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# Atlas Autocode
## Syntax
Atlas Autocode\'s syntax was largely similar to ALGOL, though it was influenced by the output device which the author had available, a Friden Flexowriter. Thus, it allowed symbols like `½` for `.5` and the superscript ^`2`^ for *to the power of 2*. The Flexowriter supported overstriking and thus, AA did also: up to three characters could be overstruck as a single symbol. For example, the character set had no `↑` symbol, so exponentiation was an overstrike of `|` and `*`. The aforementioned underlining of reserved words (keywords) could also be done using overstriking. The language is described in detail in the Atlas Autocode Reference Manual.
Other Flexowriter characters that were found a use in AA were: `α` in floating-point numbers, *e.g.*, `3.56α-7` for modern `3.56e-7` ; `β` to mean *the second half of a 48-bit Atlas memory word*; `π` for the mathematical constant pi.
When AA was ported to the English Electric KDF9 computer, the character set was changed to International Organization for Standardization (ISO). That compiler has been recovered from an old paper tape by the Edinburgh Computer History Project and is available online, as is a high-quality scan of the original Edinburgh version of the Atlas Autocode manual.
Keywords in AA were distinguishable from other text by being underlined, which was implemented via overstrike in the Flexowriter (compare to bold in ALGOL). There were also two stropping regimes. First, there was an \"uppercasedelimiters\" mode where all uppercase letters (outside strings) were treated as underlined lowercase. Second, in some versions (but not in the original Atlas version), it was possible to strop keywords by placing a \"`%`\" sign in front of them, for example the keyword `endofprogramme` could be typed as `%end %of %programme` or `%endofprogramme`. This significantly reduced typing, due to only needing one character, rather than overstriking the whole keyword. As in ALGOL, there were no reserved words in the language as keywords were identified by underlining (or stropping), not by recognising reserved character sequences. In the statement `if`` token=if ``then`` ``result`` = token`, there is both a keyword `if` and a variable named `if`.
As in ALGOL, AA allowed spaces in variable names, such as `integer`` previous value`. Spaces were not significant and were removed before parsing in a trivial pre-lexing stage called \"line reconstruction\". What the compiler would see in the above example would be \"`if``token=if``thenresult``=token`\". Spaces were possible due partly to keywords being distinguished in other ways, and partly because the source was processed by scannerless parsing, without a separate lexing phase, which allowed the lexical syntax to be context-sensitive.
The syntax for expressions let the multiplication operator be omitted, e.g., `3a` was treated as `3*a`, and `a(i+j)` was treated as `a*(i+j)` if `a` was not an array. In ambiguous uses, the longest possible name was taken (maximal munch), for example `ab` was not treated as `a*b`, whether or not `a` and `b` had been declared
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# Arthur J. Stone
**Arthur J. Stone** (1847--1938), a leading American silversmith, was born, trained and worked in Sheffield, England, and Edinburgh, Scotland, before travelling to the United States in 1884. He was one of the last silversmiths in America to train apprentices to carry out designs in hand-wrought silver. In 1901, Stone set up a workshop in Gardner, Massachusetts which operated under his name until its sale in 1937 to Henry Heywood. Heywood was a Gardner businessman, who renamed it The Stone Silver Shop, and later, Stone Associates. Heywood died in 1945. His sons Henry Jr. and Jerome ran Stone Associates until 1957.
One of the silversmiths in Arthur Stone\'s shop was George Porter Blanchard, father of silversmith Porter Blanchard
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# Au file format
The **Au file format** is a simple audio file format introduced by Sun Microsystems. The format was common on NeXT systems and on early Web pages. Originally it was headerless, being 8-bit μ-law-encoded data at an 8000 Hz sample rate. Hardware from other vendors often used sample rates as high as 8192 Hz, often integer multiples of video clock signal frequencies. Newer files have a header that consists of six unsigned 32-bit words, an optional information chunk which is always of non-zero size, and then the data (in big-endian format).
Although the format now supports many audio encoding formats, it remains associated with the μ-law logarithmic encoding. This encoding was native to the SPARCstation 1 hardware, where SunOS exposed the encoding to application programs through the **/dev/audio** device file interface. This encoding and interface became a de facto standard for Unix sound.
## New format {#new_format}
All fields are stored in big-endian format, including the sample data.
+-------------+--------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| uint32 word | field | Description |
+=============+==============+==========================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================+
| 0 | Magic number | The value `{{mono|0x2e736e64}}`{=mediawiki} (four ASCII characters \".snd\") |
+-------------+--------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1 | Data offset | The offset to the data in bytes. (In the older Sun version, this had to be a multiple of 8.) The minimum valid number is 28 (decimal), since this is the header length (six 32-bit words) plus a minimal annotation size (4 bytes, another 32-bit word). |
+-------------+--------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 2 | data size | Data size in bytes, not including the header. If unknown, the value `{{mono|0xffffffff}}`{=mediawiki} should be used. |
+-------------+--------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 3 | Encoding | Data encoding format: `{{div col|colwidth=15em}}`{=mediawiki} {{Ordered list\|start=0 |
+-------------+--------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 4 | Sample rate | The number of samples/second, e.g., 8000, 11025, 22050, 44100, and 48000. NeXT may use 8013. |
+-------------+--------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 5 | Channels | The number of interleaved channels, e.g., 1 for mono, 2 for stereo; more channels possible, but may not be supported by all readers. |
+-------------+--------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 6 | -- | Optional annotation or description string, NULL-terminated. A minimum of 4 bytes must be stored even if unused. |
| | | |
| | | In the older Sun version, its length had to be a non-zero multiple of 8 bytes. In some older implementations, the string is not properly NULL-terminated, but the offset remains reliable. |
+-------------+--------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
The type of encoding depends on the value of the \"encoding\" field (word 3 of the header). Formats 2 through 7 are uncompressed linear PCM, therefore technically lossless (although not necessarily free of quantization error, especially in 8-bit form). Formats 1 and 27 are μ-law and A-law, respectively, both companding logarithmic representations of PCM, and arguably lossy, as they pack what would otherwise be almost 16 bits of dynamic range into 8 bits of encoded data, even though this is achieved by an altered dynamic response and no data are discarded. Formats 23 through 26 are ADPCM, which is an early form of lossy compression, usually with four bits of encoded data per audio sample (for 4:1 efficiency with 16-bit input, or 2:1 with 8-bit input). Several of the others (number 8 through 22) are DSP commands or data, designed to be processed by the NeXT Music Kit software.
Note: PCM formats are encoded as signed data, as opposed to unsigned.
The current format supports only a single audio data segment per file. The variable-length annotation field is currently ignored by most audio applications
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# April 7
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# Abhorrers
**Abhorrers** is the name given in 1679 to the persons who expressed their abhorrence at the action of those who had signed petitions urging King Charles II of England to assemble Parliament.
At the time, James, Duke of York and James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth were seen as rival potential heirs to Charles, and an Exclusion Bill had been passed by the House of Commons to specifically exclude York from the line of succession. Charles dissolved two parliaments to prevent this bill from becoming law, and briefly attempted to rule with no active parliament. He was deluged with petitions urging him to call for an assembly of the Parliament.
The event served as a new round of political conflict between royalist and parliamentarian factions, and led to the emergence of the Whig and Tory factions as new political parties.
## The Duke of York and the Duke of Monmouth as rivals {#the_duke_of_york_and_the_duke_of_monmouth_as_rivals}
Feeling against Catholics, and especially against James, Duke of York, was running strongly; the Exclusion Bill had been passed by the House of Commons, and the popularity of James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth, was very great.
## Rivalry between royalist and parliamentarian factions {#rivalry_between_royalist_and_parliamentarian_factions}
To prevent this bill from passing into law, Charles had dissolved the parliament in July 1679, and in the following October had prorogued its successor, which became known as the Exclusion Bill Parliament, without allowing it to meet. He was then deluged with petitions urging him to call it together. This agitation was opposed by Sir George Jeffreys and Francis Wythens, who presented addresses expressing *abhorrence* of the *Petitioners,* and thus initiated the movement of the abhorrers, who supported the action of the king. \"The frolic went all over England,\" says Roger North; and the addresses of the Abhorrers which reached the king from all parts of the country formed a counterblast to those of the Petitioners. It is said that the terms Whig and Tory were first applied to English political parties as consequence of this dispute
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# Abigail
**Abigail** (`{{hebrew Name|אֲבִיגַיִל|ʾAvīgayīl|ʾĂḇīḡayīl}}`{=mediawiki}) was an Israelite woman in the Hebrew Bible married to Nabal; she married the future King David after Nabal\'s death (1 Samuel `{{Bibleref2-nb|1SAM|25|NIV}}`{=mediawiki}). Abigail was David\'s third wife, after Ahinoam and Saul\'s daughter, Michal, whom Saul later married to Palti, son of Laish, when David went into hiding.
Abigail became the mother of one of David\'s sons, who is listed in the Book of Chronicles under the name *Daniel*, in the Masoretic Text of the Books of Samuel as *Chileab,* and in the Septuagint text of 2 Samuel 3:3 as Δαλουια, *Dalouia*. Her name is spelled **Abigal** in `{{Bibleverse|2Samuel|17:25|ASV|2 Samuel 17:25}}`{=mediawiki} in the American Standard Version.
## Name
Derived from the Hebrew word *ab,* \"father\", and the Hebrew root *g-y-l*, \"to rejoice,\" the name Abigail has a variety of possible meanings including \"my father\'s joy\" and \"source of joy\".
## Biblical narrative {#biblical_narrative}
In 1 Samuel 25, Nabal demonstrates ingratitude towards David, the son of Jesse (from the tribe of Judah), and Abigail attempts to placate David, in order to stop the future King from taking revenge. She gives him food, and speaks to him, urging him not to \"have on his conscience the staggering burden of needless bloodshed\" (verse 31, NIV) and reminding him that God will make him a \"lasting dynasty\" (verse 28). Jon Levenson calls this an \"undeniable adumbration\" of Nathan\'s prophecy in 2 Samuel 7. Alice Bach notes that Abigail pronounces a \"crucial prophecy,\" and the Talmud regards her as one of the Tanakh\'s seven female prophets. Levenson, however, suggests that she \"senses the drift of history\" from intelligence rather than from special revelation.
After Abigail reveals to Nabal what she has done, \"God struck Nabal and he died\" (v. 38), after which David married her. Abigail is described as intelligent and beautiful. The Talmud amplifies this idea, mentioning her as being one of the \"four women of surpassing beauty in the world\" (the other three being Rahab, Sarah, and Esther). Being married to the wealthy Nabal, she is also a woman of high socioeconomic status. Whether David married her because he was attracted to her, or as an astute political move, or both is unclear.
Abigail and David\'s second wife, Ahinoam the Jezreelite, accompany David and his war band as they seek refuge in Philistine territory. While David and his men are encamped near Jezreel, the women are captured by Amalekites who raided the town of Ziklag and carried off the women and children. David led the pursuit, and they were subsequently rescued. Both wives then settle with David in Hebron, where Abigail gives birth to David\'s second son, Chileab (also called Daniel).Abigail is also listed as one of the seven Jewish women prophets, the other six being Miriam, Deborah, Hannah, Sarah, Huldah, and Esther. In terms of her moral character, Abraham Kuyper argues that Abigail\'s conduct indicates \"a most appealing character and unwavering faith,\" but Alice Bach regards her as subversive.
Adele Berlin contrasts the story of Abigail with that of Bathsheba. In one, the wife prevents David from murdering her foolish and greedy husband. In the second, David orders the death of a good man because he desires his wife. \"In the Abigail story, David, the potential king, is seen as increasingly strong and virtuous, whereas in the Bathsheba story, the reigning monarch shows his flaws ever more overtly and begins to lose control of his family.\"
Levenson and Halpern suggest that Abigail may, in fact, also be the same person as Abigail, mother of Amasa. Richard M. Davidson, however, points out that \"on the basis of the final form of Old Testament canon, references to Abigail in the biblical accounts indicate two different individuals.\"
## Generic use {#generic_use}
Abigail\'s self-styling as a *handmaid* led to *Abigail* being a traditional term for a waiting-woman, for example as the \"waiting gentlewoman\" in Beaumont and Fletcher\'s *The Scornful Lady*, published in 1616. Jonathan Swift, Tobias Smollett, and Henry Fielding use *Abigail* in this generic sense, as does Charlotte Brontë. Walter Scott, in *The Abbot*, frequently refers to Lilias, Lady Avenel\'s maid as an \"Abigail\". Anthony Trollope makes two references to \"the abigail\" (all lower case) in *The Eustace Diamonds*, at the beginning of Chapter 42, whilst Thomas Mann makes the same reference at the start of the second chapter of Part 2 in *Buddenbrooks* (published in 1901). William Rose Benet notes the notoriety of Abigail Hill, better known as \"Mrs Masham\", a lady-in-waiting to Queen Anne. George MacDonald Fraser makes mention of \"an \'abigail\' fussing about the room\" in his novel *Flashman* from *The Flashman Papers* series.
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# Abigail
## In art {#in_art}
Abigail, and especially her meeting with David, was a common subject of European artwork in the Renaissance and post-Renaissance period. Artists depicting her, or them, include Antonio Molinari, Juan Antonio Escalante, and Peter Paul Rubens.
Abigail is a featured figure on Judy Chicago\'s installation piece *The Dinner Party*, being represented in one of the 999 tiles of the *Heritage Floor
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# Arabian Sea
The **Arabian Sea** (*baḥr al-ʿarab*) is a region of sea in the northern Indian Ocean, bounded on the west by the Arabian Peninsula, Gulf of Aden and Guardafui Channel, on the northwest by Gulf of Oman and Iran, on the north by Pakistan, on the east by India, and on the southeast by the Laccadive Sea and the Maldives, on the southwest by Somalia. Its total area is 3,862,000 km2 and its maximum depth is 5395 m. The Gulf of Aden in the west connects the Arabian Sea to the Red Sea through the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, and the Gulf of Oman is in the northwest, connecting it to the Persian Gulf.
## Geography
The Arabian Sea\'s surface area is about 3862000 km2. The maximum width of the sea is approximately 2400 km, and its maximum depth is 5395 m. The biggest river flowing into the sea is the Indus River.
The Arabian Sea has two important branches: the Gulf of Aden in the southwest, connecting with the Red Sea through the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb; and the Gulf of Oman to the northwest, connecting with the Persian Gulf. There are also the gulfs of Khambhat and Kutch on the Indian Coast. The Arabian Sea has been crossed by many important marine trade routes since the 3rd or 2nd millennium BCE. Major seaports include Kandla Port, Mundra Port, Pipavav Port, Dahej Port, Hazira Port, Mumbai Port, Nhava Sheva Port (Navi Mumbai), Mormugão Port (Goa), New Mangalore Port and Kochi Port in India, the Port of Karachi, Port Qasim, and the Gwadar Port in Pakistan, Chabahar Port in Iran and the Port of Salalah in Salalah, Oman. The largest islands in the Arabian Sea include Socotra (Yemen), Masirah Island (Oman), Lakshadweep (India) and Astola Island (Pakistan). The countries with coastlines on the Arabian Sea are Yemen, Oman, Pakistan, Iran, India and the Maldives.
### Limits
The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Arabian Sea as follows:
- On the west: the eastern limit of the Gulf of Aden.
- On the north: a line joining Ràs al Hadd, east point of the Arabian Peninsula (22°32\'N) and Ràs Jiyùni (61°43\'E) on the coast of Pakistan.
- On the south: a line running from the southern extremity of Addu Atoll in the Maldives, to the eastern extremity of Ràs Hafun (the easternmost point of Africa, 10°26\'N).
- On the east: the western limit of the Laccadive Sea a line running from Sadashivgad on the west coast of India (14 48 N 74 07 E) to Cora Divh (13 42 N 72 10 E) and thence down the west side of the Laccadive and Maldive archipelagos to the most southerly point of Addu Atoll in the Maldives.
### Hydrography
The International Indian Ocean Expedition in 1959 was among the first to perform hydrographic surveys of the Arabian Sea. Significant bathymetric surveys were also conducted by the Soviet Union during the 1960s.
#### Hydrographic features {#hydrographic_features}
Significant features in the northern Arabian Sea include the Indus Fan, the second largest fan system in the world. The De Covilhao Trough, named after the 15th century Portuguese explorer Pero de Covilhăo, reaches depths of 4400 m and separates the Indus Fan region from the Oman Abyssal Plain, which eventually leads to the Gulf of Oman.
The southern limits are dominated by the Arabian Basin, a deep basin reaching depths over 4200 m. The northern sections of the Carlsberg Ridge flank the southern edge of the Arabian Basin.
The deepest parts of the Arabian Sea are in the Alula-Fartak Trough on the western edge of the Arabian Sea off the Gulf of Aden. The trough, reaching depths over 5360 m, traverses the Gulf of Aden and the Arabian Sea. The deepest known point is in the Arabian Sea limits at a depth of 5395 m. Other significant deep points are part of the Arabian Basin, which include a 5358 m deep point off the northern limit of Calrsberg Ridge.
#### Seamounts
Prominent sea mounts off the Indian west coast include Raman Seamount named after C. V. Raman, Panikkar Seamount, named after N. K. Panikkar, and the Wadia Guyot, named after D. N. Wadia.
Sind\'Bad Seamount, named after the fictional explorer Sinbad the Sailor, Zheng He Seamount, and the Mount Error Guyot are some notable sea mounts in western Arabian Sea.
## Border and basin countries {#border_and_basin_countries}
Border and basin countries:
1. \- 2,500 km coastline
2. \- 1,050 km coastline
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
<File:Bandra> Sea Link aerial.jpg\|right\|Arabian Sea above Bombay/Mumbai <File:Arabian> Sea - October 2012.jpg\|right\|Arabian Sea seen from space <File:Arabian> Sea in Karachi.jpg\|right\|Arabian Sea in Karachi, Pakistan
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# Arabian Sea
## Trade routes {#trade_routes}
upright=1.8\|thumb\|Names, routes and locations of the *Periplus of the Erythraean Sea* The Arabian Sea has been an important marine trade route since the era of the *coastal sailing vessels* from possibly as early as the 3rd millennium BCE, certainly the late 2nd millennium BCE through the later days known as the Age of Sail. By the time of Julius Caesar, several well-established combined land-sea trade routes depended upon water transport through the sea around the rough inland terrain features to its north.
These routes usually began in the Far East or down river from Madhya Pradesh, India with transshipment via historic Bharuch (Bharakuccha), traversed past the inhospitable coast of modern-day Iran, then split around Hadhramaut, Yemen into two streams north into the Gulf of Aden and thence into the Levant, or south into Alexandria via Red Sea ports such as Axum. Each major route involved transhipping to pack animal caravan, travel through desert country and risk of bandits and extortionate tolls by local potentates.
This southern coastal route past the rough country in the southern Arabian Peninsula was significant, and the Egyptian Pharaohs built several shallow canals to service the trade, one more or less along the route of today\'s Suez Canal, and another from the Red Sea to the Nile River, both shallow works that were swallowed up by huge sand storms in antiquity. Later the kingdom of Axum arose in Ethiopia to rule a mercantile empire rooted in the trade with Europe via Alexandria.
### Major ports {#major_ports}
Jawaharlal Nehru Port in Mumbai is the largest port in the Arabian Sea, and the largest container port in India. Major Indian ports in the Arabian Sea are Mundra Port, Kandla Port, Nava Sheva, Kochi Port, Mumbai Port, Vizhinjam International Seaport Thiruvananthapuram and Mormugão.
thumb\|upright=1.2\|International Container Transshipment Terminal at Kochi Port in India
The Port of Karachi, Pakistan\'s largest and busiest seaport lies on the coast of the sea. It is located between the Karachi towns of Kiamari and Saddar.
The Gwadar Port of Pakistan is a warm-water, deep-sea port situated at Gwadar in Balochistan at the apex of the Arabian Sea and at the entrance of the Persian Gulf, about 460 km west of Karachi and approximately 75 km east of Pakistan\'s border with Iran. The port is located on the eastern bay of a natural hammerhead-shaped peninsula jutting out into the Arabian Sea from the coastline.
Port of Salalah in Salalah, Oman is also a major port in the area. The International Task Force often uses the port as a base. There is a significant number of warships of all nations coming in and out of the port, which makes it a very safe bubble. The port handled just under 3.5m teu in 2009.
## Islands
There are several islands in the Arabian Sea, with the most important ones being Lakshadweep Islands (India), Socotra (Yemen), Masirah (Oman) and Astola Island (Pakistan).
The Lakshadweep Islands (formerly known as the Laccadive, Minicoy, and Aminidivi Islands) is a group of islands in the Laccadive Sea region of Arabian Sea, 200 to off the southwestern coast of India. The archipelago is a union territory and is governed by the Union Government of India. The islands form the smallest union territory of India with their total surface area being just 32 km2. Next to these islands are the Maldives islands. These islands are all part of the Lakshadweep-Maldives-Chagos group of islands.
Zalzala Koh was an island which was around for only a few years. After the 2013 earthquake in Pakistan, the mud island was formed. By 2016 the island had completely submerged.
Astola Island, also known as *Jezira Haft Talar* in Balochi, or \'Island of the Seven Hills\', is a small, uninhabited island in the northern tip of the Arabian Sea in Pakistan\'s territorial waters.
Socotra, also spelled *Soqotra*, is the largest island, being part of a small archipelago of four islands. It lies some 240 km east of the Horn of Africa and 380 km south of the Arabian Peninsula.
Masirah and the five Khuriya Muriya Islands are islands off the southeastern coast of Oman.
## Oxygen minimum zone {#oxygen_minimum_zone}
The Arabian Sea has one of the world\'s three largest oceanic oxygen minimum zones (OMZ), or "dead zones," along with the eastern tropical North Pacific and the eastern tropical South Pacific. OMZs have very low levels of oxygen, sometimes so low as to be undetectable by standard equipment. The Arabian Sea\'s OMZ has the lowest levels of oxygen in the world, especially in the Gulf of Oman. Causes of the OMZ may include untreated sewage as well as high temperatures on the Indian subcontinent, which increase winds blowing towards India, bringing up nutrients and reducing oxygen in the Arabian Sea\'s waters. In winter, phytoplankton suited to low-oxygen conditions turn the OMZ bright green.
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# Arabian Sea
## Environment and wildlife {#environment_and_wildlife}
The wildlife of the Arabian sea is diverse, and entirely unique because of the geographic distribution.
<File:Karachi> Mangroves.jpg\|Mangrove forests of **Karachi, Pakistan** <File:The-Worlds-Most-Isolated-and-Distinct-Whale-Population-Humpback-Whales-of-the-Arabian-Sea-pone.0114162.s001.tif%7CCritically> endangered Sea Creatures <File:Dugong.jpg>\|Dugong mother & her offspring in shallow waters <File:Red> Coast of Makoran sea Iran.jpg\|**Makran Coast, Iran**
## Arabian Sea warming {#arabian_sea_warming}
Recent studies by the Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology confirmed that the Arabian Sea is warming monotonously; it possibly is due to global warming. The intensification and northward shift of the summer monsoon low-level jet over the Arabian Sea from 1979 to 2015, led to increased upper ocean heat content due to enhanced downwelling and reduced southward heat transport
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# Aelbert Cuyp
**Aelbert Jacobszoon Cuyp** or **Cuijp** (`{{IPA|nl|ˈɑlbər ˈtɕaːkɔpsoːŋ ˈkœyp}}`{=mediawiki}; 20 October 1620 -- 15 November 1691) was one of the leading Dutch Golden Age painters, producing mainly landscapes. The most famous of a family of painters, the pupil of his father, Jacob Gerritszoon Cuyp (1594--1651/52), he is especially known for his large views of Dutch riverside scenes in a golden early morning or late afternoon light. He was born and died in Dordrecht.
## Biography
Known as the Dutch equivalent of Claude Lorrain, he inherited a considerable fortune. His family were all artists, with his uncle Benjamin and grandfather Gerrit being stained glass cartoon designers. Jacob Gerritszoon Cuyp, his father, was a portraitist. Cuyp\'s father was his first teacher and they collaborated on many paintings throughout his lifetime. Little is known about Aelbert Cuyp\'s life. Even Arnold Houbraken, a noted historian of Dutch Golden Age paintings and the sole authority on Cuyp for the hundred years following his death, paints a very thin biographical picture.
His period of activity as a painter is traditionally limited to the two decades between 1639 and 1660, fitting within the generally accepted limits of the Dutch Golden Age\'s most significant period, 1640--1665. He is known to have been married to Cornelia Bosman in 1658, a date coinciding so directly with the end of his productivity as a painter that it has been accepted that his marriage played a role in the end of his artistic career.
The year after his marriage, Cuyp became the deacon of the reformed church. Houbraken recalled that Cuyp was a devout Calvinist and the fact that when he died, there were no paintings of other artists found in his home.
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# Aelbert Cuyp
## Style
The development of Cuyp, who was trained as a landscape painter, may be roughly sketched in three phases based on the painters who most influenced him during that time and the subsequent artistic characteristics that are apparent in his paintings. Generally, Cuyp learned tone from the exceptionally prolific Jan van Goyen, light from Jan Both and form from his father, Jacob Gerritsz Cuyp.
Cuyp\'s \"van Goyen phase\" can be placed approximately in the early 1640s. Cuyp probably first encountered a painting by van Goyen in 1640 when van Goyen was, as Stephen Reiss points, out \"at the height of \[his\] powers\". This is noticeable in the comparison between two of Cuyp\'s landscape paintings inscribed 1639 where no properly formed style is apparent and the landscape backgrounds he painted two years later for two of his father\'s group portraits that are distinctly van Goyenesque. Cuyp took from van Goyen the straw yellow and light brown tones that are so apparent in his *Dunes* (1629) and the broken brush technique also very noticeable in that same work. This technique, a precursor to impressionism, is noted for the short brush strokes where the colors are not necessarily blended smoothly. In Cuyp\'s *River Scene, Two Men Conversing* (1641) both of these van Goyen-influenced stylistic elements are noticeable.
The next phase in the development of Cuyp\'s increasingly amalgamated style is due to the influence of Jan Both. In the mid-1640s Both, a native and resident of Utrecht, had just returned to his hometown from a trip to Rome. It is around this same time that Cuyp\'s style changed fundamentally. In Rome, Both had developed a new style of composition due, at least in part, to his interaction with Claude Lorrain. This new style was focused on changing the direction of light in the painting. Instead of the light being placed at right angles in relation to the line of vision, Both started moving it to a diagonal position from the back of the picture.
In this new form of lighting, the artist (and viewer of the painting) faced the sun more or less contre-jour. Both, and subsequently Cuyp, used the advantages of this new lighting style to alter the sense of depth and luminosity possible in a painting. To make notice of these new capabilities, much use was made of elongated shadows. Cuyp was one of the first Dutch painters to appreciate this new leap forward in style and while his own Both-inspired phase was quite short (limited to the mid-1640s) he did, more than any other contemporary Dutch artist, maximize the full chromatic scale for sunsets and sunrises.Cuyp\'s third stylistic phase (which occurred throughout his career) is based on the influence of his father. While it is assumed that the younger Cuyp did work with his father initially to develop rudimentary talents, Aelbert became more focused on landscape paintings while Jacob was a portrait painter by profession. As has been mentioned and as will be explained in depth below, there are pieces where Aelbert provided the landscape background for his father\'s portraits. What is meant by stating that Aelbert learned from his father is that his eventual transition from a specifically landscape painter to the involvement of foreground figures is attributed to his interaction with his father Jacob. The evidence for Aelbert\'s evolution to foreground figure painter is in the production of some paintings from 1645 to 1650 featuring foreground animals that do not fit with Jacob\'s style. Adding to the confusion regarding Aelbert\'s stylistic development and the problem of attribution is of course the fact that Jacob\'s style was not stagnant either. Their converging styles make it difficult to exactly understand the influences each had on the other, although it is clear enough to say that Aelbert started representing large scale forms (something he had not done previously) and placing animals as the focus of his paintings (something that was specific to him).
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# Aelbert Cuyp
## Paintings
Sunlight in his paintings rakes across the panel, accentuating small bits of detail in the golden light. In large, atmospheric panoramas of the countryside, the highlights on a blade of meadow grass, the mane of a tranquil horse, the horn of a dairy cow reclining by a stream, or the tip of a peasant\'s hat are all caught in a bath of yellow ocher light. The richly varnished medium refracts the rays of light like a jewel as it dissolves into numerous glazed layers. Cuyp\'s landscapes were based on reality and on his own invention of what an enchanting landscape should be.Cuyp\'s drawings reveal him to be a draftsman of superior quality. Light-drenched washes of golden brown ink depict a distant view of the city of Dordrecht or Utrecht. A Cuyp drawing may look like he intended it to be a finished work of art, but it was most likely taken back to the studio and used as a reference for his paintings. Often the same section of a sketch can be found in several different pictures.
Cuyp signed many of his works but rarely dated them, so that a chronology of his career has not been satisfactorily reassembled. A phenomenal number of paintings are ascribed to him, some of which are likely to be by other masters of the golden landscape, such as Abraham Calraet (1642--1722), whose initials *A.C.* may be mistaken for Cuyp\'s.
However, not everyone appreciates his work and *River Landscape* (1660), despite being widely regarded as amongst his best work, has been described as having \"chocolate box blandness\".
At the Madrid\'s Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum most likely, the sole Cuyp\'s painting in Spanish public collections can be seen, a *Landscape with a sunset* ca. 1655 with animals.
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# Aelbert Cuyp
## Misattribution of paintings {#misattribution_of_paintings}
In addition to the scarcely documented and confirmed biography of Cuyp\'s life, and even more so than his amalgamated style from his three main influences, there are yet other factors that have led to the misattribution and confusion over Aelbert Cuyp\'s works for hundreds of years. His highly influenced style which incorporated Italianate lighting from Jan Both, broken brush technique and atonality from Jan van Goyen, and his ever-developing style from his father Jacob Gerritsz Cuyp was studied acutely by his most prominent follower, Abraham van Calraet. Calraet mimicked Cuyp\'s style, incorporating the same aspects, and produced similar landscapes to that of the latter. This made it quite difficult to tell whose paintings were whose. Adding to the confusion is the similar initials between the two and the inconsistent signing of paintings which were produced by Cuyp\'s studio.
Although Aelbert Cuyp signed many of his paintings with a script \"A. Cuyp\" insignia, many paintings were left unsigned (not to mention undated) after being painted, and so a similar signature was added later on, presumably by collectors who inherited or discovered the works. Furthermore, many possible Cuyp paintings were not signed but rather initialed \"A. C.\" referring to his name. However, Abraham van Calraet could also have used the same initials to denote a painting. Although this is unlikely (as Calraet would likely have signed his paintings \"A. v.C.\"), this brings up the question of how paintings were signed to show ownership. Most original Cuyp paintings were signed by him, and in the script manner in which his name was inscribed. This would denote that the painting was done almost entirely by him. Conversely, paintings which came out of his workshop that were not necessarily physically worked on by Cuyp but merely overseen by him technically, were marked with A.C. to show that it was his instruction which saw the paintings\' completion. Cuyp\'s pupils and assistants often worked on paintings in his studio, and so most of the work of a painting could be done without Cuyp ever touching the canvas, but merely approving its finality. Hence, the initialed inscription rather than a signature.
Common among the mislabeled works are all of the reasons identified for misattributing Cuyp\'s works: the lack of biography and chronology of his works made it difficult to discern when paintings were created (making it difficult to pinpoint an artist); contentious signatures added to historians\' confusion as to who actually painted the works; and the collaborations and influences by different painters makes it hard to justify that a painting is genuinely that of Aelbert Cuyp; and finally, accurate identification is made extremely difficult by the fact that this same style was copied (rather accurately) by his predecessor. As it turns out, even the historians and expert researchers have been fooled and forced to reassess their conclusions over \"Cuyp\'s\" paintings over the years.
## Later life {#later_life}
After he married Cornelia Boschman in 1658, the number of works produced by him declined almost to nothing. This may have been because his wife was a very religious woman and a not very big patron of the arts. It could also be that he became more active in the church under his wife\'s guidance. He was also active as deacon and elder of the Reformed Church.
## Legacy
Though long lacking a modern biography, and with the chronology of his works rather unclear, his style emerged from various influences and makes his works distinctive, although his collaborations with his father and works by his imitators often make attributions uncertain. His follower Abraham van Calraet represents a particular problem, and the signatures on paintings are not to be relied on. The Rijksmuseum has reattributed many works to other painters; Abraham van Calraet does not even appear in a Museum catalogue until 1926, and even then he was not given his own entry.
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# Aelbert Cuyp
## Gallery
<File:Aelbert> Cuyp - Landscape with cattle - Google Art Project.jpg\|*Landscape with cattle*\
(c. 1639--1649)\
National Gallery of Victoria <File:Aelbert> Cuyp (Dutch - A View of the Maas at Dordrecht - Google Art Project.jpg\|*A View of the Maas at Dordrecht*\
(about 1645--1646)\
J. Paul Getty Museum <File:Cuyp>, Aelbert - Herdsmen with Cows - Google Art Project.jpg\|*Herdsmen with Cows*\
(c. 1645)\
Dulwich Picture Gallery <File:Cuyp>, Aelbert - Cattle near the Maas, with Dordrecht in the distance - Google Art Project.jpg\|*Cattle near the Maas, with Dordrecht in the distance* <File:Aelbert> Cuyp Avenue at Meerdervoort.jpg\|*Avenue at Meerdervoort* <File:Aelbert> Cuyp 012.jpg\|*The Mussel Eater*, c. 1650, Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen <File:Aelbert> Cuyp - Cows in a River - Google Art Project.jpg\|*Cows in a River*, c. 1654 <File:Aelbert> Cuyp, Landscape with a Horseman, Figures, and Cattle, c. 1655 at Waddesdon Manor.jpg\|*Landscape with a Horseman, Figures, and Cattle*, c. 1655, Waddesdon Manor <File:Aelbert> Cuyp - A Landing Party on the Maas at Dordrecht NTIV WADD 2565.jpg\|*A Landing Party on the Maas at Dordrecht*, 1655--1660, Waddesdon Manor. The other canvas that appears to show an event in the end stages of the Eighty Years\' War is now in the National Gallery of Art, Washington. <File:Aelbert> Cuyp - Travelers in Hilly Countryside - 1942.637 - Cleveland Museum of Art.jpg\|*Travelers in Hilly Countryside* (c. 1650), Cleveland Museum of Art <File:Equestrian> Portrait of Cornelis (1639--1680) and Michiel Pompe van Meerdervoort (1638--1653) with Their Tutor and Coachman (\"Starting for the Hunt\") MET DP146442
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# Alkyne
$\ce{H-C#C}
\ce{-H}$
Acetylene
$\ce{H-C#C}{-}
\ce{\overset{\displaystyle{H} \atop |}{\underset{| \atop \displaystyle{H}}C}}
\ce{-H}$
Propyne
$\ce{H-C#C}{-}
\ce{\overset{\displaystyle{H} \atop |}{\underset{| \atop \displaystyle{H}}C}}{-}
\ce{\overset{\displaystyle{H} \atop |}{\underset{| \atop \displaystyle{H}}C}}
\ce{-H}$
1-Butyne
In organic chemistry, an **alkyne** is an unsaturated hydrocarbon containing at least one carbon---carbon triple bond. The simplest acyclic alkynes with only one triple bond and no other functional groups form a homologous series with the general chemical formula `{{chem2|C_{''n''}H_{2''n''-2} }}`{=mediawiki}. Alkynes are traditionally known as acetylenes, although the name *acetylene* also refers specifically to `{{chem2|C2H2}}`{=mediawiki}, known formally as ethyne using IUPAC nomenclature. Like other hydrocarbons, alkynes are generally hydrophobic.
## Structure and bonding {#structure_and_bonding}
In acetylene, the H--C≡C bond angles are 180°. By virtue of this bond angle, alkynes are rod-like. Correspondingly, cyclic alkynes are rare. Benzyne cannot be isolated. The C≡C bond distance of 118 picometers (for C~2~H~2~) is much shorter than the C=C distance in alkenes (132 pm, for C~2~H~4~) or the C--C bond in alkanes (153 pm).
:
The triple bond is very strong with a bond strength of 839 kJ/mol. The sigma bond contributes 369 kJ/mol, the first pi bond contributes 268 kJ/mol. The second pi bond 202 kJ/mol. Bonding is usually discussed in the context of molecular orbital theory, which recognizes triple bond arising from the overlap of s and p orbitals. In terms of valence bond theory, the carbon atoms in an alkyne bond are sp hybridized which means they each have two unhybridized p orbitals and two sp hybrid orbitals. Overlap of an sp orbital from each atom forms one sp--sp sigma bond. Each p orbital on one atom overlaps one on the other atom, forming two pi bonds, giving a total of three bonds. The remaining sp orbital on each atom can form a sigma bond to another atom. For example, to hydrogen atoms in the parent acetylene. The two sp orbitals project on opposite sides of the carbon atom.
### Terminal and internal alkynes {#terminal_and_internal_alkynes}
Internal alkynes feature carbon substituents on each acetylenic carbon. Symmetrical examples include diphenylacetylene and 3-hexyne. They may also be asymmetrical, such as in 2-pentyne.
