-issue floating-point unit (FPU). Each of its three units could independently calculate an optimal type of instructions with some redundancy, making it possible to operate on more than one floating-point instruction at once. This FPU was a huge step forward for AMD, helping compete with Intel\'s P6 FPU. The 3DNow! floating-point SIMD technology, again present, received some revisions and was renamed \"Enhanced 3DNow!\" Additions included DSP instructions and the extended MMX subset of Intel SSE.
Specifications
- L1-cache: 64 + 64 KB (data + instructions)
- L2-cache: 512 KB, external chips on CPU module with 50%, 40% or 33% of CPU speed
- MMX, 3DNow!
- Slot A (EV6)
- Front-side bus:100 MHz (200MT/s)
- Vcore: 1.6 V (K7), 1.6--1.8 V (K75)
- First release: June 23, 1999 (K7), November 29, 1999 (K75)
- Clock-rate: 500--700 MHz (K7), 550--1000 MHz (K75)
### Athlon Thunderbird (2000--2001) {#athlon_thunderbird_20002001}
The second-generation Athlon, the **Thunderbird** or **T-Bird**, debuted on June 4, 2000. This version of the Athlon was available in a traditional pin-grid array (PGA) format that plugged into a socket (\"Socket A\") on the motherboard, or packaged as a Slot A cartridge. The major difference between it and the Athlon Classic was cache design, with AMD adding in 256 KB of on-chip, full-speed exclusive cache. In moving to an exclusive cache design, the L1 cache\'s contents were not duplicated in the L2, increasing total cache size and functionally creating a large L1 cache with a slower region (the L2) and a fast region (the L1), making the L2 cache into basically a victim cache. With the new cache design, need for high L2 performance and size was lessened, and the simpler L2 cache was less likely to cause clock scaling and yield issues. Thunderbird also moved to a 16-way associative layout.
The Thunderbird was \"cherished by many for its overclockability\" and proved commercially successful, as AMD\'s most successful product since the Am386DX-40 ten years earlier. AMD\'s new fab facility in Dresden increased production for AMD overall and put out Thunderbirds at a fast rate, with the process technology improved by a switch to copper interconnects. After several versions were released in 2000 and 2001 of the Thunderbird, the last Athlon processor using the Thunderbird core was released in 2001 in the summer, at which point speeds were at 1.4 GHz.
Specifications
- L1-cache: 64 + 64 KB (data + instructions)
- L2-cache: 256 KB, full speed
- MMX, 3DNow!
- Slot A & Socket A (EV6)
- Front-side bus: 100 MHz (Slot-A, B-models), 133 MHz (C-models) (200 MT/s, 266 MT/s)
- Vcore: 1.70--1.75 V
- First release: June 4, 2000
- Transistor count: 37 million
- Manufacturing process: /180 nm
- Clock rate:
- Slot A: 650--1000 MHz
- Socket A, 100 MHz FSB (B-models): 600--1400 MHz
- Socket A, 133 MHz FSB (C-models): 1000--1400 MHz
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# Athlon
## Generations
### Athlon XP (2001--2003) {#athlon_xp_20012003}
Overall, there are four main variants of the Athlon XP desktop CPU: the *Palomino*, the *Thoroughbred*, the *Thorton*, and the *Barton*. A number of mobile processors were also released, including the *Corvette* models, and the *Dublin* model among others.
#### *Palomino*
On May 14, 2001, AMD released the **Athlon XP** processor. It debuted as the **Mobile Athlon 4**, a mobile version codenamed *Corvette*, with the desktop Athlon XP released in the fall. The third-generation Athlon, code-named *Palomino*, came out on October 9, 2001, as the Athlon XP, with the suffix signifying *extreme performance* and unofficially referencing Windows XP. *Palomino\'s* design used 180 nm fabrication process size. The Athlon XP was marketed using a performance rating (PR) system comparing it to the Thunderbird predecessor core. Among other changes, *Palomino* consumed 20% less power than the Thunderbird, comparatively reducing heat output, and was roughly 10% faster than Thunderbird. *Palomino* also had enhanced K7\'s TLB architecture and included a hardware data prefetch mechanism to take better advantage of memory bandwidth. *Palomino* was the first K7 core to include the full SSE instruction set from the Intel Pentium III, as well as AMD\'s 3DNow! Professional. *Palomino* was also the first socketed Athlon officially supporting dual processing, with chips certified for that purpose branded as the **Athlon MP** (multi processing), which had different specifications. According to HardwareZone, it was possible to modify the Athlon XP to function as an MP.
Specifications
- L1-cache: 64 + 64 KB (data + instructions)
- L2-cache: 256 KB, full speed
- MMX, 3DNow!, SSE
- Socket A (EV6)
- Front-side bus: 133 MHz (266 MT/s)
- Vcore: 1.50 to 1.75 V
- Power consumption: 68 W
- First release: October 9, 2001
- Clock-rate:
- Athlon 4: 850--1400 MHz
- Athlon XP: 1333--1733 MHz (1500+ to 2100+)
- Athlon MP: 1000--1733 MHz
#### *Thoroughbred*
The fourth-generation of Athlon was introduced with the *Thoroughbred* core, or *T-Bred*, on April 17, 2002. The *Thoroughbred* core marked AMD\'s first production 130 nm silicon, with smaller die size than its predecessor. There came to be two steppings (revisions) of this core commonly referred to as *Tbred-A* and *Tbred-B*. Introduced in June 2002, the initial A version was mostly a direct die shrink of the preceding *Palomino* core, but did not significantly increase clock speeds over the *Palomino*. A revised *Thoroughbred* core, *Thoroughbred-B*, added a ninth \"metal layer\" to the eight-layered *Thoroughbred-A*, offering improvement in headroom over the A and making it popular for overclocking.
Specifications
- L1-cache: 64 + 64 KB (data + instructions)
- L2-cache: 256 KB, full speed
- MMX, 3DNow!, SSE
- Socket A (EV6)
- Front-side bus: 133/166 MHz (266/333 MT/s)
- Vcore: 1.50--1.65 V
- First release: June 10, 2002 (A), August 21, 2002 (B)
- Clock-rate:
- Thoroughbred \"A\": 1400--1800 MHz (1600+ to 2200+)
- Thoroughbred \"B\": 1400--2250 MHz (1600+ to 2800+)
- 133 MHz FSB: 1400--2133 MHz (1600+ to 2600+)
- 166 MHz FSB: 2083--2250 MHz (2600+ to 2800+)
#### *Barton* / *Thorton* {#barton_thorton}
Fifth-generation Athlon *Barton*-core processors were released in early 2003. While not operating at higher clock rates than *Thoroughbred*-core processors, they featured an increased L2 cache, and later models had an increased 200 MHz (400 MT/s) front side bus. The *Thorton* core, a blend of *Thoroughbred* and *Barton*, was a later variant of the *Barton* with half of the L2 cache disabled. The *Barton* was used to officially introduce a higher 400 MT/s bus clock for the Socket A platform, which was used to gain some *Barton* models more efficiency. By this point with the *Barton*, the four-year-old Athlon EV6 bus architecture had scaled to its limit and required a redesign to exceed the performance of newer Intel processors. By 2003, the Pentium 4 had become more than competitive with AMD\'s processors, and *Barton* only saw a small performance increase over the *Thoroughbred-B* it derived from, insufficient to outperform the Pentium 4. The K7-derived Athlons such as *Barton* were replaced in September 2003 by the Athlon 64 family, which featured an on-chip memory controller and a new HyperTransport bus.
Notably, the 2500+ Barton with 11× multiplier was effectively identical to the 3200+ part other than the FSB speed it was binned for, meaning that seamless overclocking was possible more often than not. Early Thortons could be restored to the full Barton specification with the enabling of the other half of the L2 cache from a slight CPU surface modification, but the result was not always reliable.
Specifications:
*Barton (130 nm)*
- L1-cache: 64 + 64 KB (data + instructions)
- L2-cache: 512 KB, full speed
- MMX, 3DNow!, SSE
- Socket A (EV6)
- Front-side bus: 166/200 MHz (333/400 MT/s)
- Vcore: 1.65 V
- First release: February 10, 2003
- Clock rate: 1833--2333 MHz (2500+ to 3200+)
- 133 MHz FSB: 1867--2133 MHz (2500+ to 2800+); uncommon
- 166 MHz FSB: 1833--2333 MHz (2500+ to 3200+)
- 200 MHz FSB: 2100, 2200 MHz (3000+, 3200+)
*Thorton (130 nm)*
- L1-cache: 64 + 64 KB (Data + Instructions)
- L2-cache: 256 KB, full speed
- MMX, 3DNow!, SSE
- Socket A (EV6)
- Front-side bus: 133/166/200 MHz (266/333/400 MT/s)
- Vcore: 1.50--1.65 V
- First release: September 2003
- Clock rate: 1667--2200 MHz (2000+ to 3100+)
- 133 MHz FSB: 1600--2133 MHz (2000+ to 2600+)
- 166 MHz FSB: 2083 MHz (2600+)
- 200 MHz FSB: 2200 MHz (3100+)
#### Mobile Athlon XP {#mobile_athlon_xp}
The *Palomino* core debuted in the mobile market before the PC market in May 2001, where it was branded as **Mobile Athlon 4** with the codename \"Corvette\". It distinctively used a ceramic interposer much like the *Thunderbird* instead of the organic pin grid array package used on all later *Palomino* processors. In November 2001, AMD released a 1.2 GHz Athlon 4 and a 950 MHz Duron. The Mobile Athlon 4 processors included the PowerNow! function, which controlled a laptop\'s \"level of processor performance by dynamically adjusting its operating frequency and voltage according to the task at hand\", thus extending \"battery life by reducing processor power when it isn\'t needed by applications\". Duron chips also included PowerNow! In 2002, AMD released a version of PowerNow! called Cool\'n\'Quiet, implemented on the Athlon XP but only adjusting clock speed instead of voltage.
In 2002 the **Athlon XP-M** (Mobile Athlon XP) replaced the Mobile Athlon 4 using the newer *Thoroughbred* core, with *Barton* cores for full-size notebooks. The Athlon XP-M was also offered in a compact microPGA socket 563 version. Mobile XPs were not multiplier-locked, making them popular with desktop overclockers.
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# Athlon
## Generations
### Athlon 64 (2003--2009) {#athlon_64_20032009}
The immediate successor to the Athlon XP, the Athlon 64 is an AMD64-architecture microprocessor produced by AMD, released on September 23, 2003. A number of variations, all named after cities, were released with 90 nm architecture in 2004 and 2005. Versions released in 2007 and 2009 utilized 65 nm architecture.
### Athlon 64 X2 (2005--2009) {#athlon_64_x2_20052009}
The Athlon 64 X2 was released in 2005 as the first native dual-core desktop CPU designed by AMD using an Athlon 64. The Athlon X2 was a subsequent family of microprocessors based on the Athlon 64 X2. The original *Brisbane* Athlon X2 models used 65 nm architecture and were released in 2007.
### Athlon II (2009--2012) {#athlon_ii_20092012}
Athlon II is a family of central processing units. Initially a dual-core version of the Athlon II, the K-10-based *Regor* was released in June 2009 with 45-nanometer architecture. This was followed by a single-core version *Sargas*, followed by the quad-core *Propus*, the triple-core *Rana* in November 2009, and the *Llano* 32 nm version released in 2011.
### Piledriver and Steamroller-based Athlon X4 (2013--2016) {#piledriver_and_steamroller_based_athlon_x4_20132016}
Various Steamroller-based Athlon X4 and X2 FM2+ socketed processors were released in 2014 and the years after. The preceding Piledriver-based Athlon X4 and X2 processors were released before 2014, and are socket compatible with both FM2+ and FM2 mainboards.
### Excavator-based Athlon X4 (2017) {#excavator_based_athlon_x4_2017}
The *Bristol Ridge* Athlon X4 lineup was released in 2017. It is based on the Excavator microarchitecture and uses 2 Excavator modules totalling 4 cores. It has a dual-channel DDR4-2400 memory controller with clock speeds up to 4.0 GHz. It runs on the new Socket AM4 platform that was later used for Zen 1 to Zen 3 CPUs.
### Zen-based Athlon (2018--present) {#zen_based_athlon_2018present}
The Zen-based Athlon with Radeon graphics processors was launched in September 2018 with the Athlon 200GE. Based on AMD\'s *Raven Ridge* core previously used in variants of the Ryzen 3 and Ryzen 5, the Athlon 200GE had half of the cores but left SMT enabled. It also kept the same 4 MiB L3 cache, but the L2 cache was halved to 1 MiB.
In addition, the number of graphics compute units was limited to 3 in the Athlon 200GE, and the chip was multiplier-locked. Despite its limitations, the Athlon 200GE performed competitively against the 5000-series Intel Pentium-G, displaying similar CPU performance but an advantage in GPU performance.
On November 19, 2019, AMD released the Athlon 3000G, with a higher 3.5 GHz core clock and 1100 MHz graphics clock compared to the Athlon 200GE, also with two cores. The main functional difference between the 200GE was the Athlon 3000G\'s unlocked multiplier, allowing the latter to be overclocked on B450 and X470 motherboards.
Zen 2-based Athlon with Radeon Graphics processors, codenamed \"Mendocino\", were released on September 20, 2022, for the entry-level laptop market, alongside the more powerful quad-core Ryzen 7020 mobile series under the same codename. Featuring two processing cores, with two threads on Athlon Silver and four threads on Athlon Gold models, Athlon 7020 series mobile processors are equipped with two compute units (CUs) of RDNA 2 graphics. These 7020U series models were followed by the release of Ryzen/Athlon 7020C series for Chromebooks on May 23, 2023. Unlike prior Athlon generations, AMD has not released desktop variants of Mendocino.
Specifications
*Raven Ridge* (14 nm), *Picasso* (12 nm) *(see the list article for more details)*
- L1 cache: 192 KiB (2×64 KiB + 2×32 KiB)
- L2 cache: 1 MiB (2×512 KiB)
- L3 cache: 4 MiB
- Memory: dual-channel DDR4-2666, 64 GiB max.
- Socket AM4
- TDP: 35 W
- First release: September 6, 2018
- CPU clock rate: 3.2 to 3.5 GHz
- GPU clock rate: 1000 to 1100 MHz
*Mendocino* (6 nm) *(see the list article for more details)*
- L1 cache: 128 KiB (2×32 KiB + 2×32 KiB)
- L2 cache: 1 MiB (2×512 KiB)
- L3 cache: 4 MiB
- Memory: dual-channel LPDDR5-5500, 16 GiB max.
- TDP: 15 W
- First release: September 20, 2022
- CPU clock rate: 2.4 GHz
- GPU clock rate: 1900 MHz
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# Athlon
## Supercomputers
A number of supercomputers have been built using Athlon chips, largely at universities. Among them:
- In 2000, several American students claimed to have built the world\'s least expensive supercomputer by clustering 64 AMD Athlon chips together, also marking the first time Athlons had been clustered in a supercomputer.
- The PRESTO III, a Beowulf cluster of 78 AMD Athlon processors, was built in 2001 by the Tokyo Institute of Technology. That year it ranked 439 on the TOP500 list of supercomputers.
- In 2002, a \"128-Node 256-Processor AMD Athlon Supercomputer Cluster\" was installed at the Ohio Supercomputer Center at the University of Toledo.
- Rutgers University, Department of Physics & Astronomy. Machine: NOW Cluster---AMD Athlon. CPU: 512 AthlonMP (1.65 GHz). Rmax: 794 GFLOPS
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# Androphagi
The **Androphagi** were an ancient Scythian tribe whose existence was recorded by ancient Greco-Roman authors.
The Androphagi were closely related to the Melanchlaeni and the Budini.
## Name
The name `{{Transliteration|la|Androphagi}}`{=mediawiki} is a Latinisation of the ancient Greek name `{{Transliteration|grc|Androphagoi}}`{=mediawiki} (*Ἀνδροφάγοι*), which meant \"Man-Eaters.\" This name is a descriptive one based on this tribe\'s practice of cannibalism, and their own tribal name is unknown.
## Location
The Androphagi lived in the region to the east of the middle Dnipro river, especially in the valley of the Sula and some smaller rivers.
The neighbours of the Androphagi were the Neuri to the west and the Scythians to the south.
## History
### Origin
The Scythians originated in the region of the Volga-Ural steppes of Central Asia, possibly around the 9th century BC, as a section of the population of the Srubnaya culture containing a significant element originating from the Siberian Andronovo culture. The population of the Srubnaya culture was among the first truly nomadic pastoralist groups, who themselves emerged in the Central Asian and Siberian steppes during the 9th century BC as a result of the cold and dry climate then prevailing in these regions.
During the 9th to 8th centuries BC, a significant movement of the nomadic peoples of the Eurasian Steppe started when another nomadic Iranic tribe closely related to the Scythians from eastern Central Asia, either the Massagetae or the Issedones, migrated westwards, forcing the early Scythians to the west across the Araxes river.
Over the course of the 8th and 7th centuries BC, the Scythians migrated into the Caucasian and Caspian Steppes in several waves, becoming the dominant population of the region, where they assimilated most of the Cimmerians and conquered their territory, with this absorption of the Cimmerians by the Scythians being facilitated by their similar ethnic backgrounds and lifestyles, after which the Scythians settled in the area between the Araxes, the Caucasus and the Lake Maeotis. The section of the Scythians from whom the Androphagi originated participated in this migration, and had established itself in Ciscaucasia around `{{c.|800 BC}}`{=mediawiki}.
From their base in the Caucasian Steppe, during the period of the 8th to 7th centuries BC itself, the Scythians conquered the Pontic and Crimean Steppes to the north of the Black Sea up to the Danube river, which formed the western boundary of Scythian territory onwards, with this process of Scythian takeover of the Pontic Steppe becoming fully complete by the 7th century BC.
Archaeologically, the westwards migration of the Early Scythians from Central Asia into the Caspian Steppe constituted the latest of the two to three waves of expansion of the Srubnaya culture to the west of the Volga. The last and third wave corresponding to the Scythian migration has been dated to the 9th century BC. The expansion of the Scythians into the Pontic Steppe is attested through the westward movement of the Srubnaya-Khvalynsk culture into Ukraine. The Srubnaya-Khvalynsk culture in Ukraine is referred to in scholarship as the \"Late Srubnaya\" culture.
### Migration towards the forest steppe {#migration_towards_the_forest_steppe}
From the Caucasian steppe, the tribe of the Royal Scythians expanded to the south, following the coast of the Caspian Sea and arrived in the Ciscaucasian steppes, from where they settled in eastern Transcaucasia until the early 6th century BC.
The Royal Scythians were finally expelled from West Asia in the `{{c.|600s BC}}`{=mediawiki}, after which, beginning in the later 7th and lasting throughout much of the 6th century BC, the majority of the Scythians migrated from Ciscaucasia into the Pontic Steppe, which became the centre of Scythian power.
The retreat of the Royal Scythians from West Asia into the Pontic steppe pushed a Scythian splinter group to the north, into the region of Donets-Kramatorsk, where they formed the Vorskla and Sula-Donets groups of the Scythian culture, of which the Donets group corresponded to the Melanchlaeni, the Sula group to the Androphagi, and the Vorskla group to the Budini, with all of these groups remaining independent from the Scythians proper. This splinter group arrived in the forest-steppe region in part from the Kuban region, but for the most from northern Ciscaucasia.
Of these groups, the Androphagi and the Melanchlaeni were closely related tribes.
### The Persian invasion {#the_persian_invasion}
When the Persian Achaemenid king Darius I attacked the Scythians in 513 BC, the Scythian king Idanthyrsus summoned the kings of the peoples surrounding his kingdom to a meeting to decide how to deal with the Persian invasion. The kings of the Budini, Gelonians, and Sarmatians accepted to help the Scythians against the Persian attack, while the kings of the Agathyrsi, Androphagi, Melanchlaeni, Neuri, and Tauri refused to support the Scythians.
During the campaign, the Scythians and the Persian army pursuing them passed through the territories of the Melanchlaeni, Androphagi, and Neuri, before they reached the borders of the Agathyrsi, who refused to let the Scythian divisions to pass into their territories and find refuge there, thus forcing the Scythians to return to Scythia with the Persians pursuing them.
## Society and culture {#society_and_culture}
The ancient Greek author Herodotus of Halicarnassus described the Androphagi as wearing Scythian-type clothing, and speaking a \"peculiar language.\"
### Lifestyle
The Androphagi were largely engaged in agriculture and farming, and hunting was of lesser importance among them.
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# Androphagi
## Society and culture {#society_and_culture}
### Language
The \"peculiar language\" of the Androphagi might have been a dialect of Iranic language different from that of the Pontic Scythians. The Sula group of the Scythian culture which corresponded to the Androphagi was part of an area of Iranic toponymy and hydronymy.
### Ritual cannibalism {#ritual_cannibalism}
Herodotus of Halicarnassus claimed that the Androphagi were the only ones who practised cannibalism among the peoples living near Scythia, which seems to be confirmed by the intact and unbroken human bones of seventeen individuals which were found along with cut and broken animal bones in the kitchen refuse of seven Androphagi earthworks. However, traces of similar ritual cannibalism are recorded from seven earthworks of the Melanchlaeni and Budini, as well as in the Smiela kurgan 15, which was one of the earliest burials of the Tiasmyn group of the Scythian culture.
The Sauromatians who lived in the Urals and the lower Volga, and Massagetae and Issedones to the east of the Urals, practised similar ritual cannibalism, suggesting that the early Scythic peoples of the Central Asian steppe had customs and beliefs connected to ritual cannibalism.
### Trade
Trade relations between the Androphagi and the ancient Greek colonies on the northern shores of the Black Sea had been established in the 6th century BC.
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# Androphagi
## Archaeology
The Androphagi archaeologically belonged to the Scythian culture, and they corresponded to its Sula group, which was the largest Scythian culture group of the eastern European forest steppe zone.
The Donets, Sula and Vorskla groups of the Scythian culture, respectively corresponding to the Melanchlaeni, Androphagi, and Budini, are sometimes grouped the Zolnichnaya (that is \"Ash-Mounds\") culture because of the presence of several `{{Transliteration|uk|zolnyk}}`{=mediawiki} (*зольник*), that is ash mounds containing refuse from kitchens and other sources, near dwellings. The three groups of the Zolnichnaya culture were closely related to each other, with the Vorskla group nevertheless exhibiting enough significant differences from the Sula and Donets groups that the latter two are sometimes grouped together as a Sula-Donets group distinct from the Vorskla group.
The earliest Scythians had belonged to the Srubnaya culture culture, and, like the Donets group of the Scythian culture which corresponds to the Melanchlaeni, the Sula group of the Scythian culture contained an important element of the Srubnaya culture in its substratum, although there were some differences between the Donets and Sula groups
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# Alexandria, Indiana
**Alexandria** is a city in Monroe Township, Madison County, Indiana, United States. It is about 48 mi northeast of Indianapolis. According to the 2020 census, its population was 5,149, nearly unchanged from 2010.
## History
Alexandria was platted in 1836, when it was certain that the Indiana Central Canal would be extended to that point. It was incorporated as a town in 1898.
In 1898, Indiana\'s first Interurban railway line began operating between Alexandria and Anderson.
## Geography
Alexandria is located in northern Madison County. Indiana State Road 9 passes through the east side of the city, leading south 11 mi to Anderson, the county seat, and north 21 mi to Marion. State Road 28 crosses the northern tip of Alexandria, leading west 9 mi to Elwood and east 23 mi to Albany.
According to the U.S. Census Bureau, Alexandria has a total area of 3.0 sqmi, all land. Pipe Creek crosses the city south of its center, flowing southwest to join the White River at Perkinsville.
## Demographics
Alexandria is part of the Indianapolis--Carmel--Anderson metropolitan statistical area.
### 2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 5,145 people, 2,113 households, and 1,362 families living in the city. The population density was 1956.3 PD/sqmi. There were 2,507 housing units at an average density of 953.2 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the city was 97.4% White, 0.3% African American, 0.1% Native American, 0.2% Asian, 0.8% from other races, and 1.1% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino people of any race were 1.7% of the population.
Of the 2,113 households 33.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 42.2% were married couples living together, 15.7% had a female householder with no husband present, 6.6% had a male householder with no wife present, and 35.5% were non-families. 30.1% of households were one person and 12.8% were one person aged 65 or older. The average household size was 2.41 and the average family size was 2.95.
The median age was 38.2 years. 25.6% of residents were under the age of 18; 8.8% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 24.8% were from 25 to 44; 25.1% were from 45 to 64; and 15.6% were 65 or older. The gender makeup of the city was 47.8% male and 52.2% female.
### 2000 census {#census_1}
As of the census of 2000, there were 6,260 people, 2,481 households, and 1,654 families living in the city. The population density was 2,308.6 PD/sqmi. There were 2,704 housing units at an average density of 997.2 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the city was 98.10% White, 0.46% Black or African American, 0.08% Native American, 0.11% Asian, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 0.43% from other races, and 0.80% from two or more races. 0.99% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
Of the 2,481 households 33.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 49.0% were married couples living together, 12.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 33.3% were non-families. 28.9% of households were one person and 13.1% were one person aged 65 or older. The average household size was 2.48 and the average family size was 3.04.
The age distribution was 27.8% under the age of 18, 8.9% from 18 to 24, 28.0% from 25 to 44, 19.5% from 45 to 64, and 15.9% 65 or older. The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females, there were 91.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87.4 males.
The median household income was \$35,359 and the median family income was \$42,731. Males had a median income of \$30,529 versus \$23,384 for females. The per capita income for the city was \$15,578. About 4.2% of families and 7.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 4.1% of those under age 18 and 15.0% of those age 65 or over.
## Government
The city council consists of seven members. Five members are elected from individual districts, and two are elected at large. The city is governed by a \"strong\" mayor system that appoints two council members and/or city residents to serve at the mayor\'s pleasure on the board of public works and safety. The chief financial officer is the clerk-treasurer. The clerk-treasurer and mayor are full-time elected officials.
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# Alexandria, Indiana
## Transportation
### Airport
Alexandria Airport is a public use airport located 3 mi southeast of the central business district of Alexandria.
## Education
It is in the Alexandria Community School Corporation.
The town has a lending library, the Alexandria-Monroe Public Library.
## Notable people {#notable_people}
- Joey Feek, country singer
- Bill Gaither, gospel singer/songwriter
- Danny Gaither, gospel singer
- Gloria Gaither, author/lyricist, gospel singer
- Robert L. Rock, politician
## Gallery
<File:Clock> in Alexandria, Indiana.jpg\|Clock in Alexandria, Indiana <File:Fountain> in park in Alexandria.jpg\|Fountain in park in Alexandria <File:The> Commons Theatre in Alexandria Indiana.jpg\|The Commons Theatre in Alexandria Indiana <File:Harrison> Street, Alexandria, Indiana (74009).jpg\|Harrison Street in Alexandria, circa 1930--1945 <File:Beulah> Park Swimming Pool, Alexandria, Indiana (74010).jpg\|Beulah Park Swimming Pool in Alexandria, circa 1930--1945 <File:Welcome> to Alexandria
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# Alexandria Troas
**Alexandria Troas** (\"Alexandria of the Troad\"; *Αλεξάνδρεια Τρωάς*; *Eski Stambul*, \"Old Istanbul\") is the site of an ancient Greek city situated on the Aegean Sea near the northern tip of Turkey\'s western coast, the area known historically as Troad, a little south of Tenedos (modern Bozcaada). It is located southeast of modern Dalyan, a village in the Ezine district of Çanakkale Province. The site sprawls over an estimated 400 ha; among the few structures remaining today are a ruined bath, an odeon, a theatre, gymnasium complex and a recently uncovered stadion. The circuit of the old walls can still be traced.
## History
### Hellenistic
According to Strabo, this site was first called Sigia (Σιγία); around 306 BC Antigonus refounded the city as the much-expanded Antigonia Troas by settling the people of five other towns in Sigia, including the once influential city of Neandreia. It did not receive its name until its name was changed by Lysimachus to Alexandria Troas, in 301 BC, in memory of Alexander the Great of Macedon (Pliny merely states that the name changed from Antigonia to Alexandria). The city continued being called Alexandria Troas, as is stated in the 4th-5th c. AD Tabula Peutingeriana. As the chief port of north-west Asia Minor, the place prospered greatly in Roman times, becoming a \"free and autonomous city\" as early as 188 BC, and the existing remains sufficiently attest its former importance. In its heyday the city may have had a population of about 100,000. Strabo mentions that a Roman colony was created at the location in the reign of Augustus, named Colonia Alexandria Augusta Troas (called simply Troas during this period). Augustus, Hadrian and the rich grammarian Herodes Atticus contributed greatly to its embellishment; the aqueduct still preserved is due to the latter. Julius Caesar and Constantine considered making Troas the capital of the Roman Empire.
### Roman
In Roman times, it was a significant port for travelling between Anatolia and Europe. According to the account in the Acts of the Apostles, Paul of Tarsus sailed for Europe for the first time from Alexandria Troas and returned there from Europe (it was there that the episode of the raising of Eutychus occurred). Ignatius of Antioch also paused at this city before continuing to his martyrdom at Rome.
### Byzantine
Several of its later bishops are known: Marinus in 325; Niconius in 344; Sylvanus at the beginning of the 5th century; Pionius in 451; Leo in 787; Peter, friend of the Patriarch Ignatius, and adversary to Michael, in the ninth century. In the 10th century Troas is given as a suffragan of Cyzicus and distinct from the famous Troy (Heinrich Gelzer, *Ungedruckte \... Texte der Notitiae episcopatuum*, 552; *Georgii Cyprii descriptio orbis romani*, 64); it is not known when the city was destroyed and the diocese disappeared. The bishopric remains a titular see of the Catholic Church under the name Troas, vacant since 1971.
Troas is also a titular see of the Eastern Orthodox Church under the Ecumenical Patriarchate. Bishop Savas (Zembillas) of Troas served as hierarch from 2002 to 2011, and then became Metropolitan Savas (Zembillas) of Pittsburgh in the Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America.
### Ottoman
Karasid Turkomans settled in the area of the Troad in the 14th century. Their *beylik* was conquered by the Ottomans in 1336. The ruins of Alexandria Troas came to be known among the Turks as *Eski Stambul*, the \"Old City\". The site\'s stones were much plundered for building material (for example Mehmed IV took columns to adorn his Yeni Valide Mosque in Istanbul). As of the mid-18th century the site served as \"a lurking place for bandetti\".