Terminal alkynes have the formula `{{chem2|RC≡CH}}`{=mediawiki}, where at least one end of the alkyne is a hydrogen atom. An example is methylacetylene (propyne using IUPAC nomenclature). They are often prepared by alkylation of monosodium acetylide. Terminal alkynes, like acetylene itself, are mildly acidic, with p*K*~a~ values of around 25. They are far more acidic than alkenes and alkanes, which have p*K*~a~ values of around 40 and 50, respectively. The acidic hydrogen on terminal alkynes can be replaced by a variety of groups resulting in halo-, silyl-, and alkoxoalkynes. The carbanions generated by deprotonation of terminal alkynes are called acetylides. Internal alkynes are also considerably more acidic than alkenes and alkanes, though not nearly as acidic as terminal alkynes. The C--H bonds at the α position of alkynes (propargylic C--H bonds) can also be deprotonated using strong bases, with an estimated p*K*~a~ of 35. This acidity can be used to isomerize internal alkynes to terminal alkynes using the alkyne zipper reaction.
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# Alkyne
## Naming alkynes {#naming_alkynes}
In systematic chemical nomenclature, alkynes are named with the Greek prefix system without any additional letters. Examples include ethyne or octyne. In parent chains with four or more carbons, it is necessary to say where the triple bond is located. For octyne, one can either write 3-octyne or oct-3-yne when the bond starts at the third carbon. The lowest number possible is given to the triple bond. When no superior functional groups are present, the parent chain must include the triple bond even if it is not the longest possible carbon chain in the molecule. Ethyne is commonly called by its trivial name acetylene.
In chemistry, the suffix **-yne** is used to denote the presence of a triple bond. In organic chemistry, the suffix often follows IUPAC nomenclature. However, inorganic compounds featuring unsaturation in the form of triple bonds may be denoted by substitutive nomenclature with the same methods used with alkynes (i.e. the name of the corresponding saturated compound is modified by replacing the \"-ane\" ending with \"-yne\"). \"-diyne\" is used when there are two triple bonds, and so on. In case of multiple triple bonds, the position of unsaturation is indicated by a numerical locant immediately preceding the \"-yne\" suffix, or \'locants\'. Locants are chosen so that the numbers are low as possible. \"-yne\" is also used as a suffix to name substituent groups that are triply bound to the parent compound.
Sometimes a number between hyphens is inserted before it to state which atoms the triple bond is between. This suffix arose as a collapsed form of the end of the word \"acetylene\". The final \"-e\" disappears if it is followed by another suffix that starts with a vowel.
## Structural isomerism {#structural_isomerism}
Alkynes having four or more carbon atoms can form different structural isomers by having the triple bond in different positions or having some of the carbon atoms be substituents rather than part of the parent chain. Other non-alkyne structural isomers are also possible.
- : acetylene only
- : propyne only
- : 2 isomers: 1-butyne, and 2-butyne
- : 3 isomers: 1-pentyne, 2-pentyne, and 3-methyl-1-butyne
- : 7 isomers: 1-hexyne, 2-hexyne, 3-hexyne, 4-methyl-1-pentyne, 4-methyl-2-pentyne, 3-methyl-1-pentyne, 3,3-dimethyl-1-butyne
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# Alkyne
## Synthesis
### From calcium carbide {#from_calcium_carbide}
Classically, acetylene was prepared by hydrolysis (protonation) of calcium carbide (Ca^2+^\[:C≡C:\]^2--^):
: Ca\^{2+}\[C#C\]\^2- + 2 HOH -\> HC#CH + Ca\^{2+}\[(HO\^{-})2\]
which was in turn synthesized by combining quicklime and coke in an electric arc furnace at 2200 °C:
: CaO + 3 C (amorphous) -\> CaC2 + CO
This was an industrially important process which provided access to hydrocarbons from coal resources for countries like Germany and China. However, the energy-intensive nature of this process is a major disadvantage and its share of the world\'s production of acetylene has steadily decreased relative to hydrocarbon cracking.
### Cracking
Commercially, the dominant alkyne is acetylene itself, which is used as a fuel and a precursor to other compounds, e.g., acrylates. Hundreds of millions of kilograms are produced annually by partial oxidation of natural gas:
: 4 CH4 + 3 O2 -\> 2 HC#CH + 6 H2O
Propyne, also industrially useful, is also prepared by thermal cracking of hydrocarbons.
### Alkylation and arylation of terminal alkynes {#alkylation_and_arylation_of_terminal_alkynes}
Terminal alkynes (RC≡CH, including acetylene itself) can be deprotonated by bases like NaNH~2~, BuLi, or EtMgBr to give acetylide anions (RC≡C:^--^M^+^, M = Na, Li, MgBr) which can be alkylated by addition to carbonyl groups (Favorskii reaction), ring opening of epoxides, or S~N~2-type substitution of unhindered primary alkyl halides.
In the presence of transition metal catalysts, classically a combination of Pd(PPh~3~)~2~Cl~2~ and CuI, terminal acetylenes (RC≡CH) can react with aryl iodides and bromides (ArI or ArBr) in the presence of a secondary or tertiary amine like Et~3~N to give arylacetylenes (RC≡CAr) in the Sonogashira reaction.
The availability of these reliable reactions makes terminal alkynes useful building blocks for preparing internal alkynes.
### Dehydrohalogenation and related reactions {#dehydrohalogenation_and_related_reactions}
Alkynes are prepared from 1,1- and 1,2-dihaloalkanes by double dehydrohalogenation. The reaction provides a means to generate alkynes from alkenes, which are first halogenated and then dehydrohalogenated. For example, phenylacetylene can be generated from styrene by bromination followed by treatment of the resulting of 1,2-dibromo-1-phenylethane with sodium amide in ammonia:
:
Via the Fritsch--Buttenberg--Wiechell rearrangement, alkynes are prepared from vinyl bromides. Alkynes can be prepared from aldehydes using the Corey--Fuchs reaction and from aldehydes or ketones by the Seyferth--Gilbert homologation.
Vinyl halides are susceptible to dehydrohalogenation.
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# Alkyne
## Reactions, including applications {#reactions_including_applications}
Featuring a reactive functional group, alkynes participate in many organic reactions. Such use was pioneered by Ralph Raphael, who in 1955 wrote the first book describing their versatility as intermediates in synthesis. In spite of their kinetic stability (persistence) due to their strong triple bonds, alkynes are a thermodynamically unstable functional group, as can be gleaned from the highly positive heats of formation of small alkynes. For example, acetylene has a heat of formation of +227.4 kJ/mol (+54.2 kcal/mol), indicating a much higher energy content compared to its constituent elements. The highly exothermic combustion of acetylene is exploited industrially in oxyacetylene torches used in welding. Other reactions involving alkynes are often highly thermodynamically favorable (exothermic/exergonic) for the same reason.
### Hydrogenation
Being more unsaturated than alkenes, alkynes characteristically undergo reactions that show that they are \"doubly unsaturated\". Alkynes are capable of adding two equivalents of `{{chem2|H2}}`{=mediawiki}, whereas an alkene adds only one equivalent. Depending on catalysts and conditions, alkynes add one or two equivalents of hydrogen. Partial hydrogenation, stopping after the addition of only one equivalent to give the alkene, is usually more desirable since alkanes are less useful: The largest scale application of this technology is the conversion of acetylene to ethylene in refineries (the steam cracking of alkanes yields a few percent acetylene, which is selectively hydrogenated in the presence of a palladium/silver catalyst). For more complex alkynes, the Lindlar catalyst is widely recommended to avoid formation of the alkane, for example in the conversion of phenylacetylene to styrene. Similarly, halogenation of alkynes gives the alkene dihalides or alkyl tetrahalides:
: $\ce{RC#CR' + H2 ->} \text{ cis-}\ce{RCH=CR'H}$
: RCH=CR\'H + H2 -\> RCH2CR\'H2
The addition of one equivalent of `{{chem2|H2}}`{=mediawiki} to internal alkynes gives cis-alkenes.
### Addition of halogens and related reagents {#addition_of_halogens_and_related_reagents}
Alkynes characteristically are capable of adding two equivalents of halogens and hydrogen halides.
: RC#CR\' + 2 Br2 -\> RCBr2CR\'Br2
The addition of nonpolar `{{chem2|E\sH}}`{=mediawiki} bonds across `{{chem2|C\tC}}`{=mediawiki} is general for silanes, boranes, and related hydrides. The hydroboration of alkynes gives vinylic boranes which oxidize to the corresponding aldehyde or ketone. In the thiol-yne reaction the substrate is a thiol.
Addition of hydrogen halides has long been of interest. In the presence of mercuric chloride as a catalyst, acetylene and hydrogen chloride react to give vinyl chloride. While this method has been abandoned in the West, it remains the main production method in China.
### Hydration
The hydration reaction of acetylene gives acetaldehyde. The reaction proceeds by formation of vinyl alcohol, which tautomerizes to form the aldehyde. This reaction was once a major industrial process but it has been displaced by the Wacker process. This reaction occurs in nature, the catalyst being acetylene hydratase.
Hydration of phenylacetylene gives acetophenone:
: PhC#CH + H2O -\> PhCOCH3
`{{chem2|(Ph3P)AuCH3}}`{=mediawiki} catalyzes hydration of 1,8-nonadiyne to 2,8-nonanedione:
: HC#C(CH2)5C#CH + 2H2O -\> CH3CO(CH2)5COCH3
### Isomerization to allenes {#isomerization_to_allenes}
Alkynes can be isomerized by strong base or transition metals to allenes. Due to their comparable thermodynamic stabilities, the equilibrium constant of alkyne/allene isomerization is generally within several orders of magnitude of unity. For example propyne can be isomerized to give an equilibrium mixture with propadiene:
: HC#C-CH3 \<=\> CH2=C=CH2
### Cycloadditions and oxidation {#cycloadditions_and_oxidation}
Alkynes undergo diverse cycloaddition reactions. The Diels--Alder reaction with 1,3-dienes gives 1,4-cyclohexadienes. This general reaction has been extensively developed. Electrophilic alkynes are especially effective dienophiles. The \"cycloadduct\" derived from the addition of alkynes to 2-pyrone eliminates carbon dioxide to give the aromatic compound. Other specialized cycloadditions include multicomponent reactions such as alkyne trimerisation to give aromatic compounds and the \[2+2+1\]-cycloaddition of an alkyne, alkene and carbon monoxide in the Pauson--Khand reaction. Non-carbon reagents also undergo cyclization, e.g. azide alkyne Huisgen cycloaddition to give triazoles. Cycloaddition processes involving alkynes are often catalyzed by metals, e.g. enyne metathesis and alkyne metathesis, which allows the scrambling of carbyne (RC) centers:
: RC#CR + R\'C#CR\' \<=\> 2RC#CR\'
Oxidative cleavage of alkynes proceeds via cycloaddition to metal oxides. Most famously, potassium permanganate converts alkynes to a pair of carboxylic acids.
### Reactions specific for terminal alkynes {#reactions_specific_for_terminal_alkynes}
Terminal alkynes are readily converted to many derivatives, e.g. by coupling reactions and condensations. Via the condensation with formaldehyde and acetylene is produced butynediol:
: 2CH2O + HC#CH -\> HOCH2CCCH2OH
In the Sonogashira reaction, terminal alkynes are coupled with aryl or vinyl halides:
:
This reactivity exploits the fact that terminal alkynes are weak acids, whose typical p*K*~a~ values around 25 place them between that of ammonia (35) and ethanol (16):
: RC#CH + MX -\> RC#CM + HX
where MX = NaNH~2~, LiBu, or RMgX.
The reactions of alkynes with certain metal cations, e.g. `{{chem2|Ag+}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{chem2|Cu+}}`{=mediawiki} also gives acetylides. Thus, few drops of diamminesilver(I) hydroxide (`{{chem2|Ag(NH3)2OH}}`{=mediawiki}) reacts with terminal alkynes signaled by formation of a white precipitate of the silver acetylide. This reactivity is the basis of alkyne coupling reactions, including the Cadiot--Chodkiewicz coupling, Glaser coupling, and the Eglinton coupling shown below:
: 2R-\\!{\\equiv}\\!-H -\>\[\\ce{Cu(OAc)2}\]\[\\ce{pyridine}\] R-\\!{\\equiv}\\!-\\!{\\equiv}\\!-R
In the Favorskii reaction and in alkynylations in general, terminal alkynes add to carbonyl compounds to give the hydroxyalkyne.
### Metal complexes {#metal_complexes}
Alkynes form complexes with transition metals. Such complexes occur also in metal catalyzed reactions of alkynes such as alkyne trimerization. Terminal alkynes, including acetylene itself, react with water to give aldehydes. The transformation typically requires metal catalysts to give this anti-Markovnikov addition result.
## Alkynes in nature and medicine {#alkynes_in_nature_and_medicine}
According to Ferdinand Bohlmann, the first naturally occurring acetylenic compound, dehydromatricaria ester, was isolated from an *Artemisia* species in 1826. In the nearly two centuries that have followed, well over a thousand naturally occurring acetylenes have been discovered and reported. Polyynes, a subset of this class of natural products, have been isolated from a wide variety of plant species, cultures of higher fungi, bacteria, marine sponges, and corals. Some acids like tariric acid contain an alkyne group. Diynes and triynes, species with the linkage RC≡C--C≡CR′ and RC≡C--C≡C--C≡CR′ respectively, occur in certain plants (*Ichthyothere*, *Chrysanthemum*, *Cicuta*, *Oenanthe* and other members of the Asteraceae and Apiaceae families). Some examples are cicutoxin, oenanthotoxin, and falcarinol. These compounds are highly bioactive, e.g. as nematocides. 1-Phenylhepta-1,3,5-triyne is illustrative of a naturally occurring triyne. Biosynthetically, the enediyne natural products are also derived from a polyyne precursor.
Alkynes occur in some pharmaceuticals, including the contraceptive noretynodrel. A carbon--carbon triple bond is also present in marketed drugs such as the antiretroviral efavirenz and the antifungal terbinafine. Molecules called ene-diynes feature a ring containing an alkene (\"ene\") between two alkyne groups (\"diyne\"). These compounds, e.g. calicheamicin, are some of the most aggressive antitumor drugs known, so much so that the ene-diyne subunit is sometimes referred to as a \"warhead\". Ene-diynes undergo rearrangement via the Bergman cyclization, generating highly reactive radical intermediates that attack DNA within the tumor
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# AbiWord
**AbiWord** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|æ|b|i|w|ɜr|d}}`{=mediawiki}) is a free and open-source word processor. It is written in C++ and since version 3 it is based on GTK+ 3. The name \"AbiWord\" is derived from the root of the Spanish word \"*abierto*\", meaning \"open\".
AbiWord was originally started by SourceGear Corporation as the first part of a proposed AbiSuite but was adopted by open source developers after SourceGear changed its business focus and ceased development. It now runs on Linux, ReactOS, Solaris, AmigaOS 4.0 (through its Cygwin X11 engine), MeeGo (on the Nokia N9 smartphone), Maemo (on the Nokia N810), QNX and other operating systems. Development of a version for Microsoft Windows has temporarily ended due to lack of maintainers (the latest released versions are 2.8.6 and 2.9.4 beta).
The macOS port has remained on version 2.4 since 2005, although the current version does run non-natively on macOS through XQuartz.
AbiWord is part of the AbiSource project which develops a number of office-related technologies.
## Features
AbiWord supports both basic word processing features such as lists, indents and character formats, and more sophisticated features including tables, styles, page headers and footers, footnotes, templates, multiple views, page columns, spell checking, and grammar checking. The Presentation view of AbiWord, which permits easy display of presentations created in AbiWord on \"screen-sized\" pages, is another feature not often found in word processors.
### Interface
AbiWord generally works similarly to classic versions (pre-Office 2007) of Microsoft Word, as direct ease of migration was a high priority early goal. While many interface similarities remain, cloning the Word interface is no longer a top priority. The interface is intended to follow user interface guidelines for each respective platform.
### Collaboration
AbiWord allows users to share and collaborate on documents in a similar manner to Google Docs, using a system known as GOCollab. Users can collaborate using a varitety of different protocols including TCP and XMPP, and formerly over AbiCollab.net, a web based service that facilitated collaboration between users.
### File formats {#file_formats}
AbiWord comes with several import and export filters providing partial support for such formats as HTML, Microsoft Word (.doc), Office Open XML (.docx), OpenDocument Text (.odt), Rich Text Format (.rtf), and text documents (.txt). LaTeX is supported for export only. Plug-in filters are available to deal with many other formats, notably WordPerfect documents. The native file format, .abw, uses XML, so as to mitigate vendor lock-in concerns with respect to interoperability and digital archiving.
### Grammar checking {#grammar_checking}
The AbiWord project includes a US English-only grammar checking plugin using Link Grammar. AbiWord had grammar checking before any other open source word processor, although a grammar checker was later added to OpenOffice.org. Link Grammar is both a theory of syntax and an open source parser which is now developed by the AbiWord project.
## Version history {#version_history}
Version 0.1.0 made public, source only -- August 21st, 1998, demoed at Open Source Developer Day.
Version 0.7.0 -- May 19th, 1999 -- first binary release.
Version 1.0 -- April 19th, 2002
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# Ames test
The **Ames test** is a widely employed method that uses bacteria to test whether a given chemical can cause mutations in the DNA of the test organism. More formally, it is a biological assay to assess the mutagenic potential of chemical compounds. A positive test indicates that the chemical is mutagenic and therefore may act as a carcinogen, because cancer is often linked to mutation. The test serves as a quick and convenient assay to estimate the carcinogenic potential of a compound because standard carcinogen assays on mice and rats are time-consuming (taking two to three years to complete) and expensive. However, false-positives and false-negatives are known.
The procedure was described in a series of papers in the early 1970s by Bruce Ames and his group at the University of California, Berkeley.
## General procedure {#general_procedure}
The Ames test uses several strains of the bacterium *Salmonella typhimurium* that carry mutations in genes involved in histidine synthesis. These strains are auxotrophic mutants, i.e. they require histidine for growth, but cannot produce it. The method tests the capability of the tested substance in creating mutations that result in a return to a \"prototrophic\" state, so that the cells can grow on a histidine-free medium.
The tester strains are specially constructed to detect either frameshift (e.g. strains TA-1537 and TA-1538) or point (e.g. strain TA-1531) mutations in the genes required to synthesize histidine, so that mutagens acting via different mechanisms may be identified. Some compounds are quite specific, causing reversions in just one or two strains. The tester strains also carry mutations in the genes responsible for lipopolysaccharide synthesis, making the cell wall of the bacteria more permeable, and in the excision repair system to make the test more sensitive.
Larger organisms like mammals have metabolic processes that could potentially turn a chemical considered not mutagenic into one that is or one that is considered mutagenic into one that is not. Therefore, to more effectively test a chemical compound\'s mutagenicity in relation to larger organisms, rat liver enzymes can be added in an attempt to replicate the metabolic processes\' effect on the compound being tested in the Ames Test. Rat liver extract is optionally added to simulate the effect of metabolism, as some compounds, like \[\[benzo(a)pyrene\|benzo\[*a*\]pyrene\]\], are not mutagenic themselves but their metabolic products are.
The bacteria are spread on an agar plate with a small amount of histidine. This small amount of histidine in the growth medium allows the bacteria to grow for an initial time and have the opportunity to mutate. When the histidine is depleted only bacteria that have mutated to gain the ability to produce its own histidine will survive. The plate is incubated for 48 hours. The mutagenicity of a substance is proportional to the number of colonies observed.
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# Ames test
## Ames test and carcinogens {#ames_test_and_carcinogens}
Mutagens identified via Ames test are also possible carcinogens, and early studies by Ames showed that 90% of known carcinogens may be identified via this test. Later studies however showed identification of 50--70% of known carcinogens. The test was used to identify a number of compounds previously used in commercial products as potential carcinogens. Examples include tris(2,3-dibromopropyl)phosphate, which was used as a flame retardant in plastic and textiles such as children\'s sleepwear, and furylfuramide which was used as an antibacterial additive in food in Japan in the 1960s and 1970s. Furylfuramide in fact had previously passed animal tests, but more vigorous tests after its identification in the Ames test showed it to be carcinogenic. Their positive tests resulted in those chemicals being withdrawn from use in consumer products.
One interesting result from the Ames test is that the dose response curve using varying concentrations of the chemical is almost always linear, indicating that there is no threshold concentration for mutagenesis. It therefore suggests that, as with radiation, there may be no safe threshold for chemical mutagens or carcinogens. However, some have proposed that organisms could tolerate low levels of mutagens due to protective mechanisms such as DNA repair, and thus a threshold may exist for certain chemical mutagens. Bruce Ames himself argued against linear dose-response extrapolation from the high dose used in carcinogenesis tests in animal systems to the lower dose of chemicals normally encountered in human exposure, as the results may be false positives due to mitogenic response caused by the artificially high dose of chemicals used in such tests. He also cautioned against the \"hysteria over tiny traces of chemicals that may or may not cause cancer\", that \"completely drives out the major risks you should be aware of\".
The Ames test is often used as one of the initial screens for potential drugs to weed out possible carcinogens, and it is one of the eight tests required under the Pesticide Act (USA) and one of the six tests required under the Toxic Substances Control Act (USA).
## Limitations
*Salmonella typhimurium* is a prokaryote, therefore it is not a perfect model for humans. Rat liver S9 fraction is used to mimic the mammalian metabolic conditions so that the mutagenic potential of metabolites formed by a parent molecule in the hepatic system can be assessed; however, there are differences in metabolism between humans and rats that can affect the mutagenicity of the chemicals being tested. The test may therefore be improved by the use of human liver S9 fraction; its use was previously limited by its availability, but it is now available commercially and therefore may be more feasible. An adapted *in vitro* model has been made for eukaryotic cells, for example yeast.
Mutagens identified in the Ames test need not necessarily be carcinogenic, and further tests are required for any potential carcinogen identified in the test. Drugs that contain the nitrate moiety sometimes come back positive for Ames when they are indeed safe. The nitrate compounds may generate nitric oxide, an important signal molecule that can give a false positive. Nitroglycerin is an example that gives a positive Ames yet is still used in treatment today. Nitrates in food however may be reduced by bacterial action to nitrites which are known to generate carcinogens by reacting with amines and amides. Long toxicology and outcome studies are needed with such compounds to disprove a positive Ames test.
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# Ames test
## Fluctuation method {#fluctuation_method}
The Ames test was initially developed using agar plates (the plate incorporation technique), as described above. Since that time, an alternative to performing the Ames test has been developed, which is known as the \"fluctuation method\". This technique is the same in concept as the agar-based method, with bacteria being added to a reaction mixture with a small amount of histidine, which allows the bacteria to grow and mutate, returning to synthesize their own histidine. By including a pH indicator, the frequency of mutation is counted in microplates as the number of wells which have changed color (caused by a drop in pH due to metabolic processes of reproducing bacteria). As with the traditional Ames test, the sample is compared to the natural background rate of reverse mutation in order to establish the genotoxicity of a substance. The fluctuation method is performed entirely in liquid culture and is scored by counting the number of wells that turn yellow from purple in 96-well or 384-well microplates.
In the 96-well plate method the frequency of mutation is counted as the number of wells out of 96 which have changed color. The plates are incubated for up to five days, with mutated (yellow) colonies being counted each day and compared to the background rate of reverse mutation using established tables of significance to determine the significant differences between the background rate of mutation and that for the tested samples.
In the more scaled-down 384-well plate microfluctuation method the frequency of mutation is counted as the number of wells out of 48 which have changed color after 2 days of incubation. A test sample is assayed across 6 dose levels with concurrent zero-dose (background) and positive controls which all fit into one 384-well plate. The assay is performed in triplicates to provide statistical robustness. It uses the recommended OECD Guideline 471 tester strains (histidine auxotrophs and tryptophan auxotrophs).
The fluctuation method is comparable to the traditional pour plate method in terms of sensitivity and accuracy, however, it does have a number of advantages: it needs less test sample, it has a simple colorimetric endpoint, counting the number of positive wells out of possible 96 or 48 wells is much less time-consuming than counting individual colonies on an agar plate. Several commercial kits are available. Most kits have consumable components in a ready-to-use state, including lyophilized bacteria, and tests can be performed using multichannel pipettes. The fluctuation method also allows for testing higher volumes of aqueous samples (up to 75% v/v), increasing the sensitivity and extending its application to low-level environmental mutagens
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# Antianginal
An **antianginal** is a drug used in the treatment of *angina pectoris*, a symptom of ischaemic heart disease.
**Myocardial ischemia** arises from the dysfunction of coronary macrovascular or microvascular components, leading to a compromised supply of oxygen and nutrients to the myocardium. The underlying pathophysiological mechanisms encompass a range of factors, including atherosclerosis in epicardial coronary arteries, vasospasm in large or small vessels, and microvascular dysfunction---whose clinical significance is increasingly acknowledged. The diverse clinical presentations of myocardial ischemia collectively fall under the term chronic coronary syndromes.
Addressing these conditions involves a multifaceted approach, where the most common antianginal medications alleviate symptoms by inducing coronary vasodilation and modifying the determinants of myocardial oxygen consumption, such as heart rate, myocardial wall stress, and ventricular contractility. Additionally, these medications can alter cardiac substrate metabolism to alleviate ischemia by enhancing the efficiency of myocardial oxygen utilization. While there is consensus on the prognostic importance of lifestyle interventions and preventive measures like aspirin and statin therapy, determining the optimal antianginal treatment for chronic coronary syndrome patients remains less defined.
The majority of individuals experiencing stable angina can effectively address their condition through lifestyle modifications, particularly by embracing **smoking cessation** and **incorporating regular exercise** into their routine. Alongside these lifestyle changes, the use of antianginal drugs is a common approach. However, findings from randomized controlled trials reveal that the efficacy of various antianginal drugs is comparable, with none demonstrating a significant reduction in mortality or the risk of myocardial infarction (MI). Despite this, prevailing guidelines lean towards recommending beta-blockers and calcium channel blockers as the preferred first-line treatment.
The European Society of Cardiology (ESC) guidelines for managing stable coronary artery disease provide well-defined classes of recommendation with corresponding levels of evidence. In a parallel vein, the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) guidelines for stable angina management consider cost-effectiveness in their recommendations, designating terms such as first-line and second-line therapy. Notably, both sets of guidelines advocate for the use of low-dose aspirin and statins as disease-modifying agents.
This article aims to critically examine and evaluate the pharmacological recommendations outlined in these guidelines for the management of patients with stable angina. By delving into the nuances of these recommendations, we seek to provide a comprehensive understanding of the rationale behind the suggested pharmacological interventions for stable angina, shedding light on their respective strengths and considerations in clinical practice.
## Political Considerations {#political_considerations}
The 2019 guidelines from the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) advocate for a personalized approach in which antianginal medications are tailored to an individual patient\'s comorbidities and hemodynamic profile. It\'s noteworthy that, although antianginal medications do not improve survival, their effectiveness in symptom reduction significantly depends on the underlying mechanism of angina.
Key considerations in antianginal therapies involve enhancing coronary vascular oxygen supply to the ischemic myocardium, reducing heart rate, myocardial work, and oxygen consumption, as well as optimizing the energetic efficiency of cardiomyocytes. Despite current guidelines recommending β-blockers and calcium-channel blockers as first-line therapy, there is a lack of evidence demonstrating their superiority over second-line therapies.
In this comprehensive review, it is crucial to emphasize that, thus far, neither drugs nor interventions that reduce ischemia have been shown to prolong survival in patients with chronic coronary syndromes.
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# Antianginal
## Examples
Drugs used are nitrates, beta blockers, or calcium channel blockers.
### Nitrates
Nitrates cause vasodilation of the venous capacitance vessels by stimulating the endothelium-derived relaxing factor (EDRF). Used to relieve both exertional and vasospastic angina by allowing venous pooling, reducing the pressure in the ventricles and so reducing wall tension and oxygen requirements in, the heart. Short-acting nitrates are used to abort angina attacks that have occurred, while longer-acting nitrates are used in the prophylactic management of the condition.
Agents include glyceryl trinitrate (GTN), pentaerythritol tetranitrate, isosorbide dinitrate and isosorbide mononitrate.
### Beta blockers {#beta_blockers}
Beta blockers are used in the prophylaxis of exertional angina by reducing the myocardial oxygen demand below the level that would provoke an angina attack.
They are contraindicated in variant angina and can precipitate heart failure. They are also contraindicated in severe asthmatics due to bronchoconstriction, and should be used cautiously in diabetics as they can mask symptoms of hypoglycemia.
Agents include either cardioselectives such as acebutolol or metoprolol, or non-cardioselectives such as oxprenolol or sotalol.
### Calcium channel blockers {#calcium_channel_blockers}
Calcium ion (Ca^++^) antagonists (Calcium channel blockers) are used in the treatment of chronic stable angina, and most effectively in the treatment of variant angina (directly preventing coronary artery vasospasm). They are not used in the treatment of unstable angina .
In vitro, they dilate the coronary and peripheral arteries and have negative inotropic and chronotropic effects - decreasing afterload, improving myocardial efficiency, reducing heart rate and improving coronary blood flow. *In vivo*, the vasodilation and hypotension trigger the baroreceptor reflex. Therefore, the net effect is the interplay of direct and reflex actions.
- Class I agents have the most potent negative inotropic effect and may cause heart failure.
- Class II agents do not depress conduction or contractility.
- Class III agent has negligible inotropic effect and causes almost no reflex tachycardia.
Examples include Class I agents (*e.g.*, verapamil), Class II agents (*e.g.*, amlodipine, nifedipine), or the Class III agent diltiazem.
Nifedipine is more a potent vasodilator and more effective in angina. It is in the class of dihydropyridines and does not affect refractory period on SA node conduction
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# Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System
The **Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical** (**ATC**) **Classification System** is a drug classification system that classifies the active ingredients of drugs according to the organ or system on which they act and their therapeutic, pharmacological and chemical properties. Its purpose is an aid to monitor drug use and for research to improve quality medication use. It does not imply drug recommendation or efficacy. It is controlled by the World Health Organization Collaborating Centre for Drug Statistics Methodology (WHOCC), and was first published in 1976.
## Coding system {#coding_system}
This pharmaceutical coding system divides drugs into different groups according to the organ or system on which they act, their therapeutic intent or nature, and the drug\'s chemical characteristics. Different brands share the same code if they have the same active substance and indications. Each bottom-level ATC code stands for a pharmaceutically used substance, or a combination of substances, in a single indication (or use). This means that one drug can have more than one code, for example acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin) has `{{ATC|A01|AD05}}`{=mediawiki} as a drug for local oral treatment, `{{ATC|B01|AC06}}`{=mediawiki} as a platelet inhibitor, and `{{ATC|N02|BA01}}`{=mediawiki} as an analgesic and antipyretic; as well as one code can represent more than one active ingredient, for example `{{ATC|C09|BB04}}`{=mediawiki} is the combination of perindopril with amlodipine, two active ingredients that have their own codes (`{{ATC|C09|AA04}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{ATC|C08|CA01}}`{=mediawiki} respectively) when prescribed alone.
The ATC classification system is a strict hierarchy, meaning that each code necessarily has one and only one parent code, except for the 14 codes at the topmost level which have no parents. The codes are semantic identifiers, meaning they depict information by themselves beyond serving as identifiers (namely, the codes depict themselves the complete lineage of parenthood). As of 7 May 2020, there are 6,331 codes in ATC; the table below gives the count per level.
ATC level Codes Different names/pharmaceuticals
----------- ------- ---------------------------------
Level 1 14 14
Level 2 94 94
Level 3 267 262
Level 4 889 819
Level 5 5067 4363
## History
The ATC system is based on the earlier Anatomical Classification System, which is intended as a tool for the pharmaceutical industry to classify pharmaceutical products (as opposed to their active ingredients). This system, confusingly also called ATC, was initiated in 1971 by the European Pharmaceutical Market Research Association (EphMRA) and is being maintained by the EphMRA and Intellus. Its codes are organised into four levels. The WHO\'s system, having five levels, is an extension and modification of the EphMRA\'s. It was first published in 1976.
## Classification
In this system, drugs are classified into groups at five different levels:
### First level {#first_level}
The first level of the code indicates the anatomical main group and consists of one letter. There are 14 main groups:
Code Contents
------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------
**A** Alimentary tract and metabolism
**B** Blood and blood forming organs
**C** Cardiovascular system
**D** Dermatologicals
**G** Genito-urinary system and sex hormones
**H** Systemic hormonal preparations, excluding sex hormones and insulins
**J** Antiinfectives for systemic use
**L** Antineoplastic and immunomodulating agents
**M** Musculo-skeletal system
**N** Nervous system
**P** Antiparasitic products, insecticides and repellents
**R** Respiratory system
**S** Sensory organs
**V** Various
*Example*: **C** Cardiovascular system
### Second level {#second_level}
The second level of the code indicates the therapeutic subgroup and consists of two digits.
*Example*: C**03** Diuretics
### Third level {#third_level}
The third level of the code indicates the therapeutic/pharmacological subgroup and consists of one letter.
*Example*: C03**C** High-ceiling diuretics
### Fourth level {#fourth_level}
The fourth level of the code indicates the chemical/therapeutic/pharmacological subgroup and consists of one letter.
*Example*: C03C**A** Sulfonamides
### Fifth level {#fifth_level}
The fifth level of the code indicates the chemical substance and consists of two digits.
*Example*: C03CA**01** furosemide
## Other ATC classification systems {#other_atc_classification_systems}
### ATCvet
The *Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System for veterinary medicinal products* (ATCvet) is used to classify veterinary drugs. ATCvet codes can be created by placing the letter Q in front of the ATC code of most human medications. For example, furosemide for veterinary use has the code **Q**C03CA01.
Some codes are used exclusively for veterinary drugs, such as *QI Immunologicals*, *QJ51 Antibacterials for intramammary use* or *QN05AX90 amperozide*.
### Herbal ATC (HATC) {#herbal_atc_hatc}
The Herbal ATC system (HATC) is an ATC classification of herbal substances; it differs from the regular ATC system by using 4 digits instead of 2 at the 5th level group.
The herbal classification is not adopted by WHO. The Uppsala Monitoring Centre is responsible for the Herbal ATC classification, and it is part of the WHODrug Global portfolio available by subscription.
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# Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System
## Defined daily dose {#defined_daily_dose}
The ATC system also includes defined daily doses (DDDs) for many drugs. This is a measurement of drug consumption based on the usual daily dose for a given drug. According to the definition, \"\[t\]he DDD is the assumed average maintenance dose per day for a drug used for its main indication in adults.\"
## Adaptations and updates {#adaptations_and_updates}
National issues of the ATC classification, such as the German *Anatomisch-therapeutisch-chemische Klassifikation mit Tagesdosen*, may include additional codes and DDDs not present in the WHO version.
ATC follows guidelines in creating new codes for newly approved drugs. An application is submitted to WHO for ATC classification and DDD assignment. A preliminary or temporary code is assigned and published on the website and in the *WHO Drug Information* for comment or objection. New ATC/DDD codes are discussed at the semi-annual Working Group meeting. If accepted it becomes a final decision and published semi-annually on the website and *WHO Drug Information* and implemented in the annual print/on-line ACT/DDD Index on January 1.
Changes to existing ATC/DDD follow a similar process to become temporary codes and if accepted become a final decision as ATC/DDD alterations. ATC and DDD alterations are only valid and implemented in the coming annual updates; the original codes must continue until the end of the year. An updated version of the complete on-line/print ATC index with DDDs is published annually on January 1
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# Ahimsa
**`{{transliteration|sa|Ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki}** (*अहिंसा*, IAST: `{{IAST|ahiṃsā}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{lit|nonviolence}}`{=mediawiki}) is the ancient Indian principle of nonviolence which applies to actions towards all living beings. It is a key virtue in Indian religions like Jainism, Buddhism and Hinduism.
(also spelled Ahinsa) is one of the cardinal virtues of Jainism, where it is the first of the Pancha Mahavrata. It is also one of the central precepts of Hinduism and is the first of the five precepts of Buddhism. `{{transliteration|sa|Ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki} is inspired by the premise that all living beings have the spark of the divine spiritual energy; therefore, to hurt another being is to hurt oneself. `{{transliteration|sa|Ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki} is also related to the notion that all acts of violence have karmic consequences. While ancient scholars of Brahmanism had already investigated and refined the principles of `{{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki}, the concept reached an extraordinary development in the ethical philosophy of Jainism. Mahavira, the twenty-fourth and the last `{{transliteration|sa|[[tirthankara]]}}`{=mediawiki} of Jainism, further strengthened the idea in `{{BCE|the 6th century}}`{=mediawiki}. About `{{CE|the 5th century}}`{=mediawiki}, Valluvar emphasized `{{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki} and moral vegetarianism as virtues for an individual, which formed the core of his teachings in the Kural. Perhaps the most popular advocate of the principle of `{{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki} in modern times was Mohandas K. Gandhi.
\'s precept that humans should \'cause no injury\' to another living being includes one\'s deeds, words, and thoughts. Classical Hindu texts like the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, as well as modern scholars, disagree about what the principle of `{{transliteration|sa|Ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki} dictates when one is faced with war and other situations that require self-defence. In this way, historical Indian literature has contributed to modern theories of just war and self-defence.
## Etymology
The word `{{transliteration|sa|Ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki}---sometimes spelled `{{transliteration|sa|Ahinsa}}`{=mediawiki}---is derived from the Sanskrit root `{{transliteration|sa|hiṃs}}`{=mediawiki}, meaning to strike; `{{transliteration|sa|hiṃsā}}`{=mediawiki} is injury or harm, while `{{transliteration|sa|a-hiṃsā}}`{=mediawiki} (prefixed with the alpha privative), its opposite, is *non-harming* or *nonviolence*.
## Origins
Reverence for `{{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki} can be found in Jain, Hindu, and Buddhist canonical texts. Lord Parshvanatha (the 23rd of 24 Tirthankaras of Jainism) is said to have preached `{{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki} as one of the four vows. No other Indian religion has developed the non-violence doctrine and its implications on everyday life as much as has Jainism.