### Modern
By 1911, the site had been overgrown with Vallonea oaks and much plundered, but the circuit of the old walls could still be traced, and in several places they were fairly well preserved. They had a circumference of about ten kilometres, and were fortified with towers at regular intervals. Remains of an ancient bath and gymnasium complex can be found within this area; this building is locally known as *Bal Saray* (Honey Palace) and was originally endowed by Herodes Atticus in the year 135. Trajan built an aqueduct which can still be traced. The harbour had two large basins, now almost choked with sand. It is the subject of an early twenty-first century study by German archaeologists digging and surveying at the site. Their excavation uncovered the remains of a large stadium dating to about 100 BC
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# Alexandria, West Dunbartonshire
**Alexandria** (*The Vale*, *Alexandria*) is a town in West Dunbartonshire, Scotland. The town is on the River Leven, 3 mi north of Dumbarton and 15 mi north-west of Glasgow.
## Demographics
In 2016, the estimated population of the town was 6,860. It is one of five towns in the Vale of Leven, the others being Balloch, Bonhill, Jamestown and Renton; their combined population is over 20,000.
## Economy
The town\'s traditional industries, most importantly cotton manufacturing, bleaching and printing, have been phased out. In the 1970s Alexandria was redeveloped, with a new town centre layout and traffic system. Local landmarks include Christie Park and the Category B listed Smollett Fountain in the town centre. Lomond Galleries on North Main Street is a former car factory with an impressive dome and an even more impressive marble entrance hall and staircase. It was originally built in 1906 as the Argyll Motor Works, for Argyll Motors Ltd. A carving above the entrance shows one of the company\'s cars. After the car production ceased in 1914, it was used by the Admiralty for the manufacture of torpedoes, which were test-fired in Loch Long, and in the early 1970s was the scene of the Plessey sit-in. The building now hosts a shopping mall but has retained many of its striking architectural features.
Major employers in the area were Westclox and Polaroid, both based in the Leven Industrial Estate; Aggreko based a major purpose-built factory in the estate from 2000 to 2010. The Ballantine\'s whisky distillery continues to operate in the estate.
## Transport
Alexandria sits on the former A82 main road between Glasgow and Loch Lomond. There are regular bus services on the route, and the town has a railway station on the rail line between Balloch and Glasgow Queen Street.
Alexandria is reputed to be the only town in the UK with a railway station, carnival (periodically Codona\'s travelling fair sets up in the car park) and a pub in the middle of a roundabout. A. J. Cronin\'s uncle owned a pub in Bridge Street. Alexandria Library is located on Gilmour Street.
## Sport
The town is home to Vale of Leven football club, who play at Millburn Park. The club was a dominant force in early Scottish football history, winning the Scottish Cup in 1877, 1878 and 1879, and were founder members of the Scottish Football League.
Gordon Reid, born in Alexandria, has won the Wimbledon Tennis Men\'s Wheelchair Doubles, with his partner Alfie Hewett, three times.
## ROC Bunker {#roc_bunker}
Between 1961 and 1991, the village was the location of a Royal Observer Corps Master bunker, to be used in the event of a nuclear attack. It remains mostly intact.
## Notable natives and residents {#notable_natives_and_residents}
- Stuart David, writer and musician (Belle and Sebastian)
- Zander Diamond, Scottish professional footballer
- John Miller \"Ian\" McColl, Scottish footballer and manager of the Scotland national team
- Morgan McMichaels, Scottish-American drag queen and reality television personality
- Dawn O\'Porter, British writer, director and television presenter
- Bobby Kerr, Scottish professional footballer, captain of Sunderland A.F.C.\'s 1973 FA Cup-winning team
```{=html}
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```
- Malcolm Finlayson (14 June 1930 -- 26 November 2014) was a Scottish football goalkeeper who won the Football League Championship and FA Cup with Wolverhampton Wanderers
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# Alexandria, Romania
**Alexandria** (`{{IPA|ro|alekˈsandri.a|-|Ro-Alexandria.ogg}}`{=mediawiki}) is the capital city of the Teleorman County, Muntenia, Romania. It is located south-west of Bucharest, towards the Bulgarian border, and has over 40,000 inhabitants. The 44th parallel north passes just north of the city.
## Geography
Alexandria is situated in the middle of the Wallachian Plain, on the banks of the Vedea River. It is located in the central part of Teleorman County, at a distance of 62 km from Giurgiu and 86 km from Bucharest.
The city is traversed by the national road DN6, which links Bucharest to the Banat region in western Romania; the road is part of European route E70. The Alexandria train station serves the CFR Line 909, with service towards Roșiorii de Vede (to the northwest) and Zimnicea (to the south, on the Danube). `{{Weather box
|width = auto |metric first = yes |single line = yes |location = Alexandria, Romania
|precipitation colour = green
| Jan high C =2.3
| Feb high C =5.3
| Mar high C =12.1
| Apr high C =18.3
| May high C =23.0
| Jun high C =27.5
| Jul high C =29.8
| Aug high C =31.1
| Sep high C =25.7
| Oct high C =17.6
| Nov high C =11.9
| Dec high C =4.8
| Jan low C =-3.3
| Feb low C =-0.8
| Mar low C =4.0
| Apr low C =7.6
| May low C =11.9
| Jun low C =15.9
| Jul low C =17.8
| Aug low C =18.8
| Sep low C =15.2
| Oct low C =9.9
| Nov low C =5.6
| Dec low C =-0.5
| Jan precipitation mm =55.7
| Feb precipitation mm =38.6
| Mar precipitation mm =54.1
| Apr precipitation mm =57.3
| May precipitation mm =71.6
| Jun precipitation mm =106.5
| Jul precipitation mm =70.9
| Aug precipitation mm =40.2
| Sep precipitation mm =34.9
| Oct precipitation mm =58.7
| Nov precipitation mm =39.8
| Dec precipitation mm =47.4
| Jan snow cm = 6.5
| Feb snow cm = 6.8
| Mar snow cm = 2.9
| Apr snow cm = 0
| May snow cm = 0
| Jun snow cm = 0
| Jul snow cm = 0
| Aug snow cm = 0
| Sep snow cm = 0
| Oct snow cm = 0
| Nov snow cm = 0.8
| Dec snow cm = 4.7
| unit precipitation days = 0.1 mm
| Jan precipitation days =10.1
| Feb precipitation days =9.3
| Mar precipitation days =11.8
| Apr precipitation days =9.9
| May precipitation days =12.2
| Jun precipitation days =11.8
| Jul precipitation days =7.6
| Aug precipitation days =5.5
| Sep precipitation days =6.1
| Oct precipitation days =8
| Nov precipitation days =11.3
| Dec precipitation days =9.2
| year precipitation days =
| Jan snow days =6.7
| Feb snow days =4.1
| Mar snow days =3.1
| Apr snow days =0
| May snow days =0
| Jun snow days =0
| Jul snow days =0
| Aug snow days =0
| Sep snow days =0
| Oct snow days =0.8
| Nov snow days =1.5
| Dec snow days =3.7
| Jan humidity =85
| Feb humidity =82
| Mar humidity =70
| Apr humidity =64
| May humidity =67
| Jun humidity =64
| Jul humidity =58
| Aug humidity =49
| Sep humidity =52
| Oct humidity =65
| Nov humidity =74
| Dec humidity =80
| Jan light = 9.3
| Feb light = 10.5
| Mar light = 12
| Apr light = 13.5
| May light = 14.8
| Jun light = 15.4
| Jul light = 15.1
| Aug light = 14
| Sep light = 12.5
| Oct light = 11
| Nov light = 9.7
| Dec light = 9
| Jan uv =1
| Feb uv =2
| Mar uv =4
| Apr uv =4
| May uv =5
| Jun uv =6
| Jul uv =6
| Aug uv =6
| Sep uv =5
| Oct uv =3
| Nov uv =2
| Dec uv =2
|source = Weather Atlas<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.weather-atlas.com/en/romania/alexandria-climate |title=Yearly & Monthly Weather - Alexandria, Romania |access-date=2023-09-12 |website=Weather Atlas}}</ref>
World Weather Online(precipitation-UV 2009-2023),<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.worldweatheronline.com/alexandria-weather-averages/teleorman/ro.aspx |title=Alexandria Annual Weather Averages |access-date=2023-09-12 |website=World Weather Online}}</ref> Meteomanz(precipitation days, snow days 2014-2023<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.meteomanz.com/sy3?l=1&cou=6240&ind=15489&m1=01&y1=2000&m2=07&y2=2024 |title=Alexandria - Weather data by months |access-date=7 July 2024 |website=Meteomanz}}</ref>)
}}`{=mediawiki}
## History
Alexandria was named after its founder, **Alexandru D. Ghica**, Prince of Wallachia from April 1834 to 7 October 1842. Its population in 1900 was 1,675. Grain, which was Alexandria\'s main trade at the time, was dispatched both by rail to the Danubian port of Zimnicea and by river to Giurgiu.
In 1989, the city had over 63,000 inhabitants and more than six large factories. The 2021 census puts the population at 40,390.
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# Alexandria, Romania
## Education
There are four high schools in Alexandria: the Alexandru D. Ghica National College, the Alexandru Ioan Cuza Theoretical High School, the Mircea Scarlat National Pedagogical College and the Constantin Noica Theoretical High School.
In 1897, the Ștefan cel Mare School moved from its former location to 310 Libertății Street; a local entrepreneur, M. Frangulea, obtained the plot and hired renowned architect Alexandru Săvulescu to build the new boys\' primary school for the city.
## Religion
The Diocese of Alexandria and Teleorman is a diocese of the Romanian Orthodox Church. Its see is Saint Alexander Cathedral in Alexandria and its ecclesiastical territory covers Teleorman County.
## Sports
CSM Alexandria is a football club founded in 1948; it plays in the Romanian Liga III. CS Universitatea Alexandria is a women\'s football club founded in 2012. Stadionul Municipal, which holds 5,000 people, is the home ground for both clubs; the stadium is currently undergoing reconstruction. The Alexandria women\'s basketball team plays in the Liga Națională.
## Natives
- Valentin Badea (b. 1982), footballer
- Dan Balauru (b. 1980), footballer
- Adrian Bădulescu (b. 1967), politician
- (b. 1966), fashion creator
- (1899--1976), mayor, lawyer, writer
- Anghel Demetriescu (1847--1903), historian
- Gheorghe Mihăilescu (1888--?), World War I pilot
- Ciprian Manolescu (b. 1978), mathematician
- Andreea Ogrăzeanu (b. 1990), sprinter
- Florin Olteanu (b. 1981), footballer
- Sorin Paraschiv (b. 1981), footballer
- Alin Pencea (b. 1992), footballer
- Marin Stan (b. 1950), sports shooter
- Alina Tecșor (b. 1979), tennis player
- Alin Toșca (b. 1992), footballer
- Daniel Tudor (b. 1974), footballer
- Mihai Verbițchi (b. 1957), actor
- Ionuț Voicu (b
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# Angela Vincent
**Angela Vincent** (born 1942) is a British neuroscientist who is emeritus professor at the University of Oxford and a Fellow of Somerville College, Oxford.
## Career and research {#career_and_research}
Angela Vincent was born in 1942, the third child of Carmen and Joseph Molony (later KCVO). After St Mary\'s Convent, Ascot, she studied medicine at King\'s College London and Westminster Hospital School of Medicine (now merged with Imperial College School of Medicine). After one year as a junior doctor at St Steven\'s and St Charles\' hospitals in London (1966--1967), she obtained an MSc in biochemistry from University College London. In 1967 she married Philip Morse Vincent and they have four children.
After the MSc, she spent three frustrating years trying to fractionate rat brain synaptosomes, until she was taken on by Ricardo Miledi FRS in the biophysics department to work on acetylcholine receptors. During her five years with Miledi, her medical background helped to establish a collaboration on myasthenia gravis with John Newsom-Davis (later FRS); together at the Royal Free Hospital, London, they created a neuroimmunology group that subsequently moved with Newsom-Davis to Oxford when he was appointed action research professor of neurology. After his retirement in 1998, Vincent led the group until 2016. During this time she was head of the department of clinical neurology (2005--2008) at the University of Oxford, president of the International Society of Neuroimmunology (2001--2004), and an associate editor of *Brain* (2004--2013). Her research group was initially located in the Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine at the John Radcliffe Hospital, working on a wide range of biological disciplines encompassing molecular biology, biochemistry, cellular immunology and intracellular neurophysiology. The group\'s research focused on autoimmune and genetic disorders of the neuromuscular junction, peripheral nerves and more recently the exciting field of central nervous system diseases. The principal autoimmune diseases studied were myasthenia gravis, the Lambert--Eaton myasthenic syndrome, limbic encephalitis, other types of autoimmune encephalitis and acquired neuromyotonia.
Her contributions have been on the roles of antibodies directed against acetylcholine receptors and muscle specific kinase (MuSK) in myasthenia gravis, and glycine receptors or potassium channel-associated proteins LGI1, CASPR2 and Contactin-2 in CNS diseases.
She demonstrated that transfer of antibodies across the placenta from the pregnant woman to the fetus in utero can cause both acute and longer-term neuromuscular and neurodevelopmental abnormalities.
Since 2016 she has been emeritus Professor at Oxford University, emeritus Fellow of Somerville College, and holds an honorary appointment at UCL; she continues to work on neuromuscular disorders and advise young researchers. Her work in Oxford on brain disorders continues under Associate Professor Sarosh Irani and Dr Patrick Waters.
She is a strong supporter of Freedom from Torture (formerly The Medical Foundation for Treatment of Torture Victims) and a Patron of British Pugwash (that brings together scientists and others concerned with international affairs and disarmament).
### Awards and honours {#awards_and_honours}
In 2009, she presented the Leslie Oliver Oration at Queen\'s Hospital. In 2009, she received the medal of the Association of British Neurologists and in 2017, the World Federation of Neurology Scientific Contributions to Neurology award. In 2015, she was awarded the British Neuroscience Association Award for Outstanding Contribution to Neuroscience. In Cologne 2018, she was awarded with J Posner and J Dalmau, the International Prize for Translational Neuroscience of the Gertrud Reemtsma Foundation (formerly the Klaus Joachim Zülch Prize), and in Washington in 2019, the America Epilepsy Society Clinical Science Research Award (with J Dalmau). She received the Inaugural Distinguished Alumni Award, Imperial College, London, 2020 and the Life-time Award of the German Neurological Society (DGN) in 2021. In 2002, she was elected a Fellow of the Academy of Medical Sciences (FMedSci) and in 2011, a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS)
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# Amiga 500
\| graphics = Denise \| display = 736×567i 4 bpp (PAL)\
736×483i 4 bpp (NTSC)\
368×567i 6 bpp (PAL)\
368×483i 6 bpp (NTSC) \| sound = 4× 8-bit channels PCM at max. `{{nowrap|28 [[kHz]]}}`{=mediawiki} with 6-bit volume in stereo \| predecessor = Amiga 1000 \| successor = `{{ubl|[[Amiga 500 Plus]]|[[Amiga 600]]}}`{=mediawiki} }}
The **Amiga 500**, also known as the **A500**, was the first popular version of the Amiga home computer, \"redefining the home computer market and making so-called luxury features such as multitasking and colour a standard long before Microsoft or Apple sold these to the masses.\" It contains the same Motorola 68000 as the Amiga 1000, as well as the same graphics and sound coprocessors, but is in a smaller case similar to that of the Commodore 128.
Commodore announced the Amiga 500 at the January 1987 winter Consumer Electronics Show`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}at the same time as the high-end Amiga 2000. It was initially available in the Netherlands in April 1987, then the rest of Europe in May. In North America and the UK it was released in October 1987 with a `{{nowrap|US$699/£499}}`{=mediawiki} list price. It competed directly against models in the Atari ST line.
The Amiga 500 was sold in the same retail outlets as the Commodore 64, as opposed to the computer store-only Amiga 1000. It proved to be Commodore\'s best-selling model, particularly in Europe. Although popular with hobbyists, arguably its most widespread use was as a gaming machine, where its graphics and sound were of significant benefit. It was followed by a revised version of the computer, the Amiga 500 Plus, and the 500 series was discontinued in 1992.
## Releases
In mid-1988, the Amiga 500 dropped its price from £499 to £399, and it was later bundled with the *Batman Pack* in the United Kingdom (from October 1989 to September 1990) which included the games *Batman*, *F/A-18 Interceptor*, *The New Zealand Story* and the bitmap graphics editor Deluxe Paint 2. Also included was the Amiga video connector which allows the A500 to be used with a conventional CRT television.
In November 1991, the enhanced Amiga 500 Plus replaced the 500 in some markets. It was bundled with the *Cartoon Classics* pack in the United Kingdom at £399, although many stores still advertised it as an \'A500\'. The Amiga 500 Plus was virtually identical except for its new operating system, integrated 1MB of Chip memory, different \'trap-door\' expansion slot and slightly different keyboard, and in mid-1992, the two were discontinued and effectively replaced by the Amiga 600. In late 1992, Commodore released the Amiga 1200, a machine closer in concept to the original Amiga 500, but with significant technical improvements. Despite this, neither the A1200 nor the A600 replicated the commercial success of its predecessor. By this time, the home market was strongly shifting to IBM PC compatibles with VGA graphics and the low-cost Macintosh Classic, LC, and IIsi models.
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# Amiga 500
## Description
Outwardly resembling the Commodore 128 and codenamed \"Rock Lobster\" during development, the Amiga 500\'s base houses a keyboard and a CPU in one shell, unlike the Amiga 1000. The keyboard for Amiga 500s sold in the United States contains 94 keys, including ten function keys, four cursor keys, and a number pad. All European versions the keyboard have an additional two keys, except for the British variety, which still uses 94 keys. It uses a Motorola 68000 microprocessor running at `{{val|7.15909 |ul=MHz}}`{=mediawiki} in NTSC regions and `{{val|7.09379 |u=MHz}}`{=mediawiki} in PAL regions. The CPU implements a 32-bit model and has 32-bit registers, but it has a 16-bit main ALU and uses a 16-bit external data bus and a 24-bit address bus, providing a maximum of 16 MB of address space. Also built in to the base of the computer is a `{{frac|3|1|2}}`{=mediawiki}-inch floppy disk drive. The user can also install up to three external floppy drives, either `{{frac|3|1|2}}`{=mediawiki}- or `{{frac|5|1|4}}`{=mediawiki}-inch, via the disk drive port. The second and third additional drives are installed by daisy-chaining them. Supported by these drives are double-sided disks with a capacity of 901,120 bytes, as well as 360- and 720-KB disks formatted for IBM PC compatibles.
The earliest Amiga 500 models use nearly the same Original Amiga chipset as the Amiga 1000. So graphics can be displayed in multiple resolutions and color depths, even on the same screen. Resolutions vary from 320×200 (up to 32 colors) to 640×400 (up to 16 colors) for NTSC (704×484 overscan) and 320×256 to 640×512 for PAL (704×576 overscan.) The system uses planar graphics, with up to five bitplanes (four in high resolution) allowing 2-, 4-, 8-, 16-, and 32-color screens, from a palette of 4096 colors. Two special graphics modes are also available: Extra HalfBrite, which uses a sixth bitplane as a mask to cut the brightness of any pixel in half (resulting in 32 arbitrary colors plus 32 more colors set at half the value of the first 32), and Hold-And-Modify (HAM) which allows all 4096 colors to be used on screen simultaneously. Later revisions of the chipset are PAL/NTSC switchable in software.
The sound chip produces four hardware-mixed channels, two to the left and two to the right, of 8-bit PCM at a sampling frequency up to `{{val|28 |ul=kHz}}`{=mediawiki}. Each hardware channel has its own independent volume level and sampling rate, and can be designated to another channel where it can modulate both volume and frequency using its own output. With DMA disabled it\'s possible to output with a sampling frequency up to `{{val|56 |u=kHz}}`{=mediawiki}. There is a common trick to output sound with 14-bit precision that can be combined to output 14-bit `{{val|56 |u=kHz}}`{=mediawiki} sound.
The stock system comes with AmigaOS version 1.2 or 1.3 and `{{val|512 |u=KB}}`{=mediawiki} of chip RAM (150 ns access time), one built-in double-density standard floppy disk drive that is completely programmable and can read `{{val|720 |u=KB}}`{=mediawiki} IBM PC disks, `{{val|880 |u=KB}}`{=mediawiki} standard Amiga disks, and up to `{{nowrap|984 KB}}`{=mediawiki} using custom-formatting drivers.
Despite the lack of Amiga 2000-compatible internal expansion slots, there are many ports and expansion options. There are two DE9M Atari joystick ports for joysticks or mice, and stereo audio RCA connectors (1 V p-p). There is a floppy drive port for daisy-chaining up to three extra floppy disk drives via a DB23F connector. The then-standard RS-232 serial port (DB25M) and Centronics parallel port (DB25F) are also included. The power supply is (`{{val|+5|u=V}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{val|p=±|12|u=V}}`{=mediawiki}). The system displays video in analog RGB `{{val|50 |ul=Hz}}`{=mediawiki} PAL or `{{val|60 |u=Hz}}`{=mediawiki} NTSC through a proprietary DB23M connector and in NTSC mode the line frequency is `{{val|15.75 |u=kHz}}`{=mediawiki} HSync for standard video modes, which is compatible with NTSC television and CVBS/RGB video, but out of range for most VGA-compatible monitors, while a multisync monitor is required for some of the higher resolutions. This connection can also be genlocked to an external video signal. The system was bundled with an RF adapter to provide output on televisions with a coaxial RF input, while monochrome video is available via an RCA connector (also coaxial). On the left side, behind a plastic cover, there is a Zorro (Zorro I) bus expansion external edge connector with 86 pins. Peripherals such as a hard disk drive can be added via the expansion slot and are configured automatically by the Amiga\'s AutoConfig standard, so that multiple devices do not conflict with each other. Up to `{{val|8 |u=MB}}`{=mediawiki} of so-called \"fast RAM\" (memory that can be accessed by the CPU only) can be added using the side expansion slot. This connector is electronically identical with the Amiga 1000\'s, but swapped on the other side.
The Amiga 500 has a \"trap-door\" slot on the underside for a RAM upgrade (typically `{{val|512 |u=KB}}`{=mediawiki}). This extra RAM is classified as \"fast\" RAM, but is sometimes referred to as \"slow\" RAM: due to the design of the expansion bus, it is actually on the chipset bus. Such upgrades usually include a battery-backed real-time clock. All versions of the A500 can have the additional RAM configured as chip RAM by a simple hardware modification, which involves fitting a later model (8372A) Agnus chip. Likewise, all versions of the A500 can be upgraded to `{{val|2 |u=MB}}`{=mediawiki} chip RAM by fitting the `{{nowrap|8372B Agnus}}`{=mediawiki} chip and adding additional memory.
The Amiga 500 also sports an unusual feature for a budget machine, socketed chips, which allow easy replacement of defective chips. The CPU can be directly upgraded on the motherboard to a 68010; or to a 68020, 68030, or 68040 via the side expansion slot; or by removing the CPU and plugging a CPU expansion card into the CPU socket (this requires opening the computer and thus voided any remaining warranty). In fact, all the custom chips can be upgraded to the Amiga Enhanced Chip Set (ECS) versions.
The plastic case is made of acrylonitrile butadiene styrene, or ABS. ABS degrades with time due to exposure to oxygen, causing a yellowing of the case. Other factors contributing to the degradation and yellowing include heat, shear, and ultraviolet light. The yellowing can be reversed by using an optical brightener, though without stabilizing agents or antioxidants to block oxygen, the yellowing will return.
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# Amiga 500
## Technical specifications {#technical_specifications}
- OCS (1.2 and 1.3 models) or ECS (1.3 and 500+ 2.04 models) chipset. ECS revisions of the chipset made PAL/NTSC mode switchable in software.
- Sound: 4 hardware-mixed channels of 8-bit sound at up to `{{nowrap|28 kHz}}`{=mediawiki}. The hardware channels have independent volumes (65 levels) and sampling rates, and are mixed down to two fully left and fully right stereo outputs. A software controllable low-pass audio filter is also included.
- 512 KB of chip RAM (150 ns access time)
- AmigaOS 1.2 or 1.3 (upgradeable up to 3.1.4 if 2 MB of RAM are installed)
- One 3.5\" double-density floppy disk drive is built in, which is completely programmable and thus can read `{{nowrap|720 KB}}`{=mediawiki} IBM PC disks, `{{nowrap|880 KB}}`{=mediawiki} standard Amiga disks, and up to `{{nowrap|984 KB}}`{=mediawiki} with custom formatting (such as Klaus Deppich\'s diskspare.device). Uses `{{nowrap|300 rpm}}`{=mediawiki} (5 rotations/second) and `{{nowrap|250 kbit/s}}`{=mediawiki}.
- Built-in keyboard
- A two-button mouse is included.
### Graphics
- PAL mode: 768×580 maximum (overscan interlaced if viewed on composite monitor/TV). Typical resolutions: 320×256, 640×256 or 640×512 (all displayed with borders).
- NTSC mode: 768×484 maximum (overscan interlaced if viewed on composite monitor/TV). Typical resolutions: 320×200, 640×200 or 640×400 (all displayed with borders).
- Graphics can be of arbitrary dimensions, resolution and colour depth, even on the same screen. The Amiga can show multiple resolution modes at the same time, splitting the screen vertically.
- Planar graphics are used, with up to five bitplanes (four in hires); this allowed 2, 4, 8, 16 and 32 colour screens, from a palette of 4096 colours.
- Two special graphics modes are also included:
- Extra Half Brite (EHB), which uses a sixth bitplane as a mask that halved the brightness of any colour seen
- Hold-And-Modify (HAM), which allows all 4096 colours on screen at once. HAM makes it possible to use `{{nowrap|12 bpp}}`{=mediawiki} over a `{{nowrap|3 [[pixel]]}}`{=mediawiki} wide span. This works by letting each pixel position use the previous RGB value and modify one of the red, green or blue values to a new 4-bit value. This will cause some negligible colour artifacts however.
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# Amiga 500
## Technical specifications {#technical_specifications}
### Memory
Using various expansion techniques, the A500\'s total RAM can reach up to 138 MB -- 2 MB Chip RAM, 8 MB 16-bit Fast RAM, and 128 MB 32-bit Fast RAM.
#### Chip RAM {#chip_ram}
The stock 512 KB Chip RAM can be complemented by 512 KB using a \"trapdoor\" expansion (Commodore A501 or compatible). While that expansion memory is connected to the chip bus, hardware limitations of early stock Agnus chip revisions prevent its use as Chip RAM, only the CPU can access it. Suffering from the same contention limitations as Chip RAM, that memory is known as \"Slow RAM\" or \"Pseudo-fast RAM\". Agnus revisions shipped with late A500 are ECS and allow use of trapdoor RAM as real Chip RAM for a total 1 MB.
Additionally, several third-party expansions exist with up to 2 MB on the trapdoor board. Using a Gary adapter, that memory will be mapped as either split on Chip RAM and Slow RAM or fully as Slow RAM, depending on configuration.
Furthermore, using an A3000 Agnus on an adapter board, it is possible to expand the Chip RAM to 2 MB, matching the A500+.
#### Fast RAM {#fast_ram}
\"Fast\" RAM is located on the CPU-side bus. Its access is exclusive to the CPU and not slowed by any chipset access. The side expansion port allows for up to 8 MB of Zorro-style expansion RAM. Alternatively, a CPU adapter allows for internal expansion.
#### Accelerator RAM {#accelerator_ram}
Internal or external CPU accelerators often include their own expansion memory. 16-bit CPUs are limited by the 24-bit address space but they can repurpose otherwise unused memory space for their included RAM. 32-bit CPU accelerators aren\'t limited by 24-bit addressing and can include up to 128 MB of Fast RAM (and potentially more).
#### Memory map {#memory_map}
Address Size in KB Description
----------- ------------ -----------------------------------------------------------------------
0x00 0000 256 Chip RAM
0x04 0000 256 Chip RAM (A1000 option card)
0x08 0000 512 Chip RAM expansion
0x10 0000 1024 Extended Chip RAM for ECS/AGA
0x20 0000 8192 Primary auto-config space (Fast RAM)
0xA0 0000 1984 Reserved
0xBF D000 3.8 8520-B (even-byte addresses)
0xBF E001 3.8 8520-A (odd-byte addresses)
0xC0 0000 1536 Internal expansion memory (pseudo-fast, \"slow\" RAM on Amiga 500)
0xD8 0000 256 Reserved
0xDC 0000 64 Real time clock
0xDD 0000 188 Reserved
0xDF F000 4 Custom chip registers
0xE0 0000 512 Reserved
0xE8 0000 64 Zorro II auto-config space (before relocation)
0xE9 0000 448 Secondary auto-config space (usually 64K I/O boards)
0xF0 0000 512 512K System ROM (reserved for extended ROM image e.g. CDTV or CD^32^)
0xF8 0000 256 256K System ROM (Kickstart 2.04 or higher)
0xFC 0000 256 256K System ROM
: Amiga system memory map
### Connectors
- Two Atari joystick ports for joysticks or mice
- Stereo audio RCA connectors (`{{val|1|u=V}}`{=mediawiki} p-p)
- A floppy drive port (DB23F), for daisy-chaining up to 3 extra floppy disk drives via a DB23F connector
- A standard RS-232 serial port (DB25M)
- A parallel port (DB25F)
- Power inlet (`{{val|+5 |u=V}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{val|p=±|12 |u=V}}`{=mediawiki})
- Amiga video connector: Analogue RGB `{{val|50|ul=Hz}}`{=mediawiki} PAL and `{{val|60 |u=Hz}}`{=mediawiki} NTSC video output, provided on an Amiga-specific DB23M connector. Can drive video with `{{val|15.75 |u=kHz}}`{=mediawiki} HSync for standard Amiga video modes. This is not compatible with most VGA monitors. A Multisync monitor is required for some higher resolutions. This connection can also be genlocked to an external video signal. An RF adapter (A520) was frequently bundled with the machine to provide output on regular televisions or on composite monitors. A digital 16 colour Red-Green-Blue-Intensity signal is available too on the same connector.
- Monochrome video via an RCA connector
- Zorro II bus expansion on the left side behind a plastic cover
- Trapdoor slot under the machine, for RAM expansion and real-time clock
### Expansions
- Expansion ports are limited to a side expansion port and a trapdoor expansion on the underside of the machine. The casing can also be opened up (voiding the warranty), all larger chips are socketed rather than being TH/SMD soldered directly to the motherboard, so they can be replaced by hand.
- The CPU can be upgraded to a Motorola 68010 directly or to a 68020, 68030 or 68040 via the side expansion slot or a CPU socket adapter board.