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# Ahimsa
## Hinduism
### Ancient Vedic texts {#ancient_vedic_texts}
as an ethical concept evolved in the Vedic texts. The oldest scriptures indirectly mention `{{transliteration|sa|Ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki}. Over time, the Hindu scripts revised ritual practices, and the concept of `{{transliteration|sa|Ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki} was increasingly refined and emphasized until `{{transliteration|sa|Ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki} became the highest virtue by the late Vedic era (about `{{BCE|1000-600}}`{=mediawiki}). For example, hymn 10.22.25 in the Rig Veda uses the words `{{transliteration|sa|[[Satya]]}}`{=mediawiki} (truthfulness) and `{{transliteration|sa|Ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki} in a prayer to deity Indra; later, the Yajur Veda dated to be between `{{BCE|1200}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{BCE|900}}`{=mediawiki}, states, \"may all beings look at me with a friendly eye, may I do likewise, and may we look at each other with the eyes of a friend\".`{{page needed|date=November 2023}}`{=mediawiki}`{{page needed|date=November 2023}}`{=mediawiki}
The term `{{transliteration|sa|Ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki} appears in the text Taittiriya Shakha of the Yajurveda (TS 5.2.8.7), where it refers to non-injury to the sacrificer himself. It occurs several times in the *Shatapatha Brahmana* in the sense of \"non-injury\". The `{{transliteration|sa|Ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki} doctrine is a late Vedic era development in Brahmanical culture. The earliest reference to the idea of non-violence to animals (`{{transliteration|sa|pashu-Ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki}), apparently in a moral sense, is in the Kapisthala Katha Samhita of the Yajurveda (KapS 31.11), which may have been written in about `{{BCE|1500-1200}}`{=mediawiki}.`{{page needed|date=November 2023}}`{=mediawiki}`{{page needed|date=November 2023}}`{=mediawiki} The Chandogya Upanishad (3.17.4) includes ahimsa in its list of virtues.
John Bowker states the word appears but is uncommon in the principal Upanishads. Kaneda gives examples of the word `{{transliteration|sa|pashu-Ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki} in these Upanishads. Other scholars suggest `{{transliteration|sa|Ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki} as an ethical concept started evolving in the Vedas, becoming an increasingly central concept in Upanishads.
The Chāndogya Upaniṣad, dated to `{{BCE|800 to 600}}`{=mediawiki}, one of the oldest Upanishads, has the earliest evidence for the Vedic era use of the word `{{transliteration|sa|Ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki} in the sense familiar in Hinduism (a code of conduct). It bars violence against \"all creatures\" (`{{transliteration|sa|sarvabhuta}}`{=mediawiki}), and the practitioner of `{{transliteration|sa|Ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki} is said to escape from the cycle of rebirths (CU 8.15.1). Some scholars state that this mention may have been an influence of Jainism on Vedic Hinduism. Others scholar state that this relationship is speculative, and though Jainism is an ancient tradition the oldest traceable texts of Jainism tradition are from many centuries after the Vedic era ended.
Chāndogya Upaniṣad also names `{{transliteration|sa|Ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki}, along with `{{transliteration|sa|Satyavacanam}}`{=mediawiki} (truthfulness), `{{transliteration|sa|Ārjavam}}`{=mediawiki} (sincerity), `{{transliteration|sa|[[Dāna]]m}}`{=mediawiki} (charity), and `{{transliteration|sa|[[Tapas (Indian religions)|Tapo]]}}`{=mediawiki} (penance/meditation), as one of five essential virtues (CU 3.17.4).
The Sandilya Upanishad lists ten forbearances: `{{transliteration|sa|Ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{transliteration|sa|Satya}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{transliteration|sa|Asteya}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{transliteration|sa|Brahmacharya}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{transliteration|sa|Daya}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{transliteration|sa|Arjava}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{transliteration|sa|Kshama}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{transliteration|sa|Dhriti}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{transliteration|sa|Mitahara}}`{=mediawiki}, and `{{transliteration|sa|Saucha}}`{=mediawiki}. According to Kaneda, the term `{{transliteration|sa|Ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki} is an important spiritual doctrine shared by Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. It means \'non-injury\' and \'non-killing\'. It implies the total avoidance of harming any living creature by deeds, words, and thoughts.
### The Epics {#the_epics}
The Mahabharata, one of the epics of Hinduism, has multiple mentions of the phrase `{{transliteration|sa|Ahimsa Paramo Dharma}}`{=mediawiki} (*अहिंसा परमॊ धर्मः*), which literally means: non-violence is the highest moral virtue. For example, Anushasana Parva has the verse:
> *अहिंसा परमॊ धर्मः तथाहिंसा परॊ दमः। अहिंसा परमं दानम् अहिंसा परमस तपः। अहिंसा परमॊ यज्ञः तथाहिस्मा परं बलम्। अहिंसा परमं मित्रम् अहिंसा परमं सुखम्। अहिंसा परमं सत्यम् अहिंसा परमं श्रुतम्॥*
The above passage from Mahabharata emphasises the cardinal importance of `{{transliteration|sa|Ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki} in Hinduism, and literally means:
> `{{transliteration|sa|Ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki} is the highest `{{transliteration|sa|[[Dharma]]}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{transliteration|sa|Ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki} is the highest self-control, `{{transliteration|sa|Ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki} is the greatest gift, `{{transliteration|sa|Ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki} is the best practice, `{{transliteration|sa|Ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki} is the highest sacrifice, `{{transliteration|sa|Ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki} is the finest strength, `{{transliteration|sa|Ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki} is the greatest friend, `{{transliteration|sa|Ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki} is the greatest happiness, `{{transliteration|sa|Ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki} is the highest truth, and `{{transliteration|sa|Ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki} is the greatest teaching.
Some other examples where the phrase `{{transliteration|sa|Ahimsa Paramo Dharma}}`{=mediawiki} are discussed include Adi Parva, Vana Parva, and Anushasana Parva. The Bhagavad Gita, among other things, discusses the doubts and questions about appropriate response when one faces systematic violence or war. These verses develop the concepts of lawful violence in self-defence and the theories of just war. However, there is no consensus on this interpretation. Gandhi, for example, considers this debate about non-violence and lawful violence as a mere metaphor for the internal war within each human being, when he or she faces moral questions.
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# Ahimsa
## Hinduism
### Self-defence, criminal law, and war {#self_defence_criminal_law_and_war}
The classical texts of Hinduism devote numerous chapters to discussing what people who practice the virtue of `{{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki} can and must do when faced with war, violent threat, or the need to sentence someone convicted of a crime. These discussions have led to theories of just war, ideas of reasonable self-defense, and views of proportionate punishment. Arthashastra discusses, among other things, what constitutes proportionate response and punishment.
War
The precepts of `{{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki} in Hinduism require that war must be avoided, with`{{ambiguous|reason=unclear if this means that Hinduism, with S&TD, requires this; or if S&TD is the method for avoiding war; or if S&TD is the alternative to war|date=July 2023}}`{=mediawiki} sincere and truthful dialogue. Force must be the last resort. If war becomes necessary, its cause must be just, its purpose virtuous, its objective to restrain the wicked, its aim peace, and its method lawful. War can only be started and stopped by a legitimate authority. Weapons must be proportionate to the opponent and the aim of war, not indiscriminate tools of destruction. All strategies and weapons used in the war must be to defeat the opponent, not to cause misery to the opponent; for example, the use of arrows is allowed, but the use of arrows smeared with painful poison is not allowed. Warriors must use judgment`{{Specify|reason=what sort, in what way, to what end?|date=July 2023}}`{=mediawiki} in the battlefield. Cruelty to the opponent during war is forbidden. Wounded, unarmed opponent warriors must not be attacked or killed; they must be brought to your realm and given medical treatment. Children, women, and civilians must not be injured. While the war is in progress, sincere dialogue for peace must continue.
Self-defence
Different interpretations of ancient Hindu texts have been offered in matters of self-defense. For example, Tähtinen suggests self-defense is appropriate, criminals are not protected by the rule of `{{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki}, and Hindu scriptures support violence against an armed attacker. `{{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki} is not meant to imply pacifism.
Alternative theories of self-defense, inspired by `{{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki}, build principles similar to ideas of just war. Aikido, pioneered in Japan, illustrates one such set of principles for self-defense. Morihei Ueshiba, the founder of Aikido, described his inspiration as Ahimsa. According to this interpretation of `{{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki} in self-defense, one must not assume that the world is free of aggression. One must presume that some people will, out of ignorance, error, or fear, attack others or intrude into their space, physically or verbally. The aim of self-defense, suggested Ueshiba, must be to neutralize the attacker\'s aggression and avoid conflict. The best defense is one with which the victim is protected and the attacker is respected and not injured if possible. Under `{{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki} and Aikido, there are no enemies, and appropriate self-defense focuses on neutralizing the immaturity, assumptions, and aggressive strivings of the attacker.
Criminal law
Tähtinen concludes that Hindus have no misgivings about the death penalty; their position is that evil-doers who deserve death should be killed and that a king, in particular, is obliged to punish criminals and should not hesitate to kill them, even if they happen to be his brothers and sons.
Other scholars conclude that Hindu scriptures suggest that sentences for any crime must be fair, proportional, and not cruel.
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# Ahimsa
## Hinduism
### Non-human life {#non_human_life}
thumb\|upright=0.8\|The 5th-century CE Tamil scholar Valluvar, in his *Tirukkural*, taught `{{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki} and moral vegetarianism as personal virtues. The plaque in this statue of Valluvar at an animal sanctuary at Tiruvallur describes the Kural\'s teachings on `{{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki} and non-killing, summing them up with the definition of veganism. The Hindu precept of \"cause no injury\" applies to animals and all life forms. This precept is not found in the oldest verses of Vedas (`{{BCE|1500–1000}}`{=mediawiki}), but increasingly becomes one of the central ideas in post-Vedic period. In the oldest layer of the Vedas, such as the *Rigveda*, ritual sacrifices of animals and cooking of meat to feed guests are mentioned. This included goat, ox, horse, and others. However, the text is not uniform in its prescriptions. Some verses praise meat as food, while other verses in the Vedas recommend \"abstention from meat\", in particular, \"beef\". According to Marvin Harris, the Vedic literature is inconsistent, with some verses suggesting ritual slaughter and meat consumption, while others suggesting a taboo on meat-eating.
Hindu texts dated to `{{BCE|1st millennium}}`{=mediawiki} initially mention meat as food, then evolve to suggest that only meat obtained through ritual sacrifice can be eaten, thereafter evolving to the stance that one should eat no meat because it hurts animals, with verses describing the noble life as one that lives on flowers, roots, and fruits alone. The late Vedic-era literature (`{{BCE|pre-500}}`{=mediawiki}) condemns all killings of men, cattle, birds, and horses, and prays to god Agni to punish those who kill.
Later texts of Hinduism declare `{{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki} as one of the primary virtues, declare any killing or harming any life as against `{{transliteration|sa|dharma}}`{=mediawiki} (moral life). Finally, the discussion in the Upanishads and Hindu Epics shifts to whether a human being can ever live his or her life without harming animal and plant life in some way, which and when plants or animal meat may be eaten, whether violence against animals causes human beings to become less compassionate, and if and how one may exert least harm to non-human life consistent with `{{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki}, given the constraints of life and human needs. The Mahabharata permits hunting by warriors, but opposes it in the case of hermits who must be strictly non-violent. Sushruta Samhita, a Hindu text written in `{{BCE|the 3rd or 4th century}}`{=mediawiki}, in Chapter XLVI suggests proper diet as a means of treating certain illnesses, and recommends various fishes and meats for different ailments and for pregnant women, and the Charaka Samhita describes meat as superior to all other kinds of food for convalescents.
Across the texts of Hinduism, there is a profusion of ideas about the virtue of `{{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki} when applied to non-human life, but without a universal consensus. Alsdorf claims the debate and disagreements between supporters of vegetarian lifestyle and meat eaters was significant. Even suggested exceptions -- ritual slaughter and hunting -- were challenged by advocates of `{{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki}. In the Mahabharata both sides present various arguments to substantiate their viewpoints. Moreover, a hunter defends his profession in a long discourse.
Many of the arguments proposed in favor of non-violence to animals refer to the bliss one feels, the rewards it entails before or after death, the danger and harm it prevents, as well as to the karmic consequences of violence.
The ancient Hindu texts discuss `{{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki} and non-animal life. They discourage wanton destruction of nature including of wild and cultivated plants. Hermits (sannyasins) were urged to live on a fruitarian diet so as to avoid the destruction of plants. Scholars`{{r|CCEN}}`{=mediawiki} claim the principles of ecological nonviolence are innate in the Hindu tradition, and its conceptual fountain has been `{{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki} as its cardinal virtue.
The classical literature of the Indian religions, such as Hinduism and Jainism, exists in many Indian languages. For example, the *Tirukkural,* written in three volumes, likely between `{{CE|450 and 500}}`{=mediawiki}, dedicates verses 251--260 and 321--333 of its first volume to the virtue of `{{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki}, emphasizing on moral vegetarianism and non-killing (`{{transliteration|sa|kollamai}}`{=mediawiki}). However, the *Tirukkural* also glorifies soldiers and their valour during war, and states that it is king\'s duty to punish criminals and implement \"death sentence for the wicked\".
In 1960, H. Jay Dinshah founded the American Vegan Society (AVS), linking veganism to the concept of `{{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki}.
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# Ahimsa
## Hinduism
### Modern times {#modern_times}
In the 19th and 20th centuries, prominent figures of Indian spirituality such as Shrimad Rajchandra and Swami Vivekananda emphasised the importance of Ahimsa.
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi successfully promoted the principle of `{{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki} to all spheres of life, in particular to politics (`{{transliteration|sa|[[Swaraj]]}}`{=mediawiki}). His non-violent resistance movement `{{transliteration|sa|[[satyagraha]]}}`{=mediawiki} had an immense impact on India, impressed public opinion in Western countries, and influenced the leaders of various civil and political rights movements such as the American civil rights movement\'s Martin Luther King Jr. and James Bevel. In Gandhi\'s thought, `{{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki} precludes not only the act of inflicting a physical injury but also mental states like evil thoughts and hatred, and unkind behavior such as harsh words, dishonesty, and lying, all of which he saw as manifestations of violence incompatible with `{{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki}. Gandhi believed `{{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki} to be a creative energy force, encompassing all interactions leading one\'s self to find `{{transliteration|sa|satya}}`{=mediawiki}, \"Divine Truth\". Sri Aurobindo criticized the Gandhian concept of `{{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki} as unrealistic and not universally applicable; he adopted a pragmatic non-pacifist position, saying that the justification of violence depends on the specific circumstances of the given situation.
Gandhi took the religious principle of *ahimsa,* and turned it into a non-violent tool for mass action. He used it to fight not only colonial rule, but social evils such as racial discrimination and untouchability as well.
Gandhi stated his belief that \"`{{transliteration|sa|[a]himsa}}`{=mediawiki} is in Hinduism, it is in Christianity as well as in Islam.\" He added, \"Nonviolence is common to all religions, but it has found the highest expression and application in Hinduism (I do not regard Jainism or Buddhism as separate from Hinduism).\" When questioned whether violence and nonviolence are taught in Quran, he stated, \"I have heard from many Muslim friends that the Koran teaches the use of nonviolence. (\... The) argument about nonviolence in the Holy Koran is an interpolation, not necessary for my thesis.\"
Studying `{{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki}\'s history and philosophy influenced Albert Schweitzer\'s principle of \"reverence for life\". He commended Indian traditions for their ethics of `{{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki}, considering the prohibition against killing and harming \"one of the greatest events in the spiritual history of humankind\". However, he noted that \"not-killing\" and \"not-harming\" might be unfeasible in certain situations, like self-defense, or ethically complex, as in cases of prolonged famine.
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# Ahimsa
## Hinduism
### Yoga
means \"abstinence from malice towards all living creatures in every way and at all times\". *Ahimsa* is imperative for practitioners of Patañjali\'s eight limb Raja yoga system. It is included in the first limb and is the first of five `{{transliteration|sa|[[Yamas]]}}`{=mediawiki} (self restraints) which, together with the second limb, make up the code of ethical conduct in Yoga philosophy.Sanskrit Original with **Translation 1**:
- **Translation 2**:
- **Translation 3**:
Commentators on the Yoga Sutras II.30 emphasize that *ahimsa* is the most important and foundational *yama* of the five *yamas*. Vijnanabhiksu uses the analogy of an elephant to convey its importance, while Vyasa defines it as refraining from harming any living being at any time, emphasizing that all other *yamas* support and purify *ahimsa*.
is also one of the ten `{{transliteration|sa|Yamas}}`{=mediawiki} in Hatha Yoga according to verse 1.1.17 of its classic manual *Hatha Yoga Pradipika*. The significance of `{{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki} as the first restraint in the first limb of Yoga (`{{transliteration|sa|Yamas}}`{=mediawiki}) is that it defines the necessary foundation for progress through Yoga. It is a precursor to `{{transliteration|sa|Asana}}`{=mediawiki}, implying that success in `{{transliteration|sa|Yogasana}}`{=mediawiki} can be had only if the self is purified in thought, word, and deed through the self-restraint of `{{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki}.
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# Ahimsa
## Jainism
In Jainism, the understanding and implementation of `{{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki} is more radical, scrupulous, and comprehensive than in any other religion. Killing any living being out of passions like attachment is considered `{{transliteration|sa|hiṃsā}}`{=mediawiki} (to injure) and abstaining from such an act is `{{transliteration|sa|ahimsā}}`{=mediawiki} (noninjury). The vow of `{{transliteration|sa|ahimsā}}`{=mediawiki} is considered the foremost among the \"five vows of Jainism\". Other vows like truth (`{{transliteration|sa|satya}}`{=mediawiki}) are meant for safeguarding the vow of `{{transliteration|sa|ahimsā}}`{=mediawiki}.
In the practice of `{{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki}, the requirements are less strict for the lay persons (`{{transliteration|sa|[[sravakas]]}}`{=mediawiki}) who have undertaken `{{transliteration|sa|anuvrata}}`{=mediawiki} (Smaller Vows) than for the Jain monastics who are bound by the Mahavrata \"Great Vows\".
The statement `{{IAST|ahimsā paramo dharmaḥ}}`{=mediawiki} (or, \"Non-injury/nonviolence/harmlessness is the supreme/ultimate/paramount/highest/absolute duty/virtue/attribute/religion\"`{{refn|slashes are used here to present alternative denotations}}`{=mediawiki}) is often found inscribed on the walls of the Jain temples. As in Hinduism, the aim is to prevent the accumulation of harmful karma.
When Mahavira revived and reorganised the Jain faith in `{{BCE|the 6th or 5th century}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki} was already an established, strictly observed rule. Rishabhanatha (Ādinātha), the first Jain Tirthankara, whom modern Western historians consider to be a historical figure, followed by Parshvanatha (Pārśvanātha) the twenty-third Tirthankara lived in about `{{BCE|the 9th century}}`{=mediawiki}. He founded the community to which Mahavira\'s parents belonged. Ahimsa was already part of the \"Fourfold Restraint\" (*Caujjama*), the vows taken by Parshva\'s followers. In the times of Mahavira and in the following centuries, Jains were at odds with both Buddhists and followers of the Vedic religion or Hindus, whom they accused of negligence and inconsistency in the implementation of `{{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki}. According to the Jain tradition either lacto vegetarianism or veganism is prescribed.
The Jain concept of `{{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki} is characterised by several aspects. Killing of animals for food is absolutely ruled out. Jains also make considerable efforts not to injure plants in everyday life as far as possible. Though they admit that plants must be destroyed for the sake of food, they accept such violence only inasmuch as it is indispensable for human survival, and there are special instructions for preventing unnecessary violence against plants. Jain monks and nuns go out of their way so as not to hurt even small insects and other minuscule animals. Both the renouncers and the laypeople of Jain faith reject meat, fish, alcohol, and honey as these are believed to harm large or minuscule life forms.
Jain scholars have debated the potential injury to other life forms during one\'s occupation. Certain Jain texts (according to Padmanabh Jaini, a Jainism scholar) forbid people of its faith from husbandry, agriculture, and trade in animal-derived products. Some Jains abstain from farming because it inevitably entails unintentional killing or injuring of many small animals, such as worms and insects. These teachings, in part, have led the Jain community to focus on trade, merchant, clerical, and administrative occupations to minimize `{{transliteration|sa|arambhaja-himsa}}`{=mediawiki} (occupational violence against all life forms). For the layperson, the teaching has been of `{{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki} with `{{transliteration|sa|pramada}}`{=mediawiki} -- that is, reducing violence through proper intention and being careful in every action on a daily basis to minimize violence to all life forms.
The Jain texts, unlike most Hindu and Buddhist texts on just war, have been inconsistent. For its monastic community -- `{{transliteration|sa|[[sadhu]]}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{transliteration|sa|[[sadhu|sadhvi]]}}`{=mediawiki} -- the historically accepted practice has been to \"willingly sacrifice one\'s own life\" to the attacker, to not retaliate, so that the mendicant may keep the First Great Vow of \"total nonviolence\". Jain literature of `{{CE|the 10th century}}`{=mediawiki}, for example, describes a king ready for war and being given lessons about non-violence by the Jain acharya (spiritual teacher). In `{{CE|the 12th century}}`{=mediawiki} and thereafter, in an era of violent raids, destruction of temples, the slaughter of agrarian communities and ascetics by Islamic armies, Jain scholars reconsidered the First Great Vow of mendicants and its parallel for the laypeople. The medieval texts of this era, such as by Jinadatta Suri, recommended both the mendicants and the laypeople to fight and kill if that would prevent greater and continued violence on humans and other life forms (`{{transliteration|sa|virodhi-himsa}}`{=mediawiki}). Such exemptions to `{{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki} is a relatively rare teaching in Jain texts, states Dundas.
Mahatma Gandhi stated, \"No religion in the World has explained the principle of `{{transliteration|sa|Ahiṃsā}}`{=mediawiki} so deeply and systematically as is discussed with its applicability in every human life in Jainism. As and when the benevolent principle of `{{transliteration|sa|Ahiṃsā}}`{=mediawiki} or non-violence will be ascribed for practice by the people of the world to achieve their end of life in this world and beyond, Jainism is sure to have the uppermost status and Mahāvīra is sure to be respected as the greatest authority on `{{transliteration|sa|Ahiṃsā}}`{=mediawiki}\".
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# Ahimsa
## Buddhism
Further information: Noble Eightfold Path, Buddhist ethics#Killing, causing others to kill, Buddhism and violence, Engaged Buddhism In Buddhist texts `{{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki} (or its Pāli cognate `{{transliteration|pi|avihiṃsā}}`{=mediawiki}) is part of the Five Precepts (`{{IAST|Pañcasīla}}`{=mediawiki}), the first of which has been to abstain from killing. This precept of `{{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki} is applicable to both the Buddhist layperson and the monastic community.
The `{{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki} precept is not a commandment, and transgressions did not `{{clarify|text=invite religious sanctions|date=July 2023}}`{=mediawiki} for laypersons, but their`{{ambiguous|date=July 2023}}`{=mediawiki} power has been in the Buddhist belief in karmic consequences and their impact in afterlife during rebirth. Killing, in Buddhist belief, could lead to rebirth in the hellish realm, and for a longer time in more severe conditions if the murder victim was a monk. Saving animals from slaughter for meat is believed to be a way to acquire merit for better rebirth. These moral precepts have been voluntarily self-enforced in lay Buddhist culture through the associated belief in karma and rebirth. Buddhist texts not only recommend `{{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki}, but suggest avoiding trading goods that contribute to or are a result of violence:
Unlike with lay Buddhists, transgressions by monks do invite sanctions. Full expulsion of a monk from `{{transliteration|sa|[[Sangha (Buddhism)|sangha]]}}`{=mediawiki} follows instances of killing, just like any other serious offense against the monastic `{{transliteration|pi|nikaya}}`{=mediawiki} code of conduct.
### War
Violent ways of punishing criminals and prisoners of war were not explicitly condemned in Buddhism, but peaceful ways of conflict resolution and punishment with the least amount of injury were encouraged. The early texts condemn the mental states that lead to violent behavior.
Nonviolence is an overarching theme within the Pāli Canon. While the early texts condemn killing in the strongest terms, and portray the ideal ruler as a pacifist, such a ruler is nonetheless flanked by an army. It seems that the Buddha\'s teaching on nonviolence was not interpreted or put into practice in an uncompromisingly pacifist or anti-military service way by early Buddhists. The early texts assume war to be a fact of life, and well-skilled soldiers are viewed as necessary for defensive warfare. In Pali texts, injunctions to abstain from violence and involvement with military affairs are directed at members of the `{{transliteration|sa|sangha}}`{=mediawiki}; later Mahayana texts, which often generalise monastic norms to laity, require this of lay people as well.
The early texts do not contain just-war ideology as such. Some argue that a `{{transliteration|pi|[[suttas|sutta]]}}`{=mediawiki} in the *Gamani Samyuttam* rules out all military service. In this passage, a soldier asks the Buddha if it is true that, as he has been told, soldiers slain in battle are reborn in a heavenly realm. The Buddha reluctantly replies that if he is killed in battle while his mind is seized with the intention to kill, he will undergo an unpleasant rebirth. In the early texts, a person\'s mental state at the time of death is generally viewed as having a great impact on the next birth.
Some Buddhists point to other early texts as justifying defensive war. One example is the *Kosala Samyutta*, in which King Pasenadi of Kosala, a righteous king favored by the Buddha, learns of an impending attack on his kingdom. He arms himself in defence, and leads his army into battle to protect his kingdom from attack. He lost this battle but won the war. King Pasenadi eventually defeated Emperor Ajātasattu and captured him alive. He thought that, although this King of Magadha has transgressed against his kingdom, he had not transgressed against him personally, and Ajātasattu was still his nephew. He released Ajātasattu and did not harm him. Upon his return, the Buddha said (among other things) that Pasenadi \"is a friend of virtue, acquainted with virtue, intimate with virtue\", while the opposite is said of the aggressor, King Ajātasattu.
According to Theravada commentaries, there are five requisite factors that must all be fulfilled for an act to be both an act of killing and to be karmically negative. These are: (1) the presence of a living being, human or animal; (2) the knowledge that the being is a living being; (3) the intent to kill; (4) the act of killing by some means; and (5) the resulting death. Some Buddhists have argued on this basis that the act of killing is complicated, and its ethicality is predicated upon intent. Some have argued that in defensive postures, for example, the primary intention of a soldier is not to kill, but to defend against aggression, and the act of killing in that situation would have minimal negative karmic repercussions.
According to Babasaheb Ambedkar, there is circumstantial evidence encouraging `{{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki} from the Buddha\'s doctrine, \"Love all, so that you may not wish to kill any.\" Gautama Buddha distinguished between a principle and a rule. He did not make `{{transliteration|sa|ahimsa}}`{=mediawiki} a matter of rule, but suggested it as a matter of principle. This gives Buddhists freedom to act.
### Laws
Maurya Emperor Ashoka banned animal sacrifice, hunting, slaughter of \"all four-footed creatures that are neither useful nor edible\" and specific animal species, female goats, sheep and pigs nursing their young as well as their young up to the age of six months. Fishing was banned during Chaturmasya and Uposatha. Slave trade in the Maurya Empire was also banned by Ashoka.
The emperors of the Sui dynasty, Tang dynasty, and early Song dynasty banned killing in the Lunar calendar\'s 1st, 5th, and 9th months. Empress Wu Tse-Tien banned killing for more than half a year in 692. Some rulers banned fishing for a period of time each year.
There were also bans after the death of emperors, after Buddhist and Taoist prayers, and after natural disasters such as Shanghai\'s 1926 summer drought, as well as an eight-day ban beginning August 12, 1959, after the August 7 flood (`{{lang-zh|c=[[:zh:八七水災|八七水災]]|p=Bāqī shuǐzāi}}`{=mediawiki}), the last big flood before the 88 Taiwan Flood.
People avoid killing during some festivals, like the Taoist Ghost Festival, the Nine Emperor Gods Festival, and the Vegetarian Festival, as well as during others
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# Annals of Mathematics
*Mathematische Annalen*}} `{{Infobox journal
| title = Annals of Mathematics
| cover =
| language = English
| editor =
| discipline = [[Mathematics]]
| abbreviation = Ann. Math.
| mathscinet = Ann. of Math.
| caption =
| formernames = The Analyst
| publisher = [[Princeton University]] and the [[Institute for Advanced Study]]
| country = United States
| frequency = Bimonthly
| history = 1874–present
| openaccess = [[Delayed open-access journal|Delayed]], after 5 years
| license =
| impact = 5.7
| impact-year = 2023
| website = https://annals.math.princeton.edu/
| link1 =
| link1-name =
| link2 =
| link2-name =
| JSTOR = 0003486X
| OCLC = 01481391
| LCCN = 49006640
| CODEN = ANMAAH
| ISSN = 0003-486X
| eISSN =
}}`{=mediawiki} The ***Annals of Mathematics*** is a mathematical journal published every two months by Princeton University and the Institute for Advanced Study.
## History
The journal was established as *The Analyst* in 1874 and with Joel E. Hendricks as the founding editor-in-chief. It was \"intended to afford a medium for the presentation and analysis of any and all questions of interest or importance in pure and applied Mathematics, embracing especially all new and interesting discoveries in theoretical and practical astronomy, mechanical philosophy, and engineering\". It was published in Des Moines, Iowa, and was the earliest American mathematics journal to be published continuously for more than a year or two. This incarnation of the journal ceased publication after its tenth year, in 1883, giving as an explanation Hendricks\' declining health, but Hendricks made arrangements to have it taken over by new management, and it was continued from March 1884 as the *Annals of Mathematics*. The new incarnation of the journal was edited by Ormond Stone (University of Virginia). It moved to Harvard in 1899 before reaching its current home in Princeton in 1911.
An important period for the journal was 1928--1958 with Solomon Lefschetz as editor. Norman Steenrod characterized Lefschetz\' impact as editor as follows: \"The importance to American mathematicians of a first-class journal is that it sets high standards for them to aim at. In this somewhat indirect manner, Lefschetz profoundly affected the development of mathematics in the United States.\"
Princeton University continued to publish the *Annals* on its own until 1933, when the Institute for Advanced Study took joint editorial control. Since 1998, it has been available in an electronic edition, alongside its regular print edition. The electronic edition was available without charge, as an open access journal, but since 2008, this is no longer the case. Issues from before 2003 were transferred to the non-free JSTOR archive, and articles are not freely available until 5 years after publication.
## Abstracting and indexing {#abstracting_and_indexing}
The journal is abstracted and indexed in the Science Citation Index, Current Contents/Physical, Chemical & Earth Sciences, and Scopus. According to the *Journal Citation Reports*, the journal has a 2023 impact factor of 5.7, ranking it third out of 330 journals in the category \"Mathematics\"
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# Active Directory
**Active Directory** (**AD**) is a directory service developed by Microsoft for Windows domain networks. Windows Server operating systems include it as a set of processes and services.`{{r|DSA-MSDN|WI4}}`{=mediawiki} Originally, only centralized domain management used Active Directory. However, it ultimately became an umbrella title for various directory-based identity-related services.
A domain controller is a server running the **Active Directory Domain Services** (**AD DS**) role. It authenticates and authorizes all users and computers in a Windows domain-type network, assigning and enforcing security policies for all computers and installing or updating software. For example, when a user logs into a computer which is part of a Windows domain, Active Directory checks the submitted username and password and determines whether the user is a system administrator or a non-admin user. Furthermore, it allows the management and storage of information, provides authentication and authorization mechanisms, and establishes a framework to deploy other related services: Certificate Services, Active Directory Federation Services, Lightweight Directory Services, and Rights Management Services.
Active Directory uses Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP) versions 2 and 3, Microsoft\'s version of Kerberos, and DNS.
Robert R. King defined it in the following way:
## History
Like many information-technology efforts, Active Directory originated out of a democratization of design using Requests for Comments (RFCs). The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) oversees the RFC process and has accepted numerous RFCs initiated by widespread participants. For example, LDAP underpins Active Directory. Also, X.500 directories and the Organizational Unit preceded the Active Directory concept that uses those methods. The LDAP concept began to emerge even before the founding of Microsoft in April 1975, with RFCs as early as 1971. RFCs contributing to LDAP include RFC 1823 (on the LDAP API, August 1995), RFC 2307, RFC 3062, and RFC 4533.
Microsoft previewed Active Directory in 1999, released it first with Windows 2000 Server edition, and revised it to extend functionality and improve administration in Windows Server 2003. Active Directory support was also added to Windows 95, Windows 98, and Windows NT 4.0 via patch, with some unsupported features. Additional improvements came with subsequent versions of Windows Server. In Windows Server 2008, Microsoft added further services to Active Directory, such as Active Directory Federation Services. The part of the directory in charge of managing domains, which was a core part of the operating system, was renamed Active Directory Domain Services (ADDS) and became a server role like others. \"Active Directory\" became the umbrella title of a broader range of directory-based services. According to Byron Hynes, everything related to identity was brought under Active Directory\'s banner.
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# Active Directory
## Active Directory Services {#active_directory_services}
Active Directory Services consist of multiple directory services. The best known is Active Directory Domain Services, commonly abbreviated as AD DS or simply AD.
### Domain Services {#domain_services}
Active Directory Domain Services (AD DS) is the foundation of every Windows domain network. It stores information about domain members, including devices and users, verifies their credentials, and defines their access rights. The server running this service is called a domain controller. A domain controller is contacted when a user logs into a device, accesses another device across the network, or runs a line-of-business Metro-style app sideloaded into a machine.
Other Active Directory services (excluding LDS, as described below) and most Microsoft server technologies rely on or use Domain Services; examples include Group Policy, Encrypting File System, BitLocker, Domain Name Services, Remote Desktop Services, Exchange Server, and SharePoint Server.
The self-managed Active Directory DS must be distinct from managed Azure AD DS, a cloud product.
### `{{anchor|ADAM}}`{=mediawiki} Lightweight Directory Services {#lightweight_directory_services}
Active Directory Lightweight Directory Services (AD LDS), previously called *Active Directory Application Mode* (ADAM), implements the LDAP protocol for AD DS. It runs as a service on Windows Server and offers the same functionality as AD DS, including an equal API. However, AD LDS does not require the creation of domains or domain controllers. It provides a Data Store for storing directory data and a *Directory Service* with an LDAP Directory Service Interface. Unlike AD DS, multiple AD LDS instances can operate on the same server.
### Certificate Services {#certificate_services}
Active Directory Certificate Services (AD CS) establishes an on-premises public key infrastructure. It can create, validate, revoke and perform other similar actions, public key certificates for internal uses of an organization. These certificates can be used to encrypt files (when used with Encrypting File System), emails (per S/MIME standard), and network traffic (when used by virtual private networks, Transport Layer Security protocol or IPSec protocol).
AD CS predates Windows Server 2008, but its name was simply Certificate Services.
AD CS requires an AD DS infrastructure.
### Federation Services {#federation_services}
Active Directory Federation Services (AD FS) is a single sign-on service. With an AD FS infrastructure in place, users may use several web-based services (e.g. internet forum, blog, online shopping, webmail) or network resources using only one set of credentials stored at a central location, as opposed to having to be granted a dedicated set of credentials for each service. AD FS uses many popular open standards to pass token credentials such as SAML, OAuth or OpenID Connect. AD FS supports encryption and signing of SAML assertions. AD FS\'s purpose is an extension of that of AD DS: The latter enables users to authenticate with and use the devices that are part of the same network, using one set of credentials. The former enables them to use the same set of credentials in a different network.
As the name suggests, AD FS works based on the concept of federated identity.
AD FS requires an AD DS infrastructure, although its federation partner may not.
### Rights Management Services {#rights_management_services}
**Active Directory Rights Management Services** (**AD RMS**), previously known as Rights Management Services or RMS before Windows Server 2008, is server software that allows for information rights management, included with Windows Server. It uses encryption and selective denial to restrict access to various documents, such as corporate e-mails, Microsoft Word documents, and web pages. It also limits the operations authorized users can perform on them, such as viewing, editing, copying, saving, or printing. IT administrators can create pre-set templates for end users for convenience, but end users can still define who can access the content and what actions they can take.
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# Active Directory
## Logical structure {#logical_structure}
Active Directory is a service comprising a database and executable code. It is responsible for managing requests and maintaining the database. The Directory System Agent is the executable part, a set of Windows services and processes that run on Windows 2000 and later. Accessing the objects in Active Directory databases is possible through various interfaces such as LDAP, ADSI, messaging API, and Security Accounts Manager services.
### Objects used {#objects_used}
Active Directory structures consist of information about objects classified into two categories: resources (such as printers) and security principals (which include user or computer accounts and groups). Each security principal is assigned a unique security identifier (SID). An object represents a single entity, such as a user, computer, printer, or group, along with its attributes. Some objects may even contain other objects within them. Each object has a unique name, and its definition is a set of characteristics and information by a schema, which determines the storage in the Active Directory.
Administrators can extend or modify the schema using the schema object when needed. However, because each schema object is integral to the definition of Active Directory objects, deactivating or changing them can fundamentally alter or disrupt a deployment. Modifying the schema affects the entire system automatically, and new objects cannot be deleted, only deactivated. Changing the schema usually requires planning.
### Forests, trees, and domains {#forests_trees_and_domains}
In an Active Directory network, the framework that holds objects has different levels: the forest, tree, and domain. Domains within a deployment contain objects stored in a single replicable database, and the DNS name structure identifies their domains, the namespace. A domain is a logical group of network objects such as computers, users, and devices that share the same Active Directory database.
On the other hand, a tree is a collection of domains and domain trees in a contiguous namespace linked in a transitive trust hierarchy. The forest is at the top of the structure, a collection of trees with a standard global catalog, directory schema, logical structure, and directory configuration. The forest is a secure boundary that limits access to users, computers, groups, and other objects.
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------+
| | --- --------------- |
| | Domain-Dallas |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | --- --------------- |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------+
| Example of the geographical organizing of zones of interest within trees and domains | |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------+
#### Organizational units {#organizational_units}
The objects held within a domain can be grouped into organizational units (OUs). OUs can provide hierarchy to a domain, ease its administration, and can resemble the organization\'s structure in managerial or geographical terms. OUs can contain other OUs---domains are containers in this sense. Microsoft recommends using OUs rather than domains for structure and simplifying the implementation of policies and administration. The OU is the recommended level at which to apply group policies, which are Active Directory objects formally named group policy objects (GPOs), although policies can also be applied to domains or sites (see below). The OU is the level at which administrative powers are commonly delegated, but delegation can be performed on individual objects or attributes as well.
Organizational units do not each have a separate namespace. As a consequence, for compatibility with Legacy NetBios implementations, user accounts with an identical SamAccountName are not allowed within the same domain even if the accounts objects are in separate OUs. This is because SamAccountName, a user object attribute, must be unique within the domain. However, two users in different OUs can have the same common name (CN), the name under which they are stored in the directory itself such as \"fred.staff-ou.domain\" and \"fred.student-ou.domain\", where \"staff-ou\" and \"student-ou\" are the OUs.
In general, the reason for this lack of allowance for duplicate names through hierarchical directory placement is that Microsoft primarily relies on the principles of NetBIOS, which is a flat-namespace method of network object management that, for Microsoft software, goes all the way back to Windows NT 3.1 and MS-DOS LAN Manager. Allowing for duplication of object names in the directory, or completely removing the use of NetBIOS names, would prevent backward compatibility with legacy software and equipment. However, disallowing duplicate object names in this way is a violation of the LDAP RFCs on which Active Directory is supposedly based.
As the number of users in a domain increases, conventions such as \"first initial, middle initial, last name\" (Western order) or the reverse (Eastern order) fail for common family names like *Li* (李), *Smith* or *Garcia*. Workarounds include adding a digit to the end of the username. Alternatives include creating a separate ID system of unique employee/student ID numbers to use as account names in place of actual users\' names and allowing users to nominate their preferred word sequence within an acceptable use policy.
Because duplicate usernames cannot exist within a domain, account name generation poses a significant challenge for large organizations that cannot be easily subdivided into separate domains, such as students in a public school system or university who must be able to use any computer across the network.
##### Shadow groups {#shadow_groups}
In Microsoft\'s Active Directory, OUs do not confer access permissions, and objects placed within OUs are not automatically assigned access privileges based on their containing OU. It represents a design limitation specific to Active Directory, and other competing directories, such as Novell NDS, can set access privileges through object placement within an OU.
Active Directory requires a separate step for an administrator to assign an object in an OU as a group member also within that OU. Using only the OU location to determine access permissions is unreliable since the entity might not have been assigned to the group object for that OU yet.
A common workaround for an Active Directory administrator is to write a custom PowerShell or Visual Basic script to automatically create and maintain a *user group* for each OU in their Directory. The scripts run periodically to update the group to match the OU\'s account membership. However, they cannot instantly update the security groups anytime the directory changes, as occurs in competing directories, as security is directly implemented into the Directory. Such groups are known as *shadow groups*. Once created, these shadow groups are selectable in place of the OU in the administrative tools. Microsoft\'s Server 2008 reference documentation mentions shadow groups but does not provide instructions on creating them. Additionally, there are no available server methods or console snap-ins for managing these groups.
An organization must determine the structure of its information infrastructure by dividing it into one or more domains and top-level OUs. This decision is critical and can base on various models such as business units, geographical locations, IT service, object type, or a combination of these models. The immediate purpose of organizing OUs is to simplify administrative delegation and, secondarily, to apply group policies. While OUs serve as an administrative boundary, the forest itself is the only security boundary. All other domains must trust any administrator in the forest to maintain security.
### Partitions
The Active Directory database is organized in *partitions*, each holding specific object types and following a particular replication pattern. Microsoft often refers to these partitions as \'naming contexts. The \'Schema\' partition defines object classes and attributes within the forest. The \'Configuration\' partition contains information on the physical structure and configuration of the forest (such as the site topology). Both replicate all domains in the forest. The \'Domain\' partition holds all objects created in that domain and replicates only within it.
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# Active Directory
## Physical structure {#physical_structure}
*Sites* are physical (rather than logical) groupings defined by one or more IP subnets. AD also defines connections, distinguishing low-speed (e.g., WAN, VPN) from high-speed (e.g., LAN) links. Site definitions are independent of the domain and OU structure and are shared across the forest. Sites play a crucial role in managing network traffic created by replication and directing clients to their nearest domain controllers (DCs). Microsoft Exchange Server 2007 uses the site topology for mail routing. Administrators can also define policies at the site level.
The Active Directory information is physically held on one or more peer domain controllers, replacing the NT PDC/BDC model. Each DC has a copy of the Active Directory. Member servers joined to Active Directory that are not domain controllers are called Member Servers. In the domain partition, a group of objects acts as copies of domain controllers set up as global catalogs. These global catalog servers offer a comprehensive list of all objects in the forest.
Global Catalog servers replicate all objects from all domains to themselves, providing an international listing of entities in the forest. However, to minimize replication traffic and keep the GC\'s database small, only selected attributes of each object are replicated, called the *partial attribute set* (PAS). The PAS can be modified by modifying the schema and marking features for replication to the GC. Earlier versions of Windows used NetBIOS to communicate. Active Directory is fully integrated with DNS and requires TCP/IP---DNS. To fully operate, the DNS server must support SRV resource records, also known as service records.
### Replication
Active Directory uses multi-master replication to synchronize changes, meaning replicas pull changes from the server where the change occurred rather than being pushed to them. The Knowledge Consistency Checker (KCC) uses defined sites to manage traffic and create a replication topology of site links. Intra-site replication occurs frequently and automatically due to change notifications, which prompt peers to begin a pull replication cycle. Replication intervals between different sites are usually less consistent and don\'t usually use change notifications. However, it\'s possible to set it up to be the same as replication between locations on the same network if needed.
Each DS3, T1, and ISDN link can have a cost, and the KCC alters the site link topology accordingly. Replication may occur transitively through several site links on same-protocol *site link bridges* if the price is low. However, KCC automatically costs a direct site-to-site link lower than transitive connections. A bridgehead server in each zone can send updates to other DCs in the exact location to replicate changes between sites. To configure replication for Active Directory zones, activate DNS in the domain based on the site.
To replicate Active Directory, Remote Procedure Calls (RPC) over IP (RPC/IP) are used. SMTP is used to replicate between sites but only for modifications in the Schema, Configuration, or Partial Attribute Set (Global Catalog) GCs. It\'s not suitable for reproducing the default Domain partition.
## Implementation
Generally, a network utilizing Active Directory has more than one licensed Windows server computer. Backup and restore of Active Directory are possible for a network with a single domain controller. However, Microsoft recommends more than one domain controller to provide automatic failover protection of the directory. Domain controllers are ideally single-purpose for directory operations only and should not run any other software or role.
Since certain Microsoft products, like SQL Server and Exchange, can interfere with the operation of a domain controller, isolation of these products on additional Windows servers is advised. Combining them can complicate the configuration and troubleshooting of the domain controller or the other installed software more complex. If planning to implement Active Directory, a business should purchase multiple Windows server licenses to have at least two separate domain controllers. Administrators should consider additional domain controllers for performance or redundancy and individual servers for tasks like file storage, Exchange, and SQL Server since this will guarantee that all server roles are adequately supported.
One way to lower the physical hardware costs is by using virtualization. However, for proper failover protection, Microsoft recommends not running multiple virtualized domain controllers on the same physical hardware.
## Database
The Active-Directory database, the *directory store*, in Windows 2000 Server uses the JET Blue-based Extensible Storage Engine (ESE98). Each domain controller\'s database is limited to 16 terabytes and 2 billion objects (but only 1 billion security principals). Microsoft has created NTDS databases with more than 2 billion objects. NT4\'s Security Account Manager could support up to 40,000 objects. It has two main tables: the *data table* and the *link table*. Windows Server 2003 added a third main table for security descriptor single instancing.
Programs may access the features of Active Directory via the COM interfaces provided by *Active Directory Service Interfaces*.
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# Active Directory
## Trusting
To allow users in one domain to access resources in another, Active Directory uses trusts.
Trusts inside a forest are automatically created when domains are created. The forest sets the default boundaries of trust, and implicit, transitive trust is automatic for all domains within a forest.
### Terminology
One-way trust
: One domain allows access to users on another domain, but the other domain does not allow access to users on the first domain.
Two-way trust
: Two domains allow access to users on both domains.
Trusted domain
: The domain that is trusted; whose users have access to the trusting domain.
Transitive trust
: A trust that can extend beyond two domains to other trusted domains in the forest.
Intransitive trust
: A one way trust that does not extend beyond two domains.
Explicit trust
: A trust that an admin creates. It is not transitive and is one way only.
Cross-link trust
: An explicit trust between domains in different trees or the same tree when a descendant/ancestor (child/parent) relationship does not exist between the two domains.
Shortcut
: Joins two domains in different trees, transitive, one- or two-way.
Forest trust
: Applies to the entire forest. Transitive, one- or two-way.
Realm
: Can be transitive or nontransitive (intransitive), one- or two-way.
External
: Connect to other forests or non-Active Directory domains. Nontransitive, one- or two-way.
PAM trust
: A one-way trust used by Microsoft Identity Manager from a (possibly low-level) production forest to a (Windows Server 2016 functionality level) \'bastion\' forest, which issues time-limited group memberships.
## Management tools {#management_tools}
Microsoft Active Directory management tools include:
- Active Directory Administrative Center (Introduced with Windows Server 2012 and above),
- Active Directory Users and Computers,
- Active Directory Domains and Trusts,
- Active Directory Sites and Services,
- ADSI Edit,
- Local Users and Groups,
- Active Directory Schema snap-ins for Microsoft Management Console (MMC),
- SysInternals ADExplorer.
These management tools may not provide enough functionality for efficient workflow in large environments. Some third-party tools extend the administration and management capabilities. They provide essential features for a more convenient administration process, such as automation, reports, integration with other services, etc.
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# Active Directory
## Unix integration {#unix_integration}
Varying levels of interoperability with Active Directory can be achieved on most Unix-like operating systems (including Unix, Linux, Mac OS X or Java and Unix-based programs) through standards-compliant LDAP clients, but these systems usually do not interpret many attributes associated with Windows components, such as Group Policy and support for one-way trusts.
Third parties offer Active Directory integration for Unix-like platforms, including:
- *PowerBroker Identity Services*, formerly *Likewise* (BeyondTrust, formerly Likewise Software) -- Allows a non-Windows client to join Active Directory
- *ADmitMac* (Thursby Software Systems)
- *Samba* (free software under GPLv3) -- Can act as a fully functional Active Directory
The schema additions shipped with Windows Server 2003 R2 include attributes that map closely enough to RFC 2307 to be generally usable. The reference implementation of RFC 2307, nss_ldap and pam_ldap provided by PADL.com, support these attributes directly. The default schema for group membership complies with RFC 2307bis (proposed). Windows Server 2003 R2 includes a Microsoft Management Console snap-in that creates and edits the attributes.
An alternative option is to use another directory service as non-Windows clients authenticate to this while Windows Clients authenticate to Active Directory. Non-Windows clients include 389 Directory Server (formerly Fedora Directory Server, FDS), ViewDS v7.2 XML Enabled Directory, and Sun Microsystems Sun Java System Directory Server. The latter two are both able to perform two-way synchronization with Active Directory and thus provide a \"deflected\" integration.
Another option is to use OpenLDAP with its *translucent* overlay, which can extend entries in any remote LDAP server with additional attributes stored in a local database. Clients pointed at the local database see entries containing both the remote and local attributes, while the remote database remains completely untouched.
Administration (querying, modifying, and monitoring) of Active Directory can be achieved via many scripting languages, including PowerShell, VBScript, JScript/JavaScript, Perl, Python, and Ruby. Free and non-free Active Directory administration tools can help to simplify and possibly automate Active Directory management tasks.
Since October 2017 Amazon AWS offers integration with Microsoft Active Directory
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# Aldona of Lithuania
**Aldona** (baptized *Ona* or *Anna*; her pagan name, Aldona, is known only from the writings of Maciej Stryjkowski; c. 1309 -- 26 May 1339) was Queen consort of Poland (1333--1339), and a princess of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. She was the daughter of Gediminas, Grand Duke of Lithuania.
## Biography
Aldona married Casimir III of Poland, when he was 15 or 16 years old. The bride was probably of about the same age. The marriage took place on 30 April or 16 October 1325 and was a purely political maneuver to strengthen the first Polish--Lithuanian coalition against the Teutonic Knights. Casimir was seeking allies in the dispute over Pomerania with the Order. Gediminas had just undertaken an unsuccessful attempt to Christianize Lithuania. This coalition was a prelude to the Union of Krewo in 1385, and the Union of Lublin in 1569, which resulted in the creation of a new state, the Polish--Lithuanian Commonwealth. The details of the agreement are not known; however, it is known that Gediminas released all Polish captives, some 25,000 people, who returned to Poland. The importance of the marriage was attested by the fact that Władysław abandoned his earlier plans to marry his son to Jutta of Bohemia. The alliance was put into effect when joint Polish--Lithuanian forces organized an attack against the Margraviate of Brandenburg in 1326. However, the coalition was not strong and collapsed c. 1330. Yet, there is no evidence of fighting between Poland and Lithuania while Aldona was alive. Aldona died suddenly at the end of May 1339, and was buried in Kraków.
Aldona was remembered for her piety and devotion to music. She was accompanied by court musicians wherever she went. It was even suggested by Jan Długosz that the cymbals which were played in procession before her represented a pagan Lithuanian tradition. Her husband Casimir is known for his romantic affairs: after Aldona\'s death he married three more times.
## Issue
Aldona had two daughters:
- Cunigunde of Poland (died in 1357); married on 1 January 1345 Louis VI the Roman, the son of Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor.
- Elisabeth (1326--1361); married Bogislaus V, Duke of Pomerania. Elisabeth\'s daughter, Elizabeth of Pomerania, was the fourth wife of Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor.
## In popular culture {#in_popular_culture}
### Film
Queen Aldona Anna is one of the main characters in the first season of Polish historical TV drama series \"Korona Królów\" (\"The Crown of the Kings\"). She is played by Marta Bryła
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# Advanced Mobile Phone System
**Advanced Mobile Phone System** (**AMPS**) was an analog mobile phone system standard originally developed by Bell Labs and later modified in a cooperative effort between Bell Labs and Motorola. It was officially introduced in the Americas on October 13, 1983, and was deployed in many other countries too, including Israel in 1986, Australia in 1987, Singapore in 1988, and Pakistan in 1990. It was the primary analog mobile phone system in North America (and other locales) through the 1980s and into the 2000s. As of February 18, 2008, carriers in the United States were no longer required to support AMPS and companies such as AT&T and Verizon Communications have discontinued this service permanently. AMPS was discontinued in Australia in September 2000, in India by October 2004, in Israel by January 2010, and Brazil by 2010.
## History
The first cellular network efforts began at Bell Labs and with research conducted at Motorola. In 1960, John F. Mitchell became Motorola\'s chief engineer for its mobile-communication products, and oversaw the development and marketing of the first pager to use transistors.
Motorola had long produced mobile telephones for automobiles, but these large and heavy models consumed too much power to allow their use without the automobile\'s engine running. Mitchell\'s team, which included Dr. Martin Cooper, developed portable cellular telephony. Cooper and Mitchell were among the Motorola employees granted a patent for this work in 1973. The first call on the prototype connected, reportedly, to a wrong number.
While Motorola was developing a cellular phone, from 1968 to 1983 Bell Labs worked out a system called Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS), which became the first cellular network standard in the United States. The Bell system deployed ASTM in Chicago, Illinois, first as an equipment test serving approximately 100 units in 1978, and subsequently as a service test planned for 2,000 billed units. Motorola and others designed and built the cellular phones for this and other cellular systems. Louis M. Weinberg, a marketing director at AT&T, was named the first president of the AMPS corporation. He served in this position during the startup of the AMPS subsidiary of AT&T.
Martin Cooper, a former general manager for the systems division at Motorola, led a team that produced the first cellular handset in 1973 and made the first phone call from it. In 1983 Motorola introduced the DynaTAC 8000x, the first commercially available cellular phone small enough to be easily carried. He later introduced the so-called Bag Phone.
In 1992, the first smartphone, called IBM Simon, used AMPS. Frank Canova led its design at IBM and it was demonstrated that year at the COMDEX computer-industry trade-show. A refined version of the product was marketed to consumers in 1994 by BellSouth under the name Simon Personal Communicator. The Simon was the first device that can be properly referred to as a \"smartphone\", even though that term was not yet coined.
## Technology
AMPS is a first-generation cellular technology that uses separate frequencies, or \"channels\", for each conversation. It therefore required considerable bandwidth for a large number of users. In general terms, AMPS was very similar to the older \"0G\" Improved Mobile Telephone Service it replaced, but used considerably more computing power to select frequencies, hand off conversations to land lines, and handle billing and call setup.
What really separated AMPS from older systems is the \"back end\" call setup functionality. In AMPS, the cell centers could flexibly assign channels to handsets based on signal strength, allowing the same frequency to be re-used, without interference, if locations were separated enough. The channels were grouped so a specific set was different of the one used on the cell nearby. This allowed a larger number of phones to be supported over a geographical area. AMPS pioneers coined the term \"cellular\" because of its use of small hexagonal \"cells\" within a system.
AMPS suffered from many weaknesses compared to today\'s digital technologies. As an analog standard, it was susceptible to static and noise, and there was no protection from \'eavesdropping\' using a scanner or an older TV set that could tune into channels 70--83.
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# Advanced Mobile Phone System
## Cloning
In the 1990s, an epidemic of \"cloning\" cost the cellular carriers millions of dollars. An eavesdropper with specialized equipment could intercept a handset\'s ESN (Electronic Serial Number) and MDN or CTN (Mobile Directory Number or Cellular Telephone Number). The Electronic Serial Number, a 12-digit number sent by the handset to the cellular system for billing purposes, uniquely identified that phone on the network. The system then allowed or disallowed calls and/or features based on its customer file. A person intercepting an ESN/MDN pair could clone the combination onto a different phone and use it in other areas for making calls without paying.
Cellular phone cloning became possible with off-the-shelf technology in the 1990s. Would-be cloners required three key items :
1. A radio receiver, such as the Icom PCR-1000, that could tune into the Reverse Channel (the frequency on which AMPS phones transmit data to the tower)
2. A PC with a sound card and a software program called Banpaia
3. A phone that could easily be used for cloning, such as the Oki 900
The radio, when tuned to the proper frequency, would receive the signal transmitted by the cell phone to be cloned, containing the phone\'s ESN/MDN pair. This signal would feed into the sound-card audio-input of the PC, and Banpaia would decode the ESN/MDN pair from this signal and display it on the screen. The hacker could then copy that data into the Oki 900 phone and reboot it, after which the phone network could not distinguish the Oki from the original phone whose signal had been received. This gave the cloner, through the Oki phone, the ability to use the mobile-phone service of the legitimate subscriber whose phone was cloned -- just as if that phone had been physically stolen, except that the subscriber retained his or her phone, unaware that the phone had been cloned---at least until that subscriber received his or her next bill.
The problem became so large that some carriers required the use of a PIN before making calls. Eventually, the cellular companies initiated a system called RF Fingerprinting, whereby it could determine subtle differences in the signal of one phone from another and shut down some cloned phones. Some legitimate customers had problems with this though if they made certain changes to their own phone, such as replacing the battery and/or antenna.
The Oki 900 could listen in to AMPS phone-calls right out-of-the-box with no hardware modifications.
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# Advanced Mobile Phone System
## Standards
AMPS was originally standardized by American National Standards Institute (ANSI) as EIA/TIA/IS-3. EIA/TIA/IS-3 was superseded by EIA/TIA-553 and TIA interim standard with digital technologies, the cost of wireless service is so low that the problem of cloning has virtually disappeared.
## Frequency bands {#frequency_bands}
AMPS cellular service operated in the 850 MHz Cellular band. For each market area, the United States Federal Communications Commission (FCC) allowed two licensees (networks) known as \"A\" and \"B\" carriers. Each carrier within a market used a specified \"block\" of frequencies consisting of 21 control channels and 395 voice channels. Originally, the B (wireline) side license was usually owned by the local phone company, and the A (non-wireline) license was given to wireless telephone providers.
At the inception of cellular in 1983, the FCC had granted each carrier within a market 333 channel pairs (666 channels total). By the late 1980s, the cellular industry\'s subscriber base had grown into the millions across America and it became necessary to add channels for additional capacity. In 1989, the FCC granted carriers an expansion from the previous 666 channels to the final 832 (416 pairs per carrier). The additional frequencies were from the band held in reserve for future (inevitable) expansion. These frequencies were immediately adjacent to the existing cellular band. These bands had previously been allocated to UHF TV channels 70--83.
Each duplex channel was composed of 2 frequencies. 416 of these were in the 824--849 MHz range for transmissions from mobile stations to the base stations, paired with 416 frequencies in the 869--894 MHz range for transmissions from base stations to the mobile stations. Each cell site used a different subset of these channels than its neighbors to avoid interference. This significantly reduced the number of channels available at each site in real-world systems. Each AMPS channel had a one way bandwidth of 30 kHz, for a total of 60 kHz for each duplex channel.
Laws were passed in the US which prohibited the FCC type acceptance and sale of any receiver which could tune the frequency ranges occupied by analog AMPS cellular services.`{{why|date=August 2023}}`{=mediawiki} Though the service is no longer offered, these laws remain in force (although they may no longer be enforced).
## Narrowband AMPS {#narrowband_amps}
In 1991, Motorola proposed an AMPS enhancement known as narrowband AMPS (NAMPS or N-AMPS).
## Digital AMPS {#digital_amps}
Later, many AMPS networks were partially converted to D-AMPS, often referred to as **TDMA** (though TDMA is a generic term that applies to many 2G cellular systems). D-AMPS, commercially deployed since 1993, was a digital, 2G standard used mainly by AT&T Mobility and U.S. Cellular in the United States, Rogers Wireless in Canada, Telcel in Mexico, Telecom Italia Mobile (TIM) in Brazil, VimpelCom in Russia, Movilnet in Venezuela, and Cellcom in Israel. In most areas, D-AMPS is no longer offered and has been replaced by more advanced digital wireless networks.
## Successor technologies {#successor_technologies}
AMPS and D-AMPS have now been phased out in favor of either CDMA2000 or GSM, which allow for higher capacity data transfers for services such as WAP, Multimedia Messaging System (MMS), and wireless Internet access. There are some phones capable of supporting AMPS, D-AMPS and GSM all in one phone (using the GAIT standard).
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# Advanced Mobile Phone System
## Analog AMPS being replaced by digital {#analog_amps_being_replaced_by_digital}
In 2002, the FCC decided to no longer require A and B carriers to support AMPS service as of February 18, 2008. All AMPS carriers have converted to a digital standard such as CDMA2000 or GSM. Digital technologies such as GSM and CDMA2000 support multiple voice calls on the same channel and offer enhanced features such as two-way text messaging and data services.
Unlike in the United States, the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC) and Industry Canada have not set any requirement for maintaining AMPS service in Canada. Rogers Wireless has dismantled their AMPS (along with IS-136) network; the networks were shut down May 31, 2007. Bell Mobility and Telus Mobility, who operated AMPS networks in Canada, announced that they would observe the same timetable as outlined by the FCC in the United States, and as a result would not begin to dismantle their AMPS networks until after February 2008.
OnStar relied heavily on North American AMPS service for its subscribers because, when the system was developed, AMPS offered the most comprehensive wireless coverage in the US. In 2006, ADT asked the FCC to extend the AMPS deadline due to many of their alarm systems still using analog technology to communicate with the control centers. Cellular companies who own an A or B license (such as Verizon and Alltel) were required to provide analog service until February 18, 2008. After that point, however, most cellular companies were eager to shut down AMPS and use the remaining channels for digital services. OnStar transitioned to digital service with the help of data transport technology developed by Airbiquity, but warned customers who could not be upgraded to digital service that their service would permanently expire on January 1, 2008.
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# Advanced Mobile Phone System
## Commercial deployments of AMPS by country {#commercial_deployments_of_amps_by_country}
+---------+------------------------+-------------+----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Country | Main Cellular Operator | Launch date | End of service | Notes |
+=========+========================+=============+================+=========================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================+
| | | 1983 | 2008 | - Verizon Wireless---Formerly operated an AMPS network. On February 18, 2008, Verizon discontinued all AMPS service. Initially migrated to CDMA2000, but now operates on LTE and 5G. |
| | | | | - U.S. Cellular---Formerly operated an AMPS & D-AMPS network. On February 10, 2009, U.S. Cellular discontinued all AMPS & D-AMPS service. Initially migrated to CDMA2000, but now operates on LTE and 5G. |
| | | | | - Alltel---In 2005 disclosed that only 15% of their total customer base are still using the existing analog network. The company has posted a three-phase turn down schedule, which was completed in September 2008. With the acquisition of Western Wireless, Alltel now took the claim of the \"largest network in America.\" The claim was true, oddly enough because of wide analog coverage in rural areas. All Alltel AMPS and D-AMPS service was discontinued in September 2008 |
| | | | | - Coastel Offshore Cellular---Operated an AMPS network in the Gulf of Mexico that stretched from south of Corpus Christi, TX to south of Gulf Shores, AL. In 2006 Coastel was the only carrier in the US whose entire customer base was still 100% analog based. In 2007 Coastel was merged with Petrocom and SOLA Communications to form Broadpoint Inc. and the network was converted to GSM. |
| | | | | - AT&T Mobility -- In areas where AT&T Mobility previously had D-AMPS operating on 1900 MHz frequencies, no analog AMPS network existed, and the D-AMPS network on the 1900 MHz frequency was shut down on July 15, 2007. Service on the remaining 850 MHz AMPS markets was discontinued along with 850 MHz D-AMPS service on February 18, 2008, except in areas where service was provided by Dobson Communications. The Dobson AMPS and TDMA networks were shut down on March 1, 2008. |
+---------+------------------------+-------------+----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | | 1984 | | - Bell Mobility and Telus Mobility operated AMPS networks in Canada, though they have since been overlaid with digital services. Both Bell Mobility and Telus Mobility had announced that they would observe the same shutdown guidelines as in the United States, and decommissioned their AMPS networks in 2008. |
| | | | | - Rogers Wireless---operated an AMPS network in Canada, though it has since been overlaid with digital services. Rogers discontinued its AMPS network on May 31, 2007. |
| | | | | - SaskTel -- operated an AMPS network in Saskatchewan, Canada. It was the third-largest AMPS network, by subscribers, in the world at the time of its turndown. It was officially shutdown site by site starting at 00:00 on January 2, 2010, after twenty-one years of service. SaskTel continues to run UMTS networks. |
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| | | 1986 | 2000 | Telstra (formerly Telecom Australia) -- operated an AMPS network in Australia from February 1987 until the end of 2000. As part of the introduction of mobile phone competition in Australia, the Australian government mandated GSM as the new standard for mobile networks, and required that Telstra close the AMPS network by 2000. However, GSM base stations could only serve a limited area. While this was OK for Europe, it meant that GSM could not cover large, sparsely populated rural areas of Australia cost effectively. Telstra deployed a CDMA network, which did not suffer this limitation, and while the AMPS network was closed down at the end of 1999 in the major cities, the closure deadline was extended until the end of 2000 in rural areas to ease the transition to CDMA. The CDMA network has since been replaced by an 850 MHz UMTS network, Next G. |
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| | | 1986 | | |
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| | | 1986 | | Pelephone -- began offering nationwide AMPS service in Israel in 1986. In the mid-1990s it converted to CDMA (IS-95 and later EV-DO) and in the mid-2000s converted to UMTS. |
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| | | 1991-1992 | | |
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| | | 1987 | | Singtel (previously known as Telecommunications Equipment) -- operated an AMPS network, marketed as a Cellular Mobile Radio System (CMRS), in Singapore from 1988 until 1994. In 1989, Singapore\'s Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) became the first rapid transit system in the world to have full mobile phone coverage inside underground stations and tunnels using AMPS technology. Singtel decommissioned its AMPS network in 1994 after GSM was implemented. |
+---------+------------------------+-------------+----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | | 1987 | 2007 | Telecom New Zealand (now Spark New Zealand) -- operated an AMPS/TDMA network in New Zealand from 1987 until 2007 throughout the whole country and the network was renowned for its superb coverage, In 2000 Telecom announced that they would discontinue the AMPS network within 5 years (2005) to give customers an opportunity to transition to the CDMA2000 and later 1XRTT technologies that replaced it. They later extended that deadline until 6 pm March 31, 2007. At approximately 7:15 on March 31, 2007, the AMPS/TDMA network ceased to function. |
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| | | 1991 | 2006 | |
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| | Paktel | 1990 | 2004 | Paktel was granted an AMPS licence in early 1990 to operate a cellular telephone network throughout Pakistan. It was the first company granted a free license to carry out cellular phone services in Pakistan. It carried out AMPS services until 2004, after which it switched to GSM. |
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| | Mobikom | Jan 1994 | | Named Mobifon
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# Aerodynamics
300px\|thumb\|upright=1.6\|A NASA wake turbulence study at Wallops Island in 1990. A vortex is created by passage of an aircraft wing, revealed by smoke. Vortices are one of the many phenomena associated with the study of aerodynamics.
**Aerodynamics** (`{{etymology|grc|''{{wikt-lang|grc|ἀήρ}}'' ({{grc-transl|ἀήρ}})|air||''{{wikt-lang|grc|δυναμική}}'' ({{grc-transl|δυναμική}})|dynamics}}`{=mediawiki}) is the study of the motion of air, particularly when affected by a solid object, such as an airplane wing. It involves topics covered in the field of fluid dynamics and its subfield of gas dynamics, and is an important domain of study in aeronautics. The term *aerodynamics* is often used synonymously with gas dynamics, the difference being that \"gas dynamics\" applies to the study of the motion of all gases, and is not limited to air. The formal study of aerodynamics began in the modern sense in the eighteenth century, although observations of fundamental concepts such as aerodynamic drag were recorded much earlier. Most of the early efforts in aerodynamics were directed toward achieving heavier-than-air flight, which was first demonstrated by Otto Lilienthal in 1891. Since then, the use of aerodynamics through mathematical analysis, empirical approximations, wind tunnel experimentation, and computer simulations has formed a rational basis for the development of heavier-than-air flight and a number of other technologies. Recent work in aerodynamics has focused on issues related to compressible flow, turbulence, and boundary layers and has become increasingly computational in nature.
## History
Modern aerodynamics only dates back to the seventeenth century, but aerodynamic forces have been harnessed by humans for thousands of years in sailboats and windmills, and images and stories of flight appear throughout recorded history, such as the Ancient Greek legend of Icarus and Daedalus. Fundamental concepts of continuum, drag, and pressure gradients appear in the work of Aristotle and Archimedes.
In 1726, Sir Isaac Newton became the first person to develop a theory of air resistance, making him one of the first aerodynamicists. Dutch-Swiss mathematician Daniel Bernoulli followed in 1738 with *Hydrodynamica* in which he described a fundamental relationship between pressure, density, and flow velocity for incompressible flow known today as Bernoulli\'s principle, which provides one method for calculating aerodynamic lift. In 1757, Leonhard Euler published the more general Euler equations which could be applied to both compressible and incompressible flows. The Euler equations were extended to incorporate the effects of viscosity in the first half of the 1800s, resulting in the Navier--Stokes equations. The Navier--Stokes equations are the most general governing equations of fluid flow but are difficult to solve for the flow around all but the simplest of shapes.
In 1799, Sir George Cayley became the first person to identify the four aerodynamic forces of flight (weight, lift, drag, and thrust), as well as the relationships between them, and in doing so outlined the path toward achieving heavier-than-air flight for the next century. In 1871, Francis Herbert Wenham constructed the first wind tunnel, allowing precise measurements of aerodynamic forces. Drag theories were developed by Jean le Rond d\'Alembert, Gustav Kirchhoff, and Lord Rayleigh. In 1889, Charles Renard, a French aeronautical engineer, became the first person to reasonably predict the power needed for sustained flight. Otto Lilienthal, the first person to become highly successful with glider flights, was also the first to propose thin, curved airfoils that would produce high lift and low drag. Building on these developments as well as research carried out in their own wind tunnel, the Wright brothers flew the first powered airplane on December 17, 1903.
During the time of the first flights, Frederick W. Lanchester, Martin Kutta, and Nikolai Zhukovsky independently created theories that connected circulation of a fluid flow to lift. Kutta and Zhukovsky went on to develop a two-dimensional wing theory. Expanding upon the work of Lanchester, Ludwig Prandtl is credited with developing the mathematics behind thin-airfoil and lifting-line theories as well as work with boundary layers.
As aircraft speed increased designers began to encounter challenges associated with air compressibility at speeds near the speed of sound. The differences in airflow under such conditions lead to problems in aircraft control, increased drag due to shock waves, and the threat of structural failure due to aeroelastic flutter. The ratio of the flow speed to the speed of sound was named the Mach number after Ernst Mach who was one of the first to investigate the properties of the supersonic flow. Macquorn Rankine and Pierre Henri Hugoniot independently developed the theory for flow properties before and after a shock wave, while Jakob Ackeret led the initial work of calculating the lift and drag of supersonic airfoils. Theodore von Kármán and Hugh Latimer Dryden introduced the term transonic to describe flow speeds between the critical Mach number and Mach 1 where drag increases rapidly. This rapid increase in drag led aerodynamicists and aviators to disagree on whether supersonic flight was achievable until the sound barrier was broken in 1947 using the Bell X-1 aircraft.
By the time the sound barrier was broken, aerodynamicists\' understanding of the subsonic and low supersonic flow had matured. The Cold War prompted the design of an ever-evolving line of high-performance aircraft. Computational fluid dynamics began as an effort to solve for flow properties around complex objects and has rapidly grown to the point where entire aircraft can be designed using computer software, with wind-tunnel tests followed by flight tests to confirm the computer predictions. Understanding of supersonic and hypersonic aerodynamics has matured since the 1960s, and the goals of aerodynamicists have shifted from the behaviour of fluid flow to the engineering of a vehicle such that it interacts predictably with the fluid flow. Designing aircraft for supersonic and hypersonic conditions, as well as the desire to improve the aerodynamic efficiency of current aircraft and propulsion systems, continues to motivate new research in aerodynamics, while work continues to be done on important problems in basic aerodynamic theory related to flow turbulence and the existence and uniqueness of analytical solutions to the Navier--Stokes equations.
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# Aerodynamics
## Fundamental concepts {#fundamental_concepts}
Understanding the motion of air around an object (often called a flow field) enables the calculation of forces and moments acting on the object. In many aerodynamics problems, the forces of interest are the fundamental forces of flight: lift, drag, thrust, and weight. Of these, lift and drag are aerodynamic forces, i.e. forces due to air flow over a solid body. Calculation of these quantities is often founded upon the assumption that the flow field behaves as a continuum. Continuum flow fields are characterized by properties such as flow velocity, pressure, density, and temperature, which may be functions of position and time. These properties may be directly or indirectly measured in aerodynamics experiments or calculated starting with the equations for conservation of mass, momentum, and energy in air flows. Density, flow velocity, and an additional property, viscosity, are used to classify flow fields.
### Flow classification {#flow_classification}
Flow velocity is used to classify flows according to speed regime. Subsonic flows are flow fields in which the air speed field is always below the local speed of sound. Transonic flows include both regions of subsonic flow and regions in which the local flow speed is greater than the local speed of sound. Supersonic flows are defined to be flows in which the flow speed is greater than the speed of sound everywhere. A fourth classification, hypersonic flow, refers to flows where the flow speed is much greater than the speed of sound. Aerodynamicists disagree on the precise definition of hypersonic flow.
Compressible flow accounts for varying density within the flow. Subsonic flows are often idealized as incompressible, i.e. the density is assumed to be constant. Transonic and supersonic flows are compressible, and calculations that neglect the changes of density in these flow fields will yield inaccurate results.
Viscosity is associated with the frictional forces in a flow. In some flow fields, viscous effects are very small, and approximate solutions may safely neglect viscous effects. These approximations are called inviscid flows. Flows for which viscosity is not neglected are called viscous flows. Finally, aerodynamic problems may also be classified by the flow environment. External aerodynamics is the study of flow around solid objects of various shapes (e.g. around an airplane wing), while internal aerodynamics is the study of flow through passages inside solid objects (e.g. through a jet engine).
#### Continuum assumption {#continuum_assumption}
Unlike liquids and solids, gases are composed of discrete molecules which occupy only a small fraction of the volume filled by the gas. On a molecular level, flow fields are made up of the collisions of many individual of gas molecules between themselves and with solid surfaces. However, in most aerodynamics applications, the discrete molecular nature of gases is ignored, and the flow field is assumed to behave as a continuum. This assumption allows fluid properties such as density and flow velocity to be defined everywhere within the flow.