- The chip RAM can be upgraded to `{{nowrap|1 MB}}`{=mediawiki} directly on the motherboard, provided a Fat Agnus chip is also installed to support it.
- Likewise, all the custom chips can be upgraded to the ECS chipset.
- The A500+ model instead allowed upgrading by `{{nowrap|1 MB}}`{=mediawiki} trapdoor chip RAM without clock, but there was no visible means on board to map any of this as FAST, causing incompatibility with some stubbornly coded programs.
- There were modification instructions available for the A500 to solder or socket another `{{nowrap|512 KB}}`{=mediawiki} RAM on the board, then run extra address lines to the trapdoor slot to accommodate an additional `{{nowrap|1 MB}}`{=mediawiki} of fast or chip RAM depending on the installed chipset.
- Up to `{{nowrap|8 MB}}`{=mediawiki} of \"fast RAM\" can be added via the side expansion slot, even more if an accelerator with a non-EC (without reduced data/address bus) processor and 32-bit RAM is used.
- Hard drive and other peripherals can be added via the side expansion slot.
- Several companies provided combined CPU, memory and hard drive upgrades`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}or provided chainable expansions that extended the bus as they were added`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}as there is only one side expansion slot.
- Expansions are configured automatically by AutoConfig software, so multiple pieces of hardware did not conflict with each other.
### Diagnostics
When the computer is powered on a self-diagnostic test is run that will indicates failure with a specific colour:
1. Medium green means chip RAM is not found or is damaged.
2. Red means bad kickstart-ROM.
3. Yellow means the CPU has crashed (no trap routine or trying to run bad code) or a bad Zorro expansion card.
4. Blue means a custom chip problem (Denise, Paula, or Agnus).
5. Light green means CIA problem.
6. Light gray means that the CIA might be defective.
7. mean there is a ROM or CIA problem.
8. Black-only (no video) means there is no video output.
The keyboard LED uses blink codes:
1. One blink means the keyboard ROM has a checksum error.
2. Two blinks means RAM failure.
3. Three blinks means watchdog timer failure.
**Measurements**
Overall (base): 6.2 cm x 47.4 cm x 33 cm; 2 7/16 in x 18 11/16 in x 13 in.
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# Amiga 500
## Trap-door expansion 501 {#trap_door_expansion_501}
A popular expansion for the Amiga 500 was the Amiga 501 circuit board that can be installed underneath the computer behind a plastic cover. The expansion contains `{{nowrap|512 KB}}`{=mediawiki} RAM configured by default as \"Slow RAM\" or \"trap-door RAM\" and a battery-backed real-time clock (RTC).
The 512 KB trap-door RAM and 512 KB of original chip RAM will result in 1 MB of total memory. The added memory is known as \"Slow RAM\", as its access is impacted by chip-bus bandwidth contention, while the chipset is not actually able to address it.
Later revisions of the motherboard provide solder-jumpers to relocate the trap-door RAM to the chip memory pool, given the Agnus chip is the newer ECS version, shipped in later A500 motherboards. Newest (rev 8) A500s would share motherboard with A500+, and configure the expansion memory as CHIP by default.
## Software
Each time the Amiga 500 is booted, it executes code from the Kickstart ROM. The Amiga 500 initially came shipped with AmigaOS 1.2, but units since October 1988 had version 1.3 installed.
## Reception and sales {#reception_and_sales}
The Amiga 500 was the best-selling model in the Amiga family of computers. The German computer magazine *Chip* awarded the model the annual \"Home Computer of the Year\" title three consecutive times. At the European Computer Trade Show 1991, it also won the Leisure Award for the similar \"Home Computer of the Year\" title.
Owing to the inexpensive cost of the Amiga 500 in then price-sensitive Europe, sales of the Amiga family of computers were strongest there, constituting 85 percent of Commodore\'s total sales in the fourth quarter of 1990. The Amiga 500 was widely perceived as a gaming machine and the Amiga 2000 a computer for artists and hobbyists.
It has been claimed that Commodore sold as many as six million units worldwide. However, Commodore UK refuted that figure and said that the entire Amiga line sold between four and five million computers. Indeed, *Ars Technica* provides a year-by-year graph of the sales of all Amiga computers.
The machine is reported to have sold 1,160,500 units in Germany (including Amiga 500 Plus sales).
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# Amiga 500
## Amiga 500 Plus {#amiga_500_plus}
The **Amiga 500 Plus** (often **A500 Plus** or simply **A500+**) is a revised version of the original Amiga 500 computer. The A500+ featured minor changes to the motherboard to make it cheaper to produce than the original A500. It was notable for introducing new versions of Kickstart and Workbench, and for some minor improvements in the custom chips, known as the Enhanced Chip Set (or ECS).
Although officially introduced in 1992, some Amiga 500 units sold in late 1991 actually featured the revised motherboard used in the A500+. Although the Amiga 500+ was an improvement to the Amiga 500, it was minor. It was discontinued and replaced by the Amiga 600 in summer 1992, making it the shortest-lived Amiga model.
### Compatibility problems {#compatibility_problems}
Due to the new Kickstart v2.04, quite a few popular games (such as *Treasure Island Dizzy*, *Lotus Esprit Turbo Challenge*, and *SWIV*) failed to work on the Amiga 500+, and some people took them back to dealers demanding an original Kickstart 1.3 Amiga 500. This problem was largely solved by third parties who produced Kickstart ROM switching boards, that could allow the Amiga 500+ to be downgraded to Kickstart 1.2 or 1.3. It also encouraged game developers to use better programming habits, which was important since Commodore already had plans for the introduction of the next-generation Amiga 1200 computer. A program, Relokick, was also released (and included with an issue of CU Amiga) which loaded a Kickstart 1.3 ROM image into memory and booted the machine into Kickstart 1.3, allowing most incompatible software to run (the software did take up 512 KB of system memory, meaning that some 1 MB only games would now fail for lack of available memory). In some cases, updated compatible versions of games were later released, such as budget versions of Lotus 1 and SWIV, and an update to *Bubble Bobble*. Double Dragon 2 by Binary Design received an update for ECS machines with the \"Amiga phase-alternated linescan version 4.01/ECS\". This solved compatibility issues with the graphics which appeared garbled on ECS machines, and it also slashed the in-game loading times from around 20 seconds to just over 6.
### Technical specifications {#technical_specifications_1}
- Motorola 68000 CPU running at `{{nowrap|7.09 MHz}}`{=mediawiki} (PAL) / `{{nowrap|7.16 MHz}}`{=mediawiki} (NTSC), like its predecessor
- 1 MB of Chip RAM (very early versions came with 512 KB)
- Kickstart 2.04 (v37.175)
- Workbench 37.67 (release 2
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# Arianespace
\(2021\) \| operating_income = \| net_income = \| assets = \| equity = \| owner = \| num_employees = 220 (2023) \| parent = ArianeGroup \| divisions = \| subsid = \| homepage = `{{URL|arianespace.com}}`{=mediawiki} \| footnotes = \| intl = \| location_city = Évry-Courcouronnes n. Paris \| location_country = France \| location = \| locations = \| caption = }}
**Arianespace SA** is a French company founded in March 1980 as the world\'s first commercial launch service provider. It operates two launch vehicles: Vega C, a small-lift rocket, and Ariane 6, a medium-to-heavy-lift rocket. Arianespace is a subsidiary of ArianeGroup, a joint venture between Airbus and Safran.
European space launches are carried out as a collaborative effort between private companies and government agencies. The role of Arianespace is to market Ariane 6 launch services, prepare missions, and manage customer relations. At the Guiana Space Centre (CSG) in French Guiana, the company oversees the team responsible for integrating and preparing launch vehicles.
The rockets themselves are designed and manufactured by other companies: ArianeGroup for the Ariane 6 and Avio for the Vega. The launch infrastructure at the CSG is owned by the European Space Agency, while the land itself belongs to and is managed by CNES, the French national space agency.
, Arianespace had launched more than 850 satellites in 287 missions spanning 41 years. The company\'s first commercial launch was Spacenet 1, which took place on 23 May 1984. In addition to its facilities at the CSG, the company\'s main offices are in Évry-Courcouronnes, a suburb of Paris.
## History
The formation of Arianespace SA is closely associated with the desire of several European nations to pursue joint collaboration in the field of space exploration and the formation of a pan-national organisation, the European Space Agency (ESA), to oversee such undertaking during 1973. Prior to the ESA\'s formation, France had been lobbying for the development of a new European expendable launch system to serve as a replacement for the Europa rocket. Accordingly, one of the first programmes launched by the ESA was the Ariane heavy launcher. The express purpose of this launcher was to facilitate the delivery of commercial satellites into geosynchronous orbit.
France was the largest stakeholder in the Ariane development programme. French aerospace manufacturer Aérospatiale served as the prime contractor and held responsibility for performing the integration of all sections of the vehicle, while French engine manufacturer Société Européenne de Propulsion (SEP) provided the first, second and third stage engines (the third stage engines were produced in partnership with German aerospace manufacturer MBB). Other major companies involved included the French firms Air Liquide and Matra, Swedish manufacturer Volvo, and German aircraft producer Dornier Flugzeugwerke. Development of the third stage was a major focus point for the project - prior to Ariane, only the United States had ever flown a launcher that utilised hydrogen-powered upper stages.
Immediately following the successful first test launch of an Ariane 1 on 24 December 1979, the French space agency Centre national d\'études spatiales (CNES) and the ESA created a new company, *Arianespace*, for the purpose of promoting, marketing, and managing Ariane operations. According to Arianespace, at the time of its establishment, it was the world\'s first launch services company. Following a further three test launches, the first commercial launch took place on 10 September 1982, which ended in failure as a result of a turbopump having failed in the third stage. The six remaining flights of the Ariane 1 were successful, with the final flight occurring during February 1986. As a result of these repeated successes, orders for the Ariane launcher quickly mounted up; by early 1984, a total of 27 satellites had been booked to use Ariane, which was estimated to be half of the world\'s market at that time. As a result of the commercial success, after the tenth Ariane mission was flown, the ESA formally transferred responsibility for Ariane over to Arianespace.
By early 1986, the Ariane 1, along with its Ariane 2 and Ariane 3 derivates, were the dominant launcher on the world market. The Ariane 2 and Ariane 3 were short-lived platforms while the more extensive Ariane 4 was being developed; it was a considerably larger and more flexible launcher that the earlier members of its family, having been intended from the onset to compete with the upper end of launchers worldwide. In comparison, while the Ariane 1 had a typical weight of 207 tonnes and could launch payloads of up to 1.7 tonnes into orbit; the larger Ariane 4 had a typical weight of 470 tonnes and could orbit payloads of up to 4.2 tonnes. Despite this, the Ariane 4 was actually 15 per cent smaller than the Ariane 3.
On 15 June 1988, the first successful launch of the Ariane 4 was conducted. This maiden flight was considered a success, having placed multiple satellites into orbit. For the V50 launch onwards, an improved third stage, known as the *H10+*, was adopted for the Ariane 4, which raised the rocket\'s overall payload capacity by 110 kg and increased its burn time by 20 seconds.
Even prior to the first flight of the Ariane 4 in 1988, development of a successor, designated as the Ariane 5, had already commenced. In January 1985, the Ariane 5 was officially adopted as an ESA programme, and began an eleven-year development and test program to the first launch in 1996. It lacked the high levels of commonality that the Ariane 4 had with its predecessors, and had been designed not only for launching heavier payloads of up to 5.2 tonnes and at a 20 per cent cost reduction over the Ariane 4, but for a higher margin of safety due to the fact that the Ariane 5 was designed to conduct crewed space launches as well, being intended to transport astronauts using the proposed Hermes space vehicle. Development of the Ariane 5 was not without controversy as some ESA members considered the mature Ariane 4 platform to be more suited for meeting established needs for such launchers; it was reportedly for this reason that Britain chose not to participate in the Ariane 5 programme. For several years, Ariane 4 and Ariane 5 launchers were operated interchangeably; however, it was eventually decided to terminate all Ariane 4 operations in favour of concentrating on the newer Ariane 5.
During the mid-1990s, French firms Aérospatiale and SEP, along with Italian firm Bombrini-Parodi-Delfino (BPD), held discussions on the development of a proposed Ariane Complementary Launcher (ACL). Simultaneously, Italy championed the concept of a new solid-propellant satellite launcher, referred to as Vega. During March 2003, contracts for Vega\'s development were signed by the ESA and CNES; Italy provided 65 per cent of funding while six additional nations contributed the remainder. In May 2004, it was reported that a contract was signed between commercial operator Arianespace and prime contractor ELV to perform vehicle integration at Kourou, French Guiana. On 13 February 2012, the first launch of the Vega took place; it was reported as being an \"apparently perfect flight\". Since entering commercial service, Arianespace markets Vega as a launch system tailored for missions to polar and Sun-synchronous orbits.
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# Arianespace
## History
During 2002, the ESA announced the Arianespace Soyuz programme in cooperation with Russia; a launch site for Soyuz was constructed as the Guiana Space Centre, while the Soyuz launch vehicle was modified for use at the site. On 4 February 2005, both funding and final approval for the initiative were granted. Arianespace had offered launch services on the modified Soyuz ST-B to its clients. On 21 October 2011, Arianespace launched the first Soyuz rocket ever from outside former Soviet territory. The payload consisted of two Galileo navigation satellites. Since 2011, Arianespace has ordered a total of 23 Soyuz rockets, enough to cover its needs until 2019 at a pace of three to four launches per year.
On 21 January 2019, ArianeGroup and Arianespace announced that it had signed a one-year contract with the ESA to study and prepare for a mission to the Moon to mine regolith.
In 2020, Arianespace suspended operations for nearly two months due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Operations were suspended on 18 March and are, as of 29 April, expected to resume on 11 May. The return to operations will observe a number of new health and safety guidelines including social distancing in the workplace.
In 2023, Ariane 5 was retired with the introduction of new Ariane 6, that conducted its maiden flight on 9 July 2024.
In August 2024, the ESA agreed to allow Avio---the prime contractor for the ESA-funded Vega---to directly commercialize Vega C and seek non-governmental customers. Arianespace had handled marketing of Vega launches prior to that time. The transition is anticipated to be complete by the end of 2025.
## Company and infrastructure {#company_and_infrastructure}
Arianespace \"is the marketing and sales organization for the European space industry and various component suppliers.\"
The primary shareholders of Arianespace are its suppliers,`{{why|date=September 2019}}`{=mediawiki} in various European nations. Arianespace had 24 shareholders in 2008, 21 in 2014, and just 17 `{{as of|October 2018|lc=y}}`{=mediawiki}.
Country scope=\"col\" data-sort-type=\"number\"\|Total share Shareholder scope=\"col\" data-sort-type=\"number\"\|Capital
--------- ------------------------------------------------------ ---------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------
3.36% SABCA 2.71%
Thales Alenia Space Belgium 0.33%
0.32%
64.10% ArianeGroup 62.10%
Air Liquide SA 1.89%
0.11%
CIE Deutsche \<0.01%
19.85% ArianeGroup 11.59%
AG 8.26%
3.38% Avio S.p.A. 3.38%
1.94% Airbus Defence and Space B.V. 1.94%
0.11% Kongsberg Defence & Aerospace AS 0.11%
2.14% Airbus Defence and Space SAU 2.03%
CRISA 0.11%
2.45% GKN Aerospace Sweden AB 1.63%
RUAG Space AB 0.82%
2.67% RUAG Schweiz AG 2.67%
In 2015, Arianespace shareholding was restructured due to the creation of Airbus Safran Launchers (later renamed ArianeGroup), which is tasked with developing and manufacturing the Ariane 6 carrier rocket. Industrial groups Airbus and Safran pooled their shares along with the French government\'s CNES stake to form a partnership company holding just under 74% of Arianespace shares, while the remaining 26% is spread across suppliers in nine countries including further Airbus subsidiaries.