The validity of the continuum assumption is dependent on the density of the gas and the application in question. For the continuum assumption to be valid, the mean free path length must be much smaller than the length scale of the application in question. For example, many aerodynamics applications deal with aircraft flying in atmospheric conditions, where the mean free path length is on the order of micrometers and where the body is orders of magnitude larger. In these cases, the length scale of the aircraft ranges from a few meters to a few tens of meters, which is much larger than the mean free path length. For such applications, the continuum assumption is reasonable. The continuum assumption is less valid for extremely low-density flows, such as those encountered by vehicles at very high altitudes (e.g. 300,000 ft/90 km) or satellites in Low Earth orbit. In those cases, statistical mechanics is a more accurate method of solving the problem than is continuum aerodynamics. The Knudsen number can be used to guide the choice between statistical mechanics and the continuous formulation of aerodynamics.
### Conservation laws {#conservation_laws}
The assumption of a fluid continuum allows problems in aerodynamics to be solved using fluid dynamics conservation laws. Three conservation principles are used:
Conservation of mass: Conservation of mass requires that mass is neither created nor destroyed within a flow; the mathematical formulation of this principle is known as the mass continuity equation.\
Conservation of momentum: The mathematical formulation of this principle can be considered an application of Newton\'s second law. Momentum within a flow is only changed by external forces, which may include both surface forces, such as viscous (frictional) forces, and body forces, such as weight. The momentum conservation principle may be expressed as either a vector equation or separated into a set of three scalar equations (x,y,z components).\
Conservation of energy: The energy conservation equation states that energy is neither created nor destroyed within a flow, and that any addition or subtraction of energy to a volume in the flow is caused by heat transfer, or by work into and out of the region of interest.
Together, these equations are known as the Navier--Stokes equations, although some authors define the term to only include the momentum equation(s). The Navier--Stokes equations have no known analytical solution and are solved in modern aerodynamics using computational techniques. Because computational methods using high speed computers were not historically available and the high computational cost of solving these complex equations now that they are available, simplifications of the Navier--Stokes equations have been and continue to be employed. The Euler equations are a set of similar conservation equations which neglect viscosity and may be used in cases where the effect of viscosity is expected to be small. Further simplifications lead to Laplace\'s equation and potential flow theory. Additionally, Bernoulli\'s equation is a solution in one dimension to both the momentum and energy conservation equations.
The ideal gas law or another such equation of state is often used in conjunction with these equations to form a determined system that allows the solution for the unknown variables.
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# Aerodynamics
## Branches of aerodynamics {#branches_of_aerodynamics}
Aerodynamic problems are classified by the flow environment or properties of the flow, including flow speed, compressibility, and viscosity. *External* aerodynamics is the study of flow around solid objects of various shapes. Evaluating the lift and drag on an airplane or the shock waves that form in front of the nose of a rocket are examples of external aerodynamics. *Internal* aerodynamics is the study of flow through passages in solid objects. For instance, internal aerodynamics encompasses the study of the airflow through a jet engine or through an air conditioning pipe.
Aerodynamic problems can also be classified according to whether the flow speed is below, near or above the speed of sound. A problem is called subsonic if all the speeds in the problem are less than the speed of sound, transonic if speeds both below and above the speed of sound are present (normally when the characteristic speed is approximately the speed of sound), supersonic when the characteristic flow speed is greater than the speed of sound, and hypersonic when the flow speed is much greater than the speed of sound. Aerodynamicists disagree over the precise definition of hypersonic flow; a rough definition considers flows with Mach numbers above 5 to be hypersonic.
The influence of viscosity on the flow dictates a third classification. Some problems may encounter only very small viscous effects, in which case viscosity can be considered to be negligible. The approximations to these problems are called inviscid flows. Flows for which viscosity cannot be neglected are called viscous flows.
### Incompressible aerodynamics {#incompressible_aerodynamics}
An incompressible flow is a flow in which density is constant in both time and space. Although all real fluids are compressible, a flow is often approximated as incompressible if the effect of the density changes cause only small changes to the calculated results. This is more likely to be true when the flow speeds are significantly lower than the speed of sound. Effects of compressibility are more significant at speeds close to or above the speed of sound. The Mach number is used to evaluate whether the incompressibility can be assumed, otherwise the effects of compressibility must be included.
#### Subsonic flow {#subsonic_flow}
Subsonic (or low-speed) aerodynamics describes fluid motion in flows which are much lower than the speed of sound everywhere in the flow. There are several branches of subsonic flow but one special case arises when the flow is inviscid, incompressible and irrotational. This case is called potential flow and allows the differential equations that describe the flow to be a simplified version of the equations of fluid dynamics, thus making available to the aerodynamicist a range of quick and easy solutions.
In solving a subsonic problem, one decision to be made by the aerodynamicist is whether to incorporate the effects of compressibility. Compressibility is a description of the amount of change of density in the flow. When the effects of compressibility on the solution are small, the assumption that density is constant may be made. The problem is then an incompressible low-speed aerodynamics problem. When the density is allowed to vary, the flow is called compressible. In air, compressibility effects are usually ignored when the Mach number in the flow does not exceed 0.3 (about 335 feet (102 m) per second or 228 miles (366 km) per hour at 60 °F (16 °C)). Above Mach 0.3, the problem flow should be described using compressible aerodynamics.
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# Aerodynamics
## Branches of aerodynamics {#branches_of_aerodynamics}
### Compressible aerodynamics {#compressible_aerodynamics}
According to the theory of aerodynamics, a flow is considered to be compressible if the density changes along a streamline. This means that -- unlike incompressible flow -- changes in density are considered. In general, this is the case where the Mach number in part or all of the flow exceeds 0.3. The Mach 0.3 value is rather arbitrary, but it is used because gas flows with a Mach number below that value demonstrate changes in density of less than 5%. Furthermore, that maximum 5% density change occurs at the stagnation point (the point on the object where flow speed is zero), while the density changes around the rest of the object will be significantly lower. Transonic, supersonic, and hypersonic flows are all compressible flows.
#### Transonic flow {#transonic_flow}
The term Transonic refers to a range of flow velocities just below and above the local speed of sound (generally taken as Mach 0.8--1.2). It is defined as the range of speeds between the critical Mach number, when some parts of the airflow over an aircraft become supersonic, and a higher speed, typically near Mach 1.2, when all of the airflow is supersonic. Between these speeds, some of the airflow is supersonic, while some of the airflow is not supersonic.
#### Supersonic flow {#supersonic_flow}
Supersonic aerodynamic problems are those involving flow speeds greater than the speed of sound. Calculating the lift on the Concorde during cruise can be an example of a supersonic aerodynamic problem.
Supersonic flow behaves very differently from subsonic flow. Fluids react to differences in pressure; pressure changes are how a fluid is \"told\" to respond to its environment. Therefore, since sound is, in fact, an infinitesimal pressure difference propagating through a fluid, the speed of sound in that fluid can be considered the fastest speed that \"information\" can travel in the flow. This difference most obviously manifests itself in the case of a fluid striking an object. In front of that object, the fluid builds up a stagnation pressure as impact with the object brings the moving fluid to rest. In fluid traveling at subsonic speed, this pressure disturbance can propagate upstream, changing the flow pattern ahead of the object and giving the impression that the fluid \"knows\" the object is there by seemingly adjusting its movement and is flowing around it. In a supersonic flow, however, the pressure disturbance cannot propagate upstream. Thus, when the fluid finally reaches the object it strikes it and the fluid is forced to change its properties -- temperature, density, pressure, and Mach number---in an extremely violent and irreversible fashion called a shock wave. The presence of shock waves, along with the compressibility effects of high-flow velocity (see Reynolds number) fluids, is the central difference between the supersonic and subsonic aerodynamics regimes.
#### Hypersonic flow {#hypersonic_flow}
In aerodynamics, hypersonic speeds are speeds that are highly supersonic. In the 1970s, the term generally came to refer to speeds of Mach 5 (5 times the speed of sound) and above. The hypersonic regime is a subset of the supersonic regime. Hypersonic flow is characterized by high temperature flow behind a shock wave, viscous interaction, and chemical dissociation of gas.
## Associated terminology {#associated_terminology}
\[\[<File:Types> of flow analysis in fluid mechanics.svg\|thumb\|Different types flow analysis around an airfoil:
`{{legend|#f3f3fd|[[Potential flow]] theory}}`{=mediawiki}\
`{{legend|#ff9665|[[Boundary layer|Boundary layer flow]] theory}}`{=mediawiki}\
`{{legend|#3b3bde|[[Turbulence|Turbulent wake]] analysis}}`{=mediawiki}`]]`
The incompressible and compressible flow regimes produce many associated phenomena, such as boundary layers and turbulence.
### Boundary layers {#boundary_layers}
The concept of a boundary layer is important in many problems in aerodynamics. The viscosity and fluid friction in the air is approximated as being significant only in this thin layer. This assumption makes the description of such aerodynamics much more tractable mathematically.
### Turbulence
In aerodynamics, turbulence is characterized by chaotic property changes in the flow. These include low momentum diffusion, high momentum convection, and rapid variation of pressure and flow velocity in space and time. Flow that is not turbulent is called laminar flow.
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# Aerodynamics
## Aerodynamics in other fields {#aerodynamics_in_other_fields}
### Engineering design {#engineering_design}
Aerodynamics is a significant element of vehicle design, including road cars and trucks where the main goal is to reduce the vehicle drag coefficient, and racing cars, where in addition to reducing drag the goal is also to increase the overall level of downforce. Aerodynamics is also important in the prediction of forces and moments acting on sailing vessels. It is used in the design of mechanical components such as hard drive heads. Structural engineers resort to aerodynamics, and particularly aeroelasticity, when calculating wind loads in the design of large buildings, bridges, and wind turbines.
The aerodynamics of internal passages is important in heating/ventilation, gas piping, and in automotive engines where detailed flow patterns strongly affect the performance of the engine.
### Environmental design {#environmental_design}
Urban aerodynamics are studied by town planners and designers seeking to improve amenity in outdoor spaces, or in creating urban microclimates to reduce the effects of urban pollution. The field of environmental aerodynamics describes ways in which atmospheric circulation and flight mechanics affect ecosystems.
Aerodynamic equations are used in numerical weather prediction.
### Ball-control in sports {#ball_control_in_sports}
Sports in which aerodynamics are of crucial importance include soccer, table tennis, cricket, baseball, and golf, in which most players can control the trajectory of the ball using the \"Magnus effect\"
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# Andreas Schlüter
**Andreas Schlüter** (1659 -- c. June 1714) was a German baroque sculptor and architect, active in the Holy Roman Empire, the Polish--Lithuanian Commonwealth, and Russia.
## Biography
Andreas Schlüter was born probably in Hamburg, in 1659. His early life is obscure as at least three different persons of that name are documented. The records of St. Michaelis Church, Hamburg show that an Andreas Schlüter, son of sculptor Gerhart Schlüter, had been baptized there on 22 May 1664. Documents from Gdańsk reported that an Andreas Schlüter *(senior)* had worked 1640--1652 in Gdańsk\'s Jopengasse lane (today\'s ulica Piwna). Possibly born in 1640, an *Andres Schliter* is recorded as apprentice on 9 May 1656 by the mason\'s guild. Other sources state 1659 as year of birth.
He probably did spend several years abroad as Journeyman. His first work, in 1675, may have been epitaphs of the Dukes Sambor and Mestwin in the dome of Pelplin monastery.
Schlüter\'s first known work was the decoration of the facade of the Gdańsk Royal Chapel, in 1681. He later created statues for King John III Sobieski\'s Wilanów Palace in Warsaw and sepulchral sculptures in Zhovkva. In 1689, he moved to Warsaw and made the pediment reliefs and sculptural work of Krasiński Palace.
Schlüter was invited to Berlin in 1694 by Eberhard von Danckelmann to work as court sculptor at the armory (*Zeughaus*) for Elector Frederick III. His sculpted decorations are a masterpiece of baroque expression and pathos. While the more visible reliefs on the outside had to praise fighting, the statues of dying warriors in the interior denounced war and gave an indication of his pacifist religious beliefs (he is said to have been a Mennonite). Travelling through Italy in 1696, he studied the work of masters like Michelangelo Buonarroti and Gian Lorenzo Bernini.
Schlüter also worked as an architect and built many state buildings in Berlin in his role as \"Hofbaumeister\" (Court Architect), which he lost when one tower showed signs of a weak fundament. He also served as director of the Prussian Academy of Arts from 1702 to 1704, after which he began concentrating on sculpting again, as \"Hofbildhauer\" (Court Sculptor). His most important equestrian sculpture is that of the \"Great Elector\", Frederick William of Brandenburg, cast in 1708 and placed at \"Lange Brücke\" near the Berlin City Palace, now situated in the honor court before Charlottenburg Palace.
The Berlin City Palace, and many of his works, were partially destroyed by bombing in World War II and by the subsequent Communist regime. A similar fate probably befell the Amber Room, made between 1701 and 1709, Schlüter\'s most famous work of architecture.
The Berlin City Palace was reconstructed between 2013 and 2020.
In 1713, Schlüter\'s fame brought him to work for Tsar Peter I of Russia in Saint Petersburg, where he died of an illness after creating several designs. Together with Johann Friedrich Braunstein, he designed the Grand Palace and Monplaisir Palace in Peterhof Palace Complex. Also the city\'s oldest building, Kikin Hall, and the reliefs at the Summer Palace are attributed to him. This way he became an important figure of Petrine Baroque.
## Extant works {#extant_works}
- Facade of the Royal Chapel, Gdańsk, 1681
- Sculptures on the facade of Wilanów Palace, Warsaw, after 1681
- Sculptures on the pediment of Krasiński Palace, Warsaw, 1682--83, 1689--1693
- Epitaph of Adam Zygmunt Konarski, St. Mary\'s Cathedral of the Assumption, Frombork near Gdańsk, after 1683
- Altar and crucifix in church, Węgrów near Warsaw, 1688--1690
- Altar in Czerniaków church, Warsaw, 1690
- Portrait bishop Jan Małachowski in Wawel Cathedral, Kraków 1693
- Aepulchral sculptures of the Sobieski family, Zhovkva near Lviv, 1692--93
- Equestrian statue of Elector Frederick William, courtyard of Charlottenburg Palace, Berlin, 1689--1703, with a copy in the Berlin Bode-Museum
- Sculptures on the facade of the Zeughaus in Berlin, 1695--1706
- Berlin City Palace, 1699--1706
- Amber Room (reconstruction) in the Catherine Palace of Tsarskoye Selo near Saint Petersburg, 1701
- Pulpit, St
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# Antigonid dynasty
Roman Macedonia \| flag_s1 = \| s2 = Seleucid Empire \| flag_s2 = \| image_s2 = \| s3 = \| flag_s3 = \| image_s3 = \| image_coat = Perseus of Macedonia Tetradrachm 90060057.jpg \| coa_size = 175px \| symbol = \| symbol_type = Tetradrachm with the Eagle of Zeus and the inscription *ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΠΕΡΣΕΩΣ*, \"\[coin\] of King Perseus\" \| stat_year1 = 301 BC \| stat_area1 = \| stat_year2 = \| stat_area2 = \| stat_year3 = \| stat_area3 = \| stat_year4 = \| stat_area4 = \| image_map = Macedonia and the Aegean World c.200.png \| image_map_caption = Antigonid Empire c. 200 BC \| capital = Antigonia (Antigonus I)\
Demetrias (Demetrius I)\
Pella (since Antigonus II) \| common_languages = Greek \| religion = Ancient Greek / Hellenistic \| leader1 = Antigonus I Monophthalmus \| leader2 = Perseus of Macedon \| year_leader1 = 306 BC -- 301 BC \| year_leader2 = 179 BC -- 168 BC \| title_leader = Basileus }}
The **Antigonid dynasty** (`{{IPAc-en|æ|n|ˈ|t|ɪ|ɡ|oʊ-|n|ɪ|d}}`{=mediawiki}; *Ἀντιγονίδαι*) was a Macedonian Greek royal house which ruled the kingdom of Macedon during the Hellenistic period. Founded by Antigonus I Monophthalmus, a general and successor of Alexander the Great, the dynasty first came to power after the Battle of Salamis in 306 BC and ruled much of Hellenistic Greece from 294 until their defeat at the Battle of Pydna in 168 BC (Third Macedonian War), after which Macedon came under the control of the Roman Republic.
The wars of the Diadochi witnessed the fall of the Argead dynasty in Macedon resulting in a power vacuum, which the Antigonid and Antipatrid dynasties sought to occupy. The Antigonid family first rose to power when Demetrius I Poliorcetes, son of Antigonus I, ousted Cassander\'s governor of Athens in 306 BC giving his father control over a land spanning from the Aegean Sea to the Middle East. Despite the subsequent instability and loss of the Asian territory, the family managed to maintain its power in mainland Greece and the islands, with Antigonus II Gonatas ultimately solidifying Antigonid rule over Hellenistic Macedon --a territory also known as the **Antigonid Empire**. Antigonus III Doson further expanded Macedonian influence in southern Greece reestablishing the Hellenic Alliance with himself as the president. Under Philip V, Antigonid Macedon first came into conflict with Rome, which had become a decisive power in the eastern Mediterranean. In the second century BC, the last Antigonid king, Perseus, became known as the champion of Greek resistance against Rome, albeit Rome\'s control over Antigonid Greece began to steadily expand, culminating in the fall of the dynasty in 168.
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# Antigonid dynasty
## History
The beginning of Hellenistic Greece was defined by the struggle between the Antipatrid dynasty, led first by Cassander (r. 305 -- 297 BC), son of Antipater, and the Antigonid dynasty, led by Antigonus I Monophthalmus (r. 306 -- 301 BC) and his son, the future king Demetrius I Poliorcetes (r. 294 -- 288 BC). After the power crisis in Macedon, which culminated in Philip III\'s and Euridice\'s death, Cassander managed to seize control from Olympias and began to establish his authority in the kingdom; in 316 BC he buried Philip III and Euridice at Aegae and married Philip II\'s daughter, Thessalonica, thus becoming a member of the Argead dynasty. In 310/309 BC, Cassander commanded Glaucias to secretly assassinate the 14-year-old Alexander IV, son of Alexander the Great, and his mother Roxane and the Macedonian Argead dynasty became extinct.
In 307 BC, Demetrius I successfully ousted Cassander\'s governor of Athens, Demetrius of Phalerum, and after defeating Ptolemy I at the Battle of Salamis in 306 BC he conquered the island Cyprus. Following that victory, Demetrius\' father, Antigonus I, assumed the title of *Basileus* (\"King\" of Alexander\'s Empire) by the assembled armies and gained control over the Aegean, the eastern Mediterranean, and most of the Middle East. While Antigonus and Demetrius attempted to recreate Philip II\'s Hellenic league with themselves as dual hegemons, a revived coalition of Cassander, Ptolemy I Soter, Seleucus I Nicator, and Lysimachus decisively defeated the Antigonids at the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC, during which Antigonus I was killed. Demetrius I survived the battle and in 294 BC --during the struggles between Casander\'s sons Alexander V and Antipater I-- he managed to seize control of Athens and establish himself as king of Macedon. In 288 BC, he was driven out by Pyrrhus and Lysimachus and eventually died as a prisoner of Seleucus I Nicator. After a long period of instability, Demetrius\' son Antigonus II Gonatas was able to establish the family\'s control over the old Kingdom of Macedon, as well as over most of the Greek city-states by 276 BC.
## Legacy
The Antigonid was one of four dynasties established by Alexander\'s successors, the others being the Seleucid dynasty, Ptolemaic dynasty and Antipatrid dynasty. The last scion of the dynasty, Perseus of Macedon, who reigned between 179 and 168 BC, proved unable to stop the advancing Roman legions and Macedon\'s defeat at the Battle of Pydna signaled the end of the dynasty.
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# Antigonid dynasty
## Dynasty
The ruling members of the Antigonid dynasty were:
+-------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| King | Reign (BC) | Consort(s) | \|Comments |
+=============================================================+:=====================================:+=========================+===============================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================+
| Antigonus I Monophthalmus (Western Asian Antigonid kingdom) | 306--301 BC | Stratonice | One of Alexander the Great\'s top generals; a major participant in the so-called \"funeral games\" following that king\'s death. |
| | | | |
| | | | \"Monophthalmus\" is Greek for \"One-eyed,\" a reference to a disfiguring battle scar. |
+-------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Demetrius I Poliorcetes (Macedon, Cicilia) | 294--287 BC | Phila\ | Son of Antigonus I Monophthalmus. Demetrius\' wife Phila was a daughter of Antipater, and ancestor of all subsequent Antigonid kings of Macedon, except Antigonus III Doson, through her son Antigonus II Gonatas. Antigonus III Doson was descended from the marriage of Demetrius and Ptolemais, who was a daughter of Ptolemy I Soter and mother of Doson\'s father, Demetrius the Fair, the ephemeral King of Cyrene. Deïdameia was a daughter of Aeacides of Epirus and sister of Pyrrhus, she had one son, Alexander, by Demetrius. Demetrius had a further two sons, Demetrius the Thin and Corrhagus, the former by an unnamed Illyrian woman, the latter by a woman named Eurydice. Demetrius I Poliorcetes was the first Antigonid king of Macedon. |
| | | Ptolemais\ | |
| | | Deïdameia\ | |
| | | Lanassa\ | |
| | | ?Eurydice\ | |
| | | ?Unnamed Illyrian woman | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Antigonus II Gonatas (Macedon) | 276--239 BC | Phila | Son of Demetrius Poliorcetes and Phila, grandson of Antigonus I Monophthalmus. His wife, Phila, was the daughter of his sister, Stratonice. Only one known legitimate child, Demetrius II Aetolicus. |
+-------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Demetrius the Fair (Cyrene) | c\. 250 BC | Olympias of Larissa\ | Son of Demetrius I Poliorcetes and Ptolemaïs. Father of Antigonus III Doson and, apparently, Echecrates by Olympias. |
| | | Berenice II | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Demetrius II Aetolicus (Macedon) | 239--229 BC | Stratonice of Macedon\ | Son of Antigonus II and Phila. Stratonice of Macedon was a daughter of Antiochus I Soter and Stratonice. Phthia of Epirus was a daughter of Alexander II of Epirus and Olympias II of Epirus. Nicaea of Corinth was the widow of Demetrius\' cousin, Alexander of Corinth. Chryseis was a former captive of Demetrius. Only known son, Philip by Chryseis, also had a daughter by Stratonice of Macedon, Apama III. |
| | | Phthia of Epirus\ | |
| | | Nicaea of Corinth\ | |
| | | Chryseis | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Antigonus III Doson (Macedon) | 229--221 BC | Chryseis | Son of Demetrius the Fair and Olympias of Larissa. Children unknown. |
+-------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| \ | 221--179 BC | Polycratia of Argos | Son of Demetrius II and Chryseis. At least four children: Perseus of Macedon, Apame, Demetrius and Philippus. |
| Philip V (Macedon) | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| \ | 179--168 BC\ | Laodice V | The last ruler of Macedon. Laodice V was a daughter of the Seleucid king, Seleucus IV Philopator. At least two sons, Philip and Alexander. |
| Perseus (Macedon) | `{{small|(died 166 BC)}}`{=mediawiki} | | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
: Antigonid rulers
The Greek rebel against Rome and last King of Macedonia, Andriscus, claimed to be the son of Perseus.
## Family tree of Antigonids {#family_tree_of_antigonids}
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# Antigonid dynasty
## Coin gallery {#coin_gallery}
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Antigone le Borgne (pièce).jpg\|Coin of Antigonus I Monophthalmus (\"the One-eyed\") (382--301 BC). Démétrios Ier Poliorcète (pièce).jpg\|Coin of Demetrius I of Macedon (\"The Besieger\"), (337--283 BC), son of Antigonus I Monophthalmus Tetradrachm of Antigonus Doson.jpg\|Coin of Antigonus II Gonatas Philip VI Andriskos.jpg\|Coin of Philip VI Andriscus. Greek inscription reads *ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΦΙΛΙΠΠΟΥ* (King Philip)
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# Abjuration
**Abjuration** is the solemn repudiation, abandonment, or renunciation by or upon oath, often the renunciation of citizenship or some other right or privilege. The term comes from the Latin *abjurare*, \"to forswear\".
## Abjuration of the realm {#abjuration_of_the_realm}
**Abjuration of the realm** was a type of abjuration in ancient English law. The person taking the oath swore to leave the country directly and promptly, never to return to the kingdom unless by permission of the sovereign. This was often taken by fugitives who had taken sanctuary:
## English Commonwealth {#english_commonwealth}
Near the start of the English Civil War, on 18 August 1643 Parliament passed \"An Ordinance for Explanation of a former Ordinance for Sequestration of Delinquents Estates with some Enlargements.\" The enlargements included an oath which became known as the \"Oath of Abjuration\": `{{Blockquote|I ..; Do abjure and renounce the [[Papal supremacy|Pope's Supremacy]] and Authority over the Catholic Church in General, and over my self in Particular; And I do believe that there is not any [[Transubstantiation]] in the Sacrament of the Lords Supper, or in the Elements of [[Sacramental bread|Bread]] and [[Sacramental wine|Wine]] after Consecration thereof, by any Person whatsoever; And I do also believe, that there is not any [[Purgatory]], Or that the consecrated [[Sacramental bread|Host]], Crucifixes, or Images, ought to be worshipped, or that any worship is due unto any of them; And I also believe that [[Salvation]] cannot be Merited by Works, and all Doctrines in affirmation of the said Points; I do abjure and renounce, without any Equivocation, Mental Reservation, or secret Evasion whatsoever, taking the words by me spoken, according to the common and usual meaning of them. So help me God.<ref>C.H. Firth, R.S. Rait (editors (1911)). ''Acts and Ordinances of the Interregnum, 1642-1660'', "August 1643: An Ordinance for Explanation of a former Ordinance for Sequestration of Delinquents Estates with some Enlargements", [http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=55851 pp. 254-260]. Date accessed: 16 March 2010</ref>}}`{=mediawiki}
In 1656--7, it was reissued in what was for Catholics an even more objectionable form. Everyone was to be \"adjudged a Papist\" who refused this oath, and the consequent penalties began with the confiscation of two-thirds of the recusant\'s goods, and went on to deprive him of almost every civic right.
The Catholic Encyclopaedia makes the point that the oath and the penalties were so severe that it stopped the efforts of the Gallicanizing party among the English Catholics, who had been ready to offer forms of submission similar to the old oath of Allegiance, which was condemned anew about this time by Pope Innocent X.
## Scotland
During The Killing Time of the 1680s an Abjuration Oath could be put to suspects where they were given the option to abjure or renounce their allegiances. The terms of the oath were deliberately designed to offend the consciences of the Presbyterian Covenanters. Those who would not swear \"whether they have arms, or not\" could be \"immediately killed\" by field trial \"before two witnesses\" on a charge of high treason. John Brown was included among those executed in this judicial process by John Graham (Bluidy Clavers) on 1 May 1685. The wives and children of such men could also be put out of their houses if they had spoken to the suspect or refused the oath themselves.
## Great Britain and Ireland {#great_britain_and_ireland}
In England (and after 1707 Great Britain) the Oath of Abjuration denied the royal title of James II\'s heirs (i.e. the direct Catholic descendant of the House of Stuart exiled after the Glorious Revolution in 1688). In England, an Oath of Abjuration was taken by Members of Parliament, clergy, and laymen, pledging to support the current British monarch and repudiated the right of the Stuarts and other claimants to the throne. This oath was imposed under William III, George I and George III. It was superseded by the oath of allegiance. In Ireland, the oath was imposed of state officeholders, teachers, lawyers, and on the clergy of the established church in from 1703, the following year it was on all Irish voters and from 1709 it could be demanded of any adult male by a magistrate.
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# Abjuration
## Bilino Polje abjuration {#bilino_polje_abjuration}
The Bilino Polje abjuration, also known as \"Confessio Christianorum bosniensis\", was an act of alleged heresy abjuration by clergy of the Bosnian Church in presence of the Bosnian ruler, Ban Kulin, and Giovanni da Casamari. It affirmed the primacy of the pope and related to errors of practice, stemming from ignorance, rather than heretical doctrines. It was signed by seven Bosnian priors, on 8 April 1203 at Bilino Polje field, near today town of Zenica, in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The same document was brought to Buda, in 30 April by Giovanni da Casamari, Ban Kulin and two abbots, where it was examined by Emeric, King of Hungary, and the high clergy.
## The Netherlands {#the_netherlands}
Another famous abjuration was brought about by the Plakkaat van Verlatinghe of July 26, 1581, the formal Act of Abjuration or declaration of independence of the Low Countries from the Spanish king, Philip II. This oath was the climax of the Eighty Years\' War (Dutch Revolt)
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# Azawakh
The **Azawakh** is a breed of dog from West Africa. With ancient origins, it is raised throughout the Sahelian zone of Mali, Niger, and Burkina Faso. This region includes the Azawagh Valley for which the breed is named. While commonly associated with the nomadic Tuareg people, the dogs are also bred and owned by other ethnic groups, such as the Peulh, Bella, and Hausa. The Azawakh is more related to the Sloughi than it is to the Saluki.`{{unreliable source?|reason=Author did her own analysis|date=April 2019}}`{=mediawiki}
## Description
### Appearance
Slim and elegant, with bone structure and muscles showing through thin skin. Eyes are almond-shaped.
The coat is very short and almost absent on the belly. Its bone structure shows clearly through the skin and musculature. Its muscles are \"dry\", meaning that they are quite flat, unlike the Greyhound and Whippet. In this respect it is similar in type to the Saluki.
### Colours
Colours permitted by the Fédération Cynologique Internationale (FCI) breed standard are clear sand to dark fawn/brown, red and brindle (with or without a dark mask), with white bib, tail tip, and white on all feet (which can be tips of toes to high stockings). Since 2015 white stockings that go above the elbow joint are considered disqualifying features in the FCI member countries, as is a white collar or half collar (Irish marked).
Some conservationists support the idea that in Africa, Azawakhs are still found in a variety of colours such as red, blue fawn (that is, with a lilac cast), grizzle, and, rarely, blue and black with various white markings including Irish marked (white collar) and particolour (mostly white). Because of this wide color variation in the native population, the American standard used by the AKC and UKC allows any color combination found in Africa.
### Movement
The Azawakh\'s light, supple, lissome gait is a notable breed characteristic, as is an upright double suspension gallop.
## Temperament
Bred by the Tuareg, Fula and various other nomads of the Sahara and sub-Saharan Sahel in the countries of Mali, Niger, Burkina Faso, and southern Algeria, the breed known by the Tuaregs as "Oska" was used there as a guard dog and to hunt gazelle and hare at speeds up to 40 mph. The austerity of the Sahel environment has ensured that only the most fit dogs survive and has accentuated the breed\'s ruggedness and independence. Unlike some other sighthounds, the Azawakh is more of a pack hunter and they bump down the quarry with hindquarters when it has been tired out. In role of a guard dog, if an Azawakh senses danger it will bark to alert the other members of the pack, and they will gather together as a pack under the lead of the alpha dog, then chase off or attack the predator.
Unlike other sighthounds, the primary function of the Azawakh in its native land is that of a guard dog. It develops an intense bond with its owner, and tend to be reserved with strangers.
Azawakh have high energy and tremendous endurance. They are excellent training companions for runners. Many Azawakh dislike rain and cold weather.
Azawakh are pack oriented and form complex social hierarchies. They have tremendous memories and are able to recognize each other after long periods of separation. They can often be found sleeping on top of each other for warmth and companionship.
## Breed history {#breed_history}
The breed is relatively uncommon in Europe and North America but there is a growing band of devotees. Azawakh may be registered with the FCI in the USA via the Federación Canófila de Puerto Rico (FCPR). European FCI clubs and the AKC recognize the FCPR as an acceptable registry. The AKC recognized the Azawakh a member of the Hound group in 2019. The American Azawakh Association (AAA) is the AKC Parent Club for the Azawakh. Azawakh may be registered with the UKC and ARBA. The breed is not yet registered by CKC. Azawakh are eligible for ASFA and AKC lure coursing and NOFCA open field coursing events
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# Aberdeen Bestiary
The ***Aberdeen Bestiary*** (Aberdeen University Library, Univ Lib. MS 24) is a 12th-century English illuminated manuscript bestiary that was first listed in 1542 in the inventory of the Old Royal Library at the Palace of Westminster. Due to similarities, it is often considered to be the \"sister\" manuscript of the Ashmole Bestiary. The connection between the ancient Greek didactic text *Physiologus* and similar bestiary manuscripts is also often noted. Information about the manuscript\'s origins and patrons are circumstantial, although the manuscript most likely originated from the 13th century and was owned by a wealthy ecclesiastical patron from northern or southern England. Currently, the Aberdeen Bestiary resides in the Aberdeen University Library in Scotland.
## History
The Aberdeen Bestiary and the Ashmole Bestiary are considered by Xenia Muratova, a professor of Art History, to be \"the work of different artists belonging to the same artistic milieu.\" Due to their \"striking similarities\" they are often compared and described by scholars as being \"sister manuscripts.\" The medievalist scholar M. R. James considered the Aberdeen Bestiary \'\'a replica of Ashmole 1511\" a view echoed by many other art historians.
### Provenance
The original patron of both the Aberdeen and Ashmole Bestiary was considered to be a high-ranking member of society such as a prince, king or another high ranking church official or monastery. However, since the section related to monastery life that was commonly depicted within the Aviarium manuscript was missing the original patron remains uncertain but it appears less likely to be a church member. The Aberdeen Bestiary was kept in Church and monastic settings for a majority of its history. However at some point it entered into the English royal collections library. The royal Westminster Library shelf stamp of Henry VIII of England is stamped on the side of the bestiary. How King Henry acquired the manuscript remains unknown although it was probably taken from a monastery. The manuscript appears to have been well-read by the family based on the amount of reading wear on the edges of the pages. Around the time King James of Scotland became the King of England the bestiary was passed along to Marischal College in Aberdeen, Scotland. The manuscript is in fragmented condition as many illuminations on folios were removed individually as miniatures likely not for monetary but possibly for personal reasons. The manuscript currently is in the Aberdeen Library in Scotland where it has remained since 1542.
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# Aberdeen Bestiary
## Description
### Materials
The Aberdeen bestiary is a gilded, decorated manuscript featuring large miniatures and some of the finest pigment, parchment and gold leaf from its time. Some portions of the manuscript such as folio eight recto even feature tarnished silver leaf. The original patron was wealthy enough to afford such materials so that the artists and scribes could enjoy creative freedom while creating the manuscripts. The artists were professionally trained and experimented with new techniques - such as heavy washes mixed with light washes and dark thick lines and use of contrasting color. The aqua color that is in the Aberdeen Bestiary is not present in the Ashmole Bestiary. The Aberdeen manuscript is loaded with filigree flora design and *champie* style gold leaf initials. Canterbury is considered to be the original location of manufacture as the location was well known for manufacturing high-end luxury books during the thirteen century. Its similarities with the Canterbury Paris Psalter tree style also further draws evidence of this relation.
### Style
The craftsmanship of both Ashmole and Aberdeen bestiary suggest similar artists and scribes. Both the Ashmole and Aberdeen bestiary were probably made within 10 years of each other due to their stylistic and material similarities and the fact that both are crafted with the finest materials of their time. Stylistically both manuscripts are very similar but the Aberdeen has figures that are both more voluminous and less energetic than those of the Ashmole Bestiary. The color usage has been suggested as potentially Biblical in meaning as color usage had different interpretations in the early 13th century. The overall style of the human figures as well as color usage is very reminiscent of Roman mosaic art especially with the attention to detail in the drapery. Circles and ovals semi-realistically depict highlights throughout the manuscript. The way that animals are shaded in a Romanesque fashion with the use of bands to depict volume and form, which is similar to an earlier 12th-century Bury Bible made at Bury St.Edmunds. This Bestiary also shows stylistic similarities with the Paris Psalters of Canterbury. The Aviary section is similar to the Aviariium which is a well-known 12th century monastic text. The deviation from traditional color usage can be seen in the tiger, satyr, and unicorn folios as well as many other folios. The satyr in the Aberdeen Bestiary when compared to the satyr section of the slightly older Worksop bestiary is almost identical. There are small color notes in the Aberdeen Bestiary that are often seen in similar manuscripts dating between 1175 and 1250 which help indicate that it was made near the year 1200 or 1210. These notes are similar to many other side notes written on the sides of pages throughout the manuscript and were probably by the painter to remind himself of special circumstances, these note occur irregularly throughout the text.
### Illuminations
Folio page 1 to 3 recto depicts the Genesis 1:1-25 which is represented with a large full page illumination Biblical Creation scene in the manuscript. Folio 5 recto shows Adam, a large figure surrounded by gold leaf and towering over others, with the theme of \'Adam naming the animals\' - this starts the compilation of the bestiary portion within the manuscript. Folio 5 verso depicts quadrupeds, livestock, wild beasts, and the concept of the herd. Folio 7 to 18 recto depicts large cats and other beasts such as wolves, foxes and dogs. Many pages from the start of the manuscript\'s bestiary section such as 11 verso featuring a hyena shows small pin holes which were likely used to map out and copy artwork to a new manuscript. Folio 20 verso to 28 recto depicts livestock such as sheep, horses, and goats. Small animals like cats and mice are depicted on folio 24 to 25. Pages 25 recto to 63 recto feature depictions of birds and folio 64 recto to 80 recto depicts reptiles, worms and fish. 77 recto to 91 verso depicts trees and plants and other elements of nature such as the nature of man. The end folios of the manuscript from 93 recto to 100 recto depicts the nature of stones and rocks. Seventeen of the Aberdeen manuscript pages are pricked for transfer in a process called pouncing such as clearly seen in the hyena folio as well as folio 3 recto and 3 verso depicting Genesis 1:26-1:28, 31, 1:1-2. The pricking must have been done shortly after the creation of the Adam and Eve folio pages since there is not damage done to nearby pages. Other pages used for pouncing include folio 7 recto to 18 verso which is the beginning of the beasts portion of the manuscript and likely depicted a lions as well as other big cats such as leopards, panthers and their characteristic as well as other large wild and domesticated beasts.