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# Arianespace
## Competition and pricing {#competition_and_pricing}
By 2004, Arianespace reportedly held more than 50% of the world market for boosting satellites to geostationary transfer orbit (GTO).
During the 2010s, the disruptive force represented by the new sector entrant SpaceX forced Arianespace to cut back on its workforce and focus on cost-cutting to decrease costs to remain competitive against the new low-cost entrant in the launch sector. In the midst of pricing pressure from such companies, during November 2013, Arianespace announced that it was enacting pricing flexibility for the \"lighter satellites\" that it carries to Geostationary orbits aboard its Ariane 5. According to Arianespace\'s managing director: \"It\'s quite clear there\'s a very significant challenge coming from SpaceX (\...) therefore things have to change (\...) and the whole European industry is being restructured, consolidated, rationalised and streamlined.\"
During early 2014, Arianespace was considering requesting additional subsidies from European governments to face competition from SpaceX and unfavorable changes in the Euro-Dollar exchange rate. The company had halved subsidy support by €100m per year since 2002 but the fall in the value of the US Dollar meant Arianespace was losing €60m per year due to currency fluctuations on launch contracts. SpaceX had reportedly begun to take market share from Arianespace, Eutelsat CEO Michel de Rosen, a major customer of Arianespace, stated that: \"Each year that passes will see SpaceX advance, gain market share and further reduce its costs through economies of scale.\"
By September 2014, Arianespace had reportedly to sign four additional contracts for lower slots on an Ariane 5 SYLDA dispenser for satellites that otherwise could be flown on a SpaceX launch vehicle; this was claimed to have been allowed via cost reductions; it had signed a total of 11 contracts by that point, while two additional ones that were under advanced negotiations. At the time, Arianespace has a backlog of launches worth `{{Euro|4.5}}`{=mediawiki} billion with 38 satellites to be launched on Ariane 5, 7 on Soyuz and 9 on Vega, claiming 60% of the global satellite launch market. However, since 2017, Arianespace\'s market share has been passed by SpaceX in commercial launches.
## Launch vehicles {#launch_vehicles}
Currently, Arianespace operates three launch vehicles:
Name Payload to LEO/SSO Payload to GTO
----------- -------------------- ----------------
Vega C
Ariane 62
Ariane 64
### Ariane launch vehicles {#ariane_launch_vehicles}
Since the first launch in 1979, there have been several versions of the Ariane launch vehicle:
- Ariane 1, first successful launch on 24 December 1979
- Ariane 2, first successful launch on 20 November 1987 *(the first launch on 30 May 1986, failed)*
- Ariane 3, first successful launch on 4 August 1984
- Ariane 4, first successful launch on 15 June 1988
- Ariane 5, first successful launch on 30 October 1997 *(the first launch on 4 June 1996, failed)*.
- Ariane 6, It has a similar payload capacity to that of Ariane 5 but considerably lower costs. Its first flight took place on 9 July 2024.
- Ariane Next, in early development. It will be a partially reusable launcher that should succeed Ariane 6 from the 2030s. The objective of this reusable launcher is to halve the launch costs
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# Accumulator (computing)
`{{more citations needed|date=February 2024}}`{=mediawiki}
In a computer\'s central processing unit (CPU), the **accumulator** is a register in which intermediate arithmetic logic unit results are stored.
Without a register like an accumulator, it would be necessary to write the result of each calculation (addition, multiplication, shift, etc.) to cache or main memory, perhaps only to be read right back again for use in the next operation.
Accessing memory is slower than accessing a register like an accumulator because the technology used for the large main memory is slower (but cheaper) than that used for a register. Early electronic computer systems were often split into two groups, those with accumulators and those without.
Modern computer systems often have multiple general-purpose registers that can operate as accumulators, and the term is no longer as common as it once was. However, to simplify their design, a number of special-purpose processors still use a single accumulator.
## Basic concept {#basic_concept}
Mathematical operations often take place in a stepwise fashion, using the results from one operation as the input to the next. For instance, a manual calculation of a worker\'s weekly payroll might look something like:
1. look up the number of hours worked from the employee\'s time card
2. look up the pay rate for that employee from a table
3. multiply the hours by the pay rate to get their basic weekly pay
4. multiply their basic pay by a fixed percentage to account for income tax
5. subtract that number from their basic pay to get their weekly pay after tax
6. multiply that result by another fixed percentage to account for retirement plans
7. subtract that number from their basic pay to get their weekly pay after all deductions
A computer program carrying out the same task would follow the same basic sequence of operations, although the values being looked up would all be stored in computer memory. In early computers, the number of hours would likely be held on a punch card and the pay rate in some other form of memory, perhaps a magnetic drum. Once the multiplication is complete, the result needs to be placed somewhere. On a \"drum machine\" this would likely be back to the drum, an operation that takes considerable time. Then the very next operation has to read that value back in, which introduces another considerable delay.
Accumulators dramatically improve performance in systems like these by providing a scratchpad area where the results of one operation can be fed to the next one for little or no performance penalty. In the example above, the basic weekly pay would be calculated and placed in the accumulator, which could then immediately be used by the income tax calculation. This removes one save and one read operation from the sequence, operations that generally took tens to hundreds of times as long as the multiplication itself.
## Accumulator machines {#accumulator_machines}
An **accumulator machine**, also called a 1-operand machine, or a CPU with *accumulator-based architecture*, is a kind of CPU where, although it may have several registers, the CPU mostly stores the results of calculations in one special register, typically called \"the accumulator\". Almost all `{{clarify|text=early|reason=To what years does "early" refer|date=July 2021}}`{=mediawiki} computers were accumulator machines with only the high-performance \"supercomputers\" having multiple registers. Then as mainframe systems gave way to microcomputers, accumulator architectures were again popular with the MOS 6502 being a notable example. Many 8-bit microcontrollers that are still popular `{{as of|2014|lc=y}}`{=mediawiki}, such as the PICmicro and 8051, are accumulator-based machines.
Modern CPUs are typically 2-operand or 3-operand machines. The additional operands specify which one of many general-purpose registers (also called \"general-purpose accumulators\") are used as the source and destination for calculations. These CPUs are not considered \"accumulator machines\".
The characteristic that distinguishes one register as being the accumulator of a computer architecture is that the accumulator (if the architecture were to have one) would be used as an *implicit* operand for arithmetic instructions. For instance, a CPU might have an instruction like: `ADD `*`memaddress`* that adds the value read from memory location *memaddress* to the value in the accumulator, placing the result back in the accumulator. The accumulator is not identified in the instruction by a register number; it is implicit in the instruction and no other register can be specified in the instruction. Some architectures use a particular register as an accumulator in some instructions, but other instructions use register numbers for explicit operand specification.
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# Accumulator (computing)
## History of the computer accumulator {#history_of_the_computer_accumulator}
Any system that uses a single \"memory\" to store the result of multiple operations can be considered an accumulator. J. Presper Eckert refers to even the earliest adding machines of Gottfried Leibniz and Blaise Pascal as accumulator-based systems. Percy Ludgate was the first to conceive a multiplier-accumulator (MAC) in his Analytical Machine of 1909.
Historical convention dedicates a register to \"the accumulator\", an \"arithmetic organ\" that literally accumulates its number during a sequence of arithmetic operations:
: \"The first part of our arithmetic organ \... should be a parallel storage organ which can receive a number and add it to the one already in it, which is also able to clear its contents and which can store what it contains. We will call such an organ an Accumulator. It is quite conventional in principle in past and present computing machines of the most varied types, e.g. desk multipliers, standard IBM counters, more modern relay machines, the ENIAC\" (Goldstine and von Neumann, 1946; p. 98 in Bell and Newell 1971).
Just a few of the instructions are, for example (with some modern interpretation):
- Clear accumulator and add number from memory location X
- Clear accumulator and subtract number from memory location X
- Add number copied from memory location X to the contents of the accumulator
- Subtract number copied from memory location X from the contents of the accumulator
- Clear accumulator and shift contents of register into accumulator
No convention exists regarding the names for operations from registers to accumulator and from accumulator to registers. Tradition (e.g. Donald Knuth\'s (1973) hypothetical MIX computer), for example, uses two instructions called *load accumulator* from register/memory (e.g. \"LDA r\") and *store accumulator* to register/memory (e.g. \"STA r\"). Knuth\'s model has many other instructions as well.
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# Accumulator (computing)
## Notable accumulator-based computers {#notable_accumulator_based_computers}
The 1945 configuration of ENIAC had 20 accumulators, which could operate in parallel. Each one could store an eight decimal digit number and add to it (or subtract from it) a number it received. Most of IBM\'s early binary \"scientific\" computers, beginning with the vacuum tube IBM 701 in 1952, used a single 36-bit accumulator, along with a separate multiplier/quotient register to handle operations with longer results. The IBM 650, a decimal machine, had one 10 digit distributor and two ten-digit accumulators; the IBM 7070, a later, transistorized decimal machine had three accumulators. The IBM System/360, and Digital Equipment Corporation\'s PDP-6, had 16 general-purpose registers, although the PDP-6 and its successor, the PDP-10, call them accumulators.
The 12-bit PDP-8 was one of the first minicomputers to use accumulators, and inspired many later machines. The PDP-8 had but one accumulator. The HP 2100 and Data General Nova had 2 and 4 accumulators. The Nova was created when this follow-on to the PDP-8 was rejected in favor of what would become the PDP-11. The Nova provided four accumulators, AC0-AC3, although AC2 and AC3 could also be used to provide offset addresses, tending towards more generality of usage for the registers. The PDP-11 had 8 general-purpose registers, along the lines of the System/360 and PDP-10; most later CISC and RISC machines provided multiple general-purpose registers.
Early 4-bit and 8-bit microprocessors such as the 4004, 8008 and numerous others, typically had single accumulators. The 8051 microcontroller has two, a primary accumulator and a secondary accumulator, where the second is used by instructions only when multiplying (MUL AB) or dividing (DIV AB); the former splits the 16-bit result between the two 8-bit accumulators, whereas the latter stores the quotient on the primary accumulator A and the remainder in the secondary accumulator B. As a direct descendant of the 8008, the 8080, and the 8086, the modern ubiquitous Intel x86 processors still uses the primary accumulator EAX and the secondary accumulator EDX for multiplication and division of large numbers. For instance, MUL ECX will multiply the 32-bit registers ECX and EAX and split the 64-bit result between EAX and EDX. However, MUL and DIV are special cases; other arithmetic-logical instructions (ADD, SUB, CMP, AND, OR, XOR, TEST) may specify any of the eight registers EAX, ECX, EDX, EBX, ESP, EBP, ESI, EDI as the accumulator (i.e. left operand and destination). This is also supported for multiply if the upper half of the result is not required. x86 is thus a fairly general register architecture, despite being based on an accumulator model. The 64-bit extension of x86, x86-64, has been further generalized to 16 instead of 8 general registers
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# Andersonville, Georgia
**Andersonville** is a city in Sumter County, Georgia, United States. As of the 2020 census, the city had a population of 237. It is located in the southwest part of the state, approximately 60 mi southwest of Macon on the Central of Georgia railroad. During the American Civil War, it was the site of a prisoner-of-war camp, which is now Andersonville National Historic Site.
Andersonville is part of the Americus micropolitan statistical area.
## History
The hamlet of Anderson was named for John Anderson, a director of the South Western Railroad in 1853 when it was extended from Oglethorpe to Americus. It was known as Anderson Station until the US post office was established in November 1855. The government changed the name of the station from \"Anderson\" to \"Andersonville\" in order to avoid confusion with the post office in Anderson, South Carolina.
During the Civil War, the Confederate army established Camp Sumter at Andersonville to house incoming Union prisoners of war. The overcrowded Andersonville Prison was notorious for its bad conditions, and nearly 13,000 prisoners died there. After the war, Henry Wirz was convicted for war crimes related to the command of the camp. His trial was later regarded as unfair by several pro-confederacy groups, and a monument in his honor has been erected in Andersonville by the United Daughters of the Confederacy.
The town also served as a supply depot during the war period. It included a post office, a depot, a blacksmith shop and stable, a couple of general stores, two saloons, a school, a Methodist church, and about a dozen houses. Ben Dykes, who owned the land on which the prison was built, was both depot agent and postmaster.
Until the establishment of the prison, the area was entirely dependent on agriculture, supported by dark reddish brown sandy loams later mapped as Greenville and Red Bay soil series. After the close of the prison and end of the war, the town continued economically dependent on agriculture, primarily the cultivation of cotton as a commodity crop.
It was not until 1968, when the large-scale mining of kaolin, bauxitic kaolin, and bauxite was begun by Mulcoa, Mullite Company of America, that the town was dramatically altered. This operation exploited 2000 acre of scrub oak wilderness into a massive mining and refining operation. The company now`{{When|date=April 2023}}`{=mediawiki} ships more than 2000 tons of refined ore from Andersonville each week.
In 1974, long-time mayor Lewis Easterlin and a group of concerned citizens decided to promote tourism in the town, redeveloping Main Street to look much as it did during the American Civil War. The city of Andersonville and the Andersonville National Historic Site, location of the prison camp, are now tourist attractions.
## Geography
### Climate
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# Andersonville, Georgia
## Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 331 people, 124 households, and 86 families residing in the city. The population density was 254.1 PD/sqmi. There were 142 housing units at an average density of 109.0 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the city was 65.26% White and 34.74% African American. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.21% of the population.
There were 124 households, out of which 34.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.0% were married couples living together, 17.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 30.6% were non-families. 26.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.67 and the average family size was 3.21.
In the city, the population was spread out, with 27.8% under the age of 18, 9.4% from 18 to 24, 31.4% from 25 to 44, 19.3% from 45 to 64, and 12.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 105.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 97.5 males.
The median income for a household in the city was \$29,107, and the median income for a family was \$30,972. Males had a median income of \$26,591 versus \$20,000 for females. The per capita income for the city was \$15,168. About 19.8% of families and 23.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 29.3% of those under age 18 and 13.5% of those age 65 or over
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# Agra Canal
The **Agra Canal** is an important Indian irrigation work which starts from Okhla in Delhi. The Agra canal originates at the Okhla barrage, downstream of Nizamuddin bridge.
The canal receives its water from the Yamuna River at Okhla, about 10 km to the south of New Delhi. The weir across the Yamuna was constructed of locally quarried stone. It was about 800 yd long, and rises seven feet above the summer level of the river.
From Okhla the canal follows a route south then southeast for 140 miles in the high land between the Khari-Nadi and the Yamuna and finally joins the Utanga River about 27 miles below Agra. Navigable branches connect the canal with Mathura and Agra. The canal irrigates about {{lakh 1.5}} in Agra, and Mathura in Uttar Pradesh, Faridabad in Haryana, Bharatpur in Rajasthan and also some parts of Delhi.
## History
The canal opened in the year 1874. In the beginning, it was available for navigation, in Delhi, erstwhile Gurgaon, Mathura and Agra Districts, and Bharatpur State. Later, navigation was stopped in 1904 and the canal has, since then, been exclusively used for irrigation purposes only. At present, the canal does not flow in Gurgaon district, but only in Faridabad, which was earlier a part of Gurgaon.