### Missing Folios {#missing_folios}
On folio 6 recto there was likely intended to be a depiction of a lion as in the Ashmole bestiary, but in this instance the pages were left blank although there are markings of margin lines. In comparison to the Ashmole bestiary, on 9 verso some leaves are missing which should have likely contained imagery of the antelope (*Antalops*), unicorn (*Unicornis*), lynx (*Lynx*), griffin (*Gryps*), part of elephant (*Elephans*). Near folio 21 verso two illuminations of the ox (*Bos*), camel (*Camelus*), dromedary (*Dromedarius*), ass (*Asinus*), onager (*Onager*) and part of horse (*Equus*) are also assumed to be missing. Also missing from folio 15 recto on are some leaves which should have contained crocodile (*Crocodilus*), manticore (*Mantichora*) and part of parandrus (*Parandrus*). These missing folios are assumed from comparisons between the Ashmole and other related bestiaries.
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# Aberdeen Bestiary
## Contents
- Folio 1 recto : Genesis creation narrative of heaven and earth (*Genesis,* 1: 1--5). (Full page)
- Folio 1 verso: Creation of the waters and the firmament (*Genesis,* 1: 6--8)
- Folio 2 recto : Creation of the birds and fish (*Genesis,* 1: 20--23)
- Folio 2 verso : Creation of the animals (*Genesis,* 1: 24--25)
- Folio 3 recto : Creation of man (*Genesis,* 1: 26--28, 31; 2: 1--2)
- Folio 5 recto : Adam names the animals (Isidore of Seville, *Etymologiae*, Book XII, i, 1--2)
- Folio 5 verso : Animal (*Animal*) (Isidore of Seville, *Etymologiae*, Book XII, i, 3)
- Folio 5 verso : Quadruped (*Quadrupes*) (Isidore of Seville, *Etymologiae*, Book XII, i, 4)
- Folio 5 verso : Livestock (*Pecus*) (Isidore of Seville, *Etymologiae*, Book XII, i, 5--6)
- Folio 5 verso : Beast of burden (*Iumentum*) (Isidore of Seville, *Etymologiae*, Book XII, i, 7)
- Folio 5 verso : Herd (*Armentum*) (Isidore of Seville, *Etymologiae*, Book XII, i, 8)
### Beasts (*Bestiae*) {#beasts_bestiae}
- Folio 7 recto : Lion (*Leo*) (*Physiologus*, Chapter 1; Isidore of Seville, *Etymologiae*, Book XII, ii, 3--6)
- Folio 8 recto : Tiger (*Tigris*) (Isidore of Seville, *Etymologiae*, Book XII, ii, 7)
- Folio 8 verso : Pard (*Pard*) (Isidore of Seville, *Etymologiae*, Book XII, ii, 10--11)
- Folio 9 recto : Panther (*Panther*) (*Physiologus*, Chapter 16; Isidore of Seville, *Etymologiae*, Book XII, ii, 8--9)
- Folio 10 recto : Elephant (*Elephans*) (Isidore of Seville, *Etymologiae*, Book XII, ii, 14; *Physiologus*, Chapter 43; Ambrose, *Hexaemeron*, Book VI, 35; Solinus, *[Collectanea rerum memorabilium](http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/solinus5.html)*, xxv, 1--7)
- Folio 11 recto : Beaver (*Castor*)
- Folio 11 recto : Ibex (*Ibex*) (Hugh of Fouilloy, II, 15)
- Folio 11 verso : Hyena (*Yena*) (*Physiologus*, Chapter 24; Solinus, *Collectanea rerum memorabilium*, xxvii, 23--24)
- Folio 12 recto : Crocotta (*Crocotta*) (Solinus, *Collectanea rerum memorabilium*, xxvii, 26)
- Folio 12 recto : Bonnacon (*Bonnacon*) (Solinus, *Collectanea rerum memorabilium*, xl, 10--11)
- Folio 12 verso : Ape (*Simia*)
- Folio 13 recto : Satyr (*Satyrs*)
- Folio 13 recto : Deer (*Cervus*)
- Folio 14 recto : Goat (*Caper*)
- Folio 14 verso : Wild goat (*Caprea*)
- Folio 15 recto : Monoceros (*Monoceros*) (Solinus, *[Collectanea rerum memorabilium](http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/solinus5.html)*, lii, 39--40)
- Folio 15 recto : Bear (*Ursus*)
- Folio 15 verso : Leucrota (*Leucrota*) (Solinus, *Collectanea rerum memorabilium*, lii, 34)
- Folio 16 recto : Parandrus (*Parandrus*) (Solinus, *Collectanea rerum memorabilium*, xxx, 25)
- Folio 16 recto : Fox (*Vulpes*)
- Folio 16 verso : Yale (*Eale*) (Solinus, *Collectanea rerum memorabilium*, lii, 35)
- Folio 16 verso : Wolf (*Lupus*)
- Folio 18 recto : Dog (*Canis*)
### Livestock (*Pecora*) {#livestock_pecora}
- Folio 20 verso : Sheep (*Ovis*) (Isidore of Seville, *Etymologiae*, Book XII, i, 9; Ambrose, *Hexaemeron*, Book VI, 20)
- Folio 21 recto : Wether (*Vervex*) (Isidore of Seville, *Etymologiae*, Book XII, i, 10)
- Folio 21 recto : Ram (*Aries*) (Isidore of Seville, *Etymologiae*, Book XII, i, 11)
- Folio 21 recto : Lamb (*Agnus*) (Isidore of Seville, *Etymologiae*, Book XII, i, 12; Ambrose, *Hexaemeron*, Book VI, 28)
- Folio 21 recto : He-goat (*Hircus*) (Isidore of Seville, *Etymologiae*, Book XII, i, 14)
- Folio 21 verso : Kid (*Hedus*) (Isidore of Seville, *Etymologiae*, Book XII, i, 13)
- Folio 21 verso : Boar (*Aper*) (Isidore of Seville, *Etymologiae*, Book XII, i, 27)
- Folio 21 verso : Bullock (*Iuvencus*) (Isidore of Seville, *Etymologiae*, Book XII, i, 28)
- Folio 21 verso : Bull (*Taurus*) (Isidore of Seville, *Etymologiae*, Book XII, i, 29)
- Folio 22 recto : Horse (*Equus*) (Isidore of Seville, *Etymologiae*, Book XII, i, 41--56; Hugh of Fouilloy, III, xxiii)
- Folio 23 recto : Mule (*Mulus*) (Isidore of Seville, *Etymologiae*, Book XII, i, 57--60)
### Small animals (*Minuta animala*) {#small_animals_minuta_animala}
- Folio 23 verso : Cat (*Musio*) (Isidore of Seville, *Etymologiae*, Book XII, ii, 38)
- Folio 23 verso : Mouse (*Mus*) (Isidore of Seville, *Etymologiae*, Book XII, iii, 1)
- Folio 23 verso : Weasel (*Mustela*) (Isidore of Seville, *Etymologiae*, Book XII, iii, 2; *Physiologus*, Chapter 21)
- Folio 24 recto : Mole (*Talpa*) (Isidore of Seville, *Etymologiae*, Book XII, iii, 5)
- Folio 24 recto : Hedgehog (*Ericius*) (Isidore of Seville, *Etymologiae*, Book XII, iii, 7; Ambrose, *Hexaemeron*, VI, 20)
- Folio 24 verso : Ant (*Formica*) (Physiologus, 12; Ambrose, *Hexaemeron*, Book VI, 16, 20)
### Birds (*Aves*) {#birds_aves}
- Folio 25 recto : Bird (*Avis*)
- Folio 25 verso : Dove (*Columba*)
- Folio 26 recto : Dove and hawk (*Columba et Accipiter*)
- Folio 26 verso : Dove (*Columba*)
- Folio 29 verso : North wind and South wind (*Aquilo et Auster ventus*)
- Folio 30 recto : Hawk (*Accipiter*)
- Folio 31 recto : Turtle dove (*Turtur*)
- Folio 32 verso : Palm tree (*Palma*)
- Folio 33 verso : Cedar (*Cedrus*)
- Folio 34 verso : Pelican (*Pellicanus*) - Orange and blue
- Folio 35 verso : Night heron (*Nicticorax*)
- Folio 36 recto : Hoopoe (*Epops*)
- Folio 36 verso : Magpie (*Pica*)
- Folio 37 recto : Raven (*Corvus*)
- Folio 38 verso : Cock (*Gallus*)
- Folio 41 recto : Ostrich (*Strutio*)
- Folio 44 recto : Vulture (*Vultur*)
- Folio 45 verso : Crane (*Grus*)
- Folio 46 verso : Kite (*Milvus*)
- Folio 46 verso : Parrot (*Psitacus*)
- Folio 47 recto : Ibis (*Ibis*)
- Folio 47 verso : Swallow (*Yrundo*)
- Folio 48 verso : Stork (*Ciconia*)
- Folio 49 verso : Blackbird (*Merula*)
- Folio 50 recto : Eagle-owl (*Bubo*)
- Folio 50 verso : Hoopoe (*Hupupa*)
- Folio 51 recto : Little owl (*Noctua*)
- Folio 51 recto : Bat (*Vespertilio*)
- Folio 51 verso : Jay (*Gragulus*)
- Folio 52 verso : Nightingale (*Lucinia*)
- Folio 53 recto : Goose (*Anser*)
- Folio 53 verso : Heron (*Ardea*)
- Folio 54 recto : Partridge (*Perdix*)
- Folio 54 verso : Halcyon (*Alcyon*)
- Folio 55 recto : Coot (*Fulica*)
- Folio 55 recto : Phoenix (*Fenix*)
- Folio 56 verso : Caladrius (*Caladrius*)
- Folio 57 verso : Quail (*Coturnix*)
- Folio 58 recto : Crow (*Cornix*)
- Folio 58 verso : Swan (*Cignus*)
- Folio 59 recto : Duck (*Anas*)
- Folio 59 verso : Peacock (*Pavo*)
- Folio 61 recto : Eagle (*Aquila*)
- Folio 63 recto : Bee (*Apis*)
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# Aberdeen Bestiary
## Contents
### Snakes and Reptiles (*Serpentes*) {#snakes_and_reptiles_serpentes}
- Folio 64 verso : Peridexion tree (*Perindens*)
- Folio 65 verso : Snake (*Serpens*)
- Folio 65 verso : Dragon (*Draco*)
- Folio 66 recto : Basilisk (*Basiliscus*)
- Folio 66 verso : Regulus (*Regulus*)
- Folio 66 verso : Viper (*Vipera*)
- Folio 67 verso : Asp (*Aspis*)
- Folio 68 verso : Scitalis (*Scitalis*)
- Folio 68 verso : Amphisbaena (*Anphivena*)
- Folio 68 verso : Hydrus (*Ydrus*)
- Folio 69 recto : Boa (*Boa*)
- Folio 69 recto : Iaculus (*Iaculus*)
- Folio 69 verso : Siren (*Siren*)
- Folio 69 verso : Seps (*Seps*)
- Folio 69 verso : Dipsa (*Dipsa*)
- Folio 69 verso : Lizard (*Lacertus*)
- Folio 69 verso : Salamander (*Salamandra*)
- Folio 70 recto : Saura (*Saura*)
- Folio 70 verso : Newt (*Stellio*)
- Folio 71 recto : Of the nature of Snakes (*De natura serpentium*)
### Worms (*Vermes*) {#worms_vermes}
- Folio 72 recto : Worms (*Vermis*)
### Fish (*Pisces*) {#fish_pisces}
- Folio 72 verso : Fish (*Piscis*)
- Folio 73 recto : Whale (*Balena*)
- Folio 73 recto : Serra (*Serra*)
- Folio 73 recto : Dolphin (*Delphinus*)
- Folio 73 verso : Sea-pig (*Porcus marinus*)
- Folio 73 verso : Crocodile (*Crocodrillus*)
- Folio 73 verso : Mullet (*Mullus*)
- Folio 74 recto : Fish (*Piscis*)
### Trees and Plants (*Arbories*) {#trees_and_plants_arbories}
- Folio 77 verso : Tree (*Arbor*)
- Folio 78 verso : Fig (*Ficus*)
- Folio 79 recto : Again of trees (*Item de arboribus*)
- Folio 79 recto : Mulberry
- Folio 79 recto : Sycamore
- Folio 79 recto : Hazel
- Folio 79 recto : Nuts
- Folio 79 recto : Almond
- Folio 79 recto : Chestnut
- Folio 79 recto : Oak
- Folio 79 verso : Beech
- Folio 79 verso : Carob
- Folio 79 verso : Pistachio
- Folio 79 verso : Pitch pine
- Folio 79 verso : Pine
- Folio 79 verso : Fir
- Folio 79 verso : Cedar
- Folio 80 recto : Cypress
- Folio 80 recto : Juniper
- Folio 80 recto : Plane
- Folio 80 recto : Oak
- Folio 80 recto : Ash
- Folio 80 recto : Alder
- Folio 80 verso : Elm
- Folio 80 verso : Poplar
- Folio 80 verso : Willow
- Folio 80 verso : Osier
- Folio 80 verso : Box
### Nature of Man (*Natura hominis*) {#nature_of_man_natura_hominis}
- Folio 80 verso : Isidorus on the nature of man (*Ysidorus de natura hominis*)
- Folio 89 recto : Isidorus on the parts of man\'s body (*Ysidorus de membris hominis*)
- Folio 91 recto : Of the age of man (*De etate hominis*)
### Stones (*Lapides*) {#stones_lapides}
- Folio 93 verso : Fire-bearing stone (*Lapis ignifer*)
- Folio 94 verso : Adamas stone (*Lapis adamas*)
- Folio 96 recto : Myrmecoleon (*Mermecoleon*)
- Folio 96 verso : Verse (*Versus*)
- Folio 97 recto : Stone in the foundation of the wall (*Lapis in fundamento muri*)
- Folio 97 recto : The first stone, Jasper
- Folio 97 recto : The second stone, Sapphire
- Folio 97 recto : The third stone, Chalcedony
- Folio 97 verso : The fourth stone, Smaragdus
- Folio 98 recto : The fifth stone, Sardonyx
- Folio 98 recto : The sixth stone, Sard
- Folio 98 verso : The seventh stone, Chrysolite
- Folio 98 verso : The eighth stone, Beryl
- Folio 99 recto : The ninth stone, Topaz
- Folio 99 verso : The tenth stone, Chrysoprase
- Folio 99 verso : The eleventh stone, Hyacinth
- Folio 100 recto : The twelfth stone, Amethyst
- Folio 100 recto : Of stones and what they can do (*De effectu lapidum*)
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# Aberdeen Bestiary
## Gallery
<File:Phoenix> detail from Aberdeen Bestiary.jpg\|alt=Folio 56 Recto - Phoenix (detail)\|Folio 56 Recto - Phoenix (detail) <File:Aberdeen> Bestiary Basilisk.jpg\|alt=Folio 66 Recto - Basilisk (Detail)\|Folio 66 Recto - Basilisk (detail) <File:Beaver> (Aberdeen Bestiary).jpg\|alt=Folio 11 Recto - Beaver (Detail)\|Folio 11 Recto - Beaver (detail) <File:Hyena> bestiary.jpg\|alt=Folio 11 Verso - Hyena (Detail)\|Folio 11 Verso - Hyena (detail) <File:AberdeenBestiaryFolio065vDragonDetail.jpg%7Calt=Folio> 65 Verso - Dragon (detail)\|Folio 65 Verso - Dragon (detail) <File:Vultures> in Aberdeen Bestiary.jpg\|alt=Folio 44 Recto - Vulture (detail)\|Folio 44 Recto - Vulture (detail) <File:Aberdeen> Bestiary - Owl.JPG\|alt=Folio 51 Recto - Little Owl (detail)\|Folio 51 Recto - Little Owl (detail) <File:Bubo> owl aberdeen bestiary.png\|alt=Folio 50 - Eagle Owl (detail)\|Folio 50 - Eagle Owl (detail) <File:Aberdeen> ram.jpg\|alt=Folio 21 Recto - Ram/Aries (Detail)\|Folio 21 Recto - Ram/Aries (detail) <File:AberdeenBestiaryFolio008vLeopardDetail.jpg%7Calt=Folio> 8 Verso - Leopard (detail)\|Folio 8 Verso - Leopard (detail) <File:AberdeenBestiaryFolio008rTigerDetail.jpg%7Calt=Folio> 8 Recto - Tiger\|Folio 8 Recto - Tiger <File:F13r-aberdeen-best.jpg%7Calt=Folio> 13 Recto - Satyr (detail)\|Folio 13 Recto - Satyr (detail) <File:F15r-aberdeen-best-detail.jpg%7Calt=Folio> 15 Recto - Monoceros (detail)\|Folio 15 Recto - Monoceros (detail) <File:Wolf> sneak.jpg\|alt=Folio 16 Verso - Wolf (detail)\|Folio 16 Verso - Wolf (detail) <File:AberdeenBestiaryFolio005rAdamNamesAnimalsDetail
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# Latin American Integration Association
The **Latin American Integration Association** / **Asociación Latinoamericana de Integración** / **Associação Latino-Americana de Integração** (**LAIA** / **ALADI**) is an international and regional scope organization. It was created on 12 August 1980 by the **1980 Montevideo Treaty**, replacing the Latin American Free Trade Association (LAFTA/ALALC). Currently, it has 13 member countries, and any of the Latin American States may apply for accession.
## Objectives
The development of the integration process developed within the framework of the ALADI aims at promoting the harmonious and balanced socio-economic development of the region, and its long-term objective is the gradual and progressive establishment of a Latin-American single market.
## Basic functions {#basic_functions}
- Promotion and regulation of reciprocal trade
- Economic complementation
- Development of economic cooperation actions contributing to the markets extension.
## General principles {#general_principles}
- Pluralism in political and economic matters;
- Progressive convergence of partial actions for the establishment of a Latin-American Common Market;
- Flexibility;
- Differential treatments based on the development level of the member countries; and
- Multiple forms of trade agreements.
## Integration mechanisms {#integration_mechanisms}
The ALADI promotes the establishment of an area of economic preferences within the region, in order to create a Latin-American common market, through three mechanisms:
- A **Regional Tariff Preference** applied to goods from the member countries compared to tariffs in-force for third countries.
- **Regional Scope Agreements**, those in which all member countries participate.
- **Partial Scope Agreements**, those wherein two or more countries of the area participate.
The **Relatively Less Economically Developed** Countries of the region (Bolivia, Ecuador and Paraguay) benefit from a preferential system, through the lists of markets opening offered by the countries in favor of the Relatively Less Economically Developed Countries; special programs of cooperation (business rounds, pre-investment, financing, technological support); and countervailing measures in favor of the land-locked countries, the full participation of such countries in the integration process is sought. The ALADI includes in its legal structure the strongest sub-regional, plurilateral and bilateral integration agreements arising in growing numbers in the continent. As a result, the ALADI -- as an institutional and legal framework or "umbrella" of the regional integration- develops actions in order to support and foster these efforts for the progressive establishment of a common economic space.
## Member states {#member_states}
State Members Join Date Population Land Surface Exclusive Economic Zone Platform Capital City
--------------- ----------- ------------ -------------- ------------------------- ---------- -------------------
Founder km^2^ km^2^ km^2^ Buenos Aires
Founder km^2^ Landlocked Sucre & La Paz
Founder km^2^ km^2^ km^2^ Brasília
Founder km^2^ km^2^ km^2^ Santiago de Chile
Founder km^2^ km^2^ km^2^ Bogotá
1999 km^2^ km^2^ km^2^ Havana
Founder km^2^ km^2^ km^2^ Quito
Founder km^2^ km^2^ km^2^ Mexico City
Founder km^2^ Landlocked Asunción
2011 km^2^ km^2^ km^2^ Panama City
Founder km^2^ km^2^ km^2^ Lima
Founder km^2^ km^2^ km^2^ Montevideo
Founder km^2^ km^2^ km^2^ Caracas
Total: km^2^ km^2^ km^2^
## Accession of other Latin American countries {#accession_of_other_latin_american_countries}
The 1980 Montevideo Treaty is open to the accession of any Latin-American country. On 26 August 1999, the first accession to the 1980 Montevideo Treaty was executed, with the incorporation of the Republic of Cuba as a member country of the ALADI. On 10 May 2012, the Republic of Panama became the thirteenth member country of the ALADI. Likewise, the accession of the Republic of Nicaragua was accepted in the Sixteenth Meeting of the Council of Ministers (Resolution 75 (XVI)), held on 11 August 2011.
Currently, Nicaragua moves towards the fulfillment of conditions for becoming a member country of the ALADI.
The ALADI opens its field of actions for the rest of Latin America through multilateral links or partial agreements with other countries and integration areas of the continent (Article 25). The Latin-American Integration Association also contemplates the horizontal cooperation with other integration movements in the world and partial actions with third developing countries or their respective integration areas (Article 27).
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# Latin American Integration Association
## Institutional structure {#institutional_structure}
Council of Ministers of Foreign Affairs
The Council of Ministers is the supreme body of the ALADI, and adopts the decisions for the superior political management of the integration process. It is constituted by the Ministers of Foreign Affairs of the member countries. Notwithstanding, when one of such member countries assigns the competence of the integration affairs to a different Minister or Secretary of State, the member countries may be represented, with full powers, by the respective Minister or Secretary. It is convened by the Committee of Representatives, meets and makes decisions with the presence of all the member countries.
Evaluation and Convergence Conference
It is in charge, among others, of analyzing the functioning of the integration process in all its aspects, promoting the convergence of the partial scope agreements seeking their progressive multilateralization, and promoting greater scope actions as regards economic integration. It is made up of Plenipotentiaries of the member countries.
Committee of Representatives
It is the permanent political body and negotiating forum of the ALADI, where all the initiatives for the fulfillment of the objectives established by the 1980 Montevideo Treaty are analyzed and agreed on. It is composed of a Permanent Representative of each member country with right to one vote and an Alternate Representative. It meets regularly every 15 days and its Resolutions are adopted by the affirmative vote of two thirds of the member countries.
General Secretariat
It is the technical body of the ALADI, and it may propose, evaluate, study and manage for the fulfillment of the objectives of the ALADI. It is composed of technical and administrative personnel, and directed by a Secretary-General, who has the support of two Undersecretaries, elected for a three-year period, renewable for the same term
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# Aircraft spotting
**Aircraft spotting** or **planespotting** is a hobby consisting of observing and tracking aircraft, which is usually accomplished by photography or videography. Besides monitoring aircraft, planespotters also record information regarding airports, air traffic control communications, airline routes, and more.
## History and evolution {#history_and_evolution}
Aviation enthusiasts have been watching airplanes and other aircraft since aviation began. However, as a hobby (distinct from active/wartime work), planespotting did not appear until the second half of the 20th century.
During World War II and the subsequent Cold War, some countries encouraged their citizens to become \"planespotters\" in an \"observation corps\" or similar public body for reasons of public security. Britain had the Royal Observer Corps which operated between 1925 and 1995. A journal called *The Aeroplane Spotter* was published in January 1940. The publication included a glossary that was refined in 2010 and published online.
The development of technology and global resources enabled a revolution in planespotting. Point and shoot cameras, DSLRs and walkie talkies have significantly changed the hobby. With the help of the internet, websites such as FlightAware and Flightradar24 have made it possible for planespotters to track and locate specific aircraft around the world. Websites such as airliners.net, Instagram and YouTube allow spotters to upload their photos or videos of their sightings and share them with viewers worldwide.
## Techniques
When spotting aircraft, observers generally notice the key attributes of an aircraft, such as a distinctive noise from its engine, the number of contrails it is producing, or its callsign. Observers can also assess the size of the aircraft and the number, type, and position of its engines. Another distinctive attribute is the position of wings relative to the fuselage and the degree to which they are swept rearwards. The wings may be above the fuselage, below it, or fixed at midpoint. The number of wings indicates whether it is a monoplane, biplane or triplane. The position of the tailplane relative to the fin(s) and the shape of the fin are other attributes. The configuration of the landing gear can be distinctive, as well as the size and shape of the cockpit and passenger windows along with the layout of emergency exits and doors.
Other features include the speed, cockpit placement, colour scheme or special equipment that changes the silhouette of the aircraft. Taken together these traits will enable the identification of an aircraft. If the observer is familiar with the airfield being used by the aircraft and its normal traffic patterns, they are more likely to leap quickly to a decision about the aircraft\'s identity -- they may have seen the same type of aircraft from the same angle many times. This is particularly prevalent if the aircraft spotter is spotting commercial aircraft, operated by airlines that have a limited fleet.
Spotters use equipment such as ADS-B decoders to track the movements of aircraft. The two most famous devices used are the AirNav Systems RadarBox and Kinetic Avionics SBS series. Both of them read and process the radar data and show the movements on a computer screen. Another tool that spotters can use are apps such as FlightRadar24 or Flightaware, where they can look at arrival and departure schedules and track the location of aircraft that have their transponder on. Most of the decoders also allow the exporting of logs from a certain route or airport.
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# Aircraft spotting
## Spotting styles {#spotting_styles}
Some spotters will note and compile the markings, a national insignia or airline livery or logo, a squadron badge or code letters in the case of a military aircraft. Published manuals allow more information to be deduced, such as the delivery date or the manufacturer\'s construction number. Camouflage markings differ, depending on the surroundings in which that aircraft is expected to operate.
In general, most spotters attempt to see as many aircraft of a given type, a particular airline, or a particular subset of aircraft such as business jets, commercial airliners, military and/or general aviation aircraft. Some spotters attempt to see every airframe and are known as \"frame spotters.\" Others are keen to see every registration worn by each aircraft.
Ancillary activities might include listening-in to air traffic control transmissions (using radio scanners, where that is legal), liaising with other \"spotters\" to clear up uncertainties as to what aircraft have been seen at specific times or in particular places. Several internet mailing list groups have been formed to help communicate aircraft seen at airports, queries and anomalies. These groups can cater to certain regions, certain aircraft types, or may appeal to a wider audience. The result is that information on aircraft movements can be delivered worldwide in a real-time fashion to spotters.
The hobbyist might travel long distances to visit different airports, to see an unusual aircraft, or to view the remains of aircraft withdrawn from use. Air shows usually draw large numbers of spotters as they are opportunities to enter airfields and air bases worldwide that are usually closed to the public and to see displayed aircraft at close range. Some aircraft may be placed in the care of museums (see Aviation archaeology) -- or perhaps be cannibalized in order to repair a similar aircraft already preserved.
Aircraft registrations can be found in books, with online resources, or in monthly magazines from enthusiast groups. Most spotters maintained books of different aircraft fleets and would underline or check each aircraft seen. Each year, a revised version of the books would be published and the spotter would need to re-underline every aircraft seen. With the development of commercial aircraft databases spotters were finally able to record their sightings in an electronic database and produce reports that emulated the underlined books.
Thanks to the Internet and live video streaming, planespotters are now able to watch departure and arrival traffic from anywhere in the world with Internet access. Airline Videos Live, based in Los Angeles at LAX and streaming since 2019, offers several days of streaming weekly on their exclusive YouTube channel in a highly polished format, manned by \"The Plane Jockeys\". In addition to LAX, AVL also streams from airports such as San Francisco (SFO), New York (JFK), Phoenix (PHX) and even Sint Maarten, and have a following more than 830,000 subscribers, dwarfing the smaller streaming channels in the area.
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# Aircraft spotting
## Legal ramifications {#legal_ramifications}
The legal repercussions of the hobby were dramatically shown in November 2001 when fourteen aircraft spotters (twelve British, two Dutch) were arrested by Greek police after being observed at an open day at the Greek Air Force base at Kalamata. They were charged with espionage and faced a possible 20-year prison sentence if found guilty. After being held for six weeks, they were eventually released on \$11,696 (£9,000) bail, and the charges reduced to the misdemeanor charge of illegal information collection. They returned for their trial in April, 2002 and were found guilty, with eight of the group sentenced to three years, the rest for one year. At their appeal a year later, all were acquitted.
## As airport watch groups {#as_airport_watch_groups}
In the wake of the targeting of airports by terrorists, enthusiasts\' organisations and police in the UK have cooperated in creating a code of conduct for planespotters, in a similar vein to guidelines devised for train spotters. By asking enthusiasts to contact police if spotters believe they see or hear something suspicious, this is an attempt to allow enthusiasts to continue their hobby while increasing security around airports. Birmingham and Stansted pioneered this approach in Britain and prior to the 2012 London Olympics, RAF Northolt introduced a *Flightwatch* scheme based on the same cooperative principles. These changes are also being made abroad in countries such as Australia, where aviation enthusiasts are reporting suspicious or malicious actions to police.
The organisation of such groups has now been echoed in parts of North America. For example, the Bensenville, Illinois police department have sponsored an *Airport Watch* group at the Chicago O\'Hare Airport. Members are issued identification cards and given training to accurately record and report unusual activities around the airport perimeter. (Members are not permitted airside.) Meetings are attended and supported by the FBI, Chicago Department of Aviation and the TSA who also provide regular training to group members. The Bensenville program was modeled on similar programs in Toronto, Ottawa and Minneapolis.
In 2009, a similar airport watch group was organized between airport security and local aircraft spotters at Montréal--Pierre Elliott Trudeau International Airport. As of 2016, the group has 46 members and a special phone number to use to contact police if suspicious activity is seen around the airport area.
## Extraordinary rendition {#extraordinary_rendition}
Following the events of 9/11, information collected by planespotters helped uncover what is known as *extraordinary rendition* by the CIA. Information on unusual movements of rendition aircraft provided data that was mapped by critical geographers such as Trevor Paglen and the Institute for Applied Autonomy. These data and maps led first to news reports and then to a number of governmental and inter-governmental investigations
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# Amanda Hesser
**Amanda Hesser** (born 1971) is an American food writer, editor, cookbook author and entrepreneur. Most notably, she was the food editor of *The New York Times Magazine*, the editor of *T Living*, a quarterly publication of *The New York Times*, author of *The Essential New York Times Cookbook* which was a *New York Times* bestseller, and co-founder and CEO of Food52.
## Biography
After finishing her first book, in 1997, Hesser was hired as a food reporter for *The New York Times* where she wrote more than 750 stories. While at the *Times,* Hesser wrote about the influence of Costco on the wine industry, and how the Farmer Consumer Advisory Committee made decisions for the New York City Greenmarket. She was also among the first to write about Ferran Adrià of El Bulli in a major American publication.
Hesser was involved in two cases of conflict of interest while working at the *Times*. In 2004, she awarded the restaurant Spice Market a three-star rating without disclosing that the year before, the restaurant\'s owner, Jean-Georges Vongerichten, had provided a complimentary jacket blurb for her book *Cooking for Mr. Latte*. In 2007, Hesser published a favorable review of *Vegetable Harvest* by Patricia Wells without noting that in 1999, Wells had provided a jacket blurb for Hesser\'s book *The Cook and the Gardener*. In both cases, the *Times* subsequently pointed out the conflicts of interest with editors\' notes.
While Hesser left the *Times* in March 2008 to focus on the development of Food52, she continued to write the \"Recipe Redux\" feature for the *Times* magazine until February 27, 2011.
As co-founder and CEO of Food52, she has raised two rounds of investment from parties including Lerer Hippeau Ventures and Bertelsmann Digital Media Investments. Food52 has won numerous notable awards, including the James Beard Foundation Award for Publication of the Year (2012) and the International Association of Culinary Professionals Award for Best Website (2013). In February 2017, noting that 92 percent of the company was white, she and her co-founder Merrill Stubbs \"issued a statement about the ways in which the company intended to redress a lack of racial equality in its workplace.\" By the following January, \"they published a follow-up letter updating readers on the progress of their efforts, stating that their staff had been reduced to being 76 percent white.\"
Hesser was featured in *Food & Wine*\'s *40 under 40* list, was named one of the 50 most influential women in food by *Gourmet* magazine, and had a cameo as herself in the film *Julie & Julia*.
Hesser lives in Brooklyn Heights with her husband, Tad Friend, a staff writer for *The New Yorker*, and their two children
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# Augustine of Canterbury
**Augustine of Canterbury** (early 6th century -- most likely 26 May 604) was a Christian monk who became the first archbishop of Canterbury in the year 597. He is considered the \"Apostle to the English\".
Augustine was the prior of a monastery in Rome when Pope Gregory the Great chose him in 595 to lead a mission, usually known as the Gregorian mission, to Britain to Christianize King Æthelberht and his Kingdom of Kent from Anglo-Saxon paganism. Kent was likely chosen because Æthelberht commanded major influence over neighbouring Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in addition to his marriage to Bertha, a Frankish princess, who was expected to exert some influence over her husband. Before reaching Kent, the missionaries had considered turning back, but Gregory urged them on, and in 597, Augustine landed on the Isle of Thanet and proceeded to Æthelberht\'s main town of Canterbury.
King Æthelberht converted to Christianity and allowed the missionaries to preach freely, giving them land to found a monastery outside the city walls. Augustine was consecrated as a bishop and converted many of the king\'s subjects, including thousands during a mass baptism on Christmas Day in 597. Pope Gregory sent more missionaries in 601, along with encouraging letters and gifts for the churches, although attempts to persuade the native British bishops to submit to Augustine\'s authority failed. Roman bishops were established at London, and Rochester in 604, and a school was founded to train Anglo-Saxon priests and missionaries. Augustine also arranged the consecration of his successor, Laurence of Canterbury. The archbishop probably died in 604 and was soon revered as a saint.
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# Augustine of Canterbury
## Background to the mission {#background_to_the_mission}
After the withdrawal of the Roman legions from their province of Britannia in 410, the inhabitants were left to defend themselves against the attacks of the Saxons. Before the Roman withdrawal, Britannia had been converted to Christianity and produced the ascetic Pelagius. Britain sent three bishops to the Council of Arles in 314, and a Gaulish bishop went to the island in 396 to help settle disciplinary matters. Material remains testify to a growing presence of Christians, at least until around 360. After the Roman legions departed, pagan tribes settled the southern parts of the island while western Britain, beyond the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, remained Christian. This native British Church developed in isolation from Rome under the influence of missionaries from Ireland and was centred on monasteries instead of bishoprics. Other distinguishing characteristics were its calculation of the date of Easter and the style of the tonsure haircut that clerics wore. Evidence for the survival of Christianity in the eastern part of Britain during this time includes the survival of the cult of Saint Alban and the occurrence in place names of *eccles*, derived from the Latin *ecclesia*, meaning \"church\". There is no evidence that these native Christians tried to convert the Anglo-Saxons. The invasions destroyed most remnants of Roman civilisation in the areas held by the Saxons and related tribes, including the economic and religious structures.
It was against this background that Pope Gregory I decided to send a mission, often called the Gregorian mission, to convert the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity in 595. The Kingdom of Kent was ruled by Æthelberht, who had married a Christian princess named Bertha before 588, and perhaps earlier than 560. Bertha was the daughter of Charibert I, one of the Merovingian kings of the Franks. As one of the conditions of her marriage, she brought a bishop named Liudhard with her to Kent. Together in Canterbury, they restored a church that dated to Roman times`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}possibly the current St Martin\'s Church. Æthelberht was a pagan at this point but allowed his wife freedom of worship. One biographer of Bertha states that under his wife\'s influence, Æthelberht asked Pope Gregory to send missionaries. The historian Ian N. Wood feels that the initiative came from the Kentish court as well as the queen. Other historians, however, believe that Gregory initiated the mission, although the exact reasons remain unclear. Bede, an 8th-century monk who wrote a history of the English church, recorded a famous story in which Gregory saw fair-haired Saxon slaves from Britain in the Roman slave market and was inspired to try to convert their people. More practical matters, such as the acquisition of new provinces acknowledging the primacy of the papacy, and a desire to influence the emerging power of the Kentish kingdom under Æthelberht, were probably involved. The mission may have been an outgrowth of the missionary efforts against the Lombards who, as pagans and Arian Christians, were not on good relations with the Catholic church in Rome.
Aside from Æthelberht\'s granting of freedom of worship to his wife, the choice of Kent was probably dictated by a number of other factors. Kent was the dominant power in southeastern Britain. Since the eclipse of King Ceawlin of Wessex in 592, Æthelberht was the *bretwalda*, or leading Anglo-Saxon ruler; Bede refers to Æthelberht as having imperium (overlordship) south of the River Humber. Trade between the Franks and Æthelberht\'s kingdom was well established, and the language barrier between the two regions was apparently only a minor obstacle, as the interpreters for the mission came from the Franks. Lastly, Kent\'s proximity to the Franks allowed support from a Christian area. There is some evidence, including Gregory\'s letters to Frankish kings in support of the mission, that some of the Franks felt that they had a claim to overlordship over some of the southern British kingdoms at this time. The presence of a Frankish bishop could also have lent credence to claims of overlordship, if Bertha\'s Bishop Liudhard was felt to be acting as a representative of the Frankish church and not merely as a spiritual advisor to the queen. Frankish influence was not merely political; archaeological remains attest to a cultural influence as well.