In recent times, Agra canal is an important landmark which separates Greater Faridabad from Faridabad
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# Afterglow
An **afterglow** in meteorology consists of several atmospheric optical phenomena, with a general definition as a broad arch of whitish or pinkish sunlight in the twilight sky, consisting of the **bright segment** and the **purple light**. Purple light mainly occurs when the Sun is 2--6° below the horizon, from civil to nautical twilight, while the bright segment lasts until the end of the nautical twilight. Afterglow is often in cases of volcanic eruptions discussed, while its purple light is discussed as a different particular *volcanic purple light*. Specifically in volcanic occurrences it is light scattered by fine particulates, like dust, suspended in the atmosphere. In the case of alpenglow, which is similar to the Belt of Venus, afterglow is used in general for the golden-red glowing light from the sunset and sunrise reflected in the sky, and in particularly for its last stage, when the purple light is reflected. The opposite of an afterglow is a **foreglow**, which occurs before sunrise.
Sunlight reaches Earth around civil twilight during golden hour intensely in its low-energy and low-frequency red component. During this part of civil twilight after sunset and before sundawn the red sunlight remains visible by scattering through particles in the air. Backscattering, possibly after being reflected off clouds or high snowfields in mountain regions, furthermore creates a reddish to pinkish light. The high-energy and high-frequency components of light towards blue are scattered out broadly, producing the broader blue light of nautical twilight before or after the reddish light of civil twilight, while in combination with the reddish light producing the purple light. This period of blue dominating is referred to as the blue hour and is, like the golden hour, widely treasured by photographers and painters.
After the 1883 eruption of the volcano Krakatoa, a remarkable series of red sunsets appeared worldwide. An enormous amount of exceedingly fine dust were blown to a great height by the volcano\'s explosion, and then globally diffused by the high atmospheric winds. Edvard Munch\'s painting *The Scream* possibly depicts an afterglow during this period.
<File:Dämmerung> mit Purpurlicht und Schattenstrahlen, 10.10.2011 bei Limburg VIII.jpg\|Purple light with crepuscular shadow <File:Lamma> evening4.jpg\|Sunset in Hong Kong after the 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo <File:Dresden.afterglow.700px.jpg%7CAn> afterglow in Dresden, Saxony, Germany <File:Afterglow.jpg%7CAn> afterglow in Slovenian mountains, near Triglav Lakes Valley <File:Full> Image Sunset Bates College Lewiston Maine July 3 2008 8.30PM.JPG\|Sunset over the Bates College track in Lewiston, Maine <File:Noarlunga> Pier, Adelaide.jpg\|An afterglow at a pier in Australia <File:Afterglow> in Sanchong, New Taipei 20140114.jpg\|An afterglow on skyscrapers in New Taipei, Taiwan <File:Afterglow> Kraków.JPG\|An afterglow on a Kraków housing estate <File:Optical> effect march sunset - NOAA.jpg\|Additional to foreglow here refracted sunlight reaches the South Pole just before actual sunrise. At Earth\'s poles the Sun appears at the horizon only and all day around equinox, marking the change between the half year long polar night and polar day
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# Advanced Power Management
**Advanced power management** (**APM**) is a technical standard for power management developed by Intel and Microsoft and released in 1992 which enables an operating system running an IBM-compatible personal computer to work with the BIOS (part of the computer\'s firmware) to achieve power management.
Revision 1.2 was the last version of the APM specification, released in 1996. ACPI is the successor to APM. Microsoft dropped support for APM in Windows Vista. The Linux kernel still mostly supports APM, though support for APM CPU idle was dropped in version 3.0.
## Overview
APM uses a layered approach to manage devices. APM-aware applications (which include device drivers) talk to an OS-specific APM driver. This driver communicates to the APM-aware BIOS, which controls the hardware. There is the ability to opt out of APM control on a device-by-device basis, which can be used if a driver wants to communicate directly with a hardware device.
Communication occurs both ways; power management events are sent from the BIOS to the APM driver, and the APM driver sends information and requests to the BIOS via function calls. In this way the APM driver is an intermediary between the BIOS and the operating system.
Power management happens in two ways; through the above-mentioned function calls from the APM driver to the BIOS requesting power state changes, and automatically based on device activity.
In APM 1.0 and APM 1.1, power management is almost fully controlled by the BIOS. In APM 1.2, the operating system can control PM time (e.g. suspend timeout).
In 1997, Phoenix Technologies released \"APM 2.0\" which is a kernel device driver compatible with an APM 1.2 BIOS.
## Power management events {#power_management_events}
There are 12 power events (such as standby, suspend and resume requests, and low battery notifications), plus OEM-defined events, that can be sent from the APM BIOS to the operating system. The APM driver regularly polls for event change notifications.
Power Management Events:
Name Code Comment
------------------------------------------ -------- ------------------------------------------
System Standby Request Notification 0x0001
System Suspend Request Notification 0x0002
Normal Resume System Notification 0x0003
Critical Resume System Notification 0x0004
Battery Low Notification 0x0005
Power Status Change Notification 0x0006
Update Time Notification 0x0007
Critical System Suspend Notification 0x0008
User System Standby Request Notification 0x0009
User System Suspend Request Notification 0x000A
System Standby Resume Notification 0x000B
Capabilities Change Notification 0x000C Due to setup or device insertion/removal
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# Advanced Power Management
## APM functions {#apm_functions}
There are 21 APM function calls defined that the APM driver can use to query power management statuses, or request power state transitions. Example function calls include letting the BIOS know about current CPU usage (the BIOS may respond to such a call by placing the CPU in a low-power state, or returning it to its full-power state), retrieving the current power state of a device, or requesting a power state change.
+---------------------------------------------+------+--------------------------------------------------------------+
| Name | Code | Comment |
+=============================================+======+==============================================================+
| APM Installation Check | 0x00 | |
+---------------------------------------------+------+--------------------------------------------------------------+
| APM Real Mode Interface Connect | 0x01 | |
+---------------------------------------------+------+--------------------------------------------------------------+
| APM Protected Mode 16-bit Interface Connect | 0x02 | Avoids real or virtual86 mode. |
+---------------------------------------------+------+--------------------------------------------------------------+
| APM Protected Mode 32-bit Interface Connect | 0x03 | Avoids real or virtual86 mode. |
+---------------------------------------------+------+--------------------------------------------------------------+
| APM Interface Disconnect | 0x04 | |
+---------------------------------------------+------+--------------------------------------------------------------+
| CPU Idle | 0x05 | Requests system suspend.\ |
| | | 0) Clock halted until timer tick interrupt.\ |
| | | 1) Slow clock |
+---------------------------------------------+------+--------------------------------------------------------------+
| CPU Busy | 0x06 | Driver tells system APM to restore clock speed of the CPU. |
+---------------------------------------------+------+--------------------------------------------------------------+
| **Set Power State** | 0x07 | Set system or device into Suspend/Standby/Off state. |
+---------------------------------------------+------+--------------------------------------------------------------+
| Enable/Disable Power Management | 0x08 | |
+---------------------------------------------+------+--------------------------------------------------------------+
| Restore APM BIOS Power-On Defaults | 0x09 | |
+---------------------------------------------+------+--------------------------------------------------------------+
| Get Power Status | 0x0A | Supports AC status \"On backup power\". And battery status. |
+---------------------------------------------+------+--------------------------------------------------------------+
| Get PM Event | 0x0B | Checks for APM events. Shall be called once per second. |
+---------------------------------------------+------+--------------------------------------------------------------+
| Get Power State | 0x0C | |
+---------------------------------------------+------+--------------------------------------------------------------+
| Enable/Disable Device Power Management | 0x0D | |
+---------------------------------------------+------+--------------------------------------------------------------+
| APM Driver Version | 0x0E | |
+---------------------------------------------+------+--------------------------------------------------------------+
| Engage/Disengage Power Management | 0x0F | APM management for a specific device. |
+---------------------------------------------+------+--------------------------------------------------------------+
| Get Capabilities | 0x10 | |
+---------------------------------------------+------+--------------------------------------------------------------+
| Get/Set/Disable Resume Timer | 0x11 | |
+---------------------------------------------+------+--------------------------------------------------------------+
| Enable/Disable Resume on Ring Indicator | 0x12 | |
+---------------------------------------------+------+--------------------------------------------------------------+
| Enable/Disable Timer Based Requests | 0x13 | |
+---------------------------------------------+------+--------------------------------------------------------------+
| OEM APM Installation Check | 0x80 | Tells if APM BIOS supports OEM hardware dependent functions. |
+---------------------------------------------+------+--------------------------------------------------------------+
| OEM APM Function | 0x80 | Access to OEM specific functions. |
+---------------------------------------------+------+--------------------------------------------------------------+
## Power states {#power_states}
The APM specification defines system power states and device power states.
### System power states {#system_power_states}
APM defines five power states for the computer system:
- Full On: The computer is powered on, and no devices are in a power saving mode.
- APM Enabled: The computer is powered on, and APM is controlling device power management as needed.
- APM Standby: Most devices are in their low-power state, the CPU is slowed or stopped, and the system state is saved. The computer can be returned to its former state quickly (in response to activity such as the user pressing a key on the keyboard).
- APM Suspend: Most devices are powered off, but the system state is saved. The computer can be returned to its former state, but takes a relatively long time. (Hibernation is a special form of the APM Suspend state).
- Off: The computer is turned off.
### Device power states {#device_power_states}
APM also defines power states that APM-aware hardware can implement. There is no requirement that an APM-aware device implement all states.
The four states are:
- Device On: The device is in full power mode.
- Device Power Managed: The device is still powered on, but some functions may not be available, or may have reduced performance.
- Device Low Power: The device is not working. Power is maintained so that the device may be \'woken up\'.
- Device Off: The device is powered off.
## Hardware components {#hardware_components}
### CPU
The CPU core (defined in APM as the CPU clock, cache, system bus and system timers) is treated specially in APM, as it is the last device to be powered down, and the first device to be powered back up. The CPU core is always controlled through the APM BIOS (there is no option to control it through a driver). Drivers can use APM function calls to notify the BIOS about CPU usage, but it is up to the BIOS to act on this information; a driver cannot directly tell the CPU to go into a power saving state.
### ATA drives {#ata_drives}
The ATA specification and SATA specification defines APM provisions for hard drives, which specifies a trade-off between spin-down frequency and always-on performance. Unlike the BIOS-side APM, the ATA APM and SATA APM has never been deprecated.
Aggressive spin-down frequencies may reduce drive lifespan by unnecessarily accumulating load cycles; most modern drives are specified to sustain 300,000 cycles and usually last at least 600,000. On the other hand, not spinning down the drive will cause extra power draw and heat generation; high temperatures also reduce the lifespan of hard drives
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# Adolphe Sax
**Antoine-Joseph** \"**Adolphe**\" **Sax** (`{{IPA|fr|ɑ̃twan ʒozɛf adɔlf saks|lang}}`{=mediawiki}; 6 November 1814 -- 7 February 1894) was a Belgian inventor and musician who invented the saxophone in the early 1840s, patenting it in 1846. He also invented the saxotromba, saxhorn and saxtuba, and redesigned the bass clarinet in a fashion still used in the 21st century. He played the flute and clarinet.
## Early life {#early_life}
Antoine-Joseph Sax was born on 6 November 1814 in Dinant, in what is now Belgium, to Charles-Joseph Sax and his wife Marie-Joseph (Masson). While his given name was Antoine-Joseph, he was referred to as Adolphe from childhood. His father and mother were instrument designers themselves, who made several changes to the design of the French horn. Adolphe began to make his own instruments at an early age, entering two of his flutes and a clarinet into a competition at the age of 15. He subsequently studied performance on those two instruments as well as voice at the Royal Conservatory of Brussels.
Sax faced many brushes with death. As a child, he once fell from a height of three floors, hit his head on a stone and was believed dead. At the age of three, he drank a bowl full of acidic water, mistaking it for milk, and later swallowed a pin. He received serious burns from a gunpowder explosion and once fell onto a hot cast-iron frying pan, burning his side. Several times he avoided accidental poisoning and asphyxiation from sleeping in a room where varnished furniture was drying. Another time young Sax was struck on the head by a cobblestone and fell into a river, almost dying.
His mother once said that \"he\'s a child condemned to misfortune; he won\'t live\". His neighbors called him \"little Sax, the ghost\".
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# Adolphe Sax
## Career and later life {#career_and_later_life}
After leaving the Royal Conservatory of Brussels, Sax began to experiment with new instrument designs, while his parents continued their business of making conventional instruments. Sax\'s first important invention was an improvement in bass clarinet design, which he patented at the age of 24. He relocated permanently to Paris in 1842 and began working on a new set of valved bugles. While he did not invent this instrument, his examples were much more successful than those of his rivals and became known as saxhorns. Hector Berlioz was so enamoured of these that he arranged in February 1844 for one of his pieces to be played entirely on saxhorns. They were made in seven different sizes and paved the way for the creation of the flugelhorn. Today saxhorns are sometimes used in concert bands, marching bands, and orchestras. The saxhorn also laid the groundwork for the modern euphonium.
Sax also developed the *saxotromba* family, valved brass instruments with narrower bore than the saxhorns, in 1845, though they survived only briefly.
The use of saxhorns spread rapidly. The saxhorn valves were accepted as state-of-the-art in their time and remain largely unchanged today. The advances made by Adolphe Sax were soon followed by the British brass band movement, which exclusively adopted the saxhorn family of instruments. A decade after saxhorns became available, the Jedforest Instrumental Band (1854) and The Hawick Saxhorn Band (1855) were formed in the Scottish Borders.
The period around 1840 saw Sax inventing the *clarinette-bourdon*, an early unsuccessful design of contrabass clarinet. On 28 June 1846 he patented the saxophone, intended for use in orchestras and military bands. By 1846 Sax had designed saxophones ranging from sopranino to subcontrabass, although not all were built. Composer Hector Berlioz wrote approvingly of the new instrument in 1842, but despite his support, saxophones did not become a standard part of the orchestra. Their ability to play technical passages easily like woodwinds yet project loudly like brass instruments led to their inclusion in military bands in France and elsewhere.
During the Crimean War (1853--1856), Sax made two more inventions, though neither was ever actually built: First, he designed the \"Saxotonnerre\", a massive, locomotive-powered organ which was supposed to be so loud as to be heard across all of Paris at once. The second was developed in response to the Crimean War\'s Siege of Sevastopol where the French military and its allies were locked in a destructive conflict. As a potential solution to such lengthy sieges, Sax thus designed the \"Saxocannon\", a giant cannon whose half-ton round shots would be powerful enough to completely destroy an \"average-sized city\".
Sax\'s reputation eventually helped secure him a job teaching at the Paris Conservatory in 1857. He continued to make instruments later in life and presided over the new saxophone course at the Paris Conservatory. Legal troubles involving patents continued for over 20 years, with rival instrument makers attacking the legitimacy of his patents and Sax suing them for patent infringement. He was driven into bankruptcy three times: in 1852, 1873 and 1877.
Sax suffered from lip cancer between 1853 and 1858 but made a full recovery. In 1894 he died of pneumonia in Paris, in poverty, and was interred in section 5 (Avenue de Montebello) at the Cimetière de Montmartre in Paris.
<File:Saxtromba> sopran.jpg\|Saxotromba <File:MHS> Saxhorn.jpg\|Saxhorn <File:Saxtuba1867.jpg>\|Saxtuba <File:Trombone> a six pistons-IMG 0853-black.jpg\|6-piston trombone <File:Bass> saxhorn, 1863.jpg\|A bass saxhorn, 1863
## Honors and awards {#honors_and_awards}
In his birthplace Dinant in Belgium, Mr Sax\'s House is dedicated to his life and saxophones.
- 1849: Awarded the Chevalier rank of the Legion of Honour.
- 1867: *1\<sup\>e\</sup\> Grand Prix de la Facture Instrumentale* at the 1867 Paris International Exposition.
- 1995: In 1995, his likeness was featured on the front of Belgium\'s 200 Belgian francs banknote.
- 2015: Google Doodle commemorated his 201st birthday
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# Aspirated consonant
In phonetics, **aspiration** is a strong burst of breath that accompanies either the release or, in the case of preaspiration, the closure of some obstruents. In English, aspirated consonants are allophones in complementary distribution with their unaspirated counterparts, but in some other languages, notably most South Asian languages and East Asian languages, the difference is contrastive.
## Transcription
In the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), aspirated consonants are written using the symbols for voiceless consonants followed by the aspiration modifier letter `{{angbr IPA|◌ʰ}}`{=mediawiki}, a superscript form of the symbol for the voiceless glottal fricative `{{angbr IPA|h}}`{=mediawiki}. For instance, `{{angbr IPA|p}}`{=mediawiki} represents the voiceless bilabial stop, and `{{angbr IPA|pʰ}}`{=mediawiki} represents the aspirated bilabial stop.
Voiced consonants are seldom actually aspirated. Symbols for voiced consonants followed by `{{angbr IPA|◌ʰ}}`{=mediawiki}, such as `{{angbr IPA|bʰ}}`{=mediawiki}, typically represent consonants with murmured voiced release (see below). In the grammatical tradition of Sanskrit, aspirated consonants are called **voiceless aspirated**, and breathy-voiced consonants are called **voiced aspirated**.
There are no dedicated IPA symbols for degrees of aspiration and typically only two degrees are marked: unaspirated `{{angbr IPA|k}}`{=mediawiki} and aspirated `{{angbr IPA|kʰ}}`{=mediawiki}. An old symbol for light aspiration was `{{angbr IPA|ʻ}}`{=mediawiki}, but this is now obsolete. The aspiration modifier letter may be doubled to indicate especially strong or long aspiration. Hence, the two degrees of aspiration in Korean stops are sometimes transcribed `{{angbr IPA|kʰ kʰʰ}}`{=mediawiki} or `{{angbr IPA|kʻ}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{angbr IPA|kʰ}}`{=mediawiki}, but they are usually transcribed `{{IPA|[k]}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{IPA|[kʰ]}}`{=mediawiki}, with the details of voice onset time given numerically.
Preaspirated consonants are marked by placing the aspiration modifier letter before the consonant symbol: `{{angbr IPA|ʰp}}`{=mediawiki} represents the preaspirated bilabial stop.
**Unaspirated** or tenuis consonants are occasionally marked with the modifier letter for unaspiration `{{angbr IPA|◌˭}}`{=mediawiki}, a superscript equals sign: `{{angbr IPA|t˭}}`{=mediawiki}. Usually, however, unaspirated consonants are left unmarked: `{{angbr IPA|t}}`{=mediawiki}.
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# Aspirated consonant
## Phonetics
Voiceless consonants are produced with the vocal folds open (spread) and not vibrating, and voiced consonants are produced when the vocal folds are fractionally closed and vibrating (modal voice). Voiceless aspiration occurs when the vocal folds remain open after a consonant is released. An easy way to measure this is by noting the consonant\'s voice onset time, as the voicing of a following vowel cannot begin until the vocal folds close.
In some languages, such as Navajo, aspiration of stops tends to be phonetically realised as voiceless velar airflow; aspiration of affricates is realised as an extended length of the frication.
Aspirated consonants are not always followed by vowels or other voiced sounds. For example, in Eastern Armenian, aspiration is contrastive even word-finally, and aspirated consonants occur in consonant clusters. In Wahgi, consonants are aspirated only when they are in final position.
### Degree
The degree of aspiration varies: the voice onset time of aspirated stops is longer or shorter depending on the language or the place of articulation.
Armenian and Cantonese have aspiration that lasts about as long as English aspirated stops, in addition to unaspirated stops. Korean has lightly aspirated stops that fall between the Armenian and Cantonese unaspirated and aspirated stops as well as strongly-aspirated stops whose aspiration lasts longer than that of Armenian or Cantonese. (See voice onset time.)
Aspiration varies with place of articulation. The Spanish voiceless stops `{{IPA|/p t k/}}`{=mediawiki} have voice onset times (VOTs) of about 5, 10, and 30 milliseconds, and English aspirated `{{IPA|/p t k/}}`{=mediawiki} have VOTs of about 60, 70, and 80 ms. Voice onset time in Korean has been measured at 20, 25, and 50 ms for `{{IPA|/p t k/}}`{=mediawiki} and 90, 95, and 125 for `{{IPA|/pʰ tʰ kʰ/}}`{=mediawiki}.
### Doubling
When aspirated consonants are doubled or geminated, the stop is held longer and then has an aspirated release. An aspirated affricate consists of a stop, fricative, and aspirated release. A doubled aspirated affricate has a longer hold in the stop portion and then has a release consisting of the fricative and aspiration.
### Preaspiration
Icelandic and Faroese have consonants with preaspiration `{{IPA|[ʰp ʰt ʰk]}}`{=mediawiki}, and some scholars`{{who|date=April 2017}}`{=mediawiki} interpret them as consonant clusters as well. In Icelandic, preaspirated stops contrast with double stops and single stops:
Word IPA Meaning
---------- ---------------------------------- ---------
**kapp** or `{{IPA|[kʰɑhp]}}`{=mediawiki} zeal
**gabb** hoax
**gap** opening
Preaspiration is also a feature of Scottish Gaelic:
Word IPA Meaning
--------- ----- ---------
**cat** cat
Preaspirated stops also occur in most Sami languages. For example, in Northern Sami, the unvoiced stop and affricate phonemes `{{IPA|/p/}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPA|/t/}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPA|/ts/}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPA|/tʃ/}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPA|/k/}}`{=mediawiki} are pronounced preaspirated (`{{IPA|[ʰp]}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPA|[ʰt]}}`{=mediawiki} `{{IPA|[ʰts]}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPA|[ʰtʃ]}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPA|[ʰk]}}`{=mediawiki}) in medial or final position.
### Fricatives and sonorants {#fricatives_and_sonorants}
Although most aspirated obstruents in the world\'s languages are stops and affricates, aspirated fricatives such as `{{IPA|[sʰ]}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPA|[ɸʷʰ]}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{IPA|[ɕʰ]}}`{=mediawiki} have been documented in Korean and Xuanzhou Wu, and `{{IPA|[xʰ]}}`{=mediawiki} has been described for Spanish, though these are allophones of other phonemes. Similarly, aspirated fricatives and even aspirated nasals, approximants, and trills occur in a few Tibeto-Burman languages, some Oto-Manguean languages, the Hmongic language Hmu, the Siouan language Ofo, and the Chumashan languages Barbareño and Ventureño. Some languages, such as Choni Tibetan, have as many as four contrastive aspirated fricatives `{{IPA|[sʰ]}}`{=mediawiki} `{{IPA|[ɕʰ]}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPA|[ʂʰ]}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{IPA|[xʰ]}}`{=mediawiki}.
### `{{anchor|Voiced stop}}`{=mediawiki}Voiced consonants with voiceless aspiration {#voiced_consonants_with_voiceless_aspiration}
True aspirated voiced consonants, as opposed to murmured (breathy-voice) consonants such as the `{{IPA|[bʱ], [dʱ], [ɡʱ]}}`{=mediawiki} that are common among the languages of India, are extremely rare. They have been documented in Kelabit.
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# Aspirated consonant
## Phonology
Aspiration has varying significance in different languages. It is either allophonic or phonemic, and may be analyzed as an underlying consonant cluster.
### Allophonic
In some languages, stops are distinguished primarily by voicing, and voiceless stops are sometimes aspirated, while voiced stops are usually unaspirated.
English voiceless stops are aspirated for most native speakers when they are word-initial or begin a stressed syllable. Pronouncing them as unaspirated in these positions, as is done by many Indian English speakers, may make them get confused with the corresponding voiced stop by other English-speakers. Conversely, this confusion does not happen with the native speakers of languages which have aspirated and unaspirated but not voiced stops, such as Mandarin Chinese.
S+consonant clusters can vary between aspirated and unaspirated forms depending on whether the cluster crosses a morpheme boundary. For example, distend features an unaspirated \[t\] because it is not analyzed as comprising two morphemes. In contrast, distaste includes an aspirated middle \[tʰ\] since it is analyzed as dis- + taste, and the word taste begins with an aspirated \[t\].
Word-final voiceless stops are sometimes aspirated.
Voiceless stops in Pashto are slightly aspirated prevocalically in a stressed syllable.
### Phonemic
In many languages, such as Hindi, tenuis and aspirated consonants are phonemic. Unaspirated consonants like `{{IPA|[p˭ s˭]}}`{=mediawiki} and aspirated consonants like `{{IPA|[pʰ ʰp sʰ]}}`{=mediawiki} are separate phonemes, and words are distinguished by whether they have one or the other.
#### Consonant cluster {#consonant_cluster}
Alemannic German dialects have unaspirated `{{IPA|[p˭ t˭ k˭]}}`{=mediawiki} as well as aspirated `{{IPA|[pʰ tʰ kʰ]}}`{=mediawiki}; the latter series are usually viewed as consonant clusters.
### Absence
French, Standard Dutch, Afrikaans, Tamil, Finnish, Portuguese, Italian, Spanish, Russian, Polish, Latvian and Modern Greek are languages that do not have phonetic aspirated consonants.
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# Aspirated consonant
## Examples
### Chinese
Standard Chinese (Mandarin) has stops and affricates distinguished by aspiration: for instance, `{{IPA|/t tʰ/}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPA|/t͡s t͡sʰ/}}`{=mediawiki}. In pinyin, tenuis stops are written with letters that represent voiced consonants in English, and aspirated stops with letters that represent voiceless consonants. Thus *d* represents `{{IPA|/t/}}`{=mediawiki}, and *t* represents `{{IPA|/tʰ/}}`{=mediawiki}.
Wu Chinese and Southern Min has a three-way distinction in stops and affricates: `{{IPA|/p pʰ b/}}`{=mediawiki}. In addition to aspirated and unaspirated consonants, there is a series of *muddy consonants*, like `{{IPA|/b/}}`{=mediawiki}. These are pronounced with slack or breathy voice: that is, they are weakly voiced. Muddy consonants as initial cause a syllable to be pronounced with low pitch or *light* (陽 *yáng*) tone.
### Indian languages {#indian_languages}
Many Indo-Aryan languages have aspirated stops. Sanskrit, Hindustani, Bengali, Marathi, and Gujarati have a four-way distinction in stops: voiceless, aspirated, voiced, and voiced aspirated, such as `{{IPA|/p pʰ b bʱ/}}`{=mediawiki}. Punjabi has lost voiced aspirated consonants, which resulted in a tone system, and therefore has a distinction between voiceless, aspirated, and voiced: `{{IPA|/p pʰ b/}}`{=mediawiki}.
Other languages such as Telugu, Malayalam, and Kannada, have a distinction between voiced and voiceless, aspirated and unaspirated. However, in all of these languages, aspirated consonant occur (mostly) in borrowed words, and commonly substituted with their unaspirated counterparts.
### Armenian
Most dialects of Armenian have aspirated stops, and some have breathy-voiced stops.
Classical and Eastern Armenian have a three-way distinction between voiceless, aspirated, and voiced, such as `{{IPA|/t tʰ d/}}`{=mediawiki}.
Western Armenian has a two-way distinction between aspirated and voiced: `{{IPA|/tʰ d/}}`{=mediawiki}. Western Armenian aspirated `{{IPA|/tʰ/}}`{=mediawiki} corresponds to Eastern Armenian aspirated `{{IPA|/tʰ/}}`{=mediawiki} and voiced `{{IPA|/d/}}`{=mediawiki}, and Western voiced `{{IPA|/d/}}`{=mediawiki} corresponds to Eastern voiceless `{{IPA|/t/}}`{=mediawiki}.
### Greek
Ancient Greek, including the Classical Attic and Koine Greek dialects, had a three-way distinction in stops like Eastern Armenian: `{{IPA|/t tʰ d/}}`{=mediawiki}. These series were called `{{wikt-lang|grc|ψιλός|ψιλά}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{wikt-lang|grc|δασύς|δασέα}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{wikt-lang|grc|μέσος|μέσα}}`{=mediawiki} (*psilá, daséa, mésa*) \"smooth, rough, intermediate\", respectively, by Koine Greek grammarians.
There were aspirated stops at three places of articulation: labial, coronal, and velar `{{IPA|/pʰ tʰ kʰ/}}`{=mediawiki}. Earlier Greek, represented by Mycenaean Greek, likely had a labialized velar aspirated stop `{{IPA|/kʷʰ/}}`{=mediawiki}, which later became labial, coronal, or velar depending on dialect and phonetic environment.
The other Ancient Greek dialects, Ionic, Doric, Aeolic, and Arcadocypriot, likely had the same three-way distinction at one point, but Doric seems to have had a fricative in place of `{{IPA|/tʰ/}}`{=mediawiki} in the Classical period.
Later, during the Koine and Medieval Greek periods, the aspirated and voiced stops `{{IPA|/tʰ d/}}`{=mediawiki} of Attic Greek lenited to voiceless and voiced fricatives, yielding `{{IPA|/θ ð/}}`{=mediawiki} in Medieval and Modern Greek. Cypriot Greek is notable for aspirating its inherited (and developed across word-boundaries) voiceless geminate stops, yielding the series /pʰː tʰː cʰː kʰː/.
## Other uses {#other_uses}
### Debuccalization
The term *aspiration* sometimes refers to the sound change of debuccalization, in which a consonant is lenited (weakened) to become a glottal stop or fricative `{{IPA|[ʔ h ɦ]}}`{=mediawiki}.
### Breathy-voiced release {#breathy_voiced_release}
So-called voiced aspirated consonants are nearly always pronounced instead with breathy voice, a type of phonation or vibration of the vocal folds. The modifier letter `{{angbr IPA|◌ʰ}}`{=mediawiki} after a voiced consonant actually represents a breathy-voiced or murmured consonant, as with the \"voiced aspirated\" bilabial stop `{{angbr IPA|bʰ}}`{=mediawiki} in the Indo-Aryan languages. This consonant is therefore more accurately transcribed as `{{angbr IPA|b̤}}`{=mediawiki}, with the diacritic for breathy voice, or with the modifier letter `{{angbr IPA|bʱ}}`{=mediawiki}, a superscript form of the symbol for the voiced glottal fricative `{{angbr IPA|ɦ}}`{=mediawiki}.
Some linguists restrict the double-dot subscript `{{angbr IPA|◌̤}}`{=mediawiki} to murmured sonorants, such as vowels and nasals, which are murmured throughout their duration, and use the superscript hook-aitch `{{angbr IPA|◌ʱ}}`{=mediawiki} for the breathy-voiced release of obstruents
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