In 595, Gregory chose Augustine, who was the prior of the Abbey of St Andrew in Rome, to head the mission to Kent. The pope selected monks to accompany Augustine and sought support from the Frankish royalty and clergy in a series of letters, of which some copies survive in Rome. He wrote to King Theuderic II of Burgundy and to King Theudebert II of Austrasia, as well as their grandmother Brunhild, seeking aid for the mission. Gregory thanked King Chlothar II of Neustria for aiding Augustine. Besides hospitality, the Frankish bishops and kings provided interpreters and Frankish priests to accompany the mission. By soliciting help from the Frankish kings and bishops, Gregory helped to assure a friendly reception for Augustine in Kent, as Æthelbert was unlikely to mistreat a mission which visibly had the support of his wife\'s relatives and people. Moreover, the Franks appreciated the chance to participate in mission that would extend their influence in Kent. Chlothar, in particular, needed a friendly realm across the Channel to help guard his kingdom\'s flanks against his fellow Frankish kings.
Sources make no mention of why Pope Gregory chose a monk to head the mission. Pope Gregory once wrote to Æthelberht complimenting Augustine\'s knowledge of the Bible, so Augustine was evidently well educated. Other qualifications included administrative ability, for Gregory was the abbot of St Andrews as well as being pope, which left the day-to-day running of the abbey to Augustine, the prior.
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# Augustine of Canterbury
## Arrival and first efforts {#arrival_and_first_efforts}
Augustine was accompanied by Laurence of Canterbury, his eventual successor to the archbishopric, and a group of about 40 companions, some of whom were monks. Soon after leaving Rome, the missionaries halted, daunted by the nature of the task before them. They sent Augustine back to Rome to request papal permission to return. Gregory refused and sent Augustine back with letters encouraging the missionaries to persevere. In 597, Augustine and his companions landed in Kent. They achieved some initial success soon after their arrival: Æthelberht permitted the missionaries to settle and preach in his capital of Canterbury where they used the church of St Martin\'s for services. Neither Bede nor Gregory mentions the date of Æthelberht\'s conversion, but it probably took place in 597. In the early medieval period, large-scale conversions required the ruler\'s conversion first, and Augustine is recorded as making large numbers of converts within a year of his arrival in Kent. Also, by 601, Gregory was writing to both Æthelberht and Bertha, calling the king his son and referring to his baptism. A late medieval tradition, recorded by the 15th-century chronicler Thomas Elmham, gives the date of the king\'s conversion as Whit Sunday, or 2 June 597; there is no reason to doubt this date, although there is no other evidence for it. Against a date in 597 is a letter of Gregory\'s to Patriarch Eulogius of Alexandria in June 598, which mentions the number of converts made by Augustine, but does not mention any baptism of the king. However, it is clear that by 601 the king had been converted. His baptism likely took place at Canterbury.
Augustine established his episcopal see at Canterbury. It is not clear when and where Augustine was consecrated as a bishop. Bede, writing about a century later, states that Augustine was consecrated by the Frankish Archbishop Ætherius of Arles, Gaul (France) after the conversion of Æthelberht. Contemporary letters from Pope Gregory, however, refer to Augustine as a bishop before he arrived in England. A letter of Gregory\'s from September 597 calls Augustine a bishop, and one dated ten months later says Augustine had been consecrated on Gregory\'s command by bishops of the German lands. The historian R. A. Markus discusses the various theories of when and where Augustine was consecrated, and suggests he was consecrated before arriving in England, but argues the evidence does not permit deciding exactly where this took place.
Soon after his arrival, Augustine founded the monastery of Saints Peter and Paul, which later became St Augustine\'s Abbey, on land donated by the king. In a letter Gregory wrote to the patriarch of Alexandria in 598, he claimed that more than 10,000 Christians had been baptised; the number may be exaggerated but there is no reason to doubt that a mass conversion took place. However, there were probably some Christians already in Kent before Augustine arrived, remnants of the Christians who lived in Britain in the later Roman Empire. Little literary traces remain of them, however. One other effect of the king\'s conversion by Augustine\'s mission was that the Frankish influence on the southern kingdoms of Britain was decreased.
After these conversions, Augustine sent Laurence back to Rome with a report of his success, along with questions about the mission. Bede records the letter and Gregory\'s replies in chapter 27 of his *Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum*; this section of the *History* is usually known as the *Libellus responsionum*. Augustine asked for Gregory\'s advice on a number of issues, including how to organise the church, the punishment for church robbers, guidance on who was allowed to marry whom, and the consecration of bishops. Other topics were relations between the churches of Britain and Gaul, childbirth and baptism, and when it was lawful for people to receive communion and for a priest to celebrate mass.
Further missionaries were sent from Rome in 601. They brought a pallium for Augustine and a present of sacred vessels, vestments, relics, and books. The pallium was the symbol of metropolitan status, and signified that Augustine was now an archbishop unambiguously associated with the Holy See. Along with the pallium, a letter from Gregory directed the new archbishop to consecrate 12 suffragan bishops as soon as possible and to send a bishop to York. Gregory\'s plan was that there would be two metropolitans, one at York and one at London, with 12 suffragan bishops under each archbishop. As part of this plan, Augustine was expected to transfer his archiepiscopal see to London from Canterbury. This move never happened; no contemporary sources give the reason, but it was probably because London was not part of Æthelberht\'s domains. Instead, London was part of the kingdom of Essex, ruled by Æthelberht\'s nephew Saebert of Essex, who converted to Christianity in 604. The historian S. Brechter has suggested that the metropolitan see was indeed moved to London, and that it was only with the abandonment of London as a see after the death of Æthelberht that Canterbury became the archiepiscopal see. This theory contradicts Bede\'s version of events, however.
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# Augustine of Canterbury
## Additional work {#additional_work}
In 604, Augustine founded two more bishoprics in Britain. Two men who had come to Britain with him in 601 were consecrated, Mellitus as Bishop of London and Justus as Bishop of Rochester. Bede relates that Augustine, with the help of the king, \"recovered\" a church built by Roman Christians in Canterbury. It is not clear if Bede meant that Augustine rebuilt the church or that Augustine merely reconsecrated a building that had been used for pagan worship. Archaeological evidence seems to support the latter interpretation; in 1973 the remains of an aisled building dating from the Romano-British period were uncovered just south of the present Canterbury Cathedral. The historian Ian Wood argues that the existence of the *Libellus* points to more contact between Augustine and the native Christians because the topics covered in the work are not restricted to conversion from paganism, but also dealt with relations between differing styles of Christianity.
Augustine failed to extend his authority to the Christians in Wales and Dumnonia to the west. Gregory had decreed that these Christians should submit to Augustine and that their bishops should obey him, apparently believing that more of the Roman governmental and ecclesiastical organisation survived in Britain than was actually the case. According to the narrative of Bede, the Britons in these regions viewed Augustine with uncertainty, and their suspicion was compounded by a diplomatic misjudgement on Augustine\'s part. In 603, Augustine and Æthelberht summoned the British bishops to a meeting south of the Severn. These guests retired early to confer with their people, who, according to Bede, advised them to judge Augustine based upon the respect he displayed at their next meeting. When Augustine failed to rise from his seat on the entrance of the British bishops, they refused to recognise him as their archbishop. There were, however, deep differences between Augustine and the British church that perhaps played a more significant role in preventing an agreement. At issue were the tonsure, the observance of Easter, and practical and deep-rooted differences in approach to asceticism, missionary endeavours, and how the church itself was organised. Some historians believe that Augustine had no real understanding of the history and traditions of the British church, damaging his relations with their bishops. Also, there were political dimensions involved, as Augustine\'s efforts were sponsored by the Kentish king, and at this period the Wessex and Mercian kingdoms were expanding to the west, into areas held by the Britons.
## Further success {#further_success}
Gregory also instructed Augustine on other matters. Temples were to be consecrated for Christian use, and feasts, if possible, moved to days celebrating Christian martyrs. One religious site was revealed to be a shrine of a local St Sixtus, whose worshippers were unaware of details of the martyr\'s life or death. They may have been native Christians, but Augustine did not treat them as such. When Gregory was informed, he told Augustine to stop the cult and use the shrine for the Roman St Sixtus.
Gregory legislated on the behaviour of the laity and the clergy. He placed the new mission directly under papal authority and made it clear that English bishops would have no authority over Frankish counterparts nor vice versa. Other directives dealt with the training of native clergy and the missionaries\' conduct.
The King\'s School, Canterbury claims Augustine as its founder, which would make it the world\'s oldest existing school, but the first documentary records of the school date from the 16th century. Augustine did establish a school, and soon after his death Canterbury was able to send teachers out to support the East Anglian mission. Augustine received liturgical books from the pope, but their exact contents are unknown. They may have been some of the new mass books that were being written at this time. The exact liturgy that Augustine introduced to England remains unknown, but it would have been a form of the Latin language liturgy in use at Rome.
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# Augustine of Canterbury
## Death and legacy {#death_and_legacy}
Before his death, Augustine consecrated Laurence of Canterbury as his successor to the archbishopric, probably to ensure an orderly transfer of office. Although at the time of Augustine\'s death, 26 May 604, the mission barely extended beyond Kent, his undertaking introduced a more active missionary style into the British Isles. Despite the earlier presence of Christians in Ireland and Wales, no efforts had been made to try to convert the Saxon invaders. Augustine was sent to convert the descendants of those invaders, and eventually became the decisive influence in Christianity in most of the British Isles. Much of his success came about because of Augustine\'s close relationship with Æthelberht, which gave the archbishop time to establish himself. Augustine\'s example also influenced the great missionary efforts of the Anglo-Saxon Church.
Augustine\'s body was originally buried in the portico of what is now St Augustine\'s, Canterbury, but it was later exhumed and placed in a tomb within the abbey church, which became a place of pilgrimage and veneration. After the Norman Conquest the cult of St Augustine was actively promoted. After the Conquest, his shrine in St Augustine\'s Abbey held a central position in one of the axial chapels, flanked by the shrines of his successors Laurence and Mellitus. King Henry I of England granted St. Augustine\'s Abbey a six-day fair around the date on which Augustine\'s relics were translated to his new shrine, from 8 September through 13 September.
A life of Augustine was written by Goscelin around 1090, but this life portrays Augustine in a different light, compared to Bede\'s account. Goscelin\'s account has little new historical content, mainly being filled with miracles and imagined speeches. Building on this account, later medieval writers continued to add new miracles and stories to Augustine\'s life, often quite fanciful. These authors included William of Malmesbury, who claimed that Augustine founded Cerne Abbey, the author (generally believed to be John Brompton) of a late medieval chronicle containing invented letters from Augustine, and a number of medieval writers who included Augustine in their romances. Another problem with investigating Augustine\'s saintly cult is the confusion resulting because most medieval liturgical documents mentioning Augustine do not distinguish between Augustine of Canterbury and Augustine of Hippo, a fourth-century saint. Medieval Scandinavian liturgies feature Augustine of Canterbury quite often, however. During the English Reformation, Augustine\'s shrine was destroyed and his relics were lost.
Augustine\'s shrine was re-established in March 2012 at the church of St. Augustine in Ramsgate, Kent, very close to the mission\'s landing site. St Augustine\'s Cross, a Celtic cross erected in 1884, marks the spot in Ebbsfleet, Thanet, East Kent, where the newly arrived Augustine is said to have first met and preached to the awaiting King Ethelbert
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# Amorphous solid
In condensed matter physics and materials science, an **amorphous solid** (or **non-crystalline solid**) is a solid that lacks the long-range order that is a characteristic of a crystal. The terms \"glass\" and \"glassy solid\" are sometimes used synonymously with amorphous solid; however, these terms refer specifically to amorphous materials that undergo a glass transition. Examples of amorphous solids include glasses, metallic glasses, and certain types of plastics and polymers.
## Etymology
The term \"Amorphous\" comes from the Greek *a* (\"without\"), and *morphé* (\"shape, form\").
## Structure
Amorphous materials have an internal structure of molecular-scale structural blocks that can be similar to the basic structural units in the crystalline phase of the same compound. Unlike in crystalline materials, however, no long-range regularity exists: amorphous materials cannot be described by the repetition of a finite unit cell. Statistical measures, such as the atomic density function and radial distribution function, are more useful in describing the structure of amorphous solids. Although amorphous materials lack long range order, they exhibit localized order on small length scales. By convention, *short range order* extends only to the nearest neighbor shell, typically only 1-2 atomic spacings. *Medium range order* may extend beyond the short range order by 1-2 nm.
## Fundamental properties of amorphous solids {#fundamental_properties_of_amorphous_solids}
### Glass transition at high temperatures {#glass_transition_at_high_temperatures}
The freezing from liquid state to amorphous solid - glass transition - is considered one of the very important and unsolved problems of physics.
### Universal low-temperature properties of amorphous solids {#universal_low_temperature_properties_of_amorphous_solids}
At very low temperatures (below 1-10 K), a large family of amorphous solids have various similar low-temperature properties. Although there are various theoretical models, neither glass transition nor low-temperature properties of glassy solids are well understood on the fundamental physics level.
Amorphous solids is an important area of condensed matter physics aiming to understand these substances at high temperatures of glass transition and at low temperatures towards absolute zero. From the 1970s, low-temperature properties of amorphous solids were studied experimentally in great detail. For all of these substances, specific heat has a (nearly) linear dependence as a function of temperature, and thermal conductivity has nearly quadratic temperature dependence. These properties are conventionally called **anomalous** being very different from properties of crystalline solids.
On the phenomenological level, many of these properties were described by a collection of tunnelling two-level systems. Nevertheless, the microscopic theory of these properties is still missing after more than 50 years of the research.
Remarkably, a **dimensionless** quantity of internal friction is nearly universal in these materials. This quantity is a dimensionless ratio (up to a numerical constant) of the phonon wavelength to the phonon mean free path. Since the theory of tunnelling two-level states (TLSs) does not address the origin of the density of TLSs, this theory cannot explain the universality of internal friction, which in turn is proportional to the density of scattering TLSs. The theoretical significance of this important and unsolved problem was highlighted by Anthony Leggett.
## Nano-structured materials {#nano_structured_materials}
Amorphous materials will have some degree of short-range order at the atomic-length scale due to the nature of intermolecular chemical bonding. Furthermore, in very small crystals, short-range order encompasses a large fraction of the atoms; nevertheless, relaxation at the surface, along with interfacial effects, distorts the atomic positions and decreases structural order. Even the most advanced structural characterization techniques, such as X-ray diffraction and transmission electron microscopy, can have difficulty distinguishing amorphous and crystalline structures at short-size scales.
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# Amorphous solid
## Characterization of amorphous solids {#characterization_of_amorphous_solids}
Due to the lack of long-range order, standard crystallographic techniques are often inadequate in determining the structure of amorphous solids. A variety of electron, X-ray, and computation-based techniques have been used to characterize amorphous materials. Multi-modal analysis is very common for amorphous materials.
### X-ray and neutron diffraction {#x_ray_and_neutron_diffraction}
Unlike crystalline materials, which exhibit strong Bragg diffraction, the diffraction patterns of amorphous materials are characterized by broad and diffuse peaks. As a result, detailed analysis and complementary techniques are required to extract real space structural information from the diffraction patterns of amorphous materials. It is useful to obtain diffraction data from both X-ray and neutron sources as they have different scattering properties and provide complementary data. Pair distribution function analysis can be performed on diffraction data to determine the probability of finding a pair of atoms separated by a certain distance. Another type of analysis that is done with diffraction data of amorphous materials is radial distribution function analysis, which measures the number of atoms found at varying radial distances away from an arbitrary reference atom. From these techniques, the local order of an amorphous material can be elucidated.
### X-ray absorption fine-structure spectroscopy {#x_ray_absorption_fine_structure_spectroscopy}
X-ray absorption fine-structure spectroscopy is an atomic scale probe making it useful for studying materials lacking in long-range order. Spectra obtained using this method provide information on the oxidation state, coordination number, and species surrounding the atom in question as well as the distances at which they are found.
### Atomic electron tomography {#atomic_electron_tomography}
The atomic electron tomography technique is performed in transmission electron microscopes capable of reaching sub-Angstrom resolution. A collection of 2D images taken at numerous different tilt angles is acquired from the sample in question and then used to reconstruct a 3D image. After image acquisition, a significant amount of processing must be done to correct for issues such as drift, noise, and scan distortion. High-quality analysis and processing using atomic electron tomography results in a 3D reconstruction of an amorphous material detailing the atomic positions of the different species that are present.
### Fluctuation electron microscopy {#fluctuation_electron_microscopy}
Fluctuation electron microscopy is another transmission electron microscopy-based technique that is sensitive to the medium-range order of amorphous materials. Structural fluctuations arising from different forms of medium-range order can be detected with this method. Fluctuation electron microscopy experiments can be done in conventional or scanning transmission electron microscope mode.
### Computational techniques {#computational_techniques}
Simulation and modeling techniques are often combined with experimental methods to characterize structures of amorphous materials. Commonly used computational techniques include density functional theory, molecular dynamics, and reverse Monte Carlo.
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# Amorphous solid
## Uses and observations {#uses_and_observations}
### Amorphous thin films {#amorphous_thin_films}
Amorphous phases are important constituents of thin films. Thin films are solid layers of a few nanometres to tens of micrometres thickness that are deposited onto a substrate. So-called structure zone models were developed to describe the microstructure of thin films as a function of the homologous temperature (*T~h~*), which is the ratio of deposition temperature to melting temperature. According to these models, a necessary condition for the occurrence of amorphous phases is that (*T~h~*) has to be smaller than 0.3. The deposition temperature must be below 30% of the melting temperature.
### Superconductivity
Regarding their applications, amorphous metallic layers played an important role in the discovery of superconductivity in amorphous metals made by Buckel and Hilsch. The superconductivity of amorphous metals, including amorphous metallic thin films, is now understood to be due to phonon-mediated Cooper pairing. The role of structural disorder can be rationalized based on the strong-coupling Eliashberg theory of superconductivity.
### Thermal protection {#thermal_protection}
Amorphous solids typically exhibit higher localization of heat carriers compared to crystalline, giving rise to low thermal conductivity. Products for thermal protection, such as thermal barrier coatings and insulation, rely on materials with ultralow thermal conductivity.
### Technological uses {#technological_uses}
Today, optical coatings made from TiO~2~, SiO~2~, Ta~2~O~5~ etc. (and combinations of these) in most cases consist of amorphous phases of these compounds. Much research is carried out into thin amorphous films as a gas-separating membrane layer. The technologically most important thin amorphous film is probably represented by a few nm thin SiO~2~ layers serving as isolator above the conducting channel of a metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET). Also, hydrogenated amorphous silicon (Si:H) is of technical significance for thin-film solar cells.
### Pharmaceutical use {#pharmaceutical_use}
In the pharmaceutical industry, some amorphous drugs have been shown to offer higher bioavailability than their crystalline counterparts as a result of the higher solubility of the amorphous phase. However, certain compounds can undergo precipitation in their amorphous form *in vivo* and can then decrease mutual bioavailability if administered together. Studies of GDC-0810 ASDs show a strong interrelationship between microstructure, physical properties and dissolution performance.
### In soils {#in_soils}
Amorphous materials in soil strongly influence bulk density, aggregate stability, plasticity, and water holding capacity of soils. The low bulk density and high void ratios are mostly due to glass shards and other porous minerals not becoming compacted. Andisol soils contain the highest amounts of amorphous materials.
## Phase
Amorphous phases were a phenomenon of particular interest for the study of thin-film growth. The growth of polycrystalline films is often used and preceded by an initial amorphous layer, the thickness of which may amount to only a few nm. The most investigated example is represented by the unoriented molecules of thin polycrystalline silicon films. Wedge-shaped polycrystals were identified by transmission electron microscopy to grow out of the amorphous phase only after the latter has exceeded a certain thickness, the precise value of which depends on deposition temperature, background pressure, and various other process parameters. The phenomenon has been interpreted in the framework of Ostwald\'s rule of stages that predicts the formation of phases to proceed with increasing condensation time towards increasing stability
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# ArgoUML
**ArgoUML** is an UML diagramming application written in Java and released under the open source Eclipse Public License. By virtue of being a Java application, it is available on any platform supported by Java SE.
## History
ArgoUML was originally developed at UC Irvine by Jason E. Robbins, leading to his Ph.D. It was an open source project hosted by Tigris.org and moved in 2019 to GitHub. The ArgoUML project included more than 19,000 registered users and over 150 developers.
In 2003, ArgoUML won the *Software Development Magazine*\'s annual Readers\' Choice Award in the "Design and Analysis Tools" category.
ArgoUML development has suffered from lack of manpower. For example, *Undo* has been a perpetually requested feature since 2003 but has not been implemented yet.
## Features
According to the official feature list, ArgoUML is capable of the following:
- All 9 UML 1.4 diagrams are supported.
- Closely follows the UML standard.
- Platform independent -- Java 1.5+ and C++.
- Click and Go! with Java Web Start (no setup required, starts from your web browser).
- Standard UML 1.4 Metamodel.
- XMI support.
- Export diagrams as GIF, PNG, PS, EPS, PGML and SVG.
- Available in ten languages: EN, EN-GB, DE, ES, IT, RU, FR, NB, PT, ZH.
- Advanced diagram editing and zoom.
- Built-in design critics provide unobtrusive review of design and suggestions for improvements.
- Extensible modules interface.
- OCL support.
- Forward engineering (code generation supports C++ and C#, Java, PHP 4, PHP 5, Ruby and, with less mature modules, Ada, Delphi and SQL).
- Reverse engineering / JAR/class file import.
## Weaknesses
- ArgoUML does not yet completely implement the UML standard.
- Partial undo feature (working for graphics edits )
- Java Web Start launching may no longer work reliably. See Java Web Start
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# File archiver
In computing, a **file archiver** is utility software that combines files into a single archive file `{{endash}}`{=mediawiki} or in less common cases, multiple files.
A minimally designed archiver might concatenate the content of files along with file name and length. A more advanced archiver stores additional metadata, such as the timestamps, file attributes and access control information. An archiver might compress input file content to reduce the size of the resulting archive.
The process of making an archive file is called *archiving* or *packing*. Reconstructing the original files from an archive is called *unarchiving*, *unpacking* or *extracting*.
## Multics
In the early days of computing, Multics provided the `{{code|archive}}`{=mediawiki} command `{{endash}}`{=mediawiki} a basic archiver without compression `{{endash}}`{=mediawiki} that descended from the CTSS command of the same name. Multics also provided a magnetic tape archiver command, `{{code|ta}}`{=mediawiki}, which was perhaps the forerunner of the Unix command `{{code|tar}}`{=mediawiki}.
## Unix
As the Unix archive tools ar, tar, and cpio do not provide compression, other tools, such as gzip, bzip2, or xz, are used to compress an archive file after it is created and to decompress before extracting.
Not only does separating archiving from compressing follow the Unix philosophy that each tool should provide a single capability; not attempt to accomplish everything with one tool, it has the following advantages:
- As compression technology progresses, users may use a different compression tool without having to change how they use the archiver.
- Solid compression allows the compressor to take advantage of redundancy across the multiple archived files in order to achieve better compression than simply compressing each file individually.
Disadvantages include:
- Extracting a single file requires decompressing the entire file, which can be costly in terms of time and storage space; adding a file to an existing archive requires both decompression and recompression.
- The archive becomes damage-prone; corruption in any part of the file might cause all files to be lost.
A challenge:
- Compression cannot take advantage of redundancy between files unless the compression window is larger than the size of an individual file; for example, gzip uses DEFLATE, which typically operates with a 32768-byte window, whereas bzip2 uses a Burrows--Wheeler transform roughly 27 times bigger; xz defaults to 8 MiB but supports significantly larger windows.
Generally, extensions are successively added to the file name to indicate the operations performed and therefore required to read a file. For example, archiving with `{{code|tar}}`{=mediawiki} command and then compressing with `{{code|gzip}}`{=mediawiki} command might be indicated with the `.tar.gz` extension.
## Windows
Archiving tools on Windows tend to have a graphical user interface (GUI) and to include compression `{{endash}}`{=mediawiki} including the built-in Windows feature as well as commonly used, third-party tools such as WinRAR and 7-Zip. Unlike the built-in feature, WinRAR and 7-zip also provide a command-line interface (CLI) and solid compression
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# Axayacatl
**Axayacatl** (`{{IPAc-en|ˌ|æ|ʃ|ə|ˈ|j|ɑː|k|ə|t|əl}}`{=mediawiki}; *āxāyacatl* `{{IPA|nah|aːʃaːˈjákatɬ||Axayakatl.ogg}}`{=mediawiki}; *Axayácatl* `{{IPA|es|axaˈʝakatɬ|}}`{=mediawiki}; meaning \"face of water\"; c. 1449--1481) was the sixth *\[\[tlatoani\]\]* of the *\[\[altepetl\]\]* of Tenochtitlan and Emperor of the Aztec Triple Alliance.
## Biography
### Early life and background {#early_life_and_background}
Axayacatl was a son of the princess Atotoztli II and her cousin, prince Tezozomoc. He was a grandson of the Emperors Moctezuma I and Itzcoatl. He was a descendant of the king Cuauhtototzin.
He was a successor of Moctezuma and his brothers were Emperors Tizoc and Ahuitzotl and his sister was the Queen Chalchiuhnenetzin. He was an uncle of the Emperor Cuauhtémoc and father of Emperors Moctezuma II and Cuitláhuac.
### Rise to power {#rise_to_power}
During his youth, his military prowess gained him the favor influential figures such as Nezahualcoyotl and Tlacaelel I, and thus, upon the death of Moctezuma I in 1469, he was chosen to ascend to the throne, much to the displeasure of his two older brothers, Tizoc and Ahuitzotl.
It is also important that the Great Sun Stone, also known as the Aztec Calendar, was carved under his leadership. An earthquake in Tenochtitlán occurred and destroyed many homes.
### Military actions and death {#military_actions_and_death}
Using as a pretext the insulting behavior of a few Tlatelolcan citizens, Axayacatl invaded his neighbor, killed its ruler, Moquihuix, and replaced him with a military governor. The Tlatelolcans lost any voice they had in forming Aztec policy. Axayacatl largely dedicated his twelve-year reign to consolidating his militaristic repute: he led successful campaigns against the neighboring *altepetl* of Tlatelolco in 1473 (see Battle of Tlatelolco) and the Matlatzinca of the Toluca Valley in 1474, but was finally defeated by the Tarascans of Michoacán in 1476. Despite some subsequent minor triumphs, Axayacatl\'s defeat at the hands of the Tarascans irreversibly marred his image, as it constituted the only major defeat suffered by the Aztecs up to that moment. In spite of his young age, he fell gravely ill in 1480, passing away a mere year later, in 1481, whereupon he was succeeded by his brother Tizoc.
### Axayacatl the poet {#axayacatl_the_poet}
Axayacatl wrote two poems. The first, *Ycuic Axayayatzin* (English: \"Song of Axayacatl\") is a defense against his brothers and critics; the second, *Huehue cuicatl* (English: \"Song of the Ancients\") is a lament written after his defeat in Michoacan.
## In popular culture {#in_popular_culture}
- The *Obsidian and Blood* series by Aliette de Bodard are set in the last year of the reign of Axayacatl and the first years of the reign of Tizoc, with their youngest brother Ahuitzotl appearing as a primary character
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# Ahuitzotl
**Ahuitzotl** (*āhuitzotl\]\]*, `{{IPA|nah|aːˈwit͡sot͡ɬ|-|Awisotl.ogg}}`{=mediawiki}) was the eighth Aztec ruler, the *Huey Tlatoani* of the city of Tenochtitlan, son of princess Atotoztli II. His name literally means \"Water Thorny\" and was also applied to the otter. It is also theorized that more likely, the animal called ahuitzotl is actually the water opossum, the hand symbolizing its prehensile tail, which otters notably lack.
Either Ahuitzotl or his predecessor Tizoc was the first *tlatoani* of Tenochtitlan to assume the title *Huey Tlatoani* (\"supreme *tlatoani*\") to make their superiority over the other cities in the Triple Alliance (Aztec Empire) clear. Ahuitzotl was responsible for much of the expansion of the Mexica domain, and consolidated the empire\'s power after emulating his predecessor. He took power as Emperor in the year 7 Rabbit (1486), after the death of his predecessor and brother, Tizoc.
He had two sons, the kings Chimalpilli II and Cuauhtémoc, and one daughter.
## Biography
Perhaps the greatest known military leader of pre-Columbian Mesoamerica, Ahuizotl began his reign by suppressing a Huastec rebellion, and then swiftly more than doubled the size of lands under Aztec dominance. He conquered the Mixtec, Zapotec, and other peoples from Pacific Coast of Mexico down to the western part of Guatemala. Ahuizotl also supervised a major rebuilding of Tenochtitlan on a grander scale including the expansion of the Great Pyramid or Templo Mayor in the year 8 Reed (1487).
He presided over the introduction of the great-tailed grackle into the Valley of Mexico, the earliest documented case of human-mediated bird introduction in the Western Hemisphere.
Ahuizotl died in the year 10 Rabbit (1502) and was succeeded by his nephew, Moctezuma II.
Ahuizotl took his name from the animal ahuizotl, which the Aztecs considered to be a legendary creature in its own right rather than a mere mythical representation of the king.
In January 2021 the INAH proposed moving the statues of Ahuizotl and Itzcóatl, known as the *Indios Verdes,* from the *Parque del Mestizaje* in Gustavo A. Madero, Mexico City to the Paseo de la Reforma. "The transfer means a reading of the urban space, recovering the historical discourse that gave rise to the formation of a set of monuments and roundabouts on Paseo de la Reforma, conceived at the end of the 19th century, with the idea of honoring the Reformation, a great transformation that it meant for Mexico, but to recover a historical reading that began precisely by underlining the Mexican splendor and the importance of the pre-Hispanic or Mesoamerican antecedents of our country", Diego Prieto, director of INAH said.
## In popular culture {#in_popular_culture}
Under the name Teomitl, Ahuitzotl is a primary character in the *Obsidian and Blood* series by Aliette de Bodard, which are set in the last year of the reign of Axayacatl and the first years of the reign of Tizoc.
In the historical fiction novel *Aztec* by Gary Jennings, Ahuitzotl is a prominent character. Set in the time just before the arrival of the Spanish Conquistadors, it accounts his construction of the many expansions of Tenochtitlan, and wars of conquest, trade, and proclivities
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# Belgian hip-hop
**Belgian hip hop music** has a few rappers stemming from Africa and Italy. Belgium, like France, controlled African countries like the Democratic Republic of the Congo (formerly Zaire), Rwanda, and Burundi until the early 1960s. Like in France, immigrants from these countries started to study and live in Belgium.
The Belgian hip hop scene started in the late 1980s with a U.S.-based techno/hip hop group called Technotronic. In the group was an emcee named Ya Kid K from the Democratic Republic of the Congo who later led the group into international fame with hits like \"Pump up the Jam\" and \"Shake That Body\". In 1990, she also joined the group Hi-Tek 3 who were heard on *Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles: The Original Motion Picture Soundtrack*.
However, the first major pop rapper from Belgium was Benny B, who had a very mainstream and commercial sound. According to the European Music Office\'s report on *Music in Europe*, this was the first of many pop acts that helped inspire a backlash and the creation of an underground hip hop scene.
Also in the late 1980s in the Walloon south of the country, French speaking/rapping Starflam was the biggest name in hip hop. In the Flemish north Dutch speaking/rapping groups like \'t Hof van Commerce, Krapoel In Axe, St Andries MC\'s, and ABN were popular, rapping in their regional dialects.
Today, the Belgian hip hop scene is growing. Rappers like Coely, Roméo Elvis and Damso are achieving commercial success in their country and abroad. Other contemporary rappers/formations are Stikstof, Woodie Smalls, L\'Or Du Commun and Isha (rapper)
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# Antarctic
The **Antarctic** (`{{IPAc-en|æ|n|ˈ|t|ɑr|(|k|)|t|ɪ|k}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPAc-en|USalso|æ|n|t|ˈ|ɑr|(|k|)|t|ɪ|k}}`{=mediawiki}; commonly `{{IPAc-en|æ|n|ˈ|ɑr|t|ɪ|k}}`{=mediawiki})`{{refn|The word was originally pronounced without the first {{IPA|/k/}} sound, but the [[spelling pronunciation]] has become common and is often considered more correct. The pronunciation without the first /k/ and the first /t/ is however widespread and a typical phenomenon of English in many other similar words too.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=Antarctica |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208004718/https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=Antarctica|url-status=dead |title=The American Heritage Dictionary entry: Antarctica |publisher=[[HarperCollins]] |archive-date=2015-12-08 |website=ahdictionary.com}}</ref> The ''c'' was added to the spelling for etymological reasons and then began to be pronounced, but (as with other spelling pronunciations) at first only by less educated people.<ref>{{cite book |last=Crystal|first=David |date=2006 |title=The Fight for English |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-920764-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/fightforenglishh00crys/page/172 172] |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/fightforenglishh00crys/page/172}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Harper |first=Douglas |title=Antarctic |work=Online Etymology Dictionary |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=antarctic&allowed_in_frame=0 |access-date=16 November 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111152745/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=antarctic&allowed_in_frame=0 |archive-date=11 January 2012}}</ref>|group="Note"}}`{=mediawiki} is the polar region of Earth that surrounds the South Pole, lying within the Antarctic Circle. It is diametrically opposite of the Arctic region around the North Pole.
The Antarctic comprises the continent of Antarctica, the Kerguelen Plateau, and other island territories located on the Antarctic Plate or south of the Antarctic Convergence. The Antarctic region includes the ice shelves, waters, and all the island territories in the Southern Ocean situated south of the Antarctic Convergence, a zone approximately 32 to wide and varying in latitude seasonally. The region covers some 20 percent of the Southern Hemisphere, of which 5.5 percent (14 million km^2^) is the surface area of the Antarctica continent itself. All of the land and ice shelves south of 60°S latitude are administered under the Antarctic Treaty System.
Biogeographically, the Antarctic realm is one of eight biogeographic realms on Earth\'s land surface. Climate change in Antarctica is particularly important because the melting of the Antarctic ice sheet has a high potential to add to the global sea level rise. Further, this melting also disrupts the flow of Southern Ocean overturning circulation, which would have significant effects on the local climate and marine ecosystem functioning. There is no permanent country in Antarctica.
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# Antarctic
## Geography
As defined by the Antarctic Treaty System, the Antarctic region is everything south of the 60°S latitude. The Treaty area covers Antarctica and the archipelagos of the Balleny Islands, Peter I Island, Scott Island, the South Orkney Islands, and the South Shetland Islands. However, this area does not include the Antarctic Convergence, a transition zone where the cold waters of the Southern Ocean collide with the warmer waters of the north, forming a natural border to the region. Because the Convergence changes seasonally, the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources approximates the Convergence line by joining specified points along parallels of latitude and meridians of longitude. The implementation of the convention is managed through an international commission headquartered in Hobart, Australia, by an efficient system of annual fishing quotas, licenses, and international inspectors on the fishing vessels, as well as satellite surveillance.
The islands situated between 60°S latitude parallel to the south and the Antarctic Convergence to the north and their respective 200 nmi exclusive economic zones fall under the national jurisdiction of the countries that possess them: South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands (United Kingdom), Bouvet Island (Norway), and Heard and McDonald Islands (Australia).
Kerguelen Islands (France; also an EU Overseas territory) are situated in the Antarctic Convergence area, while the Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego, Falkland Islands, Isla de los Estados, Hornos Island with Cape Horn, Diego Ramírez Islands, Campbell Island, Macquarie Island, Amsterdam and Saint Paul Islands, Crozet Islands, Prince Edward Islands, Gough Island, and Tristan da Cunha group remain north of the Convergence and thus outside the Antarctic region.
## Ecology
### Antarctica
A variety of animals live in Antarctica for at least some of the year, including:
- Seals
- Penguins
- South Georgia pipits
- Albatrosses
- Antarctic petrels
- Whales
- Fish, such as Antarctic icefish, Antarctic toothfish
- Squid, including the colossal squid
- Antarctic krill
Most of the Antarctica continent is permanently covered by ice and snow, leaving less than 1 percent of the land exposed. There are only two species of flowering plant, Antarctic hair grass and Antarctic pearlwort, but a range of mosses, liverworts, lichens and macrofungi.
### Sub-Antarctic Islands {#sub_antarctic_islands}
Biodiversity among terrestrial flora and fauna is low on the islands: studies have theorized that the harsh climate was a major contributor towards species richness, but multiple correlations have been found with area, temperature, remoteness of islands, and food chain stability. For example, herbivorous insects are poor in number due to low plant richness, and likewise, indigenous bird numbers are related to insects, which are a major food source.
- Isla de los Estados (Argentina)
- Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego (Chile)
## Conservation
The Antarctic hosts the world\'s largest protected area comprising 1.07 million km^2^, the South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands Marine Protection Area created in 2012. The latter exceeds the surface area of another vast protected territory, the Greenland National Park\'s 972,000 km2. (While the Ross Sea Marine Protection Area established in 2016 is still larger at 1.55 million km^2^, its protection is set to expire in 35 years.) To protect the area, all Antarctic ships over 500 tonnes are subject to mandatory regulations under the Polar Code, adopted by the International Maritime Organization (in force since 1 January 2017).
## Climate change {#climate_change}
thumb\|upright=1.25\|left\|Since the 1970s, the upper cell of the Southern Ocean overturning circulation has strengthened, while the lower cell weakened. These changes have been linked to the melting of the Antarctic ice sheet. `{{excerpt|Climate change in Antarctica|paragraphs=3,4|files=no}}`{=mediawiki}
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# Antarctic
## Society
### People
The first recorded sighting of Antarctica is credited to the Spaniard Gabriel de Castilla, who reported seeing distant southern snow-capped mountains in 1603. The first Antarctic land discovered was the island of South Georgia, visited by the English merchant Anthony de la Roché in 1675.
Although such myths and speculation about a *Terra Australis* (\"Southern Land\") date back to antiquity, the first confirmed sighting of the continent of Antarctica is commonly accepted to have occurred in 1820 by the Russian expedition of Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev on *Vostok* and *Mirny*.
The Australian James Kerguelen Robinson (1859--1914) was the first human born in the Antarctic, on board the sealing ship *Offley* in the Gulf of Morbihan (Royal Sound then), Kerguelen Island on 11 March 1859. The first human born and raised on an Antarctic island was Solveig Gunbjørg Jacobsen born on 8 October 1913 in Grytviken, South Georgia. Emilio Marcos Palma (born 7 January 1978) is an Argentine man who was the first documented person born on the continent of Antarctica at the Esperanza Base. His father, Captain Jorge Palma, was head of the Argentine Army detachment at the base. While ten people have been born in Antarctica since, Palma\'s birthplace remains the southernmost. In late 1977, Silvia Morella de Palma, who was then seven months pregnant, was airlifted to Esperanza Base, in order to complete her pregnancy in the base. The airlift was a part of the Argentine solutions to the sovereignty dispute over territory in Antarctica. Emilio was automatically granted Argentine citizenship by the government since his parents were both Argentine citizens, and he was born in the claimed Argentine Antarctica. Palma can be considered to be the first native Antarctican. The Antarctic region had no indigenous population when first discovered, and its present inhabitants comprise a few thousand transient scientific and other personnel working on tours of duty at the several dozen research stations maintained by various countries. However, the region is visited by more than 40,000 tourists annually, the most popular destinations being the Antarctic Peninsula area (especially the South Shetland Islands) and South Georgia Island.
In December 2009, the growth of tourism, with consequences for both the ecology and the safety of the travellers in its great and remote wilderness, was noted at a conference in New Zealand by experts from signatories to the Antarctic Treaty. The definitive results of the conference were presented at the Antarctic Treaty states\' meeting in Uruguay in May 2010.
### Time zones {#time_zones}
Because Antarctica surrounds the South Pole, it is theoretically located in all time zones. For practical purposes, time zones are usually based on territorial claims or the time zone of a station\'s owner country or supply base
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# Algemeen Nijmeegs Studentenblad
The ***Algemeen Nijmeegs Studentenblad*** is an independent student magazine for the Radboud University Nijmegen. Founded in 1985 by members of the local student union AKKU, it is now published by the Stichting Multimedia.
## Notable publications and controversies {#notable_publications_and_controversies}
In 1989 ANS started to publish the monthly comic strip DirkJan, before it moved to SjoSji. The magazine has published controversial articles that attracted nation-wide media attention, such as on the benefits of marihuana consumption for studying. In 2010 the university refused to distribute the magazine among freshmen because it did not endorse the editorial
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# Interior Alaska
**Interior Alaska** is the central region of Alaska\'s territory, roughly bounded by the Alaska Range to the south and the Brooks Range to the north. It is largely wilderness. Mountains include Denali in the Alaska Range, the Wrangell Mountains, and the Ray Mountains. The native people of the interior are Alaskan Athabaskans. The largest city in the interior is Fairbanks, Alaska\'s second-largest city, in the Tanana Valley. Other towns include North Pole, just southeast of Fairbanks, Eagle, Tok, Glennallen, Delta Junction, Nenana, Anderson, Healy, and Cantwell. The interior region has an estimated population of 113,154.
\_\_TOC\_\_
## Climate
Interior Alaska experiences extreme seasonal temperature variability. Winter temperatures in Fairbanks average −12 °F (−24 °C) and summer temperatures average +62 °F (+17 °C). Temperatures there have been recorded as low as −65 °F (−54 °C) in mid-winter, and as high as +99 °F (+37 °C) in summer. Both the highest and lowest temperature records for the state were set in the Interior, with 100 °F (38 °C) in Fort Yukon and −80 °F (−62 °C) in Prospect Creek. Temperatures within a given winter are highly variable as well; extended cold snaps of forty below zero can be followed by unseasonable warmth with temperatures above freezing due to chinook wind effects.
Summers can be warm and dry for extended periods creating ideal fire weather conditions. Weak thunderstorms produce mostly dry lightning, sparking wildfires that are mostly left to burn themselves out as they are often far from populated areas. The 2004 season set a new record with over 6600000 acre burned. The average annual precipitation in Fairbanks is 11.3 inches (287 mm). Most of this comes in the form of snow during the winter. Most storms in the interior of Alaska originate in the Gulf of Alaska, south of the state, though these storms often have limited precipitation due to a rain shadow effect caused by the Alaska Range.
On clear winter nights, the aurora borealis can often be seen in the sky. Like all subarctic regions, the months from May to July in the summer have no night, only a twilight during the night hours. The months of November to January have little daylight. Fairbanks receives an average 21 hours of daylight between May 10 and August 2 each summer, and an average of less than four hours of daylight between November 18 and January 24 each winter.
The interior of Alaska is largely underlined by discontinuous permafrost, which grades to continuous permafrost as the Arctic Circle is approached.
Image:Fires in Interior Alaska.jpg\|Fires in Interior Alaska from July 7, 2009. Image:Hundreds of Thousands of Acres Burning in Interior Alaska (natural).jpg\|The thick pall of smoke the fires were creating (August 2, 2009). Image:Hundreds of Thousands of Acres Burning in Interior Alaska.jpg\|Visible, short wave and near-infrared image showing burned areas (brick red) and unburned vegetation (bright green) (August 2, 2009).
{{#lst:Fairbanks, Alaska\|weather box}}
## Alaska Natives {#alaska_natives}
While the vast majority of indigenous Native people of Interior Alaska are Athabaskan, large Yup\'ik and Iñupiaq populations reside in Fairbanks.
The federally recognized tribes of Interior Alaska:
- Council of Athabascan Tribal Governments (CATG): Beaver Village, Birch Creek Tribe, Circle Native Community, Native Village of Fort Yukon, Native Village of Venetie Tribal Government (also known as Arctic Village and Village of Venetie).
- Tanana Chiefs Conference (TCC): Allakaket Village, Alatna Village, Village of Anaktuvuk Pass, Chalkyitsik Village, Village of Dot Lake, Native Village of Eagle, Evansville Village (also known as Bettles Field), Galena Village (also known as Louden Village), Healy Lake Village, Hughes Village, Huslia Village, Village of Kaltag, Koyukuk Native Village, Manley Hot Springs Village, Native Village of Minto, Nenana Native Association, Nikolai Village (Edzeno' Native Council), Northway Village, Nulato Village, Rampart Village, Native Village of Ruby, Native Village of Stevens, Native Village of Tanacross, Telida Village, Native Village of Tetlin.
- Tanana Tribal Council: Native Village of Tanana.
- Other places in the Interior Service Area not Federally Recognized as Tribes: Alcan, Anderson, Big Delta, Canyon Village, Central, Chatanika, Chicken, Clear, Delta Junction, Fairbanks, Fox, Indian River, Kokrines, Lake Minchumina, Medfra, North Pole, Salcha, Tok, Toklat, Tolovana, Wiseman, Wood River
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# The Bush (Alaska)
In Alaska, **the Bush** typically refers to any region of the state that is not connected to the North American road network and does not have ready access to the state\'s ferry system. A large proportion of Alaska Native populations live in the Bush, often depending on subsistence hunting and fishing.
Geographically, the Bush comprises the Alaska North Slope; Northwest Arctic; West, including the Baldwin and Seward Peninsulas; the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta; Southwest Alaska; Bristol Bay; Alaska Peninsula; and remote areas of the Alaska Panhandle and Interior.
Some of the hub communities in the bush, which typically can be reached by larger, commercial airplanes, include Bethel, Dillingham, King Salmon, Nome, Utqiagvik, Kodiak Island, Kotzebue, and Unalaska-Dutch Harbor.
Most parts of Alaska that are off the road or ferry system can be reached by small bush airplanes. Travel between smaller communities or to and from hub communities is typically accomplished by snowmobiles, boats, or ATVs
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# Anoa
**Anoa**, also known as **dwarf buffalo** and ***sapiutan***, are two species of the genus *Bubalus*, placed within the subgenus *Anoa* and endemic to the island of Sulawesi in Indonesia: the mountain anoa (*Bubalus quarlesi*) and the lowland anoa (*Bubalus depressicornis*). Both live in undisturbed rainforests and are similar in appearance to miniature water buffaloes, weighing 150 -. \'Anoa\' itself is Celebic in origin cognate to words in other related Philippine languages in the same Austronesian family that name the common water buffalo (*anwáng* in Tagalog, *nuáng* in Ilocano, nuwang in Ifugaw etc.).
Both species of anoa have been classified as endangered since the 1960s and the populations continue to decrease. Fewer than 5,000 animals of each species likely remain. Reasons for their decline include poaching for hides, horns, and meat by the local peoples and loss of habitat due to the advancement of settlement. Currently, poaching is the most serious factor in most areas.
Anoa are most closely allied to the larger Asian buffaloes, showing the same reversal of the direction of the hair on their backs. The horns are peculiar for their upright direction and comparative straightness, although they have the same triangular section as in other buffaloes. White spots are sometimes present below the eyes and there may be white markings on the legs and back; the absence or presence of these white markings may be indicative of distinct races. The horns of the cows are very small. The nearest allies of the anoa appear to be certain extinct Asian buffaloes, the remains of which have been found in the Siwalik Hills of northern India. Imagery of anoas may be present in the oldest rock art known as of 2024.
Both are found on the island of Sulawesi and the nearby island of Buton in Indonesia. They live singly or in pairs, rather than in herds like most cattle, except when the cows are about to give birth. Little is known about their life history as well. However, in captive individuals, they have a life expectancy of 20--30 years. The anoa take two to three years before they reach sexual maturity have one calf a year and have very rarely been seen to have more.
Skulls of anoa cannot be accurately identified as to species, and there is likely hybridizing and interbreeding between the two in the zoo population. It is questioned as to whether the two species were different due to them occurring together in many different areas, as well as some interbreeding. A study of the mtDNA of ten specimens from different localities found a high mitochondrial genetic diversity between individuals identified as one or the other species, indicating support for recognition as two species.
## Species
- The lowland anoa (*Bubalus depressicornis*) is a small bovid, standing barely over 90 cm at the shoulder. It is usually solitary, living in lowland forests, browsing on plants and understory. According to Groves (1969) the lowland anoa can be told apart from the other species by being larger, having a triangular horn cross-section, sparse as opposed to thick and woolly hair, and always having white markings on the face and legs.
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- The mountain anoa (*Bubalus quarlesi*) is also known as Quarle\'s anoa and *anoa pegunungan*. Standing at 70 cm at the shoulder, it is even smaller than the lowland anoa and the smallest of all living wild cattle. They also have longer, woolier hair that moults every year, showing faint spots on the head, neck, and limbs. According to Groves (1969), the mountain anoa can be told apart from the other species by being smaller, having a round horn cross-section, thick and woolly hair, and sometimes having white markings on the face and legs.
## Distribution
Both the lowland anoa (*Bubalus depressicornis*) and the mountain anoa (*Bubalus quarlesi*) are endemic to the islands of Sulawesi in Indonesia. Both species appear to occur in the same areas. Sulawesi is a unique area because roughly 61% of the species found there are endemic species, including both anoa species.
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# Anoa
## Habitat
Traditionally, a key difference between the two species is the altitude at which they occur. The mountain anoa can be found at higher elevations than its lowland counterpart and is found in the forests. The lowland anoa was said to spend its time in the lower elevation areas and is also found in forests. Since 2005, however, these differences do not seem to be accurate, both species occur in the same areas in the same habitats.
## Morphology
The anoa have many physical characteristics of bovine relatives and are considered to be most closely related to the water buffalo, which was confirmed through DNA analysis.
The physical characteristics of the two species are similar. The anoa is the smallest of the wild cattle species. When anoa are born, they have a set of thick, woolly fur that comes in many color variations ranging from yellow to brown. In adults, the fur is typically brown or black, and males tend to have darker variations. Hair thickness varies slightly between the two species based on elevation and distribution. In both species of anoa, horns are present in both males and females and are typically straight protuberances. Another defining characteristic of the anoa is an extremely thick hide underneath the thick fur.
## Conservation
Both anoa species are endemic to the island of Sulawesi and are currently experiencing large declines in their populations. Knowledge of their decline has only recently been documented, however, and the villages and villagers lack the knowledge of how to help maintain or increase populations.
The leading cause of their population decline is hunting by local villagers for meat, with habitat loss also being significant. One benefit of the lack of knowledge about the legal status of what they are doing is that villagers are open to communication with researchers on their harvests and hunting practices; where awareness of conservation issues has penetrated, villagers will lie about their activities.
Logging is a large issue because both species prefer core forested habitats that are far away from humans and the influences that come with them. By logging, humans create much more fragmented habitats and, therefore, a decrease in the area where the anoa can breed and live. This habitat fragmentation also alters the natural mixing of populations of the anoa. This may lead to a loss in genetic diversity between the two species and, over time, could also lead to their decline
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# Agner Krarup Erlang
Erlang}} `{{Infobox person
| name = Agner Krarup Erlang
| image = Erlang.jpg
| image_size = 200px
| caption =
| birth_date = {{birth date text|1 January 1878}}
| birth_place = Lønborg, [[Denmark]]
| death_date = {{death-date and age|3 February 1929|1 January 1878}}
| death_place = [[Copenhagen]], Denmark
| resting place = Sundby Kirkegård, København, Denmark{{r|Hs2004}}
| occupation = [[Mathematician]], [[statistician]], and [[engineer]]
| alma_mater = [[University of Copenhagen]]
| spouse =
| parents =
| children =
}}`{=mediawiki}
**Agner Krarup Erlang** (1 January 1878 -- 3 February 1929) was a Danish mathematician, statistician and engineer, who invented the fields of traffic engineering`{{r|Brockmeyer1948}}`{=mediawiki} and queueing theory.
Erlang\'s 1909 paper, and subsequent papers over the decades, are regarded as containing some of most important concepts and techniques for queueing theory.
By the time of his relatively early death at the age of 51, Erlang had created the field of telephone networks analysis. His early work in scrutinizing the use of local, exchange and trunk telephone line usage in a small community to understand the theoretical requirements of an efficient network led to the creation of the Erlang formula, which became a foundational element of modern telecommunications network studies.
## Life
Erlang was born at Lønborg, near Tarm, in Jutland. He was the son of a schoolmaster, and a descendant of Thomas Fincke on his mother\'s side. At age 14, he passed the Preliminary Examination of the University of Copenhagen with distinction, after receiving dispensation to take it because he was younger than the usual minimum age. For the next two years he taught alongside his father.`{{r|Brockmeyer1948|p=10-12}}`{=mediawiki}
A distant relative provided free board and lodging, and Erlang prepared for and took the University of Copenhagen entrance examination in 1896, and passed with distinction. He won a scholarship to the university and majored in mathematics, and also studied astronomy, physics and chemistry. He graduated in 1901 with an MA and over the next 7 years taught at several schools.`{{r|Brockmeyer1948|p=13}}`{=mediawiki} He maintained his interest in mathematics, and received an award for a paper that he submitted to the University of Copenhagen.`{{r|Brockmeyer1948|p=14}}`{=mediawiki}
He was a member of the Danish Mathematicians\' Association (DMF) and through this met amateur mathematician Johan Jensen, the Chief Engineer of the Copenhagen Telephone Company (KTAS in Danish), an offshoot of the International Bell Telephone Company.`{{r|Brockmeyer1948|p=14}}`{=mediawiki} Erlang worked for the Copenhagen Telephone Company from 1908 for almost 20 years, until his death in Copenhagen after an abdominal operation.`{{r|Brockmeyer1948|p=19}}`{=mediawiki}
He was an associate of the British Institution of Electrical Engineers.`{{r|Brockmeyer1948|p=18}}`{=mediawiki}
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# Agner Krarup Erlang
## Contributions
While working for the CTC, Erlang was presented with the classic problem of determining how many circuits were needed to provide an acceptable telephone service. His thinking went further by finding how many telephone operators were needed to handle a given volume of calls. Most telephone exchanges then used human operators and cord boards to switch telephone calls by means of jack plugs.`{{r|Achak2014}}`{=mediawiki}
Out of necessity, Erlang was a hands-on researcher. He would conduct measurements and was prepared to climb into street manholes to do so.`{{r|Brockmeyer1948|p=17}}`{=mediawiki} He was also an expert in the history and calculation of the numerical tables of mathematical functions, particularly logarithms. He devised new calculation methods for certain forms of tables.`{{r|Brockmeyer1948b|pp=109-110}}`{=mediawiki}
He developed his theory of telephone traffic over several years. His significant publications include:
- 1909 -- \"The Theory of Probabilities and Telephone Conversations\", which proves that the Poisson distribution applies to random telephone traffic.`{{r|Erlang1909|Erlang1925|Erlang1948a}}`{=mediawiki}
- 1917 -- \"Solution of some Problems in the Theory of Probabilities of Significance in Automatic Telephone Exchanges\", which contains his classic formulae for call loss and waiting time.`{{r|Erlang1917|Erlang1948b}}`{=mediawiki}
- 1920 -- \"Telephone waiting times\", which is Erlang\'s principal work on waiting times, assuming constant holding times.`{{r|Erlang1920|Erlang1948c}}`{=mediawiki}
These and other notable papers were translated into English, French and German. His papers were prepared in a very brief style and can be difficult to understand without a background in the field. One Bell Telephone Laboratories researcher is said to have learned Danish to study them.`{{r|Brockmeyer1948|p=17}}`{=mediawiki}
The British Post Office accepted his formula as the basis for calculating circuit facilities.`{{r|Brockmeyer1948|p=17}}`{=mediawiki}
In 1946, the CCITT named the international unit of telephone traffic the \"erlang\".`{{r|CCITT1946}}`{=mediawiki}`{{r|Brockmeyer1948|p=19-22}}`{=mediawiki} A statistical distribution and programming language listed below have also been named in his honour.
Erlang also made an important contribution to physiologic modeling with the Krogh-Erlang capillary cylinder model describing oxygen supply to living tissue
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# Anyone Can Whistle
***Anyone Can Whistle*** is a musical with music and lyrics by Stephen Sondheim, and a book by Arthur Laurents. Described as \"a satire on conformity and the insanity of the so-called sane,\" the show tells a story of an economically depressed town whose corrupt mayor decides to create a fake miracle in order to attract tourists. The phony miracle draws the attention of an emotionally inhibited nurse, a crowd of inmates from a local asylum, and a doctor with secrets of his own.
Following a tryout period in Philadelphia, *Anyone Can Whistle* opened at the Majestic Theatre on Broadway on April 4, 1964. The show received widely varied reviews (including negative notices from the *New York Times* and the *New York Herald Tribune*), and closed after a run of twelve previews and nine performances. The show\'s original run marked the stage musical debut of Angela Lansbury.
In the decades since its closing, *Anyone Can Whistle* has seen relatively few productions compared to other Sondheim musicals; notable productions include a 1995 concert version at Carnegie Hall, a pair of stagings in London and Los Angeles in 2003 that incorporated revisions, and a 2010 concert staging for the Encores! program at New York City Center. However, its score has become acclaimed as a part of Sondheim\'s canon, and songs such as the title tune (\"Anyone Can Whistle\"), \"Everybody Says Don\'t\", and \"There Won\'t Be Trumpets\" have been performed widely.
## Background
The show was first announced in *The New York Times* on October 5, 1961: \"For the winter of 1962, \[Arthur Laurents\] is nurturing another musical project, *The Natives Are Restless*. The narrative and staging will be Mr. Laurent\'s handiwork; music and lyrics that of Stephen Sondheim. A meager description was furnished by Mr. Laurents, who refused to elaborate. Although the title might indicate otherwise, it is indigenous in content and contemporary in scope. No producer yet.\" No news of the show appeared until July 14, 1963, in an article in *The New York Times* about Kermit Bloomgarden, where it discussed the four shows he was producing for the coming season; two were maybes, two were definite. One of the latter was a Sondheim-Laurents musical (now named *Side Show*). In a letter to Bloomgarden, Laurents wrote, \"I beg you not to mention the money problems or any difficulties to Steve anymore. It depresses him terribly and makes it terribly difficult for him to work\...It is damn hard to concentrate\...when all the atmosphere is filled with gloom and forebodings about will the show get the money to go on?\...Spare him the gory details.\" This behavior was considered unusual for Laurents, who did not have a reputation for kindness. Sondheim discovered that Laurents hated doing backers\' auditions and he took over that responsibility, playing and singing more than 30. They found 115 investors to back the \$350,000 production, including Richard Rodgers and Sondheim\'s father.
Eager to work with both Laurents and Sondheim, Angela Lansbury accepted the lead role as Mayoress Cora Hoover Hooper, despite her strong misgivings about the script and her ability to handle the score. Also signed were Lee Remick as Nurse Fay Apple and Harry Guardino as Hapgood. Laurents had wanted Barbra Streisand for the role of Fay, but she turned it down to star in *Funny Girl*. Following rehearsals in New York City, the company started pre-Broadway tryouts in Philadelphia from March 2 to 21, 1964. Laurents, ignoring criticism about the show\'s message being trite and its absurdist style difficult to comprehend, poured his energies into restaging rather than dealing with the crux of the problem.
The show suffered further setbacks when supporting actor Henry Lascoe, who played Comptroller Schub, suffered a heart attack during the show\'s out-of-town tryout, and was replaced by Gabriel Dell. According to Sondheim, \"Lansbury was so insecure onstage, and unhappy with her performance, that we considered replacing her. Ironically, it soon became apparent that it had been Lascoe, an old pro\...who had made her feel like an amateur. The minute his much less confident understudy took over, she felt free to blossom, which she spectacularly did.\" Sondheim called the reviews \"humiliating\" and the audiences \"hostile.\"
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# Anyone Can Whistle
## Productions
After multiple revisions, the show opened on Broadway on April 4, 1964, at the Majestic Theatre, where it closed after 9 performances and 12 previews, unable to overcome negative notices from major papers such as the *New York Times* and the *New York Herald Tribune*. Scenic design was by William and Jean Eckart, costume design by Theoni V. Aldredge, and lighting design by Jules Fisher. Choreographer Herbert Ross received the show\'s sole Tony Award nomination.
The show became a cult favorite, and a truncated recording by the original cast released by Columbia Records sold well among Sondheim fans and musical theater buffs. \"There Won\'t Be Trumpets,\" a song cut during previews, has become a favorite of cabaret performers.
On April 8, 1995, a staged concert was held at Carnegie Hall in New York City as a benefit for the Gay Men\'s Health Crisis. The concert was recorded by Columbia Records, preserving for the first time musical passages and numbers not included on the recording by the original Broadway cast. For example, the cut song \"There\'s Always a Woman\" was included at this concert. Lansbury served as narrator, with Madeline Kahn as Cora, Bernadette Peters as Fay, and Scott Bakula as Hapgood. Additional cast included Chip Zien, Ken Page, and Harvey Evans, the only cast member from the original show to reprise his role.
In 2003, Sony reissued the original Broadway cast recording on compact disc. Two revivals were staged that year: one in London at the Bridewell Theatre and one in Los Angeles at the Matrix Theatre.
The Ravinia Festival presented a staged concert on August 26 and 27, 2005, with Audra McDonald (Fay), Michael Cerveris (Hapgood) and Patti LuPone (Cora).
On January 11, 2008, Talk Is Free Theatre presented the Canadian professional premiere (in concert) at the Gryphon Theatre in Barrie, Ontario, with a fundraiser performance on January 13 at the Diesel Playhouse in Toronto, Ontario. It starred Adam Brazier as Hapgood, Kate Hennig as Cora, Blythe Wilson as Fay, and Richard Ouzounian as Narrator, who also served as director. Choreography was by Sam Strasfeld. Additional cast included Juan Chioran as Comptroller Schub, Jonathan Monro as Treasurer Cooley, and Mark Harapiak as Chief Magruder. Musical direction was provided by Wayne Gwillim.
Encores! presented a staged concert from April 8 through April 11, 2010, with Sutton Foster as Nurse Fay Apple, Donna Murphy as Mayoress Cora Hoover Hooper, and Raul Esparza as Hapgood, with direction and choreography by Casey Nicholaw. The production was the second most attended in *Encores!* history, and Stephen Sondheim was present at the post-matinee talkback on April 10.
A London production of *Anyone can Whistle* opened at the Jermyn Street Studio Theatre, London, in association with Primavera Productions, running from March 10, 2010, to April 17, 2010. The director is Tom Littler, with Musical Director Tom Attwood, and a cast that includes Issy van Randwyck (Mayoress), Rosalie Craig (Nurse Fay Apple) and David Ricardo-Pearce (Hapgood).
Porchlight Music Theatre presented *Anyone Can Whistle* in 2013 as a part of \"Porchlight Revisits\" series, in which it staged three forgotten musicals per year. It was directed by Christopher Pazdernik and music directed by Aaron Benham.
A new production directed by Phil Willmott opened at the Union Theatre in London, running from February 8 through March 11, 2017.
A concert presentation of the show was presented by MasterVoices, under the direction and baton of Ted Sperling, on March 10, 2022, at Carnegie Hall in New York City. This production featured Vanessa Williams (Cora Hoover Hooper), Santino Fontana (J. Bowden Hapgood), Elizabeth Stanley (Fay Apple), Douglas Sills (Comptroller Schub), Eddie Cooper (Treasurer Cooley), and Michael Mulheren (Police Chief Magruder). Joanna Gleason served as the narrator for the event
IN 2022, a new production of the show ran at the Southwark Playhouse in London under the direction of Georgie Rankcom, with musical direction by Natalie Pound and choreography by Lisa Stevens. The show\'s cast featured Alex Young as Cora Hoover Hooper, Chrystine Symone as Nurse Fay Apple, and Jordan Broatch as J. Bowden Hapgood. This production was the largest staged version of the show since its debut on Broadway in 1964.
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# Anyone Can Whistle
## Plot
### Act One {#act_one}
The story is set in an imaginary American town that has gone bankrupt. (Its former major industry was an unidentified product that never wore out. Everyone has one now, and no one needs a replacement.) The only place in town doing good business is the local mental asylum, known as \"The Cookie Jar\", whose inmates look much healthier than the disgruntled townspeople (\"I\'m Like the Bluebird\"). All the money is in the hands of Cora Hoover Hooper, the stylish, ruthless mayoress and her cronies`{{Snd}}`{=mediawiki}Comptroller Schub, Treasurer Cooley, and Police Chief Magruder. Cora appears carried in a litter by her backup singers, and admits that she can accept anything except unpopularity (\"Me and My Town\"). The scheming Comptroller Schub tells her that he has a plan to save her administration and the town, promising, \"It\'s unethical.\" He tells her to meet him at the rock on the edge of town. At the rock, a local mother, Mrs. Schroeder, tries to tell her child, Baby Joan, to come down from the rock, when Baby Joan licks it`{{Snd}}`{=mediawiki}and a spring of water begins flowing from it. The town instantly proclaims a miracle, and Cora and her council eagerly anticipate tourist dollars as they boast of the water\'s curative powers (\"Miracle Song\"). It is soon revealed to Cora that the miracle is a fake, controlled by a pump inside the rock. The only person in town who doubts the miracle is Fay Apple, a skeptical but idealistic young nurse from the Cookie Jar. She appears at the rock with all forty-nine of the inmates \-- or \"Cookies\" \-- in tow, intending to let them take some of the water. Schub realizes that if they drink the water and remain insane, people will discover the fraud. As he tries to stop Fay, the inmates mingle with the townspeople, until no one can guess who is who. Fay disappears and, hiding from the police, admits that she hopes for a hero to deliver the town from Cora and her lackeys (\"There Won\'t Be Trumpets\"). Cora arrives on the scene with the Cookie Jar\'s manager, Dr. Detmold, who says that Fay has taken the records to identify the inmates. He tells Cora that he is expecting a new assistant who might help them. At that moment a mysterious stranger, J. Bowden Hapgood, arrives asking for directions to the Cookie Jar. He is instantly taken for the new assistant. Asked to identify the missing Cookies, Hapgood begins questioning random people and sorting them into two groups, group A, and group one, without divulging which group is the sane one. The town council becomes suspicious, but Hapgood simply questions them until they begin to doubt their own sanity. Cora is too caught up with his logic to care (\"Simple\"). As the extended musical sequence ends, the lights black out except for a spotlight on Hapgood, who announces to the audience, \"You are all mad!\" Seconds later, the stage lights are restored, and the cast is revealed in theater seats, holding programs, applauding the audience, as the act ends.
### Act Two {#act_two}
The two groups are now in a bitter rivalry over which is the sane group (\"A-1 March\"). Another stranger, a French woman in a feathered coat appears. It is really Fay Apple in disguise. She introduces herself as the Lady from Lourdes, a professional Miracle Inspector, who has come to investigate the miracle. As Schub runs off to warn Cora, Fay seeks out Hapgood in his hotel, and the two seduce each other in the style of a French romantic film (\"Come Play Wiz Me\"). Fay tries to get Hapgood\'s help in exposing the miracle. Hapgood, however, sees through her disguise and wants to question her first. Fay refuses to take her wig off and confesses to him that this disguise, leftover from a college play, is the only way she can break out of her shell. She begins to hope, however, that Hapgood may be the one who can help her learn to be free (\"Anyone Can Whistle\"). Meanwhile, the two groups continue to march, and Cora, trying to give a speech, realizes that Hapgood has stolen her limelight (\"A Parade in Town\"). She and Schub plan an emergency meeting at her house. Back at the hotel, Hapgood comes up with an idea, telling Fay to destroy the Cookies\' records, so both they and Fay can be free. When Fay is reluctant, Hapgood produces a record of his own`{{Snd}}`{=mediawiki}he is her fiftieth Cookie. He is a practicing idealist who, after years of attempted heroism, is tired of crusading and has come to the Cookie Jar to retire. Inspired by his record, Fay begins to tear the records up. As she does, the Cookies appear and begin to dance (\"Everybody Says Don\'t\").
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# Anyone Can Whistle
## Plot
### Act Three {#act_three}
Cora is at her house with her council. Schub has put the miracle on hiatus but announces that they can easily pin the blame on Hapgood. The group celebrates their alliance (\"I\'ve Got You to Lean On\"). A mob forms outside the hotel, and Hapgood and Fay, still disguised, take refuge under the rock. Discovering the fraud, Cora and the council confront them. At that moment, Cora receives a telegram from the governor warning that if the quota of 49 cookies is not filled, she will be impeached. Schub tells her that since Hapgood never said who is sane or not, they can arrest anyone at random until the quota is filled. Hapgood refuses to help Fay stop the Mayoress since he has given up crusading. Although she knows she still isn\'t out of her shell, Fay angrily swears to go it alone (\"See What it Gets You\"). As Cora and the police force begin rounding up Cookies, Fay tries to get the key to the wagon from the guards in an extended ballet sequence (\"The Cookie Chase\"). As it ends, Fay is captured, and Dr. Detmold recognizes her. Fay tells the townspeople about the fake miracle, but the town refuses to believe her. Detmold tells Cora that even without the records, Fay can identify the inmates from memory. Cora warns that she will arrest forty-nine people, normal or not, and Fay, helplessly, identifies all the Cookies, except Hapgood. She tells him the world needs people like him, and Hapgood can\'t turn himself in. He asks Fay to come with him, but she still can\'t bring herself to break free. They regretfully part ways (\"With So Little to Be Sure Of\"). Word comes of a new miracle from the town beyond the valley, of a statue with a warm heart, and the townspeople, including Magruder and Cooley, rush off to see if it is real. Soon the town is all but deserted, and Cora is alone again. Again, Schub has the answer`{{Snd}}`{=mediawiki}they can turn the entire town into one big Cookie Jar. Cora realizes she and Schub are meant for each other, and they dance off together. As Fay resumes work, Detmold\'s real new assistant Jane Borden Osgood arrives, and Fay is horrified to realize that she is even more rigid and disbelieving than Fay herself, and the new nurse marches the Cookies off to the next town to disprove the new miracle. Horrified at seeing what she might become, Fay returns to the rock calling for Hapgood. When he doesn\'t answer, she tries to whistle`{{Snd}}`{=mediawiki}and succeeds in blowing a shrill, ugly whistle. Hapgood appears again, saying, \"That\'s good enough for me.\" As they embrace, the water begins flowing from the rock`{{Snd}}`{=mediawiki}a true miracle this time (\"Finale\").
## Notable casts {#notable_casts}
Character Broadway Off-Off-Broadway British Premiere Carnegie Hall Concert Encores! Carnegie Hall Revival Off-West End
----------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------ --------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------- ------------------
1964 1980 1986 1995 2010 2022
Cora Hoover Hooper Angela Lansbury Gaylea Byrne Pip Hinton Madeline Kahn Donna Murphy Vanessa Williams Alex Young
Fay Apple Lee Remick Rosemary McNamara Marilyn Curtis Bernadette Peters Sutton Foster Elizabeth Stanley Chrystine Symone
J. Bowden Hapgood Harry Guardino Gary Krawford Michael Jayes Scott Bakula Raúl Esparza Santino Fontana Jordan Broatch
Comptroller Schub Gabriel Dell Sam Stoneburner Bill Bradley Walter Bobbie Edward Hibbert Douglas Sills Danny Lane
Treasurer Cooley Arnold Soboloff Ralph David Westfall John Griffiths Chip Zien Jeff Blumenkrantz Eddie Cooper Samuel Clifford
Police Chief Magruder James Frawley David Berk Jonathan Stephens Ken Page John Ellison Conlee Michael Mulheren Renan Teodoro
Mrs. Schroeder Peg Murray Ileane Gudell Hilary Cromie Maureen Moore Linda Griffin Colleen Brown Kathryn Akin
Dr. Detmold Don Doherty Kermit Brown Thom Booker Nick Wyman Patrick Wetzel ??? Nathan Taylor
Cora\'s Boys Sterling Clark, Harvey Evans, Larry Roquemore and Tucker Smith Stephan DeGhelder, Bill Hastings, Stephen Hope and David E. Mallard Michael Gyngell, Dermot McLaughlin, Alan Mosley, Neil Patterson Sterling Clark, Harvey Evans, Evan Pappas, Eric Riley and Tony Stevens Clyde Alves, Grasan Kingsbury, Eric Sciotto and Anthony Wayne ???
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# Anyone Can Whistle
## Musical numbers {#musical_numbers}
(*from the Broadway production*) `{{col-begin}}`{=mediawiki} `{{col-3}}`{=mediawiki}
Act I
- Prelude Act I *(instrumental)* --- Orchestra
- I\'m Like the Bluebird --- Company
- Me and My Town --- Cora Hoover Hooper and Boys
- Miracle Song --- Cora, Treasurer Cooley, Townspeople, Tourists, and Pilgrims
- There Won\'t Be Trumpets --- Fay Apple**\***
- Simple --- J. Bowden Hapgood and Company
Act II
- Prelude Act II *(instrumental)* --- Orchestra
- A-1 March --- Company
- Come Play Wiz Me --- Fay, Hapgood, and Boys
- Anyone Can Whistle --- Fay
- A Parade In Town --- Cora
- Everybody Says Don\'t --- Hapgood
- Don\'t Ballet *(instrumental)* --- Orchestra
Act III
- Prelude Act III *(instrumental)* --- Orchestra
- I\'ve Got You to Lean On --- Cora, Comptroller Schub, Treasurer Cooley, Chief Magruder, and Boys
- See What It Gets You --- Fay
- Anyone Can Whistle (Reprise) --- Fay
- Cora\'s Chase (The Cookie Chase) --- Company
- I\'m Like the Bluebird (Reprise 1) --- Cookies
- With So Little to Be Sure Of --- Fay and Hapgood
- I\'ve Got You to Lean On (Reprise) --- Cora and Schub**\***
- I\'m Like the Bluebird (Reprise 2) --- Cookies
- Finale Ultimo *(instrumental)* --- Orchestra
**Notes**
- Asterisk (**\***) denotes song cut during Previews.
- Despite being cut from the original production, \"There Won\'t Be Trumpets\" was nonetheless recorded for the original Broadway cast recording, though it remained unreleased until a 1989 remastered CD. Officially licensed scripts and scores now reinstate the song.
- The 1995 concert production restored the songs \"There Won\'t Be Trumpets\" (Fay Apple) and \"There\'s Always a Woman\" (Fay and Cora), both previously cut.
- \"Finale Ultimo\" is attached to the end of \"With So Little to Be Sure Of\" on the Original Cast Recording.
## Critical response {#critical_response}
Howard Taubman in his *The New York Times* review wrote that Laurents\'s \"book lacks the fantasy that would make the idea work, and his staging has not improved matters. Mr. Sondheim has written several pleasing songs but not enough of them to give the musical wings. The performers yell rather than talk and run rather than walk. The dancing is the cream.\"
Steven Suskin wrote in his 2000 book about Broadway composers: The \"fascinating extended musical scenes, with extended choral work\... immediately marked Sondheim as the most distinctive theatre composer of his time. The first act sanity sequence\... and the third act chase\... are unlike anything that came before.\"
Stuart King writing for London Box Office (April 2022) noted: \"Southwark Playhouse (with Guildford graduate Georgie Rankcom at the directorial helm for this gender-fluid production) has resurrected the piece for a short run --- just in time for Easter! But the burning question on Press Night was whether or not the cult 60s show would need a miracle to find a new, modern fan base, OR, have the subjects of political corruption, sexual identity and mental wellbeing potentially given the fundamentally flawed piece new meaning for a young and previously unfamiliar audience? This reviewer's answer would be that it will almost certainly depend entirely on who you are, how you identify (if indeed you bother with such matters), whether corruption in public office bothers you (why wouldn't it?) and probably most significantly of all, whether you consider yourself a Sondheim purist/aficionado/devotee
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